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Ai-i
A NEW GEAMMAK
J) ? ^ '^ ^
THE ENGLISH TONGUE
WITH CHAPTERS ON
COMPOSITION, VEESIFICATION, PABAPHEASING,
AND PUNCTUATION
J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF THE THEORY, HISTORY, AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
LONDON AND EDINBURGH
MDCCCLXXX^VII '
This Grammar consists of the first two Parts of Professor
Meikl^ohn*s hook: * The English Language; its Grammar,
History, and Literature,^ along with a set of Exercises.
\\
CONTENTS,
PART I
-•
VAOC
LANGUAGE ....... 1
OKTHOGRAPHY
5
ETYMOLOGY
/
8
NOUNS
9
PRONOUNS
. 23
ADJECTIVES
. 28
VERBS
34
ADVERBS
. 57
PREPOSITIONS
. 58
CONJUNCTIONS
60
INTERJECTIONS
. 60
WORDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
. 61
SYNTAX .
64
NOUN
64
NOMINATIVE CASE
%
64
POSSESSIVE CASE
. 67
OBJECTIVE CASE
68
DATIVE CARE .
69
ADJECTIVE .
71
PRONOUN
74
VERB
76
ADVERB
83
PREPOSITION
83
CONJUNCTION
84
ANALYSIS .
86
SIMPLE SENTENCE .
87
COMPOUND SENTENCE
93
COMPLEX SEIS
FTBNCE .
•
a
94
IV
CONTENTS.
WORD-BUILDING AKD DERIVATION
COMPOUND NOUNS .
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
COMPOUND VERBS .
COMPOUND ADVERBS
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
ENGLISH PREFIXES
LATIN PREFIXES
GREEK PREFIXES
ENGLISH SUFFIXES
LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES
GREEK SUFFIXES
WORD-BRANCHING
ENGLISH ROOTS
LATIN ROOTS
GREEK ROOTS
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES
WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM
WORDS THAT HAVE CHANGED IN MEANING
100
100
101
102
102
103
104
107
110
112
118
125
127
128
131
136
138
142
145
152
PART II.
COMPOSITION
. 159
PUNCTUATION
. 171
FIGURES OF SPEECH
. 173
PARAPHRASING .
. 176
PROSODY .
. 178
EXERCISES
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
191
227
PAET I.
THE GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
INTRODUCTION.
L What a Langnai^e is. — A Language is a number of oon-
neeted sounds which convey a meaning. These sounds, car-
ried to other persons, enable them to know how the speaker
is feeling, and what he is thinking. More than ninety per cent
of all language used is spoken language ; that which is written
forms an extremely small proportion. But, as people grow more
and more intelligent, the need of written language becomes more
and more felt ; and hence all civilised nations have, in course
of time, slowly and with great difficulty made for themselves a
set of signs, by the aid of which the sounds are, as it were,
indicated upon paper. But it is the sounds that are the
language, and not the signs. The signs are a more or less
artificial, and more or less accurate, mode of representing the
language to the eye. Hence the names language, tongue,
and speech are of themselves sufficient to show that it is the
spoken, and not the written, language that is the language, —
that is the more important of the two, and that indeed gives
life and vigour to the other.
2. The Spoken and the Written Langnage. — Every civilised
language had existed for centuries before it was written or
printed. Before it was written, then, it existed merely as
a spoken language. Our own tongue existed as a spoken
language for many centuries before any of it was committed
to writing. Many languages — such as those in the south of
Africa — are bom, live, and die out without having ever been
written down at all. The parts of a spoken language are
called sounds; the smallest parts of a written language are
4 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
called letters. The science of spoken sounds is called Pho-
netics ; the science of written signs is called Alphabetics.
3. The English Language. — ^The English language is the
language of the English people. The English are a Teutonic
people who came to this island from the north-west of Europe
in the fifth century, and brought with them the English tongue
— but only in its spoken form. The English spoken in
the fifth century was a harsh guttural speech, consisting of a
few thousand words, and spoken by a few thousand settlers
in the east of England. It is now a speech spoken by more
than a hundred millions of people — spread all over the world ;
and it probably consists of a hundred thousand words. It
was once poor ; it is now one of the richest languages in the
world : it was once confined to a few comers of land in the
east of England; it has now spread over Great Britain and
Ireland, the whole of North America, the whole of Australia,
and parts of South America and Africa.
4. The Grammar of English. — Every language grows. It
changes as a tree changes. Its fibre becomes harder as it grows
older ; it loses old words and takes on new — as a tree loses old
leaves, and clothes itself in new leaves at the coming of every
new spring. But we are not at present going to trace the
growth of the English Jlranguage; we are going, just now, to
look at it as it is. We shall, of course, be obliged to look back
now and again, and to compare the past state of the language
with its present state ; but this will be necessary only when we
cannot otherwise understand the present forms of our tongue.
A description or account of the nature, build, constitution, or
make of a language is called its Grammar.
5. The Parts of Grammar. — Grammar considers and exam-
ines language from its smallest parts up to its most complex
organisation. The smallest part of a written language is a let-
ter; the next smallest is a "word; and with words we make
sentences. There is, then, a Grammar of Letters ; a Grammar
of Words ; and a Grammar of Sentences. The Grammar of Let-
ters is called Orthography ; the Grammar of Words is called
Etymology ; and the Grammar of Sentences is called Syntax.
THE GRAMMAR OF LETTERS. 5
There is also a Grammar of musically measured Sentences;
and this grammar is called Prosody.
(i) Orthography comes from two Greek words: orthoSj right; and
grapJiCf a writing. The word therefore means correct wrlttng.
(ii) Etymology comes from two Greek words : etUmoSf true ; and logos,
an account. It therefore means a true account of words.
(iii) Ssmtax comes from two Greek words : «m, together, with ; and
taxis, an order. When a Greek general drew up his men in order of
battle, he was said to have them " in syrUaxis" The word now means
an aocount of tlie build of Bentenoes.
(iv) Prosody comes from two Greek words : pros, to ; and 6de, a song.
It means the measurement of verse.
THE GRAMMAR OF SOUNDS AND LETTERS,
OR ORTHOGRAPHY.
6. The Qrammax of Sounds. — There are two kinds of sounds
in our language : (i) the open sounds ; and (ii) the stopped
sounds. The open sounds are called vowels; the stopped
sounds consonants. Vowels can be known by two tests — a
negative and a positive. The negative test is that they do not
need the aid of other letters to enable them to be sounded ;
the positive test is that they are formed by the continuous
passage of the breath.
(i) Vowel comes from Fr. voyelle ; from Lat. vikcUis, soundmg.
(ii) Consonant comes from Lat. con, with ; and sSno, I sound.
(iii) Two vowel-sounds uttered wltbout a break between them are
called a diphthong. Thus oi in boil ; ai in aide are diphthongs. (The
word comes from Qreek dis, twice ; and phthongS, a sound.)
7. The Ghrammar of Consonants: (1) Mutes. — There are
different ways of stopping, checking, or penning-in the con-
tinuous flow of sound. The sound may be stopped (i) by the
lips — as in ib, ip, and im. Such consonants are called Iiabials.
Or (ii) the sound may be stopped by the teeth — as in id, it,
and in. Such consonants are called Dentals. Or (iii) the
sound may be stopped in the throat — as in ig, ik, and ing.
6
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
These consonants are called Gutturals. The above set of sounds
are called Mutes, because the sound comes to a full stop.
(i) Labial comes from Lat. labium, the lip.
(ii) Dental comes from Lat dens (dents) a tooth. Hence also dentist,
(iii) Quttnral comes from Lat. gattnr, the throat,
(iv) Palatal comes from Lat. pal&tum, the palate.
8. The Grammar of Consonaats : (2) Spirants. Some con-
sonants have a little breath attached to them, do not stop the
sound abruptly, but may be prolonged. These are called
breathing letters or spirants. Thus, if we take an ib and
breathe through it, we make it an iv — the b becomes a v. If
we take an ip and breathe through it, it becomes an if — the p
becomes an £ Hence v and f are called spirant labials. The
following is a complete
TABLE OF CONSONANT SOUNDS.
MUTES.
SPIRANTS.
Flat
(or Soft).
Bhabp
(or Hard).
Nasal.
Flat
(or Soft).
Sharp
(or Hard).
Trilled.
GUITURALR
g
k
ng
• • •
h
• ft •
Palatals .
J
oh
(church)
• • •
y
(yea)
• • •
• • •
Palatal \
Sibilants J
• • •
• • •
• • •
zh
(azure)
ah
(sure)
r
Dental \
Sibilants j
• • •
• • •
• • t
Z
(prize)
8
1
Dentals .
d
t
n
th
(bathe)
th
(hath)
• • •
LABIAI.S
b
P
m
V& W
f &wh
• • •
(i) The above table goes from the throat to the lips — from the back to
the front of the mouth.
(ii) b and d are pronounced with less effort than p and t. Hence b and
d, etc., are called soft or flat ; and p and t, etc, are called bard or eliarp.
THE GRAMMAR OF LETTERS. 7
9. The Grammar of Letters. — Letters are oonventional
signs or symbols employed to represent sounds to the eye.
They have grown out of pictures, which, being gradually pared
down, became mere signs or letters. The steps were these :
picture ; abridged picture ; diagram ; sign or symboL The
sum of all the letters used to write or print a language is called
its Alphabet. Down to the fifteenth century, we employed a set
of Old English letters, such as a ii t — X g J, which were the
Roman letters ornamented ; but, from that or about that time,
we have used and still use only the plain Eoman letters, as
a b c — X y z.
The word alphabet comes from the name of the first two letters in
the Greek language : alpha, beta,
10. An Alphabet. — An alphabet is, as we have seen, a code
of signs or signals. Every code of signs has two laws, neither
of which can be broken without destroying the accuracy and
trustworthmess of the code. These two laws are :
(i) One and the same sound must be represented by one and
the same letter.
Hence : Ko sound should be represented by more than one letter.
(ii) One letter or set of letters must represent only one and
the same sound.
Hence : No letter should represent more than one sound.
Or, put in another way :
(i) One sound must be represented by one distinct symboL
(ii) One symbol must be translated to the ear by no more
than one sound.
(i) The first law is broken when we represent the long sound of a in
eight different ways, as in — fate, braid, say, great, aelgli, prey, gaol,
gauge.
(ii) The second law is broken when we give eight different sounds to
the one symbol ongh, as in — ^boogh, cough, dough, hiccough (=onp),
hough (=hook), tough, through, thorough.
11. Our Alphabet. — ^The spoken alphabet of English contains
forty-three sounds ; the written alphabet has only twenty-six
symbols or letters to represent them. Hence the English al-
8 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
phabet is very defloient. But it is also redundant. For it
contains five superfluous letters, c, q, x^ w, and y, ThJb work
of the letter c might be done by either A; or by « / that of q
hj k; X is equal to ks or gs ; w could be represented by oo ;
and all that y does could be done by i. It is in the vowel-
sounds that the irregularities of our alphabet are most discern-
ible. Thirteen vowel-sounds are represented to the eye in more
than one hundred diflferent ways.
(i) There are twelve ways of printing a short t, as in sit, C^ril, busy,
women, etc.
(ii) There are twelve ways of printing a short e, as in sdj, any, bury,
bretzd, etc
(iii) There are ten ways of printing a long d, as in mete, martne, meet,
meat, key, etc.
(iv) There are thirteen ways of printing a short u, as in hud, love,
berth, rough, flood, etc.
(v) There are eleven ways of printing a long u, as in rude, move, blew,
true, etc.
THE GKAMMAR OF WORDS, or ETYMOLOGY.
There are eight kinds of words in our language. These are
(i) 19'ames or 19'ouns. (ii) The words that stand for Nouns are
called Pronouns, (iii) Next come the words-that-go-with-
19'ouns or Adjectives, (iv) Fourthly, come the words-that-
are-said-of-13'ouns or Verbs, (v) Fifthly, the words that go
with Verbs or Adjectives or Adverbs are called Adverbs, (vi)
The words that -join -Nouns are call^ Prepositions; (vii)
those that-join- Verbs are called Conjunctions. Lastly (viii)
come Interjections, which are indeed mere sounds without
any organic or vital connection with other words ; and they
are hence sometimes called extra -grammatical utterances.
Nouns and Adjectives, Verbs and Adverbs, have distinct, indi-
vidual, and substantive meanings. Pronouns have no mean-
ings in themselves, but merely refer to nouns, just like a jj^*
in a book. Prepositions and Conjunctions once had independent
THE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 9
meanings, but have not much now : their chief use is to join
words to each other. They act the part of nails or of glue in
language. Inteqections have a kind of meaning ; . but they
never represent a thought — only a feeling,- a feeling of pain
or of pleasure, of sorrow or of surprise.
NOUNS.
1. A Nonn is a name, or any word or words used as a
name.
BaU, house, JUh, John, Mary^ are all names, and are therefore nouns.
" To walk in the open air is pleasant in summer eveniDgs." The two
words to toalk are used as the name of an action ; to walk is therefore
a noun.
The word noun comes from the Latin nomvti^ a name. From this word we have
also nominal^ denominate, denxmination, etc.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS.
2. Nouns are of two classes — Proper and Comm.on.
3. A proper noun is the name of an individual, aa an in-
dividual, and not as one of a class.
John, Mary, Lomdon, JBirmingTmmf Shakespeare^ MiUoUy are all proper
nouns.
The word proper comes from the Latin proprivs, one's own. Hence a
proper noun is, in relation to one person, one's ovm name. From the same word
we have appropriate, to make one's own ; expropriate, etc
(i) Proper nouns are always written with a capital letter at the
beginning ; and so also are the words derived from them. Thus we
write France, French, Frenchified ; Milton, Miltonic ; Shakespeare, Shake-
spearian,
(ii) Proper nouns, <w such, have no meaning. They are merely marks
to indicate a special person or place. They had, however, originally a
meaning. The persons now called Armstrong, Smith, Greathead, no
- doubt had ancestors who were strong in the arm, who did the work of
smiths, or who had large heads.
(iii) A proper noun may be used as a common noun, when it is em-
ployed not to mark an individual, but to indicate one of a dass. Thus
we can say, "He is the Milton of his age," meaning by this that he
possesses the qualities which all those poets have who are like Milton.
(iv) We can also speak of " the Howards," " the Smiths," meaning a
number of persons who are called Hovoard or who are called Smith,
10 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
4. A oommon noun is the name of a person, place, or thing,
considered not merely as an individual, but as one of a claoss.
Horse, town, bai/, table, are oommon nouns.
The word oommon comes from the Lat. oommvnif, *' shared by several" ; and
we find it also in community^ commandUyt etc.
(i) A common noun is so called because it belongs in common to all
the persons, places, or things in the same class.
(ii) The name rabbit marks off, or distinguishes, that animal from
all other animals ; but it does not distinguish one rabbit from another —
it is common to all animals of the class. Hence we may say : a com>
mon noun distingiilslLes firom witbout ; but it does not distinguish witliin
its own bounds.
(iii) Common nouns have a meaning; proper nouns have not. The
latter may have a meaning ; but the meaning is generally not appro-
priate. Thus persons called Whitehead and Longahanloi may be dark
and short. Hence such names are merely signs, and not significant marks.
5. Common nouns are generally subdivided into —
(i) Class-names.
(ii) Collective nouns.
(iii) Abstract nouns.
(i) Under class-names are included not only ordinary names, but
also the names of materials — ^as tea, sugar, wheat, loater. The names
of materials can be used in the plural when different kinds of the
material are meant. Thus we say ** fine teas," " coarse sugars," when
we mean Jlne hinds of tea, etc.
(ii) A collective noun is the name of a collection of persons or
things, looked upon by the mind as one. Thus we say committee,
parliament, crowd; and think of these collections of persons as each
one body.
(iii) An abstract noon is the name of a quality, action, or state,
considered in itself, and as abstracted from the thing or person in
which it really exists. Thus, we see a number of lazy persons, and
.think of laziness as a quality in itself, abstracted from the persons.
(From Lat. abs, from ; traelus, drawn.)
(a) The names of arts and sciences are abstract nouns, because they are the
names of processes of thought, considered apart and abstracted from the
persons who practise them. Thus, music, painting, grammar, chemistry,
astronomy, are abstract nouns.
(iv) Abstract nouns are (a) derived from adjectives, as Tiardness,
dvlness, doth, from hard, dvU, and dow; or (6) from verbs, as grototh,
thought, irom. grow and think.
THE INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS. 11
(y) Abstract nouns are sometimes used as collective nouns. Thus we
<iay " the nobility and gentry " for " the nobles and gentlemen " of the
md.
(vi) Abstract nouns are formed from other words by the addition of
Buch endings as ness, tli, ery, bood, bead, etc.
6. The following is a summary of the divisions of nouns : —
NOUNS.
I
I I
Proper. Common.
I
I
Class-Names. Collectiye Nouns. Abstract Nouns.
THE INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS.
7. Nouns can be inflected or changed. They are inflected to
indicate Gtondery 19'iimber, and Ca49e.
We must not, however, forget that diflferences of gender,
number, or case are not always indicated by inflexion.
Ivflezio is a Latin word which means hendirig. An inflexion, therefore, is a
bending away from the ordinary form of the word.
Gendeb.
8. Gtender is, in grammar, the mode of distinguishing sex by
the aid of words, prefixes, or suffixes.
The word gender comes from the Lat. genus, generU (Fr. genre), a
kind or sort. We have the same word m generic, general, etc. (The
d in gender is no organic or true part of the word; it has been in-
serted as a kind of cushion between the n and the r.)
(i) Names of males are said to be of the masculine gender, as moHer,
lord, Harry, Lat. imm, a male.
(ii) Names of females are of the feminine gender, as mistress, lady,
Harriet, Lat. femina, a woman. (From the same word we have
effeminaie, etc.)
(iii) Names of things without sex are of the neuter gender, as head,
tree, London, Lat. neuter, neither. (From the same word we have
neutral, neutrality,)
(iv) Names of animals, the sex of which is not Indicated, are said to
be of tbe common gender. Thus, sheep, bird, hawk, parent, servant, are
common, because they may be of either gender.
12 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(v) We may sum up thus : —
Gender.
\
I I I I
MaBonllne. Feminine. Neater. Common.
{NeUlier) {EUher)
(vi) If we personify things, passions, powers, or natural forces, we may
make them either masculine or feminine. Thus the Sun, Time, the
Ocean, Anger, War, a river, are generally made masculine. On the other
hand, the Moon, the Earth (" Mother Earth "), Virtue, a ship, Edigion,
Pity, Peace, are generally spoken of as feminine.
(vii) Sex is a distinction between animals ; gender a distinction be-
tween nonna. In Old English, nouns ending in dom, as freedom, were
masculine ; nouns in ne88, as goodness, feminine ; and nouns in en, as
maiden, chicken, always neuter. But we have lost aU these distinctions,
and, in modem English, gender alwajre foUowB sex.
9. There are three ways of marking gender : —
(i) By the use of Suffixes.
(ii) By Prefixes (or by Composition).
(iii) By using distinct words for the names of the male and
female.
I. Gender marked bt Suffixes.
A. Purely English or Teutonic Suffixes.
10. There are now in our language only two purely English
suffixes used to mark the feminine gender, and these are used
in only two words. The two endings are en and ster, and the
two words are vixen and spinster.
(i) yizen is the feminine of fox ; and spinster of apiTmer {spinder or
spinther, which, later on, became spider). King Alfred, in his writings,
speaks of ** the spear-side and the spindle-side of a house " — meaning the
men and the women.
(ii) Ster was used as a feminine suffix very largely in Old English.
Thus, Webster was a VHmvan-weaver ; baxter (or hagster), a female baker;
hoppester, a woman-dancer; redester, a womxin-reader ; huckster, a female
hawker (travelling merchant) ; and so on.
(iii) In Ancient English (Anglo-Saxon) the masculine ending was a,
and the feminine e, as in wicca, wicee, witch. Hence we find the names
of many Saxon kings ending in a, as Isa, Offa, Penda, etc.
GENDEK INDICATED BY SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES.
13
B. Iiatin and French Suffixes.
11. The chief feminine ending which we have received from
the French is ess (Latin, issa). This is also the only feminine
suflBx with a living force at the present day — the only suffix we
could add to any new word that might be adopted by us from
a foreign source.
12. The following are nouns whose feminines end in ess : —
Masculine.
Feminine.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Actor
Aptress.
Host
Hostess.
Baron
Baroness.
Lad
Lass (=lade8s).
Caterer
Cateress.
Marquis
Marchioness.
Count
Countess.
Master
Mistress.
Duke
DuchesR.
Mayor
Mayoress.
Emperor
Empress.
Murderer
Murderess.
It will be noticed that, besides adding ess, some of the
letters undergo change or are thrown out altogether.
There are other feminine suffixes of a foreign origin, such as
ine, a, and trix.
(i) ine is a Greek ending, and is found in heroine. A similar ending in
landgrayliLe and maxgraylne, the feminines of landgrave (a German
count) and margrave (a lord of the Mark or of marches), is German.
(ii) a is an Italian or Spanish ending, and is found in donna (the
feminine of Don, a gentleman), infanta {—the child, the heiress to the
crown of Spain), sultana, and slgnora (the feminine of Signor, the
Italian for Senior, elder, which we have compressed into Sir),
(iii) trlx ia a purely Latin ending, and is found only in those words
that have come to us direcUyfrom Latin; as testator, testatrix (a person
who has made a will), executor, executrix (a person who carries out the
directions of a will).
II. Gender indicated by Prefixes (or by Compobition).
13. The distinction between the masculine and the feminine
gender is indicated by using such words as man, maid — bull,
cow — ^he, she — cock, hen, as prefixes to the nouns men-
tioned. In the oldest English, earl and ewen ( = queen) were
employed to mark gender ; and carl-fugol is = cock-fowl, cwen-
fugol=shen-fowL
u
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
..,
14. The following are the most important words of this
kind : —
Masculine.
FEMiNnrs.
Masculinb.
Feminine.
Man-servant
Maid-servant.
Bull-calf
Cow-calf.
Man
Woman ( = wife-man) .
Cock-sparrow
Hen-sparrrow
He-goat
She-goat.
Wether-lamb
Ewe-lamb.
He-ass
She-ass.
Pea-cock
Pea-hen.
Jack-ass
Jenny-ass.
Turkey-cock
Turkey-hen.
Jackdaw
(i) In the time of Shakespeare, T^e and she were used as nouns. We
find such phrases as '*The proudest he/' ''The faurest she," ''That not
impossible she."
IIL Gender indicated bt Different Words.
15. The use of different words for the masculine and the fem-
inine does not really belong to grammatical gender. It may be
well, however, to note some of the most important : —
Mascuunb.
FZMININE.
Masculine. VzmmsE.
Bachelor
Spinster.
Husband Wife.
Boy
GirL
King Queen.
Brother
Sister.
Lord Lady.
Foal
Filly..
Monk Nun.
Drake
Duck.
Nephew Niece.
Drone
Bee.
Ram (or Wether) Ewe.
Earl
Countess.
Sir Madam.
Father
Mother.
Sloven Slut
Gander
Goose.
Son Daughter
Hart
Roe.
Uncle Aunt.
Horse
Mare.
WizaH Witch.
(i) Bachelor (lit., a cow-boy), from Low Lat. haccalarvus ; from haccaf
Low Lat. for yacoa, a cow. Hence also vaccination.
(ii) 01x1, from Low German g8r, a child, by the addition of the
diminutiye I,
(iii) Filly, the dim. of foal, (When a syllable is added, the previous
vowel is often modified : as in cat, kitten ; cock, chicken ; cook, kitchen,)
(iv) Drake, formerly endrake; end = duck, and rake='kmg. The word
therefore means king of the ducks, (The word rake appears in another
form in the ric of bisJiopric^ihe ric or kingdom or domain of a bish^op,)
(v) Drone, from the (droning sound it makes.
(vi) Earl, from A.S. eorl, a warrior. Oonntess comes from the French
word comtesse.
GENDER. 15
(vii) TtkthibT ^feeder; cognate of f at, food, feed, fodder^ foster , etc.
(viii) Goose ; in the oldest A.S. gans ; Oandr-a (the a being the sign
of the masc.). Hence gander, the d being inserted as a cushion be-
tween n and r, as in thunder, gender, etc.
(ix) Haxt=the homed one.
(x) Mare, the fern, of A.S. mearh, a horse. Hence also marahal, which
at first meant horse-servant.
(xi) Husband, from Icelandic, hutibondi, the master of the house. A
farmer in Norway is called a bonder,
(xii) King, a contraction of A.S. oynlng, son of the kin or tribe.
(xiii) Lord, a contraction of A.S. liU[ford — ^from "blSl, a loaf, and
weard, a ward or keeper.
(xiv) Lady, a contraction of A.S. Ua^dige, a loaf-kneader.
(xv) The old A.S. words were nefa, nefe,
(xvi) Woman = wife - man. The prormndcUion of women (wimmen)
comes nearer to the old form of the word. See note on (iiL)
(xvii) Sir, from Lat. senior, elder.
(xviii) Uadam, from Lat. Mea domina (through the French Ka dame)
=my lady.
(xix) Daughter = milker. Connected with dug,
(xx) Wizard, from old French guiscart, prudent. Witch has no con-
nection with wizard.
16. All feminine nouns are formed from the masculine, with
four exceptions : bridegroom, "widcwery gander, and drake,
which come respectively from bride, widow, goose, and duck.
(i) Bridegroom was in A.S. lrydguma=^\h:Q bride's man. {Ouma is a
cognate of the Lat. h^ym-o, a man — whence humanity.)
(ii) Widower. The old masc. was widuvni ; the fem. vndutoe. It was
then forgotten that widuwa was a masculine, and a new masculine had
to be formed from widuwe.
KUMBER.
17. Number is, in nouns, the mode of indicating whether we
are speaking of one thing or of more.
18. The English language, like most modem languages, has
two numbers : the singnilar and the plural.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Boxes.
Beef
Beeves.
Gases.
Loaf
Loaves.
Witches.
Shelf
Shelves.
Heroes.
StAff
Staves.
Ladies.
Thief
Thieves.
16 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(i) g<«gwia^r comes from the Lat. aingidi, one by one ; plural, from
the Lat. plureSf more (than one).
(ii) Mr Barnes, the eminent Dorsetshire poet, who has written an
excellent grammar, called ' Speech-craft,' calls them ondy and somdy,
19. There are three chief ways of forming the plural in
English : —
(i) By adding es or a to the singular,
(ii) By adding en.
(iii) By changing the vowel-sound.
20. First Mode. — The plural is formed by adding es or s.
The ending es is a modem form of the old A.S. plural in ciw, as
stanaSy stones. The following are examples : —
Singular.
Box
Gas
Witch
Hero
Lady
(i) It will be seen that es in Ae»*oe« does not add a syllable to the sing.
(ii) Nouns ending in f change the sharp f into a flat ▼, as in heeveSj
etc But we say roof 8, diffs^ dwarfSf chief s^ etc.
(iii) An old singular of lady was ladie ; and this spelling is preserved
in the plural. But there has arisen a rule on this point in modem
English, which may be thus stated : —
S^ (a) Y, with a Yowel l)efore It, is not changed in the plural.
Thus we write keys, valleys, clilmneys, days, etc.
{h) Y, with a consoxiant laefore It, is changed into ie when s is
added for the plural. Tims we write ladied, ruhieSf and also solilo-
quies,
(iv) Beef is not now used as the word for a single ox. Shakespeare
has the phrase ** beef-witted " = with no more sense than an ox.
21. Second Mode. — The plural is formed by adding en or
ne. Thus we have oxen, chUdren, brethren, and kine.
(i) ClilldTen is a double plural. The oldest plural was cild-r-u, which
became chllder. lb was forgotten that this was a proper plural, and en
was added. Brethren is also a double pluraL En was added to the old
Northern plural brether — the oldest plural being brothr-o.
(ii) Eine is also a double plural of cow. The oldest plural was c^,
and this still exists in Scotland in the form of kye. Then ne was
added.
NUMBER.
17
22. Third Mode. — The plural is formed by changing the
vowel-sound of the word. The following are examples : —
SiNOULAB.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Man
Men.
Tooth
Teeth.
Foot
Feet.
Mouse
Mice.
Qoose
Geese.
Louse
lice.
(i) To understand this, we must observe that when a new syllable is
added to a word, the vowel of the precedmg syllable is often weakened.
Thus we find n&tlon, n&tlonal ; foz, vixen. Now the oldest plurals of
the above words had an additional syllable ; and it is to this that the
change in the vowel is due.
23. There are in English several nouns with two plural
forms, "With different meanings. The following is a list : —
Singular. Plural.
Brotber brothers (by blood)
Clotli cloths (kinds of cloth)
Die dies (stamps for coining)
Flail fishes (looked at separately)
CJenlus geniuses (men of talent)
Index indexes (to books)
Pea peas (taken separately)
Penny pennies (taken separately)
Shot shots (separate discharges)
Plural.
brethren (of a community),
clothes (garments),
dice (cubes for gaming),
fish (taken collectively),
genii (powerful spirits),
indices (to quantities in algebra),
pease (taken collectively),
pence (taken collectively),
shot (balls, collectively)
(i) Pea is a false singular. The 8 belongs to the root ; and we find in
Middle English " as big as a pease/' and the plurals pesen and peses.
24. Some nouns have the same form in the plural as in the
singular. Such are deer, sheep, cod, trout, mackerel, and
others,
(i) Most of these nouns were, in Old English, neuter.
(ii) A special plural is found in such phrases as : A troop of horse;
a company of foot ; ten sail of the line ; three brace of birds ; six gross of
sted pens; ten stone weighty etc. In fact, the names of numbers,
weights, measures, etc., are not put into the plural form. Thus we say,
ten hundredweight^ five score^ five fathorriy six brace. In Old English we
also said forty year^ sixty winter ; and we still say, a twdvemonth, a fort-
night (= fourteen nights).
25. There are in English several false plurals — that is, real
singulars which look like plurals. These are alms, riches, and
eaves.
B
18 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(i) Alma is a compressed form of the A.S. aelmease (which is from the
Greek eleimosunS), We find in Acts iil 3, " an alms." The adjective
connected with it is deemosynary,
(ii) Blohes comes from the French rlchesse.
(iii) Eaves is the modem form of the A.S. efese, a margin or edge.
26. There are in English several plural forms that are re-
garded and treated 849 singulars. The following is a list : —
Amends.
Gallows.
News.
8mallD0X= small ix
Odds.
Pains.
Shambles.
>cks.
Smallpox.
Thanks.
Tidings.
27. There are many nouns that, from the nature of the case,
can be used only in the pltiraL These are the names of
things (a) That consist of two or more parts ; or (b) That are
taken in the mass.
(a) The following is a list of the first : —
Bellows. Pincers. Shears. Tweezers.
Drawers. -Pliers. SnufiTers. Tongs.
Lungs. Scissors. Spectacles. Trousers.
(&) The following is a list of the second : —
Annals. Dregs. Lees. Oats.
Archives. Embers. Measles. Staggers.
Ashes. Entrails. Molasses. Stocks.
Assets. Hustings. Mumps. Victuals.
It must be noticed that several nouns — some of them in the
above class— -change their meaning entirely when made plural. Thus —
SiKouLAB. Plural.
Beef Beeves.
Copper Coppers.
Good Goods.
Singular. Plural.
Iron Irons.
Pain Pains.
Spectacle Spectacles.
28. The English language has adopted many foreign plurals.
These, (a) when fully naturalised, make their plurals in the
usual English way ; (b) when not naturalised, or imperfectly,
keep their own proper plurals.
(a) As examples of the first kind, we have —
BanditSf cJierubSf dogmas, indexes, memorandumSf focuses, formulas,
termirmses, etc.
(6) Aa examples of the second, we find—
(i)L»tln
Animalculum
Datum
Formula
Genua
AniluBlDUla.
Data.
Oenera.
Radix
Series
Stratum
Kadices.
Strata.
(3)anMk
AnalyBiB
Alia
Miasma
AnaljBea.
Aiea.
Miaamata.
Ellipda
EllipseB.
Pbeuomena.
(3)Freiiclt
MunBiaur
Meaueura.
Uadam
(4)ItaUuL
Bandit
Banditti
libretto
Virtuoso
Libretti.
Virtuosi
(8)HebMV
Cherub
Cherubim.
Seraph
(i) The Qreek plurals acovitici, elhies, maihemiituts, optici, poliiiet, etc.,
were originally adjectives. We now say Zojie— but logici, which still
survives in the Irish UniverBities — was the older word.
29. Compounds attach the sign of the plural to the leading
word, especially if that word be a noun. These may be divided
into three classes ; —
B added t
the Noun, as : Mtru-tn-Inu,
(a) When the plural ngn
haj\ger»-on, tookeri-on, etc
(A) When the compound word is treated aa one word, as : atiorTtey-
generaU, m^jor^eneTalt, amrt-martuiU, ipoonfiiU, hanrffuU, etc.
(«) When both parts of the compound take the plural sign, as : mm-
lervanU, hatghti-templara, lordi-jiulvie; etc
Case.
SIX Oaae is the form given to a noun to show its relation to
other words in the sentence. Om language has lost most of
these forms; but we still use the word case to indicate the
fonotlon, even when the form has been loot.
(i) The word case ia from the Latin
tatiu, and meana a falling. The old gram.
marians regarded the nominative as the ]
upright COM, and all others as faUingt
from that ' Hence the use of the words
decline and dwletwion. {Of courae the
nominative cannot be a real case, because
it is upright and not t-JaHing.)
20 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
31. We now employ five cases; IS'ominativey Fossessivey
Dative, Objective, and Vocative.
(i) In Nouns, only one of these is Inflected, or has a case-ending — the
Pofisessive.
(ii) In Frononns, the Possessive, Dative, and Objective are inflected.
But the inflexion for the Dative and the Objective is the same. Him
and tham are indeed true Datives : the old inflection for the Objective
was Une and hi.
32. The following are the definitions of these cases : —
(1) The 19'oininative Case is the case of the subject.
(2) The Possessive Case indicates possession, or some sim-
ilar relation.
(3) The Dative Case is the case of the Indirect Object,
and also the case governed by certain verbs.
(4) The Objective Case is the case of the Direct Object.
(5) The Vocative Case is the case of the person spoken
to. It is often called the I^'ominative of Address.
(i) Nominative comes from the Lat. nomindre, to name. From the
same root we have nominee.
(ii) Dative comes from the Lat dativtiSj given to.
(iii) Vocative comes from the Lat. vocativus, spoken to or addressed.
33. The Kominative Case answers to the question Who ? or
What? It has always a verb that goes with it, and asserts
something about it
34. The Possessive Case has the ending 's in the singular ;
*s in the plural, when the plural of the noun ends in n ; and *
only when the plural ends in s.
1^* The possessive case is kept chiefly for nouns that are
the names of living beings. We cannot say "the book's
page" or "the box's lid," though in poetry we can say "the
temple's roof," etc. There are many points that require to be
specially noted about the possessive : —
(i) The apostrophe (from Qr. apOy away, and strophe, a turning) stands
in the place of a lost e, the possessive in O.E. having been in many
cases 68. In the last century the printers always put hop*d, walk*d,
etc., for hoped, walked, etc. The use of the apostrophe is quite modem.
CASE. 21
(ii) If the singular noun ends in «, we often, but not always, write
Moaea* rod, for conscience* sake, Phoehua' fire ; and yet we say, and ought
to say, Jones's hooks, Wilkins^s hat, St James's, Chambers's Journal, etc.
(iii) We find in the Prayer-Book, " For Jesus Christ his sake." This
arose from the fact that the old possessive in 68 was sometimes written
is ; and hence the corruption into his. Then it came to be fancied that
'8 was a short form of his. But this is absurd, for two reasons : —
(a) We cannot say that " the girl's book " \a = the girl his book.
(6) We cannot say that " the men's tools " is = the men his tools.
35. How shall we account for the contradictory forms Lord's-
day and Lady-day, Thurs-day and Fri-day, Wedn-es-day and
Mon-day, and for the curious possessive Witenagemot P
(i) Lady-day, Friday, and Monday are fragments of the possessive of
feminine Nouns in O.E. The oldest possessive of lady was ladsran, which
was then shortened into ladye, lastly into lady. So with FTlJa, the
goddess of love ; and with Moon, which was feminine. Thus we see
that in Lady-day, Friday, and Monday we have old feminine possessives.
The word witenagemot means the meet or meeting of the wltan, or wise
men, the possessive of which was wltdna.
36. The Dative Case answers to the question For whom P
or To whom P It has no separate form, for 19'ouns ; and in
Pronouns, its form is the same as that of the Objective. But
it has a very clear and distinct fkinetion in modern EnglisL
This function is seen in such sentences as —
(1) He handed the lady a chair.
(2) Make me a boat !
(3) Woe worth the day ! ( = Woe come to the day !)
(4) Heaven send the Prince a better companion !
(5) Heaven send the companion a better Prince !
(6) " Sirrah, knock me at this gate,
Eap me here, knock me well, and knock me soundly."
(Shakespeare, " Taming of the Shrew," I. ii. 31.)
(7) Methought I heard a cry ! ( = Meseems.)
(8) Hand me the salt, if you please.
Some grammarians prefer to call this the Case of the Indirect
Object ; but the term will hardly apply to day and me in (3)
and (7). In all the other sentences, the dative may be changed
into an objective with the prep, to oi for.
22 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(i) In the sixth sentence, the me's are sometimes called Ethical
Datives,
(ii) In the seventh sentence, methought h^meseef/is, or it seems to me.
There were in O.E. two verbs — thincan, to seem ; and thenccm, to think.
(iii) In the eighth sentence the phrase if you please is = if it please
you, and the you is a dative. If the you were a nominative, the phrase
would mean if you are a pleasing person, or if you please me.
37. The Objective Case is always governed by an axjtive-
transitive verb or a preposition. It answers to the question
Whom P or What P It is generally placed after the verb. Its
form is different from that of the Nominative in pronouns ;
but is the same in nouns.
(i) The direct object is sometimes called the reflezlye object when
the nominative and the objective refer to the same person — as, " / hurt
myself ;" " Turn {tJum) thee, Lord ! " etc
(ii) When the direct object is akin with the verb in meaning, it is
sometimes called the cognate object. The cognate object is found in
such phrases as : To die the death; to ru/n a ra^ie; tofighi afght, etc.
(iii) A second direct object after such verbs as TMike, create, appoint,
think, suffer, etc., is often called the factitive object. For example :
The Queen made him, a general; the Board appointed him majna/ger ; we
thought him a good ma/n, etc.
Factitive comes trom the Latin /oc^, to make.
38. The difference between the Nominative and the Vocative
cases is this : The !N"ominative case must always have a verb
with it ; the Vocative cannot have a verb. This is plain from
the sentences : —
(i) John did that,
(ii) Don't do that, John !
39. Two nouns that indicate the same person or thing are
said to be in apposition ; and two nouns in apposition may be
in any case.
(i) But, though the two nouns are in the same case, only one of
them has the sign or inflection of the case. Thus we say, " John the
gardener's mother is dead." Now, both John and gardener are in the
possessive case; and yet it is only gardener that takes the sign of
the possessive.
PRONOUNS. 23
PRONOUNS.
1. A Pronoon is a word that is used instead of a noun.
We say, " John went away yesterday ; he looked quite happy."
In this case the pronoun he stands in the place of John.
(i) The word pronoun comes from the Latin pro, for ; and nomen,
a name.
(ii) The above definition hardly applies to the pronoun /. If we say
/ wrUef the / cannot have John Smith substituted for it. We cannot
say John Smith write. /, in fact, is the universal pronoun for the
person speaking ; and it cannot be said to stand in place of his mere
name. The same remark applies to some extent to thou and y&tA,
2. The pronouns are among the oldest parts of speech, and
have, therefore, been subject to many changes. In spite of
these changes, they have kept many of their inflexions j while
our English adjective has parted with all, and our noun with
most.
3. There are four kinds of pronouns: Personal; Inter-
rogative; Relative; and Indefinite. The following is a
table, with examples of each ; —
PRONOUNS.
i I I I
Personal Interrogative. Relative. Indefinite.
I. Who? Who. One.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
4. There are three Personal Pronouns : The Personal Pro-
noun of the First Person ; of the Second Person ; and of the
Third Person.
6. The First Personal Pronoun indicates the person speak-
ing; the Second Personal Pronoun, the person spoken to;
and the Third, the person spoken o£
6. The First Personal Pronoun has, of course, no distinc-
tion of gender. It is made up of the following forms, which
are fragments of different words : —
24 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Singular.
Plural.
Nominative
I
We.
Possessive
Mine {or My)
Our {or Ours)
Dative
Me
Us.
Objective
Me
Us.
(i) We is not = I + 1 ; because there can be only one / in all the world
We is really = I + he, I + you, or I + they.
(ii) / can have no vocative as such. If you address yourself, you
must say Thou or You.
(iii) The dative is preserved in such words and phrases as ''Me
tliinks " (" it seems to mej" — where the think comes from tkincanj to
seem, and not from thencan^ to think) ; " Woe is me ; " " Give me the
plate ; " " If you please," etc.
7. The Second Personal Pronoun has no distinction of
gender. It has the following forms : —
Singular.
Plural.
Nominative
Thou
You {(yr Ye).
Possessive
Thine {or Thy)
Your {or Yours).
Dative
Thee
You.
Objective
Thee
You.
Vocative
Thou
You {or Ye).
(i) Ye was the old nominative plural; yon was always dative or
objective. " Ye have not chosen me ; but I have chosen you."
(ii) Thou was, from the 14th to the 17th century, the pronoun of
affection, of familiarity, of superiority, and of contempt. This is still
the usage in France of tu and toi. Hence the verb tutoyer.
(iii) My, Thy, Onr, Your are used along with nouns; BUne, Thine,
Onra, and Yonrs cannot go with nouns, and they are always used alone.
Mine and Thine, however, are used in Poetry and in the English Bible
with nouns which begin with a vowel or silent h.
8. The Third Personal Pronoun requires distinctions of
gender, because it is necessary to indicate the sex of the person
we are talking of ; and it has them.
SiNOULAR.
Plural.
Masculine.
FEHimNE.
Neuter.
All Gendebs.
Nom.
He
She
It
They.
Poss,
His
Her {or Hers)
Its
Their (or Theirs).
Dot.
Him
Her
It
Them.
Obj,
Him ^
Her
It
Them.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 25
(i) She is really the feminine of the old demonstrative 86, seo, thaet ;
and it has supplanted the old A.S. pronoun Aco, which still exists in
Lancashire in the form of Aoo.
(ii) The old and proper dative of it is Mm. The old neuter of lie was
hit, the t being the inflection for the neuter.
(iii) Him, the dative, came to be also used as the objective. The
oldest objective was hine.
9. The Personal Pronouns are often used as Reflexive
Pronouns. Keflexive Pronouns are (i) datives ; or (ii) objec-
tives ; or (iii) compounds of self with the personal pronoun.
For example : —
(i) Dative : " I press me none but good householders," said by Fal-
staff, in " King Henry IV.," I. iv. 2, 16.
" I made me no more ado," I. il 4, 223.
" Let every soldier hew him down a bough." — Macbeth, V. iv. 6.
(ii) Objective : Shakespeare has such phrases as / whipt me ; I disrobed
me; I have learned me. in modem English, chiefly in poetry, we have :
ffe sat him down; Get thee hence I etc.
(iii) Compounds : / bethought myself; He wronged himsdf; etc.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
10. The Interrogative Pronouns are those pronouns which
we use in asking questions. They are who, which, what, and
whether.
(i) The word inierrogfUive comes from the Latin interrogare, to ask.
Hence also interrogalionj interrogatory, etc.
11. Who is both masculine and feminine, and is used only of
persons. Its neuter is what. (The t in what, as in that, is
the old suffix for the neuter gender.) The possessive is whose ;
the objective whom. The following are the forms : —
Singular and Plural.
Masculine.
Feminins.
Neuter.
Nominative
Who
Who
What.
Possessive
Whose
Whose
[Whose.]
Objective
Whom
Whom
What.
26 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(i) Wlio-m is really a dative, like hi-m. But we now use it only as an
objective.
(ii) Whose fruiy be used of neuters ; but it is almost invariably em-
ployed of persons only.
12. Which — formerly hwilc — is a compound word, made up
of the wh in -who, and Ic, which is a contraction of the O.E.
lie = like. It therefore really means, Of what sort? It now
asks for one out of a number j as, " Here are several kinds of
fruits : which will you have % "
13. Whether is also a compound word, made up of who +
ther ; and it means, Which of the two P
(i) The ther in whether is the same as the ther in neUher, etc.
RELATIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS.
14. A Relative Pronoim is a pronoun which possesses two
functions : (i) it stands for a noun ; and (ii) it joins two sen-
tences together. That is to say, it is both a pronoun and a con-
junction. For example, we say, " This is the man whose apples
we bought" This statement is made up of two sentences : (i)
"This is the man;" and (ii) "We bought his apples." The
relative pronoun whose joins together the two sentences.
(i) Relative Pronouns might also be called conjunotive pronouns.
(ii) Whose, in the above sentence, is called relative, because it relates
to the word man, Man is called its antecedent, or goevbefore.
The word arUecedent comes from the Lat. ante, before ; and cedOf I go.
16. The Relative Pronouns are that; who, which; what.
As and but are also employed as relatives.
(i) Who, wMoh, and wliat are also combined with so and ever, and
form Compound Relatives; such as wboso, whosoever, wliatsoever,
and whichsoever.
(ii) That is the oldest of our relative pronouns. It is really the neuter
of the old demonstrative adj., se, seoy thaet. It differs from who in two
respects : (a) It cannot be used after a preposition. We cannot say,
" This is the man with that I went." (6) It is generally employed to
limitf distinguish, and define. Thus we say, " The house that I built is
for sale." Here the sentence thai I built is an adjective, limiting or de-
fining the noun hotise. Hence it has been called the defining relative.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 27
Wlio or which introduces a new fact about the antecedent ; that only
marks it off from other nouns.
(iii) Who has whose and whom in the possessive and objective — ^both
in the singular and in the plural.
(iv) Which is not to be regarded as the neuter of who. It is the form
used when the antecedent is the name of an animal or thing. After a
preposition, it is sometimes replaced by where; as wherem = in which;
whereto = to which.
(v) What performs the fimction of a compound relative = that + which.
If we examine its fimction in different sentences, we shall find that it
may be equivalent to —
(a) Two Nominatives ; as in *This is what he is" (=the person that).
(6) Two Objectives ; as in " He has what he asked f or " ( = the thing that).
(c) Nom. and Obj. ; as in " This is what he asked for " (= the thing that).
{d) Obj. and Nom.; as in '^ I know what he is " (=the person that).
(vi) As is the proper relative after the adjectives such and same. As
is, however, properly an adverb. " This is the same as I had " is= " This
is the same as that which I had."
(vii) But is the proper relative after a negative ; as " There was no
man but would have died for her." Here hut = who + not (This is
like the Latin use of quin = qui + non),
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
16. An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun that does not stand
in the place of a noun which is the name for a definite person
or thing, but is used vaguely, and without a distinct reference.
17. The chief Indefinite Pronouns are one, none; any;
other ; and some.
(i) One is the hest instance of an indefinite pronoun. It is simply the
cardinal one used as a pronoun. In O.E. we used mom; and we still find
one example in the Bible — Zech. xiii. 5 : " Man taught me to keep cattle
from my youth." One, as an indefinite pronoun, has two peculiarities.
It (a) can be put in the possessive case; and (5) can take a plural
form. Thus we can say : (a) " One can do what one likes with one's own ; "
and (6) " I want some big ones."
(ii) None is the negative of one. '' None think the great unhappy
but the great." But rume is always plural. No (the adjective) is a
short form of none; as a is of an; and my of mine,
(iii) Any is derived from an, a form of one. It may be used as an
adjective also— either with a singular or a plural noun. When used as a
pronoun, it is generally plural
28 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(iv) Other is »- an ther. The ther is the same as that in either,
whether; and it always indicates that one of two is taken into the
mind.
(v) Borne is either singular or plural It is singular in the phrase
Some one ; in all other instances, it is a plural pronoun.
ADJECTIVES.
1. An Adjective is a word that goes with a noun to describe
or point out the thing denoted by the noun — and hence to limit
the application of the noun ; or, more simply, —
AcUeetives are noun-marking words.
(i) Adjectives do not assert explicitly, like verbs. They assert im-
plicitly. Hence they are implicit predicates. Thus, if I say, ** I met
three old men/* I make three statements : (1) I met men ; (2) The men
were old; (3) The men were three in number. But these statements
are not explicitly made.
(ii) Adjectives enlarge tbe content, but limit tbe extent of the idea
expressed by the noun. Thus when we say "whUe horses,** we put a
larger content into the idea of horse ; but, as there are fewer white
horses than horses, we limit the extent of the notion.
2. An adjective cannot stand by itselfl It must have with
it a noun either expressed or understood. In the sentence
"The good are happy," persons is understood after good.
3. Adjectives are of four kinds. They are (i) Adjectives of
Quality; (ii) Adjectives of Quantity; (iii) AcUectives of
Number ; (iv) Demonstrative Adjectives. Or we may say, —
Adjectives are divided into
ADJECTIVES
I I I I
Qnalitatlye. Qoantltatlve. Nnmlierlng. Demonstrative.
These four answer, respectively, to the questions —
(i) Qfwliatsort? (ii) Howmuoli? (iii) How many 7 (iv) WMch?
4. Qnalitative Adjectives denote a quality of the subject or
thing named by the noun; such as hlue^ white; happy ^ sad;
big, little,
(i) The word quaZitative comes from the Lat. qualUssot what sort
(ii) Most of these adjectives admit of degrees of oompariion.
ADJECTIVES. 29
5. Qnantitative Adjectives denote either quantity or in-
definite number ; and they can go either (i) with the singular,
or (ii) with the plural of nouns, or (iii) with both. The follow-
ing is a list : —
Any. Certain. Few. Much. Some.
AIL Divers. Little. No. Whole.
Both. Enough. Many. Several
(i) We find the phrases : LUUe need; little wool; nvuch pleasure; more
sense; some deep, etc.
(ii) We find the phrases : All men; cmy persons; both boys; several
pounds, etc.
(iii) We find the phrases: Any man and a/ny m^n; no man and no
men; enough com and soldiers enough; some boy and soms boys, etc.
6. Numbering or Numeral Adjectives express the number of
the things or persons indicated by the noun. They are generally
divided into Cardinal Numerals and Ordinal Numerals.
But Ordinal Numerals are in reality Demonstrative Adjectives.
(i) Numeral comes from the Lat. wwmeras, a number. Hence also
come n/wmerous, numerical, and mimber (the b serves as a cushion between
the m and the r).
(ii) Cardinal comes from the Lat. ca/rdo, a hinge.
(iii) Ordinal comes from the Lat. ordo, order.
7. Demonstrative Adjectives are those which are used to
point out the thing expressed by the noun ; and, besides indi-
cating a person or thing, they also indicate a relation either to
the speaker or to something else.
(i) DemonstratiTe comes from the Lat demonstro, I i)olnt out. From the same
root come monster, numstrous, &c.
8. Demonstrative Adjectives are of three kinds : (i) Articles ;
(ii) Adjective Fronouns (often so called) ; and (iii) the Ordinal
19'umerals.
(i) There are two articles (better call them dlstingulslilng adjectives)
in our language : a and the. a is a broken-down form of ane, the
northern form of one ; and before a vowel or silent li it retains the n.
In some phrases a has its old sense of one ; as in " two of a trade ; " ''all
of a size/* etc.
" An two men ride on a horse, one must ride behind. "
Shakespeare (Much Ado about Nothing, III. v. 40).
30 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(ii) We must be careful to distinguish the article a from the broken-
down preposition a in the phrase "twice a week." This latter a is a
fragment of on; and the phrase in O.E. was "tuwa on wucan." Simi-
larly, the in " the book " is not the same B&theva ** the more the merrier."
The latter is the old ablative of thaet; and is=by that.
(iii) A<lJeotlve FronounB or Pronoxninal Adjectlyes are so called be-
cause they can be used either as adjectives with the noun, or as
pronouns for the noun. They are divided into the following four
classes : —
(a) DemooBtratlve Adjective Fronouns — This, these ; that, those ;
yon, yonder.
(6) Interrogative Adjective Fronouns — ^Which ? what ? whether (of
the two) ?
(e) Dlstribntive Adjective Pronouns — ^Each, every, either, neither.
(d) Possessive A4jective Pronouns — My, thy, his, her, etc. (These
words perform a double function. They are adjectives, because they
go with a noun ; and pronouns, because they stand for the noun or
name of the person speaking or spoken of.)
(iv) The Ordinal Numerals are : First, second, third, etc.
9. Some adjectives are used as nouns, and therefore take a
plural form. Thus we have Romans, Christiana, superiors,
elders, ones, others, nobles, etc. Some take the form of the
possessive ease, as either^s, neitJier^s,
(i) The plural of one as an adjective is two^ threcj etc. ; of one as a
noun, ones. Thus we can say, " These are poor strawberries, bring me
better ones.** Other numeral adjectives may be used as nouns. Thus
Wordsworth, in one of his shorter poems, has —
"The sun has long been set ;
The stars are out by tioos and threes ;
The little birds are piping yet
Among the bushes and trees."
(ii) Our language is very whimsical in this matter. We can say
Romans and Italians ; but we cannot say Frenches and Dutches, Milton
has (Paradise Lost, iil 438) Chineses.
NUMERALS.
10. Cardinal Numerals are those which indicate numbers
alone. Some of them are originally nouns, as dozen, hun-
dred, thousand, and million; but these may also be used as
adjectives.
NUMERALS. 31
(i) One was in A.S. an or (me. The pronunciation vmn is from a west-
em dialect. It is still rightly sounded in its compounds atone, alone,
londy. None and no are the negatives of one and o {=an and a).
(ii) Two, from A.S. twegen mas. ; twa fem. The form twegen appears
in twain and twiri, the g having been absorbed,
(iii) Eleven = en (one) + lif (ten). Twelve = twe (two) + lif (ten),
(iv) Tlilrteen= three + ten. The r has shifted its place, as in third,
(v) Twenty =twen (two) + tig (ten). Tig is a noun, meaning "a set
of ten." The guttural was lost, and it became ty.
(vi) Score, from A.S. aceran, to cut. Accounts of sheep, cattle, etc.,
were kept by notches on a stick ; and the twentieth notch was made
deeper, and was called the cut — the score.
11. Ordinal Numerals are Adjectives of Belation formed
mostly from the Cardinals. They are : First, Second, Third,
Fourth, etc.
(i) First is a contraction of the A. S. fyrrest (farthest).
(ii) Second is not Eng. but Latin. The O.E. for second was other.
Second comes (through French) from the Latin, secunduSf following —
that is, following the first. A following or favourable breeze (" a wind
that foUows fast ") was called by the Romans a " secundus ventus."
Secundus comes from Lat. sequor, I follow. Other words from the
same root are eequd, consequence, etc.
(iii) Tldrd, by transposition, from A.S. thridda, A third part was
called a thriding (where the r keeps its right place) ; as a fourth part
was a fourthing or farthing. Thriding was gradually changed into Hiding,
one of the three parts into which Yorkshire was divided.
(iv) In elgh-th, as in eigh-teen, a t has vanished.
THE INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES.
12. The modem English adjective has lost all its old inflexions
for gender and case, and retains only two for number. These
two are these (the plural of this) and tliose (the plural of that),
(i) The older plural was thlse — pronounced these, and then so spelled.
In this instance, the spelling, as so seldom happens, has followed the
pronunciation. In general in the English language, the spelling and the
pronunciation keep quite apart, and have no influence on each other.
(ii) Tliose was the oldest plural of this, but in the 14th century it
came to be accepted as the plural of thaZ.
32 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
13. Most adjectives are now inflected for purposes of com-
parison only.
14. There are three Degrees of Comparison: the Posi-
tive ; the Comparative ; and the Superlative.
(i) The word degree comes from the French degr4, which itself comes
from the Latin gradus, a step. From the same root come grade, grad
ualf degrade, etc
15. The Positive Degree is the simple form of the adjec-
tive.
16. The Comparative Degree is that form of the adjective
which shows that the quality it expresses has been raised one
step or degree higher. Thus we say sharp^ sharper; cold,
colder; brave, braver. The comparative degree brings together
only two ideas. Thus we may speak of " the taller of the two,"
but not " of the three."
Comparative comes from the Lat. eompdrOf I bring together.
17. The Comparative degree is formed in two ways : either
(i) by adding er to the positive ; or (ii) if the adjective has two
syllables (the last ending in a consonant) or more, by placing
the adverb more before the adjective.
Rules : I. A silent e is dropped ; as brave, braver,
II. A 7 after a consonant is changed into i before er, etc. ; as happy,
happier,
III. A final consonant after a short vowel is doubled ; as red,
redder; erud, crueller,
IV. In choosing between er and more, sound and custom seem to
be the safest guides. Thus we should not say sdecter, but more select ;
not ir^firmer, but more infirm^ Carlyle has beatttifuUest, etc. ; but his is
not an example to be followed.
18. The Superlative Degree is that form of the adjective
which shows that the quality it expresses has been raised to the
highest degree. The superlative degree requires that three
things, or more, be compared. Thus " He is the tallest of the
two " would be incorrect.
Superlative comes from the Lat. superlaHvus, llfUng np above.
ADJECTIVES.
33
19. The Superlative degree is formed in two ways : either (i)
by adding est to the positive ; or (ii) if the adjective has two
syllables (the last ending in a consonant) or more, by placing
the adverb most before the adjective.
(i) ffappiest; most recent; most becmtiful.
20. Some adjectives, from the very nature of the ideas they
express, do not admit of comparison. Such are golden, wooden;
left, right; square, triangular; weekly, monthly; eternal, per-
petual, etc.
21. The most frequently used adjectives have irregular
comparisons. The following is a list : —
Pos-
Ck>M-
Super-
Pos-
Com-
Super-
itive.
PARATIVE.
lative.
itive.
parative.
lative.
Bad
worse
worst.
Late
later
latest.
EvU
worse
worst.
Tiate
latter
last.
111
worse
worst.
Little
less
least.
Far
farther
farthest.
Many
more
most.
[Forth]
further
furthest
Much
more
most.
Fore
former
foremost.
Nigh
nigher
nighest (next)
Good
better
best.
Old
older
oldest.
Hind
hinder
hindmost.
Old
elder
eldest.
[Rathe] rat
her
[rathest.]
(i) Worse and worst come, not from body but from the root weor, evil.
( War comes from the same root.) The s in worse is a part of the root ;
and the fuU comparative is really worser, which was used in the 16th
century (Shakespeare, "Hamlet," III. iv. 157). Worst^worsest.
(ii) The tb in farther is intrusive. Farther is formed on a false anal-
ogy "mth further ; as covld (from can) is with vfould (from wiU), Far-
ther is used of progression in space ; further, of progression in reasoning,
(iii) Former was in A.S. forma (= first). It is a superlative form with
a comparative sense.
(iv) Better comes from A.S. 66*= good — a root which was found in
6eton, to make good, and in the phrase to &oo*="to the good.*'
(v) Later and latest refer to time ; latter and last to position in
space or in a series. Last is as by assimilation from hUst ; as best is from
hetsA.
(vi) Less does not come from the Ut in liUie; but from the A.S^ las,
weak. Least = laesesl
(vii) Highest is contracted into next ; as highest was into hext. Thus
C
34 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(viii) We say " the oldest man that ever lived, *' and " the eldest of
the family." Older and oldest refer to mere number ; elder and eldest
to a family or corporate group.
(ix) Bathe is still found in poetry. Milton has " the rathe primrose,
that forsaken dies ; " and Coleridge, " twin buds too rathe to bear the
winter's unkind air." The Irish pronunciation rayther is the old Eng-
lish pronunciation.
(x) Hind is used as an adjective. in the phrase " the hind wheels."
22. The following are defective comparatives and superla-
tives : —
Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
[Aft]
after
[In]
inner
innermost.
[Out]
outer (or utter)
outermost (or uttermost).
nether
nethermost.
over
[Up]
upper
uppermost.
(i) After, as an adjective, is found in aftermath and afterthought.
(ii) In is used as an adjective in the word in-side; and as a noun in
the phrase " the ins and outs " of a question.
(iii) In the inns of law, the utter-bar (outer-bar) is opposed to the
inner-bar.
(iv) The neth in nether is the same as the neath in beneath.
(v) The ov in over is the ove in above, and is a dialectic form of up.
It is still found in such names as Over Leigh in Cheshire, and Over
Darwen in Lancashire.
(vi) Hindmost, uttermost, are not compounds of most, but are
double superlatives. There was an old superlative ending ema, which
we see in Lat. extrem/us, supremus, etc. It was forgotten that this was
a superlative, and est or ost was added. Thus we had hindenuif mid-
ema. These afterwards became hindmost and midmost.
THE VERB.
1. The Verb is that "part of speech" by means of which
we make an assertion.
It is the keystone of the arch of speech.
(i) The word verb comes from the Lat. verbumy a word. It is so
called because it is the word in a sentence. If we leave the verb out
of a sentence, all the other words become mere nonsense. Thus we can
THE VBEB.
35
say, " I saw him cross the bridge." Leave out saw, and the other words
have no meaning whatever.
(ii) A verb has sometimes been called a telling word, and this is a
good and simple definition for young learners.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
2. Verbs are divided into two classes — Transitive and
Intransitive.
3. A Transitive Verb denotes an action or feeling which,
as it were, passes over from the doer of the action to the
object of it. " The boy broke the stick ; " " he felled the
tree ; '* " he hates walking."
In these sentences we are able to think of the action of brealdng and
felllXLg as passing over to the stick and the tree.
TranaUive comes from the Lat verb trarmre, to pass over.
The more correct definition is this :—
A Transitive Verb is a verb that requires an object.
This definition covers the instances of TtavCf own^ possess, inherit, etc.,
as well as break, strike, fdl, etc.
4. An IntranBitlve Verb denotes a state, feeling, or action
which does not pass over, but which terminates in the doer or
agent. " He sleeps ; " " she walks j " " the grass grows."
5. There is, in general, nothing in the look or appearance
of the verb which will enable ns to tell whether it is transitive
or intransitive. A transitive verb may be used intransitively ;
an intransitive verb, transitively. In a few verbs we possess
a causative form. Thus we have : —
Imtbanbitivb.
Oausative
Il7TRA17SITnrE.
Oausative.
Bitei
Bait.
Quoth
Bequeathe.
Deem^
- Doom (verb).
Rise
Haise.
Drink I
Drench.
Sit
Set
Fall
Fell
Watch 1
Wake.
Lie
Lay.
Wrings
Wrench.
1 These are also used transitively.
The following exceptional usages should be diligently
noted : —
L Intransitive verbs may be used transitively. Thus —
(i) (a) He walked to London. (6) He walked his horse.
(a) The eagle flew. (6) The boy. flew his kite.
36 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(ii) When the intransitive verb is compounded with a pre-
position either (i) separable, or (ii) inseparable.
(i) (a) He laughed. {b) He laughed-at me.
(ii) (a) He came. (&) He overcame the enemy,
(iii) (a) He spoke. (6) He bespoke a pair of boots.
Such verbs are sometimes called " Prepositional Verbs."
II. Transitive verbs may be used intransitively —
(i) With the pronoun itself understood : —
(a) He broke the dish. (6) The sea breaks on the rocks,
(a) She shut the door. (b) The door shut suddenly,
(a) They moved the table. (6) The table moved.
(ii) When the verb describes a fact perceived by the senses : —
(a) He cut the beef. (6) The beef cuts tough,
(a) He sold the books. (5) The books sell weU.
(a) She smells the rose. (6) The rose smells sweet.
The following is a tabular view of the
KINDS OF VERBS.
I
INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE.
I I
I III
Of State. Of action. Active. Passive.
(Sleep.) (Bun.) (Wound.) (Be wounded.)
THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS,
6. Verbs are changed or modified for Voicd, Mood, Tense,
Number, and Person. These changes are expressed, partly by
inflexion, and partly by the use of auxiliary verbs.
(i) A verb is an auxiliary veil) (from Lat. cmxUvumy aid) when its
own full and real meaning drops out of sigTU^ and it aids or helps the
verb to which it is attached to express Us meaning. Thus we say, " He
works hard that he may gain the prize ; " and here may has not its old
meaning of power, or its present meaning of permission. But —
(ii) If we say " He may go/' here m^iy is not used as an anzUiaryy
but is a notional verb, mth. its full meaning ; and the sentence is=
" He has leave to go.'
tt
THE VERB. 37
Voice.
7. Voice is that form of the Verb by which we show
whether the subject of the statement denotes the doer of the
action, or the object of the action, expressed by the verb.
8. There are two Voices : the Active Voice, and the Passive
Voice.
(i) When a verb is used in the active voice,
the subject of the sentence stands for
the doer of the action. " He killed the mouse.'*
(ii) When a verb is in the passive voice,
the subject of the sentence stands for
the object of the action. " The mouse was killed."
Or we may say that, in the XMUislve voloe
the grammatical subject denotes the real
object.
(iii) There is in English a kind of middle voice. Thus we can say,
"He opened the door" (active); "The door was opened" (passive);
" The door opened " (middle). In the same way we have, " This wood
cuts easily ; " " Honey tastes sweet ; " " The book sold well," etc
9. An Intransitive Verb, as it can have no direct object,
cannot be used in the passive voice. But, as we have seen,
we can make an intransitive into a transitive verb by adding
a preposition ; and hence we can say : —
Active. Fassivs.
(a) They laughed at him. (6) He was laughed-at by them,
(a) The general spoke to him. (6) He was spoken-to by the general.
10. In changing a verb in the active voice into the passive,
we may make either (i) the direct or (ii) the indirect object
into the subject of the passive verb.
AcTivK. Passive.
1. They offered her a chair. (i) A chair was offered her.
(ii) She was offered a chair.
2. They showed him the house. (i) The house was shown him.
(ii) He was shown the house.
3. I promised the boy a coat. (i) A coat was promised the boy.
(ii) The boy was promised a coat.
The object after the passive verb is not the real object of that verb, for
a passive verb cannot rightly take an object. It is Z</t overt as it were, fh)m the
active verb, and is hence sometimes called a Restdaary Object.
38 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
11. The passive voice of a verb is formed by using a part
of the verb to be and the past participle of the verb. Thus
we say —
AcnvB.
Passiye.
Acnvs.
Passivb.
I beat.
I am beaten.
I have beaten.
I have been beaten.
(i) Some intransitlTe verbs form their perfect tenses by means of the
verb to he and their past participle, as " I am come ; " " He is gone."
But the meanx7\g here is quite different. There is no mark of ansTthing
done to the subject of the verb.
(ii) Shakespeare has the phrases : t« run; U arrived; are marched
forth; 18 entered into; is stolen away.
Mood.
12. The Mood of a verb is the manner in which the state-
ment made by the verb is presented to the mind. Is a
statement made directly] Is a command given? Is a state-
ment subjoined to another] All these are different moods or
modes. There are four moods : the Indicative ; the Impera-
tive ; the Subjunctive ; and the Infinitive.
(i) Indicative comes from the Lat. indiedrej to point out.
(ii) Imperative comes from the Lat. imperdref to command. Hence
also emperor, empress, etc. (through French).
(iii) Subjonotive comes from Lat. suhjung^ire, to join on to.
(iv) Infinitive comes from Lat. inJinUtts, unlimited ; because the verb
in this mood is not limited by person, n/umber, etc
13. The Indicative Mood makes a direct assertion, or puts
a question in a direct manner. Thus we say : " John is ill ; "
"Is John ill r'
14. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command,
request, or entreaty. Thus we say : "Go 1 " " Give me the
book, please ; " " Do come back ! "
(i) The Imperative Mood is the pnre root of the verb without any
inflexion.
(ii) It has in reality only one person — the second.
15. The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb which
is used in a sentence that is subjoined to a principal
THE VERB. 39
sentence! — and which does not express a fact directly, but
only the relation of a fact to the mind of the speaker.
Most often it expresses both doubt and futurity. Thus we
say: (i) "0 that he were herel" (ii) "Love not sleep, lest
thou come to poverty." (iii) " Whoever he be, he cannot be
a good m,an."
(i) In the first sentence, the person is not here.
(ii) In the second, the person spoken to has not come to poverty ; but
he may.
(iii) In the third, we do not know who the person really is.
(iv) The Subjunctive Mood is rapidly dying out of use in modern
English.
16. The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb which
has no reference to any agent, and is therefore unlimited by
person, by number, or by tima It is the verb itself, pure and
simple.
(i) The preposition to is not an essential part nor a necessary sign of
the infinitive. The oldest sign of it was the ending in an. After may,
con, ahallf toiU, mustf hid, dare, do, let, make, hectr, see, feel, need, the
simple infinitive, without to, is still used.
(ii) The Infinitive is really a noun, and it may be (a) either in the
nominative or (6) in the obj. case. Thus we have : (a) " To err is
human ; to forgive, divine ; " and (6) " I wish to go."
(iii) In O.E. it was declined like any other noun ; and the dative case
ended in anne. Then to was placed before this dative, to indicate
purpose. Thus we find, " The sower went out to sow," when, in O.E.
to sow was to sawenne. This, which is now called the genmdial infinitive,
has become very common in English. Thus we have, "I came to see
you ; " "A house to let." " To hear him ( = on hearing him) talk, you
would think he was worth millions."
(iv) We must be careful to distinguish between (a) the pure InfinitlTe
and (6) the gemndlal InfinitlTe. Thus we say —
(a) I want to see him. (6) I went to see him. The latter is the
genmdial infinitive — that is, the old dative.
(c) The gerundial infinitive is attached (1) to a noun ; and (2) to an
adjectiva Thus we have such phrases as —
(1) Bread to eat; water to drinh; a house to seU.
(2) Wonderful to relate; quick to take offence; eager to go,
17. A Gerund is a noxin formed from a verb by the addition
of ing. It may be either (i) a subject ; or (ii) an object ; or
40
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(iii) it may be governed by a preposition. It has two functions :
that of a noun, and that of a verb — that is, it is itself a noun,
and it has the governing power of a verb.
(i) Reading is pleasant, (ii) I like reading, (iii) He got off by cross-
ing the river. In this last sentence, crossing is a noun in relation to by,
and a verb in relation to river.
Gerund comes from the Lat. gero, I carry on ; because it carries on
the power or function of the verb.
(ii) The Genmd must be carefully distinguished from three other
kinds of words : (a) from the verbal noun, which used to end in ung ;
(6) from the present participle ; and (c) from the infinitive with to.
The following are examples: —
(o) " Forty and six years was this tem-
ple in building." Here building is a
verbal noun.
Q>) "Dreaming as he went along, he
fell into the brook." Here dreaming is
an adjective agreeing with he, and is there,
fore a participle.
(c) "To write is quite easy, when one
has a good pen." Here to write is a pres-
ent infinitive, and is the nominative to i$.
(It must not be forgotten that the oldest
infinitive had no to, and that it still exists
in this pure form in such lines as " Better
dwdl in the midst of alarms, than reign
in this horrible place."
(a) "He was punished for robbing the
orchard." Here robbing is a gerund, be-
cause it {« a noun and also goverru a noun.
(&) "He was tired of dreaming such
dreams." Here dreaming is a gerund,
because it {« a noun and governs a noun.
(c) " He comes here to write his letters."
Here to write is the gerundial infinitive ;
it is in the dative case; and the O.E.
form was to writanne. Here the to has
a distinct meaning. This is the so-
called "infinitive of purpose;" but it is
a true gerund. In the seventeenth cen-
tury, when the sense of the to was weak-
ened, it took a for, — "What went ye out
for to see?"
(iii) The following three words in ing have each a special function : —
(a) He is reading about the passing of Arthur (verbal nonn).
(b) And Arthur, passing thence (participle), rode to the wood.
(c) This is only good for passimg the time (genmd).
18. A Participle is a verbal adjective. There are two par-
ticiples : the Present Active and the Perfect Passive. The
former (i) has two functions: that of an adjective and that
of a verb. The latter (ii) has only the function of an adjective.
(i) " Hearing the noise, the porter ran to the gate." In this sentence,
hewring is an a4jeotlve qualifying porter^ and a verb governing rwise.
(ii) Defeated and discouraged, the enemy surrendered.
KS" 1. We must be very careful to distinguish between (a) the genmd in
ing, and (6) the particiide in ing. Thus runnvng in a ^' nmning stream "
THE VERB. 41
is an adjective, and therefore a participle. In the phrase, " in running
along/' it is a noun, and therefore a gerund. Milton says —
" And ever, against eating cares,
Lap me in soft Lydian airs 1 "
Here eating la an adjective, and means fretting ; and it is therefore a
participle. But if it had meant cares ahout eating, eating would have
been a noun, and therefore a genmd. So a Juking-rod is not a rod
that jUikes ; a frying-pan is not a pofln that fries ; a walking -ttiek is not
a stick that walks. The rod is a rod for fishing ; the pan, a pan for
frying ; the stick, a stick for walking ; and^therefore fishing, frying,
and walking are all gerunds.
2. The word pa/rtidpU comes from Lat. partieipdre, to partake of.
The participle partakes of the nature of the verb. (Hence also par-
tieipate.)
Tbnsk
19. Tense is the form which the verb takes to indicate time.
There are, in human life, three times : past, present, and
future. Hence there are in a verb three chief tenses : Past,
Present, and Future. These may be represented on a
straight line: —
TENSES.
\
I I I
Past Present Fature.
I wrote. I write. I shall write.
(i) The word tense comes to us from the French temps, which is from
the Lat tempus, time. Hence also temporal, temporary, etc. (The modem
French word is temps; the old French word was tens,)
20l The tenses of an English verb give not only the time of
an action or event, but also the state or condition of that
action or event This state may be complete or incomplete,
or neither — that is, it is left indeflnita These states are
oftener called perfect, imperfect, and indefinite. The con-
dition, then, of an action as expressed by a verb, or the con-
dition of the tense of a verb, may be of three kinds. It may
be —
(i) Complete or Perfect, as Written.
(ii) Incomplete or Imperfect, as Writing.
(iii) Indefinite, as Write.
42 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
We now have therefore —
TENSES.
,£ ±^ a.
I
I
r}.
I
Perfict. Ind^. Imperf, Perfect. IncUf, Imperf, Perfect. Ind^. Imverf.
Had Wrote. Was Have Write. Am Will Will Will be
written. writing. written. writing. have write, writing.
written.
(i) The only tense in our language that is formed by Inflexion is the
past Indefinite. All the others are formed by the aid of auxiliaries.
(a) The imperfect tenses are formed by be + tbe Impexfeot
participle.
(6) The perfect tenses are formed by liaye + tbe perfect par-
ticiple.
(ii) Besides Tiad written^ have written, and vnll have wrUten, we can say
Tuid been writing , have been writing, and wiU have been writing. These
are sometimes called Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Ck>ntinuou8, Perfect
Ck>ntinuou8, and Future Perfect Ctontinuous.
(iii) " I do write/* *^ I did write/' are called Empliatio forms.
J^UMBER.
21. Verbs are modified for Number. There are in verbs
two ninnbers : (i) the Sing^ilar and (ii) the FluraL
(i) We say, " He writes " (with the ending s).
(ii) We say, " They write " (with no inflectional ending at all).
Person.
22. Verbs are modified for Person — ^that is, the form of the
verb is changed to suit (i) the first person, (ii) the second
person, or (iii) the third person.
(i) " I write." (ii) " Thou writes!" (iii) " He writes."
Conjugation.
23. Conjugation is the name given to the sum-total of all the
inflexions and combinations of the parts of a verb.
The word conjugate comes from the Lat. eonjugare, to bind together.
THE VERB. 43
24. There are two conjugations in English — the Strong and
the Weak. Hence we have : (i) verbs of the Strong Con-
jugation, and (ii) verbs of the Weak Conjugation, which
are more usually called Strong Verbs and Weak Verbs.
These verbs are'distiBguished f«,n. each other by their way
of forming their past tenses.
25. The past tense of any verb determines to which of these
classes it belongs ; and that by a twofold test — one positive and
one negative.
26. (i) The positive test for the past of a Strong Verb
is that it changes the vowel of the present, (ii) The nega-
tive test is that it never adds anything to the present to make
its past tense.
(i) Thus we say write, wrote, and change the voweL
(ii) But in wrote there is nothing added to write.
27. (i) The positive test for the past tense of a Weak Verb
is that d or t is added to the present, (ii) The negative test is
that the root-vowel of the present is generally not changed.
(i) There are some exceptions to this latter statement. Thus tell,
told ; buy, iMught ; sell, sold, are weak verbs. The change in the vowel
does not spring from the same cause as the change in strong verbs.
Hence —
(ii) It is as well to keep entirely to the positive test in the case of
weak verbs. However " strong " or " irregular " may seem to be the
verbs teach, taught ; seek, sought ; say, said, we know that they are
weak, because they add a d or a t for the past tense.
(iii) In many weak verbs there seems to be both a change of vowel
and also an absence of any addition. Hence they look very like strong
verbs. In fact, the long vowel of the present is made short in the past.
Thus we find meet, met ; feed, fed. But these verbs are not strong.
The old past was mette and fedde ; and all that has happened is that
they have lost the old inflexions te and de. It was owing to the addi-
tion of another syllable that the original long vowel of the verb was
shortened. Compare nation^ national ; vain, vanity.
(iv) The past or passive participle of strong verbs had the suffix en
and the prefix ge. The suffix has now disappeared from many strong
verbs, and the prefix from all. But ge, which in Chaucer's time had
been refined into a y (as in yeomen, yronnen), is retained still in that
form in the one word yclept, Milton's use of it in atar-y-pointing is a
mistake.
44
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
28. The following is an
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF STRONG VERBS.
(AH strong verbs except those which have a prefix are monosyllabic)
The forms in italics are weak.
Pres.
Past.
Pa^8, Part.
Pres.
Past.
Pass. Pan
Abide
abode
abode.
Fly
flew
flown.
Arise
arose
arisen.
Forbear
forbore
forborne.
Awake
awoke
awoke
Foi^et
forgot
forgotten.
(avHihed) {awaJced),
Forsake
forsook
forsaken.
Bear
bore
bom.
Freeze
froze
frozen.
(bring forth)
Get
got
got, gotten.
Bear
bore
borne.
Give
gave
given.
(carry)
Go
went
gona
Beat
beat
beaten.
Grind
ground
ground.
Begin
began
begun.
Grow
grew
grown.
Behold
beheld
beheld (be-
Hang
hung
himg,
holden).
(Jumged]
\ ha/nged.
Bid
bade, bid
bidden, bid.
Hold
held
held.
Bind
bound
bound.
Know
knew
known.
Bite
bit
bitten, bit.
Lie
lay
lain.
Blow
blew
blown.
Ride
rode
ridden.
Break
broke
broken.
Ring
rang
rung.
Burst
burst
burst.
Rise
rose
risen.
Chide
chid
chidden,
Run
ran
run.
chid.
See
saw
seen.
Choose
chose
chosen.
Seethe
Bod(seet?ied) sodden.
Cleave
clove
cloven.
Shake
shook
shaken.
(spHt)
Shine
shone
shone.
Climb
clomb
(dimhed).
Shoot
shot
shot.
Cling
clung
clung.
Shrink
shrank
shrunk.
Come
came
come.
Sing
sang
sung.
Crow
crew
crown
{crowed).
Sink
sank
sunk,
sunken.
Dig
dug
dug.
Sit
sat
sat.
Do
did
done.
Slay
slew
slain.
Draw
drew
drawn.
SHde
sUd
slid.
Drink
drank
drunk.
Sling
slung
slung.
drunken.
Slink
slunk
slunk.
Drive
drove
driven.
Smite
smote
smitten.
Eat
ate
eaten.
Speak
spoke
spoken.
Fall
fell
fallen.
Spin
spun
spun.
Fight
fought
fought.
Spring
sprung
sprung.
Fmd
found
found.
Stand
stood
stood.
Flmg
flung
flung.
Stave
stove
stoved.
THE
VERB.
4i
Pres.
Past.
Pass. Pari.
Pres,
Past.
Pa^s. Part.
Steal
stole
stolen.
Thrive
throve ~
thriven
Stick
stuck,^
stuck.
(thrived)
{thrived).
Sting
stung
stung.
Throw
threw
thrown.
Stink
stAnk
stunk.
Tread
trod
trodden,
Stride
strode
stridden.
trod.
Strike
struck
struck.
Wake
woke
{waked).
String
strung
strung.
{waJced)
Strive
strove
striven.
Wear
wore
worn.
Swear
swore
sworn.
Weave
wove
woven.
Swim
swam
swum.
Win
won
won.
Swing
swung
swung.
Wind
wound
wound.
Take
took
taken.
Wring
wrung
wrung.
Tear
tore
torn.
Write
wrote
written.
It is well for the young learner to examine the above verbs
closely, and to make a classification of them for his own use.
The following are a few suggestions towards this task : —
(i) Collect verbs with vowels a, e, a ; like fall, fell, fallen,
(ii) Verbs with 0, e, ; like throw, threw, thrown,
(iii) Verbs with 1, a, u ; like begin, began, begun,
(iv) Verbs with i, u, u ; like fling, flung, flung,
(v) Verbs with i, ou, ou ; like find, found, found,
(vi) Verbs with ea, 0, o ; like break, broke, broken,
(vii) Verbs with 1, a, 1 ; like give, gave, given,
(viii) Verbs with a, o or 00, a ; like shake, shook, shaken.
(ix) Verbs with 1 (long), 0, 1 (short) ; like drive, drove, driven,
(x) Verbs with ee or oo, o, o ; like freeze, froze, frozen ; or choose,
chose, chosen.
29. Weak Verbs are of two kinds: (i) Irregnlar Weak;
and (ii) Begnlar Weak. The Irregular Weak are such verbs
as tell, told; buy, bought. The Regular Weak are such
verbs as attend, attended; obey, obeyed.
(i) The Irregular Weak verbs are, with very few exceptions, mono*
syllables, and are almost all of purely English origin.
(ii) The Regular Weak verbs are entirely of Latin or of French origin.
Since the language lost the power of changing the root- vowel of a verb,
every verb received into our tongue from another language has been
placed in the Regular Weak conjugation.
^ The past tenses of dig and stick were formerly weak ; so were the pas*
sive participles of hide, rot, show^ strew, saw.
46
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(iii) The ed or d is a shortened form of did. Thus, I loved is = I
lOTOdld.
30. Irregular Weak verbs are themselves divided into two
classes : (i) those which keep their ed, d, or t in the past
tense; (ii) those which have lost the d or t. Thus we find
(i) sleep, slept ; teach, taught. Among (ii) we find feed, fed,
which was once fed-de ; set, set, which was once set-te.
It is of the greatest importance to attend to the following
changes : —
(i) A sharp consonant follows a sharp, and a flat a flat. Thus p in
de^ is sharp, and therefore we cannot say deeped. We must take the
sharp form of d, which is t, and say dept. So also felt, burnt, dreamt,
etc.
(ii) Some verbs shorten their voweL Thus we have hear, heard ; flee,
fled ; sleep, slept, etc.
(iii) Some verbs have diflerent vowels in the present and past : as
tell, told ; buy, bought ; teach, taught ; work, wrought. But it is not
the past tense, i^ is the present that has changed. Thus the o in told
represents the a in taUf tailcy etc.
(iv) Some have dropped an internal letter. Thus made is =ma]ced;
paid=payed; lLad=haTed.
(v) Some verbs change the d of the present into a t in the past. Thus
we have build, built ; send, sent.
(vi) A large class have the three parts — present, past, and passive
participle — exactly alika Such are rid, set, etc.
The f oUowing is aa
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS.
Class I.
Pres,
Past.
Pa88. Part.
Pres.
Patt.
Pass. Part
Bereave
bereft
bereft
Dwell
dwelt
dwelt
Beseech
besought
besought.
Feel
felt
felt
Bring
brought
brought
Flee
fled
fled.
Bum
burnt
burnt.
Grave
graved
graven.
Buy
bought
bought.
Have
had
had.
Catch
caught
caught.
Hew
hewed
hewn.
Cleave
cleft
cleft.
Hid
hid
hidden.
(split)
Keep
kept
kept
Creep
crept
crept.
Kneel
knelt
knelt
Deal
dealt
dealt
Lay
laid
laid.
Dream
dreamt
dreamt
Lean
leant
leant.
TH K
VKKB.
A
Pre$,
Past.
Past Part.
Pre8i
Past.
Pass. PaH.
Learn
learnt
learnt.
Shear
sheared
shorn.
Leap
leapt
leapt.
Shoe
shod
shod.
Leave
left
left.
Show
showed
shown.
Lose
lost
lost.
Sleep
slept
slept.
Make
made
made.
Sow
sowed
sown.
Mean
meant
meant.
Spell
spelt
spelt
Pay
paid
paid.
Spill
spilt
SpUt
Pen
pent
pent. -
Strew
strewed
strewn.
(penned)
Sweep
swept
swept
Rap (to
rapt
rapt.
Swell
swelled
swollen.
transport)
Teach
taught
taught
Rive
rived
riven.
Tell
told
told.
Rot
rotted
rotten.*
Think
thought
thought
Say
said
said.
Tie
tied
tight.*
Saw
sawed
sawn.
Weep
wept
wept
Seek
sought
sought
Work
wrought
wrought.*
SeU
sold
sold.
worked
worked.
Shave
shaved
shaven.
^ Rotten, tight, and vyrought are
! now used
as adjectives, and not
passive
participles ;
cp. wrcmght iro
n, a tight knot, rotten wood.
CliAS
fi II.
Pm.
Past,
Pa^s, Part.
Pres.
Past.
Pass. Part.
Bend
bent
bent.
Meet
met
met.
Bleed
bled
bled.
Put
put
put
Blend
blent
blent.
Read
read
read.
Breed
bred
bred.
Rend
rent
rent.
Build
built
built.
Rid
rid
rid.
Cast
cast
cast.
Send
sent
sent
Clothe
clad
clad
Set
set
set
(clothed) (clothed).
Shed
shed
shed.
Cost
cost
cost.
Shred
shred
shred.
Cut
cut
cut.
Shut
shut
shut
Feed
fed
fed.
sut
sUt
sHt
Gild
gflt
gilt (gilded).
Speed
sped
sped.
(gilded)
Spend
spent
spent •
Ghxl
girt
girt
Spit
spit
spit
Hear
heard
heard.
SpUt
split
split
Hit
hit
hit
Spread
spread
spread.
Hurt
hurt
hurt
Sweat
sweat
sweat.
Knit
knit
knit
Thrust
thrust
thrust
Lead
led
led.
Wend
wended
wended.
Lend
lent
lent
or went
Let
let
let
Wet
wet
wet
liight
Ut (lighted) Ut (lighted).
47
48
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
31. Before we can learn the fall coi\jugation of a verb, we
must acquaint ourselves with all the parts of the auxiliary
verbs — Shall and Will; Have and Be.
(i) If be means existence merely (as in the sentence God is), it is
called a notional verb; if it is used in the formation of the passive
voice, it is an auzlllary verb. In the same way, bave is a notional
verb when it means to poBseBS, as in the sentence, " I have a shilling."
32. The following are the parts of the verb Shall : —
Singular,
1. I shall
2. Thoushal-t.
3. He shall
Singular.
1. I shoul-(2.
2. Thou Bhoul-(2-8t
3. He shoul-e2.
Indicativb Mood.
Present Tenee.
Plural,
1. We shaU.
2. You shall
3. They shall.
Past Tense.
Imp. Mood
Inf. Mood
PluraL
1. We shoul-d
2. Tou shoul-d
3. They shoul-d
Pabticiplbs
(Shonld comes from an old dialectic form ahoL)
33. The following are the parts of the verb Will : —
Indicativb Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular,
1. I win.
2. Thou wil-t.
3. He will
Singular,
1. I would-d
2. Thou would-(2-8t
3. He woul-d
Past Tense.
Imp. Mood
Inp, Mood
PluraL
1. We will
2. You will
3. They will
Plural.
1. We would-d
2. You woul-d
3. They woul-d
Pabticiplbs
(i) Shall and will are used as Tense-anzlllarlea As a tense-auxiliary,
shall is used only in the first person. Thus we say, I shall write ;
thou wilt write ; he wUl write — ^when we speak merely of ftitnre time.
THE VERB. 49
(ii) Shan't is = shall not. Wont i8=wol not, tool being an older form
of wilL We find tool also in toolde — an old spelling of would.
(iii) Bliall in the 1st person expresses simple fatnrlty ; in the 2d and
3d persons, authority. Will in the 1st person expresses determination ;
in the 2d and 3d, only ftitnrity.
ZL The following are the parts of the verb Have : —
Indicatiyb Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Singular, PluraL
1. I hava 1. We hava
2. Thou ha-it. 2. You have.
3. He ha-l. 3. They have.
Present Perfect Tense.
Singfdar, Plural,
1. I have had. 1. We have had.
2. Thou hast had. 2. You have had.
3. He has had. 3. They have had.
(i) Ha8t=lLaTest. Compare e*en and even, (ii) Had=lLaTed.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Singular, Plural,
1. I had. 1. We had.
2. Thou had-st. 2. You had.
3. He had. 3 They had.
Fast Perfect (or Flaperfect) Tense.
Singular, Plural,
1. I had had. 1. We had had.
2. Thou hadst had. 2. You had had.
3. He had had. 3. They had had.
Future Indefinite Tense.
Singular, Plural.
1. I shall have. 1. We shall have.
2. Thou wilt have. 2. You will have.
3. He win have. 3. They will have.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular, Plural,
1 . I shall have had. 1 . We shall have had.
2. Thou wilt have had. 2. You will have had.
3. He will have had. 3. They will have had.
D
50 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
SuBJUNcnvB Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Singular. PlwraL
1. I have. 1. "We have.
2. Thou have. 2. Tou have.
8. He have. 8. They have.
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular, PluraL
1. I have had. 1. We have had.
2. Thou have had. 2. Tou have had.
3. He have had. 3. They have had.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Same in form as m the Indicative ; but with no infleidon in the
second person.
Past Perfect Tense.
Same in form as in the Indicative ; but with no infleidon in the
second person.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. I had. 1. We had.
2. Thou had. 2. Tou had.
3. He had. 8. They had.
Past Perfect (Flaperfeet) Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. I had had. 1. We had had.
2. Thou had had. 2. Tou had had.
8. He had had. 3. They had had.
Imferativb Mood. — Singular : Have I Plural : Have !
Infinitive Mood. — ^Present Indefinite : (To) have. Perfect : (To) have had.
Pabticifles. — ^Imperfect : Having. Past (or PasBive) : Had.
Compound Perfect (Active) : Having had.
35. The following are the parts of the verb Be : —
Indicative Mood.
Present indefinite Tense.
Singular, Plural.
1. la-m. 1. We are.
2. Thou ar-t. 2. Tou are.
8. He is. 3. They are.
THE VERB. 51
Present Pexfeot Tenee.
Sinffular. Plural,
1. I have been. 1. We have been.
2. Thou hast been. 2. Tou have been.
3. He has been. 8. They have been.
Past Didefliiite Tense.
Sinffular, PlwraL
1. I was. 1. We were.
2. Thou wast or wert. 2. You were.
8. He was. 8. They were.
Past Perfeot (Pluperfect) Tense.
Singular, Plural,
1. I had been. 1. We had been.
2. Thou hadst been. 2. Tou had been.
8. He had been. 8. They had been.
Fntnre Indefinite Tense. Fatnre Perfect Tense.
I shall be, etc. I shall have been, etc
SuBJUNcnvB Mood.
Present Indefinite Tense.
Sinffular, Plural.
1. I be. 1. We be.
2. Thou be. 2. You be.
8. Hebe. 8. They be.
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular, Plural.
1. I have been. 1. We have been.
2. Thou have been. 2. You have been.
8. He have been. 8. They have been.
Past Indefinite Tense.
Singular, Plural,
1. I were. 1. We were.
2. Thou wert. 2. You were.
8. He were. 8. They were.
Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense.
Singular, Plural,
1. I had been. 1. We had been.
2. Thou had been. 2. You had been,
8. He had been. 8. They had been.
52 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Past Indefinite (Componnd Form).
Singtdar, PUiraL
L I should be. 1. We should be.
2. Thou should be. 2. Tou should be.
8. He should be. 3. They should be.
Futnre Perfect (Ck>mponnd Form). ^
Svngvlar, Plural
1. I should have been. 1. We should have been.
2. Thou should have been 2. Tou should have been.
3. He should have been. 3. They should have been.
Impbrativb Mood. — Si/ngular : Be ! Plural : Be I
Infinitive Mood.— Present Indefinite : (To) be. Present Perfect :
(To) have been.
Pabticiplbs. — ^Present : Being. Past : Been. Ck>mponnd : Having been.
We find the short simple form Be I in Coleridge's line—
" Be, rather than be called, a child of Qod ! "
(i) It is plain from the above that the verb Be is made up of fragments
of three different verbs. As when, in a battle, several companies of a
regiment have been severely cut up, and the fragments of those that
came out safely are afterwards formed into one company, so has it been
with the verb be. Hence the verb ought to be printed thus : —
Am
was
been.
(ii) Am is a different verb from was and been. The m in am is the
same as the m in me, and marks the first person. The t in art is the
same as the th in thou, and marks the second person. Compare wU-t
and sTuU-t. Is has lost the suffix th. The Germans retain this, and say
ist. Are is not the O.E. plural, which was Hnd or 8indon, The word
are was introduced by the Danes. [The Danish word to this day is er,
which we have learned to pronounce ar, as we do the er in elerk and
Derhif,]
(iii) Was is the past tense of the old verb wesan, to be. In some of
the dialects of England it appears as toar — ^the German form.
(iv) Be is a verb without present or past tense.
(v) {a) Be is a notional or principal verb when it means to exist, as
" Qod is." (6) It is also a principal verb when it is used as a joiner or
copula, as in the sentence, " John is a teacher," where the is enables us
to connect John and teacher in the mind. In such instances it is called
a Copulative Verb or Copula.
THE VERB. 53
36. The Auxiliary Verbs have different functions.
(i) The verb Be is a Voice (and sometimes a Tense) Aux-
iliary. It enables us to turn the active into the passive voice,
and to form the imperfect tenses.
(ii) May, should, and let are Mood Auxiliaries. May and
should help us to make the compound subjunctive tenses ; and
let is employed in the Imperative Mood to form a kind of third
person. Thus Let Mm go ia = Go he /
(iii) Have, Shall, and Will, are Tense Auxiliariea With
the aid of have, we form the perfect tenses ; with the help of
shall and toill, the fliture tenses.
(iv) Can is a defective verb with only one mood, the In-
dicative, and two tenses, the Present and the Past.
Present. I can ; thou canst, etc.
Past. I could ; thou couldst, etc.
Could is a weak form. The I has no right there : it has crept in from
a false analogy with should and would, Chaucer always writes coude or
couihe,
(v) May is also defective, having only the Indicative Mood
and the Present and Past Tenses.
Present. I may ; thou mayest, etc.
Past. I might ; thou mightest, etc.
The O.E. word for may was maegan. The g is still preserved in the
gh of the past tense. The guttural sound indicated by g or gh has
vanished from both.
(vi) Must is the past tense of an old verb motan, to be
able.
It is used only in the Indicative Mood, sometimes in the Present,
sometimes in the Past Tense ; but the form is the same for both
tenses.
It expresses the idea of necessity.
54
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
37. The following is the full conjugation of a verb : —
ACTIVE VOICE.
Indioativb Mood.
L Present Indefinite Tenae.
I strike.
Present Perfect Tense.
I have struck.
Present Imperfeet Tense.
I am striking.
Present Perfect Gontinaoas.
I have been striking.
IL Past Indefinite Tense.
I struck.
Past Perfect (or Pluperfect)
Tense.
I had struck.
m. Future Indefinite Tense.
I shall strike.
Future Perfect Tense.
I shall have struck.
Past Imperfect Tense.
I was striking.
Past Perfect (or Pluperfect)
Continuous.
I had been striking.
Future Imperfect Tense.
I shall be striking.
Future Perfect Gontinuoi^k
I shall have been striking.
SUBJUNOTIVB MoOD.
L Present Indefinite Tense.
(If) I, thou, he strike.
Present Perfect Tense.
(If) I, thou, he have struck.
n. Past Indefinite Tense.
(If) I, thou, he struck.
Past Perfect (or Pluperfect)
Tense.
(If) I, thou, he had struck.
IIL Future Indefinite Tense.
(If) I, thou, he should strike.
Future Perfect Tense.
(If) I, thou, he should have struck.
Present Imperfect Tense.
(If) I, thou, he be striking.
Present Perfect Continuous.
(If) I, thou, he have been striking.
Past Imperfect Tense.
(If) I, thou, he were striking.
Past Perfect (or Pluperfect)
Continuous.
(If) I, thou, he had been striking.
Future Imperfect Tense.
(If) I, thou, he should be striking.
Future Perfect Continuous.
(If) I, thou, he should have been
striking.
(The Future Subjunctive, when not preceded by a Conjunction, is some-
times called the Conditional Mood. " I should ahike him if he were to
hurt the chUd.")
THE VERB.
55
Imperativb Mood.
L Fzesent Tense.
Singulctr, 2. Strike (thou) ! PlurdL 2. Strike (ye) !
IL Past Tense.
(None.)
m. Future Tense.
2. Thou shalt strike. 2. Tou shall strike.
Infinitivb Mood.
1. Fzesent Indefinite,
2. Fresent Imperfect^
3. Fresent F^ect, .
4. Fresent Perfect Continuous,
5. Future Indefinite,
Pabtioiples.
1. Indefinite and Imperfect,
2. Freswit Perfect, .
3. Perfect Continuous,
4. Future,
1. Striking.
Qebxtnds.
(To) strike.
(To) be striking.
(To) have struck.
(To) have been striking.
(To) be about to strike.
Striking.
Having struck.
Having been striking.
Qoing or about to strike.
2. To strike.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
L Fresent Indefinite Tense. Fresent Imperfect Tense.
I am struck.
Fresent Perfect Tense.
I have been struck.
n. Past Indefinite Tense.
I was struck.
Fast Perfect Tense.
I had been struck.
IH. Future Indefinite Tense.
I shall be struck.
Future Perfect Tense.
I shall have been struck.
I am being struck.
Present Continuous.
I am being struck.
Fast Imperfect Tense.
I was being struck.
Past Continuous.
I was being struck.
Future Imperfect Tense.
(None.)
Future Continuous.
(None. )
56
GKAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
SuBJUNCTivB Mood.
L Fzesent Indefinite Tense.
(If) I, thou, he be struck.
Present Perfect Tense.
(If) I, thou, he have been struck.
IL Past Indefinite Tens^.
(If) I, thou, he were struck.
Past Perfect Tense.
(If) I had been struck.
Present Imperfect Tense.
(None.)
Present Perfect Continuous.
(None.)
Past Imperfect Tense.
(If) I, thou, he were being struck.
Past Perfect Ckmtinuous.
(None.)
IIL Future Indefinite Tense.
(If) I, thou, he should be struck.
Future Perfect Tense.
Future Imperfect Tense.
(None.)
Future Perfect Ckmtinuous.
(If) I, thou, he should have been (None.)
struck.
(This tense, when used without a preceding conjunction, is sometimes
called the Conditional Mood. ** I sJiould be struck were I to go there.")
Impbrativb Mood.
I. Present Tense.
Singttlar, 2. Be struck ! PluruL 2. Be struck !
n. Past Tense.
(None.)
m. Future Tense.
Singular,
2. Thou shalt be struck.
PluruL
2. You shall be struck.
Infinitive Mood.
1. Indefinite,
2. Imperfect,
3. Present Perfect,
1. Indefinite,
2. Imperfect,
3. Present Perfect,
4. Future, .
(To) be struck.
(None.)
(To) have been struck.
Participles.
Struck.
Being struck.
Having been struck.
Going or about to be struck.
Gerunds.
(None.)
ADVERBS. 57
ADVERBS.
1. An Adverb is a word which goes with a verb, with an
adjective, or witb another adverb, to modify its meaning : —
(i) He writes badly. Here badly modifies the verb writes.
(ii) The weather ia very hot. Here very modifies the adjective
hot.
(iii) She writes very rapidly. Here rapidly modifies writes, and
very, rapidly.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS.
2. Adverbs — so far as their function is concerned — are of
two kinds : (i) Simple Adverbs and (ii) Conjiinctive Adverbs,
(i) A Simple Adverb merely modifies the word it goes with.
A Conjunctive Adverb has two functions: (a) it modifies,
and (b) joins one sentence with another. Thus, if I say " He
came when he was ready," the adverb when not only modifies
the verb came, and shows the time of his coming, but it joins
together the two sentences " He came " and " he was ready."
3. Adverbs — so far as their meaning is concerned — are of
several kinds. There are Adverbs : (i) of Time, (ii) of Place,
(iii) of Number, (iv) of Manner, (v) of Degree, (vi) of
Assertion, and (vii) of Reasoning : —
(i) Of Time : Now, then ; to-day, to-morrow ; by-and-by, etc.
(ii) Of Place : Here, there ; hither, thither ; hence, thence, etc.
(iii) Of Number : Once, twice, thrice ; singly, two by two, etc.
pv) Of Iffanner : Well, ill ; slowly, quickly ; better, worse, etc.
(v) Of Degree : Very, little ; almost, quite ; all, half, etc.
(vi) Of AsBertion : Nay, yea ; no, aye ; yes, etc.
(vii) Of Beaaoning : Therefore, wherefore ; thus ; consequently.
THE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
4. Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of degrees of comparison.
Thus we can say, John works hard ; Tom works harder ; but
William works hardest of all.
58
GRAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
5. The following are examples of
ComparatiTe.
SuperlatiTie.
worse
worst.
better
best.
more
most.
less
least.
nearer
next.
further
furthest
farther
farthest
later
last
latter
latest
rather.
^^__
Ibbbgulab Compabison nr Advebbs.
PositiTe.
HI (or Badly)
WeU
Much
Little
Nigh {or Near)
Forth
Far
Late
(Rathe)
(i) Worse comes from A.S weora, bad. Shakespeare has worser,
(ii) Much is an adverb in the phrase much better.
(iii) Little is an adverb in the phrase litUe indined,
(iv) Nezt=nighest; and so we had also hext= highest Near is
really the comparative of nigh.
(v) Fairer would be the proper comparative. Chaucer has fazre,
and this is still found in Yorkshire. The th in farther comes from a
false analogy with forth, further, furthest
(vi) Late ia an adverb in the phrase ffe arrived late.
(vii) " Till rathe she i*ose, half -cheated in the thought" — Tennyson
{* Lancelot and Elaine ').
OONNBOTIVBS.
1. There is, in grammar, a class of words which may be
called joining 'words or connectives. They are of two classes :
(i) those which join nouns or pronouns to some other word ;
and (ii) those which join sentences. The first class are called
Prepositions ; the second Conjunctions.
PREPOSITIONS.
2. A Preposition is a word which connects a noun or pro-
noun with a verb, an adjective, or another noun or pronoun.
(It thus shows the relation between things, or between a thing
and an action, etc.)
(i) He stood on the table. Here on joins a verb and a nonn.
CONNECTIVES. 59
(ii) Mary is fond of music Here of joins an adJeotiTO and a nouxL
(iii) The man at the door is waiting. Here at joins two noons.
The word preposition comes from the Lat. prcBf before, and potUus, placed.
We have simOar compounds in composition and deposition.
3. The noun or pronoun which follows the preposition is in
the objective case* and is said to be governed by the prepo-
sition.
(i) But the preposition may come at the end of the sentence. Thus
we can say, '* This is the house we were looking at." But at still gov-
erns which (understood) in the objective. We can also say, " Whom
were you talking to 7 "
4. Prepositions are divided into two classes: (i) simple:
and (ii) compound.
(i) The following are simple prepositions : atf by, for, m, of, off, on,
ovi, to, with, up,
(ii) The compound prepositions are formed in several ways : —
(a) By adding a comparative siifBz to an adverb : after^ ovety under.
(Jb) By prefixing a preposition to an adverb : ahovef aUxyut, "b^ore^ hekind^ he-
nMih, Zm<(=: be-out), fhroughovt, within^ etc.
(e) By prefixing a preposition to a noun: dJboard, aoroaSt around, among, be-
aide, ouitide, etc.
(d) By prefixing an adverb or adverbial particle to a preposition : into, upon,
imMt, etc
(iii) The preposition but is to be carefully distinguished from the con-
jtmction but, " All were there but him." Here btU is a preposition.
" We waited an hour ; but he did not come." Here but is a conjunction.
Bnt, the preposition, was in O.E. be-iUan, and meant on tlie outside of,
and then without : bnt, the conjunction, was in O.E. bot The old pro-
verb, " Touch not the cat but a glove," means " without a glove."
(iv) Down was <idovm=ofdown=offthe d&Um or hiU.
(v) Atnnng was=09i gemong, in the crowd.
(vi) There are several compound prepositions made up of separate
words : instead of, on account of, in spite of, etc.
(vii) Some participles are used as prepositions : notvntTistanding, con-
eeming, respecting. The prepositions except and save may be regarded
as imperatives.
5. The same words are used sometimes as adverbs, and some-
times as prepositions. We distinguish these words by their
ftmction. They can also be used as nouns or as adjectives.
60 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(i) Thus we find the following words used either as
Adverbs or as Prepofitioiis.
(1) Stand up ! (1) The boy ran up the hiU.
(2) Come on ! (2) The book lies on the table.
(3) Be ofif ! (3) Get oflF the chair.
(4) He walked quickly past. (4) He walked past the church.
• (ii) Adverbs are sometimes used as nomi8, as in the sentences, " I
have met him before now." " He is dead since thext"
(iii) In the following we find adverbs used as adjectiTee: "thine
often infirmities ; '* " the then king/' etc.
(iv) A phrase sometimes does duty as an adverb, as in " from beyond
the sea ; " " from over the mountainB," etc.
CONJUNCTIONS.
6. A Oonjnnction is a word that joins sentences together.
(i) The word and, besides joining sentences, possesses the additional
power of joining nouns or other words. Thus we say, " John and Jane
are a happy pair ; " " Two and three are five."
7. Conjiinctions are of two kinds : (i) Co-ordinative ; and
(ii) Subordinative.
(i) Ck>-ordinative GonjunotionB are those which connect co-ordinate
sentences and clauses — that is, sentences neither of which is dependent
on the other. The following is a list : And, both, but, either — or, neUher
— nor, ■
(ii) Subordinative Conjunctions are those which connect subordinate
sentences with the principal sentence to which they are subordinate.
The type of a subordinative conjunction is that, which is really the de-
monstrative pronoun. '^ I know that he has gone to London "is—" He
has gone to London : I know that."
(iii) The following is a list of subordinative conjunctions: Afier^
before; ere, tiU; whUe, since; lest; because, as; for; if; unless;
though; vjhether — or; than.
INTBRJBOTIONS,
1. Intexjections are words which have no meaning in them-
selves, but which give sudden expression to an emotion of
the mind. They are no real part of language ; they do not
enter into the build or organism of a sentence. They have no
grammatioal relation to any word in a sentence, and are there-
\
WORDS KNOWN BY THEIR FUNCTIONS. 61
fore not, strictly speaking, " parts of speech." Thus we say, Oh !
Ah ! Alas ! and so on ; but the sentences we employ would be
just as complete — ^in sense — ^without them. They are extra-
grammatical utterances.
•
(i) The word interjection comes from the Lat. irUer, between, and
jacttu, thrown.
(ii) Sometimes words with a meaning are used as interjections. Thus
we say, Welcome I for " Tou are well come. " Oood-bye I for God he toith
you / The interjection " Now then ! " consists of two words, each of
which has a meaning ; but when employed interjectionally, the compound
meaning is very different from the meaning of either.
(iii) In written and printed language, interjections are followed by the
mark (!) of admiration or exclamation.
WORDS KNOWN BY THEIR FUNCTIONS,
AND NOT BY THEIR INFLEXIONS.
1. The Oldest English. — ^When our language first came over
to this island, in the fifth century, our words possessed a large
number of inflexions ; and a verb could be known from a noun,
and an adjective from either, by the mere look of it. Verbs
had one kind of inflexion, nouns another, adjectives a third;
and it was almost impossible to confuse them. Thus, in O.E.
(or Anglo-Saxon) thunder, the verb, was thunrian — with the
ending an; but the noun was ihunor, without any ending at
alL Then, in course of time, for many and various reasons,
the English lauguage began to lose its inflexions; and they
dropped off very rapidly between the 11th and the 15th cen-
turies, till, nowadays, we possess very few indeed
2. Freedom given by absence of Inflexions. — In the 16th
century, when Shakespeare began to write, there were very
few inflexions; the language began to feel greater liberty,
greater ease in its movements ; and a writer would use the same
word somethnes as one part of speech, and sometimes as another.
Thus Shakespeare himself uses the conjunction hut both as a
verb and as a noun, and makes one of his characters say, " But
62 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
me no buts 1 " He employs the adverb askance as a verb, and
says, " From their own misdeeds they askance their eyes." He
has the adverb backward with the function of a noun, as in
the phrase " The backward and abyss of time." Again, he gives
us an adverb doing the work of an adjective, as in the phrases
"my often rumination," "a seldom pleasure." In the same
way, Shakespeare has the verbs " to glad " and " to mad." Very
often he uses an adjective as a noun; and " a fair" is his phrase
for "beauty," — "a pale" for "a paleness." He carries this
power of using one " part of speech " for another to the most
extraordinary lengths. He uses happy lot to make happy ;
unfair for to deface ; to climate for to live ; to bench for to sit ;
to false for to falsify; to path for to walk; to verse for to speak
of in verse ; and many others, perhaps the most remarkable is
where he uses tongue for to talk of and brain for to think of. In
" Cymbeline " he says : —
" Tis still a dream ; or else such stuff as madness
Will tongue, and brain not. . . ."
3. Absence of Inflexions. — ^At the present time, we have lost
almost all the inflexions we once had. We have only one for
the cases of the noim ; none at all for ordinary adjectives (ex-
cept to mark degrees) ; a few in the pronoun ; and a few in the
verb. Hence we can use a word sometimes as one part of
speech, and sometimes as another. We can say, " The boys had
a good run ; " and " The boys run very welL" We can say,
" The train travelled very fast," where fast is an adverb, modi-
fying travelled ; and we can speak of " a fast train." We can
use the phrase, "The very man," where very is an adjective
marking man ; and also the phrase " A very good man," where
very is an adverb modifying the adjective good.
4. Fnnction. — It follows that, in the present state of our
language, when we cannot know to what class a word belongs
by its look, we must settle the matter by asking ourselves what
is its AinotioiL We need not inquire what a word is; but we
must ask what it does. And just as a bar of iron may be used
as a lever, or as a crowbar, or as a poker, or as a hammer, or as
WORDS KNOWN BY THEIR FUNCTIONS. 63
a weapon, so a word may be an adjective, or a noun, or a verb,
— just as it is used.
5. Examples. — ^When we say, "He gave a shilling for the
book," for is a preposition connecting the noun hock with the
verb gave. But when we say, " Let us assist them, for our case
is theirs," the word/or joins two sentences together, and is Jience
a conjunction. In the same way, we can contrast early in the
proverb, "The early bird catches the worm," and in the sentence
" He rose early." Hard in the sentence " He works hard " is an
adverb; in the phrase "A hard stone " it is an adjective. Right
is an adverb in the phrase " Right reverend ; " but an adjective
in the sentence " That is not the right road." Back is an adverb
in the sentence " He came back yesterday ; " but a noun in the
sentence " He fell on his back." Here is an adverb, and where
an adverbial conjunction ; but in the line —
" Thou loeest here, a better where to find,"
Shakespeare employs these words as* nouns. The^ in ninety-nine
cases out of a hundred, is an adjective ; but in such phrases as
" The more, the merrier," it is an adverb, modifying merrier and
more. Indeed, some words seem to exercise two functions at
the same time. Thus Tennyson has —
** Slow and sure comes up the golden year/' —
where slow and sure may either be adverbs modifying combes, or
adjectives marking year ; or botL This is also the case with
the participle, which is both an adjective and a verb ; and with
the gerund, which is both a verb and a noun.
6. Function or Form ? — ^From all this it appears that we are
not merely to look at the form of the word, we are not merely
to notice and observe; but we must think — ^we must ask our-
selves what the word does, what is its fdnotion P In other
words, we must always — when trying to settle the class to which
a word belongs — ask ourselves two questions —
(i) What other word does it go withi and
(ii) What does it do to that word ?
64
SYNTAX.
INTRODUCTORY.
1. The word Syntax is a Greek word which, means arrange-
ment. Syntax, in grammar, is that part of it which treats of
the relations of "words to each other in a sentence.
2. Syntax is usually divided into two parts, which are called
Concord and Government.
(i) Concord means agreement. The chief concords in grammar are
those of the Verb with its Subject ; the Adjective with its Noun ; one
Noun with another Noun ; the Pronoun with the Noun it stands for ;
the Relative with its Antecedent.
(ii) Oovemment means the influence that one word has upon another.
The chief kinds of Government are those of a Transitive Verb and
a Noun ; a Preposition and a Noun.
L— SYNTAX OF THE NOUN.
1.— THE NOMINATIVE CASE.
EuLE L — The Subject of a sentence is in the Nominative
Case.
Thus we say, I write ; John writes : and both / and John — the sub-
jects in these two sentences — are in the nominative case.
EuLE II. — When one noun is used to explain or describe
another, the two nouns are said to he in Apposition ; and they
are always in the same case.
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 65
Thus we find in Shakespeare's Henry V., L 2. 188 : —
" So work the honey-bees,
Creatures that by a rule in Nature teach
The art of order to a peopled kingdom."
Here bees is the nominative to work ; creatures is in apposition with
bees, and hence is also in the nominative case. (Of course, two nouns
in apposition may be in the objective case, as in the sentence, " We met
John the gardener.")
(i) The words in apposition may be separated from each other, as in
Cowper's well-known line about the postman : —
" He comes, the herald of a noisy world."
Rule III. — The verb to be, and other verbs of a like nature,
take two nominatives — one before and the other after.
Thus we find such sentences as —
(i) General Wolseley is an able soldier.
(ii) The long-remembered beggar was his guest.
In the first sentence Wolseley and soldier refer to the same person ;
beggar and g^est refer to the same person ; and all that the verbs is
and was do is to connect them. They have no influence whatever upon
either word. When is (or are) is so used, it is called the copula.
t^ If we call the previous kind of apposition noun-apposition, this might be
called verb-apposition.
Rule IV. — ^The verbs become, be-oalled» be-named, live,
turn-out, prove, remain, seem, look, and others, are of an
appositional character, and take a nominative case after them
as well as before them.
Thus we find : —
(i) Tom became an architect.
(ii) The boy is called Jolm.
(iii) He turned out a dull fellow.
(iv) She moves a goddess ; and she looks a queen.
On examining the verbs in these sentences, it will be seen that they
do not and cannot govern the noun that follows them. The noun be-
fore and the noun after, designate the same person.
Rule V. — A Noun and an Adjective, or a Noun and a Par-
ticiple, or a Noun and an Adjective Phrase, — not syntactically
E
66 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
connected with any other word in the sentence, — are put in the
Nominative Absolute.
Thus we have : —
(i) " She earns a scanty pittance, and at night
Lies down secure, her heart and pocket light." — Cowpbb.
(ii) The wind Bhifting, we sailed slowly.
(iii) ''Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire." — Collins.
(iv) Dinner over, we went up-stairs.
The word dbsolttttis means freed; and the absolute case has been flreed from,
and 'is independent of, the construction of the sentence.
Remarks. — 1. In the oldest English (or Anglo-Saxon), the
ahsolute case was the Dative ; and this we find even as late as
Milton (1608-1674), who says—
** Him destroyed,
All else will foUow."
2. Caution! In the sentence, "Pompey, having been de-
feated, fled to Africa," the phrase liaving been defeated is an
attributive clause to Pompey, which is the noun to fled. But,
in the sentence, " Pompey having been defeated, his army broke
up," Pompey — ^not being the noun to any verb — is in the
nominative absolute. Hence, if a noun is the nominative
to a verb, it cannot be in the nominative absolute.
Remarks on Exceptions.
1. The pronoim It is often used as a Preparatory Nomina-
tive, or — as it may also be called — a Bepresentative Subject.
Thus we say, " It is very hard to climb that hill," where it
stands for the true nominative, to-climb-that-hill.
2. In the same way, the demonstrative adjective that is often
used as a Bepresentative Subject. "That (he has gone to
Paris) is certain." What is certain ] That. What is that P
The fact that he has gone to Paris,
3. Still more oddly, we find both it and that used in one
sentence as a kind of Joint-Bepresentative Subject. Thus
we have : (i) •* It now and then happened that (he lost his
temper) ; " and, in Shakespeare's " Othello " —
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 67
(ii) "That (I have ta*en away this old man's daughter)
It is most true."
What is most true ? It What is it? That What is that ? ^
That (I have taken away, etc.) Here the verb is has really
three subjects, all meaning the same thing.
1 1^ It must be observed that the demonstrative tlvaX has by use gained the
force, and exercises the function, of a conjunction joining two sentences.
It here joins the two sentences '*It is most true," and "I have taken
away," etc
4, The nominative to a verb in the Imperative Mood is often
omitted. Thus Come along ! = Come thou (or ye) along 1
2.— THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
Bulb VI. — When one Noun stands in the relation of an
attribute to another Noun, the first of these nouns is put in
the Possessive Case.
(i) The Possessive Case originally denoted mere possessioxi, as John's
book ; John's gpin. But it has gradually gained a wider reference ; and
we can say, " The Duke of Portland's funeral/' etc.
(ii) The objective case with of is = the possessive ; and we can say,
"The might of England," instead of "England's might."
«
Rule VII. — ^When (i) two or more Possessives are in apposi-
tion, or (ii) when several nouns connected by and are in the
possessive case, the sign of the possessive is affixed to the
last only.
(i) Thus we find : (i) For thy servant David's sake, (ii) Messrs Simp-
kin & Marshall's house.
The fact is, that Messrs Simpkir^-MarsTMll, and other such phrases,
are regarded as one compoimd phrase.
(ii) The sentence, " This is a picture of Turner's," is = " This is a
picture (one) of Turner's pictures.'* The o/ governs, not Tumer*8, but
pictiires. Hence it is not a double possessive, though it looks like it.
The phrase, " a fHend of mine," contains the same idiom ; only mine is nsed
in place of my, because the word JHend has been suppressed.
68 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
3.— THE OBJECTIVE CASE.
1. The Objective Case is that case of a noun or pronoun
that is " governed by " a transitive verb or by a preposition.
It is only the pronoun that has a special foxm for this case.
The EngUsh noun formerly had it, but lost it between the years 1066
and 1300.
2. The Objective Case is the case of the Direct Object;
the Dative Case is the case of the Indirect Object — and
something more.
(i) The Direct Object answers to the question Whom 7 or Wliat 7
(ii) The Indirect Object answers to the question To whom 7 To what 7
or For whom 7 For what 7
3. The object of an active-transitive verb must always be a
itS'oun or the Equivalent of a Koiin.
Rule VIIL — The Direct Object ,of an Active-Transitive
Verb is put in the Objective Case.
Thus we read : (i) We met the man (Noun), (ii) We met him
(Pronoun), (iii) We saw the fighting (Verbal Noun), (iv) I like to
work (Infinitive), (v) I heard that he had left (Noun sentence).
EuLE IX. — Verbs of teaching, asking, making, appoint-
ing, etc., take two objects.
Thus we say: (i) He teaches me granmiar. (ii) He asked me a
question, (iii) They made him manager, (iv) The Queen appointed
him Treasurer.
tS" In the last two instances the objects are sometimes called factitive objects.
Rule X. — Some Intransitive Verbs take an objective case
after them, if the objective has a similar or cognate meaning
to that of the verb itself.
Thus we find : (i) To die the death, (ii) To sleep a sleep, (iii) To
go one's way. To wend one's way. (iv) To run a race, (v) Dreaming
dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before.
tS" Such ol^ects are called cognate objects.
Rule XL — The limitations of a Verb by words or phrases
expressing space, time, measure, etc., are said to be in the
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 69
objective case ; as (i) he walked three miles ; (ii) he travelled
all night ; (iii) the stone weighed three pounds.
1. Because these words limit or modify the verbs to which they
are attached, they are sometimes called Adverbial Objects.
2. The following phrases are adverbial objects of the same kind :
(i) They bound him hand and foot, (ii) They fell upon him tooth and
naiL (iii) They turned out the Turks, bag and baggage. Such
phrases are rightly called adverbial, because they modify bound, fell,
and twmed; and show how he was bound, how they fell upon him, etc.
Ebmarks on Exceptions.
1. The same verb may be either Intransitive or Transitive,
according to its use. Thus —
Intransitive. Transitive.
(i) The soldier ran away. (i) The soldier ran his spear into
the Arab.
(ii) The man works very hard. (ii) The master works his men too
hard.
(iii) We walked up the hilL (iii) The groom walked the horse
up the hilL
2. An Intransitive verb performs the function of a Transi-
tive verb when a preposition is added to it. Thus —
Intransitive. Transitive.
(i) The children laughed. (i) The children laughed at the clown,
(ii) The man spoke. (ii) The man spoke of wild beasts. '
3. The preposition may continue to adhere to such a verb,
so that it remains even when the verb has been made passive.
Thus we can say : (i) He was laughed-at. ^) Whales were spoken-of.
(iii) Prosecution was hinted-at. And this is an enormous convenience
in the use of the English language.
4.— THE DATIVE CASE.
1. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object.
Thus we say : He handed her a chau*. She gave it me.
2. The Dative is also the case of the IMreot Object, with
70 GRAMBfAB OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE:
such verbs as be, worth, seem, please, think (=8eem)i and
with the adjectives like and near.
Thus we have the phrases, meseems ; if yon please (=if it please
you); methought (=it seemed to me); woe is me I and, she is like
him ; he was near us.
" Woe worth the ofaase I woe worth the day
That cost thy life, my gallant grey ! "
— " Lady of the Lake."
" When in Salamanca's cave
Him listed his magic wand to wave,
The bells would ring in Notre-Dame."
— " Lay of the Last Minstrel"
3. The Dative is sometimes the case of possession or of
benefit
As in, Woe is me I Well is thee I
'* Convey me Salisbury into his tent."
Rule XII. — ^Yerbs of giving, promising, telling, showing,
etc., take two objects ; and the indirect object is put in the
dative case.
Thus we say : He gave her a fan. She promised me a book. Tell ns
a story. Show me the picture-book.
RuLB XIII. — ^When such verbs are turned into the passive
voice, either the Direct or the Indirect Object may be turned
into the Subject of the Passive Verb. Thus we can say
either —
Direct Object used as Subject. Indirect Object used as Subject.
(i) A fan was given her. (i) She was given a fan.'
(ii) A book was promised me. (ii) I was promised a book.^
(iii) A story was told us. (iii) We were told a story.'
(iv) The picture-book was shown (iv) I was shown the picture-book.'
me.
^ This has sometimes been called the Retained Object. The words
fan, etc., are in the objective case, not because they are governed by the
passive verbs vxm given, etc., but because they still retain, in a latent
form, the influence or government exercised upon them by the active
verbs, give, promise, etc.
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 71
Eemares on Exoeftions.
1. The Dative of the Personal Pronoun was in frequent use
in the time of Shakespeare, to add a certain liveliness and in-
terest to the statement.
Thus we find, in several of his plays, such sentences as-^
(!) " He plucked me ope his doublet."
(ii) ** Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, and rap me well."
(iii) " Your tanner will last you nine year."
Grammarians call this kind of dative the ethical dative.
2. The Dative was once the Absolute Case.
" This said, they both betook them several ways."
— Milton.
II.— SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE.
1. In our Old English — the English spoken before the coming
of the Normans, and for some generations after — every adjec-
tive agreed with its noun in gender, number, and ease ; and
even as late as Chaucer (1340-1400) adjectives had a form for
the plural number. Thus in the Prologue to the * Canterbury
Tales/ he writes —
'* And tmaUtowlea maken melodie,"
where e is the plural inflexion.
2. In course of time, partly under the influence of the Nor-
mans and the Norman language, all these inflexions dropped
off; and there are now only two adjectives in the whole lan-
guage that have any inflexions at all (except for comparison),
and these inflexions are only for the plural number. The two
adjectives that are inflected are the demonstrative adjectives
this and that, which make their plurals in these (formerly thise)
and those.
(i) The, which is a broken-down form of thcU, never changes at all.
(ii) When an adjective is nsed as a nowi, it may take a plural inflec-
tion ; as tJie bUtcks, goods, equals, edibles, annuals, monthlies, weeklies, etc
3. Most adjectives are inflected for comparison.
72 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
4. Every adjective is either an explicit or an implicit predi-
cate. The following are examples : —
AdjectiyeB used as Explicit Predicates.
1. The way was long ; the wind was cold.
2. The minstrel was infiixn and old
3. The duke is very rich.
Adjectives used as Implicit Predicates.
1. We had before us a long way and a cold wind.
2. The infiim old minstrel went wearily on.
3. The rich duke is very niggardly.
5. When an adjective is used as an explicit predicate, it is
said to be used predicatively ; when it is used as an implicit
predicate, it is said to be used attributively.
Adjectives used predicatively.
1. The cherries are ripe.
2. The man we met was very old.
Adjectives used attributively.
1. Let us pluck only the ripe cherries.
2. We met an old man.
EuLE XTV. — An adjective may qualify a noun or pronoun
predicatively, not only after the verb be, but after such in-
transitive verbs as look, seem, feel, taste, etc.
Thus we find : (i) She looked angry, (ii) He seemed weary, (iii) He
felt better, (iv) It tasted sonr. (v) He feU ill.
EuLB XV. — ^After verbs of making, thinking, considering,
etc., an adjective may be used factitively as well as predica-
tively.
Thus we can say, (i) We made all the young ones happy, (ii) All
present thought him odd (iii) We considered him very clever.
Faotitive comes from the Latin /xcio, I make.
EuLB XVI. — ^An adjective may, especially in poetry, be used
as an abstract noun.
Thus we speak of " the True, the Good, and the Beautiful ; " " the
sublime and the ridiculous ; " Mrs Browning has the phrase, *' from the
depths of God's divine ; " and Longfellow speaks of
*«Aband
^ Of stem in heart and strong in hand. "
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 73
EuLE XVII. — An adjective may be used as an adverb in
poetry.
Thus we find in Dr Johnson the line —
" Slow rises worth, by poverty depressed ; "
and in Soott —
*• Trip it deft and merrily ; "
and in Longfellow —
" The green trees whispered low and mild ; "
and in Tennyson —
" And slow and snxe comes up the golden year."
(1) The reason for this is that in O.E. adverbs were formed from adjectives by
adding e. Thus bright^ yraa=brigMly, and deepe^deeply. But in coui-se of
time the e fell off, and an adverb was just like its own adjective. Hence we still
have the phrases : " He works hard ; " "Run quick 1" "Speak louder 1" "Run
fast I" "Right reverend," etc.
(ii) Shakespeare very flrequently uses adjectives as adverbs, and has such sen-
tences as : " Thou didst it excellent 1 " "'Tis noble spoken !" and many more.
EuLB XVIII. — ^A participle is a pure adjective, and agrees
with its noun.
Thus, in Pope —
" How happy is the blameless vestal's lot.
The world f orgetldng, by the world forgot ! "
where forgetting, the present active participle, and forgot, the past
passive participle, both agree with vestal (" the vestal's lot " being =«Ae
lot of the YOBtal).
(i) But while a participle is a pure adjective, it also retains one frinction of a
verb — ^the power to govern. Thus in the sentence, "Respecting ourselves, we
shall be respected by the world," the present participle respecting agrees with
toe, and governs ourselves.
Rule XIX. — ^The comparative degree is employed when
two things or two sets of things are compared ; the superla-
tive when three or more are compared.
Thus we say ** James is taller t];ian I ; but Tom is the tallest of the
three."
(i) Than is a dialectic form of then. "James is taller ; then I (come)."
(ii) The superlative is sometimes used to indicate superiority to all others.
Thus Shakespeare says, " A little ere the mightiest Julius fell ; " and we use such
phrases as, "Truest ftiend and noblest foe." This is sometimes called the
"superlative of pre-eminence."
(iii) Double comparatives and superlatives were much used in O.E., and
Shakespeare was especially fond of them. He gives us such phrases as, *'a
more lai^ger list of sceptres," "more better," "more nearer," "most worst,"
' ' most unkindest cut of all," etc. These cannot be employed now.
74 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Rule XX. — ^The distributive adjectives each^ everyy either^
neitheTy go with sing^ar nouns only.
Thus we say : (i) Each boy got an apple, (li) Every noun is in its
place, (iii) Either book will do. (iv) Neither woman went.
Either and neither are dialectic forms of other and nother, which
were afterwards compressed into or and nor.
Remarks on Exceptions.
1. There are some adjectives that cannot be used attribu-
tively, but only predicatively. Such are well, ill, ware,
aware, afraid, glad, sorry, etc. (But we say " a glad heart,"
and — in a different sense — " a sorry nag.")
(i) We say " He was glad ; *' but we cannot say ** A glad man.'' Yet
Wordsworth has —
** Glad sight whenever new and old
Are joined thro* some dear home-bom tie."
We also speak of " glad tidings."
(ii) We say " He was sorry ; " but if we say " He was a sorry man,"
we use the word in a quite different sense. The attributive meaning of
the word is in this instance quite different from the predicative.
2. The phrase " the first two ** means the first and second
in one series ; '^ the two first '' means the first of each of two
series.
III.— SYNTAX OF THE PEONOUK
Rule XXI. — Pronouns, whether personal or relative, must
agree in gender, niunbery and person with the nouns for
which they stand, but not (necessarily) in case.
Thus we say : "I have lost my nmbrella : it was standing in the
comer. "
(i) Here it is neuter, singular, and third i)erson, because umbrella is neuter,
singular, and third x)erson.
(ii) Umbrella is in the objective case governed by have lost ; but it is in the
nominative, because it is the subject to its own verb wot standing.
EuLB XXII. — ^Pronouns, whether personal or relative, take
their case from the sentence in which they stand.
SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 75
Thus we say : " The sailor whom we met on the beach is ilL" Here
sailor is in the nominatiye, and whom, its pronoun, in the objectiye.
(1) Whom is in the objective, because it is governed by the verb met in its
own sentence. " The sailor is ill " is one sentence. " Him (whom = and him)
we met " is a second sentence.
(ii) The relative may be governed by a preposition, as ** The man on whom I
relied has not disappointed me."
EuLB XXIII. — ^Who, whom, and whose are used only of
rational beings; which of irrational; that may stand for
nouns of any kind.
(i) In poetry, whose may be used for of which. Thus Wordsworth, in
the ' Laodamia,' has —
" In worlds whose course is equable and pure."
Bulb XXIV. — The possessive pronouns mine, thine, ours,
yours, and theirs can only be used predioatively ; or, if used
as a subject, cannot have a noun with them.
Thus we say : " This is mine." " Mine is larger than yours." But
mine and thine are used for my and thy before a noun in poetry and
impassioned prose : ** Who knoweth the power of thine anger? "
RuLB XXV. — ^After such, same, so much, so great, etc.,
the relative employed is not who, but as.
Thus Milton has —
" Tears such as angels weep."
(i) Shakespeare uses as even after that—
" That gentleness as I was wont to have."
This usage cannot now be employed.
Remarks on Exceptions.
L The antecedent to the relative may be omitted.
Thus we find, in Wordsworth's " Ode to Duty "—
" There are A who ask not if thine eye
Be on them."
And Shakespeare, in " Othello," iii. 3. 157, has—
" A Who steals my purse, steals trash."
And we have the well-known Greek proverb—
** A Whom the gods love, die young."
76 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
2. The relative itself may be omitted.
(i) Thus Shelley has the line—
** Men must reap the things A they sow."
(ii) And such phrases as, " Is this the book A you wanted ? " are very
common.
3. The word but is often used for who + not. It may hence
be called the negative-relative.
Thus Scott has—
" There breathes not clansman of my line
Bnt (=who not) would have given his life for mine."
4. The personal pronouns, when in the dative or objective
case, are generally without emphasis.
(i) If we say ** Give me your hand/' the me is unemphatic. If we say
" Give me your hand ! " the me has a stronger emphasis than the give,
and means me, and not any other person.
(ii) Very ludicrous accidents sometimes occur from the misplacing of
the accent. Thus a careless reader once read : ** And he said, ' Saddle
me the ass ; ' and they saddled him." Nelson's famous signal, " Eng-
land expects every man to do his duty," was once altered in em-
phasis with excellent effect. A midshipman on board one of H.M.'s
ships was very lazy, and inclined to allow others to do his work; and the
question went round the vessel : " Why is Mr So-and-so like England ? "
" Because he expects every man to do hi8 duty."
IV.— SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
1.— CONCORD OF VERBS.
"We cannot say / writea, or He or The man write. We always say / write,
He writes, and ITie m/in wriies. In other words, certain pronouns and
nouns require a certain form of a verb to go with them. If the pronoun
is of the first person, then the verb will have a certain form ; if it is of the
third person, it will have a different form. If the noun or pronoun is sing-
ular, the verb will have one form ; if it is plural, it may have another form.
In these circumstances, the verb is said to agree with its subjects
All these facts are usually embodied in a general statement, which may
also serve as a rule.
EuLB XXVI. — A Finite Verb must agree with its subject
SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 77
in Kiiinber and Person. Thus we say : " He calls," " They
walk."
(i) The subject answers to the question Who 7 or What 7
(ii) The subject of a fixiite verb is always in the nominatiTd case.
Or and nor are conjunctions which do not add the things mentioned
to each other, but allow the mind to take them separately — the one
excluding the other. We may therefore say : —
Rule XXVIL — ^Two or more singular nouns that are subjeots,
connected by or or nor, require their verb to be in the singular.
Thus we say : " Either Tom or John is going." " It was either
a roe-deer or a large goat ! "
On the other hand, when two or more singular nouns are connected
by and, they are added to each other ; and, just as one and one make
two, so two singular nouns are equal to one plural. We may therefore
lay down the following rule : —
Bulb XXVIII. — Two or more singular nouns that are sub-
jeotsy connected by and, require their verb to be in the plural.
We say: "Tom and John are going." "There were a roe-
deer and a goat in the field."
CanUiona, — (i) The compound conjunction as well as does not require
a plural verb, because it allows the mind to take each subject separately.
Thus we say, "Justice, as well as mercy, allows it." We can see the
truth of this remark by transposing the clauses of the sentence, and
saying, "Justice allows it, as well as mercy [allows it]."
(ii) The preposition with cannot make two singular subjects into one
plural We must say, "The Mayor, with his attendants, was there."
Transposition will show the force of this remark also : " The Mayor was
there with lus attendants."
EuLB XXIX. — Collective Kouns take a singular verb or
a plural verb, as the notion of unity or of plurality is upper-
most in the mind of the speaker. Thus we say : " Parliament
was dissolved." " The committee are divided in opinion."
(i) When two or more nouns represent one idea, the verb is singular.
Thus, in Milton's " Lycidas," we find —
" Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear
Compels me to disturb your season due.
78 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
And, in Shakespeare's " Tempest " (v. 104), we read —
" All torment, trouble, wonder, and amazement
Inhabits here."
In this case we may look upon the statementas=" A condilaon which
embraces all tormenb," etc.
(ii) When the verb precedes a number of difiPerent' nominatives, it is
often singular. The speaker seems not to have yet made up his mind
what nominatives he is going to use. Thus, in the well-known passage
in Byron's " Childe Harold '* we have —
" Ah I then and there was hurrying to and fro,
And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress."
And so Shakespeare, in ** Julius Csesar," makes Brutus say, " There is
tears for his love, joy for his fortune, honour for his valour, and death
for his ambition." And, in the same way, people say, " Where is my
hat and stick ? "
EuLE XXX. — The verb to be is often attracted into the same
number as the nominative that foUows it, instead of agreeing
with the nominative that is its true subject. Thus we find :
"The wages of sin is death." "To love and to admire has
been the joy of his existence." "A high look and a proud
heart is sin."
2.— GOVERNMENT OF VERBS.
Rule XXXL — A Transitive Verb in the active voice
governs its direct object in the objective case. Thus we say :
" I like him ; " " they dislike her."
The following sub-rules are of some importance : —
(i) The participle, which is an adjective, has the same governing
power as the verb of which it is a part — as, " Seeing the rain, I remained
at home" — where seeing agrees with I as an adjective, and governs
rain as a verb.
(ii) The genmd, which is a nonn, has the same governing power as
the verb to which it belongs. Thus we say : " Hating one's neighbour is
forbidden by the Gospel," where hating is a noun, the nominative to
U forbidden, and a gerond governing neighbour in the objective.
Rule XXXIL — Active-transitive Verbs of giving, promis-
ing, offering, and suchlike, govern the Direct Object in the
SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 79
objective case, and the Indirect Object in the dative. *' I
gave him an apple." ''He promises me a book."
(i) In turning these active verbs into passive, it is the direct object
that should be turned into the subject of the passive verb ; and we
ought to say, ''An apple was given me." But custom allows of either
mode of change ; and we also say, " I was given an apple ; " "I was
promised a book." Dr Abbobt calls the objectives apple and hook
retained objects, because they are retained in the sentence, even
although we know that no passive verb can govern an objective case.
EuLE XXXIII. — Such verbs as make, create, appoint,
think, believe, etc., govern two objects — the one direct, the
other factitive. Thus we say: "They made him king;"
"the king appointed him governor;" "we thought her a
clever woman."
(i) The second of these objectives remains with the passive verb,
when the form of the sentence has been changed ; and we say, ** He
was made king;" " he was appointed governor." Here the nouns king
and governor are retained objects.
Rule XXXIV. — One verb governs another in the Infinitive.
Or,
The Infinitive Mood of a verb, being a pure noun, may be
the object of another verb, if that verb is active-transitive.
Thus we say : " I saw him go ; " " we saw the ship sink ; "
" I ordered him to write."
(i) In the first two sentences, him and ship are the subjects of go
and sink But the subject of an infinitive is always in the objective
case. The infinitives go and sink have a double face. They are verbs
in relation to their subjects him and go ; they are nouns in relation to
the verbs that govern them.
(ii) In the sentence, " I ordered him to write," him is in the dative
case ; and the sentence is=''I ordered writing to him." To write is
the direct object of ordered.
(iii) Conclusion from the above: An Infinitive is always a noun,
whether it be a subject or an object. It is (a) a subject in the
sentence, ''To play football is pleasant." It is (&) an object in the
sentence, "I like to play footbalL"
Rule XXXV. — Some Intransitive Verbs govern the Dative
80 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Case. Thus we have " HL&thouglit^^ " me«eeww," " Woe worth
the day ! " " Woe w me 1 " " If you please ! "
(i) Worth is the imperative of an old English verb, 'weiortha/n,.^ to be-
come. (The German form of this verb is vjerdjen,)
(ii) Shakespeare even construes the verb look with a dative. In
" Cymbeline," iii. 6, 32, he has —
She looks ns like
A thing more made of malice, than of duty.
3.— MOODS OF VERBS.
1. The Indicative Mood is the mood of direct assertion or statement,
and it speaks of actual fact^. The Subjunctiye Mood is the mood of as-
sertion also, but with a modification given to the assertion by the znind
through which it passes. If we use the term dbjective as describing what
acttuiUy exists independently of our minds, and subjective as describing
that which exists in the mind of the speaker, — whether it really exists
outside or not, — we can then say that —
(i) The Indicative Mood is the mood of 6bjectiye assertion.
(ii) The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of subjective assertion.
Tlie Indicative Mood may be compared to a ray of light coming straight
through the air; the Subjunctive Mood to the effect produced by the water on
the same ray — the water deflects it, makes it form a quite different angle, and
hence a stick in the water looks broken or crooked.
2. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command or of request.
3. The Infinitive Mood is the substantive mood or noun of the
verb. It is always equal to a noun; it is always either a subject or an
object ; and hence it is incapable of making any assertion.
4. The Subjunctive Mood has for some years been gradually dying
out. Few writers, and still fewer speakers, use it. Good writers are
even found to say, '' If he was here, I should tell him." But a know-
ledge of the uses of the subjunctive mood is necessary to enable us to
understand EngUsh prose and verse anterior to the present generation.
Even so late as the year 1817, Jane Austen, one of the best prose-writers
of this century, used the subjunctive mood in almost every dependent
clause. Not only does she use it after t^and though^ but after such con-
junctions as tiUy until, because, and others.
RuLB XXXVI. — The Subjunotive Mood was used — and
ought to be used — ^to express doubt, possibility, supposition,
consequence (which may or may not happen), or wish, all as
moods of the mind of the speaker.
SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 81
(i) '' If thou read this, Caesar, thou mayst live." (Doubt)
(ii) " If he come, I wiU speak to him." (PossibiUty.)
(iii) " Tet if one heart throb higher at its sway,
The wizard note has not been touched in vain." (Supposition.)
(iv) '* Qet on your night-gown, lest occasion call us
And show us to be watchers.** (Consequence.)
(y) '' I would my daughter were dead at my foot, and the jewels in her
ear!" (Wish.)
A7 In all of the above sentences, the clauses with subjunctives do not state &cts,
but feelings or notions of what xnay or xnight be.
EuLE XXXVII. — ^The Subjunotive Mood, being a subjoined
mood, is always dependent on some other clause antecedent
in thonghty and generally also in expression. The antecedent
clause, which contains the condition, is called the conditional
daiise ; and the clause which contains the consequence of the
supposition is called the consequent clause.
(i) If it were so , it was a grievous fault.
Condition. Consequence.
(ii) If it were done when *tis done ,
CondUion,
Then *twere well it were done quickl y.
Coneeguevtce,
EsMABES ON Exceptions.
1. Sometimes the conditional clause is supp^ressed. Thus we
can say, " I would not endure such language " [if it were ad-
dressed to me = conditional clause].
2. llie conjunction is often omitted Thus, in Shakespeare's
play of " Julius Caesar," we find —
" Wefe I Brutus,
And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony
"Would ruffle up your spirits."
Rule XXXVIII.— The Simple Infinitive— without the sign
to — is used with auxiliary verbs, such as may, do, shall, will,
etc. ; and with such verbs as let, bid, can, must, see, hear,
make, fbel, observe, have, know, etc.
F
82 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(i) Let darkness keep her raven gloss,
(li) Bid the porter come.
(iii) I saw him nm after a gilded butterfly,
(iv) We heard him cry.
(v) They made him go, etc., etc.
It was the Danes who introduced a preposition before the infinitiye.
Their sign was cU, which was largely used with the infinitive in the
Northern dialect.
KuLB XXXIX. — ^The Gerund is both a noun and a verb.
As a noun, it is governed by a verb or preposition ; as a
verb, it governs other nouns or pronouns.
There are two gerunds — (i) one with to; and (ii) one that
ends in ing.
(i) The first is to be carefully distinguished from the ordinary in-
finitive. Now the ordinary infinitive never expresses a purpose; the
gerund with to almost always does. Thus we find —
" And fools who came to scoff remained to pray."
This gerund is often called the genmdial infinitiye.
(ii) The second is to be distinguished from the present participle in
ing, and very carefully from the abstract noun of the same form. The
present participle in ing, as loving, hating, walHng, etc., is always an
adjective, agreeing with a noun or pronoun. The gerund in ing is
always a noon, and governs an object. '* He was very fond of playing
cricket." Here flaying is a noon in relation to of; and a verb govern-
ing cricket in the objective. In the words toalhing-sticJc, frying-pan, etc.,
walking and frying are nouns, and therefore gerunds. If they were ad-
jectives and participles, the compoimds would mean the stick that walks,
the pan that fries,
(iii) The gerund in ing must also be distinguished from the verbal
noun in ing, which is a descendant of the verbal noun in nng. '* He
went a hunting" (where a=the old an or on) ; ''Forty and six years
was this temple in building ; " " He was very impatient during the
reading of the will." In these sentences hunting, building, and read-
ing are all verbal nouns, derived from the old verbal noun in ung, and
are called abstract nouns. But if we say, " He is fond of hunting deer; "
" He is engaged in building a hotel; " " He likes reading poetry," — then
the three words are gerunds, for they act as verbs, and govern the three
objectives, deer, hotd, and poetry,
EuLB XL. — ^The Gerundial Infinitive is frequently con-
strued with nouns and adjectives. Thus we say ; " A house
SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB — ^AND PREPOSITION. 83
to Bell or let;" "Wood to biim;" "Deadly to hear, and
deadly to tell ; " " Good to eat."
v.— SYNTAX OF THE ADVEEB.
EuLB XLL — The Adverb ought to be as near as possible to
the word it modifies. Thus we ought to say, " He gave me
only three shillings," and not " He only gave me three shil-
lings," because only modifies three, and not gave.
This rule applies also to compound adverbs, such as at leaBt, in like
manner, at random, in part, etc.
EuLE XLII. — ^Adverbs modify verbs, adjeotives, and other
adverbs; but they can also modify prepositions. Thus we
have the combinations out from, up to, down to, etc.
In the sentence, "He walked up to me," the adverb np does not
modify vxiLked^ but the prepositional phrase to me.
VI.— SYNTAX OF THE PEEPOSITION.
EuLB XLIII. — All prepositions in the English language
govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.
The prepositions saye and except are really verbs in the imperatlTe
mood.
EuLB XLrV. — Prepositions generally stand before the words
they govern ; but they may, with good effect, come after them.
Thus we find in Shakespeare —
" Ten thousand men that fishes gnawed npon."
" Why, then, thou knowest what colour jet is of."
And, in Hooker, with very forcible eflfect —
" Shall there be a God to swear by, and none to pray to ? "
EuLB XLV. — Certain verbs, nouns, and adjectives require
special prepositions. Thus we cannot say, "This is different
to that," because it is bad English to say " This diflfers to that."
The proper preposition in both instances is f^rom.
84
GRAMMAR OF THB ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The following is a list of some of these
Special prepositionB: —
Absolve from.
Abhorrence for.
Accord with.
Acquit of.
Affinity between.
Adapted to (intentionally).
Adapted for (by nature).
Agree with (a person).
Agree to (a proposal).
Bestow npon.
Change for (a thing).
Change with (a person).
Confer on (=give to).
Confer with (=talk with).
Confide in (= trust in).
Confide to (= intrust to).
Conform to.
In conformity with.
Comply with.
Convenient to (a person).
Convenient for (a purpose).
Conversant with.
Correspond with (a person).
Correspond to (a thing).
Dependent on (but independent of).
Derogatory to.
Differ from (a statement or opinion).
Differ with (a person).
Different from.
Disappointed of (what we cannot
get).
Disappointed in (what we . have
got).
Dissent from.
Exception from (a rule).
Exception to (a statement).
Glad of (a possession).
Glad at (a piece of news).
Involve in.
Martyr for (a cause).
Martyr to (a disease).
Need of or for.
Part from (a person).
Part with (a thing).
Profit by.
Reconcile to (a person).
Reconcile with (a statement).
Taste of (food).
A taste for (art).
Thirst for or after (knowledge).
VII.— SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION.
EuLB XLVI. — ^The Conjunction does not interfere with the
action of a transitive verb or preposition, nor with the mood or
tense of a verb.
(i) This rule is usually stated thus : " Conjunctions generally connect
the same cases of nouns and pronouns, and the same moods and tenses
of yerbs, as * We saw him and her/ ' Let either him or me go ! '" But
it is plain that 9am governs Aer as well as hMn.; and that or cannot
interfere with the government of Id, Such a rule is therefore totally
artificial.
(ii) It is plain that the conjunction and must make two singulars =
one plural, as " He and I are of the same age."
Bulb XLYII. — Certain adijeotlves and oonjunotions take
SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 85
after them certain special oonjiinotions. Thus, such (adj.)
requires as, both (adj.), and ; so and as require as ; though,
yet; "whether, or; either, or; neither, nor; nor, nor; or,
or. The following are a few examples : —
(i) " Would I describe a preacher snch as Paul 1 "
(ii) '* Though deep, jBt clear ; though gentle, yet not dulL"
EuLB XLVIIL — ^The subordinating conjunction that may be
omitted. Thus we can say, "Are you sure he is here?"
Shakespeare has, " Yet Brutus says he was ambitious ! "
86
THB ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
1. Words are gregarious, and go in groups. When a group
of words makes oomplete sense, it is called a sentence. A
sentence is not a chance collection of words ; it is a true
organism, with a heart and limbs. When we take the limbs
apart from the central core or heart of the sentence, and try to
show their relation to that core, and to each other, we are
said to analyse the sentence. The process of thus taking a
sentence to pieces, and naming and accounting for each piece,
is called analysis.
(i) Analysis is a Qreek word which means hreahvng wp or talcing
apart : its opposite is Synthesis, which means making up or putting
together,
(ii) When we examine a sentence, and look at its parts, we are said
to analyse the sentence, or to perform an act of analysis. But when we
make sentences themselves, we perform an act of composition or of
synthesis.
2. A sentence is a statement made about something, as, The
horse gallops.
(i) The something (horse) is called the Subject,
(ii) The statement (gallops) is called the Predicate.
3. Every sentence consists, and must consist, of at least two
parts. These two parts are the thing we speak about and
what we say about that thing.
(i) The Subject is what we speak abont.
(ii) The Predicate is what we say about the subject.
(I) There ia b proverb of Solomon which says : " All things are double one against
another. " So there are the two necessarily complfimexitaTy SAew ot vr«f& and odd ;
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 87
of rl^t and left; of north and Bouth; and many more. In language, the two
ideas of Subject and Predicate are necessarily coexistent; neither can exist
without the other : we cannot even think the one without the other. They are the
two poles of thought.
(ii) Sometimes the Sul^ject is not expressed in imperative sentences, as in
"GoI"="Qoyon!"
(iii) The Predicate can never be suppressed ; it must always be expressed :
otherwise nothing at all would be said.
4. There are three kinds of sentences : Simple, Compound,
and Complex.
(i) A simple sentence contains only one subject and one predicate.
(ii) A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences of
equal rank.
(iii) A complex sentence contains a chief sentence, and one or more
sentences that are of subordinate rank to the chief sentence.
I.— THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
5. A Simple Sentence is a sentence which consists of one
subject and one predicate.
(i) A Simple Sentence contains, and can contain, only one finite verb.
If we say, " Baby likes to dance," there are two verbs in this simple
sentence. But to dance h not a finite verb ; it is an infinitive ; it is a
pure noun, and cannot therefore be a predicate.
(ii) If we say, "John and James ran off," the sentence is =" John ran
off" + " James ran off." It is therefore a compound sentence consisting
of two simple sentences, with the predicate of one of them suppressed.
Hence it is called a contracted compound sentence — contracted in the
predicate.
(iii) If we say, " John jumped up and ran off," the sentence is =
"John jumped up" + "John ran off." It is therefore a compound
sentence consisting of two simple sentences, but, for convenience'
sake, contracted in the subject.
6. The Subject of a sentence is what we speak about.
What we speak about we must name.
If we name a thing, we must use a name or noun.
Therefore the subject must always be either —
(i) A noun ; or
(ii) Some word or words equivalent tiO ^ tloxosu
88 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
7. There are seven kinds of Subjects —
(i) A IN'oun, as, Sngland is our home.
(ii) A Pronoun, as, It is our fatherland,
(iii) A Verbal IN'oiin, as, Walking is healthy,
(iv) A QeruncU as. Catching fish is a pleasant pastime.
(v) An Infinitive, as, To swim is quite easy.
(vi) An Adjective, with a noun understood, as. The
prosperous are sometimes cold-hearted.
(vii) A Quotation, as, ''Ay, ay, sir!" burst from a
thousand throats.
(a) The verbal noun, as we have seen, originally ended in nng.
(6) Catching is a gerund, because it is both a noim (nominative to
U) and a yerb, governing ^A in the objective.
8. The Predicate in a sentence is what we say about the
subject If we say anything, we must use a saying or telling
word. But a telling word is a verb.
Therefore the Predicate must always be a verb, or
some word or words equivalent to a verb.
9. There are five kinds of Predicates —
(i) A Verb, as, God is. The stream runs.
(ii) ** To be *' + a noun, as. He is a carpenter,
(iii) " To be ** + an adjective, as. They are idle,
(iv) ** To be ** + an adverb, as. The books are there.
(y) ** To be ** + a phrase, as. She is in good health.
10. When the predicate consists of an active -transitive
verb, it requires an object after it to make complete sense.
This object is called either the object or the completion.
As we must name the object, it is plain that it must always,
like the subject, be a noun, or some word or words equivalent
to a noun.
11. As there are seven kinds of Subjects, so there are seven
kinds of Objects or Completions. These are : —
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 89
(i) A 19'oiin, as, All of us love England,
(ii) A Pronoun, as, We saw him in the garden,
(iii) A Verbal 19'oiin, as, "We like "walking,
(iy) A QeruncU as. The angler prefers ta,king large fish
(y) An Infinitive, as. We hate to be idle.
(vi) An A^'ective with a noun understood, as. Good
men love^the good.
(yii) A Quotation, as. We heard his last "Good-
bye, Tom 1 "
12. Verbs of giving, promising, offering, banding, and
many such, take also an indirect object, which is sometimes
called the dative object.
13. There are two kinds of Indirect Objects : —
(i) A 19'oun, We gaye the man a shilling.
I
(ii) A Pronoun, We offered him sixpence.
19* The indirect or dative object may be construed with to. Thus
we can say, " We offered it to him." But, in such instances, to him is
still the indirect object and it the direct object.
14. The Subject or the Object is always a 19'oun.
A 19'oun may haye going with it any number of adjectives
or adjectival phrases. An adjectiye or adjectiyal phrase that
goes with a subject or with an object is called, in Analysis, an
Enlargement.
It is 80 called because it enlarges our knowledge of the subject.
Thus, if we say, ** The man is tired," we have no knowledge of what
kind of man is spoken of ; but, if we say, ** The poor old man is tired,"
our notion of the man is enlarged by the addition of the facts that he
is both poor and old,
15. There are seven kinds of Enlargements : —
(i) An Adjective— one, two, or more — ^That big old
red book is sold.
(ii) A Noun (or nouns) in apposition, William the Con«
queror defeated Harold.
90 GRAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(iii) A IN'oiiin (or pronoun) in the FosseBsive Case,
His hat flew ofEl
(iv) A Prepositional Phrase, The walk in the fields
was pleasant
(y) An Adjectival Phrase, The boy, ignorant of his
duty, was soon dismissed.
(vi) A Participle (a), or Participial Phrase (h)—
Sobbing and "weeping, she was led from the
room (a). The merchant, having failed, gave up
business (b).
(vii) A Qerundial Infinitive — Anxiety to succeed ( = of
succeeding) wore him out Bread to eat ( = for
eating) could not be had anywhere.
16. It is plain that all these seven kinds of Enlargements
may go with the Object as well as with the Subject
17. An Enlargement, being a word or phrase that goes
with a noun, must always be an adjective or equivalent to
an adjective.
18. The Predicate is always a verb.
The word that goes with a verb is called an adverb.
Therefore the word or words that go with the predicate
are either adverbs or words equivalent to adverbs.
19. The adverbs or adverbial phrases that go with the predi-
cate are called, in Analysis, the Extensions of the Predicate.
20. There are six kinds of Extensions : —
(i) An Adverb, as, The time went slowly.
(ii) An Adverbial Phrase, as, Mr Smith spoke very
well indeed.
(iii) A Prepositional Phrase, as, Mr Smith spoke with
great effect
(iv) A 19'oun Phrase, as. We walked side by side.
(v) A Participial Phrase, as. The mighty' rocks came
bounding down.
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 91
(vi) A Qerundial Phrase, as, He did it to insult us
( = for insulting us).
i«* Under (y) may come also the Absolute Participial Phrase, such
as, '' The clock having struck, we had to go."
21. Extensions of the predicate are classified in the above
section from the point of view of grammsj^ ; but they are also
frequently classified from the point of view of distinction in
thought.
In this hitter way Extensions are classified as extensions of —
(i) Time, as, We lived there three years,
(ii) Place, as. Go home I We came from York,
(iii) manner, as, We scatter seeds with careless hand,
(iv) magnitude, as, The field measured ten acres,
(y) Cause, as, The clerk was dismissed for idleness.
Under Qv) may also come the idea of weight and jirioe, as, The parcel weighed
four pounds. It cost aizpence.
II.— CAUTIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.
22. The following cautions are of importance : —
(i) The 19'oun in an absolute clause cannot be the
Subject of a simple sentence. We can say, " The
train having started, we returned to the hotel."
Here "we is the subject
The phrase " the train having started "' is an adverbial phrase modify-
ing returned, and giving the reason for the returning.
(ii) The direct object may be compound. Thus we can
say, " I saw the ship sink ; " and " the ship sink " is
a compound direct object.
If it is necessary to analyse the phrase " the ship sink/' then we must
say that sink is the direct object of saw; and that ship is the snbject
of the infinitive verb sink. (In English, as well as in Latin, the subject
of an infinitive is in the objective or accusative case.)
(iii) A subject may be compound, and may contain an
object, as, " To save money is always useful." Here
92 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
the subject is to save money, and contains the
object money — ^the object of the verb to save.
An object may also contain another object^ which is not the object of
the sentence. Thus we can say, "I like to save money/* when the
direct object of like is to save, and money is a part only of that direct
object.
(iv) The 19'ominative of address eannot be the subject
of a sentence. Thus, in the sentence, "John, go
into the garden," the subject of go is not John, but
you understood.
IIL— THE MAPPING-OUT OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.
23. It is of the greatest importance to get the eye to help the
mind, and to present to the sight if possible — either on paper
or on the black-board — the sentence we have to consider. This
is called mapping-out.
Let us take two simple sentences : —
(i) " From the mountain-path came a joyous sound of some person
whistling."
(ii) " In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas,
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Qrand-Prd
Lay in the fruitful valley."
2L These may be mapped out, before analysing them, in the
following way : —
joyous
(i) A SOUND CAME
o
B
some 'pvntm whistling the mountain path.
distant^ sedoded, still,
Uttle
(u) The VILLAGE LAY
••5?
A, • '. *^
/' \ the ftmitfnl valley.
• ' •
Gxand-Pri the Acadian land the shores of the Basin, etc.
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 93
25. Such a mapping-out enables us easily to see, with the
bodily as well as with the mind's eye, what is the main purpose
of all analysis — to find out which words go with which, and
what is the real build of the sentence. Hence, unless we see
at a glance the build of the sentence we are going to analyse,
we ought, before doing so, to set to work and map it out.
IV.— THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
26. A Compoiind Sentence is one which consists of two
or more Simple Sentences packed, for convenience' sake, into
one.
Thus, in the " Lay of the Last Minstrel," Sir W. Scott writes : —
" The way was long, the wind was cold,
The minstrel was infirm and old."
He might have put a full stop at long and at cold, for the sense ends in
these places, and, gramxnatioally, the two lines form three separate and
distinct sentences. But because in thought the three are connected,
the poet made one oompound sentence out of the three simple sen-
tences.
27. A Compound Sentence may be contracted.
(i) Thus, the famous sentence, ** Caesar came, saw, and conquered " is
= three sentences — " Caesar came," Csesar saw," etc., and is therefore
contracted in the subject.
(ii) In the sentence, " Either a knave or a fool has done this," the
sentence is contracted in the predicate for the purpose of avoiding the
repetition of the verb has done,
28. Oantion I The relative pronouns who and which some-
times combine two co-ordinate sentences into one compound
sentence. Thus —
(i) We met a man at the gate, who told us the way.
(ii) He was not at home, which was a great pity.
Here who is = and he; which is = and this; and the two sentences
in both instances are of equal rank. Hence both (i) and (ii) are com-
pound sentences.
94 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
v.— THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
29. A Complex Sentence is a statement whicli contains one
Prinoipal Sentence, and one or more sentences dependent upon
it, which, are called Subordinate Sentences. There are three
kinds — and there can only be three kinds — of subordinate
sentences — ^Adjectival, 19'bun, and Adverbial.
A subordinate sentence is sometimes called a dause.
30. A Subordinate Sentence that goes with a 19'oun fulfils
the function of an Adjective, is equal to an Adjective, and is
therefore called an Adjectival Sentence.
" Darkness, which might be felt, fell upon the city." Here the sub-
sentence, " which - might - be - felt," goes with the noun darkneBS,
belongs to it, and cannot be separated from it ; and this sentence is
therefore an adjectival sentence.
31. A Subordinate Sentence that goes with a Verb fulfils
the function of an Adverb, is equal to an Adverb, and is
therefore called an Adverbial Sentence.
"I will go whenever you are ready." Here the sub • sentence,
"whenever you are ready," is attached to the verb go, belongs to
it, and cannot be separated from it ; and hence this sentence is an
adverbial sentence.
32. A Subordinate Sentence that forms the Subject of a
Predicate, or the Object, or that is in apposition with a noun,
fulfils the function of a IN'onn, and is therefore called a 19'oun
Sentence.
** He told me that his cousin had gone to sea." Here the sub-sentence,
" his cousin had gone to sea," is the object of the transitive verb told.
It fulfils the function of a noun, and is therefore a nonn sentence.
33. An Adjectival Sentence may be attached to—
(i) The Subject of the Principal Sentence ; or to
(ii) The Object of the Principal Sentence ; or to
(iii) Any IN'oiin whatsoever.
(i) The book that-I-bought is on the table : to the snbjeot.'
(ii)' I laid the book I-bought on the table ; to the object.
(iii) The child fell into the stream that-runs-past-the-mill : to the noun
noun in an adverbial phrase.
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 95
34. An Adverbial Sentence may be attached to—
(i) A Verb ;
(ii) An Adjective ; , or to
(iii) An Adverb.
(i) To a Verb. It does not matter in what position the verb is. It
may be (a) the Predicate, as in the sentence, *' I walk when I can," It
may be (6) an Infinitive forming a subject, as, " To get up when one is
tired is not pleasant." It may be (c) a participle as in the sentence,
** Having dined before he came, I started at once."
(ii) To an Adjectiye. " His grief was snch tTiat all pUied him" Here
the sub-sentence " that all pitied him " modifies the adjective sncfa.
(iii) To an Adverb. " He was so weak tJuU he could not stand, " Here
the sub-sentence "that he could not stand" modifies the adverb 80,
which itself modifies the adjective weak.
35. A 19'oun Sentence may be —
(i) The Subject of the Principal Sentence ; or
(ii) The Object of the main verb ; or
(iii) The 19'ominative after is ; or
(iv) In Apposition with another Noun.
(i) *' That-he-is-better cannot be denied:" the subject. Here the
true nominative is that. " That cannot be denied." AVhat ? " That=
he is better." (From usage, that in such sentences acquires the func-
tion and force of a conjunction.)
(ii) " I heard thab-he-was-better : " the object.
(iii) " My motive in going was that-I-might-be-of-use : " nomiaative
after was.
(iv) " The fact that-he-voted-against-his-party is well known : " in
apposition with fact.
36. Any number of Subordinate Sentences may be attached
to the Principal Sentence. The only limit is that dictated by
a regard to clearness, to the balance of clauses, or to good
taste.
The best example of a very long sentence, which consistB entirely of
one principal sentence and a very large number of adjective sentences,
is "The House that Jack built" "This is the house that-Jack-built"
" This is the malt that-lay-in-the>houBe-thaV3M^A3i\]SL\^r vg^<^^^ ^^*
96 6RAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
VL— CAUTIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
37. (i) Find out, first of all, the Principal Sentence.
(ii) Secondly, look for the sentences, if any, that attach
themselves to the Subject of the Principal Sen-
tence.
(iii) Thirdly, find those sentences, if any, that belong to
the object of the Principal Sentence, or to any
other Noun in it.
(iv) Fourthly, look for the subordinate sentences that
are attached to the Predicate of the Principal
Sentence.
When a subordinate sentence is long, quote only the first and last
words, and place dots .... between them.
38. The following Cautions are necessary : —
(i) A connective may be omitted.
In Shakespeare's " Measure for Measure/' Isabel says —
" I have a brother is condemned to die."
Here who is omitted, and "who ... die" is an adjectival
sentence qualifying the object brother.
(ii) Do not be guided by the part of speech that in-
troduces a subordinate sentence. Thus: —
(a) A relative pronoun may introduce a noun sentence, as, " I do not know
who>he>i8;" or an adjectival sentence, as, *'John, who-was-a-soldier, is now a
gardener."
(Jb) An adverb may introduce a noun sentence, as, " I don't know where it hat
gone to;" or an adjectival sentence, as, "The spot where he lies is unknown."
In the sentence, " The reason why so few marriages are happy is because young
ladies spend their time in making nets, not in making cages" — ^the subordinate
sentence "why . . . happy" is,— though introduced by an adverb,— in apposi-
tion to the noun reason, and is therefore a noun sentence.
VIL— THE MAPPING-OUT OF COMPLEX SENTENCES.
S9. Complex jSentences should be mapped out on the same
THB ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
97
principles as Simple Sentences. Let us take a sentence from
Mr Morris's " Jason " :^-
" And in his hand he bare a mighty bow,
No man could bend of those that battle now."
This sentence may be drawn up after the following plan : —
his hand
He
.s
a
mighty
bare
bow
1
f
no man could bend
•s
those
1
battle
nov
7,
(The single line indicates a preposition ; the double line a conjunction
or conjunctive pronoun.)
40. The larger nimiher of subordinate sentences there are,
and the farther away they stand from the principal sentence,
the larger will be the space that the mapping-out will cover.
Let us take this sentence from an old Greek writer : —
" Thou art about, king ! to make war against men who wear leathern
trousers, and have all their other garments of leather ; who feed not on
what they like, but on what they can get from a soil that is sterile and
unkindly; who do not indulge in wine, but drink water; who possess no
figs, nor anything else that is good to eat."
This would be set out in the following way : —
Thou art about . . . against men
(i) wear . . . trousers
(ii) have . . . leather
(iii) feed not on that
I
(a) they like
G
98
GBAMHAB OF THK ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(iv) feed on that
II
(6) they can get from a soil
i
(6^) is sterile and unkindly
(v) do not . . . wine
(yi) drink water
(vii) possess no figs
(viii) possess not anything else
1
1
(c) is Kooc
.to eat.
41. Sentences may also be pigeon-holed, or placed in marked-
off spaces or columns, like the following : —
" Thro' the black Tartar tents he passed, which stood
Clustering like bee-hives on the low black strand
Of Oxus, where the summer floods o'erflow
When the sun melts the snow in high Pamh*."
Bbntenceb.
A. He
through the
black Tartar
tents
(a) which clus-
tering like
bee - hives
stood on the
strand of
Oxus,
(6) [in the place]
which the
floods o'er-
flow
(e) when
zneltB
Kind of
Sentence.
A. Prin.
sentence.
(a) Adj.
sen-
tence
to A.
(6) Adj.
sent,
to
place
under.-
stood
(o) Adv.
sent,
to o'er-
SUBJECT.
He
which
Enlaroe-
MENT.
cluster-
ing
floods
the sun
I
the sum-
mer
Predi-
cate.
passed
stood
o'erflow
melts
Exten-
sion.
thro' the
tents
on the
low
black
strand
when in
high
Pamir
\
Object.
(which)
snow
THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 99
42. There is a kind of Continuous Analysis, which may
often — not without benefit — ^be applied to longer passages^ and
especially to passages taken from the poets. For example : —
" Alas ! the meanest herb that scents the gale,
The lowliest flower that blossoms in the vale
Even where it dies, at spring's sweet call renews
To second life its odours and its hues."
1. Alas I an interjection, with no syntactical relation to any word in
the sentence.
2. the meanest, attributive or enlargement to 3.
3. herb. Subject to 4.
4. renews, Predicate to 3.
5. odours and hues. Object to 4.
6. at . . . call, Extension of renews, to 4.
7. to . . . life, Extension of renews, to 4.
8. the lowliest, attributive or enlargement to 9.
9. flower. Subject to 10.
10. renews, Predicate to 9.
B ^ 11. odours and hues. Object to 10.
12. at . . . call. Extension to 10.
13. to . . . life. Extension to 10.
14. that. Subject to 15 and connective to 3.
C { 15. scents. Predicate to 14.
16. gale. Object to 15.
17. that. Subject to 18 and connective to 9.
D \ 18. blossoms. Predicate to 17.
19. in the -vale, Extension to 18.
E<
'20. even. Adverb modifying 21.
21. where it dies, Extension to 18.
22. it, Subject of 23.
L23. dies, Predicate of 22.
-"»^ *»
100
WORD-BUILDING AND DERIVATION.
1. The primary element — ^that which is the shortest form —
of a word is called its root. Thus tal (which means number) is
the root of the words tale and tell and till (a box for money).
2. The stem is the root + some modification. Thus love
( = lov + e) is the stem of lov.
3. It is to the stem that all inflexions are added, and thus to
love we add d for the past tense.
4. If to the root we add a suffix, then the word so formed is
called a derivative. Thus by adding ling to dar (sdear),
we make darling.
5. In general, we add English prefixes and English suffixes
to English words ; but this is not always the case. Thus we
have cottage, where the Latin ending age is added to the Eng-
lish word cot; and oovetousness, where the English ending
nesB is added to the Latin word covetous. Such words are
called hybrids.
6. When two words are put together to make one, the one
word so made is called a compound.
7. The adding of prefixes or of suffixes to words, or the
making one word out of two, is called word^formation.
COMPOUND NOUNS.
8. Compound Noims are formed by the addition of : —
(i) Nonn and Nonn, as —
p&ndog ( =hond-dog). Brimstone ( = bum-stone).
■Biidal(s^' bride-ale). Bylaw (=\«w tor «b by or town).
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
101
Daisy (= day's eye).
Evensong.
Qarlic ( = gar-leek = spear-leek ;
O.E. gdr, spear).
Gospel ( = God*s spell = story).
Housetop.
Huzzy (= housewife).
Icicle (=ls-gicel= ice-jag).
Lapwing (= leap-wing).
Nightingale (= night-singer).
Orchard ( = ort-yard= wort-yard, i.e.,
herb-garden).
Stirrup ( = stig-r&p= rising rope).
Tadpole (= toad-head. Pole = poll, a
head, as in poll-tax).
Wednesday (= Woden's day).
(ii) Noon and A4jectiYe, as —
Blackbird. Midnight.
Freeman. Midsummer.
Quicksilver.
Twilight ( = two lights).
Blaekfhird has the accent on hUielCt and is onA word. 'A hlaeVhird need not be a
hlaekf bird'.
(iii) Noun and Verb, as —
Bakehouse. Grindstone.
Cutpurse. Pickpocket.
Gk>dsend. Pinfold.
(iv) Noon and Adyerb, as ofifshoot.
(v) Noon and Preposition, as afterthought.
(vi) Verb and AdYerb, as —
Castaway. Drawback.
Spendthrift.
WagtaiL
Washtub.
Welfare.
Farewell.
Income. .
Welcome.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
9. There are in the l£mguage a great many compound adjec-
tivesy such as heart-whole, seasick, etc.; and these are formed
in a large number of different ways.
Compound adjectives may be formed in the following ways : —
(i) Noun + Adjective, as purse-proud, wind-swift> way-weary, sea-
green, lily-white.
(ii) Nonn-f-Firesent Fartlclifle, as ear-piercing, death-boding, heart-
rending, spirit-stirring, sea-faring, night-walking, home-keeping.
(iii) Nonn+PassiTe Participle, as moth-eaten, worm-eaten, tempest-
tossed, way-laid, forest-bom, copper-fastened, moss-clad, sea-girt
(iv) Adverb -f- Present Participle, as far-darting, everlasting, high-
stepping, well-meaning, long-suffering, far-reaching, hard-working.
(v) Adyerb-HPasslye Participle, as high-bom, ''ill-weaved^" ^^^l-Vsc^^^
thorough-bred, h{gh-stnmg, ill-pleaaed.
102 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
(vi) Noon + Noun +ed, as hare-brained, dog-hearted, beetle-headed,
periwig-pated, club-footed, lily-livered, trumpet-tongued, eagle-eyed.
(vii) Adjectiye-i-Noim+ed, as evil-eyed, grey-headed, thin-faced,
empty-headed, tender-hearted, thick-lipped, two-legged, three-cornered,
four-sided, high-minded, bald-pated.
(viii) Nonn-i-Nonn, as bare-foot, lion-heart, iron-side.
(iz) AJdYerb-f-Nonn-Hed, as down-hearted, under-handed.
COMPOUND VERBS.
10. There are not many compound verbs in the English
language. The few that there are are formed thus : —
(i) Verb and Noun, as—
Backbite. Hamstring. Hoodwink.
Browbeat. Henpeck. Kiln-dry.
(ii) Verb and Adjective, as—
Dumfound. Fulfil (=fill full). Whitewash.
(iii) Verb and Adverb, as —
Doflf ( = do off). Dout ( = do out). Gross-question.
Don (= do on). Dup(=doup). Outdo.
THE FORMATION OF ADVERBa
11. Adverbs are derived from Ifl'ounB, from Adjeotiveay from
Pronounsy and from PrepositionB.
a. Adverbs derived from Nouns are either : (i) Old Fosses'
sives, or (ii) Old Datives, or (iii) Compounds of a Noun and
a Preposition : —
(i) Olcl PoBBessiveB : Needs = of need, or of necessity. The Calendrer
says to John Gilpin about his hat and wig —
" My head is twice as big as yonrs,
They therefore needs must fit."
Of the same class are : always, nowadays, betimes.
(ii) Old Datives. These are seldom and the old-fashioned whilom
(= in old times).
(iii) Gompoimds: anon = (in (me moment), abed (=on bed) asleep,
aloft, abroad, indeed, of a truth, by turns, perchance, perhaps.
h. Adverbs derived from Adjectives are either: (i) Old
PossessiveSy or (ii) Old Datives^ or (iii) Compounds of an
Adjective and a Preposition : —
(i) Old Possessives: else (ell-es, possessive of 0^= other), unawares,
anoe (^anet), twioe, thrice, etc
PREFIXES.
103
(ii) Old DativeB. The old English way of forming an adverb was
simply to use the dative case of the adjective — which ended in e. Thus
we had deepd, brightS, for deeply and brightly. Then the e dropped
away. Hence it is that there are in English several adverbs exactly
like adjectives. These are: fout, Ttard, right (in "Right Reverend"),
far, m, late, early, loud, high.
(iii) GompoimdB of an AdjeotiTe and a Pteposition: on high, in
▼ain, in short, at large, of late, etc.
c. Adverbs derived from Pronoims come from the pronominal
stems : who, the (or this), and he. The following is a table,
and it is important to note the beautiful correspondences : —
FBONoicnirAL
Btsms.
Place
In.
Plack
To.
Placb
From.
Time
In.
Manner.
Cause.
Who
Whe-re
Whither
Whence
When
Ho-w
Wh-y
Th-e or th-is
The-re
Thi-ther
The-nce
The-n
Th-os
Th-e
He
He-re
Hi-ther
He-nce
/
(i) How and why are two forms of the same word — ^the instrumental
case of who. How = in what way ? Why = with what reason ?
(ii) The, in the last column, is the adverbial the (A.S. th^) before a
comparative. It is the instrumental or ablative case of tTiat or thaet.
" The more, the merrier " =by that more, by that merrier. That is, the
measure of the increase in the number is the measure of the increase in
the merriment.
(iii) Thus is the instrumental case of this, and 18= in this manner.
d. Compound Adverbs are formed by adding together —
(i) Nonn and Nonn, as lengthways, endways.
(ii) Nonn and Adjective, as —
Always. Head-foremost. Otherwise.
Breast-high. Meanwhile. Sometimes.
(iii) Preposition and Nonn, as Aboveboard, outside.
(iv) Adverb and Prepositioiv as —
Hereafter. Therein. Whereupon.
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.
12. The Prefixes used in our language are of English, French,
Latin, and Greek origin.
(i) French is only a modified Latin. Hence French prefixes fall
naturally under Latin prefixes, as the oba ia onVj ^ioroi c&^^<& <2K^«c.
104 GBAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
13. English Prefixes are divided into Inseparable and
Separable. Inseparable Prefixes are those that have no mean-
ing by themselves and cannot be used apart from another word.
Separable Prefixes may be used and are used as independent
words.
14. The following are the most important
English Inseparable Prefixes: —
1. A (a broken-down form of O.E. aii=on), as —
Abed. Aloft (= in the lift or sky). A-building.
Aboard. Away. Athwart (= on the cross).
2. Be (an O.E. form of by), which has several functions : —
(i) To add an intensive force to transitive verbs, as —
Bedaub. Beseech Besmear.
Besprinkle. ( = beseek). Besmirch.
(ii) To turn intransitive verbs into transitive, as —
Bemoan. Bespeak. Bethink.
(iii) To make verbs out of nouns or adjectives, as —
Befriend. Beguile. Benumb. Betroth.
Besiege (= to take a siege or seat beside a town till it surrenders).
(iv) To combine with nouns, as —
Behalf. Bequest. Bypath.
Behest. Byname. Byword.
(v) To form part of prepositions and adverbs, as before, besides, etc
3. For (O.E. /or =Lat per) means thoroughly , and has two func-
tions: —
(i) To add an intensive meaning, as in —
Forbid. Forget. Forswear.
Fordone (= ruined). Forgive. Forlorn (= utterly lost).
Forswea/r means to auoear oui and ouif to swear to anything, hence faUdy.
Compare the Latin pefjurare; hence our peijure.
(ii) To give a negative meaning, as in forgo (wrongly spelled /orei^o),
to go without.
4. Fore = before ; as forebode, forecast.
5. Gain (O.E. gaegn, back, again), found in gainsay (to speak
against); gainstand.
PREFIXES. 105
6. Mia (O.E. mis, wrong ; and connected with the verb to miss),
as in —
Misdeed. Mislead. Mistrust. Mistake.
Oaution. — When mis occurs in French words, it is a shortened form
of mirms, less ; as in mischieff mischance, miscount, miscreant ( = non*
believer).
7. Th, the prefix of the third personal pronoun and its cognates, and
indicating something spoken of, as in —
Those. That. Thither. They.
This. There. Thence. The.
8. Un=not, as
Unholy. Undo. Unbind.
9. Wan (O.E. wan, wanting ; and connected with wane), which is
found in —
Wanton ( = wantowen, Wanhope ( = despair),
lacking education). Wantrust.
10. With (a shortened form of O.E. wither = back or against) is
found in —
Withstand. Withdraw. Withhold.
It exists also in a laUnt form in the word draiving-room, s wUMrawing-
room.
15. The following are the most important
English Separable Prefixes : —
1. After, which is found in —
Aftergrowth. Aftermath {from mow). After-dinner.
2. All (O.E. al, quite), which is found in —
Almighty. Alone (quite by one^s self). Almost.
3. Forth, found in forthcoming, forward, etc.
4. Fro (a shortened form of from), in froward.
5. In appears in modem English in two forms, as : —
(i) In, in —
Income. Insight. Instep.
Inborn. Inbred. Inlay.
(ii) Bn or em (which is a Frenchified form), in —
Endear. Entwine. Embolden.
Enlighten. Embitter.
106
GBAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Outbreak.
Outcast.
6. Of or off (which are two speUings of the same word), as —
Ofi&pring. Ofi^t.
Ofi&hoot Ofifal (that which faUt off),
7. On, as m onset, onslaught, onward.
8. Out, which takes also the form of nt, as in —
Outside. Utter.
Outpost Utmost.
9. Over (the comparative of the we in ahove\ which combines : —
(i) With nouns, as in —
Overcoat. Overflow. Overhand.
(ii) With adjectives, as in —
Over-bold. Over-merry. Over-proud.
(Shakespeare is very fond of such forms.)
(iii) With verbs, as in —
Overthrow. Overspread. Overhear.
10. Thorough or tbrongli, two forms of the same word, as in —
Throughout Through-train. Thorough-bred. Thoroughfare.
Shakespeare has ''thorough bosh, thorough brier, thorough flood, thorough fire.
11. Twl = two, in twilight^ twin, twist, etc.
12. Under, which goes : —
(i) With verbs, as in —
Underlie. UnderselL Undex^.
(ii) With nouns, as in —
Underhand. Underground. Undertone.
(iii) With other words, as in —
Underneath. Underlying.
13. Up, which goes: —
(i) With verbs, as in —
Upbear. Upbraid.
(ii) With nouns, as in —
Upland. Upstart.
(iii) With other words, as in —
Upright
Uphold.
Upshot.
Upijrord.
PREFIXES. 107
16. There are in use in our Isuiguage many Latin Prefixes ;
and many of them are of great service. Some of them, as
oiroiun (about), come to us direct from Latin ; others, like
cotmter (against), have come to us through the medium of
French. The following are the most important
Iiatin Prefixes: —
1. A, ab, aba (Fr. a, ay), atDayfrom, as in —
Avert. Abjure. Absent. Abstain.
Avaunt. Advantage (which ought to be avantage).
2. Ad (Fr. a), to, which in composition becomes ao, 9X, ag, al, an, ap,
ar, as, at, to assimilate with the first consonant of the root. The fol-
lowing are examples of each : —
Adapt. Afifect. Accord. Agree.
Aggression. Allude. Annex. Appeal
Arrive. Assimilate. Attain. Attend.
All these words come straight to us from Latin, except agreSf arrive, and
attain. The following are also French : Achieve (to bring to a chef or head),
amount, aeguairU.
3. Amb, am (ambi, about), as in —
Ambition. Ambiguous. Amputate.
4. Ante (Fr. an), before, as in—
Antedate. Antechamber. Ancestor (= antecessor).
5. BU, \A, twice, as in —
Bisect. Biscuit ( = biscoctus, twice baked).
6. dream, elrca, around, as in —
Circumference. Circulate. Circuit.
7. Cum, with, in French com, which becomes col, con, cor, conn, and
CO before a vowel, as in —
Compoimd. Collect. Content. Correct.
CounseL Countenance. Coeval. Cooperate.
(!) In cost (from oorwfofie, to "stand"); coudi (from eoUoco, I place); cull
(from colUgOf I collect) ; and cotiain (from oonsobrinus, the child of a mother's
sister), the prefix has undergone great changes
(ii) Co, though of Latin origin, can go with pnrely English words, as in eo-
worker, eo-underttanding. These are not desirable compounds.
8. Ckmtra (Fr. centre), against, which also becomes oontro and
oonnter, asin —
Contradict. Controvert. Counterbalance.
(i) In eounienoeigh and counterwork we find it in union with English roQt&.
(U) In encounter we find it converted into a toot.
108 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
9. De (Fr. de), down, from, about, as in —
Decline. Describe. Depart.
It has also two different functions. It is —
(i) n^^tive in destroy, deform, desuetude, etc.
(ii) intensive in desolate, desiccate (to dry upX etc.
10. Dls, di (Fr. d6B, de), asunder, in two, as in —
Dissimilar. Disarm. Dismember.
Differ (b becomes f). Disease. Divorce.
Defy. Defer. Delay.
(i) Dls is also Joined with English roots to make the hybrids disown, dislike,
distrust, distaste.
11. Ex, e (Fr. es, e), out of, from, as in —
Exalt. Exhale. Expatriate (jxOria, one's country).
Elect. Evade. Educe.
(i) ez has a privative sense in ex-emperor, etc
(ii) In amefid (emeHdo), cutonish (itonner), the e is disgnised.
(iii) In sample (short for exampie), scorch (O. Fr. eMoroerX and special (for
especial), the e has fallen away.
12. Extra, beyond, as in —
Extraneous. Extraordinary. Extravagant,
(i) In stranger (O. Fr. estranger, from Lat. extraneus) the e has fkllen away.
13. In (Fr. en, em), in, into, which changes into II, Im, ir, as in —
Invade. Invent (to come upon). Infer.
Illusion. Improve. Immigrate.
Irritate. Irrigate. Irradiate.
Enchant. Endure. Envoy.
(1) It unites with English roots to make the hybrids em^)ody, efoibolden, endear,
entrust, enlighten, etc
(ii) In ambush (Ital. imbosoarsl, to put one's self in a wood), the in is disguised.
14. In, not, which becomes U, im, ir, and ig, as in —
Inconvenient. Illiberal Impious. Irrelevant.
Incautious. Illegal. Impolitic. Ignoble.
(i) The English prefix nn sometimes takes its place, and forms hybrids with
Latin roots in unable, unapt, uncomfortable.
(ii) Shakespeare has unpossible, unproper, and many others.
15. Inter, Intro (Fr. entre), between, among — as in
Intercede. Interpose. Interfere.
Introduce. Entertain. Enterprise.
16. Male (Fr. man), ill, as in—
Malediction, (contracted through French into)
Malison (opposed to Benison), Maugre.
PREFIXES. 109
17. His (Fr. mes, from Latin minus), less, as in —
Misadventure. Mischance. Mischief.
Cftntion. — Not to be confounded with the English prefix mis in mis-
take, mistrust, etc.
18. Non, not, as in —
Nonsense. Non-existent. Nonsuit.
(i) The initial n has dropped ottiawnpire, formerly numpire=0. Fr. nonper=s
Lat. nonpar, not equal.
(ii) The n has fallen away likewise from 9u>ran^0, napron (connected with nap-
kin, napery), etc., by wrongly cleaving to the indefinite article a.
19. Ob, against, becomes oc, of, op, etc., as in —
Obtain. Occur. Ofifend. Oppose.
20. Pene, almost, as in —
Peninsula. Penultimate (the last but one).
21. Per (Fr. par), through, which becomes pel, as in —
Pellucid. Perform. Perjure.
Perfect. Permit. Pilgrim.
(i) Pilgrim comes from peregrinus, a person who wanders per agros, through
the fields, — by the medium of Ital. peUegrino,
(ii) Perhapi is a hybrid.
22. Post, after, as in—
Postpone. Postdate. Postscript.
(i) The post is much disguised in puny, which comes firom the French puis ni
=Lat. post naJhJ^, bom after. A "puny judge" is a junior judge, or a judge of a
later creation.
r
23. Pr», pre (Fr. pr^), before, as in—
Predict. Presume. Pretend. Prevent.
(i) It is shortened into a pr in prize, prison, apprehend, comprise (all from pre-
hendo, I seize).
(ii) It is disguised in provost (prepositus, one placed over), in preach (from prce-
diso, I speak before^ a.nd provender (from proebeo, I frirmsh).
24. FrsBter, beyond, as in —
Preternatural. Preterite (beyond the present). Pretermit.
25. Fro (Fr. pour), which becomes pol, por, pur, as in —
Pronoim. ProconsuL Procure. Protest.
Pollute. Portrait. Pursue. Purchase.
26. Se (Fr. re), back, again, which becomes red, as in —
Rebel. Reclaim. Recover. Refer.
Redeem. Redound. Readmit. Recreant.
(i) It is much disguised in rally (^re-ally), in ransom(& shortened Fr. form of re-
demption), and in runagate {=i renegade, one who has denied— negavU— his faith).
(Ii) It combines with English roots to form the hybrids relay, reset, reedlL
110 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
27. Retro, backwards — as in retrograde, retrospect.
(i) It is disguised in rear-ffuard (Ital. retro-gardia), rear, and aman,
28. Be (Fr. b6), apart, which becomes Md, as in —
Secede. Seclude. Seduce. Sedition.
29. Sub (Fr. sous or sou), under, which becomes rae, snf, snd, fnni,
mip, BUT, and bob, as in —
Subtract. Succour. Suffer. Suggest.
Summon. Supplant. Surrender. Suspend.
(i) Sub is disguised in a(^oum (trom O. Fr. aajomer, from Low Latin tvbdiuman),
and in sudden (from Latin subitanew).
(ii) It combines with English roots to form the hybrids subUti «it&ioorA:er, suh'
kit^dom, etc
80. Snbter, beneath — as in subterfuge.
81. Snper (Fr. but), above, as in —
Supernatural Superpose. Superscription.
Surface (superficies). Surname. Surtout (over-all).
(i) It is disguised in sovereign (which Milton more correctly spellH sovran}, from
Low Latin superanua.
82. TranB (Fr. ta^lB), beyond, which becomes tra, as in —
Translate. Transport. Transform. Transitive.
Tradition. Traverse. Travel Trespass.
(i) It is disguised in treason (the Fr. form of tradition, from trado {=tra/asdo),
I give up), in betray and traitor (from the same Latin root), in tranee and entrance
(Latin tranHttu, a passing beyond^ and in treeUe (from Latin diminutive transM'
lum, a little cross-beam).
83. Ultra, beyond, as in —
Ultra-Liberal Ultra-Tory. Ultramontane,
(i) In outrage (O. Fr. ouUrage) the ultra is disguised.
34. UnuB, one, which becomes nn and nni, as in —
Unanimous. Uniform. Unicom.
85. Vice (Fr. vice), in the place of, as in —
Viceroy. Vicar. Vice-chancellor. Viscount.
17. Our language possesses also a considerable number of
prefixes transferred from the Greek language, many of which
are very useful. The following are the most important
Greek Prefixes: —
1. An, a {ii.v, d), not, as in —
Anarchy. Anonymous. Apteryx (the wingless). Atheist.
2. AmpM {itfjupi), on both sides, as in —
Amphibious. Amphitheatre.
PREFIXES. Ill
3. Ana (&yc(), up, again, back, as in —
Anatomy. Analysis. Anachronism.
4. Anti (dvrQ, against or opposite to, as in —
Antidote. Antipathy. Antipodes. Antarctic.
5. Apo (dir^), away from, which also becomes ap, as in —
Apostate. Apostle. Apology. Aphelion.
6. Ar6b, aroU, ar6he {dpx^h chief, as in —
Archbishop. Archangel. Architect. Archetype.
7. Auto (a^r^s), self, which becomes aath, as in —
Autocrats Autograph. Autotype. Authentic.
8. Oata, cat (Kard), down, as in —
Catalogue. Catapult. Catechism. Cathedral
9. Dia (SicC), through, across, as in —
, Diameter. Diagram. Diagonal
(i) This prefix is disgaised in devU—trom Gr. didbdloa, the accuser or slanderer,
firom Gr. diaballeint to throw across.
10. DlB, dl (8fs), twice, as in —
Dissyllable. Diphthong. Dilemma.
11. Hsrs (8u$), ill, as in—
Dysentery. Dyspeptic (contrasts with Eupeptic).
12. Eo, ez (iK, ^1), out of, as in —
Eccentric Ecstasy. Exodus. Exotic.
13. En [if), in, which becomes el and em, as in —
Encyclical. Encomium. Ellipse. Emphasis.
14. Epl, ep (^0, upon, as in —
Epitaph. Epiphany. Epoch. Ephemeral
15. Ba (c9), well, which also becomes e7, as in —
Euphemism. Eulogy. Evangelist.
16. Heml (VOi 1^&^> as '^—
Hemisphere. Hemistich (half a line in poetry).
17. Byper {i^ip), over and above, as in —
Hyperborean. Hyperbola. Hypercritical Hypermetrical
18. Hypo, liyp (^6), under, as in —
Hypocrite. Hypotenusa Hyphen.
19. Keta, met (jucrcC), after, changed for, as in —
Metaphor. Metamorphosis. Metonymy. Method.
20. Mono, mon (fjiSvos), alone, as in —
Monogram. Monody. MobaA. ^qsi^.
112
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGHSH LANGUAGE.
21. Pan (irov), all, as in—
Pantheist. Panacea.
Panorama.
Pantomime.
22. Para {frapd), by the side of, which becomes par, as in —
Paradox.
Parallel
23. Pezl (ircpQ, round, as in —
Perimeter. Period.
Parish.
Perigee.
Parody.
Periphery.
24. Pro (irp<J), before, as in —
Prophet. Prologue. Proboscis. Problem.
25. Pros {irp6s)y towards, as in —
Prosody. Proselyte.
26. Ssni (<rvv), with, which becomes syl, 83ml, and sy, as in —
Syntax. Synagogue. Syllable.
Sympathy. Symbol. System.
18. The Suffixes employed in the English language are much
more numerous than the Prefixes, and much more useful. Like
the Prefixes, they come to us from three sources — from Old
English (or Anglo-Saxon) ; from Latin (or French) ; and from
Greek.
19. The following are the most important
English Suffixes to 19'ounB: —
1. Ard or art (= habitual), as in —
Braggart. Coward. Drunkard. Dullard.
Laggard. Niggard. Sluggard. Wizard.
2. Craft (skill), as in —
Leechcraft ( = medicine).
Woodcraft.
Priestcraft. Witchcraft.
Rimecraft (old name for Arithmetic).
3. D, t or th (all being dentals), as in —
(i) Blood (from blow, said Blade (from the same).
of flowers).
Flood (flow).
(ii) Drift (drive).
FHght (fly).
Rift (rive).
(iii) Aftermath (mow).
Death (die).
Mirth (merry).
Seed (sow).
Drought (dry).
Height (high : Milton
uses highth).
Theft (thieve).
Berth (bear).
Earth (ear = plough).
Sloth (slow).
Deed (do).
Thread (throw).
Draught (draw).
Shrift (shrive).
Weft (weave).
Dearth (dear).
Health (heal).
Tilth (till).
SUFFIXES. 113
4. Dom (O.E. dom=doom), power, office, from deman, to judge, as
in —
Dukedom. Kingdom. Halidom (=holine8s).
Christendom. Thraldom. Wisdom.
(i) In O.E. we had hisceopd&m (=bishopdom); and Garlyle has accustomed us
to raacaldom and scoundreldoin.
5. En (a diminutive), as in —
Chicken (cock). Kitten (cat). Maiden.
(i) The addition of a syllable has a tendency to modify the preceding vowel— as
in kitchen (from coofcX vixen (from /ox), and ndtionaZ (from ndHon}.
6. Er, which has three functions, to denote —
(i) An agent, as in —
Baker. Dealer. Leader. Writer.
(ii) An Instrument, as in —
Finger (from O.'E.fangan, to take). Stair (from stigan, to mount).
(iii) A male agent, as in —
Fuller (from fuUian^ to cleanse). Player. Sower.
tS" The ending er has become disguised in "beggar and sailor (not sailer ^
which is a ship). Under the influence of Norman-French, an i or y
creeps in before the r, as in collier (from coaT), lawyer ^ glazier (from
gla88\ etc.
7. Hood (O.E. b&d), state, rank, person, as in —
Brotherhood. Childhood. Priesthood. Wifehood,
(i) In Godheadf this sufiix takes the form of head.
8. Ing (originally =«on of) part, as in —
Farthing {fourth). Riding {trUh{ng=thirding), Tithing (tenth).
(i) This suffix is found as a patronymic in many prox)er names, such as Brown-
ingj Harding ; and in Kertxington, WhitHngtonf etc.
(ii) Lording (=the son of a lord) and whiting (from white) are also diminutives.
(iii) This ing is to be carefully distinguished from the ing (=ung) which was
the old suffix for verbal nouns, as clothing, learning, etc.
9. Kin (a diminutive), as in —
Bodkin. Firkin (from/oi^). Lambkin. Mannikin.
(i) It is also found in proper names, as in Dawkins (^little David), Jenkins
(sson of little John\ Hawkins (=son of little Hal), Perkins (=son of littk Peter).
10. Ung — 1+ing (both diminutives), as in —
Darling (from dear). Duckling. Gosling (goose).
Firstling. Hireling. Nestling.
(i) Every diminutive has a tendency to run into depreciation, as in ground-
ling, underling, worldling, etc.
(ii) In some words, tn^ has been weakened into y or {e, as in Johnnie, Billy,
Betty, etc
xl
114 GKAMMAR OF THE ENGUSH LANGUAGE.
11. Le or 1, as in —
Beadle (from heodan, to bid). Bundle (bind). Saddle (seat).
Settle (seat). Nail. Sail
12. Look (O.E. lao, gift, sport), which also becomes ledge, as in —
Knowledge. Wedlock. FeohUdc (battle).
(i) This Is not to be conftised with the loch and lic^ in the names of plants,
which in O.E. was leac^ and which we find in JienUoekf charlock; garlick {= spear
plant) and barley (=berelie),
13. Ness forms abstract noims from adjectives, as in —
Darkness. Holiness. Weakness. Weariness.
(i) Witness differs from the above in two respects : (a) it comes firom a verb —
vjitan, to know ; and (&) is not always an abstract noun.
(ii) This English suffix combines very easily with foreign roots, as in acute-
ness, commodUmsnesSj gracefulness, remoteness, and many others.
14. Nd (which is the ending of the present participle in O.E.), found
in —
Friend (=the loving one). Fiend (=the hating one).
Errand. Wind (from a root vd, to blow).
15. Ook (a diminutive), as in —
Bullock. Hillock. Ruddock (=redbreast).
(i) In hawk (=the seizer, firom have) this suffix is disguised.
(ii) It is also found in proper names, as in —
Pollock (from Paul). Maddox (from Matthew). Wilcox (from WiUiam).
16. II or om, which forms nouns from verbs, as in —
Bloom (from Uow). Qualm (from qudl).
Gloom (from glow). Seam (from sew).
Gleam (from glow). Team (from tow).
(i) This suffix unites with the Norman-French word rial (royal) to form the
hybrid realm.
17. Bed (mode, fash on — and also coimsel), as in —
Hatred. Kindred. Sibrede (relationship).
(i) This ending is also found in proper nouns. Thus we have Mildred=mild
in counsel; Etfielred=nohle in counsel, called also l^nrede, which does not mean
unready, but vHihout cownseL
18. Rio (O.E. rice, power, dominion) — as in bishopric
(i) In O.K we had al>botric, hevenridke, and kingric.
19. Slilp (O.E. Bdpe, shape or form), which is also spelled scape
and skip, makes abstract nouns, as in —
Fellowship. Friendship. Lordship
Landscape. Workmanship. Worship (=worthship).
(i) Milton writes ktndskip for Zandaeape.
SUFFIXES. 115
20. Stead (O.E. sttfde, place), as in—
Bedstead. Homestead. Hampstead. Berkhamstead.
21. Ster was originally the form of er, the suffix for a male agent :
it has now two functions : —
(i) It denotes an agent, as in —
Huckster (hawker). Maltster. Songster. Roadster.
(ii) It has an element of depreciation in —
Qamester. Punster. Oldster. Youngster.
(ill) We hady in Old English, booster (fern, of baker)^ toaster (weaver)^ breuo'
steTffithelstre (fiddler\ seamestre (seiver), and even hdUrlngatre (for female heU-
ringer). Most of these are now used as proper names.
(iv) Spinster is the feminine of spinnert one form of which was spindert
which then became spider,
22. Tber, dor, or ter denotes the agent — ^with the notion of duality —
as in —
Father. Mother. Sister. Brother.
Bladder (Uow), Kudder {row). Water (wet). Winter (toind).
23. Wright (from work, by metathesis of the r), as in —
Shipwright. Wainwright (=waggonwright). Wheelwright.
24. Ward, a keeper, as in —
Hayward. Steward (^sty-ward). Woodward.
(i) Ward has also the Norman-French form of guard.
(ii) In steward, the word sttge or sty meant stall for horses, cows, etc
20. The following are the most important
English Suffixes to Adjectives : —
1. Ed or d, the ending for the passive participle, as in —
Cold (—chilled). Long-eared. Lauded. Talented.
2. En, denoting material, as in —
Gk)lden. Silvern. Flaxen. Hempen.
Oaken. Wooden. Silken. Linen (from lirtf flax).
3. En, the old ending for the passive participle, as in —
Drunken. Forlorn. Molten. Hewn.
4. Em, denoting quarter, as in —
Eastern. Western. Northern. Southern.
5. Fbst (O.E. fiMBt, firm), as in-
Steadfast. Rootfast. Shamefast (wrongly 8?iamrfaced),
6. Fold (O.E. feald), as in-
Twofold. . Threefold. Bfanifold.
(1) Simple, from Lat. timpUx^ has \JBXtii^ ^« '^\bai^ qI <vnjto\j9ii ~ ^yMS^AA..
116 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
7. Ful = ftill, as in-
Hateful. NeedfuL SinfuL WOfuL
8. iBh (O.E. lBc)*has three functions ; it denotes : —
(i) Partaking in the nature of, as in —
Boorish. Childish. Churlish. Waspish.
(ii) A milder or sub-form of the quality, as in —
Blackish. Greenish. Whitish. Goodish.
(iii) A patrial relation as in —
English. Irish. Scottieh. Welsh (- WylUc).
9. Le, with a diminutive tendency, as in —
Little {lyty Brittle (from break). Fickle {unsteady),
10. Less (O.E. lelUi), loose from, as in —
Fearless. Helpless. Sinless. Toothless.
11. Like (O.E. lie), softened in ly, as in —
Childlike. Dovelike. Wifelike. Warlike.
Godly. Manly. Womanly. Ghastly (= ghostlike).
12. Ow (O.E. u and wa), as in —
Narrow. Callow. Fallow. Yellow.
(i) FaUow is connected with the adjective paUt and yeUow with the yol in
yolk,
13. Bight, with the sense of direction^ as in —
Forthright. Downright. Upright.
14. Some (O.E. sum, a form of same, like), as in —
Buxom (from &t^^an, Gladsome. Lissom (= lithesome).
to bend).
Irksome. Gamesome. Winsome.
15. Teen (O.E. tyne) = ten by addition, as m— -
Thirteen. Fourteen. Fifteen. Sixteen.
(i) In thirteen = three + ten, the r has changed its place by metathesis,
(ii) Inffieenf the hard /has replaced the soft v.
16. Ty (O.E. tig) = tens by multiplication, as in —
Twenty ( = twain-ty). Thirty ( = three-tj). Forty.
17. Ward (O.E. weard, from weortban, to become), denoting direc-
tion, as in —
Froward (from). Toward. Untoward.
Awkward (from awJc, Homeward. Seaward,
contrary).
(i) This ending, ward, has no connection with ward, a keeper. It is connected
with the verb worth in the line, *' Woe vjorth the chase, woe worth the day ! "
SUFFIXES. 117
18. Wise (O.E. wis, mode, manner), as in —
Righteous (properly rightwise). Boisterous (O.E. hostwys).
(i) The English or Teutonic ending vrise has got confused with the Lat. ending
0118 (from 08U8 = full of).
19. T (O.E. igf the guttural of which has vanished) forms adjectives
from nouns and verbs, as in —
Bloody. Crafty. Dusty. Heavy (heave).
Mighty. Silly (soul). Stony. Weary.
21. The following are the most important
English Suffixes for Adverbs: —
1. Ere, denoting place In, as in
Here. There. Where.
2. Eb or 8 (the old genitive or possessive), which becomes se and ce,
as in —
Needs. Besides. Sometimes. Unawares.
Else. Hence. Thence. Once,
(i) " I must needs go" = of need,
3. £y (O.E. lice, the dative of lie), as m—
Only {=ondy). Badly. Willingly. Utterly.
4. Ung, long, denotes direction, as in —
Darkling. Grovelling. Headlong. Sidelong.
(i) GroveUing is not really a present participle ; it is an adverb, and was in
O.E. gruflyngee.
(ii) We once had also the adverbs JUUWngs and nosdings.
5. Keal (O.E.. maelom = at times), as in —
Piecemeal. Limbmeal.
(i) Shakespeare, in " Cymbeline/' has the line —
" O that I had her here, to tear her limbmeal."
(ii) Chaucer has stotmd-meal = hour by hour ; King Alfred has stykkemaelum
= stick-meal, or here and there.
6. Om (an old dative plural), as in —
Whilom (= in old times). Seldom (from add, rare).
7. Ther, which denotes place to, as in —
Hither. Thither. Whither.
8. Ward or wards, which denotes direction, as in —
Homeward. Homewards. Backwards. Downwards.
9. Wlae (O.E. wis, manner, mode), as in —
Anywise. Nowise. Otherwise. Likewise.
Some people are wise *, and some «x^ o\2MXHt\ai^.^
«<i
118 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGK
22. The following are the most important
English Suffixes for Verbs: —
1. Le or 1 has two functions : —
(i) Frequentative, as in—
Dabble (c^X Grapple (gfmb). Waddle (iMUie).
Dribble (oHp). Drizzle (from drvlaa'n.i to fall). Jostle.
(ii) Diminutive, as in—
Dazzle i6x3M\ Dibble (dip). Dwindle.
Gabble. Niggle. Sparkle.
2. Er or r adds a frequentative or intensive force to the original-
verb, as in —
Batter (6ca«). Chatter. Glitter (^rZow). Flutter {fi'd).
Glimmer {gUam), Clatter. Sputter («2i>t<).
Stagger. Stammer. Stutter. Welter.
Er has also the function of making causative verbs out of adjectives, as lim^tr
{}jong\ lower, hinder.
3. En or n makes causatiye verbs out of noims and adjectives, as in —
Brighten. Fatten. Lighten. Lengthen.
Broaden. Gladden. Soften. Sweeten.
4. K has a firequentatiye force, as in —
Hark {hear). Stalk {steal). Talk {teU).
5. S or Be has a cansative force, as in —
Cleanse {dean). Curse. Rinse (from hremn).
23. The Suffixes of Latin origin are of great importance ; and
they have been of great use for several centuries. Many of
them — ^indeed, most of them — have been influenced by passing
through French mouths, and hence have undergone consider-
able change. The following are the chief
Latin and French Su£Elzes for iN'otins: —
1. Age (Lat aticum), which forms either alMrtract or collective
nouns, as in —
Beverage. Courage. Carnage. Homage.
Marriage. Personage. Vassalage. Vintage.
(i) It unites easily with English roots to form hybrids, as in JxmAage, mileage^
tonnage, poundage, tiUage, shrinkage.
2. An, aln, or ane (Lat. finns), connected with, as in —
Artisan. Pagan. Publican. Roman.
Chaplain. Captain. Humane. Mundane.
(i) The suffix is disguised in sovereign (0. Fr. soveraln), which has been wrongly
supposed to have something to do with reign; in warden, citizen, surgeon, etc.
Milton always spells iovereign, sovran.
SUFFIXES. 119
3. Al or dl (Lat. fills), possessing the quality of, as in-
Animal. Cardinal Canal Channel
Hospital Hostel Hotel Spital.
(i) CaruU and channel are two different forms— doublets— of the same. So are
catUe ajid ehattela (capitalia).
(ii) Hospital, spital, hostel, hotel, are four forms of the one Latin word hospit-
alium. (jOstler is a shorter form of hosteller^ with a dropped h.)
4. Ant or ent (Latin antem or entem), denotes an agent, as in —
Assistant. Servant. Agent. Student.
5. Ance, ancy, or ence, ency (Lat. antla, entia), form abstract nouns,
as in —
Abundance. Chance. Distance. Brilliancy.
Diligence. Indulgence. Constancy. Consistency,
(i) Chavtce comes firom late Lat. cadentia= a,ii accident. Cadence is a doublet.
6. Ary, ry, or er (Lat. arlom), a place where a thing is kept, as in —
Apiary [apis, a bee). Armoury. Granary. Sanctuary.
Treasury. Vestry. Larder. Saucer.
(i) The ending ry unites freely with English words to form hybrids, as in
cookery t piggery^ robbery,
(ii) In^/ewry, jetoeUery (or jewelry\ poultry ^ peaeamiryf cavalry, the ry has a col-
lective meaning.
7. Ary, ler, eer, or er (Lat. arlus), denotes a person engaged in some
trade or profession, as in —
Commissary. Notary. Secretary. Statuary.
Brigadier. Engineer. Mountaineer. Mariner,
(i) This ending is disguised in cihan>cellor (cancellaritis), vUxur^ butler {^bottler),
usher (pstiarius, a doorkeeper), premier, etc.
8. Ate (Lat. atns, past participle ending), becoming in French e or ee,
denotes —
(i) An agent, as in—
Advocate. Curate. Legate. Private,
(ii) The object of an action, as in —
Grantee. Legatee. Trustee. Vendee.
A^ In grcmdu the passive signification is not retained.
9. Oe (Lat. dum, tium, or tia) forms abstract nouns, as —
Benefice. Edifice. Sacrifice.
Hospice. Palace. Grace.
10. El, le or 1 (Lat. filns, eUiu, etc.), a diminutive, as in —
Angle (a little comer). Buckle (from hucca^ the cheek).
Castle. Chapel libel Pommel Title. Seal
(i) A bxuikle used to have a cast of the human face.
(ii) CaaUe, from Lat. ooefoKum, a little fort, firom castrum, a fort
(iU) Libel, ttom Lat libellu8y a little book {liber).
(iv) Pommel, trom Lat. ponvuM, an apple.
(v) Seal from Lat «iflfittu»u
120 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
11. Em (Lat. ema), denoting place, as in —
Cavern. Cistern. Lantern. Tavem.
12. Et, ette, and let (Fr. et, ette) all diminutives, as in —
Bassinette. Bufifet. Chaplet. Coronet.
Goblet. Gibbet Lancet. Leveret.
Puppet Trumpet Ticket Turret
(i) The let i8=l + et, and is found in bracelet, fillet, ctUlet, etc. It also unites
with English ivords to form hybrids— as in hanUet, Imfiet, ringlet, streaTnlet, etc.
(ii) This ending is disguised in ballot (a small baU), chariot (car), parrot
(=perroguet), etc
13. Ebb (late Lat. Issa), a female agent, as in —
Empress. Governess. Marchioness. Sorceress.
(i) It unites with English words to form the hybrids mwrderees, eempstresa
(The last is a double feminine, as seamestre is the old word.)
14. Ice, ise, or ess (Lat. tia; Fr. esse), as in —
Avarice. Cowardice. Justice. Merchandise.
Distress. Largess. Noblesse. Riches.
(i) It is a significant mark of the carelessness with which the English language
has always been written, that the very same ending should appear in three
spellings in largess, noblesse, riches.
(ii) Riclies is a fSEilse plural : it is an abstract noun, the Firench form being richesse,
15. Ice (Lat Icem ace of nouns in x), which has also the forms of
lee, ace, as in —
Chalice. Pumice. Mortise. Furnace.
(i) The suffix is much disguised in radish (=the root, from radlcem}^
(ii) It is also disguised in partridge and judge (jiidlcem),
16. Ide (Lat. icnlas, ellns, ulns), which appears also as eel and eel,
a diminutive, as in —
Article (a little joint). Particle. Receptacle. Versicle.
Parcel ( pa/rticella). Morsel (from mordeo, I bite).
Damsel {dominiceUaf a little lady).
(i) The ending is disguised in rule (regiUa), carbuncle (fh>m oarbo, a coal), uncle
{avunculus), and vessel (from vas).
(ii) Parcel and particle are doublets. •
17. Ine or In (Lat Inus) i^lated to, as in —
Divine (noun). Cousin.
(i) Cousin is a contraction — through French— of the Latin eonsobrinvs,
the child of a mother's sister.
(ii) The ending is disguised in pilgrim, flrom peregrinvs -» from per agros,
through the fields.
18. Ion (Lat. Ifinem), which appears also as tUm, slon, and, from
French, as Bon, Bomj denotes an action, as in —
SUFFIXES. 121
Action. Opinion. Position. Vacation.
Potion. Poison. Benediction. Benison.
Redemption. Ransom. Malediction. Malison.
(i) PotioUy poison, and the three other pairs are doublets — the first having
come through the door of books straight firom the Latin, the second through
the mouth and ear, from French.
(ii) Venison (himted flesh, from venationem), season (sationein, the sowing
time), belong to the above set.
19. Kent (Lat. mentnm) denotes an instrument or an act^ as in —
Document. Instrument. Monument. . Ornament.
(i) It combines easily with English words to make hybrids, as atonement,
odiknowledgmentf bewitehmentf fulfilment,
20. Kony (Lat. monlom) makes abstract nouns, as —
Acrimony. Matrimony. Sanctimony. Testimony.
21. Oon or on (Fr. on ; Ital. one), an augmentative, as in —
Balloon. Cartoon. t)ragoOii. Saloon.
Flagon. Million. Pennon. Glutton.
Clarion. Galleon. Trombone. Truncheon.
(i) Augmontatives are the opposite of diminutives. Contrast balloon and ballot ;
gaUeon and galliot (a small galley).
(ii) A balloon is a large ball ; a cartoon a big carte ; a dragoon a large dragon ;
a saloon a large hall (salle); flagon (O. Fr. flasoon), a large flask ; mUliony a big
thousand (mille); pennon, a large pen or feather ; galleon, a large galley; trom-
bone, a large trump-et ; truncheon, a large staff (or trunk) of office.
22. dry, (Lat. orlom), which appears also as or, our, and er, and
denotes place, as in —
Auditory. Dormitory. Refectory. Lavatory.
Mirror. Parlour. Dormer. Manger.
(i) Mirrw is contracted by the French firom mxratarium,; parlour from par-
UUorium; manger fh>m manducatorium=the eating-place. Dormer is short
for dormitory, from dormitorium.
23. Onr (Lat. or ; Fr. ear), forms abstract or collective nouns, as
in—
Ardour. (Ulamour. Honour. Savour.
(i) The ending resumes its French form in grandeur,
(ii) It forms a hybrid in behaviour.
24. Or or our (Lat. orem ; Fr. eur) denotes an agent, as in —
Actor. Governor. Emperor. Saviour.
(i) This ending is disguised in interpreter, labourer, preacher, etc.
(ii) A large number of nouns which used to end in ofur or or, took er through
the influence of the English suffix er. They were " attracted." Vs^X^oai^ Vscvcu
122 GRAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
25. T (Lat. tos— the ending of the past participle) indicates a oomideted
acty as in —
Act. Fact. Joint. Suit.
(i) The t in Latin has the same origin and perfoims the same ftinction as the d
in English (as in dead, finithed, and other past participles, etc.)
(ii) The ending is disguised in /eat, which is a doublet of Jiust, in Jhtit (Lat.
fruct-us), comftt {=coTifeet)f eounter/eit (^eontrajiiet^m).
26. Ter (Lat. ter) denotes a person, as in —
Master (contracted from magitter). Minister.
(i) MagUUr comes from magiSf more, which contains the root of fMignvs, great ;
minxsUr from minuSf less.
27. Tory (Lat. terlom) denotes condition, as in —
Mastery. Ministry.
28. Trix (Lat. triz) denotes a female agent, as in —
Executrix. Improvisatrix. Testatrix.
(i) This ending is disguised in empress (Ft. impiratrice from Lat. impenUrix);
and in nurse (Fr. nourrice, Lat. nutrix).
29. Tude (Lat. tudlnem), denotes condition, as in—
Altitude. Beatitude. Fortitude. Multitude,
(i) In custom, from Lat. consuUudinem, the ending is disguised.
30. Ty (Lat. tatem ; Fr. t^) makes abstract nouns, as in —
Bounty. Charity. Cruelty. Poverty.
Captivity. Frailty. Fealty. Vanity.
(i) Bounty (honU), poverty (jpauvreti), fraiUy, and feciUy come, not directly
from Latin, but through French.
81. Ure (Lat. nra) denotes an action, or the result of an action, as
in —
Aperture. Cincture. Measure. Picture.
32. T (Lat. ia ; Fr. ie) denotes condition or faculty, as in —
Company. Family. Fury. Victory.
(i) This suffix unites easily with English words in «r— as bakery , fishery, rob-
bery, etc.
(ii) It stands for Lat. inm in au^ry, remedy, study, subsidy, etc.
(iii) It represents the Lat. ending atoa in attorney, deputy, aUy, quarry,
24. The Latin (or French) suffixes employed in our language
to make Adjectives are very useful The following are the
chief
Latin Suffixes for Adjectives.
1. Aceons (Lat acens) = made of, as in —
Alliaceous (clayey). Farinaceous {floury).
SUFFIXES. 123
2. Al (Lat ftlia) = l>eloii«liig to, as in-
Legal. Regal. Loyal Royal
(i) Loyai and royal are the same words as legal and regal; but, in passing
through French, the hard g hafi been reilned into a y.
3. An, ane, or aln (Lat. anus and aneus) = connected wltli, as in —
Certain. Human {homo). Humane. Pagan [pagus, a
district).
(i) This ending disguises itself in mizzen (mecUanus) ; in surgeon (fihirurgianus) ;
and in sexton (contracted trom sacristan).
(il) In champaign {level), and foreign {foraneus), this ending greatly disguises
itself. In strange (a^raneus), still more. All have been strongly influenced in
their passage through the French.
4. Ant, ent (Lat. antem, entem, ace. of pres. part.)) as in —
Current {citrrOj I rim). Distant. President. Discordant.
5. Ar (Lat. ftrls) which appears also as er = belonging to, as in —
Regular. Singular. Secular. Premier.
(i) Premier (Lat. primaritts), has received its present spelling by passing
through French.
6. Ary (Lat. Srlus), which also takes the secondary formations of
arlons and arlan = belonging to, as in —
Contrary. Necessary. Gregarious. Agrarian.
7. Atic (Lat ftticoB) = belonging to, as in —
Aquatic. Fanatic (farmm). Lunatic.
I
8. Able, Ible, ble (Lat ftbills, Sbllls, IbUls) = capable of being,
as in —
Amiable. Culpable. Flexible. Movable.
(i) Feeble (Lat JUMUs^ worthy of being wept over), comes to us through the
O. Fr. floihle,
(ii) This suffix unites easily with English roots to form hybrids, like eatable^
drinkaJ>le, teachable^ gtUlihle. Garlyle has also doaible.
9. Fie, ble (Lat plex, from plico, I fold) = the English suffix— fold,
as in —
Simple (=<mc/oW). Double. Triple. Treble.
10. Esque (Lat iscns ; Fr. esque) = partaldng of, as in-
Burlesque. Grotesque {grotto). Picturesque.
(i) This ending is disguised in Da/nish, French, etc. ; and in morris (dance)
= Moresco (or Moorish).
11. Ic (Lat lens) = belonging to, as in—
Gigantic. Metallic. Public {popultis). Rustic.
(i) This ending is disguised in indigo (from Indious [colour] = (he Indian
colour.)
124 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
12. Id (Lat. Idus) = baying the quality of; as in —
Acid. Frigid. Limpid. Morbid.
13. ne, 11 (Lat. Dls), often used as ajmu^^^ sufiQx, as in —
Docile. Fragile. Mobile. CiviL
(i) FiugiUt in passing through French, lost the (jf— which was always hard^-^
and became yraiL
(li) The suffix He is disguised in gentU and mbtU.
(iii) Gentik, gentle, and genteel, are all different forms of the same word.
(iv) Kennel ( = cantle) is really an adjective from canis,
14. Ine (Lat Inns) = l>elonglng to, as in —
Canine. Crystalline. Divine. Saline.
(i) In marine, the ending, by passing through French, has acquired a French
pronunciation.
15. Ive (Lat Ivub) = inclined to, as in —
Abusive. Active. Fugitive. Plaintive.
(i) This ending appears also as i^, by passing through French, as in ootti^
(= captivus); and in the nouns plaintiff and bailiff,
(ii) It also disguises itself as a y in hasty, jolly, testy, which in O. Fr. were
hastif, jollif, testi/(= heady).
(iii) It unites with the English word taXk to form the hybrid taXkative,
16. Lent (Lat lentos) = full of, as in —
Corpulent. Fraudulent Opulent (opes). Violent {vis),
17. Ory (Lat Orius) = full of, as in —
Amatory. Admonitory. Illusory.
18. Ose, 0U8 (Lat Osos) = fUll of, as in —
Bellicose. Grandiose. Verbose. Curious,
(i) The form in ous has been influenced by the French ending ewa,
19. 0u8 (Lat us) = belonging to, as in —
Anxious. Assiduous. Ligenuous. Omnivorous.
(i) It unites with English words to form the hybrids wondrous, IxiisUroM,
righteous (which is an imitative corruption of the O.E. rihttpts).
20. Und (Lat nndus) = foil of, as in —
Jocund. Moribimd. Rotund.
(i) Botund has been shortened into round. Second is, through French, firom
Lat secundtbs (from seqtuyr, I follow) — the number that follows the first Ventus
seeundtLS is a fS&vourable wind, or a "wind ihab follows fiost"
(ii) This ending is slightly modified in vagabond and seoond.
21. U10U8 (Lat tuns) = foil of, as in-
Querulous (full of comjplamt). Sedulous.
SUFFIXES. 125
25. The following are the chief
Latin Suffixes for Verbs.
1. Ate (Lat. atnm, supine), as in —
Complicate. Dilate. Relate. Supplicate.
(i) Assassinate (firom the Arabic luuhishj a preparation of Indian hemp, whose
effects are similar to those of opium) is a hybrid.
2. Esce (Lat. esco), a frequentative suffix, as is —
Coalesce (to grow together). Effervesce (to boil up).
3. Fy (Lat. fico ; Fr. fie — from Lat. /acto)= to make, as in —
Beautify. Magnify. Signify.
4. Iflh (connected with Lat eBCo)=to make, as in —
Admonish. Establish. Finish. Nourish.
5. Ete, ite, t (Lat itnm, etom, tom), with an active function, as in-
Complete. Delete. Expedite. Connect
26. The suffixes which the English language has adopted
from Greek are not numerous ; but some of them are very useful.
Most of them are employed to make nouns. The following are
the chief
Greek Suffixes.
1. T (Gr. la), makes abstract nouns, as in-^
Melancholy. Monarchy. Necromancy. Philosophy.
(i) Fancy is a compressed form of phantasy (phatUasla = imagination),
(ii) The Iliad is the story of Ilion (Troy), written by Homer.
2. Ic (Gr. iic<(s) =beloiigliig to, as in —
Aromatic. Barbaric. Frantic. Graphic.
Arithmetic. Schismatic Logic. Music
(i) With the addition of the Latin alis, adjectives are formed from some of
these words, as logical, mtmoaZ, etc.
(ii) The plural form of some adjectives also makes nonns of them, as in politics,
ethics, physics. In Ireland we find also logics.
(iii) Arithmetic, logic, and miwic are from Greek norms ending in ike.
3. Sis (Gr. o-is)-* action, as in —
Analysis. Emphasis. Genesis. Synthesis.
(i) In the following words sis has become sy, as hypocrisy, poesy, palsy (short
for paralysis).
(ii) In the following the is has dropped away altogethet~eUvp«t^ <|>Voat,
126 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
4. Ua or m (Gr. fia), iMWilve suffix, as in —
Diorama. Dogma. Drama {something done). Schism.
Baptism. Barbarism. Despotism. Egotism.
(i) In dieuiem and system tiie a has dropped off; in scheme and fkeme it has
been changed into an e.
(ii) Schism comes trom schizo, I cut. The ending in ismos is most frequent.
(iii) This ending unites freely with Latin words to form hybrids, as in deum,
mannerism, purism, provincialism, vulgarism, etc
5. St (Gr. o"n}s)« agent, as in —
Baptist. Botanist. Iconoclast (image-breaker).
(i) This suffix has become a very useful one, and is largely employed. It forms
numerous hybrids with words of Latin origin, as abolitionist, excursionist, edueO'
tionist, journalist, prote<Aionist, jurist, socialist, specialist, royalist,
6. T or te (Gr. ti7s)= agent, as in —
Comet. Planet. Poet. Apostate.
(i) Comet means a long-haired star; planet, a wanderer; poet, a maJur (in
Northern English poets called themselves " Makkers ") ; an apostate, a person
who has fiillen avxty,
(ii) This ending is also found in the form of ot and it, as in idiot, patriot,
hermit.
7. Ter or tre (Gr. rpov), denotes an instrument or place, as in —
Metre. Centre. Theatre.
8. I8k (Gr. iffKos), a diminutive, as in —
Asterisk (a little star). Obelisk (a small spit).
9. Ize or iae (Gr. iC«e) makes factitive verbs, as in —
Baptise. Criticise. Judaize. Anglicize.
(i) This ending combines with Latin words to form the hybrids minimise,
realise, etc
127
WORD - BRANCHING.
When our language was young and uninfluenced by other
languages, it had the power of growing words. These words,
like plants, grew from a root; and
all the words that grew from the same
root had a family likeness. Thus
bym-an, the old word for to hum,
gave us brimstone, bro-wn (which is
the burnt colour), brunt» brand,
brandy, and brindle. These we
might represent to ourselves, on the
blackboard, as growing in this way.
But, unfortunately, we soon lost this
power. From the time when the Nor-
mans came into this country in 1066, the language became less
and less capable of growing its own words. Instead of produc-
ing a new word, we fell into the habit of simply taking an old
and ready-made word from French, or from Latin, or from
Greek, and giving it a place in the language. Instead of the
Old English word fairhood, we imported the French word
beauty ; instead of forewit, we adopted the Latin word cau-
tion ; instead of licheresty we took the Greek word cem.etery.
And so it came about that in course of time we lost the power
of growing our own new words. The Greek word asterisk
has prevented our making the word starkin ; the Greek name
astronomy has kept out star-oraft ; the Latin word omnibus
has stopped our even thinking of folkwain; and the name
vocabulary is much more familiar to our ears than word-
hoard* Indeed, so strange have som^a ol o\a <y«TL ^^afesc^^
128
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
English words become to us, that sentences composed entirely
of English words are hardly intelligible; and, to make them
quickly intelligible, we have to translate some of the English
words into Greek or into Latin. It is well, however, for us to
become acquainted with those pure English words which grew
upon our own native roots, and which owe nothing whatever
to other languages. For they are the purest, the simplest, the
most homely and the most genuine part of our language ; and
from them we can get a much better idea of what our language
once was than we can from its present very mixed condition.
The following are the most important
ENGLISH ROOTS AND BRANCHES (OR DERIVATIONS).
Ac, an oak — acorn, Acton, Uckfield.
Bac-an, to bake — baker, baxter i (a woman
baker), batch.
Ban-a, a slayer — bane, baneful ; ratsbane,
henbane.
Bead-an, to pray — bedesman; beadle;
bead (" to bid one's beads " was to say
one's prayers ; and these were marked
off by small round balls of wood or glass
—now called heads — stnmg upon a
string) ; forbid.
Beat-an, to strike — beat, bat (a short
cudgel) r battle ; beetle (a wooden bat
for beating clothes with) ; batter (a kind
of pudding).
Beorg-an, to shelter — ^burrow, bury (noun
in Canterbury — and verb) ; burgh,
burgher ; burglar (a house-robber) ; har-
bour. Cold Harbour ; 2 harbinger (a per-
son sent on in front to procure lodg-
ings) ; borrow (to raise money on secur-
ity),
Bfo-axi, to bear— bear, bier, bairn ; birth,
berth; brood, brother, breed, bird;'
burden ; barrow.
Bdt-an, to make good— better, best ; boot
(in "to boot"="to the good"), boot-
less.
Bind-an, to bind— band, bond, bondage ;
bundle ; tooodbine ; bindweed.
Bit-an, to bite— bit ; beetle ; bait ; bitter.
Bla'w-an, to puff— bladder, blain (chil-
blain), blast, blaze (to proclaim), blazon
(a proclamation), blare (of a trumpet) ;
blister ; blot, bloat.
Blow-an, to blossom — blow (said of JUno-
ers) ; bloom, blossom ; blood, blade ;
blowsy.
Brec-an, to break— break, breakers ; brakes
bracken ; breach, brick ; break -fast ;
brook (=the water which breaks up
through the ground); brittle (= brickie
or breakable); bray (where the hard
guttural has been absorbed).
Breow-an, to brew— brew, brewer; broth,
brose; bread (perhaps).
1 Compare brewater, a woman brewer, spivMert webat&r, and others. Brewster, Baxter,
and Webster are now only used as proper names.
2 Cold Harbour was the name given to an inn which provided merely shelter without
provisions. There are seventy places of this name in England. Many of them stand
on the great Roman roads ; and they were chiefly the ruins of Roman villas used by
travellers who carried their own bedding and provisions. See Isaac Taylor's * Words
and Places,* p. 256.
* Slid or bird was originally the young of any animal.
WORD-BRANCHING.
129
Bng-an, to bend— 1m>w, elbow ;1 bough;
bight ; buxom (O.K. bocsom, flexible or
obedient). The hard g in b^n appears
as a w in how, as a gh in hough, as a y
in bay, as a k in buxoin—lmh-^om,
Bym-an, to bum— bum, brown; brunt,
brimstone ; brand, brandy ; brindled.
Catt, a cat— catkin; kitten, kitling; cater-
pillar (the hairy cat, from Lat. pUosus,
hairy), caterwaul.
Ceapi-an, to buy— cheap, cheapen; chop
(to exchange) ; a chopping sea ; chap,
chapman; chaffer; Bastcheap, Cheap-
side, CHiepstow (=3 the market stow or
place), Chippenham.3
Cenn-an, to produce— kin, kind, kindred ;
kindly; kindle.
Ceow-an, to chew— chew; cheek; jaw
(=chaw); jowl; chaw-lxioon; cud (= the
chewed). Compare suthe and svda.
Cleov-an, to split— cleave, cleaver ; cleft ;
clover (split grass).
Clifl-an, to stick to — cleave; clip (for
keeping i>apers together) ; claw (by
which a bird eUavea to a tree) ; club (a
set of men who cleave together).
CnAw-an, to know— ken, know (sken-ow
— ow being a dim.) ; knowledge.
Cnotta, a knot— knot, knit, net (the k
having been dropped for the eye, as well
as for the ear).
Cum-an, to know or to be able — can, con ;
cunning; uncouth.
Cweth-an, to say — quoth ; bequeath.
Cwic, alive— qtdck, quicken; quickset;
quicklime; quicksilver; to cut to the
quick.
DItol-an, to divide— deal (verb and noun),
dole, deal ($aid of wood) ; dale, dell (the
original sense being cUift, or separated).
Dem-an, to judge — deem, doom; demp-
ster (the name for a judge in the Isle of
Man); doomsday; kingdom.
De&r, dear— dearth ; darling ; endear.
Ddan, to act— do ; don, doff, dup (=sdo
up or op-en) ; dout (» do out or put out) ;
deed. Compare mow, mead; sow, seed.
Drag-an, to draw — drag, draw, dray
(three forms of the same word); draft
(draught) ; drain ; dredge ; draggle ;
drawl.
Drif-an, to push— drive; drove; drift,
adrift
Drige, dry— dry (verb and adj.) ; drought ;
dmgs (originally dried plants),
Drinc-an, to soak— drink ; drench (t^o
make to drink). Compare sit, set ; fall,
fell, etc
Drip-an, to drip — drip, drop, droop;
dribble, driblet
Dug-an, to be good for— do (in "How
do you do?" and "That will do");
doughty.
E&c, also — eke (verb and adv.) ; ekename
(which became a nickname ; the n hav-
ing dropped from the article and clung
to the noun).
Ei^ eye— Egbert {^bright^ed); daisy
{=day'8eye)\ window (= wind-eye).
Eri-an, to plough— ear (the old word for
•plough) ; earth (= the ploughed).
Far-an, to go or travel— far, fare ; wel&re,
fieldfare, thoroughfare ; ferry : ford.
Feng- an, to catch— fang, finger, new-
fangled (catching eagerly after new
things).
Fe6wer, four— farthing ; firkin ; fourteen ;
forty.
Fledg-an, to flee— fly, flight ; flea ; fledged.
Fledi-an, to float— fleet (noun, verb, and
adj.); float; ice-floe; afloat; flotsams
{things found floating on the waUr after
a wreck),
F6d-a, food— feed; food, fodder, foster;
fath-er ; forage (— fodderageX forager ;
foray (an excursion to get food).
Fredn, to love— freond=: friend (the pres.
part.) a lover ; Pri-day (the day of Friya,
the goddess of love) ; friendship, etc
(}al-an, to sing— gale, yell ; nightingale.*
Gang-an, to go — gang, gangway; ago.
(The words gaJte and gait do not come
firom this verb, but fh>m get.)
Gnag-an, to bite— gnaw (the g has be-
1 Elbows ell-bow. The ell was the forepart of the arm.
s The same root is found in the Scotch Kippen and the Danish CopenAa^en^ Mer-
chants' Haven.
8 "Flotsam and Jeiaam" mean the floating things and the things thrown over-
board fh>m a ship. Jetsam comes from Old Fr. jetter, to throw. (Hence also "jet of
water" v jetty, etc. Jetsam is a hybrid — earn being a Scandinavian sufiix.
4 The n in nightingale is no part of the word. It is intrusive and non-organic ; as
it also is in passenger, messsnger, porringer, etc
130
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
come a to) ; gnat ; nag (to teaseX con-
nected with naiL
Oraf-an, to dig or cut— grave, groove,
grove (the original sense was a lane cut
through trees) ; graft, engraft ; engrave,
engraver ; carve (which is another form
of the verb grave).
Grip-an, to seize — grip, gripe; grasp;
grab; grope.
Ojrrd-an, to surround— gird, girdle ; gar-
den, yard, vineyard, hopyard.
Hael-an, to heal — hale; holy, hallow.
All - hallows ; health ; hail ; whole,i
wholesome ; wassail (sWaea h41 !.» Be
whole 1)
Hebb-an, to raise— heave, heave-offering ;
heavy (sthat requires much heaving);
heaven.
Hlaf, bread— loaf ; lord (hlaford ^ loaf-
ward) ; lady (= hlaf-dige, from dig-an, to
knead) ; Lammas (k Loaf-mass, Aug. 1 ;
a loaf was offered on this day as the
offering of the first-flruits).
Leic, a leek— house-leek ; garlic; hem-
lock.
Liog-an, to lie— lie; hyr, layer; lair;
outlay.
Loda, a guide— lead (the verb) ; lode-star,
lode-stone (also written loadstone).
Mag-an, to be able— may, main (in "might
and main "), might, mighty.
Mang, a mixture — a-mong ; mongrel ;
mingle; cheesemonger.
llaw-an, to cut— mow ; math, aftermath ;
mead, meadow (the places where grass is
mowed).
M6n-a, the moon — month; moonshine.
(This word comes fi-om a very old root,
ma, to measure. Our Saxon forelkthers
measured by moons and by nightSj as
we see in the words fortniglUt se'nnight.)
NaeddrS, a snake — adder. The n has
dropped off firom the word, and has ad-
hered to the article. Compare apron,
ftom naperon (compare with napkin^
napery) ; nmpire, from numpire. The
opposite example of the n leaving the
article and adhering to the noun, is
found in nag, from an ag ; nickname
Arom an ekename.
Naau. a nose— nose, naze, ness (all three
different forms of the same word, and
found in the Kaie, Bheemaai, etc.);
nostril s nose-thirl (flrom thirliam^ to
bore a hole), nozzle ; noeegay.
Penn-an. to shut up or enclose— pen, pin
(two forms of the same word) ; pound,
pond (two forma of the same word):
impound.
Pic, a point— pike, peak (two forms of the
same word) ; pickets (stakes driven into
the ground to tether horses to); pike,
pickerel (the fish) ; peck, pecker.
R&ed-an, to read or guesa— rede (advice) ;
riddle; Ethelred (=* noble in counsel);
Unready (ssUnrede, without counsel);
Mildred (=mild in counsel).
Re&f^ clothing, spoil ; redfl-an, to rob— rob,
robber; reave, bereave; reever; robe.
Ripe, ripe— reap (to gather what is ripe).
Sc&d-an, to divide — shed (to part the
hair); watershed.
Sceap-an, to form or fashion— shape ; ship
(the snfflx in Jriendihip, etc.) ; scape
(the suffix in landscape, etc)
Sce6t-an, to throw — shoot, shot, shut
(8 to shoot the bolt of the door) ; sheet
(that which is throum over a bed) ; shut-
ter, shuttle ; scud.
Sc&r-an, to cut— shear, share, sheer, shire,
shore (all forms of the same word) ; scar,
scare; score (the twentieth notch in
the tally, and made larger than the
others); scarify, sharp; short, shirt,
skirt (three forms of the same word);
shred, jMtsherd (the same word, with
the r transposed) ; sheriff (»scir-ger6£&,
reeve of the shire); scrip, scrap, scrape.
The soft form ah belongs to the southern
English dialects : the bard forms, ac and
ak, to the northern.
Scnf-an, to push— shove, shovel, shuffle ;
scuffle; sheaf; scoop.
Sett^n, to se^ or make sit— set, seat;
settle, saddle ; Somerset, i>orset.
Slag-an, to strike— slay (the hard g has
been refined into a yX slaughter; slog,
sledge (in sledge-hammer).
Slip-an, to slip— slop ; slipper, sleeve (into
which the arm is elipped).
Snic-an, to crawl — sneak, snake, snail
(here the hard guttural has been refined
away).
Spell, a story or message— spell (s to give
1 The w in whole is intrusive and non-organic, as in vfhoopf and in wun (=one, so
pronounced, but not so written). Before the year 1500 wTiole was always written hole ;
and in this form it ia seen to be a doublet of Aa2e. Holy is simply hole+y.
WORD-BRANCHING.
131
an account of or tell the story of the
letters in a word) ; spell-bound ; gospel
(= God's spell).
Stearc, stiff— stark; strong (a nasalised
form of stark); string (that which is
strongly tYfiated); strength; strangle.
Stede, a place-Hstead, instead, homestead,
farm-steading; steady; steadfkst; be-
stead: Hampstead.
Stic'i-an, to stick— stick, stitch (two forms
of the same wordX stake, stock, stock-
ade; stock-dove; stock-fish (fish dried
to keep in stock) ; stock-still.
Stig-an, to climb— stair; stile; stirrup
(=: stigrdpy or rope for rising into the
saddle) ; sty (in pig-sty).
Stow, a place — bestow; stowage, stowa-
way ; C%«pstow (= the place where a
cheap or market is held); Bristol (the
1 and w being interchangeable).
St^-an, to direct— steer, stem ; steerage.
Snndri-an, to part — sunder; sundry;
asunder. (Compare sever and several,)
Sweri-an, to declare — swear, answer (=
andswerian, to declare in opposition or
in reply to), forswear.
Taec-an, to show— teach, teacher: token
(that which is shown); taught (when
the hard c reappears as a gh).
Tell-an, to count or recount— tell ; tale,i
talk ; toll : teller.
Teoh-an (or tednX to draw— tow, tug
(two forms of the same word, the hard
guttural having been preserved in the
one) ; wanton (= witiiout right upbring-
ing). Compare wanhope s= despair;
wantrust ~ mistrust.
Thaec, a roof— thatch ; deck.
Tred-an, to walk— tread, treadle ; trade ;
tradesman, trade-win.
Truwa, good Ikith— true; truth, troth, be-
troth.
Twa, two— two, twin, twain; twelve (=
two 4- lufan, ten) ; twenty ; between ;
twig ; twiddle ; twine, twist, etc.
Waci-an, to be on one's guard — wake,
wat<ch (two forms of the same word);
awake, wakefUl.
Wad-an, to go— wade ; waddle ; Watling
Street (the road of the pilgrims). The
Eng. word wade is of the same origin as
the Lat. vade in eixide, invade^ etc
Wana, a deficiency — wan, wane; want,
wanton ; wanhope (the old word for des-
pair).
Wef-an, to weave — ^weave, weaver; web,
Webster (a woman-weaver); cobweb;
woof, weft (▼, b, and f, being all labials).
War, a state of defence— war, wary, aware
(= on one's guard); warfare {going to
war); ward, guard (a Norman -French
doublet of ward); warden, guardian
(the same).
Wit-an, to know — wit, to wit ; wise, wis-
dom ; wistful ; witness ; Witena-gemote
(= the Meeting of the Wise) ; y-wis (the
past participle, wrongly ^Titten I wis),
Wraest-an, to wrest — wrest, wrestle;
wrist.
Wring-an, to force— wring, wrong (that
which is wruTig out of the right course).
Wjnrc-an, to work— work, wright (the r
shifts its place).
Wyrt, a herb or plant — wort ; orchard (=
wort -yard); wart (on the skin); St
John's wort, etc
LATIN ROOTS.
Those words with (F.) after them have not come to us directly from Latin ;
but, indirectly, through French.
Acer (acris), sharp; acrid, acrimony, vine-
gar (sharp wine, F.), eager (F.)
JEdes, a building; edifice, edify.
.£qun8, eqtuU; equality, equator, equi-
nox, equity, adequate, iniquity.
Ager, afield; agriculture, agrarian, pere-
grinate.
Ago (actum), I do, act; act, agent, agile,
agitate, cogent.
Alo, I nourish ; aliment, alimony.
Alter, the other of two ; alternation, sub-
altern, altercation.
AltuB, high; altitude, exalt, alto (It),
altar.
1 " And every shepherd tells his tale (= counts his sheep)
Under the hawthorn in the dale' — Miltos \ l\ P«ivwK.ao«
132
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
▲mbulo, Ivxxlk; amble, perambulator.
Amo, I love; amity, amorous, amiable (F.),
inimical.
AngoluB, a comer; angle, triangle, quad>
rangle.
Anima, life ; animal, animate, animation.
AnlmnB, mind; magnanimity, equan-
imity, unanimous, animadvert.
AnnuB, a year; annual, perennial, bien-
nial, anniversary.
Aperio (apertumX I open; aperient, aper-
ture, April (the opening month).
Appello, I call; appeal, appellation, ap-
pellant, peal (of bells).
Aqua, water; aqueduct, aquatic, aqueous,
aquarium.
Areas, a bow; arch, arc, arcade (Fr. It)
Ardeo, I bum; ardent, ardour, arson
(F.)
An (artisX art; artist, artisan (F.X art^
fice, inert.
Audio, / hear; audience, audible, audi-
tory.
Angeo (auctum), I increase; augment,
author, auctioneer.
Barba, a beard ; barb, barber, barbel (all
through F.)
Bellnxn, war; rebel, rebellious, bellig-
erent, bellicose.
Bis, twice; biscuit, bissextile, bisect,
bicycle.
Brevia, short; brevity, abbreviate, brief
(P.), breviary, abridge (F.)
Cado(casum), J fall; casual, accident.
CsBdo (csesum), I ctU, UU; precise, exci-
sion, decide.
Candeo, I shine; Candidas, white; can-
did, candidate, candle.
Cano (cantumX I sing; cant, canticle,
chant (F.X incantation.
Capio (captum), 7 take; captive, accept,
reception (F.), capacity.
Caput, the head; capital, captain, cape,
chapter (F.)
Caro(camis), flesh; carnal, carnival, car-
nivorous, carnation.
Causa, a cause; causative, accuse (F.),
excuse (F.)
CavuB, hoUow; cavity, cave, excavate,
concave.
Cedo (cessnm), 7 go^ yield; proceed (F.),
ancestor (F.X secede.
Centrom (Qr. ie«vTpov = a point), centre;
centralise, centripetal, eccentric.
Centum, a hundred; century, centurion,
cent.
Cemo (cretum), to disiinguish; discern,
discretion, discreet.
Cingo (cinctum), I gird; cincture, suc-
cinct, precinct.
CJito, I call or summon; citation, recite
(F.), excite (F.), incite (F.)
CJivia, a citizen; city (F.X civic, civil, civ-
ilise, civilian.
Clamo, I shout; claim (F.\ clamour, re-
claim (F.), proclamation.
Clama, clear; clarity, declare, clarion,
claret (F.)
Claude (clausuraX 7 shut ; clause, close
(F.), exclude, seclusion.
(Tlino, I bend; incline, decline, recline.
Colo (cultum), I till; cultivate, arboricul-
ture, agriculture.
Cor (cordisX the, heart; courage (F.), cor-
dial (F.), discord, record.
Corona, a ermon; coronet, coroner, coro-
nation, corolla.
Corpus, the body; corps, corpse (F.), cor-
pulent, corporation.
C!redo, 7 believe; credibility, credence (F.),
miscreant (F.), creed, creditor.
Chreo, 7 create; create, creation, recrea-
tion, creature.
Creaoo, 7 grow; increase, decrease, incre-
ment.
Crux (crucisX a cross; crucial, crucifix,
cruise (F.)
Cubo, 7 lie down; cubit, incubate, recum-
bent.
Culpa, a fault; culprit, culpable, excul-
pate, inculpate.
Cora, cure; curate, curator, accurate,
secure, incurable.
Carre (cursum), 7 run; current, recur,
excursion, cursory, course (F.), occur.
Decern, ten; decimal, December, deci-
mate.
Dena (dentls), a tooth; dentist, dental,
indent, trident.
Deus, God; deity, deify, divine.
Dice (dictum), 7 say; verdict, dictionary,
dictation, indictment, ditto.
Dies, a day; diary, diurnal, meridian.
DignuB, worthy; dignity, dignify, in-
dignant, deign (F.)
Do (datum), 7 give; date, data, donor,
tradition.
Dooeo (doctum), 7 teach; docile, doctor,
doctrine.
Dominaa, a lord; domineer, dominion,
dominant, dame (F.), damsel (F.),
madame (F.)
WORD-BRANCHING.
133
Domiu, a howe ; domestic, domieil&
Dormio, / iUep; dormitory, dormant,
dormouse.
Dnco (ductam), I lead; induct, educa-
tion, duke (F.)) produce.
Duo, tiro; dual, duel, duplex, double (F.)
Emo (emptum}^ / hv/y; exemption, re-
deem.
£o (itum), I ffo; exit, transit, circuit (F.),
ambition, perish (F.)
ExTO, Itoander; err, error, aberration.
Fades, a Jdoe; filial, &cet (F.), super-
ficial.
Fade (fiictum), I make; manufacture,
factor, Diction, fashion (F.), feature
(F.), Uuct, teat (F.)
Feoro (latum), I carry; infer, suffer, refer-
ence, difference ; relative, correlative.
Mdo, I trust; confide, diffident, infldeL
Filnxn, a thread; file, defile, profile, fillet
(F.)
Finis, ihe end; finish, finite, infinite, in-
finitive.
Firmns,^rm; infirm, affirm, confirm.
Flecto (fiexum), I bend; inflect, inflection,
flexible.
Flos (fioris), a Jlovfer; floral, flora, flori-
culture.
Fluo (fluxum), I flow; fluent, fluid, flux,
affluent.
Folium, a leaf; foliage, foil (F.X portfolio,
trefoil (F.)
Forma, a form; form, formal, reform,
conformity.
Fortis, etrong; fortify, fortitude, fortress,
force (F.)
Frango (Aractus), 7 break; fhigile (F.X
fh^^entary, infhtction, infringe.
Frater, a brother; fraternal, fhttridde,
firiar(F.)
Frons (flrontisX Vu forehead; firont, firontal,
firontier, firontispiece.
Fngio, J>(ee; ftigitive, reftigee, subterftige.
Fnndo (fUsum), I pour; fount (F.X foun-
dry, ftinnel, ftisible, diffusion.
Fnndiu, the bottom; foundation, profound
(F.), founder.
Ctens (gentis), a moe, peopte; gentile,
genteel (F.), gentle, congenial
Oeiro (gestumX I bear, carry; gesture,
suggestion, indigestion.
Gradns, a step ; gradior (gressus), I go ;
grade, degrade, graduate ; progress (F.),
gradient.
Gratia, favour t pi thanks; gratitude, in-
gratiate, gratis.
Gravis,- heavy ; grave, gravity, grief (F.X
aggrieve (F.)
Habeo (habitumX I have; habit, able,
exhibit, prohibition.
Hssreo (beesum), I stick; adhere, adher*
ent, cohesion.
Homo, a man; homicide, homage (F.),
human, humane.
Ignis, fire ; ignite, igneous.
Impero, I command; imperative, imperial,
empire, emperor (F.)
Initium, a beginning; initiate, initial.
Tnsnla, an island; isle, insular, peninsula.
Jado (jectumX I throw; ac^ective, pro-
ject, ii\)ection, olject, suttjcct.
Judex (JudicisX a judge; judgment (F.X
judicial
Jungo (junctumX I join; junction, June-
ture, coi\join (F.X adjunct.
Jus (jurisX right; justice (F.X jury, in-
jury.
Labor (lapsusX I glide; lapse, relapse,
collapse.
Lapis (lapidisX a stone; lapidary, dilapi
dated.
Laus (laudisX praise; laud, laudable, land
ation, allow (F.)
Lego (lectumX I gaiher, read; collect,
elector, select ; lecture (F.X legend
legible.
L^^ (legatumX / send; l^ate, delegate
legacy.
Levis, light; levity, alleviate, relief (F.)
lever, leaven.
Lex(legisX a law; legal, legislate, legiti
mate.
liber, free ; liberal, liberty, libertine.
Liber, a book; library, librarian.
Ligo, I bind; ligament, religion, oblige
(F.X liable (F.)
Linquo (lictumX I leave; relinquish, relict
relics.
Litera, a letter; literal, literary, litera
ture.
Locus, a pUioe; local, allocate, dislocate
locomotive.
Loquor (locutusX I speak; loquacious
elocution, colloquy.
Ludo (lusumX / play ; elude, illusion, in
terlude, ludicrous.
Lumen, lighi; illuminate, luminous, lum
inary.
Luna, the fMon; lunar, sublunary, lun
acy.
Luc (lutumX I wash; ablution, dilute,
antediluvian.
134
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Lux (lucis), light; lucid, eladdate, pel-
lucid.
MagnuB, great; magnitude, magnify, mag-
nificent, magnanimous.
Mains, bod / malady, malice (F.), malaria,
malevolent.
Maneo (mansum), I remain ; manse, man-
sion, permanent.
MaxLOB, the hand; manuscript, manual,
manufacture, amanuensis.
Mare, the sea; marine, mariner, maritime.
Mater, a mother; matenial, matricide,
matron, matriculate.
Matnnui, ripe; mature. Immature, pre-
mature.
Medina, the middle; medium, mediate,
immediate, Mediterranean.
Memini, I remember; memor, min,dfiU;
memory, memoir (F.), commemorate,
immemorial.
Mens (mentis), tJie mind; mental, de-
mented.
Mergo (mersum), / dip; emerge, immer-
sion, emergency.
Merx (mercis), goods; merchandise (F.),
commerce (F.), merchant (P.)
Miles (milites), a soldier; military, mili-
tant, militia.
Miror, I admire; admirable, miracle,
mirage (F.)
Mitto (missiun), I send ; commit, missile,
mission, remittance.
Modns, a measure; mood, modify, accom-
modate.
Moneo (monitum), I advise; monition,
monitor, monument.
Mens (montisX a mountain; amount (F.),
dismount (F.), promontory, ultramon-
tane.
Mors (mortis), death; mortify, mortal,
immortality.
Moveo (motum), / move; mobile (F),
promote, motor, motive.
Mnltns, many; multitude, multiple, mul-
tiply.
Mnnns (muneris), a gift; munificent, re-
munerate, municipal.
Mnto, / change; mutable, transmute.
Nascor (natus), to be bom; nascent, natal,
nativity, nature.
Navis, a ship; navy, naval, navigate,
nave.
Necto (nexum), I tie; connect, connec-
tion, annex.
Nego (negatum), I deny; negative, nega-
tion, renegade (Sp.)
Noceo, linjure; noxious, innocuous, in-
nocent.
Nomen, a name ; nominal, cognomen, no-
mination.
Noyns, new; novel, renovate, novelty,
innovation.
Nox (noctis), night; nocturnal, equinoc-
tial, equinox.
Nndns, naked ; nude, denude, denudation.
Nnmems, a number; numeration, in-
numerable, enumerate.
Octo, eight ; octave, octagon, October.
Onmis, all; omnibus, omnipot^t, om-
niscient.
Opns (operis), work; operation, co-oper-
ate, opera.
Ordo (ordinis), order; ordinal, ordinary,
ordinance.
Oro, I pray; oration, orator, peroration.
Paudo (pansum or passum), I spread ; ex-
pand, expanse, compass, pace.
Pareo, I appear; appearance, apparent,
apparition.
Paro (paratum), I prepare; repair ^.),
apparatus, comparison (F.)
Pars (partis), a part; particle, partition,
partner, parcel (F.)
Pasco (pastum), / feed; pastor, repast,
pasture.
Pater, a faiher; paternal, parricide (F.),
patrimony.
Patior (passus), I suffer ; impatient, pas-
sive, passion.
Pax (pads), peace ; pacify, pacific.
P^o(pulsum), / drive; repel, expel, ex-
pulsion, impulsive.
Pendeo^pensum), / hang; pendant, de-
pend, suspend, suspense, appendix.
Pes (pedis), the foot; pedal, impede, ped-
estrian, biped.
Peto (petitum), I seek; petition, petulant,
compete, appetite.
Planus, level; plan (F.), plane, plain, ex-
plain.
Flando (plausum), 7 clap the hands; ap-
plaud, plausible (F.), explode.
Pleo (pletum), I fill; complete, comple-
tion, supplement.
Plico (plicatum), I fold; complicated, pli-
able (F.), reply (F.), display (F.), simple.
Poena, punishment; penal, repent, pen-
alty, x)enitent, penance.
Fono (positum), I place ; deponent, posi-
tion, imposition, post.
Pons (pontis), a bridge; pontiff, transpon-
tine.
WOBD-BRANCHING.
135
Porto, I carry; export, deportment, re-
port, portmanteau (F.)
PoMnun, / am able; potens, a52e; pos-
sible, potency (F.), impotent.
Prehendo (prehensum), (Fr. prendre,
pri8)f I take; prehensile, comprehend,
apprise, comprise, apprentice (F.)
Primus, fret; primary, primitive, prim-
rose.
Probo, I try, prove; probe, probable, im-
prove (P.), approve (F.)
Proprius, one's own; proper, property,
appropriation.
Pungo (punctumX / prick; pungent, ex-
punge, punctual, poignant (F.)
Puto (putatum), I cut, think; compute,
count (F), amputate, reputation.
Qnatuor, four; quadra, a square; quart,
quarter, quarry (F.), quadrant.
Badix, a root; radical, eradicate, radish
(F.)
Bapio (raptum), I seize ; rapture, rapine,
surreptitious.
Bogo (rectum), I rule; rex (regis), a king;
regal, regulate, regent, rector, interreg-
num, royal (F.), realm (N.-Fr. ritU).
Bideo (risum), / laugh; ridicule (F.X de-
ride, ridiculous (F.), risible.
Bogo (rogatum), I ask; rogation, interro-
gation, derogatory.
Bota, a wheel; rotary, rotation, rotund
— contracted into round (F.)
Bnmpo (ruptum), / break; rupture, erup-
tion, disruption.
Sacer, sacred; sacrament, sacrilege (F.),
sacerdotal, sexton (contracted from
sacristany.
Salio (saltum), / leap; sally (F.), assail
(F.), salient, salmon.
Sanctus, holy; sanctuary, sanctity, saint
(F.)
Scando (scansumX / dimb; scala, a lad-
der; scan, scale, descent, ascension.
Scio, I know; science, scientific, con-
science, omniscient.
Scribo (scriptum), / write ; scribe, scrib-
ble, Rcripture, inscription, postscript.
Seco (sectum), I out; bisect, dissect, in-
sect, section.
Sedeo (sessum), 7 set, sit ; sediment, sub-
side, see (F.), residence (F.), insidious.
Sentio, I feel; sense, sentiment, sensual,
scent (F.)
Septem, seven; septennial, September.
Sequor (secutus), I follow; sequence (F.),
sequel, consequent, prosecute.
Servio, 7 serve; service (F.), servant, ser-
geant (F.)
Signnm, a sign; signify, significant, des-
ignation, ensign (F.)
Similis, like; similar, similitude, resemble
(P.)
SoduBy a companion; social, society, as-
sociation.
Solus, aUme; solitude, sole, solo (It.)
SoIto (solutum), I loose; dissolve, resolve,
absolute, resolution.
Spedo (spectumX I see; aspect, spectator,
specimen, spectre.
Spero, I hope; despair (F.), desperate:
Spiro, 7 breaths; inspire, aspire, con-
spiracy.
Statuo, 7 Hi up ; sto (statum), 7 stand ;
statue, statute, stature, institute.
Stringo (strictum), I bind; stringent,
constrain (F.), district.
Struo (structum), 7 build; structure, con-
struct, obstruct, construe.
Sumo (sumptum), 7 take; assume, con-
sume, assumption.
Tango (tactum), 7 Unuh; tangible, tan-
gent, contact, contagious.
Tego (tectum), 7 cover; int^ument, de-
tect, tile (F.) ; from Lat. tegula.
Tempus (temporis), time; temporal, con-
temporary, extempor6.
Tendo (tensumX 7 stretch ; contend, ex-
tend, attend, tense (F.), tendon.
Teneo (tentum), 7 hold; tenant, tenet,
tendril, detain (F.), retentive.
Terminus, an end, boundary; terminate,
term, interminable.
Terrai the earth; subterranean, terrestrial,
Mediterranean.
Terreo, I frighten ; terror, terrify, deter.
Texo (textum), 7 weave; textile, text,
texture, context.
Timeo, Ifear; timid, timorous.
Torqueo (tortum), I twist; torture, tor-
ment, contortion, retort.
Traho (tractum), 7 draw; traction, sub-
tract, contraction, tract.
Tres (tria), three; trefoil, trident, trinity.
Tribuo, 7 give; tribute, tributary, con-
tribution.
Tumeo, 7 swell ; tumulus, a swelling or
mound; tumult, tumour, tomb (F.)
TJnuB, one ; union, unit, unite, uniform,
unique (F.)
Urbs, a dty; suburb, urbanity, urbane.
Valeo, 7 am strong; valour, valiant (F.),
prevail (F.)
136
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Vanns, empty; vanity, vanish, vain (F.)
Veho (vectum), I convey; vehicle, con<
veyance (F.\ convex.
Venlo, I come; venture, advent, convene,
covenant (F.)]
Verbnxn, a toord ; verb, adverb, verbose,
verbal, proverb.
Verto (versumX / turn; convert, revert,
divert, versatile.
Vemis, true ; verity, verily, aver, verdict.
Via, a loay ; deviate, previous, trivial.
Video (visum), I «ee; vision, provide, visit
(F.), revise (P.)
Vinco (victum), I conquer; victor, con-
vict, victory, convince.
Vitium, afttuU; vice (F.), vitiate, vicious
(F.)
Vivo (victum), 7 live; vivid, revive, viands
(F.X surviva
Voco (vocatumX I call; vocal, vowel (F.),
vocation, revoke, vociferate.
Volo, I with; volition, voluntary, benev-
olence.
Volvo (volutum), 7 roU; revolve, involve,
evolution, volume.
Vovao (votumX 7 vow; vote, devote, vow
(F.)
Vulgua, the common people; vulgar, di-
vulge, vulgate.
GREEK ROOTS.
AgOn, a contest; agony, antagonist
Alloa, another; allopathy, allegory.
Angeloa, amesaenger; angel, evangelist.
Anthrfipoa, a man; misanthrope, philan-
thropy.
Archo, 7 begin, rule; monarch, archaic,
archbishop, archdeacon.
Arithmoa. nwnber; arithmetic.
Aster or astron, a star ; astronomy, astro-
logy, asteroid, disaster.
AtmoB, vapour; atmosphere.
Autoa, aelf: autocrat, autograph.
Ballo, 7 throw; symbol, parable.
Bapto, 1 dip; baptise, baptist.
Baroa, weight: barometer, baritone.
Bibloa, a book; Bible, bibliomania.
Bios, li/e; biography, biology, amphi-
bious.
Cheir, the hand; surgeon [older form,
chirurgeon],
Chole, bile; melancholy, choler.
Chrio, I anoint ; Christ, chrism.
Chronoa, time; chronology, chronic, chron-
icle, chronometer.
Daktuloa, a finger; dactyl, pterodactyl,
dB,te(thefruiO'
Deka, ten ; decagon, decalogue, decade.
Dfimos, the people; democrat, endemic,
epidemic
Dokeo, 7 Mnk; doza and dogma, an
opinion; doxology, orthodox, hetero-
dox, dogma, dogmatic.
Drao, 7 do ; drama, dramatic.
Dunflmia, power ; dynamics, dynamite.
StdotfiJbrm; kaleidoscope, spheroid.
Eikon, an image; iconoclast.
Electron, amber; electricity, electrotype.
Ergon, a work; surgeon (=chirurgeon),
energy, metallurgy.
Eu, weU ; eucharist, euphony, evangelist.
GkunoB, marriage; bigamy, monogamist,
misogamy.
Qe, the earth; geography, geometry, geo-
logy.
Gtennao, 7 produce; genesis, genealogy,
hydrogen, oxygen.
Chrapho, 7 write ; gramma, a letter ; gra-
phic, grammar, tel^raph, biography,
diagram.
Halma, blood; hemorrhage, hemorrhoid.
Haireo, 7 take aufay : heresy, heretic.
Hecaton, a hundred; hecatomb, hecto-
metre.
HelioB, the eun ; heliograph, heliotype.
Hemi, half; hemisphere.
Hieroa, eaered : hierarchy, hieroglyphic.
Hippoa, a horae; hippopotamus, hippo-
drome.
Hddoa, a way; method, period, exodus.
H5moB, the same; homoeopathy, homo-
geneous.
Hudor, water; hydraulic, hydrophobia,
hydrogen.
IchthuB, a fish; ichthyology.
IdiOB, one*8 own; idiom, idiot, idiosyn-
crasy.
IsoB, equal ; isochronous, isobaric (of equal
weight), isosceles.
Kaloa, beautifiil; caligraphy, kaleidoscope.
KephalS, the head ; hydrocephalus.
WORD-BRANCHING.
137
Sllino, I hvnd ; clinical, climax, climate.
Kosmott, onder; cosmogony, cosmography,
cosmetic.
Krino, / judge ; critic, criterion, hypo-
crite.
Knklot, a circle ; cycle, cycloid, cyclone.
Kaon (kim-os), a dog ; cynic, cynicism.
I4go, I «ay, chxKoe ; eclectic, lexicon.
LithoB, a stone : lithograph, aerolite.
LSgos, a loord, speech; logic, dialogue,
geology.
Luo, Iloosen; dialysis, analysis, paralysis.
Meter, a mother; metropolis, metropo-
litan.
Metron, a measwre: metre, metronome,
diameter, thermometer, barometer.
M6no0, alone : monastery, monogram, mo-
nosyllable, monopoly, monarch.
Morphe, tSuipe ; amorphous, dimorphous,
metamorphic.
Nans, a ship : nautical, nausea.
KekxoB, a dead body; necropolis, necro*
mancy.
Ndmos, a law ; autonomous, astronomy,
Deuteronomy.
OikoB, a house : economy, economical
Ondma, a name; anonymous, synony-
mous, patronymic.
Optdxnai, I see; optics, synoptical.
OithoB, right : orthodoxy, orthography.
Paia (paid-os), a boy; pedagogue [lit a
boy-leader].
Pan, aU : pantheist, panoply, pantomime.
Pathoa, fieLing ; pathetic, sympathy.
P6iite,>Ive; pentagon, pentateuch, Pente-
cost.
Petra, a rock ; petrify, petrel, Peter.
Phainfimai, I appear; phenomenon, phan-
tasy, phantom, Ikntastic, fancy.
Phero, / bear ; periphery, phosphorus
[s:the light-bearer].
Phileo, I love ; philosophy, Philadelphia,
philharmonic.
PhOnfi, a sound; phonic, phonetic, eu-
phony, symphony.
PhSa (phAt-os), ligU ; photometer, photo-
graph.
Phoaia, nature; physics, physiology, phy-
sician.
Poieo, I Tnake ; poet, poetic, pharmacopoeia.
Polls, a city ; Constantinople, metropolis.
Polua, many ; polytheist, Polynesia, poly-
anthus, polygamy.
PouB (p5d-os), afoot; antipodes, tripod.
YtoUvit first ; prototype, protoplasm.
Pur, fire ; pyrotechnic, pyre.
Rheo, / fiow ; rhetoric, catarrh, rheu-
matic.
SkSpeo, I see; microscope, telescope,
spectroscope, bishop [fh>m episkopoSf
an overseer].
Sophia, vfisdom ; sophist, philosophy.
Stello, I send ; apostle, epistle.
StratoB, an army ; strat^, strategic.
StrSpho, I turn ; catastrophe, apostrophe.
Technfi, an art : technical.
TSle, distant ; telegraph, telescope, tele-
phone, telegram.
Temno, I cut; anatomy, lithotomy.
Tetra, four ; tetrachord, tetrarch.
Theftomai, I see; theatre, theory.
TheoB, a god : theist, enthusiast, theology.
Therme, heat ; thermal, thermometer,
isotherm.
Tithemi, I place ; thesia, a placing ; syn-
thesis, hypothesis.
Treis, three; triangle, trigonometry, tri-
pod, trinity, trichord.
Trdpo, 7 turn ; trophy, tropic, heliotrope.
Tapoa, the impress qfa seal ; type, stereo-
type.
Zdon, an animal ; zool(^, zodiac.
138
WORDS DERIVED PROM THE NAMES OP
PERSONS, ETC.
Argosy, from the name of the ship Argo, in which Jason and his com-
pauions sailed to the Black Sea to find the Golden Fleece. Used by
Shakespeare, in the " Merchant of Venice/* i. 1. 9, in the sense of trad-
ing vessel.
Assasriiis, the name of a fanatical Syrian sect of the thirteenth century,
who, under the influence of a drug prepared from hemp, called Ttcts-
chisch. rushed into battle against the Crusaders, and slaughtered
many of their foes.
Atlas, one of the Titans, or earlier gods, who was so strong that he was said
to carry the world on his shoulders.
August, from Augustus Caesar, the second Emperor of Rome.
Bacchanalian, from the festival called Bacchanalia; from Bacchus, the
Roman god of wine.
Boycott (to), from Captain Boycott, a land- agent in the west of Ireland,
who was *' sent to Coventry " by all his neighbours ; they would neither
speak to him, buy from him, or sell to him — ^by order of the " Irish
Land League."
Chimera, a totally imaginary and grotesque image or conception ; from
Chinudra, a monster in the Greek mythology, half goat, half lion.
Cicerone, a guide ; from Cicero, the greatest Roman orator and writer of
speeches that ever lived. (Guides who described antiquities, etc., were
supposed to be as "fluent as Cicero.")
Cravat, from the Croats or Crabali of Croatia, who supplied an army
corps to Austria, in which long and large neck-ties were worn by the
soldiers.
Dahlia, from Dahl, a Swedish botanist, who introduced the flower into
Europe.
Draconian (code), a very severe code ; from Draco, a severe Athenian legis-
lator, who decreed death for every crime, great or small His laws
were said to have been "written in blood."
Dunce, from Duns Scotus, a great philosopher (or "schoolman") of the
Middle Ages, who died 1308, The followers of Thomas Aquinas
called " Thomists," looked down upon those of Duns, who were called
'*8cotiatB" and in course of time " Dunces."
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS. 139
Epicnre, a person fond of good living ; from Epicnms, a great Greek phil-
osopher. His enemies misrepresented him as teaching that pleasure
was the highest or chief est good.
Euphaistio (style), a style of highrflown refinement ; from Euphues (the
well-bom man), the title of a book written in the reign of Elizabeth,
by John Lyly, which introduced a too ingenious and far-fetched way
of speaking and writing in her Court.
Fauna, the collectiye name for all the animals of a region or country ; from
Faonns, a Roman god of the woods and country. (The Fauni were
minor rural deities of Rome, who had the legs, feet, and ears of a goat,
and the other parts of the body of a human shape.)
Flora, the collective name for all the plants and flowers of a region or
country ; from Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers.
Galvanism, from Oalvani, an Italian physicist, lecturer on anatomy at
Bologna, who discovered, by experiments on frogs, that animals are
endowed with a certain kind of electricity.
Ck>rdian (knot), the knot tied by Gordius a king of Phrygia, who had been
originally a peasant. The knot by which he tied the draught-pole
of his chariot to the yoke was so intricate, that no one could untie it.
A rumour spread that the oracle had stated that the empire of Asia
would belong to him who should untie the Gordian knot. Alexander
the Great, to encourage his soldiers, tried to untie it ; but, finding
that he could not, he cut it through with his sword, and declared that
he had thus fulfilled the oracle.
Guillotine, an instrument for beheading at one stroke, used in France.
It was invented during the time of the Revolution by Dr Gnillotin.
Hansom (cab), from the name of its inventor.
Hector (to), to talk big; from Hector, the bravest of the Trojans, as
Achilles Was the bravest of the Grecian chiefs.
Hermetically (sealed), so sealed as to entirely exclude the outer air ;
from Hermes, the name of the Greek god who corresponds to the
Roman god Mercury. Hermes was fabled to be the inventor of
chemistry.
Jaoobin, a revolutionist of the extremest sort ; from the hall of the
Jacobin Friars in Paris, where the revolutionists used to meet.
Robespierre was for some time their chief.
Jacobite, a follower of the Stuart family ; from James II. (in Latin
JacObus), who was driven from the English throne in 1688.
Jannary, from the Roman god Janns, a god with two faces, *' looking
before and after."
Jovial, with the happy temperament of a person bom under the influence
of the star Jupiter or Jove ; a term taken from the old astrology.
(Opposed to mtwmine, gloomy, because bom under the star Saturn. )
July, from Julins, in honour of Julius Csesar, the great Roman general,
writer, and statesman — who was born in this month.
Lasarettor or Lazar-honse, from Lazarus, the be^^«x ^\* ^K<& ^g^^^ ^^
140 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGK
Dives, in Luke xvi The word is corrupted into lizard in Unrd*
pointy where a lazar-house once stood, for the reception of sick people
from on board ship.
Lynch-law,' from a famous Judge Lynch, of Tennessee, who made short
work of his trials, and then of his criminals.
Mfliim^ft^Wi to make roads of fragments of stones, which afterwards
cohere in one mass ; from John Loudon MawidaTn, the inventor, who,
in 1827, received from the Government a reward of £10,000 for his
plan.
March, from Mars, the Roman god of war.
Uartinet, a severe disciplinarian, with an eye for the smallest details ;
from General Martinet, a strict commander of the time of Louis XIV.
of France.
Mansoleom, a splendidly built tomb ; from MausOlna, King of Caria in
Asia Minor, to whom his widow erected a gorgeous buriiJ-chamber.
Mentor, an adviser ; from Mentor, the aged counsellor of Tel^m&chus, the
son of Ulysses.
Mercurial, of light, airy, and quick-spirited temperament, as having been
bom under the planet Mercury (compare Jovial, Saiumine, etc. )
Panic, a sudden and unaccountable terror ; from Pan, the god of flocks
and shepherds. He was fabled to appear suddenly to travellers.
Parrot { = LiUle Peter, or Peterkin), from the French Perrot = Pierrot,
from Pierre, Peter. Compare Magpie = Margaret Pie; Jackdaw;
Robin-redbreast ; Cuddy (from CiUhbert), a donkey, etc.
Petrel, the name of a sea-bird that skims the tops of the waves in a storm,
the diminutive of Peter. It is an allusion to Matthew xiv. 29. These
birds are called by sailors " Mother Carey's chickens."
Phaeton, a kind of carriage ; from Phaethon, a son of Apollo, who received
from his father permission to guide the chariot of the Sun for a single
day.
Philippic, a violent political speech directed against a person ; from the
orations made by Demosthenes, the great Athenian orator, against
Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great. .
Platonic (rocks), igneous rocks (created by the action of flre) — in oppo-
sition to sedimentary rocksj which have been formed by the depositing
action of water ; from Pluto, the Roman god of the infernal regions.
Protean, assuming many shapes ; from Proteus, a sea-deity, who had
received the gift of prophecy from Neptune, but who was very
difficult to catch, as he could take whatever form he pleased.
Quixotic, fond of utterly impracticable designs ; from Don Q^iizote, the
hero of the national Spanish romance, by Cervantes. Don Quixote is
made to tilt at windmills, proclaim and make war against whole
nations by himself, and do many other chivalrous and absurd
things.
Simony, the faulty of illegally buying and selling church livings ; from
iS&DOS MaguB.* (See Acts viil 18.)
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS. 141
Stentorian, very loud and strong ; from Stentor, whom Homer describes
as the loudest-voiced man in the Grecian army that was besieging
Troy.
Tantalise, to tease with impossible hopes ; from Tantalns, a king of
Lydia in Asia Minor. He offended the gods, and was placed in
Had^s up to his lips in a pool of water, which, when he attempted to
drink it, ran away ; and with bunches of grapes over his head, which,
when he tried to grasp them, were blown from his reach by a blast of
wind.
Tawdry, shabby — a term often applied to cheap finery ; from St
Ethelreda, which became St Audrey: originally applied to clothes
sold at St Audrey's fair. (Compare TooLey from St Oktve ; Ted from
St Edmund; etc.)
Volcano and Vulcanite, from the Roman god of fire and smiths, Vulcanns.
A volcano was regarded as the chimney of one of his workshops.
142
WORDS DERIVED PROM THE NAMES OP
PLACES.
Academy, from Academia, the house of AcadCmiiB, a friend of the great
Greek philosopher Plato, who was allowed to teach his followers
there. Plato taught either in Academus's garden, or in his own
house.
Artesian (well), from Artois, the name of an old province in the north-
west of France, the inhabitants of which were accustomed to pierce
the earth for water.
Bayonet, from Bayonne, in the south of France, on the Bay of Biscay.
(Compare Pistol, from Pistoiaf a town in the north of Italy.)
Bedlam, the name for a lunatic asylum — a corruption of the word Beth-
lehem (Hospital).
Cambric, the name of the finest kind of linen ; from Cambray, a town in
French Flanders, in the north-west of France.
Canter, an easy and slow gallop ; from the pace assumed by the Canter-
bury Pilgrims, when riding along the green lanes of England to the
shrine of Thomas li Becket.
Carronade, a short cannon ; from Carron, in Stirlingshire, Scotland,
where it was first made.
Cherry ; from Cerasns, a town in Pontus, Asia Minor, where it was much
grown.
Copper and CypreiM ; from the island of Cjrpnu, in the Mediterranean.
Currants, small dried grapes from Corinth, in Greece, where they are still
grown in large quantities. They are shipped at the port of Patras.
Damson, a contraction of damascene; from Damascus » the Damascus
plum. (Hence also damask.)
Dollar, a coin — the chief coin used in America ; from German Thaler
( = Dalevy or something made in a dale or valley). The first coins of
this sort were made in St Joachimsthal in Bohemia, and were called
JoachinCs thaler,
Elysian {tued with fields or bliss), from Elysium, the place to which the
souls of brave Greeks went after death.
Brmine, the fur worn on judges' robes ; from Armenia, because this fur
28 "the spoil of the Armenian rat." '
WORDS DERIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PLACES. 143
Florin, a two-shilling piece ; from Florence. Professor Skeat says :
" Florins were coined by Edward III. in 1337, and named after the
coins of Florence."
Gasconading, boasting ; from Gascony, a southern province of France, the
inhabitants of which were much given to boasting. One Gascon, on
being shown the Tuileries— the palace of the Kings of France — re-
marked that it reminded him to some extent of his father's stables,
which, however, were somewhat larger.
Qipsy, a corrupt form of the word Eg3rptian. The Gipsies were supposed
to come from Egypt. (The French call them Bohemians.)
Guinea, a coin value 21s. now quite out of use, except as a name — made
of gold brought from the Guinea Ck>a8t, in the west of Africa.
Hock, ihe generic term for all kinds of Rhine- wine, but properly only the
name of that which comes from Hochheim, a celebrated vineyard.
Indigo, a blue dye, obtained from the leaves of certain plants ; from the
Latin adjective Indicus= belonging to India.
Laconic, short, pithy, and full of sense ; from Laconia, a country in the
south of Greece, the capital of which was Sparta or Lacedsemon.
The Laconians, and especially the Spartans, were little given to talk-
ing, unlike their lively rivals, the Athenians.
Lilliputian, very small ; from Lilliput, the name of the imaginary country
of extremely small men and women, visited by Captain Lemuel
Gulliver, the hero of Swift's tale called ' Gulliver's Travels.'
Lumber, useless things ; from Lombard, the Lombards being famous for
money-lending. The earliest kind of banking was pawnbroking ; and
pawnbrokers placed their pledges in the " Lombard-room,*' which, as it
gradually came to contain all kinds of rubbish, came also to mean and
to be called " lumber-room." In America, timber is called lumber.
Meander (to), to ''wind about and in and out ;" from the Mssander, a
very winding river in the plain of Troy, in Phrygia, in the north-west
of Asia Minor.
Magnesia and Magnet, from Magnesia, a town in Thessaly, in the north
of Greece.
Milliner, originally a dealer in wares from Milan, a large city in the north
of Italy, in the plain of the Po.
Muslin, from Mosul, a town in Asiatic Turkey, on the Tigris.
Palace, from the Latin palatium, a building on Mons Palatlnus, one of
the seven hills of Rome. This building became the residence of
Augustus and other Roman emperors ; and hence palace came to be
the generic term for the house of a king or ruling prince. Palatinus,
itself comes from Pales, a Roman goddess of flocks, and is connected
with the Lat. patera a father or feeder.
Peach, from Lat. Persicum {malwn), the Persian apple, from Pextia.
The r has been gradually absorbed.
Pheasant^ from the Phasis, a river of Colchis in Asia Minor, at the eastern
end of the Black Sea, from which these birds were first brovi^^
144 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Port, a wine from Oporto, in Portugal (Compare Sherry from Xeres, in
the south of Spain.)
Rhubarb, from Bha barbamm, the wild Rha plant Kha is an old name
for the Volga, from the banks of which this plant was imported.
Solecism, a blunder in the use of words ; from Soli, a town in Cilicia,
in Asia Minor, the inhabitants of which used a mixed dialect.
Spaniel, a sporting-dog remarkable for its sense ; from Spain. The best
kinds are said to come from Hispaniola, an island in the West Indies,
now called Hayti.
Stoic, from Stoa Poikll^, the Painted Porch, a porch in Athens, where
Zeno, the founder of the Stoic School, taught his disciples.
Utopian, impossible to realise ; from Utopia ( = Nowhere), the title of a
story written by Sir Thomas More, in which he described, under the
guise of an imaginary island, the probable state of England, if her
laws and customs were reformed.
145
WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM.
When a word is imported from a foreign language into our
own, there is a natiiral tendency among the people who use the
word to give it a native and homely dress, and so to make it
look like English. This is especially the case with proper
names. Thus the walk through St James's Park from Bucking-
ham Palace to the House of Commons was called Socage Walk
(that is, shrubbery walk) ; but, as Socage was a strange word to
the Londoner, it became quickly corrupted into Birdcage Walk,
though there is not, and never was, any sign of birdcages in the
neighbourhood. Birdcage is a known word. Socage is not —
that is the whole matter. In the same way, our English sailors,
when they captured the French ship Sellerqphoriy spoke of it as
the Silly Ruffian; and our English soldiers in Indi4 mentioned
Surajah Dowlah, the prince who put the English prisoners into
the Black Hole, as Sir Roger Dowler, The same phenomenon
is observed also in common names — and not infrequently. The
following are some of the most remarkable examples : —
Alligator, from Spanish el lagarto, the lizard. The article el (from Latin
iUe) has clung to the word. Lat. huiertaf a lizard. (The Arabic
article al has clung to the noun in alchemy, algehra, almanaCf etc)
Artichoke (no connection with chohe), from ItaL azticiocco ; from Arabic
al harshaff, an artichoke.
Atonement, a hybrid — a^one being English, and menJt a Latin ending.
Atone = to bring or come into one. Shakespeare has "Earthly things,
made even, atone together."
Babble, from ba and the frequentative le ; it means "to keep on saying " ba.
Bank, a form of the word bench, a money-table.
Belfiry (nothing to do with hell), from M. £. berfray; 0. Fr. herfroU, a
watch-tower.
146 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
BriniBtone, from bum. The r is an easily moved letter — as in (hree, third ;
turn, trundle, etc.
Bugle, properly a wild ox, JBugle, in the sense of a musical instrument,
is really short for bttgU-Jiom, Lat. hiu^ulus, a bullock, a diminutive
of bos.
Bustard, from 0. Fr. oiutarde, from Lat avis tarda, the tardy or slow
bird.
Batcher, from 0. Fr. bocher, a man who slaughters he-goats ; from boo,
the French form of buck.
Butler, the servant in charge of the butts or casks of wine. (The whole
collection of butts was called the buttery ; a little butt is a bottle. )
Buxom, stout, healthy; but in 0. £. obedient. ''Children, be buxom to
your parents." Connected with bow and bough. From A. S. bugan,
to bend ; which gives also bow, bight, boat, etc.
Carfaz, a place where four roads meet. 0. Fr. carrefottrgs ; Latin quatu^or
furcas, four forks.
Carouse, from German gar aus, quite out Spoken of emptying a goblet.
Caterpillar = hairy-cat, from 0. Fr. chaie, a she-cat, and 0. fV. peiotue,
hairy, Lat. pilosus. Compare woolly-bear.
Causeway (no connection with way), from Fr. chausee ; Lat. calceaia via, a
way strewed with limestone ; from Lat. calx, lime.
Clove, through Fr. olou, from Lat. clavus, a nail, from its resemblance to
a small naiL
Constable, from Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stable ; hence Master of
the Horse ; and, in the 13th century, commander of the king's army.
Coop, a cognate of cup ; from Lat. cupa, a tub.
Coi>e, a later spelling of cape. Cap, cape, and cope are forms of the same
word.
Costermonger, properly costard-monger ; from costard, a large apple.
Counterpane (not at all connected with counter or with pan^ but with
quiU and point), a coverlet for a bed. The proper form is contre-
poi/nte, from Low Lat. culcita puncta, a punctured quilt.
Country-dance, (not connected with country), a corruption of the French
contre-da^^se ; a dance in which each dancer stands contre or contra or
opposite his partner.
Coward, an animal that drops his tail. 0. Fr. col and ard ; from Lat.
Cauda, a taiL
Crayfish, (nothing to do with fish), from 0. Fr. escrevuse. This is really
a Frenchified form of the German word Krebs, which is the German
form of our English word crab. The true division of the word into
syllables is erayf-ish ; and thus the seeming connection with fish dis-
appears.
Custard, a misspelling of the M. E. word erustade, a general name for pies
made with crust.
Daisy = day's eye. Chaucer says : " The dayes eye or else the eye of
day."
WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM. 147
Dandelion = dent de lion, the lion's tooth ; so named from its jagged
leaves.
Dirge, a funeral song of sorrow. In the Latin service for the dead, one part
began with the words (Ps. v. 8) dirige, Dominus meus, in conspectu
tuo vitam meam, " Direct my life, Lord, in thy sight ; " and dirige
was contracted into dirge.
Drawing-room = withdrawing-room, a room to which guests retire after
dinner.
Dropsy (no connection with drop), from O. Fr. hydropisce, from Gr.
hvdoTf water. (Compare ehirurgeonf which has been shortened into
surgeon; example, into sample; estate, into^to^.)
Easel, a diminutive of the word aas, through the Dutch ezel ; like the
Latin ocellus.
Farthing = fonrthing. {Four appears as jlSr in firkin ; and as for in forty.)
Frontispiece (not connected with piece), that which is seen or placed in
front. Lat. speeio, I see.
Gadfly = goad-fly (sting-fly).
Gospel => God-spell, a narrative about God.
Grove, originally a lane cut through trees. A doublet of groove, and
grave, from A. S. grafan, to dig.
Haft, that by which we have or hold a thing.
Hamper, old form, hanaper; from Low Latin hanaperinm, a large basket
for keeping drinking-cups {Jianapi) in.
Handsel, money given into the hand ; from A. S. stUan, to give.
Hanker, to keep the mind hft-nging on a thing. Er is a frequentative suffix,
as in batter, linger, etc.
Harbinger, a man who goes before to provide a har1)onr or lodging-place
for an army. The n is intrusive, as in porringer, passenger, and mes-
senger, (The ruins of old Roman villas were often used by English
travellers as inns. Such places were called " Cold Harbours." There
are fourteen places of this name in England — all on the great Roman
roads. )
Hatchment, the escutcheon, shield, or coatof-arms of a deceased person,
displayed in front of his house. A corruption (by the intrusion of h)
of atch'ment, the short form of atchievement, the old spelling of
ackievem^ent, which is still the heraldic word for hatchment.
Hawthorn = hedge-thorn, ffaw was in O. E. ?iaga; and the hard g
became a w ; and also became softened, under French influence, into
dg.Haha, older form Hawhaw, is a sunk fence.
Heaven, that which is heaved up ; heavy, that which requires much
heaving.
Herehound (not connected with hound), a plant with stems covered with
white woolly down. The M. E. form is hoar-hnne ; and the second
syllable means scented. The syllable hoar means white, as in hoar-
frost. The final d is excrescent or inorganic — like the d in sound, hound
(= ready to go), etc.
148 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Humble-bee (not connected with the adjective humble), from M. £.
hnmmelen, to keep humming — a frequentative; the b being in-
organic.
Humble-pie (not connected with the adjective htmUe), pie made of
nmbles, the entrails of a deer.
Husband, (not connected with bind), from Icelandic huBbuandi, huandi,
being the pres. participle of bua, to dwell ; and hue, house.
HuBSif (connected with Jioute, but not with m/e), a case containing needles,
thread, etc. From Icelandic, htlai, a case, a cognate of house. The f
is intrusive, from a mistaken opinion that the word was a short form
of Jiousewife.
Hussy, a pert girl ; a corruption of housewife.
Icicle, (the ending de is not the diminutive) a hanging point of ice. The
A. S. form is isgicel, a compound of it, ice, and ffied, a small piece of
ice ; so that the word contains a redundant element. (The ic in icicle is
entirely dififerent from the ic in ctrt-ic-le and in part-ic-le.)
Intoxicate, to drug or poison ; from Low Lat. toxieum, poison ; from Gr.
toxon, a bow, plural toxa, bow and arrows — arrows for war being fre«
quently dipped in poison.
Islaiid (not connected with isle) = water-land, a misspelling for ilaad (the
spelling that Milton always uses). The s has intruded itself from a
confusion with the Lat. inmla, which gives ide.
Jaw, properly chaw, the noun for chew. Cognates are jowl and ehoups.
Jeopardy, hazard, danger. M. E. jupartie, from O. Fr. jeu parti, a game
in which the chances are even, from Low Lat. jlicuB partUits, a divided
game.
Jerusalem artichoke (not at all connected with Jerusalem), a kind of sun-
flower. Italian girasole, from Lat. gyrus, a circle, and sd, the sun.
(In order to clench the blimder contained in the word Jerusalem,
cooks call a soup made of this kind of artichoke " Palestine soup ! ")
Kickshaws, from Ft. quelquechose, something. There was once a plural
— Jdchshawses,
Kind, the adjective from the noun kin.
Ledge, a place on which a thing lies. Hence also ledger.
Line (to line garments) = to put linen inside them. {Linen is really an
adjective from the M. E. lin, just like wooUen, golden, etc.)
Liquorice (not connected with liquor), in M. E. licoris ; from Gr.
glykyrrhiza, a sweet root. (For the loss of the initial g, compare
Ipswich and Gyppenswich; enough and genoh; and the loss of ge
from all the past participles of our verbs.)
Mead, meadow = a place mowed. Hence also math, aftermath, and m^h
(=the biter or eater).
Nostrils =nose-thirles, nose-holes. Thirl is a cognate of thrill, drUl,
through, etc. (For change of position of r, compare turn, trundle;
work, Wright; wort, root; bride, bird, etc.)
NaacheoB, a corruption of M. E. none-schencke, or noon-drink. Then
WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM. 149
this word got mixed up with the provincial English word lunch,
which means a lump of bread ; and so we have lunoheon.
Nutmeg, a hybrid compounded of an English and a French word. Meg is a
corruption of the 0. Fr. muige, from Lat. immcwo^ musk.
Orchard = wort-yard, yard or garden for roots or plants. Wort is a
cognate of wcvrt and root.
Ostrich, from Lat avis struthio. Shakespeare spells it estridge in '* Antony
and Cleopatra," iii 13. 197, " The dove will peck the estridge." (AvU
is found as a prefix in bustard also.)
Pastime = that which enables one to pass the time.
Pea-jacket (not connected with pea)^ a short thick jacket often worn by
seamen ; from the Dutch pije, a coarse woollen coat. Thus the
word jacket is superfluous. In M. E. jty was a coat ; and we find it
in Chaucer combining, with a French adjective, to make the hybrid
court€py, a short coat.
Peal (of bells), a short form of the word appeal; a call or summons.
(Compare pentJumse and apperUis; sample and example; scutcheon
and escutcheon; squire kxhA. esquvre ; etc.)
Penthouse (not connected with house), in reality a doublet of appendage,
though not coming from it. 0. Fr. appentis, from Lat. appendicvumf
from appendix, something hanging on to. {Pendere, to hang. )
Periwinkle, a kind of evergreen plant ; formed, by the addition of the
diminutive le, from Lat. pervlnca, from vinciref to bind.
Periwinkle, a small mollusc with one valve. A corruption of the A. S.
pinewincla, that is, a winkle eaten with a pin.
Pickaxe (not connected with axe), a tool used in digging. A corruption
of M. E. picheys, from 0. Fr. picois ; and connected with peak, pike,
asid pick.
Poach = to put in the poke, pocket, or ponch. So poached eggs are eggs
dressed so as to keep the yoke in a pouch. Cognates are pock, smaU-
pox {= pocks), etc.
Porpoise (not connected with the verb poise) ; from Lat. poroum, a pig,
and piscem, a fish.
Posthumous (work), a work that appears after the death of the author ;
from Lat. postumus, the last. The h is an error ; and the word
has no connection with the Lat. hunms, the ground.
Privet, a half -eveipreen shrub. A form of primet, a plant carefully cut and
trimmed ; and hence prim. (For change of m into y (or p), compare
MoUy and PoUy ; Matty and PaUy, etc. V and p are both htbials.)
Proxy, a contraction of procuracy, the taking care of a thing for another.
Lat. pro for, and eura, cara
Quick, living. We have the word in quicklime, quicksand, quicksilver;
and in the phrase " the quick and the dead.'
Quinsy, a bad sore throat, a contraction of 0. Fr. squinancie, formed, by
the addition of a prefixed and strengthening s, from Gr. kynanch£, a
dog-throttling.
150 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Biding, one of bhe three divisions of Yorkshire. The oldest form is Trith-
ing or Thritliixig (from three and ing, part; as in farthing ^tourth
part, etc) The t or th seems to have dropped from its similarity
and nearness to the th in north and the t in east ; as in Narth-thrUhing,
Etut-trithing, etc.
Sexton, a corruption of sacristan, the keeper of the sacred vessels and
vestments ; from Lat. tacer, sacred. But the sexton is now only the
grave-digger. (In the same way, sacristy was shortened into sextry.)
Sheaf, a collection shoved together. Shove gives also shovd; and the
frequentatives shuffle and scuffle.
Soup, a cognate of sop and sup.
Splice (to join after splitting), a cognate form of split and splinter.
Squirrel, from 0. Fr. escnrel ; from Low Lat. seuriclus ; from Gr. tkia,
a shadow, and (mra, a tail. Hence the word means "shadow-taiL"
Starboard, the steering side of a ship — the right, as one stands looking to
the bow.
Stew, the verb corresponding to stove.
Steward, from A. S. stiward, from the full form stigweard; from stige, a
sty, and loeard, a keeper. Originally a person who looked after the
domestic animals.
Stirmp, modem form of A. S. stigrap, from stigan^ to climb, and rdp, a
rope. Cognates are sty, stile, stair.
Straight, an old past participle of stretch, (Strait is a French form of the
word strict, from Lat. strictus, tied up.)
Strong, a nasalised form of stark. Derivatives are strength, strengthen,
string, etc.
Summerset (not connected either with summer or with set), or somersault, a
corruption of Fr. soubresault, from Lat. supra, above, and solium, a
leap. (There is a connection between the b and the m — the one
sliding into the other when the speaker has a cold.)
Surgeon (properly a ?ia/nd-vforker), a contraction of chirurgeon; from
Gr. cheir, the hand, and ergein, to work.
Tackle, that which takes or grasps, holding the masts of a ship in their
places. The le is the same as that in settle (a seat), girdle, etc.
Tale, from A. S. talu, number. Derivatives are tdl and tUl (box for
money), but not talk, which is a Scandinavian word.
Tansy, a tall plant, with small yellow flowers, used in medicine ; from
O. F. atham>asie ; from Gr. athanasia, immortality.
Thorough, a doublet of throu^^, and found in thorough-fa/re, thorough-
bred, etc. (The d/r, thr, or tr is also found in door, thrill, trill, drUl,
nostril, etc.)
Treacle, from M. E. triade, a remedy; from Lat. theri&ca, an antidote
against the bite of serpents ; from Gr. thSrion, a wild beast or
poisonous animaL Milton has the phrase ''the sovran treacle of
sound doctrine." (For the position of the r, compare trundle and
^um/ brid and hvrd; etc)
WORDS DISGUISED IN FORM. 151
Truffle, an underground edible fungus ; from Italian tartufola ; tar
being =Lat. terras, of the ground, and tuf6la= tuber, a root. Trifle
is a doublet of tn^ffle.
Twig, a thin branch of a tree. The tw here is the base of ttoo, and is
found also in ttoin, twilight, twice, twine ; and probably also in tweak,
twist, twinkle, etc. (ThoU is not in this class ; it comes from at-
Toitan, to throw blame on.)
Verdigris (not connected with grease), the rust of brass or copper. From
Lat. yiride aeris, the green of brass. (The g is intrusive, and has not
yet been accounted for. )
Walrus, a kind of large seal ; from Swedish yallroBS = a whale-horse.
The older form of ross is found in Icelandic as hross, which is a doub-
let of the A. S. ?iors. The noise made by the animal somewhat
resembles a neigh.
Wassail, a merry carouse ; from A. S. wes ha^l = Be well ! Wes is the
imperative of wesan to be (still existing in was) ; and hael is connected
with haU/ hale (Scand.), wTiole (Eng.), and health
Whole, a misspelling, now never to be corrected, of hole, the adjective
connected with hale, heal, health, healthy, etc. The w is probably an
intrusion from the S.-W. of England, where they say whoam for home,
woat for oat, etc. If we write whole, we ought also to write wholy
instead of holy.
152
WORD9 THAT HAVE GREATLY CHANGED
IN MEANING.
Abandon, to prodaim openly; to de-
nounce ; then to cast out. (From Low
Lat. hannust an edict.) The earlier
meaning still survives in the phrase,
" banns of marriage."
▲dmire, to wonder at.
Allow, to praise (connected with laud).
Amuse, to cause to muse, to occupy the
mind of. " Camillus set upon the Ghauls,
when they were amused in receiving
their gold," says a writer of the sixteenth
century.
Animosity, high spirits; firom Lat. ani-
Tnogiis, brave.
Artillery (great weapons of war), was used
to include bows, crossbows, etc., down
to the time of Milton. See P. L. ii. 715 ;
and 1 Sam. xx. 40.
Awkward, going the wrong way. Prom
M. E. awk, contrary. " The awk end "
was the wrong end. "With awkward
wind "=with contrary wind.
Babe, doll. Spenser says of a pedlar^
" He bore a truss of trifles at his back.
As bells, and babes, and glasses in his
pack."
Blackguard, the band of lowest kitchen
servants, who had to look after the spits,
pots, and pans, etc
Bombast (an inflated and pompous style
of speaking or writing), cotton-wadding.
Boor (a rough unmannerly fellow), a tiller
of £226 SOU; from the Dutch hoatoen, to
till. ((Compound neighbour.) In South
AfHca, a £Eurmer is still called a botr.
Brat (a contemptuous name for a ciiild),
a Celtic word meaning rag. In Wales
it now means a piMxfore,
Brave, showy, splendid.
By-and-by, at once.
Carpet, the covering of tables as well as
of floors.
Carriage (that which carries) meant for-
merly thai which vHis carried, or bag-
gage. See Acts xxi. 15.
Cattle, a doublet of chattelB, property.
Lat. capitdlia, heads (of oxeui, et^c.)
Chaucer says, " The avaricious man hath
more hope in his catel than in Christ."
Censure (blame) meant merely opinion ;
from the Lat. censeOf I think. Shake-
speare, in Hamlet i. 3. 69, makes Polon-
ius say: "Take each man's censure, but
reserve thy judgment."
(Tharity (almsgiving) meant love; firom
Lat. cams, dear, tlurough the French.
Cheat (to deceive for the purpose of gain)
meant to seize upon a thing as escheated
or forfeited.
Cheer, flwe. " Be of good cheer "= " Put
a good face upon it." " His cheer fell "
= " His countenance feU."
Churl (an uncourteous or disobliging per-
son) meant a countryman. Der. chur-
lish. (Shakespeare also uses the word
in the sense of a miter J)
WOEDS THAT HAVE GREATLY CHANGED IN MEANING, 153
Clumsy, stiff with cold. "When thoa
clomtest with cold/' says Langland (14th
century) = art benumbed. (Cognates,
clamp f cramp.)
Companion, low fellow. Shakespeare has
such phrases as " Companions, hence 1"
Conceit (too high an opinion of one's self)
meant simply thought. Chaucer was
called **a conceited clerk"="a learned
man ftill of thoui^ts." From Lat. con-
eqptust a number of facts brought to-
gether into one general conception or
idea. Shakespeare has the phrase "pass-
ing all conceit "= beyond all thought.
Count (to number) dieant to think (2
with 3, &c)with; firom Lat. compuio,
I compute or think with. Count is a
doublet, through French, of compute.
Cunning, able or skilled. Like the word
crafty it has lost its innocent sense.
Danger, jurisdiction, legal power over.
The Di^e of Venice says to the Mer*
chant, "Tou stand within his danger,
do you not?" M. V. iv. 1. 180.,
Defy, to pronounce all bonds of fieUth
dissolved. Lat^ Jides, fEiith.
DeliciouB, too scrupulous or finicaL A
writer of the seventeenth century says
that idleness makes even ** the sober-
est (most moderate) men delicious."
Depart, part or divide. The older version
of the Prayer-Book has " till death us
depart " (now corrupted into do part).
Disaster, an unfavourable star. A term
from the old astrology.
Disease, discomfort, trouble. Shakespeare
has, *' She will diaeaee our bitter mirth ; "
and Tyndale's version of Mark v. 85, is,
"Thy daughter is dead: why diseasest
thou the Master any ftirther ? "
Duke, leader. Hannibal was called in old
English writers, "Duke of Carthage."
Ebb, shallow. " Cross the stream where
it is ebbest,** is a Lancashire proverb.
(The word is a cognate of evtn,)
Essay, an attempt. The old title of such
a book was not " Essay on " but " Essay
at." From Lat. exagiwrn, a weighing.
An older form is Assay, Shakespeare has
such phrases as "theassay of arms."
E:qBlode, to drive out by clapping of the
hands. The opposite of applaud. Lat.
plaudo, I clap my hands.
Explosion, a hissing a thing off the stage.
Firmament, that which makes Jlrm. or
strong. Jeremy Taylor (seventeenth
century) says, " Custom is the firma-
ment of the law."
Fond, foolish. The past participle of
A. S. fonnan, to act foolishly.
Frightful, ftiU of fear. (Compare the old
meaning of dread^fiiL)
Garble, to sift or cleanse. Low Lat.
garbeUare, to sift com.
Garland, a king's crown ; now a wreath of
flowers.
Gazette (Italian), a magpie. Hence the
Ital. gazettare, to chatter like a magpie;
to write tittle-tattle. (It was also the
name of a very small coin, current in
Venice, etc.)
Generous, high-bom. Lat. genus, race.
Compare the phrases " a man of family ; "
" a man of rank.** Shakespeare has " the
generous citizens" for those of high
birth.
Gtossip, sib or related in Ood ; a godfather
or godmother. It now means such per-
sonal tcUk as usually goes on among such
persons. (Compare the French commtre
and comm>huge.)
Handsome, clever with the hands.
Harbinger, a person who prepared a har-
bour or lodging.
Heathen, a person who lives on a heath.
(Cf. pagan, person who lives in a pagus,
or country district.)
Hobby, an easy ambling nag.
Idiot (Gr. ididtes), a private person; a
person who kept aloof from public busi-
ness. Cf. idiom,; idiosyncrctsy ; etc.
Imp, an engrafted shoot. Chaucer says :
" Of feeble trees there comen wretched
impes."
Spenser has " Well worthy impe."
154
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
ImpeitiBent, not pertaining to the
matter in hand.
Indifferent, impartial. "God is indiffer-
ent to all."
Insolent, unusual. An old writer praises
Raleigh's poetry as "insolent and pas-
sionate."
Kind, bom, inborn ; natural ; and then
loving.
Knave, boy. *' A knave child "^a male
child. Sir John Mandeville speaks of
Mahomet as **& poure knave."
Laoe, a snare. Lat Uiqueus, a noose.
Livery, that which is given or delivered,
Fr. livrer; from Lat. liberare, to ftree.
It was applied both to food and to
clothing. "A horse at livery " still means
a horse not merely kept, but also fed.
Magnificent, doing great things; large-
minded. Bacon says, "Bounty and
magnificence are virtues very regal."
Maker, a poet.
Manure, to work with the hand ; a doublet
of manoeuvre. (Jjat. manus, the hand.)
Mere, utter. Lat. 9)t«ru«, pure. Shakespeare,
in "Othello," speaks of "the mere per-
dition of the Turkish fleet" "Mere
wine " was unmixed wine.
Metal, a mine.
Minute, something very small. Lat. min-
viuSf made small; fh)m minuSf less.
Cognates, minor ; minish; diminUh; etc.
Miscreant, an unbeliever. Lat. tnis (firom
minu8)t and credo, I believe; through
O. Fr. mescr^ant.
Miser, a wretched person. Lat. miser , mis-
erable.
Nephew, a grandchild. (Lat. tiepos.)
Nice, too scnipulous or fastidious. Shake-
speare, in " K. John," iii. 4. 188, says—
" He that stands upon a slippery place,
Makes nice of no vile hold to stay him
up.
Niece, a grandchild. Lat. neptis.
NoveliMt, an innovator.
Offkl, that which is allowed to £bU oft
Offldooi, obliging. In modem diplomacy,
an official communication is one made
in the way of business ; an offi^ous com-
munication is a fHendly and irregular
one. Burke, in the eighteenth century,
speaks of the French nobility as " very
officious and hospitable."
Ostler = hosteller. The keeper of a hostel
or hotel. (A comic derivation is that it
is a contraction of oatstealer).
Painfkil, painstaking. Fuller, in the seven-
teenth century, speaks of Joseph as " a
painful carpenter."
Palliate, to throw a cloak over. Lat jpal-
lium, a cloak.
Pencil, a small hair brush, loit. penedllus,
a little tail
Peevish, obstinate.
Perspective, a glass for seeing either near
or distant things.
Pester, to encumber or dog. From Low
Lat. pastoriunif a clog for horses in a
pasture.
Plantation, a colony of men planted.
Plausible^ having obtained applause.
"Every one received him plausibly,"
says a seventeenth-century writer.
Polite, polished. A seventeenth-century
writer has "polite bodies as looking-
glasses."
Pomp, a procession.
Preposterous, putting the last first Lat
prcBf before ; and post, after.
Prevaricate, to reverse, to shuffle. Lat.
prcBvarieari, to spread the legs apart
in walking.
Prevent, to go before. Lat pra, before,
and venio, I come. The Prayer-Book has,
" Prevent us, O Lord, in all our doings."
Prodigious, ominous. "A prodigious
meteor," meant a meteor of bad omen.
Punctual, attending to small points of
detail. Lat. punetwn ; Vr, point.
WORDS THAT HAVE GREATLY CHANGED IN MEANING. 155
Quaint, skilftil. Prospero, in the "Tem-
pest," caUs Ariel " My quaint Ariel ! "
Rac7, having the strong and native qual-
ities of the race. Cowley says of a poet
that he is —
*' Fraught with brisk racy verses, in
which we
The soil firom whencethey come, taste,
smell, and see."
Reduce, to lead back.
Resent, to be fully sensible of. Resent-
ment, grateM recognition of.
Rettive, obstinate, inclined to rest or
stand still. "To turn rusty" (=resty)
is to turn obstinate.
Retaliate, to give back benefits as well as
injuries.
Room, space, place at table. Luke xiv. 8.
Rnmmage, to make room.
Sad, earnest.
Saah, a turban.
Secure^ free firom care. Ben Jonson says :
" Men may securely sin ; but safely,
never."
Sheoi, bright, pure. Connected with
shine.
Shrew, a wicked or hurtful person.
Silly, blessed.
Sincerity, absence of foreign admixture.
Soft, sweetly reasonable.
Spices, kinds— a doublet of species. (A
grocer in French is called an ipider.)
Stanre, to die. Chaucer says, "Jesus
starved upon the cross."
Sycophant, "a fig-shower" or informer
against a person who smuggled figs. Gr.
sukon, a fig ; and phainOt I show.
Table, a picture.
Tarpaulin, a sailor ; trom the tarred
canvas suit he wore. Now shortened
into tar.
Thews, habits, manners.
Thought, deep sorrow, anxiety. Matthew
vi. 25. In "Julius Casar," ii. 1. 187, we
find, " Take thought, and die for Csesar."
Trivial, very common. Lat. trivia^ a
place where three roads meet.
Tuition, guardianship. Lat. tuitio, look-
ing at.
Uncouth, unknown.
Union, oneness ; or a pearl in which size,
roundness, smoothness, purity, lustre,
were united. See "Hamlet," v. 2.283.
A doublet is onion — so called from its
shape.
Unldnd, unnatural.
Urbane, living in a city. Lat. urba, a
city.
Usury, money paid for the use of a thing.
Varlet, a serving-man. Low Lat. vassa-
letttts, a minor vassal. Varlet and valet
are diminutives of vassal.
Vermin was applied to noxious animals
of whatever size. "The crocodile is
a dangerous vermin." Lat. vermis, a
worm.
Villain, a farm-servant. Lat. villa, tLt&im,
Vivacity, pertinacity in living ; longevity.
Fuller speaks of a man as " most remark-
able for his vivacity, for he lived 140
years.'*
Wit, knowledge, mental ability.
Worm, a serpent.
Worship, to consider worth, to honour.
Wretched, wicked. A. 8. wreeca, an out-
cast.
PART 11.
COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, PARAPHRASING,
AND PROSODY.
HINTS ON COMPOSITION.
1. Composition is the art of putting sentences together.
(i) Any one can make a sentence ; but every one cannot make a sen-
tence that is both clear and neat. We all speak and write sentences
every day ; but these sentences may be neat or they may be clumsy —
they may be pleasant to read, or they may be dull and heavy.
(ii) Sir Arthur Helps says : " A sentence should be powerful in its
substantives, choice and discreet in its adjectives, nicely correct in its
verbs ; not a word that could be added, nor one which the most fastid-
ious would venture to suppress ; in order, lucid ; in sequence, logical ;
in method, perspicuous."
2. The manner in which we put our sentences together is
called style. That style may be good or bad; feeble or vigorous;
clear or obscure. The whole purpose of style, and of studying
style, is to enable us to present our thoughts to others in a clear,
forcible, and yet graceful way.
"Style is but the order and the movement that we put into our
thoughts. If we bind them together closely, compactly, the style be-
comes firm, nervous, concise. If they are left to follow each other
negligently, the style will be diffuse, slipshod, and insipid.'* — Buffon.
3. Good composition is the result of three things : (i) clear
thinking ; (ii) reading the best and most vigorous writers ; and
(iii) frequent practice in writing, along with careful polishing of
what we have written.
(i) We ought to read diligently in the best poets, historians, and
essayists, — ^to read over and over again what strikes us as finely or nobly
or powerfully expressed, — to get by heart the most striking passages in
a good author. This kind of study will give us a large stock of appro-
priate words and striking phrases ; and we shall never be at a loss for
the right words to express our own sense.
160 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
Ben Jonson says : " For a man to write well, there are required
three necessaries : let him read the beet authors ; observe the beet
speakers ; and have much exercise of his own style."
(ii) " My mother forced me, by steady daily toil, to leam long chapters
of the Bible by heart ; as well as to read it every syllable through, aloud,
hard names and all, from Genesis to the Apocalypse, about once a-year:
and to that discipline, — patient, accurate, and resolute, — I owe, not only
a knowledge of the book, but much of my general power of taking pains,
and t?u best part of my taste in literaHtre," — John Buskin.
(iii) But, though much reading of the best books and a great deal of
practice in composition are the only means to attain a good and vigorous
style, there are certain directions — both general and special — ^which may
be of use to the young student, when he is beginning.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS.
4. We must know the subject fully about which we are going
to write.
(i) If we are going to tell a story, we must know all the circumstances ;
the train of events that led up to the result ; the relations of the persons
in the story to each other ; what they said ; and the outcome of the
whole at the close. These considerations guide us to
Practical Bule I. — Draw up on a piece of paper a short
skeleton of what you are going to write about
(i) Archbishop Whately says : "The more briefly thb is done, so that
it does but exhibit clearly the heads of the composition, the better ; be-
cause it is important that the whole of it be placed before the eye and
mind in a small compass, and be taken in, as it were, at a glance ; and it
should be written, therefore, not in sentences, but like a table of contents.
Such an outline should not be allowed to feUer the writer, if, in the
course of the actual composition, he find any reason for deviating from
his original plan, — it should serve merely as a tra^h to mark out a path
for him, not as a groove to confine him."
(ii) Cobbett says : " Sit down to write whai you Tutve thought, and
not to think what you shaU torite"
5. Our sentences must be written in good English.
Good English is simply the English of the best writers ; and we can
onljr learn what it is by reading the books of these writers. Good writers
GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 161
of the present century are such authors as Charles Lamb, Jane Austen,
Scott, Coleridge, Landor, Maoaulay, Thackeray, Dickens, Matthew
Arnold, Froude, Ruskin, and George Eliot.
6. Our sentences must be written in pure English.
(i) This rule forbids the use of obsolete or old-fashioned words, such
as eratf peradventtfre, hight, beholden, vouchsafe, methvnJcs,* etc,
(ii) It forbids also the use of slang expressions, such as awfuUy, jolly,
rot, bosh, amdl a rat, see with half a/n eye, etc
(iii) It forbids the employment of technical terms, unless these are
absolutely necessary to express our meaning ; and this is sure to be the
case in a paper treating on a scientific subject. But technical terms in
an ordinary piece of writing, such as quantitative, eon/notation, anent,
chromatic, are quite out of place.
(iv) In obedience to this rule, we ought also carefully to avoid the use
of foreign words and phrases. AfiEectation of all kinds is disgusting ;
and it both looks and is afifected to use such words as confrere, raison
cPitre, cmwur propre, congi, etc.
(y) This recommendation also includes the Practical Rule : " When
an English-English (or ' Saxon ') and a Latin-English word offer them-
selves, we had better choose the Saxon."
(vi) The following is from an article by Leigh Hunt : " In the Bible
there are no Latinisms ; and where is the life of our language to be
found in such perfection as in the translation of the Bible ? We will
venture to affirm that no one is master of the English language who is not
well read in the Bible, and sensible of its peculiar excellences. It is the
ptire well of English. The taste which the Bible forms is not a taste
for big words, but a taste for the simplest expression or the clearest
medium of presenting idecu. JRemarkaUe it is that most of the sublimities
in the Bible are conveyed in monosyUaiUes, For example, * Let there be
light : and there was light.' Do these words want any life that Latin
could lend them ? . . . The best styles are the freest from Latinisms ;
and it may be almost laid down as a rule that a good writer will never
have recourse to a Latinism if a Saxon word will equally serve his purpose.
We cannot dispense with words of Latin derivation; but there should
be the plea of necessity for resorting to them, or we wrong our English."
(vii) Ab the same time, it must not be forgotten that we very often
are compelled by necessity to use Latin words. Even Leigh Hunt, in
the above passage, has been obliged to do so while declaiming against it.
This is apparent from the number of words printed in italics, all of
which are derived from Latin. This is most apparent in the phrase
equally serve his purpose, which we could not now translate into ** ^vu^"
English.
162
COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
7. Our sentences must be written in accurate English.
That is, the words used must be appropriate to the sense we
wish to convey. Accuracy is the virtue of using "the right
word in the right place."
(i) " The attempt was found to be impracticable.*' Now, impracticaUe
means impossible of accomplishment. Any one may attempt anything ;
carrying it out is a^ different thing. The word used should have been
design or plan,
(ii) " The veracity of the statement was called in question." Veracity
is the attribute of a person ; not of a statement.
(iii) Accurate English can only be attained by the careful study of the
different shades of meaning in words ; by the constant comparison of
synonyms. Hence we may lay down the
Practical Bnle n. — Make a collection of synonymsy and
compare the meanings of each couple (i) in a dictionary, and
(ii) in a sentence.
The following are a few, the distinctions between which are
very apparent : —
Abstain
Forbear.
Custom
Habit
Active
Diligent.
Delay
Defer.
Aware
Conscious.
Difficulty
Obstacle.
Character
Reputation.
Strong
Powerful
Circumstance
Event.
Think
Believe.
8. Our sentences should be perfectly dear. That is, the
reader, if he is a person of ordinary common-sense, should not
be left for a moment in doubt as to our meaning.
(i) A Roman writer on style says : " Care should be taken, not that
the reader may understand if he will, but that he shall understand
whether he will or not."
(ii) Our sentences should be as clear as " mountain water flowing over
a rock." They should " economise the reader's attention."
(iii) Clearness is gained by being simple, and by being lirieC,
(iv) Simplicity teaches us to avoid (a) too learned words, and (&)
roundabout ways of mentioning persons and things.
(a) We ought, for example, to prefer —
Abuse to Vituperation. Neighbourhood to Vicinity.
Begin m Commence. Trustworthy „ Reliable.
Commence n Initiate. "WeVcorciQ %\ Reception.
GENEBAL DIRECTIONS. 163
(&) We ought to avoid such stale and hackneyed phrases as the
"Swan of Avon" for Shakespeare; the "Bard of Florence" for
Dante ; " the Great Lexicographer " for Dr Johnson. *
(v) Brevity enjoins upon us the need of expressing our meaning in as
few words as possible.
Opposed to brevity is Torbosity, or wordiness. Pope says —
" Words are like leaves ; and, where they most abound.
Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found."
(vi) Dr Johnson says : " Tediousness is the most fatal of all faults."
9. Our sentences should be written in flowing English.
That is, the rhythm of each sentence ought to be pleasant to
the ear, if read aloud. This axiom gives rise to two rules : —
Practical Bule m — Write as you would speak !
(i) This, of course, points to an antecedent condition — that you must
be a good reader. Good reading aloud is one of the chief conditions of
good writing. " Living speech," says a philosophic writer, " is the cor-
rective of all style."
Practical Bule IV. — After we have written our piece of com-
position, we should read it aloud either to ourselves or to some
one else.
Thus, and thus only, shall we be able to know whether each sentence
has an agreeable rhythm.
Practical Bule V. — " Never write about any matter you do
not well understand. If you clearly understand all about your
matter, you will never want thoughts ; and thoughts instantly
become words." — Cobbbtt.
" Seek not for words ; seek only fact and thought.
And crowding in will come the words, unsought." — Hobace.
" Know well your subject ; and the words will go
To the pen's point, with steady, ceaseless flow." — Pentland.
10. Our sentences should be compaot.
(i) That is, they ought not to be loose collections of words, but firm,
well-knit, nervous organisms.
(ii) A sentence in which the complete sense is sua^wdfii^'^al^^^^ ^^kr^
is called a polod. Contr&Btedm^\tV&t\i<^\QQa^ybi«i\iai<^«
164 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
(a) Loose Sentenoo. — ^The Puritans looked down with contempt on
the rich and the eloquent^ on nobles and priests.
(6) Porlod. — On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests
the Puritans looked down with contempt.
(iii) The following is a fine example of a loose sentence : " Notwith-
standing his having gone, in winter, to Moscow, where he foimd the cold
excessive, and which confined him, without intermission, six weeks to
his room, we could not induce him to come home." This no more
makes a sentence than a few cartloads of bricks thrown loosely upon the
ground constitute a house.
EMPHASIS.
One object in style is to call the attention of the reader in a
forcible and yet agreeable way to the most important parts of
our subject — in other words, to give emphasis to what is
emphatic, and to make what is striking and important strike the
eye and mind of the reader. This purpose may be attained in
many different ways ; but there are several easy devices that
will be found of use to us in our endeavour to give weight and
emphasis to what we write. These are : —
1. The ordinary grammatical order of the words in a sentence
may be varied ; and emphatic words may be thrown to the
begfinning or to the end of the sentence. This is the device
of Inversion.
Thus we have, ''Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the
Lord." " Jesus I know, and Paul I know : but who are ye ? " " Some
he imprisoned ; others he put to death" " Go he must I " " Do it he
shall ! " " They could take their rest, for they knew Lord Strafford
watched. Him they feared, him they trusted, him they obeyed." " He
that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes ; for, to
maintain one, he must invent twenty more." In the last sentence, the
phrase to maintain one gains emphasis by being thrown out of its
usual and natural position. But
Caution L — ^Do not go out of your way to invert It has a
look of affectation. Do not say, for example, " True it is," or
"Of Milton it was always said," etc. And do not begin an
essajr tbua : " Of all the vices ttiat d\a^^;vaQ «a^ da^g?»de," etc.
EMPHASIS. 165
2. The Omission of Coi^iinotions gives force and emphasis.
Thus Hume writes: "He rushed amidst them with his sword
drawn, threw them into confusion, pushed his advantage, and gained a
complete victory." We may write : " You say this ; I deny it."
3. The use of the Imperative Mood gives liveliness and
emphasis.
Thus we find the sentence : " Strip virtue of the awful authority
she derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of
half her majesty." Here strip is equal to j(f you strip ; but is much
more forcible.
4. Emphasis is also gained by employing the Inteppogative
Form.
(i) Thus, to say " Who does not hope to live long ? " is much more
forcible and lively than "All of us hope to live long."
(ii) This is a well-known form in all impassioned speech. Thus, in
the Bible we find : " Tour fathers, where are they ? And the prophets,
do they live for ever % "
5. The device of Exclamation may also be employed to give
emphasis ; but it cannot be frequently used, without danger of
falling into affectation.
Thus Shakespeare, instead of making Hamlet say, " Man is a wonder-
ful piece of work," etc. — which would be dull and flat — writes, " What
a piece of work is man ! '* etc.
6. Emphasis may be gained by the use of the device of
Periphrasis.
(i) Thus, instead of saying " John built this house,*' or " This house
was bunt by John," we can say : " It was John who built this house ;"
" It was no other than John who," etc.
7. Bepetition is sometimes a powerful device for producing
emphasis ; but, if too frequently employed, it becomes a tire-
some mannerism.
(i) Macaulay is very fond of this device. He says : "Tacitus tells a
fine story finely, but he cannot tell a plain story plainly. He stimulates
till stimulants lose their power." Again : " He aspired to the highest
— above the people, above the authorities, above the laws, above bia
country."
166 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
(ii) Its effect in poetry is sometimes very fine : —
" By foreign luuids thy dying eyes were closed ;
By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed ;
By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned ;
By strangers honoured, and by strangers mourned.'*
8. The device of Suspense adds to the weight and emphasis
of a statement; it keeps the attention of the reader on the
stretch, because he feels the sense to be incomplete.
(i) The suspense in the following sentence gives a heightened idea of
the difficulty of travelling : " At last, with no small difficulty, and
after much fatigue, we came, through deep roads, storms of wind and
rain, and bad weather of all kinds, to our journey's end."
(ii) This device is frequent in poetry. Thus Keats opens his " Hy-
perion " in this way : —
" Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
Far sunken firom the healthy breath of mom,
Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star —
Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone."
Here the verb is kept to the last line.
9. Antithesis always commands attention, and is therefore a
powerful mode of emphasising a statement But antithesis is
not always at one's command ; and it must not be strained after.
Macaulay employs this device with great effect. He has : " The
Puritans hated bear-baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, but
because it gave pleasure to the spectators." Swift was very fond of it.
Thus he says : " The two maxims of a great man at court are, always to
keep his countenance, and never to keep his word." Dr Johnson has
this sentence : ** He was a learned man among lords, and a lord among
learned men." ** He twice forsook his party ; his principles never."
A very sharp, sudden, and unexpected antithesis is called an
Epigram.
(i) Thus Lord Bacon, speaking of a certain procession in Rome, says that
"The statues of Brutus and Cassius were conspicuous by their absence."
Macaulay says of the dirt and splendour of the Russian Ambassadors :
" They came to the English Court dropping pearls and vermin."
(ii) The following are additional instances of truths put in a very
striking and epigrammatic way : " Verbosity is cured by a large vocab-
ulary" (because when you have a large stock of words, you will be
able to choose the fittest). " We ought to know something of every-
tbing, and everything of something.** ** He was bom of poor but dis-
honest parents.'* "When you have notVdiL^ t« say, say it." "He
DISTINCTNESS OF STYLE. 167
had nothing to do, and he did it." ** The better is the enemy of the
good." " One secret in education," says Herbert Spencer, " is to know
how wisely to lose time." "Make haste slowly." "They did nothing
in particular ; and did it very welL"
(iii) But no one should strain after such a style of writing. Such an
attempt would only produce smartness, which is a fatal vice.
DISTINCTNESS OF STYLK
1. One great secret of a good and striking style is the art of
Speoifioation.
Professor Bain gives us an excellent example of a vague and gen-
eral, as opposed to a distinct and specific style : —
(a) Vague. — "In proportion as the manners, customs, and amuse-
ments of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulation of their
penal codes will be severe."
(6) Spedflc. — "According as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and
combats of gladiators, so will they punish by hanging, burning,
and crucifying."
2. Specification or distinctness of style may be attained in
two ways : (i) by the use of concrete terms ; and (ii) by the
use of detail.
3. A concrete or particulajr term strikes both the feelings
and imagination with greater force than an abstract or general
term can do.
(i) Let us make a few contrasts : —
Abstract. Concrete.
Quadruped. Horse.
Building materials. Bricks and mortar.
Old age. Grey hairs.
Warlike weapons. Sword and gun.
Rich and poor. The palace and the cottage.
A miserable state. Age, ache, and penury.
"I have neither the necessaries " I have not a crust of bread,
of life, nor the means of pro- npr a penny to buy one."
curing them."
(ii) Campbell says : " The more general the terms are, the picture is
the fainter; the more special, the brighter." " They sank like lead in
the mighty waters " is more forcible tb»ai " \2[i«^ «!»^\!^^ \&i^^r
168 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
4. Details enable the reader to form in his mind a vivid pic-
ture of the event narrated or the person described; and, before
beginning to write, we ought always to draw up a list of such
details as are both striking and appropriate — such details as
tend to throw into stronger relief the chief person or event.
The following is a good example from the eloquent writer and
profoimd thinker Edmund Burke. He is speaking of the philanthro-
pist Howard : —
" He has visited all Europe to dive into the depths of dungeons ; to plunge
into the infections of hospitals ; to survey the mansions of sorrow and pain ;
to take the gauge and dimensions of misery, depression, and contempt ; to
remember the forgotten, to attend to the n^lected, to visit the forsaken, and
to compare and collate the distresses of all men in all countries."
GENERAL CAUTIONS.
L Avoid the use of threadbare and hackneyed expressions.
Leave them to people who are in a hurry, or to penny-a-liners.
Imbtead or Wbitk
At the expiration of four years. At the end, etc.
Paternal sentiments. The feelings of a father.
Exceedingly opulent. Very rich.
Incur the danger. Run the risk.
Accepted signification. Usual meaning.
Extreme felicity. Great happiness.
A sanguinary engagement. A bloody battle.
In the afi&rmative. Tes.
2. Be very careful in the management of pronouns.
(i) Cobbett says: "Never put an it upon paper without thinking
well what you are about. When I see many i^8 in a page, I always
tremble for the writer." See also 2 Kings, xix. 85 : "And when tJiey
arose early in the morning, behold tJiey were all dead corpses."
(ii) Bolingbroke has the sentence : "They were persons of very moder-
ate intellects, even before they were impaired by their passions.*' The
last t?iey ought to be theie,
(iii) The sentence, " He said to his patient that if he did not feel
better in half an hour, he thought he had better return," is a clumsy
sentence, but clear enough ; because we can easily see that it is the
jMiient tb&t ia to take the advice.
SPECIAL CAUTIONS. 169
3. Be careful not to use mixed metaphors.
(i) The f oUowing is a fearful example : " This is the arrow of convic-
tion, which, like a nail driven in a sure place, strikes its roots downwards
into the earth, and bears fruit upwards."
(ii) Sir Boyle Roche, an Irish member, began a speech thus : " Mr
Speaker, I smell a rat, I see him floating iu the air ; but, mark me,
I shall yet nip him in the bud." A similar statement is : ** Lord Eim-
berley said that in taking a very large bite of the Turkish cherry the
way had been paved for its partition at no distant day."
4. Be simple, quiel^ manly, frank, and strnghtforward in
your style, as in your conduct. That is : Be yourself 1
SPECIAL CAUTIOl^S.
1. Avoid tautology.
Alison says: "It was founded mainly on the entire monopoly of
the whole trade with the colonies." Here erUire and whole are tauto-
logical ; for monopoly means entire possession, or possession of the whole,
" He appears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men." Here universal
is superfluous.
2. Place the adverb as near the word it modifies as you
can.
" He not only found her employed, but also pleased and tranquil."
The not only belongs to employ ed, and should therefore go with it.
3. Avoid circumlocution.
"Her Majesty, on reaching Perth, partook of breakfast." This
should be simply breakfcuted. But the whole sentence should be recast
into : " On reaching Perth, the Queen breakfasted in the station.'
If
4. Take care that your participles are attached to nouns, and
that they do not run loose.
"Alarmed at the news, the boat was launched at once." Here
alarm£d can, grammatically, agree with boat only. The sentence
should be : " The men, alarmed at the news, launched their boat at
once."
5. Use a present participle as seldom as possible.
(i) " I have documents proving this " is not so strong as " to prove
this."
170 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
(ii) " He dwelt a long time on the advantages of swift steamers, thus
accounting for the increase/' etc. The phrase " thus accounting " is very
loose. Every sentence ought to be neat, firm, and compact.
6. Eemember that who = and lie or for he; while that
introduces a merely adjectival clause.
" I heard it from the doctor, who told the gardener that-works-f or-
the-college." Here who = and Tie; and t?uU introduces the adjectival
sentence.
7. Do not change the Subject of your Sentence.
(i) Another way of putting this is: "Preserve the unity of the
sentence ! "
(ii) "Archbishop Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly
beloved both by King William and Queen Mary, who nominated Dr
Tenison to succeed him." The last statement about nominating another
bishop has no natural connection with what goes before.
(iii) ** After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was
welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kind-
ness." This sentence ought to be broken into two. The first should
end with on shore ; and the second begin " Here I was met and, etc."
8. See that mrho or mrhich refers to its proper antecedent.
•
" Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a yeoman,
to whom he left his second-best bed." Here the grammatical antece-
dent is yeoman; but the historical and sense-antecedent is certainly
da/u^hter,
9. Do not use and mrhich for mrhioh.
(i) " I bought him a very nice book as a present, and which cost me
ten shillings." The and is here worse than useless.
(ii) If another which has preceded, of course and which is right.
10. Avoid exaggerated or too strong language.
Unprecedented, most extra^irdinary, inealetdable, boundless, extremely,
awfully, scandalous, stupendous, should not be used unless we know that
they are both true and appropriate.
11. Be careful not to mix up dependent with principal
sentences.
"He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to give
orders to his servants." Here it is doubtful whether intended is co-
ordinate with replied or with wished. If the former is the case, then
we ought to s&y he intended.
PUNCTUATION. 171
12. Be very careful about the right position of each phrase
or clause in your sentence.
The following are curious examples of dislocations or misplace-
ments : " A piano for sale by a lady about to cross the Channel in an
oak case with carved legs.'* " I believe that, when he died, Cardinal
Mezzofanti spoke at least fifty languages." " He blew out his brains
after bidding his wife good-bye with a gun. *' " Erected to the memory
of John Phillips, accidentally shot, as a mark of affection by his
brother." *' The Board has resolved to erect a building large enough
to accommodate 500 students three storeys high." "Mr Carlyle has
taught us that silence is golden in thirty -seven volumes."
PUNCTUATION.
1. Certain signs, called points, are used in sentences to mark
off their different parts, and to show the relation of each part to
the organic whole.
(i) Putting in the right points is called punctuation, from the Latin
punctunif a point. From the same word come puncttial and punctuality,
2. These points are the ftdl stop, the colon, the semicolon,
the dash, and the comma.
3. The fUll stop (.) or period marks the close of a sentence.
4. The colon (:) introduces (i) a new statement that may
be regarded as an after-thought ; or (ii) it introduces a cata-
logue of things ; or (iii) it introduces a formal speecL
(The word colon is Greek, and means limb or member.)
(i) " Study to acquire a habit of accurate expression : no study is
more important.*'
(ii) " Then follow excellent parables about fame : as that she gathereth
strength in going ; that she goeth upon the ground, and yet liideth her
head in the clouds ; that in the day-time she sitteth in a watch-tower,
and flieth most by night." — Bacon.
(iii) " Mr "Wilson rose and said : * Sir, I am sorry,' etc."
5. The semicolon is employed when, for reasons of sound or
of sense, two or more simple sentences are thrown into one.
{Semicolon is Greek, and means hcdfa colon.)
(i) " In the youth of a state, arms do ^o>xn]^ \ m \Je\fc tsjcA^SSa ^^^ ^V
172 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
a state, learning ; and then both of them together for a time ; in the
declining age of a state, mechanical arts and merchandise.'* — Bacok,
(ii) Learn from the birds what foods the thickets yield ;
Learn from the beasts the physic of the field ;
Thy arts of building from the bee receive ;
Learn of the mole to plough, the worm to weave.*' — Pofb.
6. The daah is used (i) to introduce an amplification or ex-
planation ; and (ii) two dashes are often employed in place of
the old parenthesis.
(i) " During the march a storm of rain, thunder, and lightning came
on — a storm such as is only seen in tropical countries."
(ii) " Ribbons, buckles, buttons, pieces of gold-lace— any trifles he had
worn — were stored as priceless treasures."
7. The oomma is used to indicate a strong pause, either of
sense or of sound.
(i) It is true that the comma is the weakest of all our stops ; but
there are many pauses which we ought to make in reading a sentence
aloud that are not nearly strong enough to warrant a comma.
(ii) It is better to understop rather than to overstep. For example,
the last part of the last sentence in the paragraph above might have
been printed thus : " there are many pauses, which we ought to make,
in reading a sentence aloud, that are not nearly strong enough to war-
rant a comma." This is the old-fashioned style ; but such sprinkling of
commas is not at all necessary.
(iii) Two things are all that are required to teach us the use of a
comma : (a) observation of the custom of good writers ; and (h) careful
consideration of the sense and build of our own sentences.
(iv) The following are a few special uses of the oomma : —
(a) It may be used in place of and : —
" We first endure, then pity, then embrace.**
(&) After an address : " John, come here. "
(c) After certain introductory adverbs, as however, ai length, at
last, etc ** He came, however, in time to catch the train."
8. The point of interrogation (?) is placed at the end of a
question,
9. The point of admiration (!) is employed to mark a state-
ment which calls for surprise or wonder ; but it is now seldom
used.
FIGUKES OF SPEECH. 173
FIOUBES OF SPEECH.
1. The mind naturally tends, especially when in a state of
excitement, to the use of what is called figurative language.
It is as if we called upon all the things we see or have seen to
come forward and help us to express our overmastering emotions.
In fact, the external shows of nature are required to express the
internal movements of the mind ; the external world provides a
language for the internal or mental world. Hence we find all
language full of figures of speech. Though we do not notice
them at the time, we can hardly open our mouths without using
them. As Butler says in his famous poem : —
" For Hudibras, — he could not ope
His mouth, but out there flew a trope." ^
We speak of a town being stormed; of a clear head ; a hard
heart; vnngedivotdiB', ^Zotr^^w^ eloquence; virgin snovr'y 2k torrent
of words; the thirsty ground; the angry sea. We speak of
God's Word being a light to our feet and a lamp to our path.
2. This kind of language has been examined, classified, and
arranged under heads ; and the chief figures of speech are called
8imile» Metaphor, Personification* Allegory, Synecdoche,
Metonymy, and Hjrperbole.
3. A Simile is a comparison that is limited to one point
"Jones fought like a lion." Here the single point of likeness
between Jones and the lion is the bravery of the fighting of
each.
(Simile comes from the Latin similiSf like.)
(i) " His spear was like the mast of a ship." '* His salt^ ter^ striken
down like rain," says Chaucer. '^ Apollo came like the night/' says
Homer. "His words fell soft, like snow upon the ground," are the
words used by Homer in speaking of Ulysses. "It stirs the heart
like the sound of a trumpet" said Sir Philip Sidney in speaking of
the ballad of "Chevy Chase." Tennyson admirably compares a miller
covered with flour to "a working-bee in blossom-dust."
^ A trope — from Greek trdpoSf a turning. A word that has been turned
from its ordinary and primary use. From the same root come tropioM
and tropicoL
174 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
4. A Metaphor is a simile with the words like or as left out.
Instead of saying " Roderick Dhu fought like a lion," we use a
metaphor, and say " He was a lion in the fight."
{Metaphor is a Greek word meaning tranaferencej)
(i) All language, as we have seen, is full of metaphors. Hence lan-
guage has been called "fossil poetry." Thus, even in very ordinary
prose, we may say, ''the wish is father to the thought; " ''the news
was a dagger to his heart;" or we speak of the fire of passion; of a
ray of hope ; hfla^h of wit ; a thought striking us ; and so on.
(ii) By frequent use, and by forgetfulness, many metaphors have lost
their figurative character. Thus we use the words provide (to see
beforehand), edify (to build up), express (to squeeze out), detect (to
unroof), rumiruUe (to chew the cud), without the smallest feeling of
their metaphorical character.
(iii) We must never mix our metaphors. It will not do to say : " In
a moment the thunderbolt was on them, deluging the country with
invaders." " I will now embark upon the feature on which this question
mainly hinges."
(iv) Metaphors and similes may be mixed. Thus Longfellow : —
^J^^^.^r^^^r.r> S ^^^ ^7 ^ doue ; and the darkness
mewpnor, .. -^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^
Simile J As a feather is wafted downward
omme, | From an eagle in his flight.
(v) A metaphor is a figure in which the objects compared are treated
by the mind as identical for the time being. A simile simply treats
them as resemMing one another ; and the mind keeps the two carefully
apart.
5. Personification is that figure by which, under the influence
of strong feeling, we attribute life and mind to impersonal and
inanimate things.
(i) Thus we speak, in poetic and impassioned language, of pale Fear ;
gaunt Famine ; green-eyed Jealousy ; and white-?ianded Hope. The morn-
ing is said to hmgh; the winds to whisper; the oaks to sigh ; and the
brooks to pratUe,
(ii) Milton, in the ' Paradise Lost,' ix. 780, thus describes the fall of
Eve:—
" So saying, her rash hand in evil hour
Forth reaching to the fruit, she plucked, she ate 1
Earth /eZt the loounA; and Nature, from her seat,
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe
That aU was lost**
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 175
Shelley's * Cloud ' is one long personification.
(iii) When the personified object is directly addressed, the figure is
called Apostrophe. Thus we have, "0 Death, where is thy sting?
Grave, where is thy victory ? "
6. An Allegoxy is a continuous personification in the form of
a story,
(i) The genus is personification ; the differentia, a story ; and the
species is an allegory.
(ii) Milton's " Death and Sin," in the tenth book of the * Paradise
Lost,' is a short allegory. Spenser's 'Faerie Queene' and Bunyan's
' Pilgrim's Progress ' are long allegories.
(iii) A short allegory is called a Fable.
7. Synecdoche is that figure of speech by which a part is
put for the whole. Thus we say, in a more striking fashion,
bread instead of /ooc?/ sl cut-throat for a murderer; fifty sail for
fifty ships; all hands at work.
(i) Lear, in the height of his mad rage against his daughters, shouts,
I abjure all roofs I "
(ii) The name of the material — as a part of the whole production — is
sometimes used for the thing made : as cM sted for the sword ; the
marble speaks ; the canvas glows.
8. Metonsrmy is that figure of speech by which a thing is
named, not with its own name, but by some accompaniment.
Thus we say, the crotim for the king; the sword for physical
force.
(The word metonymy is a Greek word meaning change of names, )
We write the ermine for t?ie bench of judges; the mitre for the
bishops; red tape for official routine; a long purse for a great deal of
money ; the botUe for Jiabits of drunkenness,
9. Hyperbol^ or Eza^eration is a figure by which much
more is said than is literally true. This is of course the re-
sult of very strong emotion.
(i) Milton says : —
" So frowned the mighty combatant4S, that heU
Grew darker at their frown."
(ii) Scott, in ' Kenilworth,' has this passage : '* The mind of Eng;land'«^
Elizabeth was like one of those ttucieuti \yr>l\^cvfia^. \xi<cA£«xai«G^ii^ «i96Ss&^
176 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
rocking-stoneB. The finger of Cupid, boy aa he is painted, could put
her feelings in motion ; but the povfer of Herevles could not have de-
stroyed their equilibrium."
10. The following is a summary of the chief of the above
statements : —
1. A Figure of Speech employs a vivid or striking image
of something without to express a feeling or idea
"within.
2. A Simile uses an external image with the word like.
3. A Metaphor uses the same image without the word like.
4. A Personification is a metaphor taken from a person or
Hving being.
5. An allegory is a oontinuous personiflcation.
PABAPHBASINO.
1. Paraphrasiiig is a kind of exercise that is not without
its uses. These uses are chiefly two : (i) to bind the learner's
attention closely to every word and phrase, meaning and shade
of meaning; and (ii) to enable the teacher to see whether
the learner has accurately and fully understood the passage.
But no one can hope to improve on the style of a poem by
turning the words and phrases of the poet into other language ;
the change made is always— or almost always — ^a change for the
worse.
2. Passages from good prose writers are sometimes given out
to paraphrase, but most often passages from poetical writers.
The reason of this is that poetry is in general much more highly
compressed than prose, and hence the meaning is sometimes
obscure, for want of a little more expansion. The following
lines by Sir Henry Wotton, the Provost of Eton College, are
a good example of much thought compressed within a little
space : —
PARAPHRASING. 177
THE HAPPY LIFE.
1. How happy is he bom and taught
That serveth not another's will —
Whose armour is his honest thought,
And simple truth his utmost skill !
2. Whose passions not his masters are,
Whose soul is still prepared for deaths-
Not tied unto the worldly care
Of public fame or private breath I
3. Who envies none that chance doth raise,
Or vice ; who never understood
How deepest wounds are given by praise ;
Nor rules of state, but rules of good ;
4. Who hath his life from humours freed.
Whose conscience is his strong retreat ;
Whose state can neither flatterers feed.
Nor ruin make accusers great ;
5. Who Gk)d doth late and early pray
More of His grace than gifts to lend ;
And entertains the harmless day
With a well-chosen book or friend : —
6. This man is freed from servile bands
Of hope to rise, or fear to fall —
Lord of himself, though not of lands ;
And, having nothing, yet hath all.
3. Let us try now to paraphrase these lines — ^that is, to de-
velop the thought by the aid of more words. But, though we
are obliged to use more words, we must do our utmost to find and
to employ the most fitting. "We must not merely throw down
a mass of words and phrases, and leave the reader to make his
own selection and to grope among them for the meaning.
1. How happy, by birth as well as by education, is the man who is not
obliged to be a slave to the will of another — whose only armour is his
honesty and simple goodness, whose best and utmost skill lies in plain
straightforwardness.
2. How happy is the man who is not the slave of his own passions,
whose soul is always prepared for death, who is not tied to the world
or the world's opinion by anxiety about his public re^\i.t»^v»CL 'cs^ ^^'^
tattle of individuals.
VL
178 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
3. Happy, too, because he envies no man who has been raised to rank
by accident or by vicious means ; because he never understood the sneer
that stabs while it seems to praise ; because he cares nothing for rules
of expediency or of policy, but thinks only of what is good and right.
4. Who has freed himself from obedience to humours and to whims,
whose conscience is his. sure stronghold ; whose rank is not exalted
enough to draw flatterers, or to tempt accusers to build their own
greatness upon his f alL
5. Who, night and morning, asks God for grace, and not for gifts ;
and fills his day with the study of a good book or conversation with
a thoughtful friend.
6. This man is freed from the slavery of hope and fear — the hope of
rising, the fear of falling — ^lord, not of lands, but of himself ; and though
without wealth or possessions, yet having all that the heart of man need
desire.
THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OR PROSODY.
1. Verse is the form of poetry ; and Prosody is the part of
Grammar which deals with the laws and nature of verse.
(i) Verse comes from the Latin versa, turned. Oratio versa was
" turned speech " — that is, when the line came to an end, the reader or
writer or printer had to begin a new line. It is opposed to oratio
prorsa, which means " straight-on speech " — whence our word prose. A
line in prose may be of any length ; a line in verse mutt be of the length
which the poet gives to it.
(ii) It is of importance for us to become acquainted with the laws of
verse. First, because it enables us to enjoy poetry more. Secondly, it
enables us to read poetry better — and to avoid putting an emphasis on
a syllable, merely because it is accented. Thirdly, it. shows us how to
write verse ; and the writing of verse is very good practice in composition
— as it compels us to choose the right phrase, and makes us draw upon
our store of words to substitute and to improve here or there.
2. Verse differs from prose in two things : (i) in the reg^ular
recurrenoe of accents; and (ii) in the proportion of un-
accented to accented syllables.
(i) Thus, in the line
In an'swer noughf could An'gus speak',
the accent occurs regularly m every &eco\id syllable.
THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OR PROSODY. 179
(ii) But, in the line
Mer'rily, mer'rily, shall' we live now*,
the accent not only comes first, but there are two unaccented syllables
for every one that is accented (except in the last foot).
3. Every English, word of more than one syllable has an
accent on one of its syllables.
(i) Begin' f commend^ attack^ have the accent on the last syllable,
(ii) ITap'py, la'dyy wd'come have the accent on the first syllable.
4. English verse is made up of lines ; each line of verse con-
tains a fixed number of accents; each accent has a fixed
number of unaccented syllables attached to it.
(i) Let us take these lines from * Marmion ' (canto v.) : —
Who loves' I not more' | the night' I of June'
Than doll' 1 Decern' | ber's gloom' | of noon'?
Each line here contains four accents ; the accented syllable comes last ;
each accented syllable has one unaccented attached to it.
(ii) Now let us compare these lines from T. Hood's " Bridge of Sighs " :
Touch' her not | scom'ftilly,
Think' of her | moum'ftQly.
Each line here contains two accents ; the accented syllable comes first ;
and each accented syllable has two unaccented syllables attached to it.
5. One accented syllable + one or two unaccented, taken
together, is called a foot. A foot is the unit of metre.
Let X stand for an unaccented, and a for an accented syllable,
6. One accented preceded by one unaccented syllable is
called an Iambus. Its formula is xa. — One accented syllable
followed by one unaccented is called a Trochee. Its formula
is ax.
(i) The following are iambuses : Perhaps' ; condemn' ; compd' ; with-
out'; career^.
(ii) The following are trochees : Gen! tie ; rWer; la'dy ; ra'ven ; twm'Ue.
(iii) The following verse is made up of four iambuses — that is, it is
iambic verse : —
Twere long*, | and need' | less, here' | to tell'
How to my hand these pap«ift i^W..
180 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
(iv) The following verse is made up of four trochees — that is, it is
trochaic : —
In' his I chamlMr, I weak' and | dy'ing
Was the Norman baron lying.
(y) lam' | bics march' | from shorf | to long'.
(vi) Tro'chee | trips' from | long' to | short' — | .
7. One accented syllable preceded by two unaccented is
called an Anapsdst Its formula is xxa. — One accented syl-
lable followed by two unaccented is called a DaotyL Its
formula is
(i) The following are anapaests: Serenaded ; dMoppeai^ ; eamprehend ;
intercede',
(ii) The following are dactyls : ffap'piZy; mer^rUy; simfUar ; hUlofwy.
(iii) The following lines are in anapaestic verse : —
I am mon' | arch of all' 1 1 survey',
My right there is none to dispute.
(iv) With a leap' | and a bound' | the swift an' | apsests throng' | .
(v) The following are in dactylic verse : —
Gan'non to | righf of them |
Can'non to | leff of them |.
(a) The word dactyl comes from the Greek daktiUoSf a finger.
For a finger has one long and two short joints.
(6) The word anapcest comes from two Greek words: paio, I
strike, and ana, back ; because it is the reverse of a dactyl.
8. The Anapaest belongs to the same kind or system of verse
as the Iambus ; because the accented syllable in each comes last.
— ^The Dactyl belongs to the same kind or system of verse as
the Trochee ; because the accented syllable in each comes first
(i) Hence anapsests and iambuses may be mixed (as in "My right' |
there is none' | to dispute' | "); and so may dactyls and trochees (as in
" Hark' to the | sum'mons | ").
(ii) But we very seldom see a trochee introduced into an iambic line ;
or an iambus into a trochaic.
9. An accented syllable with one unaccented syllable on each
side of it is called an Amphibrach. Its formula is xaz.
The word amphibrach comes from two Greek words : amphi, on both
Bidea ; and braehuSf short. (Com.p«re a/rapKxVicya8.\
THE OKAMMAR OF VEESE, OR PROSODY. 181
(i) The following are amphibrachs : Despair^ing; aimight^y; tremend'-
0U8; deceit^ful.
(ii) The following is an amphibrachic line : —
There came' to | the beach' a | poor ex'ile | of B'rln |.
10. A verse made up of iambuses is called Iambic Verse;
of trochees, Trochaic ; of anapsests, Anapsdstic ; and of dactyls,
Dactylic.
IL A verse of three feet is called TrimSter; of four feet.
Tetrameter ; of five feet, Pentameter ; and of six feet. Hex-
ameter.
(i) We find the prefixes of these words in Triangle; Tetrarch (a ruler
over tk fourth part) ; Pentateuch (the Jive books of Moses) ; and Hexagon
(a figure with six comers or angles).
12. By much the most usual kind of verse in English is
Iambic Verse.
(i) Iambic Tetrameter (4xa) is the metre of most of Scott's poems ;
of Coventry Patmore's "Angel in the House'*; of Gay's Fables, and
many other poems of the eighteenth century.
(ii) Iambic Pentameter (6xa) is the most common line in English
verse. There are probably more than a thousand iambic pentameter
lines for one that there exists of any other kind. Iambic Pentameter is
the verse of Chaucer, of Shakespeare, of Milton, of Dryden, of Pope, and
of almost all our greater English poets.
13. Ehymed Iambic Pentameter is called Heroic Verse ; un-
rhymed, it is called Blank Verse.
(i) Any imrhymed verse may be called Uank — such as the verse em-
ployed by Longfellow in his "Hiawatha" — but the term is usually
restricted to the unrhymed iambic pentameter.
(ii) Blank verse is the noblest of all verse. It teems the easiest to
write ; it is the most difficult. It is the verse of Shakespeare and Milton,
and of most of our great dramatists.
14. Iambic Trimeter consists of three iambuses; and its
formula is 3xa.
The king' | was on' | his throne'; |
His sa' I traps thronged' | the haU'; |
A thou' I sand bright' | lamps shone' |
On that' I high fes' | tival'. |
There is very little of this kind oi "vet^^ \xv^S;a!^^cu
182 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
15. Iambic Tetrameter consists of four iambuses; and its
fonnula is 4xa.
The fire/ | with well' | dried logs' | supplied,' |
Went roar' | ing up' | the chim' | ney wide'; |
The huge' | hall-ta' | ble's oak' | en face' |
Scrubbed till' | it shone/ | the day' | to grace.' |
There is a good deal of this verse in English ; and most of it
is by Scott.
16. Iambic Tetrameter with Iambic Trimeter in alternate
lines — the second and fourth rhyming — is called Ballad Metre.
When used, as it often is, in hymns, it is called Service Metre.
They set him high upon a cart;=4xa
The hangman rode below; = 3xa
They drew his hands behind his back, = 4xa
And bared his noble brow. = 3xa
This is the metre of Macaulay's *Lays of Ancient Rome,' of
Scotfs *Lay of the Last Minstrel,' and many other poems.
Scott mixes frequently, but at quite irregular intervals, the
iambic trimeter with the iambic tetrameter ; and this he called
the "light-horse gallop of verse."
Front, flank, and rear, the squadrons sweep=4xa
To break the Scottish circle deep, = 4xa
That fought' | around' | their king.'=:3xa
17. Iambic Pentameter consists of five iambuses; and its
formula is 5xa.
(i) The following is rhymed iambic pentameter : —
True wit' | is na' | tare to' | advan' | tage dressed/ |=5xa
What off I was thought/ | but ne'er' | so well' | expressed/ |=5za
(ii) The following is unrhymed iambic pentameter : —
You air I do know' | this man' | tie ; I' | remem' | ber=5za
The firsf ] time ev' | er Cs&s' | ar puf | it on'.|=5za.
The first extract is from Pope's "Essay on Criticism"; the
second from Shakespeare's " Julius Caesar."
18k Iambic Hexameter consists of six iambuses; and its
formula is 6xa.
THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OR PROSODY. 183
(i) The following is from Drayton's " Polyolbion " :—
Upon the Midlands now the indnstrions muse doth fall, \-6xb.
That shire which we the heart of England well may calL |s6xa
The objection to this kind of verse is its intolerable monotony.
It pretends to be hexameter ; but it is indeed simply two tri-
meter verses printed in one long line. The monotony comes
from the fact that the pause is always in the middle of the line.
There is very little of this kind of verse in English. The line
of 6xa is also called an Alexandrine, and is used to close the
long stanza employed by Spenser.
19. Trochaic Tetrameter consists of four trochees ; and its
formula is 4 ax.
(i) The following is rhymed trochaic tetrameter : —
When the heathen tmmpet's clang-|=4ax
Round beleaguered Chester rang, - |s4ax
Veiled nun and friar gray - 1 s= 4ax
Marched from Bangor's fair abbaye - 1 = 4a z
It Will be noticed that each line has a syllable wanting to
make up the four complete feet. But the missing syllable is
only an unaccented syllable; and the line contains four ac-
cents. (The above extract is from "The Monks of Bangor's
March," by Scott.)
(ii) The following is unrhymed trochaic tetrameter : —
Then the | little | Hia 1 watha | s:4ax
Learned of | ev'ry | biixl the | language, |s4ax
Learned their | names and | all their | secrets, |=4ax
How they | built their | nests in | summer, |=4ax
Where they | hid them | selves in | winter, |=4ax
Talked witii | them when | e'er he | met them, |s:4ax
Called them | "Hia | watha's | Chickens." |=4ax
It will be observed that, in the above lines from Longfellow's
" Hiawatha," each trochee is complete ; and this is the case
throughout the whole of this poem. " Hiawatha " is the only
long poem in the language that is written in unrhymed trochees.
20. Trochaic Octometer consists of eight trochees ; and its
formula is Sax.
(i) The chief example of it that we have is Tennyson's poem of
"Locksley Hall":—
184 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
Com'rades, | leave' me | here' a | lit^tle, | while' as | yef 'tla | early | inom'-|a Sax
Leave' me | here', and, | when' you ] wanf me, | sound' up | on' the | bu'gle | hom'-| » 8ax •
(ii) There is a syllable wanting in each line of " Locksley Hall " ; but
it is only an unaccented syllable. Each line consists of eight accents.
21. AnapsBStic Tetrameter consists of four anapsests; and
its formula is 4xxa
(i) There is very little anapsestic Terse in English ; and what little
there exists is written in tetrameter.
(ii) The following lines, from " Siacgregors' Gathering/' by Scott, is
in anapaestic verse : —
The moon's' | on the lake', | and the mistV | on the brae', | s4zxa
And the clan' | has a name' | that is name' | less by day'. | s4xxa
(iii) It will be observed that the first line begins with an iambus.
This is admissible ; because an iambus and an anapaest, both having the
accented syllable last, belong to the same system.
22. Dactylic Dimeter consists of two dactyls ; and its formula
is 2axx.
(i) A well-known example is Tennyson's "Charge of the Light
Brigade."
Can'non to | righf of them, | 2axx
Gan'non to | left/ of them, | 2azz
Can'non be | hind' them, - | 2azx
Volleyed and ( thun'dered. - | 2axx
(ii) It will be observed that the last two lines want a syllable to make
up the two dactyls. Such a line is said to be=:2axz - (minus).
(iii) Or we may say that the last foot is a trochee ; for a trochee and
a dactyl can go together in one line, both belonging to the same system
— ^both having their accented syllable first.
23. Dactylic Tetrameter consists of four dactyls ; and its for-
mula is 4axx.
(i) Bishop Heber's hymn is one of the best examples : —
Brightest and ] besf of the ] sons' of the | mom'ing.
(ii) The last foot here again is a trochee.
(iii) There is very little of this kind of verse in English poetry.
2i, Amphibrachic Tetrameter consists of four amphibrachs ;
and its formula is 4xax.
THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OR PROSODY. 186
(i) Campbell's well-known poem ib a good example :—
Thore came' to ) the beach' a | poor ex'ile | of Frin.
(ii) There are very few examples in English of this kind of yerse.
25. The following lines by Coleridge give both examples and
descriptions of the most important metres explained in the pre-
ceding paragraphs. It must be observed that Coleridge uses the
term long for accented; and short for uruiccented syllables : —
Tro'chee | trips' from | long' to | short' — |
From long to long in solemn sort,
Slow spon I dee^ stalks li strong' foot, yet | ill' able
E'ver to | come' up with | dac'tyl tri | syllable | .
lam' I bics march' | from sho'rt | to long' | ;
With a leap' | and a bound' | the swift an' | apsests throng' | ;
One syl'la | ble long' with | one short' at | each side — |
Amphi'brach | ys hastes' with | a stately | stride.
26. A verse with a syllable over and above the number of
feet of which it consists is called Hypermetrical.
(i) Thus, Coleridge has, in his " Ancient Mariner " —
Day af | ter day, | day af | ter day, |
We stuck : | nor breath | nor mo j tion, (^yper)
As id I le as I a paint | ed ship |
Upon I a paint 1 ed o | cean. Qvyper)
Here the syllables tion and eeon are over from the iambic trimeter
verse, and the line is therefore said to be hypermetricaL
27. A verse with a syllable wsjiting to the number of feet
of which it consists is said to be defective.
(i) Thus, in Scott's " Monks of Bangor "—
Slaugh'tered | down' by | heath'en | blade'- | 4ax-
Ban'gor's | peace'fal | monks' are | laid'. - | 4ax-
we find a syllable wanting to each line. But that syllable is an un-
accented one ; and the verse consists of four trochees min/ua one syllable,
or 4az-.
(ii) Caution I — Some persons confuse the defective with the hyper-
metrical line. Thus, in the verses —
Shall' 1 1 wast'ing | in' de | spair', - |
Die' be | cause a | wom'an's | fSidr'?- |
the syllable tpai/r is not hypermetricaL An unaccented syllable is
wanting to it ; and the lines are 4 ax defective or minus.
^ A spondee consists of two long or accented syllables. It is a foot not
employed in English ; but it exists in the t^o '^Tto't^ offn^iv vc^^ j<i:t««^^
186 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
RHYMK
28. Rhyme has been defined by Milton as the '^ Jingling
sound of like endings." It may also be defined as a corre-
spondence in sound at the ends of lines in poetry.
(i) Rhyme is properly spelled rime. The word originally meant wum-
her ; and the Old English word for arithmetic was rlme-oralt. It
received its present set of letters from a confusion with the Greek word
rhythm, which means 9, flowing.
(ii) Professor Skeat says " it is one of the worst-spelt words in the
language." ''It is," he says, ''impossible to find an instance of the
spelling rhyme before 1550." Shakespeare generally wrote rime,
29. 1^0 rhyme can be good unless it satisfies four conditions.
These are : —
1. The rhyming syllable must be accented. Thus rin^
rhymes with sincf; but not with thinhfing.
2. The vowel sound must be the same — ^to the ear, that is ;
though not necessarily to the eye. Thus lose and close
are not good rhymes.
3. The final consonant must be the same. {Mix and tricks
are good rhymes ; because x^ks,)
4. The preceding consonant must be different.
Beat and feet ; jump and pump are good rhymes.
30. The English language is very poor in rhymes, when
compared with Italian or German. Accordingly, half-rhymes
are admissible, and are frequently employed.
The following rhymes may be used : —
Sun. Love. Allow. Ever. Taste.
Gone. Move. Bestow. Biver. Past.
THE CiESUKA. 187
THE CiESUEA.
31. The rhythm or musical flow of verse depends on the
varied succession of phrases of different lengths. But, most of •
all, it is upon the CsdBura, and the position of the Caesura,
that musical flow depends.
The word ccetura is a Latin word, and means a eutting,
32. The Caesura in a line is the rest or halt or break or
pause for the voice in reading aloud. It i^i found in short as
well as in long lines.
(i) The following is an example from the short lines of ' Marmion '
(vi 332) :—
1^ More pleased that D in a barbarous age
8| He gave rude Scotland || Virgil's page,
1 Than that || beneath his rule he held
2 The bishopric D of fair Dunkeld.
It will be seen from this that Sir Walter Scott takes care to vary the
position of the csesura in each line — sometimes having it after 1^ feet,
sometimes after 2 ; and so on.
(ii) The following is an example from the long lines of the " Lycidas "
of Milton : —
2 Now, Lycidas, H the shepherds weep no more ;
1 Henceforth H thou art the genius of the shore
S l9 thy large recompense, D and shalt be good
2^ To all that wander |] in that perilous flood.
Milton, too, is careful to vary the position of his caesura ; and most of
the music and much of the beauty of his blank verse depend upon the
fact that the caesura appears now at the beginning, now at the middle,
now at the end of his lines ; and never in the same place in two con-
secutive verses.
(iii) Of all the great writers of English verse, Pope is the one who
places the caesura worst — worst, because it is almost always in the
same place. Let us take an example from his ''Rape of the Lock"
(canto i) : —
2 The busy sylphs D surround their darling care,
2 These set the head, fl and these^divide the hair ;
2 Some fold the sleeve, || whilst others plait the gown ;
2 And Betty's praised || for labours not her own.
And so he goes on for thousands upon thousands of verses. The symbol
of Pope's caesura is a straight line ; the symbol of Milton's is ** the lisys^
of beauty " — a line of perpetually varyvD,^ «si<di\^%xw3»Tivs>x^ ^nsxs«^.
188 COMPOSITION, PUNCTUATION, ETC.
THE STANZA.
33. A Stanza is a group of rhjnned lines.
The word comes from an old Italian word, itantiOf an alx)de.
34. Two rhymed lines are called a couplet ; and this may be
looked upon as the shortest kind of stanza.
(i) The most usual couplet in English consists of two rhymed iambic
pentameter lines. This is called the ** heroic couplet. "
35. A stanza of three rhymed lines is called a triplet.
(i) A very good example is to be found in Tennyson's poem of " The
Two Voices," which consists entirely of triplets : —
" Whatever crazy sorrow saith,
No life that breathes with human breath
Has ever truly longed for death."
36. A stanza of four rhymed lines — of which the first (some-
times) rhymes with the third, and the second (always) with
the fourth — ^is called a quatrain.
(i) The ordinary ballad metre consists of quatrains — that is, four
lines, two of iambic tetrameter, and two of iambic trimeter.
(ii) A quatrain of iambic pentameters is called Eleglao Verse. The
best known example is Qray's " Elegy in a Country Churchyard."
37. A stanza of six lines is called a sextant.
(i) There are many kinds. One is used in Hood's " Dream of Eugene
Aram," which is written in 4xa and 3xa ; the second, fourth, and sixth
lines rhyming.
(ii) Another in Whittier's " Barclay of Ury," which has the first and
second lines, the third and sixth, the fourth and fifth, rhyming with
each other.
(iii) Another in Lowell's "Yussouf," which has the first and third
lines, the second and fourth, and the fifth and sixth rhyming.
38. A stanza of eight lines is called an octave, or ottava
rima.
(Pronounced oUahva reema.)
39. A stanza of nine lines is called the Spenserian stanza,
because Edmund Spenser employed it in his " Faerie Queene."
THE STANZA. 189
(i) The first eight lines of this stanza are in 5xa ; the last line, in 6za.
(ii) The rhymes run thus : abab ; bcbcc.
40. A short poem of fourteen iambic pentameter lines — with
the rhymes arranged in a peculiar way — is called a sonnet.
(i) This is a form which has been imported into England from Italy,
where it was cultivated by many poets — ^the greatest among these being
Dante and Petrarch, both of them poets of the thirteenth century.
The best English sonnet-writers are Milton, Wordsworth, and Mrs
Browning.
(ii) The sonnet consists of two parts — an octave (of eight lines), and
a Bestette (of six). The rhymes in the octave are often varied, being
sometimes abba, acca : those in the sestette are sometimes abc, abc ;
or ababcc.
(iii) Shakespeare's " Sonnets " are not formed on the Italian model,
and can hardly be called sonnets at all. They are really short poems of
three quatrains, ending in each case with a rhymed couplet.
(iv) The following is "Wordsworth's sonnet on " The Sonnet " : —
r" Scorn not the Sonnet; critic, you have frowned a
Mindless of its just honours : with this key h
Shakspeare unlocked his heart ; the melody h
Of this small lute gave ease to Petrarch's wound ; a
A thousand times this pipe did Tasso sound ; a
With it Gamoens soothed an exile's grief; c
The sonnet glittered a gay myrtle leaf e
^Amid the cypress with which Dante crowned a
[is visionary brow; a glow-worm lamp d
I It cheered mild Spenser, called fi*om foiryland e
To struggle through dark ways ; and when a damp d
Fell round the path of Milton, in his hand e
I The thing became a trumpet, whence he blew /
y^Soul-animating strains— alas, too fewl" /
EXERCISES.
EXERCISE L (Introduction, p. 3).
1. What do you understand by the language of a people ? 2. Dis-
tinguish between phonetics and alphabetics. 3. Define grammar.
4. Contrast our present language with what it was in the fifth
century. 5. Account for the difference. 6. What part of grammar is
unnecessary except in a written language? 7. Distinguish between
orthography and etymology. 8. Show the connection between syntax
and prosody.
EXERCISE n. (Sounds and Letters, p. 5).
1. Show the difference between a vowel and a consonant. 2. Say
which are the vowels in the following words : young, wondery worth,
hypercritical^ ahstenUous^ yeUy iota, 3. Name the diphthongs, if any,
in coTitinuotts, idea, shoeing, join, oasis, reason, porous, variety, spon-
taneity, 4. How are consonants classified ? 5. Select the dentals and
gutturals from the following words : dog, gate, gentle, truth, thank,
hog, gymnastic, pneumatic, drink, conquered, 6. Select the palatals
and labials from the following words : Job, Benjamin, archiepiscopate,
hdeUium, method, psaJtm, yacht, 7. Distinguish between mutes and
spirants. 8. Show which are the dental and which the palatal spir-
ants in scissors, rush, shawl, zealously, laziness, azimuth, zephyr, harass,
9. Change as many as you can of the following into corresponding
sharp sounds : had, dove, dig, ha^, bathe, gad, beg, Jude, dug, Jove,
gab, jug, 10. Reduce the following sharp to flat sounds : pa^^k, buck,
cat, set, trick, chick, pet. 11. Classify the consonants in the word
/undamentaL
EXERCISE m. (The Alphabet, p. 7).
1. What is an alphabet? 2. Trace the growth of the alphabet.
3. What are the characteristics of a true alphabet? 4. Prove our
alphabet faulty. 5. Which are the redundant letter&t
192 EXEBCISES.
EXERCISE IV. (Nouns, p. 9).
1. What is a noun? 2. How are nouns classified? 3. Define
abstract nouns. 4. Classify the nouns in the following : —
(a) ** Come forth into the light of things,
Let nature be your teacher. " — Wordmoorth,
(h) " Welcome, leam'd Cicero I whose blessed tongue and wit
Preserves Rome's greatness yet. " — Cowley,
(c) " All in the Downs the fleet lay moor*d." — Dibdin.
(d) *' Poictiers and Cressy tell,
When most their pride did swelL" — Drayton,
{e) "Life without industry is guilt, and industry without art is
brutelity.*' — RusHn.
(/) Parliament was prorogued. The troop returned to barracks.
The jury disagreed. Many a congregation missed him. The flock
was driven down the lane.
5. Make abstract nouns of trv/e.t noUe^ young, king, pcUient, man, lord,
intrude, rogue, slave, poor^ domain, catechise, exemplify.
EXERCISE V.
Classify the nouns in the following : —
(a) " Young Henry met the foe with pride ;
Jane followed, fought ! ah, hapless story !
In man's attire, by Henry's side,
She died for love, and he for glory." — T, Dibdin,
(6) " Though I fly to Istamboul,
Athens holds my heart and soul." — Byron,
(c) " The time I've lost in wooing,
In watching and pursuing
The light that lies
In woman's eyes,
Has been my heart's undoing." — T, Moore,
{d) " Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife,
Their sober wishes never leam'd to stray." — Cfray,
EXERCISE VL (Gender, p. 11).
1. What is inflexion? 2. Define gender. 3. Give the different
ways in which gender is marked. 4. Give the gender of Londoner^
chief, sefior, actor, debtor, sailor, kitten, sheep, charity, knave, moon, ant,
spouse, bee, laundress, 5. Give the masculine of spinster, doe, sltU, ewe,
nymph, bride, heifer, Harriet, infanta, baxter, lass, czarina, vixen,
6, Write the feminine of man, widovjer^ patron, drake, marquis, gan-
EXERCISES. 193
cfer, friar^ aire, ben^actor, executor, tutor, hart, 7. What is the fem-
inine corresponding to each of the following? son, nephew, earl, hoar,
Paul, gaffer, Jilly. 8. Arrange the words in (4) and (5) as of Teutonic
or of Latin origin.
EXERCISE VII. (Number, p. 15).
1. Define number. 2. Give the chief ways of forming plurals.
3. Supply the plurals of child, chief, cloth, calf, horse, table, Dvtchman,
Oerman, Henry, Babylon, trout, week, fly, solo, monkey, commander-in-
chief, index, boot, foot 4. Also of House of Parliament, mouse, lily,
turkey, gas, box, genius, Mr Jones, canto, penny, crisis. Miss Foote, L<yrd
Mayor, lady -help, relief, dye, buoy, colloquy, clearer -up, spoonful.
5. Write the singulars of kine, sheep, tenori, radii, series, data, dice,
analyses, cherubim, hosen (Dan., chap. iii. ver. 21). 6. Distinguish be-
tween pease and pea^, brothers and brethren, dies and dice, geniuses and
genii, 7. Justify the use of each of the following : memorandums, foci,
indices, bandits, funguses, seraphs, 8. State the number of each of the,
nouns in the following : —
(a) ** The audience were too much interested." — Scott,
\b) **The court were seated for judgment." — Id,
(c) " The garrison only bestow a few bolts on it." — Id,
(d) ** The House of Lords were so much influenced." — Hume,
(e) " The weaker sex themselves." — Id,
(/) " All his tribe are blind." — Bunyan,
EXERCISE VIII.
State the kind and number of each of the nouns in the
following : —
(a) *' He sees that this great round-about,
The world with all its motley rout, —
Church, army, physic, law,
Its customs and its businesses,
Is no concern at all of his." — Covrper,
(6) " Nature is but the name for an effect.
Of which the cause is God. " — Id,
(c) " Perhaps thou wert a priest — if so, my struggles
Are vain, for priestcraft never owns its juggles. " — Horace Smith,
{d) ** The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new.
And hope is brightest when it dawns from fears." — Scott.
(e) "A look of kind Truth, a word of Goodwill,
Are the magical helps on Life's road ;
With a mountain to travel they shorten the hill,
With a burden they lighten the load. "
194 EXERCISES.
EXERCISE IX.
Give the kind, gender, and number of the nouns in the
following : —
(a) ** A baby was sleeping, its mother was weeping,
For her husband was far on the wild raging sea." — S. Lover,
(b) ** Perhaps that very hand, now pinion'd flat,
Has hob-a-nobb'd with Phanioh, glass to glass ;
Or dropp'd a halfpenny in Homer's hat.
Or dotrd thine own to let Queen Dido pass.
Or held, by Solomon's own invitation,
A torch at the great Temple's dedication." — Horace Smith.
(c) ** Britannia needs no bulwark.
No towers along the steep." — Campbell,
(d) *' He spoke of the grass, and flowers, and trees,
Of the singing birds, and the humming bees.
Then talked of the haying, and wonder'd whether
The cloud in the west would bring foul weather. " — J, G, WhUtier,
EXERCISE X. (Case, p. 19).
1. Define case. 2. For what cases are nouns inflected? 3. What
determines the nominative case? 4. Define nominative absolute.
5. Show the two ways of denoting the possessive case. 6. Define
cognate object. 7. Why are dative objects so called? 8. Give the
meaning of factitive as applied to the objective case. 9. What is an
adverbial object.
EXERCISE XI.
Select the nominatives in the following : —
1. The bloom falls in May. 2. The ostriches' heads were not to
be seen. 3. "The kine," said he, **ril quickly feed." 4. The kine
were fed. 5. The captain falling ill, the boatswain took charge.
6. A wandering minstrel am I. 7. Here lies the body of a noble
man. 8. Richard, they say, was cruel. 9. The bell ringing, the
children assembled. 10. Richard, William's son, was killed in the
New Forest. 11. Gro quickly. 12. A number of sheep, losing their
way, fell over the precipice. 13. Rattle his bones over the stones.
14. The guide falling ill, the travellers had to rely on his dog. 15.
Ah 1 Charlie, my son, you cheer your old mother !
EXERCISE XIL
Point out the objective case in each of the following sen-
tences : —
1. Britannia rules the waves. 2. Pardon me. 3. I beg your par-
don. 4. To-night no moon I see. 5. How many birds did they catch ?
6. He rode two miles. 7. The king conferred with the generaL 8.
EXERCISES. 195
The children laughed at the squirrel. 9. Let me die the death of the
righteous. 10. The crooked oak I'll fell to-day. 11. A liar who can
trust? 12. We know a tree by its fruit. 13. He told a good tale.
14. The boy sneered at the idea. 15. Richard slew his godfather,
Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, the king-maker.
EXERCISE Xm.
Write the following in the ordinary possessive form : —
1. The bark of a dog. 2. The twitter of the swallows. 3. The
books of John. 4. The spades of the workmen. 5. The studies of
James. 6. The scissors of Miss Cissy Moses. 7. The lute of Or-
pheus. 8. The sword of Achilles. 9. The subscriptions of the ladies.
10. The death of the Marquis of Londonderry. 11. The cries of the
babies. 12. The- marriage of Richard, Earl of Cambridge. 13. The
innocence of the lilies. 14. The head of a sheep. 15. The tails of
sheep. 16. The jubilee of Victoria, Queen of England. 17* The sake
oi my conscience.
EXERCISE XIV.
Give particulars of the cases of each of the nouns in the
following : —
1. Toll for the brave. 2. Flaxen was his hair. 3. Ho, gunners ! fire
a loud salute. 4. Give the man a draught from the spring. 5. The
parson told the sexton, and the sexton toll'd the bell. 6. Boys, you
deserve to have a holiday given you. 7. It is very like a whale.
8. In this place ran Cassius* dagger through. 9. He paid him the debt
for conscience' sake. 10. The king's baker dreamed a dream. 11.
The lady lent the boy 'Robinson Crusoe.' 12. Bid your wife be
judge. 13. The Count of Anjou became leader. 14. Joan seemed a
holy woman. 15. Charles appointed Buckingham commander.
16. Let the actors play the play. 17. John walked two hours and
travelled seven miles. 18. How many hired servants of my father's
have bread enough. 19. I have a sixpence, but no pennies. 20. Ben-
jamin, Joseph's own brother, Jacob's youngest son, was kept a
prisoner.
EXERCISE XV.
State fully the cases of the nouns in the following : —
1. The sergeant choosing the tallest, the other recruits dispersed.
2. Old Kaspar's work was done. 3. William, sing a song. 4. She
made the poor girl a dress. 5. She knitted all day. 6. The tide
floated the vessel. 7. The boy swam his little boat. 8. Let the king
be your leader. 9. A small hole will sink a ship. 10. Let bygones
be bygones.
11. It rains, it hails, it blows, it snows,
Methinks I'm wet thro' all my clothes.
196 EXERCISES.
EXERCISE XVI.
Parse fully all the nouns occurring in the sentences quoted
below : —
(a) ''Trusse up thy packe, and trudge from me, to every little boy,
And tell them thus from me, their time most happy is.
If to theyr time they reason had to know the truth of this."
— The Earl of Surrey,
(6) " Underneath this sable hearse
Lies the subject of all verse,
Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother. " — Ben Jonscn,
(c) ** Give me a looke, give me a face,
That makes simplicitie a grace. " — Id,
(d) ** His house was known to all the vagrant train ;
He chid their wandVings, but relieved their psdn. " — Goldsmith,
(e) '* Yet shall poor Tom iind pleasant weather.
When He, who all commands.
Shall give, to call life's crew together,
The word to pipe all hands. " — C Dtbdin,
EXERCISE XVn. (Pronouns, p. 23).
1. Define a pronoun, and give derivation. 2. What is a personal
pronoun ? 3. What are the only pronouns that can ba used in the
vocative case? 4. Which person alone takes distinction of gender?
5. What is an interrogative pronoun ? 6. Distinguish between who
and whatf ye and you^ thy and thmey and me and myself, 7. Explain
the ch in which, the m in whom, the ther in whether, and the tin it,
8. **They who run may read" — where is the conjunction for these
two sentences? 9. When are reflexive pronouns used? 10. Define
a distributive pronoun.
EXERCISE XVm.
Give the kind, gender, number, person, and case of each of
the pronouns below : —
(a) "I am monarch of all I survey,
My right there is none to dispute." — Cowper.
(6) ** You yourself are much condemned." — Shakespeare,
(c) " Little children, love one another." — Bible,
{d) " Few shall part where many meet." — Campbdl,
(c) ** Who would fill a coward's grave ? " — Bums.
If) " You wrong'd yourself to write in such a case." — Shakespeare.
Ig) ** Each had his place appointed, each his course." — Milton,
{h) ** Right as a serpent hideth him under flowers." — Chaucer,
(t) ** Of them He chose twelve, whom also He named apostles."
—Bible,
{k) "The stars are out by twos and threes." — Wordsworth,
{l) " He is the freeman whom the truth makes free,
And all are slaves besides." — Covjper,
EXERCISES. 1 97
EXERCISE XIX.
Parse the relatives and antecedents in the following : —
(a) "To know
That which hefore us lies in daily life,
Is the prime wisdom." — MtUon,
(6) " Who steals my purse steals trash." — Shakespeare.
(c) " He prayeth best, who loveth best
All things, both great and small." — Coleridge,
(d) " Freedom has a thousand charms to show,
That slaves, howe'er contented, never know.*' — Covjper,
(e) " Vain, very vain, my weary search to find
That bliss which only centres in the mind." — Goldemith.
if) ** Be strong, live happy, and love ; but first of all,
Him whom to love is to obey." — MiUon,
ig) " Whoever lov'd, that lov'd not at first sight ? " — Shakespeare,
(h) '' There were none of the Grograms but could sing a song, or
of the Marjorams but could tell a story." — Goldsmith,
i) ** Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper." — Bible.
k) " Let such teach others, who themselves excel." — Pope.
EXERCISE XX.
Parse fully the nouns and pronouns in the following : —
(a) ** That thee is sent receive in buxomness." — Chaucer.
(6) "Forth, pilgrim forth — on, best out of thy stall,
Look up on high, and thank the God of all." — Id.
(c) " The place that she had chosen out,
Herself in to repose,
Had they come down, the gods no doubt
The very same had chose. " — Drayton.
(d) ** So, Willy, let you and me be wipers
Of scores out with all men, especially pipers :
And, whether they pipe us free from rats or from mice.
If we've promised them aught, let us keep our promise."
— Brouming.
(e) " Let beeves and home-bred kine partake
The sweets of Bum-mill meadow ;
The swan on still Saint Mary's lake
Float double, swan and shadow. " — Wordsworth,
EXERCISE XXL (Adjectives, p. 28).
1. Define an adjective. 2. Show the twofold function of an adjective.
3. Name the kinds of adjectives. 4. Give the derivation of each
198 EXERCISES.
name. 5. In what ways may quantitative adjectives be used? 6.
How are numeral adjectives classified? 7. What adjectives are
inflected for number ? 8. What adjectives are inflected for comparison ?
9. How is the comparative formed ? 10. Distinguish between further
9^^ farther, older and elder, later and kUter. 11. Write the ordinals
of one, two, three, four, forty, eight, twenty, hundred. Jive, twelve,
EXERCISE XXII.
Classify the adjectives in the following : —
1. '* In the body politic, as in the natural body, morbid languor
succeeds morbid excitement." — Macaulay, 2. **So thick a drop
serene hath quenched their orbs." — MiUon, 3. ** His ain coat on his
back is." — Old Song, 4. "He was a ready orator, an elegant poet,
a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and a most contemptible
sovereign." — Gibbon, 5. "Tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy
sleep." — Young, 6. "You gave good words the other day of a bay
courser I rode." — Shakespeare. 7. " The poor man that loveth Christ
is richer than the richest man." — Bunyan, 8. " Sole Eve, associate
sole, to me beyond compare above all living creatures dear. " — Milton,
9. "Fox beat half the lawyers in the House at their own weapons."
— Macaulay,
EXERCISE XXin.
Parse fully all the adjectives in the following : —
1. "The better part of valour is discretion; in the which better
part I have saved my life." — Shakespeare, 2. "Act well your part";
there all the honour lies." — Pope, 3. "The greater the new power
they create, the greater seems their revenge against the old. " — Bvlwer,
4. "It was a very low fire indeed for such a bitter night." — Dickens,
5. " Some three or four of you go, give him courteous conduct to this
place." — Shakespeare. 6. "Many a carol, old and saintly, sang the
minstrels." — Longfellow. 7. "The morning comes cold for a July
one." — Carlyle, 8. " I'll fill another pipe. " — Sterne, 9. " Our host
presented us round to each other." — Thackeray. 10. "He is one of
those wise philanthropists." — Jerrold. 11. "We two saw you four
set on four." — Shakespeare, 12. "This said, they both betook them
several ways." — Milton, 13. " Blazing London seem'd a second
Troy. " — Cowper,
EXERCISE XXIV.
(1) Compare the following adjectives where they admit of
it:—
Stout, thin, marvellous, calm, shy, lady-like, gentlemanly, wet, honour-
able, dead, near, full, prim, lovely, clayey, happy, sad, solar,
(2) Write the positive of
Next, more, inner, last, least, first, inmost, better.
EXERCISES. 199
EXERCISE XXV.
Parse fully the adjectives in the following : —
1. "This dress and that by turns you tried." — Tennyson, 2.
"That sun that warms you here shall shine on me." — Shakespeare,
3. "Those thy fears might have wrought fears in me." — Shakespeare,
4. "Can the false-hearted boy have chosen such a tool as yonder
fellow?" — Dickens, 5. "Look here, upon this picture, and on this;
the counterfeit presentment of two brothers." — Shakespeare, 6. "My
father lived at Blenheim then, yon little stream hard by. " — Southey,
7. "The oracles are dumb ;
No voice or hideous hum
Runs thro' the arched roof in words deceiving. " — Milton,
8. " She stepped upon Sicilian grass,
Demeter's daughter, fresh and fair,
A child of light, a radiant lass.
And gamesome as the morning air. " — Jean Tngelow,
EXERCISE XXVL
Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the following : —
(a) " Lord 1 Thou dost love Jerusalem,
Once she was all Thy own :
Her love Thy fairest heritage.
Her power Thy glory's throne. " — Moore,
{b) "As proper men as ever trod upon neat's leather have gone
upon my handiwork. " — Shakespeare,
(c) " O, Sir, to wilful men,
The injuries that they themselves procure
Must be their schoolmasters. " — Shakespeare,
(d) " True ease in writing comes from art, not chance.
As those move easiest who have learned to dance." — Pope,
(e) " Who said that I had given thee up ?
Who said that thou wert sold ? " — Mrs Norton,
EXERCISE XXVIL (The Verb, p. 34).
1. Define a verb. 2. What are the two great classes into which verbs
are divided ? 3. Define a transitive verb. 4. Name the ways in which
an intransitive verb may become transitive. 5. What is the test for a
prepositional verb? 6. What is an auxiliary? 7. Why are auxili-
aries necessary ? 8. What is voice ? 9. What are the only verbs
that can be in the passive voice? 10. Why? 11. How is the passive
voice formed ?
200 £XEBCISES.
EXERCISE XXVni.
Clajssify the verbs in the following into transitive and in-
transitive : —
(a) " Who reads
Incessantly, and to his reading brings not
A spirit and judgment equal or superior,
Uncertain and unsettled still remains. " — Milton,
(6) ** As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame,
I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came. " — Pope.
(c) ''I think, articulate, I laugh and weep,
And exercise all the functions of a man ;
How then should I and any man that lives
Be strangers to each other ? " — Cowper.
{d) ** A thing of beauty is a joy for ever ;
Its loveliness increases ; it will never
Pass into nothingness. " — Keats,
(e) ** He prayeth best, who loveth best
All things, both great and small ;
For the dear God who loveth us,
He made and loveth all." — Coleridge.
EXERCISE XXIX.
Arrange the following verbs as prepositional or causative : —
1. The magistrate swore in the constables. 2. The goodness of the
soil soon raised a crop. 3. I have spoken to a man who once baited a
hook and drew in a pike. 4. The gardener will fell the tree, and lay
out the borders. 5. The pirates having jeered at the threats, sank
the ship. 6. Some of the children will fly kites, others swim boats.
7. Tom will run his pony up and down. 8. They glory in little
faults, wink at great ones, and cough down the remonstrances of the
wise men.
9. ** A falcon, towering in her pride of place,
Was by a mousing owl hawk'd at and killed. " — Shakespeare,
EXERCISE XXX.
Rewrite the first eight sentences in the foregoing exercise
in the passive voice.
EXERCISE XXXI.
Give particulars of the tense of each of the verbs in the fol-
lowing : —
(a) ** The king is come to marshal us, all in his armour drest."
— Macaulay,
(b) "1 would not have believed it unless I had happened to have
been there." — Dickens,
(c) ** I am, I will, I shall be happy." — Lytton.
EXEECISES. 201
{(l) You are fighting a shadow, (e) I shall have had enough of this.
(/) Why came ye hither? {g) Knew ye not what they had lost?
(h) We know not, neither do we care, (e) A man who had lost his
way, stopped till a boy came sauntering along, (k) ** Am I in the
right road for London?" said the man. {I) **Yes," was the reply;
" but you will not get there till you have walked twelve miles. " (?»)
*'I have been walking three hours already, and I shall have been
travelling a whole day ere I reach my journey's end."
EXERCISE XXXn.
State the mood of each of the verbs in the following, and
point out the gerunds and participles : —
(a) ** I dare do all that may become a man :
Who dares do more is none." — Shakespeare,
(6) " Now, wherefore stopp'st thou me ? " — Coleridge*
(c) " Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway.
And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. " — Goldsmith,
{d) ** Well, sit we down.
And let us hear Bernardo speak of this. " — Shakespeare,
(e) "I watched the little circles die." — Tennyson,
{/) ** I am ashamed to observe you hesitate." — ScoU.
{g) " Come unto these yellow sands,
And then take hands ;
Curtsied when you have, and kissed,
(The wild waves whist)
Foot it featly here and there." — Shakespeare,
(h) "I do not think my sister so to seek." — Milton,
(») " Cromwell, I did not think to shed a tear
In all my misery, but thou hast forc'd me
Out of thine honest truth to play the woman.
Let's dry our eyes, and thus far hear me, Cromwell. "
— Shakespeare.
EXERCISE XXXni.
Select the auxiliaries from the following sentences, and show
the force of each : —
(a) ** I did send to you for gold." — Shakespeare,
{b) " The king is come to marshal us."— Jfocatt/ay.
(c) " Full fathom five thy father lies ;
Of his bones are coral made :
Those are pearls that were his eyes.
Nothing of him that doth fade. " — Shakespeare,
(d) " The lark has sung his carol in the sky,
• The bees have humm'd their noon-tide lullaby." — Rogers,
202 EXERCISES.
(«) " He was — ^whatever thou hast been,
He is — what thou shalt be." — MovJtgomery,
if) "I have done the deed. Didst thou not hear a noise?" —
Shakespeare.
ig) " Must I then leave you ? " — Id.
{h) I shall be drowned if none will save me ! (i) Will he not come
again? {k) We have been thinking over the matter. {I) The
soldiers are to be marching by six o'clock, (m) By Friday they will
have been working four days, (n) Do try to come early, (o) He
could have been there had he wished to have been seen by his old
friends.
EXERCISE XXXIV.
Arrange the verbs in Exercises XXVII. to XXXIII. as
strong or weak.
EXERCISE XXXV.
1. Of what verbs is the verb be made up ? 2. Give the four ways
in which this verb is used. 3. State the use of be in each of the
following instances: (a) "Whatever is, is right." — Pope. (6) Thou
art the man. (c) I shall be thjere. {d) They are to resign, (e) David
was a bold man. (/) The men will be chosen by lot. (g) He is gone
to his grave, {h) ** Be oflf 1 " cried the old man to the boys who were
teasing him.
EXERCISE XXXVL
1. Give the mood auxiliaries. 2. Name the tense auxiliaries, and
give the limitation of each. 3. Why are can and may called defective
verbs ? 4. In what tense is the verb mvM never used ? 5. What was
the original meaning of the word ? 6. And what is its present idea ?
EXERCISE XXXVII. (Adverbs, p. 57).
1. Define an adverb. 2. In what two ways may adverbs be classi-
fied ? 3. Show the twofold function of a conjunctive adverb. 4. Give
the classification of adverbs according to their meaning.
EXERCISE XXXVin.
Arrange as simple or conjunctive the adverbs in the follow-
ing:—
1. Come where the moonbeams linger. 2. Where are you going ?
3. Where the bee sucks, there lurk L 4. Come in. 5. Look out !
Here comes the beadle, so let us run. 6. Who's there ? 7. I know
a bank whereon the wild thyme grows. 8. Then out spake bold
Horatius. 9. I love my love because my love loves me. 10. Verily
here are sweetly scented herbs, therefore will we set us down awhile
till our friends leisurely return.
EXERCISES. 203
EXERCISE XXXIX.
Classify all the adverbs in the following : —
(a) " Once again we'll sleep secure." — Shakespeare,
(6) " My father lived at Blenheim then,
Yon little stream hard by. " — Sovihey,
(c) " Thus have I yielded into your hand
The circle of my glory." — Shakespeare,
{d) "Now came still evening on." — MiUon,
(e) " Now the great winds shoreward blow,
Now the salt tides seaward flow." — M, Arnold,
(/) "We no longer believe in St Edmund." — Carlyle,
{g) ** What so moves thee all at once ? " — Coleridge,
{h) ** Vex not thou the poet's mind." — Tennyson,
EXERCISE XL.
Parse the adverbs in the following :—
(a) " The solenm peaks but to the stars are known, —
But to the stars, and the cold lunar beams." — M, Arnold,
(6) ** My life is spann'd already." — Shakespeare.
(c) "You always put things so pleasantly." — Btdwer,
{d) ** Slow and sure comes up the golden year." — Tennyson,
{e) " Not all the pearls Queen Mary wears,
Nor Margaret's still more precious tears.
Shall buy his life a day. " — Scott,
{/) "Therefore make her grave straight." — Shakespeare,
(g) " Why holds thine eye that melancholy rheum? " — Id,
{h) A very inquisitive child once saucily asked of an exceedingly
needy -looking man, * * Where do you most generally dine ? " Immedi-
ately the all but actually starving man replied somewhat sadly, though
quite smartly withal, " Near anything I may get to eat."
EXERCISE XU.
Parse fully the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and
adverbs in the following:—
(a) " Go out, children, from the mine and from the city.
Sing out, children, as the little thrushes do :
Pluck your handfuls of the meadow cowslips pretty,
Laugh aloud, to feel your fingers let them through."
— Mrs Browning.
{b) "None of us yet know, for none of us have yet been taught in
early youth, what fairy palaces we may build of beautiful thought —
proof against all adversity. " — Ruskin,
204 EXERCISES.
EXERCISE XLn. (Prepositions, p. 58).
Select the prepositions in the following, and say what they
connect and govern : —
1. In the comer of the box near the bench behind the door, is the
picture of a man without a coat to his back. 2. Notwithstanding
he had returned with wood, they sent for some more. 3. The lady
in violet is in mourning. 4. Respecting the scholars, all but Charles
read through the chapter concerning Galileo. 5. Whom are you
writing to? 6. Come in. Puss, to your kittens. 7* That is the
book I spoke about.
EXERCISE XLin.
1. Define a preposition. 2. What words are affected by preposi-
tions? 3. Give a list of simple prepositions. 4. Show the com-
position of the following prepositions : btU, heaidCi after, until, aboard,
beneath, among, beyond,
EXERCISE XLIV. (Conjunctions, p. 60).
1. Define a conjunction. 2. What is a subordinate conjunction?
3. Classify the conjunctions in the following : —
(a) ** My hair is grey, but not with years.
Nor grew it white
In a single night. " — Byron.
(6) " Neither a borrower nor a lender be." — Shakespeare.
(c) ** Awake, arise, or be for ever fallen.^*-:— Milton,
{d) ** Man never is, but always to be blest." — Pope.
(e) ** Must I then leave you ? " — Shakespeare,
(/) ** Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought." — Young.
{g) ** I saw Mark Antony offer him a crown ; yet it wajs not a crown
neither. " — Shakespeare.
EXERCISE XLV. (Syntax, p. 64).
1. What determines the **part of speech" a word is? 2. Define
syntax. 3. Into what two parts may it be divided ? 4. What two
questions might be asked concerning each word in a sentence?
5. State the principal concords existing in the English language.
6. Name the chief instances of government in our language.
EXERCISE XLVL
Give full particulars of all nominatives in the following
quotations : —
(a) " So work the honey bees.
Creatures that by a rule in nature teach
The art of order to a peopled kingdom." — Shakespeare.
EXERCISES. 205
(6) ** Clatters each plank and swinging chain." — Scott,
(c) ** A white wall is the paper of a fool." — O. Herbert.
{d) * * I that speak to thee am he. " — Bibh.
(e) ** Thus now alone he conqueror remains." — Spenser,
(/) ** He returned a friend who came a foe." — Pope,
{g) ** Ah, then, what honest triumph flushed my breast !
This truth once known — ^To bless is to be blest ! " — Goldsmith,
(h) " Ho ! gallant nobles of the League, look that your arms be
bright. " — Macaulay,
m
EXERCISE XLVn.
Explain the possessives in the following : —
(a) '* She sent the deathless passion in her eyes
Thro' him, and made him hers, and laid her mind
On him, and he believed in her belief." — Tennyson.
(b) * ' Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend
His actions', passions', being's use and end." — Pope,
(c) " Ere thou remark another's sin,
Bid thy own conscience look within." — Oay,
{d) "Anything that money would buy had been his son's." —
TJiackeray.
{e) "Though dark be my way, since He is my guide,
'Tis mine to obey, 'tis His to provide." — J, Netuton,
EXERCISE XLVIII.
Give full particulars of all the objectives in the following : —
(a) * * Your tanner will last you nine year. " — Shakespeare,
(b) " There were some that ran, and some that leapt
Like troutlets in a pool. " — Hood,
(c) " He has two essential parts of a courtier, pride and ignorance.
— Ben Jonson,
{d) " I would gladly look him in the face." — Shakespeare,
(e) " Clearing the fence, he cried ** Halloo ! "
(/) ' * They made him captain, and he gave them orders to sail the
boat six leagues south of the point."
EXERCISE XLIX.
1. How are most adjectives inflected? 2. In what two ways are
adjectives used ? Classify those in the following in accordance with
your last answer : —
(a) " When I was dry with rage and extreme toil,
Breathless and faint, leaning upon my sword.
Came there a certain lord, neat, trindy dx«»&'^«^ — ^SWi\:A.«^«^t^.
206 EXERCISES.
{b) '* Still more majestic shalt thou rise,
More dreadful from each foreign stroke ;
As the loud blast that tears the skies
Serves but to root thy native oak." — ThoTnson,
(c) ''They considered themselves fortunate in making the children
happy, and in rendering the despairing hopeful."
EXERCISE L.
1. In what way is a partici]|[>le an adjective ? 2. What function of
a verb does it retain? 3. What number is used with the distribu-
tives ? 4. Say all that is necessary of the adjectives below : —
(a) *' Each horseman drew his battle blade,
And furious every charger neighed." — CampbeU,
(b) '^ He made me mad
To see him shine so brisk and smell so sweet,
And talk so like a waiting-gentlewoman." — Shakespeare,
(c) " Sweet Isle ! within thy rock-girt shore is seen
Nature in her sublimest dress arrayed. — E, Foskett,
{d) " Into the valley of death
Bode the six hundred." — Tennyson.
(c) "A form more fair, a face more sweet,
Ne'er hath it been my lot to meet.— -J. O, Whittier.
(/) " Hard lot ! encompass'd with a thousand dangers ;
Weary, faint, trembling with a thousand terrors,
I'm call'd, if vanquish'd, to receive a sentence
Worse than Abiram's." — Conner,
EXERCISE U.
Show the agreement of the pronouns with nouns in the fol-
lowing : —
(a) '* On she came with a cloud of canvas,
Right against the wind that blew. " — Coleridge.
(6) ** Who said that I had given thee up ?
Who said that thou wert sold ? " — Mrs Norton.
(c) ** She lov'd me for the dangers I had pass'd.
And I lov'd her that she did pity them." — Shakespeare.
{d) ** The eye — it cannot choose but see ;
We cannot bid the ear be still ;
Our bodies feel, where'er they be.
Against, or with o\ix 'will," — Wordsworth.
EXERCISES. 207
EXERCISE LTL
Show the concords of the antecedents and relatives in the
following : —
(a) " Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, from whom all glories are."
— Macatilay.
(6) " Not a pine in my grove is there seen,
But with tendrils of woodbine is bound. " — Shenatone,
(c) '^ This sword a dagger had, his page.
That was but little for his age. " — Butler,
{(l) " My banks they are furnished with bees,
Whose murmur invites one to sleep. " — Shenatone,
(e) " Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son
Shall finish what his short-lived sire begun. " — Pope.
EXERaSE Lin.
Show the concord of each verb in the following with its
subject, and quote the rule in each case : —
(a) "I sing the birth was bom to-night,
The author both of life and light. " — Ben Jonson,
{b) ** Blow, blow, thou winter wind.
Thou art not so unkind
As man's ingratitude. " — Shakespeare,
(c) '* Sundays the pillars are
On which heaven's palace arched lies. " — O, Herbert.
{d) '' Can storied urn or animated bust
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? " — Gray.
(e) **Our company were now arrived within a mile of Highgate."
— Fielding.
(/) " Neither a borrower nor a lender be." — Shakespeare.
EXERCISE LIV.
Point out the governing verbs and their objects in the fol-
lowing : —
(a) ** He gave to misery all he had, a tear." — Gray.
(6) ** They made me queen of the May." — Tennyson.
(c) *' Thou hast a tongue, come, let us hear its tune."
208 EXERCISES.
{d) " Past all dishonour,
Death has left on her
Only the beautiful"— T'. Hood,
(e) ** Methinks we must have known some former state."
— L. E, Landon,
(/) "To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land,
And read their history in a nation's eyes.
Their lot forbade." — Gray.
EXERCISE LV.
Explain fully the mood of each verb in the following : —
(a) * * Had I a heart for falsehood framed,
I ne'er could injure you." — Sheridan,
(&) " The good of ancient times let others state ;
I think it lucky I wajs bom so late." — Sydney Smith,
(c) ** Oh, then, while hums the earliest bee,
Where verdure fires the plain.
Walk thou with me, and stoop to see
The glories of the lane ! "—Eb. EUiott.
{d) '* They make obeisance and retire in hajste.
Too soon to seek again the watery waste :
Yet they repine not — so that Conrad guides.
And who dare question aught when he decides ? " — Byron,
EXERCISE LVL
Distinguish between gerunds and infinitives in the follow-
ing:—
(a) "To gild refinfed gold, to paint the lily.
To throw a perfume on the violet.
To smooth the ice, or add another hue
Unto the rainbow, or with taper light
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish.
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess." — Shakespeare.
(6) " To make mankind, in conscious virtue bold.
Live o'er each scene, and be what they behold :
For this the tragic muse first trod the stage.
Commanding tears to stream through every age."^ — Pope.
(c) ** Good-night, good-night ! parting is such sweet sorrow.
That I shall say good-night till it be morrow." — Shakespeare.
{d) '* In framing an artist, art hath thus decreed.
To make some good, but others to exceed. " — Id,
(e) " Giving is better than receiving."
EXEBCISES. 209
EXERCISE LVIL
Explain all the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions in
the following : —
(a) " Bunyan's famed Pilgrim rests that shelf upon :
A genius rare but rude was honest John." — CrtMe,
(b) "A second man I honour, and still more highly: him who is
seen toiling for the spiritually indispensable ; not daily bread, but the
bread of life." — Carlyle,
(c) *' This only grant me, that my means may lie
Too low for envy, for contempt too high." — Cowley,
{d) "A man that looks on glass.
On it may stay his eye ;
Or, if he pleaselh, through it pass.
And then the heavens espy." — O, Herbert.
(e) " All precious things, discovered late,
To those that seek them issue forth ;
For Love in sequel works with Fate." — Tennyson,
ANALYSIS (p. 86).
EXERCISE I.
1. What is a sentence? 2. Of what two parts must it consist?
3. What can form a subject? 4. Define a predicate. 5. What is
necessary for the completion of some predicates ? 6. Why are these
completions called objects ?
EXERCISE IL
Arrange in columns the subjects in the following, and say
of what each consists : —
(a) The potato is wholesome, (b) Eat it. (c) '' Hush ! " said the
mother, {d) '* Hurrah ! " rang from the ranks, (e) The lazy take
most pains. (/) Thinking leads to action, {g) To learn meagrely
means to beg eagerly, {h) Who loves not liberty? (i) Amassing
wealth oft ruins health, {k) ** Bravo!" shouted the audience. (Q
Laughing is contagious.
EXERCISE nL
Supply subjects, and so make sentences of the following : —
(a) shall clothe a man with rags, {b) catch mice, (c)
is a good dog. {d) tips the little hills with gold, (e)
discovered America. (/) was killed by Brutus. {g)
deserves play, {h) does not love his home ? (i) makes
a glad father, {k) fell great oaks.
210 EXERCISES.
EXERCISE rV.
Select the predicates in the following, and say of what each
consists : —
1. A cheery old soul lives here. 2. It rains. 3. A live dog is
better than a dead lion. 4. I am not the king. 5. The idle pro-
crastinate. 6. The dead alone are happy. 7. We are all here. 8.
Charity beareth all things. 9. Heroes ^e once. 10. No one loves a
coward.
EXERCISE V.
Supply predicates to the following subjects : —
1. Short reckonings . 2. Boys , 3. A man . 4.
Gold . 6. Diamonds . 6. A stitch in time . 7.
David . 8. Lazy workmen . 9. Puss in boots . 10.
Truth . 11. Beauty . 12. To be idle .
EXERCISE VI.
Select the objects in the following, and say of what each
consists : —
(a) We loved him dearly. (6) The preacher cries ** Prepare!'*
(c) Ruskin adores the beautiful, {d) Cats love to lie basking, (e)
Each man plucked a rose. (/) Who does not love singing? {g)
Friends dislike saying good-bye! (h) Him they found in great
distress, (t) He destroyed alL {k) She left none behind. (Q One
sailor saved the other, (m) One good turn deserves another.
EXERCISE Vn.
Select the objects, distinguishing between direct and in-
direct : —
1. Give the knave a groat. 2. Thrice he offered him the crown.
3. He handed his daughter down-stairs. 4. They handed the visitors
programmes. 5. The weather promises the anglers fine sport. 6. The
boatswain taught the midshipman swimming. 7. Grant us a holiday.
8. The fox paid the crow great attention. 9. Thomas posted his uncle
a letter. 10. The sailor-boys often bring their friends curiosities.
1 1. Play the children a tune.
EXERCISE VIII.
Supply objects to the following : —
1. Waste brings . 2. Perseverance merits . 3. She
taught the little a new . 4. The postman brought
a . 5, Few men enjoy . 6. He gave the poor a
new . 7. The Queen prorogued .
EXERCISES.
211
FORMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
SCHEME I.
Subject.
Predicate.
Ol^ect
The sun
shines.
The soldiers
were brave.
A good son
obeys
his parents.
Ripe com-fields
always rejoice
the farmer's heart.
The child
appears ill.
SCHEME n.
Subject
Enlargement.
Predicate.
Extension.
Object. Enlargement.
Thompson
the carpenter
mended
very soon
the gate
broken.
The company
of huntsmen
had taken
early next
morning
departure
their.
The princes
of Europe
have found
recently
a plan
better.
Farmenio
the Grecian
had done
once
something
pleasing to
the multi-
tude.
SCHEME III.
1. MaudMiiller
2. on a summer's day,
3. Raked
4. the meadow
5. sweet with hay.
1. But
2. knowledge
3. to their eyes
4. her ample
5. page,
6. Rich with the spoils of time
7. did miroll
8. ne'er.
SvJbject,
Extension of predicate (3).
Predicate,
Object,
Enlargement of object (4).
{connective toord),
SvJbject,
Extension of predicate (7).
Enlargement of object (6).
Object,
Enlargement of object (6).
Predicate,
212
EXERCISES.
SCHEME IV.
Analyse : —
*' Those who are conversant with books well know how often they
mislead us, when we have not a living monitor at hand to assist us in
comparing theory with practice.'* — Junitts,
A,
'•i
a
D.
1. Those
Stibject (6).
2. who
Svbject (3).
3. are conversant wil^
Predicate (^understand).
4. books
Object (3).
6. well
Eoctemion of manner (6).
6. know
Predicate,
7. how often
Extension qftime (9).
8. they
Subject (9).
1 9. mislead
Predicate,
10. us,
•
Object (9).
^11. when
{Conjunction),
12. we
Subject (13).
13. have
PrediccUe,
14. not
Extension of negation (13).
15. a living
Enlargement (16).
16. monitor
Object (13).
17. at hand
Extension of place (13).
18. to assist us in
\ theory with
comparing
practice.
Enlargement (16).
A, Principal sentence.
B, Adjective sentence to (A) (1).
C, Noun sentence to (A) (6).
D, Adverbial sentence to (C) (9).
EXERCISES.
213
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214 EXERCISES.
EXERCISE IX.
Analyse the following according to Scheme I. : —
(a) Cowards fear themselves. (&) He appears earnest, (c) Swim-
ming teaches self-reliance, {d) To labour is to pray, {e) ** Beware,"
said the sentry. ( f) Make haste, {g) The bells are chiming, {h)
George told his father the truth, (i) Stop, {k) Plumbers stop the
leaks. {I) The pipe leaks, (m) The field yields the farmer a fortune.
{n) Love not sleep, (o) Here we are. {p) The child brought the
invalid a garland, {q) The captain will give the crew a warning, (r)
Luna shows the traveller the way. (s) Phoebus loves gilding the
corn-fields, {t) Chanticleer announces the mom. {u) Mary, call the
cattle.
EXERCISE X.
Of what may enlargements consist ?
Point out the enlargements, and say of what kind each is : —
1. A good little girl sat under a tree. 2. Wilful waste makes
woful want. 3. A desire to excel actuates Smith, the foreman. 4.
A ramble on a summer evening restores the drooping spirit. 5. Feel-
ing sorry, he gave the poor old fellow a hearty meal. 6. William,
the captain of the school, knowing the game, taught the new scholars
the rules. 7. One man's meat is another man's poison. 8. Re-
membering your duty, visit the sick.
EXERCISE XL
Supply enlargements in Exercise IK.
EXERCISE XIL
Select the extensions in the following, and say of what each
consists : —
1. Sweetly sing soft songs to me. 2. In a whisper she gave them
the order. 3. They filled the gardens quickly and completely. 4.
Inch by inch the spider travelled. 6. I come to bury Caesar. 6.
Listen patiently to hear the nightingale. 7. Everything passed off
successfully. 8. The tide came creeping up the beach. 9. The old
man walks with two sticks.
EXERCISE XHL
Supply extensions to Exercise IX.
EXERCISES. 215
EXERCISE XIV.
Analyse the following sentences according to Scheme II. : —
(a) ** I will make thee beds of roses." — C, Marlowe,
(&) ''Then came the Autunme all in yellow clad." — Spenser,
(c) " Give me my scallop-shell of quiet,
My staff of faith to walk upon." — Raleigh,
{d) " Thus clad and fortified, Sir Knight
From peaceful home set forth to fight. " — BtUler,
(e) ** Dear Thomas, didst thou ever pop
Thy head into a tinman's shop ? " — M, Prior.
(f) ** One mom a Peri at the gate
Of Eden stood, disconsolate." — T. Moore,
(g) "The spirits of your fathers
Shall start from every wave. " — Campbell.
(h) " The castled crag of Drachenfels
Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine." — Byron.
EXERCISE XV.
Number the parts of the following sentences according to
Scheme III., and say what each is : —
(a) " Sometime we'll angle in the brook,
The freckled trout to take." — M. Drayton.
(6) " The shepherd swains shall dance and sing
For thy delight each May morning. " — C, Marlowe.
(c) *^ Read in these roses the sad story
Of my hard fate, and your own glory. " — Carew.
(d) ** Thy gentle flows of guiltless joys.
On fools and villains ne'er descend. " — Johnson.
{e) " The cheerfu' supper done, wi* serious face,
They, round the ingle, form a circle wide." — Bums.
EXERCISE XVL
Analyse the following sentences : —
(a) ** Attend, ye gentle powers of musical delight." — Akenside.
(b) ** Through the trembling ayre
Sweet-breathing Zephyrus did softly play. " — Spenser.
(c) " When then shall Hope and Fear their objects find ? " — Johnson.
{d) " Close by the regal chair
Fell Thirst and Famine scowl
A baleful smile upon their baffled guest. " — Gray.
(e) " The Sundays of man's life.
Threaded together on time's string.
216 EXERCISES.
Make bracelets to adorn the wife
Of the eternal glorious king. " — Oeorge Herbert,
(f) "The trenchant blade, Toledo trusty,
For want of fighting was grown rusty. " — Butler.
{g) •* With beating heart to the task he went." — Sc<M.
{h) ** How calmly gliding through the dark-blue sky,
The midnight moon ascends ! " — SotUhey,
EXERCISE XVIL
1. What is a compound sentence? 2. How are co-ordinate sen-
tences sometimes contracted? 3. Show that relative pronouns are
sometimes used as conjunctions. 4. Analyse the following compound
sentences according to Scheme IL : —
(a) " Of conversation sing an ample theme,
And drink the tea of Heliconian stream. " — ChaUerton.
(b) " Come forth into the light of things,
Let Nature be your teacher." — Wordsworth,
(c) ** He gazed at the flowers with tearful eyes,
He kissed their drooping leaves. " — Longfdlow.
(d) " On piety, humanity is built ;
And, on humanity, much happiness." — Young.
(e) ** On the green bank I sat and listened long." — Dryden,
if) " 0> young Lochinvar is come out of the west,
Through all the wide Border his steed was the best,
And, save his good broadsword, he weapons had none ;
He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. " — Scott.
EXERCISE XVHL
Expand the adjectives in the following into phrases : —
1. A merciful man considers his beast.
2. The mistress scolded the lazy servant.
3. A ragged man went down the lane.
4. The plague carried off the young ones.
6. Numerous birds were found dead.
6. Sailors dislike a dead calm.
EXERCISE XIX.
Expand the adverbs in the following into phrases : —
1. Green seldom tries the eye.
2. The soldiers rested there.
3. The man answered the charge easily.
4. HI weeds grow apace.
6, Pead dogs never bark.
6, Come quickly.
EXERCISES. 217
EXERCISE XX.
Analyse the sentences in Exercises XYIII. and XIX.
EXERCISE XXI.
1. What is a complex sentence ? 2. Define a subordinate sentence.
3. In what three ways can subordinate sentences occur ? 4. How can
subordinate sentences be co-ordinate ? 5. Make the following simple
sentences complex by expanding the adjective into an adjectival sen-
tence: —
(a) Empty vessels make the most noise.
(b) The kitchen clock keeps time.
(c) Small strokes fell great oaks.
{d) A hard hand often owns a soft heart.
(e) The relentless reaper destroyed the lovely bloom.
if) Is this the Thracian robber ?
(g) A modest violet grew in a shady bed.
(h) I said to my nearer comrade, ** Hush ! "
EXERCISE XXn.
Make subordinate sentences by the expansion of the adverbs
in the following : —
1. He writes legibly.
2. The king behaved shamefully.
3. The rich deride the poor very seldom.
4. Men often think themselves immortal.
5. Demosthenes gradually became free of speech.
6. Stephenson overcame difficulties bravely.
EXERCISE XXni.
Change the subjects or objects into sentences : —
1. It is good for us to be here.
2. He soon learnt to read.
3. To love one's child is natural.
4. Carelessness brings its punishment.
5. Being deserving should precede success.
6. Reigning in peace is more glorious than dying in war.
7. Borrowing means sorrowing.
8. Lending is not always befriending.
EXERCISE XXIV.
Analyse the following sentences according to Scheme IV. : —
(a) ** The harp that once through Tara's halls
The soul of music shed,
Now hangs as mute on Tara*s walls
Ab if that soul were ^^d.'' — Mowe«
218 EXERCISES.
{b) " The antumn winds mshing
Waft the leaves that are searest,
But our flower was in flushing
When blighting was nearest. " — Scott.
(c) '* Her beads while she numbered, the baby still slumbered,
And smiled in her face, while she bended her knee.
' Oh ! blessed be that warning, my child, thy sleep adorning.
For I know that the angels are whispering with thee.' "
— Sf Lover,
EXERCISE XXV.
Analyse the following sentences according to Scheme V. : —
(N.B. — 7%t« 18 the scheme prescribed by the Department for the scholar-
ship examination.)
(a) ''And ye that byde behinde,
Have ye none other trust,
As ye of clay were cast by kynd,
So shall ye waste to dust." — Sir T. Wyatt.
(6) " Ah ! yet, e*er I descend into the grave.
May I a small house and large garden have !
And a few friends, and many books, both true,
Both wise, and both delightful too ! " — Coidey.
(c) ** Ring ye the bells, ye young men of the town,
And leave your wonted labours for this day :
This day is holy ; do you write it down,
That ye for ever it remember may. " — Drayton.
{d) " This above all — to thine own self be true ;
And it must follow, as the night the day,
Thou canst not then be false to any man. " — Shakespeare,
EXERCISE XXVI.
Analyse, as in the preceding : —
(a) "Take physic, pomp ;
Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel ;
That thou may'st shake the superflux to them.
And show the heavens more just." — Sftakespeare.
(6) " When God with us was dwelling here,
In little babes He took delight ;
Such innocents as thou, my dear.
Are ever precious in His sight. " — G, Wither,
(c) " That man is freed from servile bands.
Of hope to rise, or fear to fall ;
Lord of himself, though not of lands,
And having nothmg, -yet \:ia.t\i «11." — Wotton,
EXERCISES* 219
{d) "The 86843 are quiet when the winds give o'er ;
So calm are we when passions are no more ;
For then we know how vain it was to boast
Of feeling things too certain to be lost. " — WcUkr.
EXERCISE XXVn.
Analyse, as before : —
(a) " Let me tell the adventurous stranger,
In our calmness lies our danger ;
Like a river's silent running,
Stillness shows our depth and cunning." — Durfey,
(b) " Presently my soul grew stronger ; hesitating then no longer,
* Sir,' said I, *or madam, truly your forgiveness I implore ;
But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping,
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door.
That I scarce was sure I heard you. ' " — Foe.
(c) " *My Lord has need of these flowerets gay,'
The reaper said, and smiled ;
' Dear tokens of the earth are they.
Where He was once a child.' " — Longfellow.
WOED-BUILDING (p. 100).
EXERCISE L
1. What is a root ? 2. Distinguish between root and stem, 3. To
what are inflexions made? 4. Define derivative, 6. What are pre-
fixes and suffixes ? 6. Give a general rule for their use. 7. What is a
hybrid ? 8. Define compound as applied to words. 9. Say of each of
the syllables of the following wordjs whether it is a prefix, a suffix, a
root, a derivative or an inflexion : un-law-ful^ maU'Child-ren, dis-lik-
vng^ short-sight-ed, ink-stand, man-serv-ant,
EXERCISE n.
Show that the following words are compounds of two nouns : —
Monday, wheatfield, raivhow, homestead, keystone, Ladyday,
MicfMelmas, costermonger, steamship, sheriff, viceroy, and drake,
EXERCISE IIL
Of what Part of Speech is each of the words of the following com-
pounds ? —
Whetstone, outlay, shepherd, soft-soap, nightmare, backbone, scape-
grace, lady, wheatear, fi/ddfaare, upstart, and stewaxd*
220 EXERCISES.
EXERCISE rV.
In the foUowing compound adjectives say to what CUus of Word
each part belongs : —
Shyblve, stifnecked. Lord- Mayor-like, overretiching, stonecold, stark-
mad, weaiher-heaien, threadbare, wardrobe, hairsplitting, icebound, atoe-
stricken, tjid footsore.
EXERCISE V.
What other Parts qf Speech have been nsed to make np the fol-
lowmg compound verbs ? —
OtUface, handcuff, clearstarch, outnumhtr, whitevxish, ingalher, out-
bid.
EXERCISE VL
Comment on each of the following adverbs : —
Needs, aboard, afloat, toell, thither, how, wUhaZ, aibeit, seldom, rather^
whilst, whence,
EXERCISE Vn.
Show the force of each of the prefixes in the following words : —
Unloose, unthankful, forehead, bewail, withdrew, misrepresent, begrime,
wanhope, gainsay, behoof, forlorn, benighted, atone,
EXERCISE Vm.
Justify the use of the prefixes in the following by the meaning of
each word : —
Engrave, offcast, overdone, inmost, overland, underpay, outcome,
thoroughfare, embalm, overstep, welfare,
EXERCISE IX.
Name the prefixes in the following, showing, where necessary, the
assimilation : —
Allure, acclaim, abstract, absolve, assume, affront, aspire, attract,
arrest, aggravate, address, pardon.
EXERCISE X.
Show the force of the prefixes in — biped, ambient, circumnavigate^
anticipate, coeval, desuetude, cispontine, transit, countenance, country-
dance, corrode, desiccate, emigrate, extramural,
EXERCISE XL
Account for the variations from the original prefix in each of the
following : —
Differ, irregvlar, impending, ilUberal, agiioble., embrace, occur, sedition.
EXERCISES. 221
EXERCISE Xn.
Show the Talne of the prefixes in the following : —
Interlude, nonpareily TncU^actor, intemationali inbramwrali 'penumhra,
remit, occasion, permecUe, oblige, post-obit, prediccUe, retrovert, preterite,
secure, prevent,
EXERCISE Xm.
Explain the prefixes, noting the cases of assimilation : —
Vicar, suffer, surfeit, viscount, traduce, trespass, succeed, unified, sub-
trahend, segregate, succumb, uUramarine, superhuman, suffix, surface.
EXERCISE XIV.
Give instances of in becoming U, ir, im, ig ; and of ob becoming oc,
of, 0, op. State a general rule for such changes.
EXERCISE XV.
Select the prefixes, and justify the use of each : —
Epidemic, endemic, autonomy, eclectic, dyspepsia^ archiepiscopal,
diatonic, catoAilysm, apostasy, antipathy, anagram, catastrophe, eccentric,
perimeter,
EXERCISE XVI.
Show the value of the prefixes in — monologue. Pantheon, syllable,
m>etathesis, periosteum, hyposulphite, programme, hyperbole, hemiplegia,
euphony, synthesis, Polynesia, monarchy,
EXERCISE XVn.
Give the root and the suffix in each of the following : —
Fodder, trickster, thrift, baxter, penmanship, hammock, loveliness,
straddle, sapling, chippings, sisterhood, carter, starling, collier, sawyer,
EXERCISE XVm.
Explain fully the suffixes in the following : —
Mitten, earldom, stealth, breadth, handicraft, rimecraft, drunkard,
laddie, hardship, haft, spindle, shuttle, brazier, whiting, hiUf handle,
EXERCISE XIX.
Show the effect of the suffix, by giving the meanings of the follow-
ing words : —
Frolicsome, knotty, drowned, clayey, woollen, leeward, awkward,
8con\ful, shamefaced, saintlike, knavish, friendly, Spanish, bootless,
sweetish, scuttled, glad, l(ft.
222 EXERCISES.
EXERCISE XX.
In the following adverbs show the force of the suffixes, noting
hybrids in passing : —
Always, gtroAghtway, candidly y dtdy, once, mysteriously, nowiaey
sulkily, stecUthily, sidelong, seldom, peculiarly.
EXERCISE XXI.
Show the effect of the suffix in each of the following verbs : —
SuUk, snivel, faUer, strengthen, flush, twitter, dribble, trundle, gush,
glister, blush, draggle,
EXERaSE XXTI.
In the following noons show the value of each suffix : —
Actor, testament, brigandage, librarian, consonant, guttural, resident,
radiance, patrim^my, tension, lapidary, graduate, conduct, presbyter,
reticule.
EXERCISE XXni.
Explain each of the component parts of the following hybrids : —
Colour, frailty, bigamy, atonement, oddment, bondage, starvation,
foreigner, bilingualism, unjustly, grandfather, martyrdom, ungraJteful,
handkerchief, unconceitedly, falsehood, demigod, witticism, una/ited, art-
fulf Cockneyism, Bowdlerisef hUickguardism., cerecloth, druggist, surname.
EXERCISE XXIV.
Give the meanings of the suffixes in Exercise XXIIL
EXERCISE XXV.
1. What are the following pairs of words called? Potion and
poison; cadence and chance. 2. Give the corresponding word to each
of the following : benison, chattels, malediction, channel, hotel, redemp'
turn. 3. Give the meanings of the suffixes.
EXERCISE XXVI.
Give the meaning of each of the suffixes in the following ad-
jectives : —
Araltesque, ratahle, torrid, arenaceous, mundane, sequent, peninsular,
riparian, aromatic, ductile, pedantic, submissive, feminine, virulent,
jocose, valedictory, moribund, umbrageous,
EXERCISE XXVn.
1. Arrange the following words and their doublets in two columns,
distinguishing the French from the Latin. 2. Explain the suffixes in
the worda and the dovhlets you supply. Loyal, regal, fragile, caitiff,
second, particle, sample, species.
EXERCISES. 223
EXERCISE XXVm.
In the following verbs explain the suffixes : —
Amplify y expedite^ estimate, coalesce, deify, publish, pacify, olwrnit,
emheUish, permea;be, extinguish.
EXERaSE XXIX.
Show the force of the suffixes in the following, distinguishing be-
tween the Greek and hybrid words : —
Axi<muUic, theorist, philanthropy, witticism, theorist, nepotism, paral-
ysis, deism, pessimist, panorama, minimise.
EXERCISE XXX.
Show the derivation of the following, carefully noting hybrids : —
Broth, hough, gnaw, father, bier, brick, know, hatch, heetle, kitten,
quickset, beadle, chilblain, net, jetsam, nichiame, borrow, blush, kind,
mead, bakery, club, bugle, draught, unndow, eyelet.
EXERCISE XXXI.
Derive the following words : —
Nightingale, orchard, wright, ujrong, grove, whole, trade, stock, taught,
twig, till, garlic, lady, lodestar, wake, might, nozzle, stUe, scoop, waddle,
lair, pickerel, scuMle, slog, weft, wanton, reap, scrape, sleeve.
EXERCISE XXXn.
Select from the following Latin words those coming through the
French, and give their derivation : —
Inert, claret, ditto, arcade, precinct, indent, peal, ancestor, Decem-
ber, courage, city, meridian, cordial, clause., deign, donor, April, excuse,
occur, course, damsel, domineer, chapter, alto.
EXERCISE XXXin.
From the following select those words coming direct from the Latin,
and give their derivation : —
Exculpate, alimony, reception, altercation, deception, chant, agile, mis-
creant, agrarian, excuse, equinox, brief, cruise, bissextile, corpse, clam-
our, eager, auction.
EXERCISE XXXrV.
From the following list select the words coming indirectly from the
Latin, and give their derivation : —
Fount, domiciliary, colloquy, mirage^ friar^ reXid^ v^J•n.•^^^«.^ \«XAa.^
224 EXERCISES.
fiyrcti rtUgion, afflu&nt, leaven^ flexible^ renegade, eoUapse, dimiourUy
feat, proJUe, conjoirU, annex, exhibit, facet, grat^ul, memoir,
EXERaSE XXXV,
Select the words of direct Latin origin : —
Darmotise, Jusible, duke, profound, ludicrous, genteel, manse, redeem,
gesture, absolute, aherrcUion, progress, scent, probity, poignant, repair,
quarry, vow, tense, terrible, urbane, insidious, sexton, sacrilege, plausible,
EXERCISE XXXVL
Give the derivation of each of the following words : —
Daie, cosmetic, surgeon, nausea, dogma, economy, dynamite, caiarrh,
hematite, idiot, melancholy, hieroglyphic
EXERCISE XXXVn.
Give two roots for each of the following words : —
Hypocrite, aerolite, dem^agogue, onomaiopoetic, litJiotomy, tetrarch,
kaleidoscope, hydrophobia, heliotrope, catastrophe, evangelist
EXERCISE XXXVnL
State the origin of the following words : —
Lizard Point, panic, tantalise, petrel, chimera, cravai, cicerone, mar-
tinet, dunce, euphuistic, saturnine, hermeticaMy,
EXERCISE XXXIX
Trace the following words to their origin : —
Peach, cherry, damson, rhubarb, pheasant, dollar, florin, guinea^
solecism, pistol, laconic, Utopian, lumber.
EXERCISE XL.
Show the origin of the following words : —
Babble, intoxicate, gadfly, belfry, liquorice, bustard, lunchetm, easel,
buttery, custard, sheaf, carouse, stirrup, causeway, treacle, crayfish,
verdigris,
EXERCISE XLL
Compare the original with the modem meaning of the following
words : —
Sycophant, allow, restive, gazette, amuse, handsome, awkward, knave,
blackguard, mere, brat, painful, censure, cunning, preposterous, silly,
vivacUt/,
EXERCISES. 225
PLAN FOR PARSING.
When parsing a word observe the following rules : —
(i) Use no abbreviation that is vague ; avoid the possibility of being
misunderstood.
(ii) When any other word is quoted, underline it, or use marks of
quotation.
(iii) Use the following terms, when applicable, and in the order as
arranged :
NOUNS. — ^KIND. Proper; Common; Collective; Abstract.
GENDER. Masculine; Feminine; Common; Neuter.
NUMBER. Singular; Plural.
PERSON. First; Second; Third.
CASE. Nominative, subject of the verb ; in appo-
sition with ; of address (Vocative) ;
absolute; after copulative verb .
Possessive, limiting the noun .
Objective, governed directly by the transitive,
factitive, causative, prepositional, or cognate
verb, or the participle ; or indirectly
by the verb or participle (Dative) ; or
adverbial object ; or governed by the pre-
position ; or by the governing Adjec-
tive ; or in apposition with .
PEONOUNS.— KIND. Personal; Relative, agreeing with its
antecedent in gender, person, and number;
Interrogative ; Indefinite ; Reciprocal ;
Emphatic; Reflexive;
GENDER,
NUMBER, ^ , .
PERSON, ^ ^ "^ ^^^•
CASE.
226 EXERCISES.
ADJECTIVES. — KIND. Qualitative, positive, comparative, or
superlative degree, going with the noun ;
Quantitative, indefinite or definite, nu-
meral, cardinal, or ordinal, or distributive,
limiting the noun ; Demonstrative,
pointing out the noun .
VERBS. — CLASS. Transitive (active or passive Voice);
Intransitive ;
AuxiUART, of voice, mood, tense, or emphasis.
CONJUGATION. Strong or Weak.
MOOD. Indicative, assertive or interrogative ;
Imperative ; Subjunctive ; Infinitive (nomina-
tive, objective, or gerundial).
TENSE. Present; Past; Future. Perfect (complete),
imperfect (incomplete), indefinite, continuous
(progressive).
PERSON,
NUMBER.
' > Agreeing with the subject
£V. J
(PARTICIPLE) (Active, qualifying the noun or pronoun
, and governing the noun or pronoun
; or Passive).
ADVERBS.— Of TIME, PLACE, MANNER, ASSERTION, or REA-
SONING, modifying the verb ; of DEGREE
modifying the adverb or adjective .
DEGREE of comparison (Pos. ; Comp. ; Sup.)
PEEPOSITIONS.— SIMPLE or COMPOUND, governing the noun
or pronoun .
CONJUNCTIONS.— CO-ORDINATE.
SUBORDINATE.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 227
SELECTIONS FEOM QUESTIONS SET AT THE
PUPIL-TEACHER AND SCHOLARSHIP
EXAMINATIONS.
Thi figures foUcmmg some of the Questions refer to the page in MeUdejohn*8 Grammar.
PUPIL-TEACHERS.— FIRST YEAR.
Requirements, — Parsing and analysis of simple sentences, with
knowledge of the ordinary terminations of English words. Writing
from memory the substance of a passage of simple prose, read with
ordinary quickness.
SET A.
1. '' TollioT the brave !
Brave Kempenfelt is gone.
His last sea-Jlght v& fought ;
His work of glory done."
Analyse these lines, and parse the words in italics.
2. Explain the use of the adjective brave in the first line, and give
similar instances. (10.)
3. Write out the past indefinite tense of each of the verbs, toll, gOy
do, fight. (46.)
SET B.
1. " Clowards die many times before their death,
The valiant only taste of death but once." — Shakespeare.
Analyse these lines, and parse them.
2. Point out any English terminations in them ; and give instances
of words with a similar ending. (117.)
3. What is meant by mood, and how many moods are there ? Write
out the imperative mood of the verb to die. (38. )
SET C.
1. Parse and analyse the following : —
** And now a gallant tomb they raise.
With costly sculptures decked ;
And marbles storied with his praise
Poor Gelert's bones protect. "
228 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
2. Distinguish between an inflexion and a 8uffix, illnstrating your an-
swer from the lines above. (100.)
3. Explain the apostrophe in GderVs, Write down the possessive
case plural number of vxynvany ox^ mouse, child, and aon-in-law, (20.)
4. When a singular noun ends in an 8 sound, how is the possessive
sign affected ? Give examples. (20.)
SET D.
1. " Here Ouse, slow rmnding through a level plain
Of spacious meads, with cattle sprinkled o^er^
Conducts the eye cdoiig his sinuous course
Delighted. " — Cowper.
Analyse the above, parsing the words in italics.
2. Mention verbs ending in le, like sprinkle, (118.)
3. Give examples of adjectives ending in ish and en, and explain the
significance of those terminations. (116.)
SET E.
1. ** Having reached the house,
I found its rescued inmate safely lodged^
And in serene possession of himself
Beside a fire."
Analyse these lines, and parse the words printed in italics.
2. What are the different meanings of the English termination en
when added to a noun, an adjective, and a verb? Give instances.
(116-118.)
3. How would you parse a noun fully ? Explain each term you use.
(11.)
SET F.
1. ^^ But now
To the wide world^s astonishment, appeared
A glorious opening, the unlooked-for dawn
That promised everlasting joy to France. "
Analyse these lines, and parse the words printed in italics.
2. State any English terminations of adjectives which mean belonging
to, likeness, direction, and negation, and give instances of words in
which they occur. (116-118.)
3. What is meant by regular, irregular, auxiliary, defective, tran-
sitive, and intransitive verbs ? Give examples.
SET G.
1. Parse this sentence —
''He needs strong arms "wYio E^vma s.^ain8t the tide."
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 229
2. Say how many sentences there are in this verse, and what is the
subject and predicate of each —
** Sweet bird ! thy bower is ever green,
Thy sky is ever clear j
Thou hast no sorrow in thy song,
No winter in thy year."
3. Explain what is meant by a participle, and give examples. (40.)
4. Show the meaning of the final syllable in each of the following
words, and give other examples of words of the same formation :
oxen, golden, darken, bounden, duckling, streamlet, readable, singer,
'pejoceful, faithless, (116-118.)
SET H.
" I now gave over any more thoughts of the ship, or q/" anything out
of her, except what might drive on shore from her wreck, as indeed
divers pieces of her afterwards did ; but those things were of small use
to me."
1. Parse the words in italics. >
2. Define the adverb and the preposition, and illustrate the distinc-
tion by examples from the above sentence.
3. Give the plural forms of the following pronouns : mine, me, thiyie,
she, him, my, herself, whatever,
SET L
1. " Bounded the fery steed in air.
The rider sat erect and fair.
Then like a bolt from steel cross-bow
Forth launched, along the plain they go."
Analyse this passage, and parse the words in italics.
2. What is case? How do you know the nominative, possessive,
and objective cases ? (19.)
3. Point out the affixes, with their meaning, in the following
words : scholar, goodness, friendship, maiden, speaker, lambkin.
(116-118.)
SET K.
1. Give instances (1) of nouns which have no singular, and (2) of
nouns which have no pluraL
2. When is the plural suffix s pronounced like z ? (16.)
3. Parse as fully as you can the words in italics in the following
lines : —
** See the dew-drops how they kiss
Every little flower that is,
Hanging on their velvet heads
Like a string of crystal beads. "
4. Analyse the above.
230 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
SET L.
1. Which consonants are called ^0^9, and which are called sharps?
(6.)
2. State the distinction between strong and v)eah verbs ; and give the
past tense and passive participles of the following verbs : to creep,
peep, teach, reach, flay, pay, slay, read^ lead, tread, (43-45.)
3. Give the comparative and superlative of the adjectives : evil,
little, fore, old, sad, bad, happy, gay, (33.)
4. Parse the following : —
" Neither a borrower nor a lender be,
For loan oft loses both itself and friend."
PUPIL-TEACHERS.— SECOND YEAR.
Requirements. — Parsing and analysis of sentences, with knowledge
of the chief Latin prefixes and terminations. Paraphrase of a short
passage of poetry.
SET A.
L ^^ She, good caieress,
Means her provision ordy to the good.
That live according to her sober laws,
And holy dictate of spare temperance." — Comus,
Analyse the above, parsing the words in italics.
2. What Latin prefixes and terminations do you see in it? (119-
121.)
3. Paraphrase the passage. (** She " refers to " Nature.") (176.)
4. How is the prefix in (meaning not) modified in composition ? Give
instances. (108.)
SET B.
** In short, you wiU find that in the higher and better class of works
of fiction and imagination, you possess all you require to strike your
grappling-irons into the souls of the people, and to chain them willing
followers to the car of civilisation. "
1. Analyse the above passage.
2. Parse the words in italics.
3. Show wherein prepositions and conjunctions are like and wherein
th&y are unlike, (58.)
4. When is a noun said to be in the nominative, possessive, and ob-
jective cases respectively? ^l^."^
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 231
SET C.
1. Analyse the following from the words ''then burst his mighty
heart," and parse the words in italics : —
" For lyhen the noble Caesar saw him stab,
Tngratitvde, more strong than traitors* arms,
Quite vanquished him : then burst his mighty heart,
And in his mantle muffling up his face,
Even at the base of Pompey's statua,
Which aU the while ran blood, great Caesar /eW." — Julius Caesar,
2. Point out and explain the force of the adjective suffixes in the
following : —
"At which time wpuld I, being but a moonish youth, grieve, be
effeminate, changeable, proud, fantastical, apish, shallow, inconstant,
full of tears, full of smiles." — Shakespeare, (123.)
3. Paraphrase the following : —
" Music the fiercest grief can chann,
And fate's severest rage disarm ;
Music can soften pain to ease,
And make despair and madness please ;
Our joys below it can improve.
And antedate the bliss above. " (176.)
SET D.
1. ^'^ Far up the lengthening lake were spied
Four darkening specks upon the tide,
1%U, slow enlarging on the view.
Four manned and masted barges grew.
And, bearing downwards from Glengyle,
Steered fuU upon the opening isle."
Turn this passage into prose. (176.)
2. Analyse the above passage, and parse the words in italics.
3. What is the meaning of ad, ex, and ob ? Give words in which
they occur. How and when are they sometimes changed in composi-
tion? (107, 108.)
SET E.
1. " Immortal glories in my mind revive.
And in my soul a tJwusand pa>ssions strive.
When Rome's exdUed beauties I descry.
Magnificent in piles of ruin We." — Addiscm,
Analyse the above, parsing the words in italics.
2. Point out any Latin prefixes in the above, and give their mean*
ings ; and instance other words in which th«^ o^^xa. V^W\^^S5Ri^^
232 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
3. Paraphrase the following : —
'< He that holds fast the golden mean,
And lives contentedly between
The little and the great,
Feels not the wants that pinch the poor,
Nor plagues that haunt the rich man's door,
Embittering aU his state. " (176.)
SET F.
" They do not err
Who say that when the poet dies
Mute nature momia her worshipper.
And celebrates his obsequies ;
Who say tall cliff and cavern lone
For the departed Bard inakt moan. "
Paraphrase this passage, analyse the subordinate sentences, and parse
the words printed in italics. (176.)
2. What Latin prefixes occur in the above passage ? Mention some
words in which these prefixes undergo a modification. (107, 108.)
3. State the various kinds of subordinate sentences. Why are they
so called? and how are they distinguished? (94.)
SET G.
1. ** Hadst thou htU lived, though stripped of power,
A loatchman on the lonely tower,
Hiy thrilling trump had roused the land,
When fraud or danger were at hand."
Paraphrase this passage, analyse it, and parse the words printed in
itaUcs. (176.)
2. Give the meanings of the following Latin prefixes, and illustrate
each by two English words : ad, ante, contra, extra, retro, sub, ultra.
(107, 108.)
3. State, with examples, some of the Latin terminations in English
abstract nouns. (119.)
SET H.
1. ** The service done, the mourners stood apart ; he called to mind
how he had seen her sitting on that very spot, and how her book had
fallen on her lap as she was gazing with a pensive face upon the sky.
Another told how he had wondered thai, one so delicate as she should be
so bold ; how she had never /earcc? to enter the church alone at night."
(a) Point out the subordinate conjunctions in the above. State
to which class of subordinate conjimctions each belongs, and show why
such conjunctions are called BvibordVn&te. V!^Q.^
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 233
(b) Parse the words in italics.
2. How can you tell when the following are used as adverbs, and
when as conjunctions? — after, before, since. Give examples of them
in both uses. (60.)
SET I.
1. " The pass was left ; for then they wind
Along a wide and level green,
Where neither tree nor tuft was seen." — Scott.
(a) Show from the above passage that conjunctions may join both
principal to principal sentences and subordinate to principal sentences.
(94.)
(b) Parse the participles in the above, and show how participles dif-
fer from verbs. (40.)
2. In analysis an enlargement is said always to be an adjective, or
to partake of the nature of an adjective. This being so, what parts of
a sentence are (properly speaking) capable of enlargement ? Give ex-
amples of such enlargements. (94.)
SET K.
1. '* It is the first mild day of March,
Hack miniUe sweeter than before ;
The redbreast sings from the tall larch
That stands beside our door.
My sister ! ('tis a wish of mine)
Now that our morning meal is done.
Make haste, your morning tasks resign,
CoTne forth, and feel the sun." — Wordsworth,
(a) How many sentences are there in the above ? Assign each to
the class to which it belongs.
{b) Parse the words in italics.
2. What are corresponding conjunctions? Give a list of them.
(60.)
SET L.
1. *' Before a novice can commence the study of any science, he
must make himself acquainted with the terms employed in that science. "
(a) Point out the principal and the adverbial sentence in the above,
and show why each is so called. (95.)
(6) Mention other kinds of subordinate sentences besides adverbial,
and give an example of each. (94.)
(c) Point out, and carefully parse, the participles and auxiliary
verbs in the above.
2. What are causal conjunctions? Why are they so called t Gvt^
examples. (60. )
234 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
PUPIL-TEACHERS.— THIRD YEAR.
Beqvirements. — Parsing, analysis, and paraphrasing of complex sen-
tences. Prefixes and affixes generally. Knowledge of the simple tests
by which English words may be distinguished from those of foreign
origin.
SET A.
1. Analyse the following, parsing the words in italics : —
" Oh, how it yearned my heart, when I hehddt
In London streets that coronation day.
When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary !
That horse, thai thou so often hast bestrid.
That horse, that I so carefully have dressed ! " — Richard II.
2. What are impersonal verbs ? Give examples.
3. What is the origin and force of the particle be in beheld, bestrid?
Give instances of it as a prefix to nouns. (104.)
4. Most monosyllabic words are of English origin. Point out any
exception to this rule in the above. (132.)
SET R
1. '*The whole cavalcade paused simultaneously when Jerusalem
appeared in view ; the greater number fell upon their knees, and laid
their foreheads in the dust, whilst a profound silence, more impressive
than the loudest exclamations, prevailed over all ; even the Moslems
gazed reverently on what was to them also a holy city, and recalled to
mind the pathetic appeal of their forefather, ' Hast thou not a bless-
ing for me, also, O my father ? ' "
Paraphrase this passage. (177.)
2. Point out the subordinate sentences in it, analyse the two last,
and also parse the last of them. (89.)
3. Point out also and explain the meaning of any Latin or Jgngligfi
prefixes in this passage. (104-110.)
SET a
1. Morning ySitr
Game forth, with pUgrim steps in amice gray.
Who with her radiant finger stiWd the roar
Of thunder, chased the clouds, and laid the winds
And grisly spectres which the fiend had raised. '^ — MiUoiu
Analyse the forgoing, panting the wocds in italics.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 235
2. Paraphrase the passage. (^m«ce means a pilgrim's robe.) (177.)
3. Point out the prefix in each of the following words : spendj
enormoTis, symmetry j accede, pellucid^ ignoble, coagtdcUe, suppress, com-
bustion, (104-112.)
SET D.
1. '* These feelings I shared in common with the humblest pilgrim
that was kneeling there, and, in some respects, he had even the advan-
tage of me ; he had made infinitely greater sacrifices than I had done,
and undergone far heavier toils, to reach that bourne. Undistracted
by mere temporal associations, he only saw the sacred spot wherein the
Prophets preached, and David sung, and Christ had died."
Paraphrase this passage. (177.)
2. Point out the subordinate sentences in it, analyse the two first,
and parse the second of them. (90.)
3. What are the means of readily distinguishing between words of
English and of Latin origin? Take your examples from the above
passage. (221.)
SET E.
1. ** An inadvertent step may crush the snail
Thai crawls at evening in the public path ;
But he that has humanity, forewarned.
Will tread aside and let the reptile liveP
Analyse the above, parsing the words in italics.
2. Explain how the word aside is formed, and give instances of
adverbs of similar formation. (104.)
3. Point out a Latin prefix and a Latin suffix in the above. (107-
110.)
4. Correct, where needful, the following sentences : —
(a) It is I that he fears.
(b) He is a- boy of nine years old.
(c) Who can this letter be from ?
{d) I feel coldly this morning.
SET F
1. If enlargements are words and phrases attached to the nouns in a
sentence, and extensions words or phrases attached to the verbs or
predicates, assign all the enlargements and extensions which occur in
the following to their proper classes : —
(a) " The harp, his sole remaining joy,
Was carried by an orphan boy."
236 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
{h) ** Ocean and earth, the solid frame of earth,
And ocean's liquid mass, in gladness lay
Beneath him."
(c) '' The sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. "
2. Parse any participles, or verbs in the infinitive mood, which occur
in the following, and give the meaning of the passage in simple words
of your own : —
'* Blest be the art that can immortalise.
The art that baffles time's tyrannic claim
To quench it."
3. With what Latin prepositions are the words support ^ suffice, y effect y
destroy J compounded? Give the meaning of the preposition in each
case. (107-110.)
SET G.
1 . Words or phrases attached to the nouns of a sentence are called
enlargements ; attached to the verbs they are called extensions. Give
two examples of each. (89.)
2. " Dost thou 80 hunger for my empty chair.
That thou wilt needs invest thee with mine honours ?
Stay but a little ; for my cloud of dignity
Is held ivom. falling with so weak a wind.
That it will quickly drop." — Shakespeare: Henry IV,
(a) Analyse the last three lines.
{h) Parse the words in italics.
(c) Give the meaning of the above passage in your own words, ex-
plaining, so far as you can, the figures and metaphors.
3. What are the Latin prepositions that mean out q/*, froniy under ?
Give examples of words in which they occur, pointing out the force of
the preposition in each case. (107.)
SET H.
1. What is the derivation of the word transitive^ and how is the
derivation connected with the use of the words travMtive, intransitive,
in grammar ?
2. "When I came to my castle I fled into it like one pursued;
whether I went over by the ladder or vjent in at the hole which I
called a door, I cannot remember ; no, nor could I remember the next
morning ; for never frighted hare fled to cover, or fox to earth, with
more terror of mind than I to this retreat. " — Defoe,
(a) Analyse the above passage from "When I came" to "next
morning," (94.)
(d) Parse the words in italics.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 237
SET I.
1. ** And waiting to be treated like a wolf,
Because I ^ew my crimes were known, I found,
Instead of scornful pity, such a grace
Of tenderest courtesy, that I began
To glance behind me at my former life.
And find that it had been the wolf's indeed." — Tennyson,
{a) Point out the noun sentences in the above, and analyse them.
(95.)
{h) Point out any enlargement of the subject or extension of the
predicate that you notice in the above. (93.)
(c) Parse all the participles and verbs in the infinitive mood that
occur in the above.
2. Of what Latin prepositions are the following words compounded :
AmptUcUe, efface, circuit, collision, pre/ace, succeed, suffuse, sojourn,
tradition:' (107-110.)
SET K.
1. " It is great sin to swear unto a sin.
But greater sin to keep a sinful oath.
Who can be bound by any solemn vow
To do a murderous deed, to rob a man.
To reave the orphan of his patrimony
And have no other reason for this wrong
But that he was bound by a solemn oath ? "
— King Henry VL
(a) Parse all the words in the last line.
(h) Analyse the two sentences contained in the last two« lines,
supplying any words that are required to make the analysis complete.
N.B. — ^Take care to point out the character of each sentence. (95.)
(c) When is the infinitive mood used without being preceded by the
word to ? Give examples of this from the above passage, and mention
others that occur to you. (39. )
2. Write the subject-matter of a lesson on either of the following :
Mood, Tense.
3. Give the Latin prepositions that mean under, tvith, across, out of.
(107-110.)
SET L.
1. ** The voice of Enid rang
Clear through the open casement of the hall.
Singing ; and as the sweet voice of a bird
Heard by the lander in a lonely isle
Moves him to think what kind of bird it is
That sings so delicately clear, and make
(Conjecture of the plumage and the form ;
So the sweet voice of Enid moved him." — IV-uu-vj^wvi*
238 EXAiONATION QUESTIONS.
(a) Point out and analyse the noun sentence in the above passage.
(94.)
(6) Parse the participles and infinitive moods in the above passage.
(39, 40.)
(c) Explain how the word what is used in the fifth line, and give
other uses of the same word. (27. )
{d) Give the meaning of the above passage in plain, simple words of
your own. (177.)
2. Give examples of words compounded with the Latin preposition
in (meaning in, into). Mention some words in which the affix in has
quite a different meaning, and state what that meaning is. (105.)
PUPIL-TEACHERS.— FOURTH YEAR.
Requirements. — Fuller knowledge of grammar and analysis, and of tlro^
common Latin roots of English words. Outline of the history of the
language and literature.
SET A.
L ** Now stir the fire, and close the shutters /ow^,
Itetfall the curtains, wheel the sofa round,
And while the bubbling and loud hissing urn
Throws up a steamy column, and the cups
TTicU cheer htU not inebriate, wait on each.
So let us welcome peaceful evening in, "
Analyse the above passage, and parse the words in italics. (95. )
2. From what source is the word sofa derived? Mention other
words derived from the same source. (263. )
3. To what dates and events would you assign the adoption and the
discontinuance of French as the language of the Court and nobility in
England? (226.)
4. Name the authors of the following works : * Paradise Lost,*
*The Faery Queen,' * Vanity Fair,' * Robinson Crusoe,' «The Task,'
» KenUworth,' * The Excursion,' * The IdyUs of the King.' (369.)
SET B.
L '* And 0, ye swelling hills and spacious plains I
Besprent from shore to shore with steeple- towers,
And spires whose silent finger points to heaven ;
Nor wanting, at wide intervals, the bulk
Of ancient minster lifted above the cloud
Of the dense air, which town or city breeds.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 239
To intercept the sun's glad beams — may ne'er
That true succession fail of English hearts,
Who, with ancestral feeling, can perceive
What in those holy structures ye possess
Of ornamental interest."
Paraphrase this passage. (177.)
2. Point out in it the subordinate sentences, and analyse and parse
fully the last sentence. (95. )
3. What kinds of English words are derived from the Anglo-Saxon
language ? State any difference in inflexion between the English and
Anglo-Saxon languages. (202. )
SET C.
1. ** The poet, fostering for his native land
Such hope, entreats that servants may abound
Of those pure altars worthy ; ministers
Detached from pleasure, to the love of gain
Superior, insusceptible of pride.
And by ambitious longings undisturbed ;
Men whose delight is where their duty leads
Or fixes them ; whose least distinguished day
Shines with some portion of that heavenly lustre
Which makes the Sabbath lovely in the sight
Of blessed angels, pitying human cares."
Paraphrase this passage. (177.)
2. Point out the subordinate sentences in it, and analyse and parse
fully the noun sentence. Point out also any adjectives of Latin origin.
(95, 109.)
3. State the various ways by which words of Latin origin have
been introduced into our language. (209.)
SET D.
1. '' It is well known to the learned that the ancient laws of Attica
rendered the exportation of figs criminal — that being supposed a
species of fruit so excellent in Attica that the Athenians deemed it too
delicious for the palate of any foreigners ; and in this ridiculous pro-
hibition they were so much in earnest that informers were thence
called sycophants among them." — Hume.
Analyse each of the sentences in the above which begins with the
word that. (95.)
2. Parse each word in the following: "That being supposed a
species of fruit so excellent."
3. Write out a list of words compounded or derived from the Latin
verbs, amo, duco,ferOy attdio, (132, 133.)
240 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
SET E.
1. " ^Twas now a place of punishment ;
Whence if so loud a shriek were sent,
As reached the upper air,
The hearers blessed themselves and said,
The spirits of the sinful dead
Bemoaned their torments there. "
Analyse this passage, and parse the words in italics.
2. From what Latin roots are the following words derived ? library,
locomotion, eloquence, elucidate, legitimaie, lunatic, extravagant, (132-
134.)
3. When did the following writers live, and what are their principal
works? Spenser, Pope, Milton, Locke, Bacon, Chaucer. (368.)
SET F.
1. <* Learning hath his infancy, when U is but beginning and almost
childish : then his youth, when it is luxuriant and juvenile : then his
strength of years, when it is solid and redvxied : and lastly his old age,
when it waxeth dry and exhaust. But it is not good to look too long
upon these turning wheels of vicissitude, lest we become giddy." — Ba>con,
Analyse this passage down to the word '* exhaust," and parse the
words in italics. (95.)
2. Comment on the use of the pronoun his in it, and mention any
similar use of it in another passage. (24. )
3. Point out any words in the above which have a Latin root.
(132, 133.)
4. Mention any great writers in the eighteenth century and their
works. (378, 379.)
SET G.
1. ** Be useful where thou livest, that they may
Both want and wish thy pleasing presence still.
Kindness, good parts, great places, are the way
To compass this. Find out msn^s tvants and will,
And meet them there. All worldly joys go less
To the one joy of doing kindnesses." — George Herbert, 1633.
(a) Write out the meaning of the above in your own words. (177.)
(6) Parse the words in italics.
(c) Analyse the first two lines. (95.)
(d) How is the word that used in the first line ? Give examples of
the different ways in which the word that is employed. (60.)
2. Mention some of the classes of words in our language which are
generally of Latin origin. Give exa,m^\fta. ^^4.\
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 241
SET H.
1. Analyse the following, parsing the words in italics : —
" No voice divine the storm allayed ;
No light propitious shone ;
Wherufar from oM effectual aid,
^Q perished — each alone;
But / beneath a rougher sea
And whelmed in blacker gulfs than he." — Gowper,
2. Point out any words in the above derived from Latin, or from
Latin through French. (220.)
3. In English almost any part of speech may be used as any other
part of speech. Illustrate this. (62. )
4. To what period of our literature do the following writers respec-
tively belong ? Alfred the Great, Chaucer, Spenser, Cowper. (368. )
SET L
1. "I would the great world grew like thee.
Who grewest not alone in power
And knowledge, but from hour to hour
In reverence and in charity." — Tennyson.
Analyse this stanza ; and explain, if you can, its metre. (95, 178.)
2. Give the etymology and exact meaning of as many of the follow-
ing words as you can : fortress, fortitude, stLbscribe, superior, domina-
tion, rectitude, impossible, construction, export. (132, 133.)
3. Give an example of an " infinitive of purpose " ; and also of an
infinitive used as equivalent to a noun. (82.)
4. Say what you know about the life and writings of Milton, Pope,
or Dr Johnson. (368.)
SET K.
1. Break up the following complex sentence into simple sentences,
beginning a new line with each simple sentence : —
*< All crimes shall cease and ancient frauds shall fail,
Returning justice lift aloft her scale.
Peace o'er the world her olive wand extend,
And white-robed Innocence from heaven descend. "
2. Parse the verbs and participles in the above.
3. What conjunctions should be followed by the subjunctive mood?
Give four examples, using a different conjunction in each. (60. )
4. Point out which of the following words are of Keltic, and which
are of Saxon origin ; and state what class of things (generally) have
Keltic names : sheep, ship, bread, milk, basket, mop, maUock, pail.
(206.)
242 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
SET L.
1. Are Anglo-Saxon and English different languages? or what is
their relation to one another? (206.)
2. " The Batavian territory, conquered from the waves and drfended
against them by human art, was in extent little superior to the princi-
pality of Wales ; but cM that narrow space was a busy and populous
hive, in which new wealth was every day created^ and in which vast
masses of old wealth were hoarded.'*'' — Ma^caulay,
(a) How many different sentences are contained in the above?
Assign each to its proper class.
{b) Parse the words in italics.
3. When should the word the be considered as an adverb ? Give
instances. (30. )
SCHOLARSHIP.
SET A.
{TiDO hours and a ha^f allowed for this paper,)
»
No abbreviation of less than three letters to be used in parsing or
analysis. All candidates must do the composition, parsing, and
analysis.
Composition.
Write a letter, or an essay, on 07ie of the following subjects : —
(a) Your favourite flowers, and the way to cultivate them.
(b) The moral lessons of the microscope and the telescope.
(c) The advantages and disadvantages of town life as compared with
life in the country.
{d) Examinations. (159.)
Grammar.
1. Parse the words in italics in the following passage, not omitting
to give and explain their syntax : —
*' Breathes tJiere a man with soul so dead
Who never to himself hath said.
This is my own, my native land !
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned
As home his footsteps he hath turned
From wandering on a foreign strand ?
If such there breathe, go, mark him well ;
For him no minattel ta^taxfta «vreU I
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 243
High though his titles, proud his name,
Boundless his wealth, as wish can claim,
Despite those titles, power, and pelf,
The wretch concentred all in self,
Living, shall forfeit fan- renown,
And, doubly dying, shall go down
To the vile dust from whence he sprung,
Unwept, unhonoured, and unsung,**
2. Analyse either the first or the last half of the above passage into
its component sentences, and show in separate columns —
(a) The nature of the sentence.
(b) (If dependent) its relation to the principal sentence.
(c) Subject. {d) Its enlargements (if any),
(e) Predicate. (/) Its extensions (if any).
(g) Object (if any). (h) Its enlargements (if any). (95. )
3. Explain by a paraphrase, or otherwise, the portion of the passage
which you take for analysis. (177.)
4. Examine and illustrate the etymology of any five of the following
words from the above : (hm, native, whose, heart, foreign, minstrel,
raptures, titles, boundless, claim, wretch, concentred, forfeit, renown.
(127-144.)
5. Distinguish common, proper, and abstract noims, — cardinal and
ordinal numbers, — intransitive and neuter verbs, — continuative and dis-
junctive conjunctions, — personal, possessive, reflexive, and relative
pronouns.
6. It is often said that English is less of an inflected language in its
latter than in its earlier stages. Explain what is meant by this, and
give a few instances of inflexion in English as now spoken. (61. )
7. Show by examples how analysis helps us to parse correctly.
(90.)
8. At which periods, and in connection with what events, in the
history of this island, did the most important changes take place in the
language of the inhabitants? Illustrate your answer. (202-238.)
SET B.
{Directions as in A.)
Composition.
Write a letter, or an essay, on one of the following subjects : —
(a) Singing birds.
\b) Fairy tales.
(c) Best way of spending holidays.
(d) Advantages of the study and knowledge of geography. (169.)
Grammar.
1. Parse the words in italics in the following passage, not omitting
to give and explain their syntaoi : —
244 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
*' I met a traveller from an antique land,
Who said : * Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the Desert. Near them, on the sand,
Half-sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown
And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command,
Tell that the sculptor well those passions read
Which still survive, stamped on these lifeless things.
The hand that mocked them, and the h^art that fed:
And on the pedestal these words appear :
' My name is Ozymandias, King of kings ;
Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair ! '
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of thai colossal wreck, boundless and bare.
The lone and level sands stretch far away. "
2. Analyse either the first or the last half of the above passage.
(95.)
3. Explain by a paraphrase, or otherwise, the passage from " Near
them " down to " that fed." (177.)
4. Examine and illustrate the etymology of any five of the follow-
ing words from the above sonnet : traveller, visage, passions, survive,
despair, level, boundless, lone, decay, colossal, desert, lip, pedestal, (100-
144.)
5. Show by definition and examples what is meant by {a) substan-
tive, [b) intransitive, (c) passive, {d) defective, (e) strong (irregular)
and (/) weak (regular) verbs. To which of the two last-named classes
would you refer the verbs to lead, to spread, to show, to sweep, to spend ?
and why? (34-56.)
6. Give your definition of an adverb, a preposition, and a conjunc-
tion, and show by examples the difference between each of them and
the other two. Can you mention any words belonging to these three
classes which cannot be parsed without knowing their position in a
sentence ? (57-60.)
7. Give a short historical sketch, with dates, of the origin and
growth of the English language. (199-201.)
SET C.
{Directions as in A,)
Composition.
Write a letter on one of the following subjects
(1) Gardening.
(2) A storm at sea.
(3) A day's angling.
(4) Some public park. (159.)
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 245
Grammar.
1. Parse fully the words italicised in the following sentences (syntax
is an essential part of parsing) : —
** For who would bear
The insolence of office and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
Bttt that the dread of something after death,
The undiscovered country from whose bourne
No traveller returns, puzzles the will,
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of ? "
2. Analyse the sentence in Question 1. (86-99.)
3. Select and classify the pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions
in the same sentence.
4. !Elxplain the terms cardinal, ordinal, and indefinite numerals, and
give examples of each. (29-31.)
5. Give the past tenses of the verbs crow, hew, sing, win, help, hid,
chide, write, dig, lie, get, shear, and any obsolete forms of those tenses.
(46, 47.)
6. Classify the English conjunctions, and show that they are fre-
quently derived from verbs.
7. Explain the force of the following affixes : -dom, as in martyr-
dom ; -some, as in handsome ; -less, as in speechless ; -ihU, as in inflex-
ible ; and give other examples of each affix. (100-124.)
8. Define a preposition, and show by examples that prepositions do
not always precede the noun they govern. (58. )
9. Give examples of noun, adjective, and adverbial clauses, em-
ployed as subordinate sentences. (95. )
10. Name the sources of our language from which the following
words are derived : hat, shoe, vest, glove, sock, bonnet, ribbon, tunic,
shiH. (128-144.)
SET D.
{Directions as in A.)
Composition.
Write a letter, or an essay, on one of the following subjects : —
(a) Common fruits.
{b) Football-
(c) Modes of travelling.
(d) The advantages and disadvantages of living in an old, or in a
newly settled, country, compared. (159.)
Grammar.
1. Parse the words in italics in the following passage, not omitting
246 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
to give and explain their syntax, and carefully distinguishing the
words which occur twice over : —
** For therein stands the office of a King,
His honour, virtue, merit, and chief praise,
That for the public such a weight he bears.
Yet he who reigns within himself and rules
Passions, desires, and fears, is Tnore a King :
Which every wise and virtuous man attains ;
And who a^^tains not, ill aypires to rule
Cities of men or headstrong multitudes,
Subject himself to anarchy within,
Or lawless passions in him, which he serves/'
2. Analyse the passage. (95.)
3. Of the 15 nouns in the above passage, 5 are of Anglo-Saxon, 8 of
Latin, and 2 of Greek origin. Classify them accordingly. About which
word only may there be a difference of opinion, and why? (131-137.)
4. Make a list of the auxiliary verbs, distinguishing those of mood
from those of tense. (53.)
5. Give examples of English words in which difierences of (a) case,
(fi) number, (c) gender, {d) degree, (e) mood, (/) tense, {g) voice, are
indicated by changes in the form of the word itself {inflexion). (11.)
6. Point out the historical order in which the several foreign ele-
ments were incorporated into the English language. During what
period did English seem to be dying out, and under what circum-
stances and influences did it revive? (198-202.)
SET E.
{Two hours and a half allowed for this paper,)
No abbreviation of less than three letters to be used in parsing or analysis.
Section I. — Parse fully the words in italics in the following pas-
sages (syntax should not be neglected in the parsing) : —
** Yet mourn not. Land of Fame,
Though ne'er the Leopards on thy shield
Retreated from so sad a field,
Since Norman William came.
Oft may thine annals justly boast
Of battles stem by Scotland lost ;
Grudge not her victory.
When for her freehom rights she strove^
Rights dear to all who freedom love,
To none so dear as thee,^^
" One evening, as the Emperor was returning to the palace through a
-ns^rroiw portico, an assassin who waited his passage rushed upon him
with a drawn sword, loudly eocclaiming, * The Senate sends you this.^ "
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 247
Section II. — Point out the subjects, predicates, and objects, with
their extensions, enlargements, or complements (if any), in the follow-
ing sentences : —
Remember, prince, that thou shalt die.
Whoever reflects upon the uncertainty of his own life, will find out
that the state of others is not more permanent.
This exuberance of money displayed itself in wantonness of expense,
and procured for me the acquaintance of others equally favoured by
Fortune. (95.)
Section m. — Point out clearly the relations which the sentences
Included in brackets in the following passages bear to their principal
sentences, and give your reasons for assigning each relation : —
He (that would pass the latter part of his life with honour) must
{when he is young) consider (that he shall one day be old) and re-
member (when he is old) (that he has once been young). (95. )
(When Socrates was building himself a house) being asked by one
(who observed the littleness of the design) (why a man so eminent
would not have an abode more suitable to his dignity) he replied (that
he should think himself sufficiently accommodated) (if he could see
that narrow habitation filled with real friends).
Section IV. — 1. Explain the term ** case." Show that there are
generally only two forms of case in English, and give words that em-
ploy more than two forms.
Explain how the possessive case is written in English, with any
exceptions to the general rules. (19-22.)
2. What does the term conjugation include? Name some of the
English defective verbs. What condition is expressed by a subjunc-
tive mood? Give examples of sentences, showing varieties of that
condition. (42-56.)
3. What is meant by saying that prepositions express relations ?
Oive examples to show that the principal relations are those of cause,
place, and time. (58-60.)
Section V. — In the following passages select words containing
Latin prefixes ; convert also the noims into adjectives by means of
suffixes, ' giving the force of each prefix and suffix. (107-110.)
. Pity presupposes sympathy.
He satisfies his ambition with the fame he shall acquire.
Lawful authority is seldom resisted.
Extravagance, though suggested by vanity and excited by luxury,
seldom procures applause.
The passions continue then- tyranny with incessant demands for
indulgence, and life evaporates into vain repentance or impotent
appetite.
Section VI. — Write full notes of a lesson on one of the following
subjects : —
(a) Concords of verb and subject.
(b) Complements or extensions of the predicate.
248 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
(c) The advantages of learning Latin grammar, or some other gram-
mar than English.
Section VII. — Write a letter descriptive of —
(a) Some outdoor school game.
Or, (6) A shipwreck.
Or, (c) The beauties of summer.
Or, (d) Your favourite walk.
Underline any words you have used that are of Latin origin.
(159.)
SET F.
{Directions as in E. )
Section I. — Parse fully the words in italics in the following pas-
sages (sjmtax should not be neglected in the parsing) : —
** The better days of life were ours ;
The worst can be but mine :
The sun that cheers, the storm that lowers.
Shall never more be thine.
The silence of that dreamless sleep
I envy now too much to weep ;
Nor need I to repine
ThcU all those charms have passed av)ay
I might have watcJied through long decay."
** The flower in ripened bloom unmaiched
Must fall the earliest prey;
Hiough by no hand untimely snatched.
The leaves must drop away."
Section II. — Analyse the principal sentences in the following pas-
sage ; and state the nature of the subordinate sentences, pointing out
the sentences upon which they depend : —
''This mother is still alive, and may perhaps even yet, though' her
malice was often defeated, enjoy the pleasure of reflecting that the life,
which she often endeavoured to destroy, was at last shortened by her
maternal offices, and that, though she could not transport her son to
the plantations, she has had the satisfaction of forcing him into exi-
gencies that hurried on his death." (95.)
Section III. — Select and classify the adverbs and conjunctions in
the passage given above. (57-60.)
Section IV. ^ — 1. Give examples of reflective, distributive, and in-
terrogative pronouns. State the differences in usage of the relative
pronouns who, which, and what. (27.)
2. Explain the term preposition. What are the principal relations
1 Only one of these questions is to be answered.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 249
indicated by prepositions ? Give examples of compound prepositions,
formed by prefixing simple prepositions to nouns and adjectives. (59. )
3. Explain the terms adjective and adverbial clauses. Give sen-
tences showing that these clauses are equivalent to simple adjectives
or adverbs. (89, 90.)
Section V. — Select twelve of the following words, show how they
are compounded, and derive their meaning from the meaning of their
component parts : biUf since^ except^ become, amongst, between, al-
though, astray, perhaps, whither, good-bye, totoards, forsooth, despite,
gosling, boyhood, kingdom, complex.
Section VL — Write full notes of a lesson on one of the following
subjects : —
(a) Interrogative pronouns.
(6) Moods of verbs.
(c) Analysis of a simple sentence.
Section VII. — Write a letter descriptive of —
(a) The plan of some large town.
Or, (6) A visit to a factory.
Or, (c) A ramble by a river-side.
Or, (f;^) A day's skating. (156.)
SET G.
{Two hours and a half allowed for this paper.)
No abbreviation of less than three letters to be used in i>arsing or analysis.
Candidates must not answer more than oiu question in each of the Sections IV., V., VL
Composition.
Write a letter descriptive of —
(1) The early signs of Spring.
Or, (2) Some Museum with which you are acquainted.
Or, (3) Some act of kindness or heroism which you may have wit-
nessed.
Or, (4) Some of the difficulties of a young teacher's life. (159.)
Section L — Parse fully the words italicised in the following sen-
tences (syntax is an essential part of parsing) : —
" Yet live there still, who can remember well
How when a mountain-chief his bugle blew,
Both field and forest, dingle, cliff, and dell.
And solitary heath the signal knew ;
And fast the faithful clan around him dreio,
W?uU time the warning note vxis keenly wound,
What time aloft their kindred banner flew,
While clamorous war-pipes yelled the gathering sound,
And while the Fiery Cross glanced, like a meteor, round."
250 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
Section U. — Analyse the following sentences, making a table, show-
ing in separate columns : —
(1) The nature of the sentence.
(2) (If dependent) its relation to thq principal sentence.
(3) Subject.
(4) Its enlargement (if any).
(5) Predicate.
(6) Its extensions (if any).
(7) Object.
(8) Its enlargement (if any).
How to deal with him was a puzzling question.
While the lion and tiger were tearing each other, the jackal had
run off into the jungle with the prey.
** Who spills the foremost foeman's life,
His party conquers in the strife."
** If I suffer causeless wrong.
Is then my selfish rage so strong.
My sense of public weal so low.
That for mere vengeance on a foe
Those cords of love I should unbind
Which knit my country and my kind ? "
Section III. — Select and classify the pronouns, conjunctions, and
adverbs in the sentences given above.
Section IV. — 1. Write out rules for the spelling of those classes
of words which include receiving, judgment, changeable, so far as
relates to the part of the word printed in italic type.
2. Explain the terms reflexive, indefinite, and show in what sense
they are applied to some of the parts of speech. (25. )
3. Explain the term subjunctive mood, and give examples of its
uses. (80. )
Section V. — 1. Show that the following words may represent two or
more parts of speech : neoct, under , titty by, thcUj like,
2. Deri-^e the following words : compact, arrangey acqtuiint, algebra,
geography, dissuade, abroad, precede, suspend,
3. Give a noun, an adjective, and a verb, formed from each of the
following Latin words : disco, sedeo, scribo, verto, duco, dico, (131.)
Section VI. — 1. State whether the concords in the following sen-
tences are incorrect, and give the proper rule of concord in each
case : — (76.)
Neither she nor James were there.
Either Mary or Jane must fetch me their rake.
Scott's * Tales of a Grandfather' were written for his grandchildren.
2. Explain the terms metaphor, simile, and give appopriate ex-
amples. (174.)
3. Give examples of defective English verbs, and show how the
deficiencies are supplied. (53.)
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