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THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENC Y  C  LO  P^D I A 


EDITORS 
DANIEL    COIT    OILMAN,   LL.  D. 

PRESIDENT  OP   JOHNS  HOPKINS  UN1TER8ITY  (1876-1901) 
ATTEBWARDS  PRESIDENT  OP  THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON 

HARRY  THURSTON   PECK,  Ph.  D.,  L.  H.  D. 

PROFESSOR    IN   COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

FRANK   MOORE   COLBY,  M.  A. 

LATE    PROFESSOR   OF    ECONOMICS 
IN   NEW   YORK   UNIVERSITY 


VOLUME  XIII 


NEW  YORK 
DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 

1909 


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A/H37 


"TK^.   i  .  Uj.  R^odL^^yi^M^ 


Copyright,  190S,  1904, 1906, 190S,  1907 
By  Dodd,  Mead  and  Company 


AU  rights  reserved 


Prbsswork  by  The  Univbrsity  Prbss,  Cambridgb,  U.  S.  A. 
Binding  bv  Boston  Bookbinding  Co.,  Cambridgb,  U.  S.  A. 


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ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  XIH. 
COLORED  PLATES 

Facsno  Paos 

HaNUSCBIPTS,  lLLI73aNA'i:ED 26 

Mabsuplals 106 

msdfsjs  and  siphonophoba 274 

MnocBAXooY ••••••••  540 

MAPS 

Habtland •    •     • 124 

Massachusetts '••••••  154 

Mexico ••..••.  404 

Michigan 440 

Milwaukee 526 

Minneapolis 556 

Minnesota 558 

Mississippi 602 

MissouBi 616 

Montana    .    .     .    • < 746 

ENGRAVINGS 

Map,  TopoGBApmcAL •     .     .     .  34 

Maple 36 

Mabblb 40 

Megalithic  Monuments 276 

Meissonieb,  Jean  Louis  Ebnest  ("Friedland,  1807") 282 

Metal-Wobking  Machineby 368 

City  of  Mexico — ^The  Cathedbal 418 

Michelangelo  ("Creation  of  Adam**) 432 

Michelangelo  ("Moses'') 434 

MicBOscoPE 452 

MiCBOScoPY,  Clinical 466 

Milan — The  Cathedbal 480 


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IV 

FAcnro  Paoi 

Millet— ("The  Gleaners") 516 

Milton,  John •    .    . 624 

MiNBRALOQY 636 

Mint 672 

Mint,  etc 673 

Monkeys,  Amebioan 726 

Monkeys  op  the  Old  World 727 

Monocotyledons,  Types  of , 730 

Mont  St.  Michel 774 

Moon 778 


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KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


9 

9 

4 


X 
X 
X 
5 
5 
6 
6 
o 


oo 
on 

t 


r 


as  in  ale,  fate.    Also  see  4,  below. 

*'   "  senate,  chaotic.    Also  see  4,  below. 

"   "  glare,  care. 

"   **  am,  at. 

"   "   arm,  father. 

"  *'  ant,  and  final  a  in  America,  armada, 
etc.  In  rapid  speech  this  yowel  read- 
ily becomes  more  or  less  obscured  and 
like  the  neutral  vowel  or  a  short 

**  "  final,  r^;al,  where  it  is  of  a  neutral  or 
obscure  quality. 

"   "   aU,falL 

"   "   eve. 

"   *'   elate,  evade. 

"  "  end,  pet.  The  characters  ^,  a,  and  i 
are  used  for  4  in  German,  as  in  Gftrt- 
ner,  Grftfe,  Hfthnel,  to  the  values  of 
which  they  are  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sounds.  The  sound  of  Swedish 
d  is  also  indicated  by  d. 

^  "  fern,  her,  and  as  i  in  sir.  Also  for  d, 
oe,  in  German,  as  in  €^the,  Goethe, 
Ortel,  Oertel,  and  for  eu  and  oeu  in 
French,  as  in  Neufchfttel,  Cr^vecoeur; 
to  which  it  is  the  nearest  English 
vowel  soimd. 

"  "  agency,  judgment,  where  it  is  of  a  neu- 
tral or  obscure  quality. 

"   "   ice,  quiet. 

"   "   quiescent. 

"   "   ill,  fit. 

"   "   old,  sober. 

"    "   obey,  sobriety. 

"   *'  orb,  nor. 

"   **   odd,  forest,  not. 

"  "  atom,  carol,  where  it  has  a  neutral  or 
obscure  quality. 

*'  "  oil,  boil,  and  for  eu  in  German,  as  in 
Feuerbach. 

''   "   food,  fool,  and  as  i«  in  rude,  rule. 

**   "  house,  mouse. 

"   "   use,  mule. 

"   "  unite. 

"   "  cut,  but. 

''  ''  full,  put,  or  as  oo  in  foot,  book.  Also 
for  U  in  German,  as  in  Mfinchen, 
Mtlller,  and  u  in  French,  as  in 
Buchez,  Bud6;  to  which  it  is  the 
nearest  English  vowel  sound. 

"  **  urn,  bum. 

"   «  yet,  yield. 

'*  "  the  Spanish  Habana,  Cord<$ba,  where  it 
is  like  a  v  made  with  the  lips  alone, 
instead  of  with  the  teeth  ana  lips. 

**   **  chair,  cheese. 


D  as  in  the  Spanish  Almodovar,  pulgada,  where 
it  is  nelLrly  like  th  in  English  then, 
this. 

8      "  "  go,  get. 

G  "  '*  the  German  Landtag,  and  oh  in  Feuer- 
bach, buch;  where  it  is  a  guttural 
sound  made  with  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  raised  toward  the  soft  palate, 
as  in  the  sound  made  in  clearing  the 
throat. 

H  as  /  in  the  Spanish  Jijona,  g  in  the  Span- 
ish gila;  where  it  is  a  fricative  some- 
what resembling  the  soimd  of  %  in 
English  hue  or  y  in  yet,  but  stronger. 

hw  *'  wh  in  wmch. 

K  ''  c^  in  the  German  ich,  Albrecht,  and  g 
in  the  German  Arensberg,  Mecklen- 
burg; where  it  is  a  fricative  sound 
made  between  the  tongue  and  the 
hard  palate  toward  which  the  tongue 
is  raised.  It  resembles  the  sound 
of  %  in  hue,  or  y  in  yet ;  or  the  sound 
made  by  beginning  to  pronounce  a  k, 
but  not  completing  the  stoppage  of 
the  breath.  The  character  k  is  also 
used  to  indicate  the  rough  aspirates 
or  fricatives  of  some  of  the  Oriental 
languages,  as  of  kh  in  the  word  Khan. 

n    as  in  sinker,  longer. 

ng    "   **   sing,  long. 

N  "  **  the  French  bon,  Bourbon,  and  m  in  the 
French  Etampes ;  where  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  nasalizing  of  the  preceding 
vowel.  This  effect  is  approximately 
produced  by  attempting  to  pronounce 
'onion'  without  touching  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The  corresponding  nasal  of  Portu- 
guese is  also  indicated  by  n,  as  in  the 
case  of  Sfto  AntSo. 

•h    "   "   shine,  shut. 

th  "  "  thrust,  thin. 

TH  "  "  then,  this. 

zh  as  £r  in  azure,  and  8  in  pleasure. 
An  apostrophe  [']  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 

a  glide  or  neutral  connecting  vowel,  as  in  tfi^b'! 

(table),  kftz^'m  (chasm). 
Otherwise  than  as  noted  above,  the  letters  used 

in  the  respellings  for  pronunciation  are  to  receive 

their  ordinary  English  sounds. 

When  the  pronunciation  is  sufficiently  shown 

by  indicating  the  accented  syllables,  this  is  done 

without  respelling;  as  in  the  case  of  very  common 

English  words,  and  words  which  are  so  spelled  as 

to  insure  their  correct  pronunciation  if  they  are 

correctly  accented.     See  the  article  on  Pnoifuw- 

CIATIOW. 


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A  PARTIAL  LIST  OF  THE  LEADING  ARTICLES  IN  VOLUME  XIH. 


MANUAL  TRAINING.  METAMORPHOSIS. 

Professor  Charles  Russell  Richards.  Professor  Alpheus  Spring  Packard  and 


MANUSCRIPTS,  ILLUMINATION  OF.  

Professor  Arthur  L.  Frothingham.  METEMPSYCHOSIS 

MARINE  INSURANCE. 

Dr.  Allan  Herbert  Willett.  METEOROLOGY. 

MARK,  GOSPEL  OF. 

Professor  Melanchthon  W.  Jacobus.  METHODISM. 


Professor  John  Merle  Coulter. 

;ychosis. 

Professor   Edward    W.    Hopkins. 

lOLOGY. 

Professor    Cleveland   Abbe. 

DISM. 

Professor   John  Alfred   Faulkner. 


MARRLA.GE. 

Professor     Munroe     Smith,     Professor    METRE. 
Franklin  H.  Giddings,  and  Dr.  Har-  Mr.  Vamum  Lansing  Collins. 

Ian  F.  Stone.  MICHELANGELO. 
MARTINIQUE.  Dr.  George  Kriehn. 

Professor  Angelo  Heilprin.  MICROSCOPE. 
MARX,  KARL.  Professor  William  Hallock. 

Professor  Samuel  McCune  Lindsay.  MICROSCOPY,  CLINICAL. 
MASONS,  FREE.  Dr.  Frederick  R.  Bailey. 

^'lH.nI!!'ii"r?fTni  T^f "     "^^    ^'    MIDDLE  AGES. 

Thomas  Gaffney  Taaflfe.  Professor  Dana  Carleton  Munro. 

^^'    Rev.  Thomas  J.  Campbell,  S.  J.  ''''^''^lo^l'^dward  Hunter. 

MASTER  AND  SERVANT.  MILK. 

Professor  Francis  M.  Burdick.  j^^    ^^^^^  Charles  True,  Dr.  Mareu. 

MATERIALISM.  Benjamin,  and  Dr.  E.  W.  Allen. 

Professor  Evander  Bradley  McGilvary.    miltON. 
MATHEMATICS.  Professor  Wilbur  Lucius  Cross. 

Professor  David  Eugene  Smith.  MINERALOGY. 
MATTER.  Mr.  Herbert  Percy  Whitlock. 

Professor  Joseph  Sweetman  Ames.  MINING. 
MTCAT.  Mr.  Charles  Shattuck  HiU. 

Dr.  Alfred  Charles  True.  MISSIONS. 
MECHANICS.  Professor  Thomas  Joseph   Shahan  and 

Professor  Joseph  Sweetman  Ames.  Dr.  Henry  Otis  Dwight. 

MEDICAL  EDUCATION.  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER. 

Professor  Francis  R.  Packard.  Mr.  Cyrus  C.  Adams  and  others. 

MEDICINJ.  ^,^    ^  ^    ^  MOHAMMED. 

Dr.  Alfred  O.  Lee.  Professor    Edwin    A.    Start   and    Mr. 

MEDUSA.  Charles  C.  Sherman. 

Professor  Alpheus  Spring  Packard  and    MOHAMMEDANISM. 

Mr.  Gilbert  Van  Ingen.  t>"  ,vJl™      iV      •       t    *  j     »%_ 

**T^in,^TTmxTxr^  ^,^^^T,^«^^«  Professor    Morns    Jastrow    and    Pro- 

MEGALITHIO  MONUMENTS.  fessor  Richard  J.  H.  GottheiL 

MELAN^'t^N   ^'^'  MOHAMMEDAN  SECTS. 
MELANCHTHON.  Professor  Richard  J.  H.  GottheiL 

Dr.  James  Maurice  Whiton. 

MEMORY.  MOLlfiRE. 

Professor  Edward  Bradford  Titchener.  ^^'  ^njamin  Willis  Wells. 

MENDICANCY.  MONASTICISM. 

Professor  Samuel  McCune  Lindsay.  ^'   Ja^^es   J-   Walsh. 

MENINGITIS.  MONEY. 

Dr.  Albert  Warren  Ferris.  I>r.  Roland  P.   Falkner. 

MENTAL  SCIENCE.  MONOPOLY*. 

Rev.  Francis  Edgar  Mason.  Professor   Alvin    Sydney   Johnson   and 

MESSIAH.  I>r-  Harlan  F.   Stone. 

Professor  Nathaniel   Schmidt  and  Dr.     MOON. 
Reginald  H.  Starr.  Professor  Harold  Jacoby. 

^^"^ P^JfSS    w?i^®-  T.    K.^  XX  uu  MORAVIANS. 

Professor  William  Herbert  Hobbs.  Professor   J.   Taylor  Hamilton. 


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THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


MAKNA  -  CBOUP,      or      Manna 
Gboats.      a    kind    of    semolina, 
prepared  in  Kussia,  ufliially  from 
the  hard  wheats  of  Odessa  and 
Taganrog.    Another  kind  is  made 
by  husking  the  small  grain  of  the 
aquatic    grass   Olyceria  fluitana,  which  is  care- 
l\il\y  collected  for  the  purpose;  it  is  expensive, 
aiid  is  used  only  as  a  luxury. 

'MJlS^A.'QJSLASB,  Floating  Fescue,  Float- 
rsQ  Sweet  Meadow  Grass,  etc.  {Olyceria  or 
Fanicularia  fluitana),  A  perennial  grass,  three 
leet  tall,  found  in  marshes,  ditches,  and  by  the 
sides  of  stagnant  pools  in  Europe,  Asia,  North 
America,  and  Australia.  The  stems  are  decum- 
bent at  the  base,  and  rooting  at  the  loints;  the 
leaves  long  and  rather  broad,  the  lower  ones 
often  floating;  the  inflorescence,  a  long,  slender, 
nearly  erect  panicle.  In  irrigated  meadows  and 
in  very  wet  grounds,  manna-graas  affords  large 
craantities  of  cattle  food.  In  many  parts  of 
Germany  and  Poland  the  seeds — which  fall  very 
readily  out  of  the  spikelets — are  collected  by 
spreading  a  cloth  under  the  panicles  and  shak- 
ing them  with  a  stick ;  they  are  used  in  soups  and 
gruels,  are  very  palatable  and  nutritious,  and 
are  known  as  Polish  manna.  They  are  a  favorite 
food  of  geese,  and  are  also  eagerly  devoured  by 
carp  and  other  kinds  of  fish. 

KAHKA-INSEGT.  A  scale-insect  ( Ooaaypa- 
ria  mannifera)  which  lives  on  tamarisk  in  many 
places  in  countries  bordering  upon  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  and  produces  'manna,'  which  is  a  sub- 
stance very  like  honey.  It  is  surely  a  product 
of  the  insect  and  not  a  secretion  of  the  plant, 
although  formerly  it  was  supposed  to  exude  from 
the  plant  through  punctures  made  by  the  insect. 
The  insect  is  found  in  Algeria,  Arabia,  Armenia, 
and  Southern  Russia.  Formerly  it  was  known  as 
Coccus  manmferua,  or  Chermes  numnifer,  the 
latter,  the  earliest  name,  having  been  proposed 
by  Hardwick  in  1822. 

MANNEBJBTB.  A  term  applied  to  painters 
and  jBculptors  who  make  an  exaggerated  or  im- 
meaning  use  of  inherited  or  acquired  forms, 
without  independent  study  of  nature  and  without 
understanding  their  significance.  A  work  of  art 
18  mannered  when  the  forms  are  inappropriate 
to  the  ideas  expressed.  The  term  Mannerists  is 
most  frequently  applied  to  those  Italian  painters 


who  were  pupils  of  or  immediately  followed  the 
leaders  of  the  High  Renaissance — especially 
Michelangelo,  Raphael,  Correggio — whose  styles 
they  imitated  and  exaggerated.     See  Painting. 

KAN^NEBSL  John.  A  British  general.  See 
Gbanbt,  John  Manners,  Marquis  of. 

MAKNEBS^  John  James  Robebt,  Duke  of 
Rutland  (1818-—).  An  English  statesman,  bom 
at  Belvoir  Castle,  Leicestershire,  December  13, 
1818.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Ttinity 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1841  he  began  his  long 
Parliamentary  career  in  the  Conservative  inter- 
est; was  twice  Postmaster-CJeneral  (1874-80  and 
1885-86),  and  succeeded  Earl  Stanhope  as  chair- 
man of  the  Copyright  Commission.  On  the  death 
of  his  brother  (1887)  he  became  Duke  of  Rut- 
land. Among  he  publications  are:  England's 
Trust;  A  Plea  for  National  Holydays;  and  Eng- 
Ush  Ballads,  a  volimie  of  graceful  verse. 

MANNEBT,  mftn^nSrt,  Konbad  (1766-1834). 
A  German  historian  and  geographer,  bom  at 
Altdorf  and  educated  at  Nuremberg.  In  1796 
he  became  professor  of  history  at  Altdorf,  in  1805 
at  Wflrzburg,  in  1807  at  Landshut,  and  in  1826 
at  Munich.  His  geographical  works  include  the 
valuable  Oeographie  der  Oriechen  und  Romer 
(1795-1825,  with  Ukert)  and  an  edition  of  the 
Tabula  Peutingeriana  (1824);  and  among  his 
historical  labors  the  more  important  are:  Kom- 
pendium  der  deutschen  Reichsgeschichte  (1803; 
3d  ed.  1819)  ;  Kaiser  Ludvoig  IV.  (1812)  ;  and 
QescJUchte  der  alten  Deutschen,  hesonders  der 
Franken  (1829-32). 

MANNHABDT,  manaiart,  Wilhelm  (1831- 
80).  A  German  mythologist,  bom  at  Friedrich- 
stadt  in  Schleswig.  He  was  educated  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Berlin  and  Tflbingen,  and  became  edi- 
tor of  the  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  Mythologie 
und  Sittenkunde  ( 1855 ) .  His  books  on  Germanic 
myth  include:  Oermanische  Mythen  (1858)  ;  Die 
Gotter  der  deutschen  und  nordisohen  Volker 
(1860);  Roggenwolf  und  Roggenhund  (2d  ed. 
1866);  Die  Kornddmonen  (1868);  Klytia 
(1875)  ;  and  his  great  works,  Wald-  und  Feld- 
kulte  (1875-77)  And  Mythologische  Forschungen 
(ed.  by  Patzig,  1884). 

ULAKNWEIXy  man'him.  The  capital  of  a 
district  in  Baden,  formerly  a  town  of  the  Pa- 
latinate;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rhine  and 


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HANNHEnC. 

Neckar,  43  miles  southwest  of  Frankfort  (Map: 
Germany,  C  4) .  It  is  the  third  largest  city  on  the 
Rhine,  surpassed  only  by  Cologne  and  Dttsseldorf ; 
since  its  connection  by  railroad  with  all  important 
cities  in  the  German  Empire  it  has  become  the 
first  commercial  town  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden.  The  site  of  the  town  is  low,  and  a  high 
dike  protects  it  from  inundations.  The  Rhine, 
which  is  here  1200  feet  in  breadth,  is  crossed  by  a 
railway  bridge  which  connects  Mannheim  with 
Ludwigshafen ;  a  chain  bridge  spans  the  Neckar. 
The  town  is  remarkable  for  its  cleanliness,  and  is 
the  most  regularly  built  town  in  Germany;  it 
is  divided  into  136  square  sections,  and  numbers 
its  streets  according  to  the  American  system. 
The  palace,  built  1720-29,  by  the  Elector  Palatine 
Charles  Philip,  is  one  of  the  largest  buildings  of 
the  kind  in  Germany.  The  city  contains  a  gym- 
nasium with  a  library,  a  botanic  garden,  an  ob« 
servatory,  and  the  National  Theatre,  founded  in 
1776,  in  which  Schiller's  Robbers  was  first  acted. 
Among  notable  public  monuments  are  those  of 
William  I.  and  Prince  Bismarck.  The  Schloss- 
garten,  bordering  on  the  Rhine,  is  the  chief  of 
the  five  public  gardens  surroimding  the  city. 
Since  the  construction  of  new  harbors  and  ex- 
tensive docks  in  1875^  Mannheim  has  had  a  great 
and  increasing  trade  in  grain,  coal,  petroleum,  to- 
bacco, sugar,  and  ironware.  Its  chief  industry, 
metal-working  and  machine-making,  gives  em- 
ployment to  10,000  persons;  2000  are  engaged  in 
a  celluloid  factonr.  Cigars,  varnish  and  rosin, 
carpets,  rubber,  glass  and  leather  eoods  are  also 
manufactured.  The  population  has  increased 
from  61,273  in  1885  to  140,384  in  1900,  and  162,- 
607  in  1905.  The  United  States  is  represented 
by  a  consul. 

Mannheim  is  mentioned  as  a  village  as  early  as 
764.  Its  prosperity  dates  from  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  when,  under  the  Elector 
Palatine  Frederick  IV.,  it  became  the  refuge  of 
religious  exiles  from  the  Netherlands.  It  suffered 
severely  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The  town  was 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1689. 
After  being  rebuilt  it  was  again  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1795,  and  a  large  part  of"  it  burned. 
In  1802  it  was  given  to  Baden. 

KAN'NINQ.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Clarendon  County,  S.  C,  61  miles  east  by  south 
of  Columbia,  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  Rail- 
road ( Map :  South  Carolina,  D  3 ) .  It  is  in  a  fer- 
tile, well-watered  a^icultural  section,  having  ex- 
tensive forests  of  pine.  There  are  knitting  mills 
and  other  industrial  establishments.  Population, 
1900,  1430;  1906  (local  est.),  2500. 

MANNING-,  Daniel  (183187).  An  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  politician.  He  was  born  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  at  the  age  of  ten  entered  the 
printing  office  of  the  Albany  AtUis  as  a  printer's 
apprentice.  After  the  consolidation  of  the  Atlas 
with  the  ArguSy  he  was  appointed  legislative  re- 
porter, in  which  capacity  he  made  a  wide  acquaint- 
ance among  politicians  and  became  known  as  an 
authority  on  State  political  affairs.  In  1866  he 
became  editor  and  part  owner  of  the  Argus,  and 
in  1876  •  a  member  of  the  New  York  Demo- 
cratic State  Committee,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
secretary  in  1879  and  chairman  in  1881.  In  this 
position  he  was  associated  closely  with  Grover 
Cleveland,  to  whose  election  as  Governor  of  New 
York  he  contributed  greatly  in  1882.  To  Man- 
ning's astuteness  and  tact  also  was  largely  due 


)  MANNING. 

the  successful  presentation  of  Cleveland's  name  as 
a  candidate  for  the  Presidency  in  1884.  In  the 
latter  year  his  personal  supervision  contributed 
greatly  to  the  success  of  the  Democratic  ticket 
in  the  pivotal  State  of  New  York.  From  1886 
to  1887  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasuiy  in 
Cleveland's  Cabinet,  from  which  he  retired  short* 
ly  before  his  death,  on  accoiut  of  ill  health. 

MANNING,  Henbt  Edwabo  (1808-92).  An 
English  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  one  of  the  most 
notable  figures  in  the  Church  life  of  his  time.  He 
was  bom  July  15,  1807  (not  1808,  as  frequently 
given ) ,  at  Totteridge,  in  Hertfordshire,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford^ 
where  he  graduated  in  1830.  He  was  ordained 
in  1832,  married  in  1833,  and  in  1834  appointed 
rector  of  Lavington  and  Graffham  in  Sussex.  His 
wife  died  in  1837.  Manning  devoted  himself 
with  increasing  zeal,  energy,  and  success  to  the 
work  of  his  profession,  and  was  recognized, 
though  still  a  young  man,  as  a  leading  figure 
in  the  group  of  Tractarian  leaders.  His  appoint- 
ment in  1840  as  Archdeacon  of  Chichester  gave 
him  a  still  more  influential  position.  Newman's 
secession  affected  him  painfully,  and  for  a  time 
seemed  to  increase  his  attachment  to  the  Church 
of  England;  but  in  1851  the  decision  in  the  noted 
Gorham  case  (see  Gobham  Contbovkrsy)  ,  which 
seemed  to  claim  for  the  Crown  authority  over  a 
purely  doctrinal  question,  shook  his  allegiance. 
After  long  and  arduous  consideration  he  made 
his  submission  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  1851.  Only  two  months  later — an  unusual 
recognition  of  his  gifts  and  his  theological  at- 
tainments— ^he  was  ordained  priest  by  Cardinal 
Wiseman.  He  made  some  further  studies  in 
Rome,  and  from  1852  to  1856  was  informally 
connected  with  the  Jesuit  Church  in  Farm  Street, 
London,  finding  much  to  do  in  preaching  and 
spiritual  direction.  In  1857  he  developed  an 
English  congregation  of  priests  known  as  Oblates 
of  Saint  Charles,  a  revival  of  the  community 
founded  at  Milan  by  Saint  Charles  Borromeo, 
and  became  its  first  superior.  The  same  year  saw 
his  appointment  as  provost  of  the  Chapter  of 
Westminster,  which  brought  him  into  close  re- 
lations with  Cardinal  Wiseman,  then  Archbishop. 
In  the  difficult  circumstances  connected  with  the 
insubordinate  attitude  of  Archbishop  Errington, 
Wiseman's  coadjutor,  Manning  was  a  loyal  sup- 
porter of  the  Cardinal  and  of  great  service.  On 
the  latter's  death  in  1865,  Pius  IX.  took  the  un- 
expected step  of  appointing  Manning  his  suc- 
cessor as  Archbishop  of  Westminster,  and  for  the 
next  quarter  of  a  century  he  occupied  a  com- 
manding position  in  the  religious  life  of  England. 
He  not  only  did  much  to  bring  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic body  out  of  the  obscurity  in  which  centuries 
of  repression  had  left  it,  but  he  was  indefatigable 
in  all  kinds  of  good  works — the  care  of  the  poor, 
religious  education,  social  and  temperance  work. 
In  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part,  standing  among  the  pronounced  ad- 
vocates of  defining  Papal  infallibility,  and  en- 
gaging in  a  controversy,  famous  at  the  time, 
with  Mgr.  Dupanloup,  Bishop  of  Orleans.  •  His 
Petri  Privilegium  (1871)  is  an  exposition  of 
the  doctrine  and  an  account  of  the  proceedings. 
On  the  same  subject  he  also  published  (1875)  an 
answer  to  Gladstone's  expostulations,  giving  his 
views  of  the  bearing  of  the  Vatican  decrees  on 
civil  allegiance;  and  in  1877  he  wrote  The  True 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MANNING. 

Story  of  the  Vatican  Council.  Among  Manning's 
other  published  works  are:  The  Temporal  MiS' 
sion  of  the  Holy  Ohoat  (1865);  The  Internal 
Mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (1875) ;  England  and 
Christendom  ( 1867 ) ;  Sin  and  Its  Consequences 
(1876).  His  manifold  services  were  recognized 
by  the  gift  of  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1875.  He 
died  in  London,  January  14,  1892.  The  full- 
est biography  of  him  is  by  Purcell  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1896),  which  is  imfortunately  disfigured 
bv  many  misleading  inferences  and  grave  faults 
of  taste ;  it  may  be  corrected  in  particular  as  to 
the  facts  of  the  Errington  case  by  Wilfrid 
Ward's  Life  and  Times  of  Cardinal  Wiseman 
(London,  1897).  There  is  a  shorter  but  in  many 
ways  more  satisfactory  biography  by  A.  W.  Hut- 
ton  (ib.,  1894).  Consult  also:  Fitzgerald,  Fifty 
Years  of  Catholic  Life  and  Progress  (London, 
1901 ) ;  and  a  number  of  the  biographical  works 
cited  under  Oxford  Movement. 

MANNTNa,  James  (1738-91).  President  of 
the  (College  of  Khode  Island  (after  1804  Brovm 
University).  He  was  born  in  Elizabeth  town, 
N.  J.;  was  graduated  at  Princeton  (College  in 
1762;  was  ordained  to  the  Baptist  ministry  in 

1763.  Ck>5perating  with  an  association  of  Bap- 
tist ministers  in  Philadelphia,  he  went  to  Rhode 
Island  and  proposed  to  the  Baptists  in  Newport 
a  plan  for  the  establishment  of  a  "seminary  of 
polite  literature,  subject  to  the  government 
of   the  Baptists."     A  charter  was  obtained   in 

1764.  Manning  was  appointed  in  1765  presi- 
dent of  the  institution,  which  was  opened  the 
next  year  as  Rhode  Island  College.  He  served 
in  that  office  (except  during  the  Revolution, 
when  the  school  was  closed)  till  1790,  when  he 
resigned.  He  was  also  most  of  the  time  pastor 
of  the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Providence.  In 
1786  he  was  elected  to  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation,  where  he  labored  to  secure  the 
adoption  of  the  national  Constitution.  Consult 
Guild,  The  Life,  TimeSy  a/nd  Correspondence  of 
James  Manning^  and  the  Early  History  of  Brovm 
University  (Boston,  1864).  See  Bbown  Uni- 
versity. 

MANNING,  Robebt  (1784-1842).  An  Ameri- 
can pomologist,  one  of  the  pioneers  in  horti- 
cultural nomenclature.  In  order  to  determine 
the  value  of  varieties  he  established  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  a  fruit  garden,  in  which  he  raised  vari- 
eties of  all  fruits  that  could  withstand  the 
rigor  of  the  climate  of  that  State,  and  in  which 
at  the  time  of  his  death  nearly  2000  varieties 
were  growing.  He  published  a  descriptive  cata- 
logue, called  Book  of  Fruits ,  in  1838.  Manning 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massachusetts 
Horticultural  Society,  and  during  his  later 
years  was  recognized  as  an  authority  on  horti- 
cultural matters,  especially  on  fruit  varieties. 

MANNING,  Thomas  (1772-1840).  An  Eng- 
lish traveler,  bom  November  8,  1772,  at  Broome, 
Norfolk,  where  his  father  was  rector.  In  1790 
he  entered  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  distinguished  in  mathematics ;  but  he  left 
without  a  degree,  owing  to  his  unwillingness  to 
take  the  oaths.  From  1800  to  1803  he  studied 
Chinese  in  Paris.  In  1806  he  went  out  to  Canton  as 
doctor.  In  1810  he  proceeded  to  Calcutta,  whence 
he  made  his  way  into  Tibet  to  Lhasa  (1811). 
He  was  the  first  Englishman  to  enter  the  holy 
city.  On  returning  to  England  in  1817,  after  a 
Tisit  to  Peking,  a   shipwreck  near  the   Sunda 


8  MANNITK 

Islands,  and  after  a  call  on  Napoleon  at 
Saint  Helena,  he  lived  for  several  years  at  a 
cottage  called  Orange  Grove,  near  Dartford,  in 
the  midst  of  his  Chinese  books.  There  he  was 
visited  by  the  chief  literary  men  of  the  day* 
One  of  his  many  eccentricities  was  a  long,  flow- 
ing beard.  This  he  plucked  out  by  the  roota 
before  leaving  Orange  Grove  for  Bath,  where  he 
died.  May  2,  1840.  Charles  Lamb  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Manning  in  1799,  and  a  memorable 
friendship  ensued.  Consult  Lamb's  Letters  and 
Essays  of  Elia  ("The  Old  and  the  New  School- 
master," and  "A  Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig^') ; 
also  the  tfarratives  of  the  Mission  of  0,  Boyle  to 
Tibet  and  of  the  Journey  of  T,  Manning  to  Lhasa, 
ed.  with  memoirs  by  Markham  (London,  1876). 

KANNTNG,  Thomas  Coubtland  (1831-87). 
An  American  jurist,  born  at  Edenton,  N.  C.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1855  he 
removed  to  Alexandria,  La.,  and  built  up  a  large 

gractice.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Secession 
onventicm,  entered  the  Confederate  Army  as 
a  lieutenant,  and  in  1863  became  adjutant-gen- 
eral with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  waa 
a  member  of  the  Supreme  Court  (1864-65)  and  in 
1872  a  Democratic  Presidential  Elector.  In  1876 
he  was  vice-president  of  the  National  Democratic 
Convention.  From  1877  untij  the  adoption  of  the 
new  Constitution  he  was  Chief  Justice  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court.  He  was  again  Presidential 
Elector,  and  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  but  was  refused  admission.  From  1882 
to  1886  he  was  again  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  during  1886-87  was  United  Statea 
Minister  to  Mexico.  He  was  also  trustee  of  the 
Peabody  Fimd  from  1880  imtil  his  death. 

KANNTTE  (from  manna),  C6H.(OH)«.  A 
hexahydric  alcohol  found  in  the  manna  from 
Fraxinus  omus  (Linnfi) ,  which  ctows  in  the  basin 
of  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  discovered  in  that 
manna  by  Proust  in  1806  and  may  be  readily  ex- 
tracted from  it  with  hot  water  or  boiling  weak 
alcohol.  It  is  found  also  in  many  other  vegetable 
products,  including  onions,  celery,  asparagus,  many 
fungi,  etc.;  and  it  has  been  prepared  artificially 
from  several  varieties  of  sugar,  such  as  Isevulose^ 
dextrose,  and  mannose,  by  reduction  with  sodium 
amalgam.  Vice  versa,  by  careful  oxidation  of 
mannite  with  nitric  acid  a  mixture  of  sugars  may 
be  obtained,  to  which  the  name  mannitose  i» 
sometimes  applied.  Mannite  is  produced  also 
when  cane-sugar  undergoes  fermentation.  It  may 
be  obtained  either  in  the  form  of  rhombic  prisms, 
or  in  the  form  of  silky  needle-like  crystals;  it 
melts  at  165-166°  C,  and  it  is  readily  soluble 
in  hot  water  or  alcohol,  but  only  moderately  sol- 
uble in  cold  water,  and  scarcely  soluble  at  all  in 
cold  alcohol  and  in  ether.  Its  pure  aqueous  solu- 
tion has  a  very  slight  action  on  polarized  light; 
the  action  is,  nowever,  greatly  increased  by  the 
presence  of  free  alkali  as  well  as  of  certain  salts,, 
especially  borax.  Mannite  is  capable  of  existence 
in  three  distinct  modifications,  having  the  same 
chemical  constitution  and  therefore  much  the 
same  properties,  yet  diflfering  from  one  another  in 
their  power  of  rotating  the  plane  of  polarized 
light.  The  chemical  constitution  of  mannite  is 
represented  by  the  formula  CH,(OH).  CH(OH). 
CH(OH)  .  CH(OH)  .  CH(OH)  .  CH,(OH) 
CH.  The  hexahydric  alcohol  sorbite  found  in 
plums,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  other  fruits, 
and  the  hexahydric  alcohol    dulcite    found    in 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KANNITR  4 

Madagascar  manna,  are  in  many  respects  yeiy 
similar  to  mannite. 

MANNLICHEB,  mftnllK-Sr,  Ferdinand  von 
<  1848-1904).  An  Austrian  engineer  and  in- 
ventor. He  was  bom  at  Mainz,  Germany,  and 
for  many  years  served  as  chief  engineer  of  the 
Northern  Railroad  (Kaiser  Ferdinands  Nord- 
bahn).  In  1809  he  was  called  to  the  Austrian 
Upper  House  in  recognition  of  his  public  ser- 
vices. He  became  widely  celebrated  through  his 
many  inventions  and  improvements  in  militaiy 
firearms,  as  magazine,  repeating,  and  automatic 
rifles  and  revolvers,  which  introduced  principles 
that  have  been  largely  adopted  in  the  small- 
arm  equipments  of  several  European  powers. 
See  Small  Abms. 

MANNS,  m&ns,  August  (1825-1907).  A  Ger- 
man-English musical  conductor,  bom  at  Stolz^i- 
berg,  Pomerania.  He  received  his  early  training 
in  music  from  a  village  musician  and  from  Ur- 
ban, the  town  musician  of  Elbing.  He  became 
a  member  of  a  military  band  at  Danzig,  then  at 
Posen,  and  in  1848  joined  GungPs  orchestra  in 
Berlin.  Soon  after  he  became  conductor  and 
first  violin  at  Kroll's  Garden,  Berlin.  In  1861 
Von  Boon,  the  War  Minister,  selected  Manns 
as  bandmaster  of  his  regimental  band;  first  at 
Kdnigsberg,  then  at  Cologne.  In  1854  he  became 
assistant  conductor,  and  in  1855-1905  was  con- 
ductor at  the  Crystal  Palace,  London,  where  he 
accomplished  important  results  in  the  furtherance 
of  the  newer  romantic  music  of  Germany.  He  also 
changed  the  original  wind  band  into  an  orchestra, 
and  founded  (1856)  the  now  famous  Saturday 
concerts.  He  conducted  the  Glasgow  Choral 
Union  (1879-92),  and  six  Triennial  Handel  Fes- 
tivals.   He  was  knighted  in  1904. 

KAN^irS  (connected  with  Goth,  tnanna, 
AS.,  Eng.,  OHG.  matiy  Ger.  Mantif  Skt.  manu, 
man;  of  doubtful  origin,  the  usual  derivation 
from  man,  to  think,  being  incredible ;  cf .  perhaps 
Lat.  manus,  hand).  According  to  Tacitus  {Oer- 
mania,  chap.  2 ) ,  the  name  given  by  the  Germans 
to  the  son  of  the  earth-born  god  Tuisto.  From 
his  three  sons  they  derived  their  three  great 
tribes,  the  IngcBvonea,  the  HermioneSf  and  the 
l8ta!von€8,  Mannus  belongs,  not  to  the  Teutonic 
people  alone,  but  to  the  great  mythus  of  the 
origin  of  the  human  race,  common  to  the  whole 
Aryan  family,  and,  like  the  Hindu  Manu  or 
Manus,  stands  forth  as  the  progenitor  of  the  in- 
habitants of  earth  endowed  with  reason. 

MAN^NYNO,  RoBEBT  (or  Robert  de 
Bbunne)  (flourished  c.1290-1340).  An  English 
poet,  native  of  Brunne,  or  Bourne,  in  Lincoln- 
shire. In  1288  he  joined  the  neighborinjj  broth- 
erhood of  Gilbertine  canons  at  Semprmgham. 
There  he  wrote  Handlyng  Synne  (1303),  a  free 
paraphrase  of  the  Manuel  dea  Pechiez  by  William 
of  Wadington.  It  depicts,  with  much  sharp  sa- 
tire, the  social  life  of  the  time.  The  best  manu- 
script (the  Harleian),  with  the  French  original, 
was  edited  by  F.  J.  Fumivall  for  the  Roxburghe 
Club  in  1862.  In  1338  Manning,  then  resident  in 
the  Gilbertine  priory  of  Sixhill,  Lincolnshire,  fin- 
ished his  Chronicle  of  England.  It  has  little  his- 
torical value,  as  it  closely  follows  the  earlier 
chronicles.  The  earlier  part  of  the  Chronicle  was 
edited  by  Fhraivall  for  the  Rolls  Series  (London, 
1887)  ;  and  the  latter  part  by  T.  Hearae  in  1725. 
To  Mannyng  is  also  attributed  3f«ft*aoyu»w  of  the 


MAN  OF  BLOOD. 

8oper  of  oure  Lorde  Ihesus,  edited  for  the  Early 
English  Text  Society  (London,  1875). 

KANOA,  m&-n?^A.  A  city  fabled  to  have  been 
built  on  an  island  in  Parma  Lake,  Guiana,  and 
governed  by  El  Dorado   (q.v.). 

MANOBOy  m&-n</b6,  or  Cuulman.  A  Malay 
head-hunting  people  in  Dftvas  Province,  Minda- 
nao. They  are  said  to  be  partly  Indonesian.  See 
PHnjppiNE  Islands. 

ICANOEL  DO  NASCnCENTO,  m&'n6-&K  d6 
nH'sh^m&n^td.  A  Portuguese  poet.  See  Nasoi- 
MENTO,  Mangel  oo. 

HANCETJVBES  (Fr.  manoeuvre,  OF.  man- 
ouvre,  manovre,  from  ML.  manuopera,  manupera^ 
a  working  with  the  hand,  from  Lat.  manus,  hand 
-|-  opera,  work) .  Field  exercises  of  large  or  small 
bodies  of  troops,  designed  to  teach  in  time  of 
peace  the  duties  of  troops  in  war.  In  Europe 
these  are  carried  on  in  most  great  armies  througn- 
out  the  year,  the  grand  manoeuvres  (of  one  or 
more  army  corps)  usually  taking  place  in  the 
autumn,  and  simulating  the  conditions  of  war 
as  closely  as  possible.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  similar  operations,  usually  held  in  the  fall, 
in  which  the  Regular  Army  and  the  militia  par- 
ticipate. 

Naval  manoeuvres  and  the  combined  manoeuvres 
of  sea  and  land  forces  working  in  harmony  are 
of  more  recent  origin  than  their  military  counter- 
part. Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  first  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  having  sham  battles  between 
his  troops,  an  idea  which  Napoleon  utilized  in 
the  great  camp  of  Boulo^e  in  1805,  during  his 
preparation  for  the  invasion  of  England.  It  was 
Von  Moltke,  however,  and  the  Prussian  general 
staff  who  first  developed  the  idea  of  manoeuvres 
into  its  full  modem  significance,  and  in  the  com- 
bined naval  and  mili&ry  operation  around  the 
city  of  Flensburg  in  Schleswig-Holstein  (1800) 
set  an  example  which  was  soon  copied.  The 
United  States  naval  and  military  manoeuvres  held 
in  1902  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  followed 

Sractically  the  same  plan  of  campaign  as  did 
rermany  in  the  instance  already  cited.  England 
and  France,  and  the  United  States,  hold  periodi- 
cal naval  manoeuvres,  the  problem  usually  being 
the  attack  or  defense  of  shore  defenses.  In  naval 
manoeuvres  particularly,  conditions  may  be 
created  which  are  faithful  replicas  of  actual 
battles  and  campaigns.  Besides  their  value  in 
the  formulation  of  the  most  effective  scheme  of 
shore  defense  against  attack  or  invasion,  they 
are  just  as  important  in  the  training  under  war 
conditions  of  the  naval  personnel,  besides  which 
they  afford  commanders  excellent  experience  io 
the  practice  of  battle  tactics  and  strategy.  Flaws 
in  methods  and  material  which  otherwise  might 
not  be  discovered  until  too  late  are  noted  and 
subsequently  remedied ;  new  ideas  in  the  applica- 
tion of  strategical  or  tactical  principles  carried 
out;  the  employment  of  torpedoes,  mines,  de- 
stroyers, submarines,  wireless  telegraphy,  search- 
lights, and  the  various  experiments  in  coaling  at 
sea,  thoroughly  tested;  and  the  whole  carehilly 
observed  and  noted  by  officers  of  the  National 
Government  appointed  for  the  purpose,  whose 
report  usually  forms  the  basis  for  future  naval 
legislation.  See  Tactics,  Militabt;  Tactios, 
Naval. 

MAN  OF  BLOOD,  The.     A  designation  ap- 
plied by  the  Puritans  to  Charles  I.  of  England. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


KAN  OF  BLOOD  AND  IBON.  e 

KAN  OF  BLOOD  AND  IBON,  The.  A 
name  given  to  Prince  Bismarck,  originating  in  a 
phrase  used  b^  himself  in  regard  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  differences  of  Prussia  and  Austria. 

KAN  OF  DECEKBEB,  The.  Napoleon  III., 
so  called  because  of  his  coup  d'6tat  of  December 
2,  1861. 

KAN  OF  DESTINY^  The.  A  name  given  to 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  considered  himself  spe- 
cially chosen  and  directed  by  fate. 

MAN  OF  LAW'S  TALE,  The.  One  of  Chau- 
cer's Canterbury  Tales,  It  is  the  story  of  Con- 
stance, told  in  Gower*8  Confeasio  Amantis,  and 
taken  from  old  French  romances.  Constance, 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Rome,  married  the 
Sultan  of  Syrie,  who  was  killed  at  a  feast.  In 
a  rudderless  ship  Constance  reached  Northumbria 
and  wedded  King  Alia.  Enemies  place  her  and 
her  son  in  the  ship,  and  after  many  perils  she  is 
found  by  Alia  at  Home. 

KAN  OF  KODE,  The,  or  Sib  Topung  Flitt- 
TEE.  A  comedy  by  George  Etherege,  presented  in 
1676. 

KAN  OF  SIN.    See  Antichrist. 

KAN-OF-THE-EABTH.  A  weed.  See 
Ipomcea. 

KAN-OF-WAB.  An  armed  naval  vessel 
regularly  commissioned  by  some  acknowledged 
government  and  fitted  for  purposes  of  war.  As 
such  she  possesses  the  privileges  of  war ;  her  deck 
is,  by  a  legal  fiction,  taken  to  be  a  portion  of  the 
soil  of  the  nation  whose  flag  she  hoists;  in  time 
of  war  she  is  justified  in  attacking,  sinking^  burn- 
ing, or  destroying  the  ships  and  goods  of  the  foe, 
and,  by  the  law  of  nations,  she  may  stop  and 
search  the  merchant  vessels  of  neutral  powers 
which  she  suspects  of  carrying  aid  to  her  enemy. 
(See  Contraband  op  War;  and  Neutbaltty.) 
In  case  of  being  overpowered,  the  crew  of  a  man- 
of-war  are  entitled  to  the  ordinary  mercy  granted 
to  vanquished  combatants,  lawfully  fighting.  Any 
vessel  making  war,  but  not  belonging  to  an  ac- 
knowledged government,  is  either  a  privateer  ( see 
Mabque,  Lettebs  of)  or  a  pirate  (see  Pibaoy). 
See  Cl^BtnsER;  Ships,  Armored;  Shipbuilding; 
Navies  ;  Rah  ;  Mortar  Vessel. 

KAN-OF-WAB,.  Portuguese.  See  Portu- 
guese Man-of-War. 

KAN-OF-WAB  BIBD,  or  HAWK  (so  called 
from  its  predatory  habits).  A  frigate-bird  (q.v.), 
but  occasionally  the  term  is  applied  to  some  other 
swift  and  predaceous  sea  fowl,  as  a  skua. 

KANOKOBTEB  (from  Gk.  uav6f,  mano8,  thin, 
rare  -f  fdrpcv^  metron,  measure ) .  An  instrument 
for  measuring  the  density  or  pressure  of  the  air 
or  any  gas.  A  barometer  (q.v.)  is  one  form  of 
manometer,  as  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is 
measured  by  the  height  of  the  column  of  mer- 
cury which  it  supports.  The  manometer  in  its 
simplest  form  would  be  a  glass  tube  open  at  both 
ends  and  bent  into  the  form  of  a  U  and  contain- 
ing a  sufficient  quantity  of  some  liq^uid  to  cover 
the  bend  and  rise  to  a  small  height  m  each  arm. 
The  vessel  containing  the  gas  whose  pressure  is 
to  be  ascertained  is  connected  with  one  arm  of 
the  tube,  and  if  the  gas  is  at  the  same  pressure 
as  the  atmosphere  the  liquid  will  stand  at  the 
same  level  in  both  tubes.  If  the  gas  is  at  a 
greater  pressure  the  liquid  in  the  arm  of  the  tube 
on  which  it  acts  will  be  at  a  lower  level,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  gas  will  be  obtained  by  adding 
to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  the  weight  of 


KANOKETEB. 

a  column  of  the  liquid  whose  height  is  equal  to 
the  difference  in  level  in  the  two  tubes.  When 
the  pressure  of  the  gas  is  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  the  atmosphere  we  use  mercury  on 
account  of  its  high  specific  gravity,  and  when 
the  pressures  are  sufficient  a  tube  with  one  arm 
closed  can  be  em- 
ployed and  the  press- 
ure determined  by 
measuring  the  extent 
to  which  the  air  is 
compressed.  Now,  ac- 
cording to  Boyle's  or 
Mariotte's  law,  a 
pressure  exerted  on 
the  column  of  mer- 
cury sufficient  to  force 
the  air  into  half  the 
space  it  occupies  at 
the  normal  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  must 
become  doubled,  or  15 
pounds  to  the  square 
mch  must  be  added. 
Again,  to  compress 
the  air  into  half  the 
remaining  space,  30 
pounds,  or  double  the 
pressure  required  for 
the  reduction  to  the 
first  half,  must  be 
added,  making  in  all 
a  pressure  of  four  at- 
mospheres for  the  re- 
duction to  one-fourth 
the  original  volume. 
It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  a  graduated 
scale,  to  exhibit  the  degrees  of  pressure,  must  have 
its  spaces  decrease  from  below  upward.  If  the  gas 
is  considerably  rarer  than  the  air,  as  for  example 
in  the  receiver  of  an  air  pump,  we  employ  a 
shortened  barometer  consisting  of  a  bent  tube 
with  one  end  closed  but  filled  with  mercury,  which 


UAROMKTnL 

A,  for  pressnres  greater  than 
one  atmosphere;  a,  for  pres- 
sures less  than  one  atmos- 
phere. 


BOUBDON  PBB8SITBB  OAUOE,  WITH  FACE  BBMOTBD. 

is  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
In  this  case  the  pressure  is  measured  oy  the  dif- 
ference in  level  of  the  two  columns,  which  would 
be  zero  were  the  vacuum  perfect. 

These  manometers  are  of  course  constructed  in 
various  forms,  depending  upon  the  use  to  which 
they  are  to  be  put,  and  the  tubes  and  air  cham- 
bers are  variously  constructed.    The  most  common 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MANOMETEB. 

form  of  manometer  is  the  steam  gauge,  which 
may  be  either  a  piston  actuated  by  the  pressure 
to  move  an  indicator  against  the  face  of  a  spring, 
or  more  commonly  a  metal  tube  of  elliptical  cross- 
section  bent  into  circular  shape.  One  end  of  this 
tube  is  permanently  fastened  to  the  case  of  the 
instrument  and  through  it  the  steam  or  gas  en- 
ters, while  the  other  end  is  closed  but  free  to 
move.  It  is  connected  with  a  spring  and  a  series 
of  levers,  so  that  its  motion,  which  depends  upon 
the  pressure,  is  commimicated  to  an  indicator 
moving  over  a  scale  graduated  usually  in  pounds 
in  the  United  States  and  England,  and  atmos- 
pheres in  Europe.  These  steam  gauges  must  of 
course  be  adjusted  and  calibrated  by  reference  to 
some  direct  source  of  pressure,  such  as  would 
be  furnished  by  a  column  of  liquid  in  a  vertical 
tube. 

MAN  ON  HOBSEBACEy  The.  A  name  given 
to  the  French  General  Boulanger  (q.v.),  who 
usually  appeared  in  public  riding  a  black  horse. 
The  name  is  used  of  one  who  gains  ascendency 
in  a  period  of  lawlessness,  and,  by  the  exercise  of 
despotic  power^  restrains  violence  and  restores 
law  and  order. 

MANON  LESCATJT,  m&'nON^  le-sky.  A 
noted  romance  by  the  Abb6  Provost.  It  was  pub- 
lished in  1731,  and  was  originally  only  .an  epi- 
sode of  his  M^moires  (Tun  homme  de  quality.  The 
Chevalier  des  Qrieux  and  Manon  fall  in  love  at 
their  first  meeting,  and  fly  together  to  Paris. 
Here  she  deceives  her  lover  and  becomes  the  mis- 
tress of  various  rich  admirers  through  her  love 
of  luxury.  She  is  at  last  arrested  and  trans- 
ported to  New  Orleans,  accompanied  by  the 
Chevalier  des  Grieux,  whose  constancy  remains 
unshaken  by  his  knowledge  of  her  character.  At 
New  Orleans  the  son  of  the  Governor,  who  falls 
in  love  with  Manon,  is  dangerously  wounded  by 
the  Chevalier  des  Grieux,  and  the  lovers  escapie 
to  the  desert,  where  Manon  dies  of  exhaustion. 
The  story  has  been  used  frequently  for  operatic 
purposes,  notably  by  Auber  (1856),  Massenet 
(1884),  and  Puccini    (Turin,   1893). 

MANOB.  The  district  of  a  lord  and  his  non- 
noble  feudal  dependents.  The  term  began  to  be 
used  in  Englana  after  the  Norman  conquest,  but 
the  system  existed  in  Anglo-Saxon  times.  A 
manor  consisted  of  two  parts:  (1)  The  inland 
(demesne)  or  home-estate,  which  the  lord  held 
in  his  own  hands,  and  upon  which  his  house  was 
built.  (2)  The  outland  (geneatland),  which  was 
held  by  tenants  for  rent  or  for  service  performed 
for  the  lord  on  the  island.  The  tenants  were 
usually  all  villeins,  who  dwelt  together  in  vil- 
lages and  lived  ordinarily  by  agriculture.  It  is 
held  by  writers  like  Gneist,  otubbs,  and  Freeman 
that  originally  there  were  few  manors,  but  that 
they  gradually  increased  in  number,  imtil  in  the 
tenth  century  the  prevailing  system  of  society 
was  that  of  manors  with  dependent  peasants.  In 
1883  a  new  theory  was  advanced  by  Frederic  See- 
bohm,  namely,  that  during  the  whole  Anglo-Sax- 
on period  the  mass  of  the  population  was  servile, 
and  that  the  invaders  copied  the  manor  system 
from  the  Roman  villa.  Thus  there  are  two 
schools  of  historians  at  present,  the  one  believing 
the  economic  development  of  England  to  have 
proceeded  from  free  village  communities  to  man- 
ors, and  the  other  holding  that  the  process  was 
the  reverse. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  lord  of  the  manor 


6  MANOB. 

often  was  removed  three  degrees,  sometimes  even 
five  degrees,  in  the  feudal  scale  from  the  king, 
since  the  creation  of  new  manors  by  subinfeuda- 
tion was  a  recognized  practice.  Moreover,  a  lord 
might  hold  several  manors.  Sir  Edward  Coko 
(1552-1634)  formulated  the  theory  that  a  manor 
must  have  at  least  two  freehold  tenants,  so  that 
a  0)urt  Baron  (q.v.)  could  be  held-  The  earlier 
practice,  however,  according  to  Maitland,  knew 
no  such  distinction,  and  many  manors  must  have 
had  only  villeins  occupying  the  land. 

Two  important  statutes  put  a  check  upon  the 
development  of  the  manorial  system,  which  has 
since  declined  to  a  mere  shadow.  The  Statute 
of  Marlborough,  in  1269,  had  the  effect  of  pre- 
venting the  establishment  of  new  Courts  Baron, 
and  the  famous  statute  of  Westminster  iii.,  in 
1290,  known  as  the  statute  Quia  Emptores,  made 
it  lawful  for  a  freehold  tenant  to  sell  his  lands, 
and  provided  that  the  purchaser  should  hold  of 
the  chief  lord  of  the  manor,  instead  of  his  ven- 
dor, and  thus  prevented  further  subinfeudation. 
After  this  legislation  it  became  customary  to 
parcel  the  land  out  in  individual  holdings,  and 
with  the  decay  of  the  manorial  system,  the  later 
conception,  as  linking  the  immediate  freehold 
tenant  or  'tenant  paravair  by  a  shortening  feu- 
dal chain  to  the  king,  became  predominant. 
Lands  in  a  manor  were  parceled  out  to  freehold 
and  leasehold  tenants,  and  the  freeholders  might 
hold  by  any  form  of  feudal  tenure;  as  by 
'Ejiight's  service,'  'in  free  and  common  socage,' 
etc.  The  manors  were  the  great  reservoirs  of 
customary  law,  and  each  manor  modified  the 
common  law  of  land,  and  might  modify  the  com- 
mon tenures  to  conform  to  its  ancient  customs. 
These  customs,  not  being  a  part  of  the  common 
law  of  the  kingdom,  were  originally  not  cogniz- 
able by  the  common  law  courts,  but  were  de- 
termined or  'found,*  and  administered,  as  the 
local  law  of  each  manor,  by  its  own  courts.  The 
principal  one  of  these,  and  the  one  which  came 
in  the  course  of  time  to  be  regarded  as  the  prin- 
cipal characteristic,  and  (as  Lord  Coke  called 
it)  the  "chief  prop"  of  the  manor,  was  the  Court 
Baron.  This  court  exercised  the  civil  jurisdiction 
vested  in  the  lord  of  the  manor,  and  the  Court 
Leet  took  cognizance  of  criminal  causes.  No  new 
manors  have  been  created  in  England  since  the 
legislation  above  referred  to,  but  many  old  man- 
ors still  exist.  They  may  be  extinguished  by  the 
lord  purchasing  the  lands  of  his  freehold  tenants, 
so  that  there  will  be  no  one  to  hold  the  Court 
Baron  without  which  a  manor  ceases  to  exist. 

The  manorial  system  was  introduced  into  New 
York,  when  under  the  English  rule,  and  substan- 
tially the  same  peculiar  customs,  etc.,  prevailed 
as  in  England  at  that  time.  Manorial  courts 
were  established  and  the  system  was  the  basis  of 
the  land  tenures.  Some  of  these  manors  gave 
names  to  districts,  which  are  preserved  to  the 
present  day,  as  Pelham  Manor,  Van  Cortlandt 
Manor,  etc.  As  the  manorial  system  was  incon- 
sistent with  the  institutions  of  the  United  States, 
it  ceased  to  exist  after  the  separation  from  Eng- 
land. 

The  various  views  held  by  historical  scholars 
will  be  found  by  consulting  the  following  authori- 
ties: Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  of  England^ 
vol.  i.  (6th  ed.,  Oxford,  1897)  ;  Maitland,  Select 
Pleas  in  Manorial  Courts  (London,  1889)  ;  An- 
drews, The  Old  English  Manor  (Baltimore,  1892) ; 
Seebohm,  The  English  Village  Community  (4tti 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ed.,  London,  1890)  ;  Venogradoff,  Growth  of  the 
Manor  (London,  1905)  ;  Ashley,  An  Introduction 
to  English  Economic  History  and  Theory  (2  vols., 
London,  1888-93).    See  Feudal  System;  Tsnuee. 

MAKOBL^L  COTJBT.     See  Manob. 

MANBESAy  m&n-rfi^8&.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Barcelona,  Spain,  30  miles  northwest 
of  the  city  of  that  name  (Map:  Spain,  F  2).  It 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  tne  left  bank  of  the 
Cardoner,  and  in  an  amphitheatre  of  hills 
crowned  by  a  large  Gothic  cathedral  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  It  has  a  high  school,  conducted 
by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  the  neighborhood  is  the 
Convent  of  Santo  Domingo,  in  which  Ignatius  of 
Loyola  dwelt  for  a  year,  and  which  is  on  that 
account  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  The  surrounding 
region  is  irrigated  by  a  canal  fed  by  the  Llobre- 
gat  River.  Manresa  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  woolen  yams,  and  silk  fabrics.  In  1811  it 
was  set  on  nre  by  Marshal  Macdonald.  Popula- 
tion, in  1887,  19,000;  in  1900,  23,416. 

ICANBIQTTE,  m&n-reOdL,  Gomez  (1412-91). 
A  Spanish  poet,  uncle  of  the  more  celebrated 
Jorge,  bom  in  1412,  of  a  noble  family.  He 
played  an  important  part  in  the  disturbances  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  In  his  earlier  lyrics 
he  adhered  to  the  Provencal-Galician  methods, 
but  he  soon  affiliated  himself  with  the  movement 
that  aimed  at  the  Italianizing  of  Castilian 
poetical  forms.  He  attained  some  success  in 
the  composition  of  the  political  satire,  but  the 
pathetic  note  is  the  most  distinctive  one  in  his 
lyrics.  Gomez  also  essayed  the  drama  in  several 
pieces,  the  best  of  which  is  the  liturgical  play, 
Representacidn  del  nacimiento  de  Nuestro  SeHor, 
Consult  his  Cancionero,  edited  by  A.  Paz  y  Melia 
(Madrid,  1885-86). 

HANBIQITE,  Jobgk  (1440-78).  A  Spanish 
poet.  He  fell  in  battle  in  1478,  when  yet  hardly 
•Id  enough  to  have  attained  the  fullness  of  his 
poetical  power.  The  greater  part  of  his  verse 
preserved  in  the  Cancionero  general  of  1511  and 
m  other  Cancioneros  gives  little  evidence  of  any 
extraordinary  merit  in  him,  and  his  fame  is 
really  based  on  a  single  poem,  that  written  in 
commemoration  of  the  death  of  his  father,  the 
Maestre  de  Santiago.  This  suffices,  however,  to 
make  his  name  one  to  be  remembered  as  long  as 
bis  language  remains  intelligible.  In  verses 
mournfully  sweet  of  tone,  the  exquisite  copUis 
of  this  composition  proclaim  the  vanity  and  brief 
duration  of  all  things  terrestrial  and  the  neces- 
sity of  yielding  to  death  as  so  many,  even  the 
most  powerful  and  exalted  of  human  beings,  have 
had  to  do.  Longfellow's  graceful  translation  of 
the  poem  has  preserved  much  of  the  dignity  and 
pathos  of  the  original.  The  Spanish  text  may 
be  found  in  vol.  xxxv.  of  the  Bihliateca  de  autores 
espanoles  (Madrid,  1872). 

MANS.  An  aboriginal  people  occupying  some 
of  the  moimtainous  parts  of  the  Chinese  prov- 
inces of  Sze-chuan  and  Yun-nan,  portions  of  Tong- 
king,  etc.  During  the  last  half  century  they  have 
been  forced  more  and  more  into  the  hills.  The 
Mans  are  short  in  stature  and  mesocephalic. 
Th^  are  more  or  less  nomadic  and  do  not  mix 
readily  with  other  peoples  of  the  country.  They 
are  looked  upon  as  part  of  the  aboriginal  popu- 
lation of  Sze-chuan,  driven  back  in&  Tun-nan 
about  the  third  century  a.d.  by  the  advance  of 
the  Chinese,  and  now  moving  seaward  along  the 


7  MANSABT. 

heights  of  land.  The  Mans  and  the  Lolos  (q.y.) 
seem  to  be  linguistically  related. 

MANS^  mlkm,  Le.  The  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Sarthe,  and  formerly  of  the  Province  of 
Maine  in  Northwestern  France.  It  is  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  department,  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Sarthe,  116  miles  (132  miles  by  rail) 
southwest  of  Paris  ( Map :  France,  N.,  E  4) .  It  is 
an  old  town,  but  has  many  wide  streets  and 
avenues,  some  of  recent  construction,  and  several 
parks  and  promenades.  The  most  notable  build- 
mg  is  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Julien,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  churches  of  France.  It 
^  was  built  in  the  period  between  the  eleventh  and 
the  fifteenth  centuries,  and  has  a  magnificent 
choir  built  in  pure  Gothic  style.  It  holds  the 
tomb  of  Berengaria,  the  Queen  of  Richard  Coeur- 
de-Lion.  The  Church  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Cou- 
ture is  also  notable.  The  town  has  a  seminary, 
two  normal  Schools,  and  a  public  library,  con- 
taining 53,000  volumes.  There  are  also  excellent 
museums  of  natural  history,  art,  and  archaeology. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  chemicals,  es- 
pecially sulphuric  acid,  tobacco,  sail-cloth,  in- 
struments and  clocks,  chocolate,  and  candles. 
There  is  a  chamber  of  commerce  and  of  agricul- 
ture, and  the  town  has  considerable  trade  in 
cattle,  poultry,  eggs,  fruit,  grain,  and  wine. 
Population  of  the  commune,  in  1891,  57,412;  in 
1901,  63,272;  in  1906,  65,467. 

Le  Mans  existed  before  the  Roman  conquest. 
Its  original  name  was  Vindinum.  It  was  the 
chief  city  of  the  Cenomani,  from  whom  it  received 
its  present  name.  It  was  fortified  by  the  Romans, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of 
the  Frankish  Kingdom.  It  was  taken  by  William 
the  Conqueror  in  1063,  and  suffered  manv  sieges 
during  the  long  Anglo-French  wars.  The  Ven- 
deans  were  defeated  here  in  December,  1793,  and 
the  city  subjected  to  a  massacre.  In  1871  it  was 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Chanzy's  army  by  the 
Germans  under  Prince  Frederick  Charles,  in  a 
battle  lasting  from  the  10th  to  the  12th  of  Janu- 
ary. 

ICANSABD  BOOF.  A  form  of  roof  named 
after  Francois  Mansart  (q.v.).  It  is  constructed 
with  a  break  in  the  slope  of  the  roof,  so  that  each 
side  has  two  planes,  the  lower  being  steeper  than 
the  upper.  This  kind  of  roof  has  the  advanta^ 
over  the  common  fonn  of  giving  more  space  m 
the  roof  for  living  room. 

MANSABT,  m&N'sar',  or  MANSABD,  Fran- 
cois (1598-1666).  A  French  architect,  bom  in 
Paris.  He  designed  many  important  private 
houses  in  Paris  and  provincial  chftteaux,  the 
Church  of  Val  de  GrAce,  parts  of  the  Chftteau  of 
Blois,  and  the  Hfttel  Camavalet.  The  form  of 
roof  known  as  Mansard  is  named  from  him. — His 
nephew,  Jules  Habdouin-Mansart  (1645-1708), 
also  an  architect,  was  born  in  Paris,  the  son  of  an 
obscure  painter,  named  Hardouin,  who  had  mar- 
ried a  sister  of  Francois  Mansart.  He  studied 
architecture  under  his  great-uncle  and  under 
Bruant,  and,  being  also  a  skillful  courtier,  se- 
cured Louis  XrV.  for  patron,  and  entered  upon 
the  construction  of  some  of  his  most  splendid 
works.  The  dJhftteau  de  Clagny  was  his  first 
work,  executed  for  Mme.  de  Montespan.  His  next 
was  on  the  Palace  of  Versailles,  which  he  began 
in  1660,  building  the  south  wing,  the  Grande 
(Jalerie,  then  the  north  wing,  the  grand  stairway, 
and  the  chapel    (1677-1708).     Besides  this,  he. 


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MAKSABT.  8 

built  a  number  of  other  noted  ch&teaux  at  Ver- 
sailles (1672).  The  extravagance  and  rage  of 
palace  building  which  possessed  the  King  was 
turned  to  the  greatest  advantage  by  Mansart, 
both  as  an  artist  and  as  a  man  of  business.  He 
accumulated  an  immense  fortune,  and  was  cov- 
ered with  dignities  and  honors.  The  Grand  Tri- 
anon was  his  wcnrk;  but  his  most  perfect  design 
is  the  dome  of  the  Church  of  the  Invalides  in 
Paris,  which,  though  inferior  to  very  many  domes 
in  size,  surpasses  all  in  the  exquisite  proportions 
of  its  exterior  lines.  The  Chftteau  of  Marly,  the 
Place  Venddme,  and  the  Place  des  Victoires  in 
Paris  were  also  designed  by  Mansart. 

MANSE.  In  Scotch  law,  the  dwelling  house 
of  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church.  Every 
minister  of  a  rural  parish  is  entitled  to  a  manse, 
which  the  heritors  or  landed  proprietors  are 
boimd  to  build  and  maintain;  and  he  is  also  en- 
titled, as  part  of  the  manse,  to  a  stable,  cow- 
house, and  garden.  The  manse  must,  by  statute, 
be  near  to  tne  church.  The  amount  fixed  by  law 
as  the  allowance  for  the  manse  has  varied  from 
time  to  time,  and  it  may  vary  more  or  less,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  but  it  is  now  usually 
fixed  at  a  value  of  £1000.  It  is  only  the  min- 
isters of  rural  parishes  that  are  entitled  to  a 
manse,  and  not  ministers  of  a  royal  burgh  where 
there  is  no  landward  district. 

MAN'SELy  Henbt  Longueville  (1820-71). 
An  English  metaphysician,  bom  at  Cosgrove, 
Northamptonshire.  He  graduated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1843,  and  in  1855  was 
appointed  reader  in  moral  and  metaphysical 
philosophy  in  Magdalen  College.  In  1859  he  be- 
came Waynflete  professor,  and  in  1886  received 
the  appointment  of  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history.  He  belongs  to  the  school  of  Sir  W. 
Hamilton,  whose  lectures  he  edited  (1859)  with 
the  assistance  of  Professor  Veitch.  He  was  well 
versed  in  the  erudition  of  metaphysical  philos- 
ophy, and  wrote  in  a  clear  and  elegant  style.  The 
best  known  of  his  publications  is  his  Bampton 
Lectures  (1858-59  and  1867)  on  "The  Limits  of 
Religious  Thought,"  in  which,  applying  the  idea 
developed  in  Hamilton's  articles,  "The  Philos- 
ophy of  the  Unconditioned,"  he  maintained  that 
any  attempt  to  arrive  at  an  idea  of  the  Absolute 
through  the  categories  of  substance  or  cause  is 
attended  by  insurmountable  difficulties.  It  was 
urged  by  many  that  the  work,  though  purport- 
ing to  be  theistic,  was  really  agnostic,  and  Spen- 
cer asserted  (in  the  prospectus  to  his  Synthetic 
Philosophy,  1860)  that  he  was  merely  working 
out  "the  doctrine  put  into  shape  bv  Hamilton  and 
Mansel."  Controversies  resulted  between  Mansel 
and  F.  D.  Maurice  and  (Joldwin  Smith,  and  Man- 
sel characterized  his  opponents'  statements  as 
misrepresentations.  His  further  works  include: 
Prolegomena  Logica  ( 1851 ) ,  in  exposition  of  the 
science  as  a  formal  one;  The  Philosophy  of  the 
Conditioned  (1866)  ;  and  The  Onostic  Heresies 
of  the  First  and  Second  Century  (1875;  edited 
by  Dr.  Lightfoot,  with  sketch  by  Lord  Carnar- 
von). Consult  the  sketch  referred  to;  also, 
Burgon,  Lives  of  Twelve  Good  Men  (London, 
1888). 

MAKSFELD,  mftns'fSlt,  Ebnst,  Count  (1580- 
1626).  A  German  soldier.  He  was  the  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Peter  Ernst,  Coimt  of  Mansfeld,  and 
was  educated  by  his  godfather.  Archduke  Ernst 
of  Austria.    In  return  for  valuable  military  ser- 


MAKSFIELD. 


vices  under  Rudolph  II.  he  was  legitimizefd  by 
Imperial  decree.  The  title  and  estates  of  his 
father  were,  however,  withheld  from  him,  and  in 
revenger  he  joined  the  enemies  of  Austria  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  as  a  stanch  Protestant  cham- 
pion. He  fought  snillantly  in  Bohemia  and  on 
the  Rhine  for  the  Elector  Palatine.  His  efforts 
failed,  but  brou«;ht  him  great  reno\iii.  In  1625, 
aided  by  English  and  French  subsidies,  he  again 
attacked  Austria.  Wallenstein  met  and  over- 
came his  force  at  Dessau,  April,  1626.  Mansfeld 
was  driven  from  the  field  and  died  in  Dalmatia 
before  the  close  of  the  year. 

MANS^JTIEU).  A  market-town  in  Notting- 
hamshire, England,  14  miles  north  of  Notting- 
ham, surrounded  by  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
forest  of  Sherwood  (Map:  England,  E  3).  The 
town  is  regularlv  built  and  has  a  grammar  school 
founded  in  1561,  twelve  almshouses  founded  in 
1693,  and  other  charitable  institutions.  Its  pub- 
lic buildings  include  a  town  hall  and  municipal 
offices,  a  mechanics'  institute,  free  library  and 
isolation  hospital,  and  it  owns  water,  gas,  mar- 
kets, bath  and  pleasure  grounds.  It  stands  in 
the  centre  of  a  large  manufacturing  and  mining 
district.  Silk,  cotton,  and  doubling  mills  are  in 
operation,  and  it  also  carries  on  bootmaking, 
iron-founding,  and  an  important  trade  in  cattle 
and  agricultural  produce.  Population,  in  1891, 
15,900;  in  1901,  21,400. 

MAKSFIELD.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Richland  County,  Ohio,  79  miles  southwest  of 
Cleveland;  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Erie, 
and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads,  and  interurban 
lines  connecting  with  points  on  the  Big  Four 
system  (Map:  Ohio,  E  4).  It  has  the  Ohio  State 
Reformatory,  a  memorial  soldiers'  and  sailors' 
building,  a  public  library  with  about  13,000  vol- 
umes, Sherman-Heineman  Park  of  85  acres,  and 
two  smaller  parks.  The  city  is  an  important 
trade  centre  for  the  adjacent  agricultural  coun- 
try, and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures,  which 
include  threshing  machines,  boilers,  engines,  en- 
gine fittings  and  brass  goods,  stoves,  pumps,  bug- 
gies, street  cars,  ci^rs,  webbing  and  suspenders, 
electrical  and  electric  railway  supplies,  etc.  Mans- 
field is  governed  under  the  Ohio  municipal  code, 
which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  a 
city  council,  and  administrative  boards  of  public 
safety  and  of  public  service.  The  water-works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality;  also  a 
large  sewage  and  garbage  disposal  plant.  Set- 
tled in  1808,  Mansfield  was  first  incorporated  in 
1828.  It  was  the  home  of  John  Sherman  (q.v.). 
Population,  in  1890,  13,473;  in  1900,  17,640;  in 
1906  (local  cen.),  24,000. 

MANSFIELD.  A  borough  in  Tioga  County, 
Pa.,  36  miles  southwest  of  Elmira.  N.  Y. ;  on  the 
Tioga  River,  and  on  the  Erie  Railroad  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  G  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  State 
normal  school  with  a  library  of  nearly  6000  vol- 
umes, and  has  a  public  library  of  2500  volumes. 
The  annual  county  fair  is  held  here  in  a  beauti- 
ful park.  Mansfield  is  a  shipping  point  for  live 
stocK  and  farm  produce,  and  there  are  various 
manufactures.  Population,  in  1900,  1847;  in 
1906   (local  est.),  2000. 

MANSFIELD,  Mount.  The  highest  peak  of 
the  Green  Mountains  in  the  State  of  Vermont, 
situated  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State, 
20  miles  east  of  Burlington  (Map:  Vermont, 
D  3).    It  rises  3000  feet  above  the  surrounding 


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MANSFIELD.  9 

eoontr^r  and  has  three  peaks,  the  highest  of 
which  is  4364  feet  above  sea-level.  Its  summit 
affords  one  of  the  finest  views  in  New  England, 
including  Lake  Champlain  with  the  Adirondacks 
beyond,  and  a  large  part  of  the  Green  and  White 
mountains. 

MANSFIELD,  Edwabd  Deebsnq  (1801-80). 
An  American  auUior,  bom  in  New  Haven,  Conn. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1819,  but  declined 
to  enter  the  army  and  studied  at  Princeton,  from 
which  he  graduated  in  1822.  In  1825  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  He  afterwards  removed  to 
Cincinnati,  and  in  1836  became  professor  of  con- 
stitutional law  in  Cincinnati  College.  Shortly 
afterwards,  however,  he  abandoned  the  l^al  pro- 
fession to  engage  in  journalism,  and  edited  suc- 
cessively the  Cincinnati  Chronicle ,  Atlas,  and 
Railroad  Record.  He  was  Commissioner  of  Sta- 
tistics for  the  State  of  Ohio  from  1857  to  1867, 
was  a  member  of  the  Soci6t6  Francaise  de  Statis- 
tiqne  Universelle,  and  published :  Political  Oram- 
wtar  of  the  United  States  (1834) ;  Life  of  Qen, 
Winfield  Soott  (1846) ;  History  of  the  Mewioan 
War  (1848);  and  American  Education   (1850). 

MANSFIELD,  Joseph  King  Fenno  (1803- 
62 ) .  An  American  soldier.  He  was  bom  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  graduated  second  in  his  class  at 
West  Point  in  1822,  was  assigned  to  the  Engineer 
Corps  as  brevet  second  lieutenant,  and  during 
the  next  twenty-four  years  was  engaged  almost 
continuously  on  engineering  work  for  the  Gov- 
ernment, his  most  importimt  service  being  the 
construction  of  Fort  Pulaski,  for  the  defense  of 
Savannah  River,  Ga.,  to  which  he  devoted  most 
of  his  time  between  1830  and  1846.  During  the 
Me:dcan  War  he  served  throughout  the  north- 
em  campaign  as  chief  engineer  imder  General 
Taylor,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  constructing 
and  aiding  in  the  defense  of  Fort  Brown,  taking 
a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Monterey 
(where  he  was  wounded)  and  in  the  battle  of 
Buena  Vista,  and  receiving  the  successive  brevets 
of  major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel.  He 
then  served  as  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Engi- 
neers for  the  Atlantic  coast  defense  from  Mar5i, 
1848.  to  April,  1853,  and  of  the  board  for  the 
Pacific  coast  defenses  from  April  to  May,  1853, 
and  from  1853  to  April,  1861,  was  inspector -gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  Army  with  the  rank  of 
colonel.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  engaged 
in  organizing  companies  of  volunteers  at  Colura- 
btts,  Ohio,  in  April,  1861 ;  commanded  the  De- 
partment of  Washington  from  April  to  July, 
1861;  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  May;  was  in  command  of  the  city  of 
Washington  from  July  to  October;  then  com- 
manded successively  at  Camp  Hamilton,  Newport 
News,  and  Suffolk,  Va.;  captured  Norfolk,  Va., 
on  May  10,  1862;  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
major-general  in  July;  commanded  a  division  in 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  during  the  Maryland 
campaign,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Antie- 
tam  on  September  17,  1862. 

KAHSFIELD,  RiCHABD  (1857—).  An  Ameri- 
can actor,  born  in  the  island  of  Helgoland,  May 
24.  1857,  the  son  of  Madame  Rudersdorff  (Mans- 
field), the  noted  singer.  He  was  educated  chiefly 
in  Germany  and  England,  and  when  about  seven- 
teen years  of  age  came  to  Boston,  Mass.,  where 
be  worked  as  a  clerk  and  studied  painting  for  a 
short  time.  In  1875  he  returned  to  England,  and 
after  several  years  of  severe  privation  engaged 


MANSFIELD  COLLEQE. 

with  some  success  In  comic  opera.  His'  first  ap* 
pearanoe  on  the  American  stage  was  in  1882  in 
New  York.  In  January,  1883,  he  won  success  aa 
Baron  Chevrial  in  A  Parisian  Romance.  This 
was  followed  by  a  number  of  rOles,  which  within 
ten  years  gained  him  a  leading  place  among 
American  actors.  Among  his  parts  have  been 
l>octor  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde  (1887);  Richard 
ITI.,  produced  in  Ijondon  in  1889;  Beau  Brum- 
mell  (1890);  Arthur  Dinmaesdale  in  his  own 
dramatization  of  The  Scarlet  Letter  (1892); 
Shylock  (1893);  Bluntschli  in  Arms  and  the 
Man  (1894)  ;  Dick  Dudgeon  in  The  DeviVs  Dis- 
ciple (1897) ;  Cyrano  de  Bergerac  (1898) ;  Henry 
V.  (1900);  Monsieur  Beaucaire  (1901);  Bru- 
tus in  Julius  Cofsar  ( 1902 )  ;  Prince  Heinrich 
in  Old  Heidleherg  ( 1903 )  ;  and  the  leading  parts 
in  Man  the  Terrible  (1904),  Don  Carlos  (1905), 
Molifere's  Misanthrope  (1905),  and  Ibsen's  Peer 
Oynt  (1906).  Deep  study  and  careful  elabora- 
tion of  detail  characterised  Mansfield's  work. 
Consult:  Hapgood,  The  Stage  in  America  in 
1897-1900  (New  York,  1901  )j  Strang,  Famous 
Actors  of  To-day  in  America  (Boston,  1900)  ; 
McKay  and  Wingate,  Famous  American  Actors  of 
To-day  (New  York,  1896). 

liAHSFIELB,  WnuAH  Murray,  first  Earl 
of  (1705-93).  A  celebrated  British  jurist  He 
was  bom  March  2,  1705,  the  fourth  son  of 
David,  Viscount  Stormont.  He  studied  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1730, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  the  same  year. 
Through  the  facility  and  force  of  his  oratory,  as 
well  as  through  the  cleamess  of  his  understand- 
ing, he  acquired  a  brilliant  reputation  and  an 
extensive  practice;  in  cases  of  appeal  he  was 
often  employed  before  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
1741  he  was  appointed  by  the  Ministry  Solicitor- 
General,  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  mem- 
ber for  Boroughbridge,  and  at  once  took  a  high 
position.  In  1746  he  acted,  ex-officio,  as  counsel 
against  the  rebel  lords  Lovat,  Balmerino,  and 
Kilmarnock;  and  in  1754  he  was  appointed 
King's  Attorney.  He  became  CJhief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  in  1756.  At  this  time  he  entered 
the  House  of  Lords  under  the  title  of  Baron 
Mansfield  of  Mansfield  in  the  County  of  Notting- 
ham. As  his  opinions  were  not  those  of  the 
popular  side,  he  was  exposed  to  much  abuse  and 
party  hatred.  Junius,  among  others,  bitterly 
attacked  him;  and  in  the  Gordon  riots  of  1780, 
his  house,  with  all  his  valuable  books  and  manu- 
scripts, was  burned.  He  declined  with  dignity 
indemnification  by  Parliament.  In  1776  he  was 
made  Earl  of  Mansfield.  He  worked  hard  as  a 
judge  till  1788,  when  age  and  ill  health  forced 
him  to  resign.  His  death  occurred  on  March  20, 
1793.  He  was  a  brilliant  parliamentary  debater, 
fluent,  clear,  and  logical,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
who  ever  sat  on  the  bench.  Consult:  A  General 
View  of  the  Decisions  of  Lord  Mansfield  (ed.  by 
Evans,  London,  1803)  ;  Report  of  Cases  Argued 
and  Adjudged  in  the  Court  of  the  King's  Bench 
During  the  Time  of  Lord  Mansfield's  Presidency 
in  that  Court  (Dublin,  1794)  ;  Holliday,  Life  of 
William^  Late  Earl  of  Mansfield  (London,  1797). 

MANSFIELD  COLLEGE.  A  theological  col- 
lege at  Oxford,  England,  not  incorporated  with 
the  university.  It  was  founded  in  1886  by  the 
transfer  to  Oxford  of  Spring  Hill  College,  Bir- 
mingham, and  has  been  erected  and  supported  by 
the   (Ik)ngregational   churches   for  the   study  oi 


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MANSFIELD  COLLEGE. 


10 


MANT. 


theology,  particularly  for  the  education  of  Con- 
gregational ministers.    The  buildings  consist  of 
an  open  quadrangle  with  hall,  oomm<Hi  rooms, 
library  lecture  rooms,  and  chapel,  and  are  very* 
well  designed  in  Gothic  style. 

MANSI,  mlUi^s^,  Giovanni  Dombnioo  (1692- 
1769).  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Lucca, 
He  was  bom  at  Lucca,  February  16,  1692;  taught 
theology  many  vears  at  Naples;  made  literary 
journeys  through  Italy,  France,  and  Germany; 
established  an  academy  in  Lucca  over  which  he 
presided ;  was  made  Archbishop  in  1765 ;  and  died 
m  Lucca,  September  27,  1769.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  editor  of  the  great  work  on  the  Councils, 
Saororum  Conciliorum  Nova  et  AmpUasima  Col- 
lectio  (31  vols.,  Florence,  1769  sqq.),  which  goes 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Con- 
sult his  Life,  by  Zatta  (Venice,  1772). 

MANSTLLA  DE  QABXJIA,  m&n-s^yA  d& 
gftr-s^ft,  Eduabda  ( 1838 — ) .  A  South  American 
author,  bom  in  Buenos  Ayres.  She  married  the 
Argentine  diplomatist  Manuel  Garcia,  in  1855. 
Her  novels  deal  with  Argentine  subjects,  and 
have  some  value  from  their  descriptive  quali- 
ties. They  include:  El  medico  de  San  Luis 
(1857),  and  the  historical  Lucia  Miranda,  and 
Pahlo  6  la  vida  en  las  pampas  (1868),  which 
was  published  in  French  at  Paris. 

MANSION  HOUSE.  The  name  given  to  the 
official  residence  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Lond<Hi, 
situated  opposite  the  Royal  Exchange.  In  its 
great  banqueting  hall,  known  as  the  Egyptian 
Hall,  are  given  the  state  banquets. 

MANSLAUGHTEB.  The  unlawful  killing 
of  another  without  malice,  express  or  implied. 
It  is  this  absence  of  malice  which  distinguishes 
the  act  from  murder.  Not  infrequently  persons 
are  charged  with  this  crime  who  are  admittedly 
free  from  any  moral  blame.  At  common  law, 
manslaughter  is  of  two  kinds,  voluntary  and  in- 
voluntary. The  former  includes  cases  of  inten- 
tional killing,  upon  sudden  heat  or  passion  due 
to  provocation,  which  palliates  the  offense;  as 
when  the  person  killed  grossly  insults  or 
wrongs  the  slayer  or  quarrels  with  him.  /n- 
voluntary  manslaughter  occurs  when  the  killing 
is  not  intended,  but  results  from  the  commis- 
sion of  an  unlawful  act  which  falls  below  the 
grade  of  felony  (q.v.),  or  from  the  doing  of  a 
lawful  act  in  an  unlawful  manner,  as  in  cases  of 
culpable  negligence  (q.v.).  A  railroad  engineer, 
a  trolley-car  raotorman,  or  a  horse-car  driver, 
whose  negligent  misconduct  causes  the  death  of 
a  human  being  is  guilty  of  manslaughter.  By 
modem  statutes  the  offense  has  been  extended 
to  every  kind  of  homicide  (q.v.)  which  on  the 
one  hand  is  not  murder  (q.v.),  and  on  the  other 
is  not  justifiable  or  excusable.  It  has  also  been 
divided  into  degrees — the  first  degree  including 
cases  marked  by  unusual  cruelty,  or  by  unlawful 
conduct  of  a  grave  character,  such  as  a  deliberate 
assault  or  the  use  of  dangerous  weapons,  or  ad- 
ministering drugs  to  procure  miscarriage;  while 
the  second  degree  embraces  culpable  acts  and 
omissions  which  are  less  blameworthy.  The 
common  law  treated  manslaughter  as  a  felony, 
but  within  the  benefit  of  clergy.  Modem  statutes 
in   England   punish  the  more  serious  forms  by 

ral  servitude  for  life,  and  the  lighter  forms 
^   imprisonment  or  fine.     In  the  United  States 
manslaughter  in  the  first  degree  is  punishable 


by  imprisonment  for  a  term  generally  varying 
from  five  to  twenty  years;  in  the  second  degree, 
by  imprisonment  for  a  shorter  term,  or  by  a  fine 
of  a  limited  amount,  or  by  both  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. See  Criminal  Law  (consult  the 
authorities  there  cited) ;  Hohioide;  Mubdeb. 

KANSO,  m&n'sd,  Johann  Kaspab  Fbiedbicu 
(1760-1826).  A  German  philologian  and  histo- 
rian, bom  at  Blasienzell  (Gotha).  He  studied  at 
Jena,  and  from  1790  until  his  death  was  rector 
of  an  academy  at  Breslau.  His  translations  from 
the  classics— Vergil's  Qeorgics  (1783)  ;  the  (Edi- 
ptia  ResD  of  Sophocles  (1786) — ^were  not  success- 
ful, but  the  Oischichte  des  preussischen  StCMtes 
his  zur  zweiten  Pariser  Ahkunft  (3  vols.,  1819- 
20),  has  more  merit,  and  was  much  read. 

HANSON,  Geobqe  (1850-76).  A  Scotch 
water-color  painter  and  engraver,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh. He  at  first  worked  as  an  engraver,  and 
during  this  time  and  afterwards  studied  paintin^r 
in  the  Edinburgh  School  of  Art,  and  in  1875 
under  Cadart  in  Paris.  His  pictures  are  usually 
of  homely  rustic  subjects,  treated  with  much  deli- 
cacy and  beauty  of  color;  e.g.,  **Milking  Time," 
and  "The  Gypsy  Well."  As  an  eng^ver,  Manson 
imitated  the  simple,  direct  methods  of  the  Be- 
wicks. Consult  the  preface  by  Gray  in  Oeorge 
Manson  and  His  Works  (Edinburgh,  1880). 

MANSON,  Patrick  (1844—).  A  disUn- 
guished  English  physician  and  parasitologist, 
and  writer  on  tropical  diseases.  He  first  became 
known  by  his  investigations  into  the  pathology 
of  filarial  diseases,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
suggest  the  hypothesis  that  the  mosquito  is  an 
active  agent  in  the  propagation  of  malaria.  In 
1897  he  was  made  medical  adviser  to  the  British 
Colonial  Offices.  In  1904  he  investigated  cachex- 
ial  fevers,  including  kala-azar  (q.v.).  He  has 
published  many  monographs  on  tropical  diseases. 
His  most  important  works  are:  The  Goulstonian 
Lectures  (1896)  ;  Lectures  on  Tropical  Diseases 
(1905)  ;  and  Diseases  of  Warm  Climates  (1905). 
See  Insects,  Propagation  of  Disease  bt. 

MANSTJBAHy  m&n-8?S^rft.  A  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Dakahlieh, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Damietta  arm 
of  the  Nile,  about  35  miles  southwest  of  Dami- 
etta, on  the  Cairo-Damietta  Railway  (Map: 
Egypt,  CI).  It  has  extensive  cotton  manu- 
factures and  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  raw 
cotton.  The  town  was  founded  in  1222  and  is 
noted  as  the  place  where  Louis  IX.  of  France  was 
defeated  and  made  prisoner  in  1250.  Population, 
in  1897,  36,131. 

MANT,  Richard  (1776-1848).  An  Irish 
bishop.  He  was  bom  at  Southampton,  England; 
was  educated  at  Winchester  School  and  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  taking  his  bachelor's  degree 
in  1797;  was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  College  in 
1798;  was  ordained  priest  in  1803;  and  was  cu- 
rate and  vicar  of  several  parishes  in  and  near 
London,  1804-20.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Kil- 
laloe  and  Kilfenoragh,  Ireland,  in  1820,  and  in 
1823  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Down  and 
Connor.  In  the  House  of  Ijords,  Bishop  Mant 
voted  against  Catholic  Emancipation  in  1821  and 
1825.  He  was  a  member  in  1830  of  the  Royal 
Commission  to  inquire  into  ecclesiastical  union. 
He  was  a  prolific  writer  of  poetry,  as  well  as 
of  historical  and  theological  works ;  and  many  of 
his  h3rmns  are  included  in  different  collections. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MANT. 


11 


MANTEGNA. 


With  George  jyOjly  (q.v.)  he  prepared  the 
annotated  edition  of  the  Bible  known  as  D'Oyly 
and  Mant's  Bible  (1814),  which  had  an  immense 
sale  in  England,  and  was  republished  in  New 
York,  with  additions  by  Bishop  Hobart.  He  also 
published:  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  with 
Notes  (1820),  and  a  History  of  the  Church  of 
Ireland  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Union  of 
the  Churches  of  England  and  Ireland  in  1801 
(1840).  His  poetical  works  include  a  version 
of  the  Psalms  (1824),  and  Ancient  Hymns  from 
the  Roman  Breviary,  with  Original  Hymns 
( 1837 ) .  Consult  the  memoir  by  his  son,  Walter 
Bishop  Mant  (Dublin,  1857). 

"Mr  A  NT  A,  mUn^tA.  A  port  of  entry  of  Ecuador, 
situated  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  150  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Quito  (Map:  Ecuador,  A  4).  Its 
harbor  is  deep  enough  for  large  vessels.  The 
town  exports  straw  hats,  rubber,  and  coffee,  and 
is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consular  asent. 
It  is  the  port  of  Monticristi,  10  miles  inland. 
It  was  founded  in  1535. 

MANTA  (Sp.,  blanket).  A  name  about  Pan- 
ama of  the  huge  ray  {Manta  hirostris),  more 
commonly  known  as  'devil-fish'  (q.v.)  or  *sea 
devil,'  which  is  greatly  dreaded  by  the  pearl- 
fishers,  "whom  it  is  said  to  devour  after  envelop- 
ing them  in  its  vast  wings,"  sometimes  20  feet 
across,  as  in  a  blanket.  See  Plate  of  Rats  and 
Skates. 

TWANTAIiINIy  m&n'to-le^n^.  In  Dickens's 
Nicholas  Nicklehy,  a  fop  given  to  mild  forms  of 
swearing.  He  is  supported  by  the  labor  of  his 
wife,  a  mantua-maker. 

KANTABO,  mAn-ta'rd.  A  river  in  Peru.  It 
is  formed  at  a  height  of  13,000  feet  above  sea- 
level  by  the  small  headstreams  of  lake  Chin- 
chaycocha,  in  the  western  part  of  the  Province 
of  Junin.  Thence  it  flows  southeast  past  the 
towns  of  Jauja  and  Huancayo  into  the  Province 
of  Huancavelica,  where  it  tiums  northeast, 
breaks  through  a  deep  gap  in  the  eastern  Cordil- 
leras, and  joins  the  Apurimac  to  form  the  En6, 
which  joins  the  Quillabamba  to  form  the  Uca- 
yalli.  Its  length  is  about  280  miles,  and  it  is 
navigable  a  few  miles  above  the  jimction. 

MANTCHXJBIAy  m&n-ch?^rl-ft.  See  Man- 
churia. 

MANTEGAZZA,  man'tA-gtt'tsA,  Paolo  (1831 
— ) .  An  Italian  physiologist  and  anthropologist, 
bom  at  Monza.  After  studying  medicine  in  the 
universities  of  Pisa  and  Milan  he  received  his 
doctor's  degree  at  Pavia  ( 1864 ) ,  and  then  traveled 
extensively  in  Europe,  India,  and  South  America, 
where  he  practiced  for  a  time  in  Paraguay  and 
the  Argentine  Republic.  In  1858  he  returned  to 
Milan,  was  appointed  i)hysician  at  the  hospital 
in  that  city  the  following  year,  and  became  in 
1860  professor  of  pathology  at  Pavia.  In  1870 
he  was  made  professor  of  anthropology  at  the 
Istituto  di  Studii  Superiori  in  Florence,  and  there 
he  founded  the  Museum  of  Anthropology  and  of 
Ethnology,  the  first  in  Italy,  as  well  as  the  Italian 
Anthropological  Society,  and  a  review,  Archivo 
per  VAntropologia  e  V  Etnologia.  He  was  Deputy 
for  Monza  in  the  Italian  Parliament  from  1885 
until  1876,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  Senate. 
His  philosophical  and  medical  works  include: 
Elementi  dHgiene  (1875);  Igiene  delV  amore 
(1877)  :  Pisiologia  del  dolore  (1880)  ;  Fisiologia 
del  piacere  (1881)  ;  Fisonomia  e  mimica  (1883)  ; 
Vol.  xni.— 2. 


on  amori  degli  uomtni,  Saggio  di  una  etnologia 
delV  amore  (1886);  Le  estasi  umane  (1887); 
Fisiologia  della  donna  (1893);  Fisiologia  deW 
amore  (1896)  ;  Uanno  3000  (1897) ;  and  L'omore 
(1898).  He  also  published  travel  sketches  and 
political  treatises:  Rio  della  Plata  e  Teneriffe 
(1877);  Viaggio  in  Lapoma  (1884);  India 
( 1884) ;  Btudi  sulla  etnologia  dell*  India  ( 1886) ; 
and  Ricordi  d*un  fantacoino  al  parlamento  ital- 
iano  (1896). 

MANTEQNA,  mAn-tft'nyA,  Andbka  (1431- 
1506).  An  Italian  painter  and  line-engraver  of 
the  early  Renaissance,  the  chief  master  of  the 
Paduan  school.  He  was  bom  at  Vicenza,  the 
son  of  a  peasant  named  Biagio  (Blasius) .  After 
the  death  of  his  father,  at  the  age  of  ten 
he  was  adopted  by  the  painter  Squarcione,  whose 
apprentice  and  pupil  he  became.  They  dis- 
agreed repeatedly,  and  finally  separated,  upon 
the  marriage  of  Andrea  with  the  daughter  of 
Jacopo  Bellini,  in  1453.  It  is  the  tendency  of 
the  latest  criticism  to  minimize  the  influence 
of  Squarcione  upon  Mantegna's  art ;  nevertheless, 
it  is  certain  that  we  find  all  the  characteristics 
of  Squarcione's  school  in  it.  He  was  also  in- 
fiuenced  by  the  work  of  Donatello,  Paolo  Uocello, 
and  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  at  Padua,  but  there  is 
no  evidence  in  his  works  of  the  infiuence  of  his 
father-in-law.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  Mantegna 
was  an  independent  master,  practicing  his  art  at 
Padua,  where  he  remained  imtil  the  end  of  1459. 

The  chief  works  of  this  early  Paduan  period 
are  his  seven  mural  naintin^  in  the  Chapel  of 
Saints  James  and  Christopher,  in  the  Cnurch 
of  the  Eremitani,  in  which  the  entire  progress 
of  his  art  can  be  traced.  Mantegna's  paintings 
are  far  superior  to  those  of  the  other  pupils 
of  Squarcione  in  the  chapel,  and  were  as  im- 
portant for  Northern  Italy  as  the  Brancacci 
frescoes  for  Florence.  Five  are  from  the  life  of 
Saint  James,  and  two  from  the  life  of  Saint 
Christopher.  His  earliest  work  is  a  wall-paint- 
ing representing  Saints  Bemardinus  and  An- 
tonius  (1452),  above  the  main  portal  of  San 
Antonio  in  Padiia.  Others  are  the  altar-piece 
of  San  Giustiniano  (1453),  containing  panels  of 
saints  in  arched  frames,  the  most  prominent  of 
whom  is  Saint  Luke;  ''Saint  Eufemia,"  in  the 
Museum  of  Naples;  the  'Tresentation  of  Christ 
in  the  Temple,"  and  the  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Luigi  Scarampi,  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  His 
'Tietft,"  in  the  Brera  at  Milan,  is  a  remarkable 
piece  of  foreshortening,  in  which  the  reclining 
Saviour  is  represented  with  his  feet  toward  the 
spectator.  The  altar-piece  of  Saint  Zeno  (1458- 
59)  has  rich  classical  decoration  of  columns  and 
garlands;  in  the  centre  is  the  Madonna,  sur- 
rounded by  angels  and  by  a  group  of  saints  on 
either  side.  The  predella  contained  a  "Cruci- 
fixion" of  infinite  pathos,  now  in  the  Louvre, 
which  was  fianked  by  "Gethsemane"  and  the 
"Resurrection,"  at  present  in  the  Museum  of 
Tours. 

In  1459,  after  repeated  invitations  from  Lodo- 
vico  Gonzaga,  Marquis  of  Mantua,  Mantegna 
removed  to  that  city,  where  he  resided  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  Although  very  independent 
and  sometimes  irritable,  he  was  treated  with 
high  honor  and  great  consideration  by  the  Mar- 
quis and  his  successor,  Francesco  II.,  under 
whose  patronage  he  continued  until  his  death. 
In  1483  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  visited  him,  and  in 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MANTEQNA. 


13 


MANTES. 


1488  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  summoned  him  to 
Home  to  decorate  the  Belvedere  Chapel,  now 
destroyed.  In  1490  he  returned  to  Mantua,  where 
he  died  September  13,  1506.  His  last  years  were 
darkened  by  financial  troubles,  consequent  upon 
his  building  a  family  chapel  in  the  Church  of 
Sant*  Andrea. 

His  chief  work  at  Mantua  was  the  decora- 
tion of  the  Camera  dei  Sposi,  in  the  Castello  di 
Corte,  finished  in  1474.  Two  of  the  walls  and 
the  ceiling  remain.  One  of  these,  which  is  par- 
tially damaged,  is  covered  with  a  realistic  group 
of  the  Marquis,  his  wife,  and  the  entire  Court. 
The  other  shows  a  meeting  of  the  Marquis  with 
Cardinal  Francesco  Qonzaga,  both  attended  by 
relatives.  The  figures  are  nearly  all  in  profile 
and  stiff  in  action,  but  intensely  realistic  and 
of  monumental  grandeur.  The  same  wall  con- 
tains a  hunting  scene,  somewhat  damaged,  and  a 
group  of  beautiful  genii  holding  an  inscrip- 
tion. The  ceiling  is  richly  decorated  and  con- 
tains a  circular  dome  painted  to  represent  the 
open  sky,  with  angels  and  other  figures  looking 
over  a  parapet.  Before  going  to  Rome,  Mantegna 
had  al^  begun  his  nine  cartoons,  the  'Triumph 
of  CfiBsar,"  now  in  Hampton  Court,  which  he 
finished  soon  after  his  return  to  Mantua.  They 
are  drawn  on  paper  in  high  colors,  to  represent, 
as  if  in  bas-relief,  a  continuous  triumphal  pro- 
cession, and  were  used  as  hangings.  No  other 
monument  of  the  fifteenth  century  shows  such 
knowledge  and  feeling  for  the  antique.  For 
Isabella  of  Este,  Marchioness  of  Mantua,  he 
painted  two  pictures  in  the  famous  chamber 
which  she  furnished  with  paintings  by  prominent 
Italian  artists,  viz.  the  "Triumph  of  Virtue  Over 
Vice"  and  "Parnassus,"  the  latter  containing 
groups  of  graceful  classical  figures  in  a  romantic 
landscape.    Both  are  now  in  the  Louvre. 

Among  his  other  works  of  the  Mantuan  period 
are :  "Saint  Sebastian,"  in  the  Gallery  of  Vienna ; 
"Saint  George,"  in  the  Academy  of  Venice; 
"Summer,"  "Autumn,"  and  the  "Triumph  of 
Scipio,"  in  the  National  Gallery,  London.  In 
later  life  he  painted  a  large  number  of  Madonnas, 
of  which  there  are  good  examples  in  the  Uffizi  at 
Florence,  the  National  Galleiy,  London,  the  Dres- 
den Gallery,  and  the  Trivulzio  Collection,  Milan. 
Particularly  famous  is  the  "Madonna  della  Vit- 
toria"  (1496),  painted  in  commemoration  of  a 
supposed  victory  over  the  French,  and  now  in 
the  Louvre.  Under  a  canopy  of  fruit  and  leaves, 
the  Virgin,  surrounded  by  saints,  is  represented 
blessing  Francesco  Gonzaga. 

Mantegna  was  a  highly  cultured  man  for  his 
day,  was  well  versed  in  classical  literature, 
numbering  among  his  friends  prominent  Human- 
ists, like  Felice  Feliciano,  who  dedicated  a  book 
to  him.  No  other  painter  of  the  Renaissance 
understood  antique  art  as  did  Mantegna.  His 
paintings  were  its  sculpture  transferred  to  can- 
vas, and  he  mastered  completely  its  decoration. 
The  figures  and  draperies  are  sharp  and  rigid, 
and  his  archaeology  is  sometimes  more  learned 
than  artistic.  He  was  a  severe  student  of  na- 
ture, and  an  intense  realist.  His  portraits  are 
full  of  strength  and  character,  his  ideal  fig- 
ures noble  and  grand.  No  artist  of  the  early 
Renaissance  had  greater  invention  and  imagina- 
tion. His  execution  was  careful,  his  composi- 
tion good,  and  the  excellence  of  his  drawing  is 
attested  by  the  finished  drawings  in  the  Louvre, 
British  Museum,  Uffizi,  and  other  collections.   As 


a  colorist  he  did  not  stand  on  the  same  high 
level.  All  of  his  work  was  in  tempera;  and  his 
wall  paintings,  which  were  painted  upon  dry 
plaster,  are  improperly  called  frescoes. 

Mantegna  was  the  greatest  line-engraver  of 
Northern  Italy,  and  his  infiuence  upon  that  art 
was  potent  not  only  in  Itely,  but  in  Germany 
as  well.  Unlike  Italian  engravers  before  him, 
he  engraved  copper  plates  from  his  own  designs. 
At  first  his  technique  was  primitive,  but  it  im- 
proved with  the  study  of  German  engravings. 
In  all  cases  his  invention  is  more  interesting 
than  his  technique.  The  best-known  plates  of 
his  Paduan  period  are  the  "Flagellation  of 
Christ,"  and  "Christ  at  the  Gates  of  HeU;"  to 
the  Mantuan  period  belong  the  "Resurrection  of 
Christ,"  "Deposition  from  the  Cross,"  and  En- 
tombment." This  last  plate  had  a  greater  influ- 
ence upon  art  than  any  other  ever  executed.  Its 
composition  was  adopted  by  Raphael  in  his  pic- 
ture of  the  same  name,  by  Holbein  (q.v.)  in  the 
"Basel  Passion"  series,  and  the  figure  of  Saint 
John  was  used  by  Dttrer  in  his  "Crucifixion.'* 
Mantegna  also  engraved  a  number  of  classical 
Bubjecte,  the  best  known  of  which  are  two  Bac- 
chanals and  two  "Battles  of  Tritons,"  and  sev- 
eral plates  from  the  "Triumph  of  Caesar."  He 
had  a  large  number  of  followers  who  developed 
his  technique  and  eng^ved  his  compositions, 
the  best  known  of  whom  was  "Jacopo  de*  Bar- 
bari" 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  The  sources  for  the  life  of 
Mantegna  are  chiefly  his  correspcmdence  and 
other  documents.  Consult:  Baschet,  "Documents 
sur  Mantegna/'  in  Gazette  dea  Beaux-Arta,  vol. 
XX.  (Paris,  1806).  Vasari  (q.v.)  is  unreliable 
upon  Mantegna.  The  best  and  most  complete 
modem  authority  is  Kris  teller,  Andrea  Man- 
tegna, trans,  by  Strong  (London,  1901).  Wolt- 
mann's  biography  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und  KUnstler 
Jtaliena  (Leipzig,  1878),  is  a  scholarly  treatise. 
Crutwell,  Mantegna  (ib.,  1901),  is  a  good  brief 
account,  while  Cartwright's  biography  in  the 
"Great  Artiste  Series"  (London,  1881)  is  of  a 
popular  character.  Consult  also  the  monographs 
by  Thode  (Bielefeld,  1897)  and  Yriarte  (Paris» 
1902). 

MAN^ELLy  Gideon  Algebnon  (1790-1852). 
An  eminent  British  geologist,  bom  at  Lewes,  in 
Sussex.  He  studied  medicine  and  surgery,  but 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  geology  and  paleontol- 
ogy. His  excellent  collection  of  fossils  was 
bought  by  the  British  Museum.  He  carried  out 
investigations  concerning  the  fossils  of  the  Weal- 
den  formations,  and  discovered  the  great  Dino- 
saurian  reptiles.  Besides  a  large  number  of 
papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  and  the 
Geological  Transactions,  he  published  The  Won- 
ders of  Geology  (1838),  and  The  Medals  of 
Creation  (1844). 

ILANTES,  m&Nt.  The  capitel  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Oise, 
France,  beautifully  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine,  30  miles  west-northwest  of  Paris  by 
rail  (Map:  France,  N.,  G  4).  A  twelfth-century 
bridge  crosses  the  Seine  above  the  town,  and 
modem  bridges  connect  Mantes  with  an  islet  in 
the  Seine,  and  with  Limay  on  the  opposite  river 
bank.  The  fine  Gk)thic  Church  of  Notre  Dame» 
dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  occupies  the  site 
of  the  prior  church  burned  during  the  siege  of 
1087;    and   there   are   other   ancient   buildings. 


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XANTB8. 


18 


ICANTIS. 


Kantes  has  large  tanneries,  saltpetre  factories, 
and  a  considerable  agricultural  trade.  Mantes 
was  a  Celtic  town  from  which  Julius  Ciesar  ex- 
pelled the  Druids;  it  is  the  Roman  Medunta, 
William  the  Conqueror  destroyed  the  town  in 
1067  and  here  received  the  injury  which  caused 
Ms  death.    Population,  in  1901,  8034. 

KAKTEXTEFEIiy  mftn'toi-fel,  Edwin  Hans 
Kabl,  Baron  von  (1800-85).  A  Prussian  general. 
He  was  born  at  Dresden,  February  24,  1809,  and 
in  1827  entered  the  army.  He  became  in  1843  the 
personal  aide  of  Prince  Albrecht,  and  in  1848  of 
King  Frederick  William  IV.  His  promotion  was 
rapid,  and  he  played  a  prominent  rOle  in  the 
peat  Prussian  military  reforms.  He  took  part 
m  the  war  of  1864  against  Denmark,  and  in 
1865  became  the  Governor  of  Schleswig,  and  as 
such  played  a  prominent  rdle  in  the  ultimate 
solution  of  the  Schleswlg-Holstein  question. 
During  the  war  of  1866  against  Austria  he 
commanded  the  Army  of  the  Main,  and  during 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  he  commanded  the 
First  Army  Corps,  and  participated  in  the  battles 
of  Colombey-Nouilly  and  Noisseville.  Later  he 
became  the  c(»nmander-in-chief  of  the  German 
troops  in  South  France,  and  operated  efTectively 
there,  driving  Bourbaki's  army  across  the  Swiss 
frontier.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  German  army 
of  occupation.  In  1873  he  was  created  field- 
marshal,  and  later  sent  on  important  diplomatic 
missions  to  Russia.  His  last  prominent  post  was 
that  of  Governor  of  the  Imperial  Province  of 
Alsace-Lorraine.  He  died  June  17,  1885,  at 
Karlsbad. 

KANTBTJITBL,  Otto  Theodob,  Baron  von 
(1805-82) .  A  German  statesman,  born  at  Lttbben. 
He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Halle,  and  became 
in  1845-46  a  director  of  one  of  the  departments 
in  the  Prussian  Ministry  of  the  Interior.  When 
Count  Brandenburg,  under  took  the  suppression  of 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Minister  of  the  Interior.  In  1850  he 
took  office  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and 
president  of  the  Cabinet,  and  as  such  pursued  a 
reactionary  policy.  In  1856  he  was  sent  as 
Plenipotentianr  to  the  Congress  of  Paris,  and  in 
1858  retired  nrom  the  Ministry.  From  his  lit- 
erary bequest  H.  von  Poschinger  published  Unter 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV.  Denkwurdigkeiten  des 
Ministers  Otto  FreiKerm  von  Manteuffel  (1900- 
01 ) ;  and  Preussens  auswartige  Politik,  1850-58 
(ib.,  1902).  For  his  biography,  consult  Hesekiel 
(Berlin,  1851). 

VANTI,  mftn'tL  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Sanpete  County,  Utah,  124  miles  south  of  Salt 
Lake  City,  on  the  Rio  Grande  Western  and  the 
San  Pete  Valley  railroads  (Map:  Utah,  C  3). 
The  Mormon  temple  which  cost  $1,500,000  is  a 
noteworthy  feature  of  the  city,  and  there  are  two 
fine  public  school  buildings.  Manti  is  surrounded 
by  a  productive  agricultural  country,  largely  en- 
gaged also  in  sheep-raising,  and  has  flour  mills 
and  a  creamery.  In  the  vicinity  are  productive 
eoal  mines.  Manti  was  settled  in  1849  and  incor- 
porated two  years  later.  Population,  1900,  2408 : 
1906  (local  est.),  2950. 

KANTINWA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mavriveia, 
Maniineia),  A  city  of  Arcadia,  in  the  Pelopon- 
aesus,  oa  the  high  tableland  west  of  Argolis.  It 
was  situated  on  the  river  Ophis,  in  the  midst  of 
a  brood  plain,  and  was  at  first  a  group  of  open 


villages,  owning  the  supremacy  of  Sparta.  Und€r 
Argive  influence  the  five  villages  united  in  a 
fortified  city,  but  the  community  was  dissolved 
later  hy  the  Spartans,  only  to  be  reconstituted 
by  the  Thebans  under  Epaminondas.  The  plain, 
from  its  strategic  importance,  was  the  scene  of 
several  battles,  of  which  the  most  famous  was 
that  of  B.o.  362,  when  Epaminondas  defeated  the 
Spartans  and  Athenians,  but  fell  himself  in  the 
moment  of  victory.  Excavations  conducted  by 
the  French  School  at  Athens  during  1887  and 
1888  have  clearly  determined  the  course  of  the 
walls,  and  laid  bare  the  Agora  and  its  surround- 
ing buildings,  including  a  small  but  interesting 
theatre.  The  site  of  the  city  is  now  called  Pal»- 
opoli.  Consult  Foug^res,  Mantin^e  et  VArcadie 
orientale  (Paris,  1898). 

ICANTIQTJEIBA,  m&N't^k&'^r&,  Sebba  da. 
A  mountain  range  in  Southeastern  Brazil.  It 
extends  for  about  200  miles  parallel  with  the  At- 
lantic coast  and  about  70  miles  away  from  it, 
first  along  the  boundary  between  the  States  of 
SSo  Paulo  and  Minas  Geraes,  and  then  for  a 
short  distance  into  the  latter,  where  it  divides 
into  two  branches^  the  Serra  dos  Aimores  con- 
tinuing along  the  coast,  and  the  Serra  do  Espin- 
haco  extending  through  the  centre  of  Minas  €re- 
raes.  The  name  Mantiaueira  is  sometimes  applied 
to  this  whole  system,  but  is  properly  confined  to 
the  single  range  in  the  south.  It  is  granitic 
in  character,  and  the  highest  and  roughest  in 
Brazil.  Its  highest  point.  Mount  Itatiaia,  on  the 
State  boundary,  has  an  altitude  of  9000  feet.  The 
range  is  the  watershed  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
principal  headstream  of  the  Paran&. 

KANTIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^vr<c,  diviner, 
prophet;  so  called  from  the  position  of  the  fore 
legs,  which  resembles  the  attitude  of  prayer). 
One  of  the  popular  names  for  any  of  the  orthop- 
terous  insects  of  the  family  Mantide,  and  the 
scientific  name  of  the  type  genus.  Other  popu- 
lar names  are  'praying  insect,*  'soothsayer,* 
'prophet,'  'rear-horse,*  'mule-killer.*     The  family 


THE  BBAS-H0B8B, 

At  ^liltmalB StAgmomuDtia  CatoUda;  b,  egg-cetae. 

Mantidse  form  the  old  group  of  the  Orthoptera 
known  as  the  Raptoria  or  graspers.  They  have 
the  prothorax  long  and  the  front  legs  fitted  for 
grasping  their  prey.  The  head  is  oblique  and 
generally  three-cornered.  They  are  much  more 
abundant  in  tropical  regions  than  elsewhere,  and 
exhibit  striking  instances  of  protective  resem- 
blance and  aggressive  resemblance.    The  so-called 


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KAHTia 

'flower  mantes'  of  tropical  countries  resemble  the 
flowers  of  certain  plants,  and  in  these  flowers 
they  lurk  awaiting  the  visits  of  the  insects  upon 
which  they  feed.  The  term  'praying*  insects  has 
been  derived  from  the  attitude  which  they  assume 
when  at  rest  or  when  waiting  to  ^rasp  another 
insect;  the  knees  are  bent  and  the  front  lees 
are  held  as  though  supporting  a  prayer-book. 
The  commonest  North  American  species  is  the 
'rear-horse*  or  'mule-killer'  {Btagmomantie 
Carolina),  but  the  European  (ManiiM  reUgio- 
aa)  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States 
by  accident,  and  has  become  acclimatized. 
The  eggs  of  the  Mantid»  are  laid  in  tough 
cases  attached  to  the  twigs  of  trees,  where 
the  young  when  hatched  begin  immediately  ^ 
to  feed  upon  plant-lice  or  other  small  soft-bodied 
insects,  the  size  of  the  insects  attacked  increas- 
ing with  the  growth  of  the  mantes.  They  have 
always  been  recognized  as  beneficial  insects,  but 
they  are  indiscriminate  in  their  diet,  and  will 
feed  upon  other  beneficial  insects  as  well  as  upon 
injurious  forms.  Their  eggs  are  frequently  para- 
sitized by  a  very  curious  chalcis-fly  of  the*genu8 
Podagrion,  which  by  means  of  a  long  ovipositor 
is  enabled  to  pierce  the  tough  egg  cases  of  the 
mantes. 

These  insects  seem  always  to  have  been  re- 
ffarded  with  superstitious  awe.  They  were  used 
by  the  Greeks  in  soothsaying,  and  the  Hindus 
display  a  reverential  consideration  of  their  move- 
ments and  flight.  In  Southern  France  the  peas- 
ants believe  that  they  point  out  a  lost  way;  the 
Turks  and  other  Moslems  recognize  intelligence 
and  pious  intentions  in  the  actions  of  the  mantis ; 
a  South  African  species  is,  or  was,  venerated  by 
the  Hottentots;  the  Chinese  and  the  Javanese 
keep  them  in  cages  and  cause  them  to  fight  for 
wagers. 

MANTISSA.     See  Logabithhs. 

MANTIS  SHBUCP,  or  Sea  Mantis.  A  large 
burrowing  crustacean  (SquUla  empuaa),  of  the 
order  Stomapoda,  which  lives  in  large  irregular 
holes  which  it  excavates  at  or  near  low-water 
mark  of  spring  tides.  It  is  so  called  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  great  spiny  claw  to  that  of 
the  mantis  (q.v.).  This  claw  is  borne  on  the  legs 
of  the  second  pair,  and  instead  of  ending  in  a  for- 
ceps-like claw,  which  is  armed  with  a  row  of 
six  sharp  curved  spines  fitting  into  correspondinjg 
sockets,  the  terminal  joint  is  turned  back  and  is 
attached  to  the  penultimate  segment  like  the 
blade  of  a  pocket  knife  to  the  handle.  By  means 
of  these  singular  organs,  says  Verrill,  the  shrimps 
hold  their  prey  securely,  and  can  give  a  severe 
wound  to  the  human  hand,  if  handled  incautious- 
ly. It  has  large  eyes,  but,  as  it  remains  in  its 
burrow  constantly,,  it  is  blind,  the  facets  of  the 
eye  being  partly  atrophied.  It  lives  chiefly  on 
annelid  worms.  The  European  species  is  used  as 
food,  and  the  American  species  is  probably  edible. 

KANTLE  (AS.  mcentel,  mentel,  OF.  mantel, 
Fr.  manteau,  from  Lat.  mantellum,  mantelum, 
cloak,  mantle,  from  Lat.  manus,  hand  -j-  tela, 
texture,  from  texere,  to  weave,  Skt.  takf,  to  cut, 
to  fashion).  A  long  flowing  robe,  worn  in  the 
Middle  Ages  over  the  armor,  and  fastened  by  a 
fibula  in  front,  or  at  the  right  shoulder.  The 
mantle  is  an  important  part  of  the  official  in- 
signia of  the  various  orders  of  knighthood.  La- 
dies of  rank  wore  similar  mantles,  in  many  in- 
stances decorated  with  heraldic  charges,  in  which 


14  MANTUA. 

case  the  mantle  bore  either  the  impaled  arms  of 
the  lady  and  her  husband,  or  her  husband's  arms 
only. 

MANTLINO,  Lakbbequin,  or  Contoise.  A 
heraldic  ornament  attached  to  the  helmet.  Some- 
times it  is  cut  into  irregular  strips  and  curls  of 
the  most  capricious  forms,  supposed  to  indicate 
that  it  has  been  torn  on  the  field  of  battle;  but 
usually  the  strips  fall  in  graceful,  fiowing  lines. 
In  British  heraldry  the  mantling  of  the  sovereign 
is  of  gold  lined  with  ermine;  that  of  peers 
ordinarily  of  crimson  velvet  lined  with  ermine; 
but  sometimes  the  livery  colors  (see  Livebt) 
are  adopted  instead,  as  is  generally  the  practice 
in  Continental  heraldry.    See  Hebaldbt. 

MANTBASy  mftn'tr&z.  A  people  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Malacca  and  Rembau,  formerly  regarded 
as  a  Negrito  people  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  but 
more  recently  described  as  Sakai-Malay  half- 
breeds.  The  mixture  of  these  peoples  has  result- 
ed in  giving  the  Mantras  a  somewhat  taller  stat- 
ure than  the  Sakai  and  a  whiter  skin. 

MANTXTAy  mfin^fi-^  (It.  Mantova).  A  city 
of  Lombardy,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Mincio,  25 
miles  by  rail  southwest  of  Verona  (Map:  Italy, 
E  2).  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Duchy 
of  Mantua  and  is  now  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name.  It  occupies  two  islands  in 
the  river  and  is  elaborately  fortified.  Three 
lakes  formed  by  the  river  half  surroimd  the 
town  and  there  are  marshes  adjacent.  It  is 
not  a  healthful  city.  Architecturally  it  is  in- 
teresting on  account  of  the  Renaissance  churches  ' 
and  secular  edifices  by  Alberti  (q.v.)  and  other 
great  builders.  It  is  still  more  prominent  in  the 
world  of  painting,  owing  to  the  works  of  Man- 
tegna  and  Giulio  Romano,  both  of  whom  resided 
here.  The  inadequate  population  and  the  sullen 
massive  grandeur  of  the  edifices  explain  why  the 
traveler  in  Mantua  associates  the  city  with  a 
gloomy  decadence.  The  streets  are  regular  and 
spacious,  but  poorly  paved.  There  are  several 
fine  squares.  The  most  important  church  is  the 
spacious  Sant'  Andrea.  Begun  in  1472  as  a  crea- 
tion of  Alberti,  it  has  been  subjected  to  many 
changes  of  plan  during  the  centuries.  Its  white 
facade  of  marble  is  adorned  with  a  portico,  and 
contrasts  curiously  with  the  adjacent  red  brick 
campanile.  The  interior  (110  yards  long)  con- 
tains many  frescoes  by  prominent  artists.  The 
Cathedral  of  San  Pietro  is  not  attractive,  but 
has  a  fine  ceiling. 

The  Corte  Reale,  formerly  the  ducal  palace 
of  the  Gonzagas  and  now  consigned  to  military 
purposes,  is  a  notable  structure  dating  from  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.  It  was  em- 
bellished with  frescoes  by  Giulio  Romano.  Its 
apartments  are  of  exceptional  interest  for  their 
varied  decorations,  representing  the  most  delight- 
ful Italian  period  of  the  art  of  interior  ornamen- 
tation. Another  fine  old  Mantuan  palace  is  the 
Palazzo  del  Th,  constructed  by  Giulio  Romano, 
and  adorned  by  him  in  a  most  artistic  style.  Some 
of  the  frescoes  are  excellent.  The  friezes  in  the 
loggia  are  by  Primaticcio,  who  was  educated  in 
Mantua  under  Giulio  Romano.  In  the  old  castle 
of  the  Gk)nzagas  is  a  collection  of  archives.  Among 
the  frescoes  here  by  Mantegna  only  two  remain  in 
a  satisfactory  condition.  The  Vergil ian  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  contains  some  specimens  of 
art.  The  neighboring  library  in  the  Lyceum  has 
a  work  by  Rubens,  who  lived  and  studied  in  Man- 


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ICANTUA. 


tua  several  years.  In  the  adjacent  museum  are 
some  good  Qreek  busts  and  sarcophagi,  and  the 
iiuseo  Patrio  possesses  other  antiquities.  A 
statue  of  Dante  and  the  house  of  Giulio  Romano 
are  shown  as  attractions  to  the  visitor  in  Mantua. 
The  city  has  a  theological  institute,  a  botanical 
garden,  an  astronomical  observatory,  a  public  li- 
brary with  80,000  volumes,  and  an  excellent, 
ccnnmodious  military  hospital.  The  trade  and 
manxifactures  are  unimportant.  Population 
(commune),  in  1901,  29,142. 

HifiiOBT.  Mantua  was  originally  an  Etruscan 
city.  It  became  a  Roman  municipium  just  be- 
fore the  time  of  Vergil,  who  was  bom  in  the 
neighboring  village  of  Andes.  The  town  rose  to 
importance  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  be- 
came one  of  the  city  republics  and  a  member  of 
the  Lombard  League.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  began  the  rule  of  the  House  of 
Bonacoolai,  who  was  succeeded  in  1328  by  the 
House  of  Gonzaga.  A  century  later  Mantua  with 
its  territory  was  erected  into  a  marquisate,  and 
from  1530  the  €k)nzagas  were  dukes  of  Majitua. 
The  State  prospered  greatly  under  this  dynasty, 
its  political  power  and  territory  being  increased 
at  the  expense  of  Venice  and  Milan.  The  Gon- 
zagas  were  liberal  patrons  of  the  arts  and  learn- 
ing. After  the  Mantuan  War  of  Succession 
(1628-30)  the  city  began  to  decline.  The  last 
I>uke  was  driven  away  in  1703  and  died  in  1708, 
and  Mantua  fell  to  Austria.  The  French  took  the 
city  in  1797.  It  wa^  left  to  the  Austrians  by  the 
Treaty  of  Villafranca  (1859),  and  was  ceded  to 
Italy  1866.  During  the  Austrian  occupation 
it  was  of  great  military  importance  and  constitut- 
ed one  of  the  so-called  Quadrilateral  of  fortresses, 
the  others  being  Verona,  Legnago,  and  Peschiera. 
See  Gk>i7ZA0A,  House  of. 

MANTTTAN  BABD,  KANTUAN  SWAN. 
Titles  applied  to  Vergil  in  allusion  to  his  birth- 
place, Mantua. 

MANXr,  nia'n<5(5  (from  Skt.  manu,  man).  An 
ancient  mythical  sage  of  India,  the  progenitor 
of  mankind,  according  to  the  Hindus,  and  the 
reputed  author  of  the  great  law-book  known  as 
the  CJode  of  Manu  (Skt.  Mdnava-Dharma-SHstra) , 

There  is  no  good  groimd  for  accepting  the  ex- 
istence of  Manu  as  a  historical  personage.  In 
the  Rig  Veda  he  is  merely  the  ancestor  of  the 
human  race,  the  first  one  to  offer  a  sacrifice  to  the 
gods.  In  the  Satapatha  Brahmana  and  in  the 
Siahabharata  he  alone  survives  the  imiversal 
deluge.  In  the  first  chapter  of  the  law-book  as- 
crib^  to  him,  he  declares  himself  to  have  been 
produced  by  Viraj,  who  was  an  offspring  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  to  have  created  all  this  uni- 
verse. Hindu  mythology  knows,  moreover,  a  suc- 
cession of  Manus,  each  of  whom  created,  in  his 
own  period,  the  world  anew  after  it  had  perished 
at  the  end  of  a  mundane  age. 

The  Manava-DharmorSastra,  written  in  verse, 
is  a  collection  of  religious  ordinances,  customs, 
and  traditions,  such  as  would  naturally  grow  up 
by  established  usage  and  receive  divine  sanction 
in  course  of  time.  This  work  is  not  a  mere  law- 
book in  the  European  sense  of  the  word;  it  is 
likewise  a  system  of  cosmogony;  it  propounds 
metaphysical  doctrines,  teaches  the  art  of  govern- 
ment, and  treats  of  the  state  of  the  soul  after 
death.  In  short,  it  is  the  religious,  secular, 
and  spiritual  code  of  Brahmanism.  It  is  di- 
Tided  into  twelve  books.     The  chief  topics  are 


15  MAKTTAL  TBAIKINa. 

the  following:  (1)  Creation;  (2)  education 
and  the  duties  of  a  pupil,  or  the  first  or- 
der; (3)  marriage  and  the  duties  of  a  house- 
holder, or  the  second  order;  (4)  means  of  sub- 
sistence, and  personal  morality;  (5)  diet,  puri- 
fication, and  the  duties  of  women;  (6)  the  duties 
of  an  anchorite  and  an  ascetic,  or  the  duties  of 
the  third  and  fourth  orders;  (7)  government, 
and  the  duties  of  a  king  and  the  military  caste; 

(8)  judicature  and  law,  private  and  criminal; 

(9)  continuation  of  the  former,  and  the  duties  of 
the  commercial  and  servile  castes;  (10)  mixed 
castes  and  the  duties  of  the  castes  in  time  of  dis- 
tress; (11)  penance  and  expiation;  (12)  trans- 
migration and  final  beatitude. 

The  text  of  Manu  has  often  been  edited  and 
translated,  as  by  Jolly,  Mdnava-Dharma-S^tra 
(London,  1887),  by  Mandlik,  with  seven  native 
commentaries  (Bombay,  1886),  and  in  the  series 
of  the  Nimaya  Sagara  Press  (Bombay,  1887). 
There  are  several  translations;  especially  by 
Btthler,  The  Lawn  of  Manu  (Oxford,  1886)  ;  and 
by  Bumell  and  Hopkins,  The  Ordinances  of  Mamu 
(London,  1884).  Consult,  also,  Hopkins,  Mutual 
Relations  of  the  Four  Castes  According  to  the 
Mdnavadharmagdstram  (Leipzig,  1881);  Joly, 
Reoht  und  Bitte  (Strassburg,  1896). 

MAJrCTAL  (Lat.  manualis,  relating  to  the 
hand,  from  manus,  hand).  The  keyboard  of  an 
organ  played  by  tiie  hands,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  pedal,  played  by  the  feet.  The  number  of 
manuals  varies  from  two  to  four  according  to 
the  size  of  the  organ.  In  older  French  organs 
even  five  manuals  are  found.  The  names  of  the 
different  manuals  are:  (1)  Great  organ;  (2) 
choir-manual;  (3)  swell-manual;  (4)  solo-man- 
ual; (5)  echo-manual.  Each  manual  really  is  a 
separate  organ  in  itself,  having  its  own  set  of 
pipes  and  stops.  By  means  of  couplers  any  or 
all  of  the  manuals  can  be  connected,  so  that  by 
striking  a  n6te  on  one  manual  the  same  note 
soimds  on  all  the  other  manuals  that  are 
coupled.  The  usual  compass  of  manuals  is  four 
octaves  and  a  fifth,  C-g*. 

KAKUAL  OF  ABICS.  A  text-book  of  rules 
and  explanations  for  the  instruction  of  military 
recruits  in  the  use  of  their  arms  and  their  care 
and  preservation.  The  Manual  of  Arms  owes 
much  of  its  elaborateness,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  England,  to  its  German  origin.  In 
this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  while 
the  manual  remains  practically  unchanged  in 
the  two  former  coimtries,  the  exercise  in  Ger- 
many has  dwindled  to  three  positions,  viz.: 
Slope  arms,  order  arms,  and  present  arms.  In 
the  United  States  Army  all  drills  are  prefaced 
and  concluded  with  an  examination  of  cartridge 
chambers,  as  a  precaution  against  accidents,  and 
for  purposes  of  instruction  the  movements  are 
divided  into  motions,  and  executed  in  detail. 
The  command  of  execution  determines  the  prompt 
execution  of  the  first  motion,  and  the  commands 
Two,  Three,  etc.,  the  other  motions.  The  com- 
mands and  movements  of  the  manual  of  arms 
are  given  after  the  soldier  is  in  position  with  rifle 
at  the  order,  and  are  as  follows:  (1)  Order 
arms;  (2)  present  arms;  (3)  right  shoulder 
arms;  (4)  port  arms.  Other  movements  are: 
(5)  Parade-rest;  (6)  fix  bayonets;  (7)  charge 
bayonets. 

MANTTAL  TRAIHINO.  This  terra,  in  spite 
of  c<Hisiderable  criticism,  has  come  to  be  gener- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


JCANXTAL  TBAOmra. 


16 


MAKTTAL  TBAIHIKa. 


ally  applied  to  the  use  of  constructive  hand  work 
in  the  schools,  as  a  feature  of  general  education. 
The  term  ia  broadly  used  to  include  the  work  of 
both  boys  and  girls  in  various  materials,  in 
which  case  instruction  in  domestic  art  and 
science  is  understood,  but  it  is  often  used  in  a 
narrower  sense  as  relating  only  to  the  work  with 
tools  commonly  given  to  boys. 

The  earliest  official  recognition  of  manual 
training  as  a  legitimate  part  of  school  work  was 
obtained  in  European  countries.  As  early  as 
1858;  Uno  Cygnffius  organized  a  plan  of  manual 
training  for  the  primary  schools  of  Finland,  and 
in  1866  instruction  in  some  branch  of  manual 
work  was  made  compulsory  in  the  training  col- 
leges for  male  teachers  in  that  country,  and  in  all 
primary  schools  for  boys  in  coimtry  districts. 
Sweden  is,  however,  the  country  which  con- 
tributed most  toward  the  early  development  of 
manual  training,  and  from  which  has  come  the 
largest  influence  in  its  propagation.  In  1872 
the  (rovemment  reached  the  conclusion  that 
schools  for  instruction  in  Sloyd  were  necessary 
to  counteract  the  tendency  toward  concentration 
in  cities,  and  the  decline  of  the  old  home  indus- 
tries. The  schools  first  established  had  natu- 
rally an  economic  rather  than  an  educational 
significance.  This  was  changed,  however,  as  the 
movement  grew,  until  a  thoroughly  organized 
scheme  of  educational  tool  work  for  lK>ys  ^tween 
twelve  and  fifteen  years  of  age  was  developed. 
In  1877  the  work  was  introduced  into  the  folk- 
school,  and  the  Government  granted  aid  in  sup- 
port of  the  instruction.  In  1897  it  is  reported 
that  Sloyd  instruction  was  ^ven  in  about  2000 
schools.  The  Sloyd  Seminarium  at  NlUls,  estab- 
lished in  1874  under  the  direction  of  Otto  Solo- 
man,  has  not  only  been  an  active  and  stimulating 
force  in  the  development  of  the  work  in  Sweden, 
but  has  exercised  a  far-reaching  influence  upon 
the  thought  and  practice  of  other  coimtries.  At 
present  Sloyd  is  taught  in  all  the  regular  normal 
schools  of  the  country. 

In  France  manual  training  was  made  obliga- 
tory in  the  elementary  primary  schools  by  the 
law  of  1882.  The  official  programme  for  manual 
training  is  very  complete  and  thorough,  but  its 
provisions  are  only  partially  realized  because 
of  the  failure  of  communes  to  provide  workshops, 
and  of  the  insufficient  supply  of  trained  teachers. 
In  Paris  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  schools 
were  equipped  with  workshops  in  1897-98,  and  at 
this  time  one-third  of  the  regular  teachers  in 
the  city  schools  had  taken  normal  courses  in 
manual  training.  A  feature  of  the  French  work 
is  the  variety  of  materials  and  processes  used, 
and  the  fact  that  hand-work  instruction  has  been 
planned  for  every  grade  of  the  elementary  pri- 
mary school. 

Germany,  although  the  seat  of  a  very  active 
propaganda  issuing  from  the  German  Association 
for  Manual  Training  for  Boys,  has  done  very 
little  toward  incorporating  manual  training  with 
the  regular  work  of  the  common  schools.  A  large 
number  of  workshops  have  been  established  in 
various  parts  of  the  Empire,  supported  mainly 
by  individuals  and  societies,  in  which  pupils  of 
the  public  schools  are  given  instruction  out  of 
school  hours.  The  educational  ministries  of 
Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Baden  now  make  annual 
contributions  in  aid  of  this  instruction,  but  the 
work  is  obligatory  in  only  a  very  few  places. 
Manual  work  for  girls,  on  the  other  hand,  has 


been  for  a  long  time  a  compulsory  branch  of  in- 
struction in  the  common  schools  of  Germany.  The 
Manual  Training  Seminary  at  Leipzig,  founded 
in  1887  by  the  Association  for  Manual  Training 
for  Boys,  imder  the  leadership  of  Dr.  Waldemar 
Gotze,  is  the  active  centre  of  the  movement,  and 
the  main  institution  for  the  training  of  teachers. 

The  history  of  manual  training  in  the  United 
States  involves  both  the  development  of  the  idea 
and  the  development  of  practice.  Expressions 
of  the  layman's  point  of  view  are  presented  in 
such  booKB  as  the  following:  Ham,  Manual  Traiiu 
ing  (London,  1886)  ;  McArthur,  Education  in  its 
Relation  to  Manual  Industry  (New  York,  1884)  ; 
Jacobson,  Higher  Ground  (Chicago,  1888).  In 
the  field  of  practice,  little  of  a  purely  educational 
character  appeared  before  1878,  at  which  time 
the  Workingman's  School  was  founded  by  the 
Ethical  Culture  Society  of  New  York.  This  in- 
stitution comprised  a  kindergarten  and  an  ele- 
mentary school,  in  which  manual  work  formed 
from  the  first  a  vital  and  important  part  of  the 
educational  scheme.  The  general  movement^ 
however,  took  its  large  beginning,  as  has  been 
the  case  with  so  many  educational  movements^ 
at  the  top  inst&E^  of  the  bottom  of  the  school 
system.  In  1880,  through  the  efforts  of  Dr. 
Calvin  A.  Woodward,  the  Saint  Louis  Manual 
Training  School  was  opened  in  connection  with 
Washington  University.  The  work  of  this  school 
attracted!  wide  attention,  and  its  success  led  to  thm 
speedy  organization  of  similar  schools  in  other 
large  cities:  Chicago,  Baltimore,  and  Toledo, 
1884;  Philadelphia,  1885;  Cleveland,  Cincinnati^ 
and  Omaha,  1886.  The  first  provision  for  girls* 
work  in  these  schools  was  made  in  the  case  of  the 
Toledo  school,  and  included  sewing,  dressmaking, 
millinery,  and  cooking.  In  1895  the  Massachu- 
setts Legislature,  under  the  lead  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education,  made  it  obligatory  upon 
every  city  in  the  State  of  30,000  or  more  inhab- 
itants to  establish  and  maintain  manual  training 
in  a  high  school. 

The  rapid  development  of  this  type  of  second- 
ary school  has  resulted  in  an  institution  peculiar- 
ly American.  In  other  countries  the  introduction 
and  spread  of  manual  training  has  been  confined 
to  the  elementary  school,  and  no  institution  ex- 
ists in  Europe,  of  a  purely  educational  character, 
that  presents  any  parallel  to  the  comprehensive 
and  costly  equipment  of  these  schools.  The  shop- 
work  comprises  joinery,  turning,  pattern-making, 
forging,  and  machine  work,  and  sometimes  foun- 
dry practice  and  tinsmithing.  The  nature  of 
this  work  has  been  very  similar  in  the  various 
schools,  and  until  late  years  has  been  almost 
imiformly  based  upon  the  principles  of  the 
'Russian  System.'  The  central  idea  of  this  system 
of  shopwork  instruction,  developed  in  a  technical 
school  for  the  instruction  of  engineers,  is  the 
analysis  of  a  craft  into  its  elementary  processes 
and  constructions,  and  the  presentation  of  these 
details  in  an  orderly  and  sequential  scheme  as 
separate  elements.  Compared  with  the  develop- 
ment of  manual  training  in  the  high  school,  the 
introduction  of  the  work  in  the  public  element- 
ary school  came  at  first  but  slowly.  Experi- 
mental classes  in  carpentry,  the  expense  for 
which  was  borne  by  Mrs.  Quincy  A.  Shaw,  were 
conducted  at  the  Dwight  School  in  Boston,  in 
1882.  These  were  taken  under  the  care  of  the 
city  and  transferred  to  temporary  quarters  in 
the  English  High  School  building  in  1884,  but 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MAKTTAL  TBAIKING. 


17 


TUlNTTEL  n.,  FAIiJEOLOaXTS. 


the  work  did  not  receive  a  place  in  the  course  of 
study  until  1888.  In  Springfield,  Mass.,  sewing 
was  introduced  in  the  schools  in  1884,  and  in 
1886  a  manual  training  school  was  established, 
at  which  pupils  coming  voluntarily  from  the  ele- 
mentary schools  received  instruction  in  knife- 
work.  In  1885  the  Legislature  of  New  Jersey 
passed  a  law  providing  that  the  State  would 
duplicate  any  amount  between  $500  and  $5000 
raised  by  a  city  or  town  for  instruction  in  manual 
training.  This  led  to  the  early  introduction  of 
the  work  in  a  number  of  places  in  various  parts 
of  the  State.  In  1888  the  city  of  New  York 
began  the  introduction  of  a  manual  training 
course  of  study,  including  drawing,  sewing,  cook- 
ing, and  woodwork. 

All  this  early  work  was  <irude  and  experi- 
mental, and  it  was  not  until  the  influence  ema- 
nating from  the  Sloyd  School  of  Boston  began  to 
be  felt  that  tool  work  for  boys  in  the  elementary 
school  took  on  a  more  dd^ite  character.  A 
vital  principle  of  the  Sloyd  work  is  the  appeal 
to  the  interest  of  the  worker  through  the  con- 
struction of  a  finished  object  of  definite  use  re- 
lated, generally,  to  the  needs  of  home  life.  This 
principle  has  gained  general  acceptance  in  the 
work  of  the  elementary  school,  and  has  to  quite 
an  extent  modified  the  character  of  the  work 
done  in  the  high  schools.  From  the  upper  grades 
of  the  grammar  school  with  the  provisions  for 
shopwork  for  boys,  and  cooking  and  sewing  for 
girls,  hand  work  has  made  considerable  progress 
in  its  way  downward.  Work  in  clay,  paper,  card- 
board, sewing,  weaving,  basketry,  bent  iron,  and 
simple  wood  construction  are  the  processes  most 
commonly  employed. 

Consult:  Dewey,  The  Bohool  a/nd  Society  (Chi- 
cago, 1899)  ;  James,  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychol- 
ogy (New  York,  1899) ;  Parker,  Talks  on  Peda- 
gogics (New  York,  1894) ;  Salomon,  The  Theory 
of  Educational  Sloyd  (Boston,  1896) ;  Ware,  The 
Educational  Foundations  of  Trade  and  Indus^ 
try  (New  York,  1901) ;  and  the  Proceedings  of 
the  National  Educational  Association,  Data  on 
the  early  history  of  the  movement  in  the  United 
States  are  contained  in  part  ii.  of  the  Report  upon 
Education  in  the  Industrial  and  Fine  Arts  in  the 
United  States^  issued  by  the  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Education. 

MANTJ'CHE^  or  MANTJCCI,  Cosmo.  An 
English  dramatist  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It 
appears  that  he  was  aided  in  hia  literary  en- 
deavors by  James  Compton,  Earl  of  Northamp- 
ton, of  whose  retinue  he  was  a  member.  During 
the  civil  wars  he  was  successively  captain  and 
major  of  infantry,  and  afterwards  he  busied 
himself  in  the  instructing  of  private  pupils  and 
the  writing  of  plays.  His  poverty  was  somewhat 
relieved  by  application  first  to  Cromwell,  and 
afterwards  to  Charles  II.  Twelve  plays,  nine  in 
manuscript  and  three  printed,  are  generally  as- 
cribed to  him.  There  is  no  evidence  that  any  was 
presented.  One,  The  Just  General  (1652),  de- 
scribed as  a  *tragi-comedy/  is  written  throughout 
in  a  peculiar  rhythmical  blank  verse,  scarcely  dif- 
ferent from  prose.  Consult :  Lamb,  Specimens  of 
the  English  Dramatic  Poets  (London,  1808;  and 
subsequent  editions)  ;  Fleay,  A  Biographical 
Cfhroniole  of  the  English  Drama,  1559-1642  (Lon- 
don, 1891). 

XANTTCODE  (Malay  Manukdevata,  bird  of 
the  gods).     The  name  originally  given  to  the 


king  bird-of-paradise,  but  now  applied  to  certain 
Papuan  birds  probably  not  relatives  of  the  Para- 
diseidffi  at  all.  They  have  glossy,  steel-blue 
plumage,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  vocal 
powers.  Lesson,  Forbes,  and  other  ornithologists 
assert  that  they  are  able  to  pass  through  every 
note  of  the  gamut.  Eight  or  ten  species  are 
known,  of  which  Manuc^Ddia  viridis  is  common 
throughout  the  entire  Papuan  region.  It  is  de- 
scribed by  Wallace  as  being  powerful  and  active, 
clinging  to  the  smaller  branches  of  the  trees 
on  which  it  finds  the  fruit  that  constitutes  its 
food. 

irANTTBLI.,COMNEanTS  (1120-80).  By- 
zantine Emperor  from  1143  to  1180.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  the  Emperor  Calo- 
johannes,  whom  he  succeeded  upon  the  throne. 
He  became  at  once  involved  in  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  wars  in  Asia  and  Europe.  In  1144  Ray- 
mond, Prince  of  Antioch,  who  had  thrown  off 
the  Byzantine  yoke,  was  compelled  to  submit 
again  to  vassalage.  In  1147  the  Crusaders,  un- 
der Louis  VII.  of  France  and  Conrad  III.  of 
Germany,  marched  through  Manuel's  dominions 
without  serious  hindrance  on  his  part,  as  he  was 
at  this  time  entangled  in  a  war  with  Roger,  King 
of  Sicily.  This  confiict  proved  a  long  and  ardu- 
ous one.  For  a  time  the  Byzantine  arms  were 
victorious,  but  the  fortune  of  war  changed  and 
no  substantial  gain  resulted.  Manuel  was  en- 
gaged in  protracted  wars  with  the  Seljuks,  who 
in  1176  defeated  his  forces  in  a  great  battle  at 
Myriocephalon.  He  sought  to  drive  Frederick 
Barbarossa  out  of  Italy,  but  failed.  He  also 
waged  war  with  the  Hungarians  and  with  the 
Venetians,  being  unsuccessful  against  the  latter. 
He  died  September  24,  1180.  The  reign  of  Manuel 
was  one  of  great  splendor,  but  the  expenses  of  the 
numerous  wars  and  his  policy  of  allowing  the 
Italians  to  monopolize  the  trade  sapped  the 
strength  of  the  Empire.  Consult:  Taiel,  Kom- 
nenen  und  Normarmen  (2d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1870)  ; 
Kap-Herr,  Ahendldndische  Politik  Kaiser  Manuels 
(Strassburg,  1881);  Finlay,  History  of  Greece, 
vol.  iii.  (London,  1877). 

MANUEL  II.,  FAIiiEOI/OGnS  (1348- 
1425).  Byzantine  Emperor  from  1391  to  1425. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  John  V.,  as  sole  ruler 
after  he  had  been  an  associate  in  the  Empire 
since  1373.  Fearing  that  Constantinople  would 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  Manuel  applied 
for  aid  to  the  Western  princes,  whose  army  was 
defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  Bajazet  (q.v.) 
at  Nicopolis,  in  1398.  In  1398  a  nephew  of 
Manuel  with  the  aid  of  Bajazet  rose  in  rebellion, 
and  the  Emperor  was  compelled  to  make  him  co- 
Emperor.  He  was  known  as  John  VII.  Manuel 
was  in  constant  peril  until  Bajazet  was  defeated 
by  Timur  at  Angora,  in  1402,  and  taken  prisoner. 
After  the  death  of  Bajazet  in  1403  Manuel 
reigned  in  peace  for  eighteen  years,  for  the  yoimg 
Sultan  Monammed  I.  was  his  intimate  friend. 
But  when  in  1421  Mohammed  died  and  Amurath 
II.  came  to  the  throne,  the  old  contest  was  re- 
newed. In  1422  Constantinople  was  besieged, 
and  although  the  siege  failed,  Manuel  had  to 
sign  a  humiliating  treaty.  He  retired  to  a  mon- 
astery in  1423,  after  a  severe  illness,  his  son  John 
VIII.  becoming  practically  the  sole  ruler.  Manu- 
el died  in  1425.  Consult  Xivrey,  "Sur  la  vie  et 
les  ouvrages  de  Vempereur  Manuel  Pal6ologue," 
in  M&moires  de  VAcad^mie  des  Inscriptions,  vol. 
xix.  (Paris,  1853). 


Digitized  by 


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MANUEL  I. 


18 


MANXnB'ACTXnBtEB& 


MANUEL  L,  THE  Great  (14691521).  A 
King  of  Portugal,  in  whose  reign  that  country 
attained  the  highest  pitch  of  power  and  splendor. 
He  succeeded  <K>hn  Ii.  in  1495,  ruled  throughout 
with  the  help  of  the  Cortes,  and  did  much  for 
art  and  letters  by  his  generous  patronage.  The 
only  blot  on  his  domestic  administration  was  his 
persecution  of  the  Jews.  But  the  same  militant 
Christianity  led  him  to  attempt  conquests  in 
Africa,  in  which  he  was  unsuccessful,  to  enter 
into  diplomatic  relations  with  many  far-off  lands, 
and  to  fit  out  great  expeditions  of  exploration 
and  c(Hiquest.  It  was  Manuel  who  sent  Vasco 
da  Gama  around  the  Cape,  Cabral  upon  the  voy- 
age which  resulted  in  the  accidental  discovery  of 
l^uth  America,  Cortereal  to  North  America,  and 
Almeida  and  Albuquerque  to  the  East  Indies, 
where  a  wide  field  was  opened  for  Portuguese 
commerce. 

MANUEL,  mk'nj^'^V,  Eug£:ne  (1823-1901). 
A  French  poet  and  prose  writer,  bom  in  Paris 
of  Jewish  parents.  From  1849  to  1871  he  taught 
rhetoric  in  different  Parisian  lyceums.  He  was 
appointed  chief  of  cabinet  to  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  in  1871,  a  year  later  was 
made  inspector  of  the  Academv  of  Paris,  and 
in  1878  inspector-general.  With  his  brother-in- 
law,  E.  L6vi-Alvarfes,  he  published  four  voliunes 
of  lectures  for  the  use  of  students,  entitled  La 
France  (1864-55;  6th  ed.  1868).  Several  of  his 
verse  collections  were  crowned  by  the  Academy. 
They  include:  Pages  intimes  {Sd  ed.,  1869); 
Po&mes  populaires  (1871);  Pendant  la  guerre 
(1871)  ;  Un  voyage  (5th  ed.  1890)  ;  Ponies  du 
foyer  et  de  l'4cole  (16th  ed.  1892).  His  play 
Lea  ouvriera  (1870)  also  received  academic  hon- 
ors, and  Mme.  Sarah  Bernhardt  made  her  first 
appearance  at  the  CJomfidie  Francaise  in  his 
drama  L'ahaent  ( 1873) .  Manuel  edited  the  (Euvres 
lyriquea  de  Jean  Baptiate  Rouaaeau  (1852)  and 
Ch^nier's  Po^aiea  ( 1884) . 

MANUEL,  mrnv'ftl',  Don  Juan  (1282-1349). 
A  Spanish  prince  and  author,  bom  at  Escalona. 
He  was  the  nephew  of  Alfonso  X.,  called  *the 
Wise.'  His  father  died  in  his  youth,  and  he  was 
brought  up  by  his  cousin,  Sancho  IV.,  who  was 
succ^ded  by  Ferdinand  IV.  Upon  his  death, 
Don  Manuel  was  co-regent  for  the  young  heir 
Alfonso  XI.  (1320).  When  the  King  reached 
his  majority  he  refused  to  marry  Constance,  the 
daughter  of  Don  Manuel,  or  in  other  ways  recog- 
nize his  authority.  From  1327  to  1335  there  was 
active  war  between  them,  ending  in  the  King's 
victory.  He  afterwards  received  Don  Manuel 
into  favor,  and  made  him  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  against  the  Moors.  Don  Manuel  is  bet- 
ter remembered  now  as  author  than  as  soldier. 
His  prose  is  clear,  vigorous,  and  interesting. 
Several  of  his  works  may  be  found  in  Riva- 
deneyra's  Bihlioteca  de  autorea  eapaAoleSy  vol. 
xi.  ('Madrid,  1884).  The  most  important  of  them 
is  the  Conde  Luoanor  (1575),  with  a  commen- 
tary by  Gonzalo  Argote  de  Molina.  This  con- 
sists of  forty-nine  stories,  told  somewhat  in  the 
Oriental  manner,  with  a  little  moral  in  verse  at 
the  end  of  each  tale.  More  modern  editions  of 
El  Conde  Lucanor  are  those  of  Stuttgart  (1839), 
Barcelona  (1853),  and  Madrid  (1860).  There 
is  an  English  translation  by  James  York  (Lon- 
don, 1868  and  1888). 

MANUEL,  mA'nv'Sr,  Nikolaus  (1484-1530). 
A  Swiss  painter,  poet,  and  magistrate,  bom  at 


Bern.  His  early  profession  was  probably  that 
of  painter  and  engraver,  and  in  his  youth  he 
traveled  a  good  deal,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Titian 
at  Venice.  Upon  his  return  to  Bern  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Great  Senate  (1512),  and  after- 
wards served  in  the  French  Army.  He  was  a 
pronounced  supporter  of  the  Swiss  reformation. 
His  writings  include  the  satirical  comedies:  Vom 
Papst  und  aeiner  Prieaterachaft,  Der  Ahlasa- 
kriimer,  Barheli,  and  Elali  Tragdenknahen,  re- 
edited  by  Tittmann  in  1868  and  Bachtold  in  1878. 
His  works  as  an  artist  are  very  interesting;  they 
consist  of  a  few  oil  and  water-color  paintings,  and 
a  number  of  drawings,  best  studied  in  the  Basel 
Museum.  His  frescoes,  "The  Dance  of  the  Dead," 
painted  on  the  walls  of  the  Dominican  convent 
( 1515-21 )  at  Bern,  were  destroyed,  but  have  been 
well  copied  in  the  twenty-four  lithographs,  Nik- 
laua  Manuela  Totentanz  (Bern,  1829-31). 

MANUEACTUBED  ABTICLE.  A  thing 
which  has  been  created  by  the  application  c3 
labor  to  crude  materials,  whereby  they  are  trans- 
formed into  a  new  and  different  quality,  shape,  or 
form,  having  a  distinctive  name,  character,  or 
use,  and  capable  of  being  used  without  alteration. 
The  term  is  sometimes  confused  with  manufac- 
tured 'products,'  such  as  'pig  iron'  or  'pig  lead,' 
which  are  merely  iron  and  lead  reduced  from  the 
native  ores  and  freed  from  impurities,  and  which 
are,  in  law,  considered  as  'raw'  or  crude  ma- 
terials, ready  to  be  manufactured  into  articles. 
The  word  article,  therefore,  in  its  technical  legal 
sense  means  a  thing  adapted  for  use.  The  dis- 
tinction between  manufactured  articles  and  crude 
or  raw  materials  is  of  great  importance  under 
tariff  and  revenue  acts  where  tne  former  are 
assessed  with  a  higher  rate  of  duty  than  the 
latter.  The  distinction  above  mentioned  has 
been  adopted  by  the  United  States  courts  in  the 
interpretation  of  our  tariff  laws.  For  example, 
india-rubber,  which  is  a  product  obtained  by  re- 
ducing the  juice  or  sap  of  certain  tropical  trees 
and  plants  to  a  solid  form  by  dipping  convenient 
molds  into  it,  and  drying  it  over  a  fire  made 
from  a  peculiar  kind  of  nut,  was  held  not  to  be 
a  manufactured  article  under  a  tariff  act  tax- 
ing articles  made  of  rubber.  The  court  de- 
scribed it  as  a  "raw  material  in  a  more  portable, 
useful,  and  convenient  form  for  other  manufac- 
tures here."  The  court,  however,  held  that  rub- 
ber shoes,  made  by  the  same  process,  except  that 
the  mold  was  in  the  form  of  the  human  foot> 
were  manufactured  articles,  as  they  were  adapted 
for  immediate  use.  Consult:  Carr,  Judicial  In- 
terpretation of  Tariff  Acta  (1894)  ;  Elmes,  Law 
of  the  Cuatoma;  also  the  authorities  referred  to 
under  Sales. 

MANUEACTUBEBS,  National  Assocla- 
TiON  OF.  An  association  of  American  manufac- 
turers organized  in  Cincinnati  in  1805  for  the  pur- 
poses of  increasing  their  export  trade,  influencing 
legislation  affecting  their  interests,  and  of  coping 
with  the  demands  of  labor  organizations.  The 
association  maintains  a  central  office  in  New 
York  which  supplies  members  with  information 
about  foreign  markets,  prices,  credit  reports, 
and  undertakes  through  its  international  freight 
bureau  the  shipment  and  delivery  of  foreign 
consignments.  Its  most  conspicuous  function  is 
the  energetic  campaign  which  it  wages  against 
radical  legislation  and  trade  unionism.  The  pub- 
lic measures  with  which  the  association  has  been 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MANXTPACTTJBEBS. 


most  promineiitly  connected  are  the  reform  of  the 
patent  law  and  of  the  consular  and  postal  ser- 
vices. The  association  has  placed  itself  on  record 
as  not  being  opposed  to  labor  organizations  as 
such,  but  maintains  that  employers  must  be 
free  to  employ  their  working  people  with- 
out interference  on  the  part  of  individual 
organizations  and  that  they  must  be  un- 
molested in  the  management  of  their  business 
and  in  the  use  of  any  methods  or  systems  of  pay 
which  are  equitable.  The  association  provided 
for  the  organization  of  separate  defense  associa- 
tions in  the  different  lines  of  industry  it  repre- 
eents.  Provision  was  further  made  for  the 
federation  of  these  aflUiated  protected  associa- 
tions into  a  "permanent  central  organization  that 
will  create  a  clearing-house  for  ideas  and  provide 
means  for  codperation  on  matters  of  common  in- 
terest." The  association  has  evidently  entered 
upon  a  programme  of  positive  opposition  to  trade 
unionism.  The  association  had,  in  1903,  more 
than  1900  members,  and  claimed  that,  measured 
by  capital  invested,  workmen  employed,  or  prod- 
ucts manufactured,  it  constitutes  the  largest 
trade  body  in  the  world.  The  association  pub- 
lishes the  American  Trade  Index  and  the  Confi- 
dential Bulletin  of  Inquiries  from  Foreign 
Buyers;  its  organ  is  American  Industries,  pub- 
lished semi-monthly  at  New  York. 

MANITFAC^UBES  (ML.  manufactura,  from 
Xiat.  manufaotus,  manu  faotus,  made  by  hand, 
from  manUf  abl.  sg.  of  manuSy  hand,  and  foetus, 
p.p.  of  facere,  to  make) .  In  a  broad  sense  of  the 
term,  manufactures  are  such  forms. of  industry 
as  elaborate  for  economic  use  materials  whicn 
are  themselves  the  product  of  industry.  Manu- 
factures are  thus  distinguished  from  extractive 
industry,  which  procures  wealth  from  nature  in 
its  primary  forms.  In  practice  it  is  difficult  to 
draw  a  hard  and  fast  line  between  these  two 
types  of  industry,  since  many  commodities  which 
are  commonly  classed  as  raw  materials  have  been 
subject  to  one  or  more  elaborative  processes,  as, 
for  example,  raw  cotton,  raw  sugar,  pig  iron. 
The  practice  of  American  statisticians  is  to  class 
with  extractive  industry  processes  which  are  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  exploitation  of  natural 
products.  Butter  and  cheese  which  are  made  on 
the  farm  are  treated  as  agricultural  products; 
when  produced  in  factories  distinct  from  the 
farm  they  are  classed  with  manufactures.  A 
product  in  its  earliest  merchantable  form  may 
then  be  classed  with  raw  materials;  when  sub- 
jected to  further  processes  of  elaboration  it  be- 
comes a  manufactured  commodity.  For  the  tech- 
nical legal  distinction  in  this  matter,  see  Manu- 
factured ABnci£. 

Again,  many  commodities  undergo  minor 
changes  incidental  to  consumption.  The  prepa- 
ration of  food  may  be  cited  as  a  case  in  point. 
Such  processes  are  not  usually  placed  under 
manufactures.  If  the  preparation  of  food  is 
carried  on  in  separate  establishments  with  a 
view  to  supplying  a  market,  it  will  fall  under 
the  head  of  manufactures.  This  distinction  is 
obviously  difficult  to  make  in  practice.  The 
twelfth  census  of  the  United  States  excludes 
from  manufactures  proper  most  forms  of  order 
production,  confining  the  term  to  production  of 
standard  commodities  for  a  general  market. 
From  a  theoretical  point  of  view,  however,  it  is 
better  to  include  under  manufactures  all  proc- 


19  MANXnTACTUBES. 

esses  of  elaboration  of  merchantable  materials 
into  commodities  primarily  designed  for  sale. 

In  this  sense  of  the  term  manufactures  pre- 
suppose a  considerably  developed  economic  life. 
They  did  not  exist  when  each  household  produced 
exclusively  for  its  own  consumption.  In  West^ 
em  Europe  they  were  first  carried  on  under  the 
guilds  (q.v.),  forming,  however,  but  an  insignifi- 
cant part  of  the  economic  life.  With  the  rise  of 
capital  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
manufactures  were  carried  on  more  extensively 
under  the  domestic  system.  The  capitalist-mer- 
chant  put  out  materials  to  be  worked  up  at  home 
by  workmen  whose  chief  occupation  was  usually 
agriculture.  This  form  of  manufacture  still  ex- 
ists in  America  and  England;  it  is  widely  prac- 
ticed in  France,  Germany,  and  Russia;  and  in 
some  European  districts,  notably  in  Norway,  it 
is  the  prevalent  form. 

In  the  more  advanced  nations  domestic  manu- 
facture has  been  largely  supplanted  by  the  fac- 
tory sjTstem  (q.v.).  The  extension  of  the  market 
in  early  modem  times,  requiring  a  vastly  in- 
creased production  of  goods  of  standard  kinds, 
led  first  to  excessive  division  of  labor  and  later 
to  the  invention  of  machinery.  The  first  indus- 
tries to  respond  to  these  influences  were  the 
textile  and  the  iron  industries  as  discussed  in 
detail  under  the  heads  of  Textile  Manufactub- 
ING  and  Ibon  and  Steel,  Metallubgy  of. 

Manufactubes  in  the  United  States.  At 
the  end  of  the  colonial  period  manufacturing  in- 
dustry in  America  was  of  slight  importance.  The 
principal  salable  articles  were  raw  materials, 
such  as  the  products  of  the  forests.  Each  house- 
hold provided  itself  with  the  chief  commodities 
for  consumption.  In  New  England,  however,  the 
manufacture  of  rum  was  extensive,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  hats,  coarse  cloth,  and  nails  was  car- 
ried on  under  the  domestic  system  of  industry. 
The  total  value  of  the  manufactures  of  America  at . 
the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  has 
been  estimated  at  $20,000,000;  but  this  includes 
much  domestic  production  for  home  consumption. 

Machine  production  scarcely  existed  before 
1790.  In  that  year  a  British  mechanic,  Slater, 
set  up  spinning,  machinery  in  Rhode  Island.  In 
1794  Whitney  invented  the  cotton  gin,  thus  as- 
suring a  supply  of  raw  materials  for  the  new 
cotton  manufacture.  By  1810  machinery  had 
been  generally  introduced  in  textile  manufacture, 
although  large  quantities  of  goods  were  still 
produced  under  the  older  system.  The  value  of 
textiles  produced  in  that  year  was  estimated  at 
about  $40,000,000. 

The  iron  manufacture  developed  more  slowly. 
Iklachinery  of  improved  types  was  introduced  in 
the  first  and  second  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  production 
and  manufacture  was  carried  on  in  a  primitive 
fashion,  until  the  fifth  decade  of  the  century, 
when  anthracite  began  to  be  substituted  for 
charcoal  in  smelting.  From  that  time  increase 
was  rapid,  as  will  l^  seen  in  the  statistics  given 
under  Iron  and  Steel,  Metallurgy  of. 

The  value  of  the  manufactures  of  the  United 
States  for  the  year  1810  was  estimated  by  Tench 
Coxe  to  be  $198,613,471.  In  1820  the  value  was 
$268,000,000.  The  following  table,  taken  from 
the  Twelfth  Census,  Manufactures,  part  %.,  and 
Bulletin  51,  Census  of  Manufactures:  1905,  shows 
the  growth  of  manujfactures  from  1850: 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MANTTFACTUBES. 


20 


MANTTFACTUBES. 


f 

1906  « 

1900  « 

1900 

1890 

1880 

1870 

1860 

1860 

Capitol  1. 

12,686 
2,611 
8,504 

14,802 

6,470,321 

8,979 
2,009 
6,677 
11,411 

4,716,023 

9,836 
2,328 
7,348 
13,014 

6,316,802 

6,626 
1,891 
6,162 
9,372 

4,261,613 

2,790 

947 

3,396 

6,369 

2,732,696 

2,118 

776 

2,488 

4,232 

2,063,996 

1,009 

378 

1,031 

1,886 

1,311,246 

633 

Total  wages  i 

236 

Coatofmaterialai 

▼aloe  of  prodnoto  > 

earnera 

666 

1,019 

967,069 

t  Millioni  of  dollars. 

*  TbMe  two  oolomns  glre  a  oomparison  of  manufactures  for  1900  and  1906  on  the  basis  of  the 
I  daased  as  factories. 


of  1906,  which  included  only 


Capital 

Total  wages 

Cost  of  materials... 
Talue  of  producto .. 


Arerage  number  of  wage-gamers. 


Per  cent,  of  increase 


1900-1906         1890-1900         1880-1890         1870-1880         1860-1870 


41.3 
29.9 
29.3 
29.7 

16.0 


60.7 
23.1 
42.3 
38.0 

25.1 


133.9 
99.6 
62.0 
74.6 

66.6 


31.7 
22.2 
36.6 
26.9 

880 


109.8 
104.7 
141.2 
124.4 

66.6 


1860-1860 


89.4 
60.0 


85.1 
37.0 


In  estimating  the  economic  significance  of  the 
development  of  manufactures  as  shown  in  the 
above  table,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  allow- 
ance for  the  fact  that  a  considerable  number 
of  operations  are  now  carried  on  as  manufactures 
which  formerly  were  a  part  of  household  indus- 
try. The  increase  in  the  net  product  of  manu- 
factures  above  cost  of  material  is  not  wholly  a 
net  increase  in  national  income,  although  the 
Heater  part  may  be  so  regarded.  It  is  further 
to  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  statistics  of  capital 
are  based  upon  estimates  which  in  the  nature 
of  the  case  are  not  very  reliable. 

The  following  table  shows  the  rank  of  the 
States  and  Territories  in  value  of  manufactures 
for  establishments  classed  as  factories  in  1905: 


"Few  York 82 

PttmsyWania 1 

niinob 1 

Hassachusetto. 1 

Ohio 

If  ew  Jersey 

Missouri 

Michigan 

Wisconsin. 

Indiana 

Cooneotient 

California 


Maryland 

Bhode  Island  . 


Louisiana. 

Iowa  .... 

Kentucky. 

Nebraska. 

Georgia  .  . 

Texas. 

Vii 


TirainU. 
Maine... 


Iforth  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Washington 

Hew  Hunpshire  .  .  .  . 

Alabama 

Colorado. 

West  Virginia 

^uth  Carolina 

Montana 

Termont 

Mississippi 

Oregon 

Arkansas 

Plorida 

Delaware 

Utah 

Arizona 

District  of  Columbia . 

Oklahoma 

Couth  DakoU 

North  DakoU 

Idaho 

If ew  Mexico 

Wyoming 

JTevada, 


:,4S8,345,fi7fl 
.4:0,31^.1  L*y 

429,IJ:0.(K30 

243,3T:-,W<J 

100,57'2,313 

IGl,<>*<  1.406 
lfiO,r^28,3S3 

H*ii,.V2ft.770 

IM^S-JUIX^ 
l2;i,iiH  1,004 

100,143.999 

fi3,0tS3.Kll 
B7,«lp44r> 
Ki,fi35,123 
S3,8G4.3!V» 

l^.ri.vM.vj 
iN^M  ■.).!;,% 

HJil«,743 
3.riL^3,l!(jO 


The  four  States  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Il- 
linois, and  Massachusetts  produce  nearly  one- 
half  the  manufactures  of  the  United  States.  The 
greatest  concentration  of  manufacturing  industry 
is  in  southern  New  England  and  New  York  and 
eastern  Pennsylvania.  But  there  apears  to  be 
a  general  tendency  toward  extension  of  the  area 
of  manufactures. 

The  United  States  occupies  at  present  the  fore- 
most rank  as  a  manufacturing  nation.  The  suc- 
cessive stages  by  which  it  has  reached  this  posi- 
tion are  illustrated  by  the  following  table,  taken 
from  the  Twelfth  Centus,  Manufactures,  part  i. 
(MulhaU's  estimates) : 

Akktjal  YAiiini  or  MAirurAOTUBxa. 


1810 

1840 

TTnlfMl   innorvloTn 

iiliii 

fl.833,000.000 

France 

1.606.000,000 

Qermanr.    ......  .   .        

1.484.000.000 

Austria 

United  States 

863.000.000 
467,000,000 

other  States 

3.516.000,000 

1880 

1894 

United  Kingdom 

$3,806,000,000 
3.093,000.000 
1.905,000,000 
1,139,000,000 
1,907,000,000 
8,466,000.000 

$4,363,000,000 

France    

3,900,000.000 

Germany 

8,357,000.000 

AuBtiia             

1.696,000,000 

United  States 

9,498.000.000 

Other  States 

5.336.000.000 

BiBiJOGBAPHY.  For  the  rise  of  manufactures 
in  England,  consult:  Cunningham,  Orowth  of 
English  Industry  (Cambridge,  1890-92),  and 
Ashley,  Economic  History  (London,  1888-93). 
For  the  growth  of  manufactures  in  America, 
consult:  Wright,  Industrial  Evolution  of  the 
United  States  (New  York,  1897),  and  Wells,  Re- 
cent  Economic  Changes  (New  York,  1898)  ;  and, 
in  general,  Unwin,  Industrial  Organization  in  the 
Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries  (Oxford, 
19d4) ;  Shadwell,  Industrial  Efficiency  (London, 
1906).  Consult  also  the  several  censuses  of  the 
United  States,  particularly  the  Twelfth  Census, 
and  MulhalPs  Dictionary  of  Statistics  (London, 
1899),  article  "Manufactures."  See  the  articles 
on  the  manufacturing  industries,  such  as  Cotton; 
Iron  and  Steel;  Wool;  etc. 

MANTJFACTTJBES,  Amebican.  See  United 
States,  Manufactures, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


MANXJXy  ma^nvl  (Malav  word).  A  small 
wild  cat  {Felts  manul)  of  Tibet  and  Siberia.  It 
is  whitish-gray,  with  black  marks  on  the  chest  and 
about  the  head,  and  dark  vertical  bands  across 
the  loins.    It  has  a  very  broad,  round  head. 

ICANTmiSSION  (Lat.  manumiaaio,  from 
manumittere,  to  manumit,  from  manus,  hand  + 
mittere,  to  send).  In  Roman  law,  the  enfran- 
chisement of  a  slave.  In  the  older  law  (jus  ci- 
vile), this  could  be  accomplished:  (1)  Vindicta, 
Le.  by  a  fictitious  action.  In  the  later  law,  the 
forms  of  suit  were  dropped,  and  the  master  sim- 
ply appeared  before  the  magistrate  and  declared 
that  the  slave  was  to  be  set  free.  (2)  Censtt, 
i.e.  by  the  entry  of  the  slave's  name,  with  the 
assent  of  the  master^  on  the  register  of  citizens. 
This  form  disappeared  in  the  Imperial  period. 
(3)  Testamento,  i.e.  by  a  bequest  of  liberty  in  the 
master's  will.  When  the  Roman  Empire  became 
Christian,  a  fourth  mode  of  manumission  was 
recognized — manumisaio  in  ecclesia,  by  declara- 
tion of  the  master  in  the  presence  of  priest  and 
congregation.  Informal  manumissions  'among 
friends,'  or  *by  letter,'  were  originally  void;  but 
in  the  later  Republican  period  individuals  thus 
freed  were  protected  by  the  magistrates  and  in 
the  Imperial  period  they  were  recognized  as 
l^;ally  free.  These  informal  manumissions  were 
regulated,  under  Justinian,  by  requiring  five  wit- 
Besses  to  prove  the  manumission.  The  right  of 
a  master  to  manumit  his  slaves  was  restricted 
in  the  Imperial  period.  Some  of  the  restrictions 
were  imposed  in  the  interest  of  creditors;  others 
in  the  intere^  of  the  public. 

By  manumission  the  slave  usually  became  a 
citizen,  but  his  political  rights  were  restricted. 
Moreover,  he  remained  for  life  in  a  relation  of 
dependency ;  he  was  the  'client'  of  his  master  and 
of  his  master's  children,  and  owed  them  certain 
semi-feudal  observances  and  services.  He  and 
his  children  were  also  debarred  from  marriage 
with  free-bom  persons.  Consult  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  Civil  Law. 

Among  the  early  Germans  also  the  ordinary 
forms  of  manumission,  by  the  act  of  the  master 
alone,  gave  the  freedman  only  a  partial  freedom ; 
he  was  dependent  upon  his  former  master  for 
protection.  There  were,  however,  methods  of 
manumission  which  gave  the  former  slave  the 
full  rights  of  a  freeman,  viz.  his  adoption  into 
a  kinship  group  or  into  the  tribe. 

KAKUBES  AND  ILAKTTBIKG  (from  OF. 
manucevrer,  manovrer,  Fr.  manoevrer,  to  manage, 
work  by  hand,  from  OF.  manouvre,  manovre, 
from  ML.  manuopera,  manopera,  a  working  with 
the  hand,  from  Lat.  manus,  hand  H-  opera,  work) . 
In  a  broad  sense,  the  term  manure  is  applied  to 
any  substance  used  to  increase  the  productive- 
ness of  soil.  The  word  is  commonly  used  in  a 
more  restricted  sense  to  mean  the  excreta  (solid 
and  liquid)  of  farm  animals,  either  mixed  or 
unmixed  with  litter,  and  more  or  less  fermented. 
In  this  article  the  term  is  used  in  its  broader 
sense.  Manures  may  be  direct  or  indirect  in  their 
effect.  The  former  supply  plant  food  which  is 
lacking  in  the  soil,  the  latter  render  active  the 
insoluble  fertilizing  constituents  already  present 
and  improve  the  chemical,  physical,  and  bio- 
logical conditions  in  the  soil.  The  first  class  in- 
cludes the  so-called  commercial  or  artificial  fer- 
tilizers, such  as  superphosphates,  nitrate  of  soda. 


JLANTTBE8  AND  MAHXTBIHG. 


etc.;  the  second  embraces  natural  manures,  such 
as  the  green  manures,  sea- weed  (q.v.),  and  ani- 
mal manures,  and  the  soil  amendments  or  soil 
improvers,  such  as  lime,  gypsum,  salt,  etc.  Under 
certain  conditions  all  these  manures  may  be  both 
direct  and  indirect  in  their  action. 

Plants  derive  the  bulk  of  their  food  directly  or 
indirectly  from  the  atmosphere.  A  small  but 
very  essential  portion,  however,  is  drawn  from 
the  soil.  This  includes  the  inorganic  or  ash 
constituents  and  nitrogen,  which,  however,  is  in 
certain  cases  derived  indirectly  from  the  air. 
These  substances,  being  soluble,  are  transported 
by  water,  which  is  not  considered  a  food.  Of  the 
soil  constituents  which  plants  need  only  four  are 
likely  to  be  exhausted  bv  ordinary  systems  of 
cropping,  viz.  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
and,  in  some  cases,  lime.  Direct  manures  supply 
one  or  more  of  these  constituents,  which  are 
known  as  the  essential  fertilizing  elements.  The 
fertility  of  the  soil  would  remain  practically 
unchanged  if  all  the  ingredients  removed  in  the 
various  farm  products  were  restored  to  the  land. 
This  may  be  accomplished  to  a  large  extent  by 
feeding  the  crops  grown  on  the  farm  to  animals, 
carefully  saving  the  manure  and  returning  it  to 
the  soil,  and  when  practicable  combining  a  ju- 
dicious use  of  green  manures  with  a  system  of 
stock  feeding  in  which  those  farm  products 
comparatively  poor  in  fertilizing  constituents 
are  exchanged  for  feeding  stuffs  rich  in  these 
substances.  Under  such  practice  the  loss  of  soil 
fertility  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  or  there 
may  even  be  an  actual  gain  in  fertility.  Under 
or(unary  conditions  of  farming,  however,  the  ma- 
nure produced  on  the  farm  is  not  sufficient  to 
maintain  its  fertility.  Roberts  estimates  that  in 
ordinanr  mixed  husbandry  only  about  one-half  of 
the  fertility  taken  from  the  soil  by  crops  is  re- 
stored in  farm  manures.  Hence  the  necessity 
for  supplying  the  deficiency  from  other  sources, 
resulting  in  the  wide  use  of  artificial  or  com- 
mercial fertilizers  of  various  kinds. 

Natubal  Maitubes.  These  include  all  manu- 
rial  substances  derived  from  natural  sources 
without  undergoing  any  specific  treatment  or 
process  of  manufacture,  such  as  animal  excreta 
and  all  animal  and  vegetable  refuse  of  the  farm, 
as  well  as  various  factory  wastes.  The  natural 
manures  are,  as  a  rule,  bulky  in  character  and 
contain  small  amounts  of  the  essential  constitu- 
ents. The  most  important  and  useful  of  the 
natural  manures  is  farmyard  or  barnyard  ma- 
nure. Its  quality,  which  is  very  variable,  depends 
upon  the  care  taken  in  its  preservation,  the  kind 
and  age  of  the  animal  producing  it,  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  food  used,  nature  and  amount 
of  the  litter  added.  Experiments  conducted  at 
the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Cornell 
University  furnish  the  data  on  following  page 
regarding  the  amount  and  value  of  the  manure 
produced  by  different  farm  animals  under  ordi- 
nary conditions  of  liberal  feeding. 

Mature  animals,  neither  gaining  nor  losing 
weight,  excrete  practically  all  of  the  fertilizing 
constituents  consumed  in  the  food.  Growing  ani- 
mals and  milch  cows  excrete  from  50  to  75  per 
cent,  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  the  food; 
fattening  or  working  animals  from  90  to  95 
per  cent.  Roberts  states  that  the  value  of  the 
manure  produced  by  animals  is  from  30  to  60 
per  cent,  of  the  food  they  consume.    As  regards 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KANXTBES  AND  MANinEtlNO. 


23 


KANXTBES  AND  KANXJBINO. 


Amoumt  and  Valub*  of  liAinrBE  Pboduoed  bt  Fabm  Ljtb  Stook 
[New  York  Cornell  Experiment  Station] 


KIin>  OP  ▲RlMAIi 


Sheep... 
Calvee.. 

Pige 

Go  we.... 
Honee 


Amount  of 

excrement  per 

1000  lbs.  live 

weight 

per  day 


Pounds 
84.1 
©7.8 
66.2 

74.1 
48.8 


Value  of 

excrement  per 

1000  lbs.  live 

weight  daily 


$0,072 
.067 
.104 
.060 
.076 


Composition  and  yalae  of  manure 
(mixed  excrement  and  litter)  f 


Nitrogen    '""•^SS"*     ^"^        Jr^^n 


Per  cent. 
0.768 
.497 
.840 
.426 
.400 


Per  cent. 
0.891 
.172 
.890 
.290 
.260 


Percent. 
0.591 
.632 
.820 
.440 
.480 


18.80 
2.18 
3.29 
2.02 
2.21 


*  Valuing  nitrogen  at  16  cente.  phosphoric  add  at  6  cents,  and  potash  at  4%  cents  per  pound. 
t  Fine-cut  straw  of  known  composition  In  sufficient  quantity  to  keep  the  animals  clean. 


the  fertilizing  value  of  equal  weights  of  manure  in 
its  normal  condition,  farm  animals  probably  stand 
in  the  following  order :  poultry,  sheep,  pigs,  horses, 
cows.  Poultry  manure  is  the  richest  of  the  ani- 
mal manures,  because  it  consists  of  a  mixture,  in 
somewhat  concentrated  form,  of  both  the  solid 
(intestinal)  and  liquid  (urinary)  excreta.  The 
liquid  excretum  of  farm  animals  is  the  most  valu- 
able part  of  the  manure,  being  especially  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  potash,  but  poor  in  phosphoric  acid. 
Sheep  manure  is  drier  and  hence  richer  in  fer- 
tilizing constituents  than  pig,  horse,  or  cow 
manure.  Pig  manure  contains  as  much  water  as 
cow  manure  and  more  than  horse  manure,  but  is 
richer  in  nitrogen.  Horse  manure  is  a  compara- 
tively dry  manure,  which  ferments  rapidly.  For 
this  reason  it  is  called  a  'hot'  manure  and  is 
especially  valuable  for  use  in  hotbeds  and  for 
forcing  early  crops.  Cow  manure  is  a  wet  'cold' 
manure,  which  ferments  slowly.  Its  low  per- 
centage of  fertilizing  constituents  is  due  to  its 
hi^h  percentage  of  water.  The  amounts  of  fer- 
tilizing constituents  in  animal  manure  stand  in 
direct  relation  to  those  in  the  food.  As  regards 
the  value  of  the  manure  produced  the  concen- 
trated feeding  stuffs,  such  as  meat  scrap  or 
meal,  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  gluten  meal, 
and  wheat  bran,  stand  first;  the  leguminous 
plants  (clover,  peas,  beans,  etc.)  second;  the 
grasses  third;  cereals  (oats,  com,  etc.)  fourth; 
and  root  crops,  such  as  turnips,  beets,  and  man- 
gel-wurzels,  last.  High  salting  and  succulent 
foods  as  a  rule  give  watery  and  poor  manure. 
With  high  feeding  there  is  less  complete  digestion 
and  hence  richer  manure.  Highly  nitrogenous 
foods  give  richer  manures,  although  at  the  same 
time  they  increase  the  excretion  of  urine,  thus 
requiring  more  bedding  and  reducing  the  value 
of  the  manure,  because  as  a  rule  the  materials 
commonly  used  as  litter  are  poorer  in  fer- 
tilizing constituents  than  the  animal  excreta. 
Animals  kept  in  cold  quarters  probably  digest 
their  food  more  closely,  and  hence  make  poorer 
manure. 

Barnyard  manure  rapidly  deteriorates  from 
two  chief  causes:  (1)  fermentation,  which  be- 
gins as  soon  as  the  manure  is  dropped;  (2) 
weathering  and  leaching,  which  rapidly  reduce 
the  value  of  unprotected  manure.  Roberts  re- 
ports experiments  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  in  which 
manure  exposed  in  loose  heaps  of  from  2  to  10 
tons  each  lost  from  42  to  62  per  cent,  of  its 
value  in  six  months,  and  cow  manure  30  per 
cent.;  while  mixed  and  composted  manure  lost 
only  9  per  cent.  The  loss  from  destructive  fer- 
mentation may  be  considerably  reduced  by  the  use 


of  proper  absorbents  (litter)  and  preservatives, 
such  as  superphosphate,  kainit,  etc.;  but  the 
most  perfect  preservation  is  secured  by  storing 
the  mixed  manure  of  different  animals  under 
cover  or  in  pits,  keeping  it  moist  and  compact 
.to  exclude  air.  Extremes  of  temperature  and 
moisture  should  be  avoided  to  prevent  'fire- 
fanging*  and  to  secure  a  uniform,  moderate,  and 
harmless  fermentation.  Such  fermentation,  in 
fact,  improves  the  quality  of  poor,  coarse  manure, 
by  rendering  its  constituents  more  available 
as  plant  food. 

When  practicable,  it  is  best  to  avoid  storage 
by  hauling  the  manure  directly  to  the  fields 
and  spreading  it  upon  land  occupied  by  plants. 
From  10  to  40  tons  per  acre  is  usually  applied. 
Moderate  applications  at  frequent  intervals  are 
preferable  to  large  but  infrequent  applications, 
except  when  the  purpose  is  to  warm  the  soil  to 
force  early  crops.  The  forcing  effect  of  fresh  ma- 
nure renders  it  better  suited  to  early  garden 
truck,  grasses,  and  forage  plants  than  to  plants 
grown  for  seed,  such  as  cereals.  Direct  applica- 
tions to  root  crops,  such  as  sugar  beets,  potatoes, 
or  tobacco,  often  prove  injurious.  This  result  can, 
as  a  rule,  be  avoided  by  applying  the  manure 
some  months  before  the  planting  of  the  crop  or 
by  using  only  well-rotted  manure.  Barnyard 
manure  is  not  applied  to  fruit  trees  with  the 
same  good  results  as  in  case  of  other  crops.  It 
does  not  stimulate  fruiting  to  the  same  extent 
as  the  mineral  fertilizers.  This  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  poor  in  total  and  available 
mineral  constituents  and  comparatively  rich  in 
nitrogen,  which  tends  to  promote  the  growth  of 
the  vegetative  organs,  its  tendency  being  to  pro- 
duce large  growth  but  a  poor  quality  of  fruit. 
As  a  rule,  therefore,  the  best  results  are  likely 
to  be  obtained  by  using  barnyard  manure  in  con- 
nection with  commercial  fertilizing  materials, 
lime,  gypsum,  etc.,  either  in  compost  (q.v.)  or 
separately. 

Other  natural  manures  of  secondary  impor- 
tance are  peat,  ashes  (qq.v.),  wool  waste,  which 
contains  on  an  average  5.5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
1  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  2  per  cent,  of 
potash;  hair  waste,  containing  7  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  and  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  phosphoric 
acid;  felt  waste  with  about  8  per  cent,  of  nitro- 
gen; leather  with  about  7  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
These  substances  are  principally  valuable  for 
the  nitrogen  they  contain,  but  this  is  very  slowly 
available  to  plants  and  hence  not  of  great  value. 

There  is  a  class  of  substances  used  for  fertil- 
izing purposes  which  is  intermediate  in  character 
between  the  natural  manures  proper  and  arti- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MANTTBES  AND  ICANXJBING. 


38 


ICAJnmBS  AKD  ICAinrBlNO. 


fidal  or  commercial  fertilizers.  These  soil 
amendments  or  soil  improvers,  as  they  are  called, 
include  marl,  lime,  gypsum,  salt,  and  are  usually 
used  for  their  indirect  effect  more  than  for  their 
direct  action. 

Artificial  ob  Gommeboial  Febtujzebs.  With 
the  continued  sale  of  products  from  the  farm  the 
natural  manures  available  are  often  insufficient, 
as  already  explained,  to  maintain  the  original 
fertility  of  the  soil.  In  specialized  intensive 
farming,  moreover,  there  is  a  demand  for  an 
abundant  supply  in  the  soil  of  more  active  plant 
food  than  farm  manures  furnish,  in  order  that 
the  high  value  crops  grown  imder  such  condi- 
tions may  be  forced  into  early,  rapid,  and  vigor- 
ous  growth.  Under  such  circumstances  the  more 
concentrated  and  available  forms  of  commercial 
fertilizing  materials  are  used  to  good  advantage. 
There  are  numerous  sources  of  supply  of  such 
materials,  which  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
viz.  nitrogenous,  furnishing  nitrogen ;  phosphatic, 
furnishing  phosphoric  acid;  and  potassic,  fur- 
nishing potash.  It  is  assumed  in  the  preparation 
of  fertilizers  that  the  constituents  most  likely 
to  be  deficient  in  soils  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash.  A  fertilizer,  therefore,  containing 
all  three  of  these  is  termed  complete,  one  con- 
taining only  one  or  two  of  them  incomplete. 

Nitrogen,  the  most  costly  ingredient  of  fer- 
tilizers, is  derived  from  three  sources,  viz.  or- 
ganic matter,  ammonium  salts,  and  nitrates.  Ni- 
trates furnish  the  most  available  form  of  nitro- 
gen. The  nitrate  most  commonly  used  as  a  fer- 
tilizer is  nitrate  of  soda  (Chile  saltpetre),  which 
contains  on  the  average  16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
The  more  valuable  sources  of  organic  nitrogen 
are  dried  blood,  dried  meat  or  'azotine,'  and 
tankage,  which  are  produced  in  large  quantities 
in  slaughter-houses  and  rendering  establish- 
ments; dried  fish,  refuse  from  fish  oil  and  can- 
niii£[  establishments;  and  cottonseed  meal,  a  bv- 
proauct  of  cottonseed  oil  manufacture.  (See  table 
on  page  following  for  composition. )  Nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  ammonia  stands  between  that  of  nitrates 
and  organic  nitrogen  as  regards  availability.  It 
is  obtained  for  use  as  a  fertilizer  almost  ex- 
clusively from  ammoniu^i  sulphate,  prepared 
largely  as  a  by-product  of  gas  works,  coke  ovens, 
etc.,  and  containing  on  an  average  about  20  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen.  The  nitrates  are  readilv  avail- 
able, but  also  very  soluble,  and  hence  likely  to  be 
rapidly  leached  out  of  the  soil.  The  ammonia 
salts,  however,  while  considered  less  available 
than  nitrates,  are  not  so  readily  leached  out  of 
the  soil,  althou&rh  extremely  soluble.  The  organic 
forms  of  nitrogen  ate  practically  insoluble  and 
unavailable  until  they  have  been  converted  into  ^ 
ammonia  compounds  and  undergo^ie  nitrification 
(q.v.)  in  the  soil.  They  vary  widely  with  re- 
spect to  the  rapidity  with  which  these  changes  oc- 
cur, dried  blood  and  meat  products,  freed  as 
completely  as  possible  from  fat,  standing  first, 
cottonseed  meal  and  similar  vegetable  products 
next,  and  leather,  hair,  horn,  and  hoof  lowest. 

Phosphoric  acid  of  fertilizers  is  derived  from 
bone,  mineral  phosphates  and  phosphatic,  basic, 
or  Thomas  slag,  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture 
of  steel  from  phosphatic  ores.  In  these  it  is 
present  mainly  as  calcium  phosphate  (tri-calcium  • 
phosphate,  (CaO)8P,05,  in  the  first  two,  tetra- 
calcium  phosphate,  (CaO^PjOg,  in  the  last).  It 
is  found  in  fertilizers  in  three  forms :  ( 1 )  tri-cal- 
cium phosphate,  largely  insoluble  in  water  and 


other  weak  solvents,  designated  in  fertilizer  an- 
alysis as  "insoluble"  phosphoric  acid;  (2)  sol- 
uble in  water  and  readily  available  to  plants, 
as  the  superphosphates,  which  are  prepared  from 
bones,  bone-black,  mineral  phosphat^,  etc.,  by 
grinding  and  treatment  with  sulmiuric  acid,  thus 
converting  the  insoluble  tri-calcium  phosphate 
into  soluble  mono-calcium  or  acid  phosphate, 
CaO(H,0)2Pj05;  (3)  'reverted'  or  in  form 
of  dicalcium  phosphate,  {CaO)^^ fiFfi^^  which 
is  not  soluble  in  pure  water,  but  is  soluble  in 
weak  solutions  of  organic  acids  and  their  salts. 
This  form  results  from  the  tendency  of  soluble 
monocalcium  phosphate  to  revert  to  a  less  soluble 
(dicalcic)  form.  In  fertilizer  analvses  it  is 
classed  with  the  water-soluble  as  available. 

Potash,  as  a  constituent  of  fertilizers,  exists 
in  a  number  of  forms,  but  chiefly  as  chloride  or 
muriate  and  as  sulphate.  All  forms  are  freely 
soluble  in  water  and  are  believed  to  be  nearly, 
if  not  quite,  equally  available,  but  it  has  been 
found  that  the  chlorides  may  injuriously  affect 
the  quality  of  tobacco,  potatoes,  and  certain 
other  crops.  The  chief  sources  of  potash  are  the 
potash  salts  from  Stassfurt,  Germany — ^kainit, 
sylvinit,  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash, 
and  double-manure  salt  (sulphate  of  potash  and 
magnesia).  Wood  ashes  and  cotton-hull  ashes  are 
also  important  sources  of  potash.  Kainit  and 
sylvinit  are  crude  products  of  the  Stassfurt 
mines,  and  contain,  in  addition  to  potash,  a  num- 
ber of  other  salts,  chiefly  ordinary  salt  (sodium 
chloride)  and  ma^esium  sulphate.  The  potash 
in  kainit,  though  m  the  form  of  a  sulphate,  pro- 
duces an  effect  quite  similar  to  that  derived  from 
the  use  of  muriate,  because  of  the  large  quantities 
of  chlorides  mixed  with  it.  It  contains  on  the 
average  about  12%  per  cent,  of  actual  potash. 
Sylvinit  differs  from  kainit  in  containing  a 
slightly  higher  per  cent,  of  potash,  which  exists 
boUi  in  the  form  of  sulphate  and  of  chloride,  and 
a  lower  content  of  the  magnesia  and  other  salts. 
The  other  potash  products  mentioned  are  manu- 
factured from  the  crude  forms  and  are  much  more 
concentrated.  The  muriate  and  sulphate  con- 
tain on  the  average  about  60  per  cent,  of  actual 
potash.  The  chief  impurity  in  the  case  of  the 
muriate  is  common  salt.  The  double  sulphate  of 
potash  and  magnesia  contains  about  26  per  cent, 
of  actual  potash,  though  much  lower  grades  of 
this  material  are  found.  See  also  table  of  com- 
position below. 

The  substances  referred  to  above  as  the  sources 
of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  are 
the  raw  materials  from  which  the  various  manu- 
factured brands  of  fertilizers  are  compounded. 
The  quality  of  a  mixed  fertilizer  will  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  raw  materials  selected, 
as  regards  both  amoimt  and  availability  of  their 
fertilizing  constituents,  and  upon  the  proportions 
in  which  they  are  mixed.  For  instance,  in  one 
brand  the  nitrogen  may  be  entirely  in  the  form  of 
insoluble  organic  materials  and  the  phosphoric 
acid  as  insoluble  mineral  phosphates,  while  in 
another  all  three  forms  of  nitrogen  may  have 
been  used,  viz.  nitrates,  ammonium  salts,  and 
organic  matter,  with  phosphoric  acid  entirely  in 
the  form  of  superphosphate.  The  total  plant 
food  may  be  just  as  large  in  the  first  as  in  the 
second  brand,  but  its  availability  and  the  im- 
mediate effects  from  its  use  would  be  much  larger 
in  the  second  case  than  in  the  first.  Since  chemi- 
cal analysis  cannot  always  tell  with  certainty 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HANUBES  AKD  MAITITBINO. 


the  source  and  availability  of  the  essential  ccm- 
stituents  of  fertilizers,  especiaUy  of  the  organic 
nitrogen,  it  is  often  desirable  to  purchase  the 
unmixed  materials,  either  for  use  separately  or 
to  be  mixed  on  the  farm  as  required. 

To  use  fertilizers  to  the  best  advantage  it  is 
necessary  to  take  into  consideration  a  variety 
of  conditions,  among  the  more  important  of  which 
are  the  character  of  the  fertilizer  itself,  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  its  previous  manuring  and 
cropping,  the  climate,  and  the  crop  to  be  grown. 
In  general,  concentrated  fertilizers  prove  most 
profitable  on:  (1)  soils  in  cood  physical  condi- 
tion, i.e.  well  tilled  and  abimdantly  supplied  with 
humus;  and  (2)  high  value  crops,  such  as  are 
grown  in  market-^rdening.  Different  classes  of 
farm  crops  vary  in  their  fertilizer  requirements. 


24  HANUBES  AND  UANTJBINO. 

{^rowing  beets  and  mangels;  soluble  phosphates 
m  abundance  for  the  turnip;  and  potash  for  po- 
tatoes, white  and  sweet.  That  is,  while  the  fertiliz- 
ers should  contain  all  three  elements,  individual 
crops,  because  of  their  peculiarities  of  growth,  re- 
quire certain  fertilizing  constituents  in  greater 
relative  amounts  and  m  immediately  available 
forms.  Fruit  trees  are  slow-growing  plants  and 
therefore  do  not  need  quick-acting  fertilizers  as  a 
rule.  Highly  soluble  manures,  such  as  nitrate 
of  soda,  are  likely  to  be  washed  out  of  the  soil 
without  being  utilized.  For  this  reason  the  use 
of  nitrate  of  soda  is  not  advised  except  where 
the  growth  of  nursery  stock  is  to  be  forced  or 
where  bearing  trees  exhibit  a  lack  of  luxuriance 
in  foliage.  The  old  and  still  common  practice  of 
fertilizing  fruit  trees  every  few  years  with  slow- 


COMPOBITION  OF  TBB  PbIKOPAL  COMMSBOUI«  FSKTIIilZIllG  MATBBIALS 


Nitrogen 


Available 

phosphoric 

acid 


Insoluble 

phosphoric 

acid 


Total 

phosphoric 

acid 


Potash 


Ghlorln 


LBuj 


iupplylog  nitrogen : 
Nitrate  of  soda , 


Sulphate  of  ammonia 

Dried  blood  (high  grade) 

Dried  blood  (low  grade) 

Concentrated  tankage 

Tankage  (bone) 

Dried  fish  scrap 

Cottonseed  meaL 

Castor  pomace 

3.  Supplying  phosphoric  acid : 

South  Carolina  rock  phosphate. 

South  Carolina  rock  super- 
phosphate (dissolved  South 
Carolina  rock  phosphate)... 

Florida  land  rock  phosphate. 

Florida  pebble  phosphate 

Florida  superphosphate  (dis- 
solved Florida  phosphate) 

Boneblack , 

Bonoblack  superphosphate  (dis- 
solved boneblack). 

Ground  bone 

Steamed  bone 

Dissolved  bone 

Thomas  slag. 


Per  cent. 
15.6  to  16 
19     to  90.S 
13     toU 

10  toll 

11  to  12.6 

6  to   6 

7  to   9 
6.5  to   7.6 
6     to   6 


Per  ceaU 


Per  cent. 


2.5  to  4.5 
1.5  to  2.6 
2     to    S 


12  to  16 


Uto  16 


15  to  17 
6to  8 
6to    9 

13  to  16 


26  to  28 


Ito  S 
8Sto  35 
26  to  82 

Ito  4 
82  to  36 

Ito  2 
16  to  17 
16  to  20 

2to    8 


Per  cent. 


8  to   6 

1  to   2 

11  to  14 

6  to   8 
1.5to   2 

1  to   1.5 

26  to28 


13  to  16 
88  to35 
26     to82 


PereeDt. 


2to    8 
Ito    1.5 


Per  eeot. 


16 
82 


to  20 
to  86 


8.  Supplying  potash : 

Muriate  of  potash 

Sulphate  of  potash  (high  grade) 
Sulphate  of  potash  and  mag- 
nesia  

Kalnlt 

Sylvlnlt 

(^tton-huU  asheet 

Wood  ashes  (unleached)t 

Wood  ashes  (leached)  t 

Tobacco  stems 


2     to  8 


17  to  18 
20  to25 
22  to29 
15  to  17 
*11.4to28 


7  to  9 

1  to  3 

1  to  1.5 

3  to  5 


48  to  62 
48to  6i 

26  to  80 
12  to  12.6 
16  to  20 
20  to  30 
2to  8 
Ito  2 
6to    8 


45     to  48 
.5  to    1.6 

1.5  to    2.6 
0     to  82 
42     to  46 


*  In  good  Thomas  slag  at  least  80  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid   should  be  soluble  In  ammonium  citrate,  Le. 
available. 

tCk)tton-hull  ashes  contain  about  10  per  cent,  of  lime,  unleached  wood  ashes  80  to  86  per  cent.,  and  leached  woo^ 
ashes  86  to  40  per  cent. 


The  cereals,  maize  excepted,  and  grasses  are  simi- 
lar in  their  habits  of  growth,  and  are  able  to 
utilize  comparatively  insoluble  forms  of  mineral 
plant  food,  but  are  much  benefited  by  nitrogen, 
especially  nitrates,  applied  in  time  to  carry  them 
through  the  period  preceding  maturity.  It  is  for 
the  latter  reason  that  nitrogen  has  been  termed 
the  ruling  or  dominant  element  for  this  class  of 
plants.  Leguminous  plants — clover,  peas,  beans, 
etc. — ^which  are  capable  of  acquiring  nitrogen 
partly  from  the  air,  make  liberal  use  of  the  min- 
eral constituents,  especially  potash  and  lime. 
Fertilizers  for  such  plants  should  therefore  con- 
tain an  abundance  of  the  mineral  constituents 
only,  potash  being  the  dominant  element.  Root 
and  tuber  crops  require  an  abundance  of  all  the 
fertilizing  constituents  in  readily  available  forms. 
Of  the  three  classes  of  fertilizing  constituents, 
the  nitrogen  is  especially  useful  for  the  slow- 


ly decomposing  manures,  such  as  barnyard  ma- 
nure, leatner  waste,  horn  refuse,  wool  waste,  leaf 
mold,  tobacco  stems,  etc.,  is  thus  seen  to  have 
more  or  less  of  a  scientific  basis.  Frequently, 
however,  it  is  desirable  to  stimulate  the  growth 
and  fruitfulness  of  the  trees,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose more  active  fertilizing  materials  than  the 
above  are  needed.  In  selecting  and  mixing  the 
latter  the  fact  that  fruits  are  potash  feeders 
should  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  fertilizer 
requirements  of  small  fruits  are  similar  to  those 
of  orchard  fruits,  but,  being  as  a  rule  more  rapid 
growers,  they  can  utilize  to  advantage  heavier 
applications  of  soluble  fertilizing  materials  and 
do  not  derive  the  same  benefit  as  orchard  fruits 
from  slowly  decomposing  manures. 

It  may  be  said  that  in  general  crops  grown  on 
soils  poor  in  decaying  vegetable  matter  (humus) 
are  as  a  rule  benefit^  by  applications  of  nitrog- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KANUSES  AND  KANXJBINO.  25 

enous  manures,  while  those  grown  upon  soils 
well  supplied  with  this  substanoe  are  more  bene- 
fited by  phosphates  and  potash.  Upon  heavy 
soils  phosphates  are  likely  to  be  more  beneficial 
than  nitrogen,  while  the  reverse  is  the  case  on 
light  dry  soil  Sandy  soils  are  as  a  rule  de- 
ficient in  potash,  while  clayey  soils  contain  this 
element  in  larger  quantities.  Deep-rooting  crops 
with  long  seasons  of  growth  are  able  to  ac- 
quire the  necessary  plant  food  where  shallow- 
rooted  and  short-season  crops  would  suffer.  As 
r^ards  the  different  forms  of  fertilizing  mate- 
rials it  may  be  said  that  nitrates  and  soluble 
phosphates  should  be  applied  only  a  short  time 
before  they  are  required  by  the  plant.  Potash 
salts,  ammonium  sulphate,  organic  nitrogenous 
matter,  and  insoluble  phosphate,  being  less  like- 
ly to  be  converted  into  less  available  forms  or 
leached  out  of  the  soil,  may  be  safely  applied 
weeks  or  even  months  before  they  are  needed.  In 
general  farm  practice  the  best  results  are  likely 
to  be  obtained  in  the  use  of  fertilizers  by  applying 
them  systematically,  i.e.  by  adopting  a  combined 
system  of  rotation  and  manuring  which  is 
adapted  to  the  given  conditions  of  crop,  climate, 
and  season,  and  which  provides  for  the  utiliza- 
tion to  the  best  advantage  of  the  home  and  local 
sullies  of  manures. 

Tne  preparation  and  use  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers on  an  extensive  scale  practically  dates 
from  the  annoimcement  of  Liebig's  theory  of 
plant  nutrition  in  1840  and  the  publication  about 
'the  same  time  of  the  results  of  Lawes's  experi- 
ment on  the  preparation  and  use  of  superphos- 
phates as  a  fertilizer.  Since  that  date  the  in- 
dustry has  grown  to  enormous  proportions.  It  is 
estimated  that  over  $60,000,000  worth  of  ferti- 
lizers are  annually  consumed  in  the  United  States 
alone.  This  large  and  rapidly  growing  industry 
is  under  strict  legal  supervision  for  the  pre- 
vention of  fraud.  Every  State  in  which  com- 
mercial fertilizers  are  used  to  any  great  extent 
has  provided  for  fertilizer  inspection. 

The  composition  of  the  more  important  mate- 
rials used  in  the  preparation  of  fertilizers  is 
shown  in  the  table  on  the  preceding  page. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Sempers,  Manures — How  to 
Make  and  How  to  Use  Them  (Philadelphia, 
1893) ;  Aikman,  Manures  and  Manuring  (Edin- 
burgh and  London,  1894)  ;  Roberts,  The  Fertility 
of  the  Land  (New  York,  1897) ;  Storer,  Agricul- 
ture (New  York,  1897)  ;  Voorhees,  Fertilizers 
(New  York,  1902) ;  Brooks,  Agrioulture,  vol.  ii. 
(Springfield,  Mass.,  1901);  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Farmers^  Bulletins  44, 
192 ;  Snyder,  Soils  and  Fertilizers  (Easton,  1905 ) . 
SeeGBEEN  MANuamo;  Bone  Febtilizebs;  Guano. 

ICAjnusuaIPT  (Lat  manu  scriptum,  written 
by  hand).  A  term  applied  to  anything  written 
by  hand,  on  either  hard  or  soft  and  flexible  sub- 
stances. The  hard  substances  are  principally 
stones,  metals,  bone,  and  wood,  on  which  the 
writing  is  in  the  nature  of  engraving ;  the  soft  or 
flexible  substances  are  especially  papyrus,  wax, 
parchment  and  other  skins,  textiles,  and  paper, 
while  terra-cotta  or  clay  partakes  of  both  classes. 
The  instruments  used  were  the  wedge,  stylus,  brush, 
and  graver  for  the  hard,  and  the  reed,  quill, 
stylus,  and  metal  pen  for  the  soft  substances. 
The  stone  chisel  was  used  in  rock- writings.  In 
the  matter  of  inks,  black  was  always  the  ordi- 
nary color,  and  red  was  used  at  an  early  date 
{e.g.  in  Egypt)    for  decorative  purposes;  other 


1CANTXSGBIPT& 


colors  had  a  special  meaning,  as  purple  was  the 
Imperial  color  of  the  Byzantine  and  Carlovin-; 
gian  emperors,  and  yellow  the  Imperial  color  in 
China.  For  the  history  of  the  methods  of  pro- 
duction and  preservation  of  various  kinds  of 
manuscripts,  see  Paleoobapht;  Book;  Libra- 
BIE8;    Codex;    Papybus;    Cuneifobm   Inscbip- 

TIONS. 

ICANTTSCBIPTS,  Illumutation  of.  The  art 
of  embellishing  manuscripts  with  miniatures  and 
ornaments,  an  art  of  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
The  term  miniature,  so  often  used  indiscriminate- 
ly to  designate  such  ornamentation,  as  well  aa 
minute  pamting  on  ivory  or  other  material,  is 
derived  from  minium  (cinnabar,  red  lead)> 
whence  miniare,  to  write  or  design  in  red.  The 
Egyptian  papyri  of  the  ritualistic  class,  as 
old  as  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  es])ecially  the  Book 
of  the  Dead,  are  ornamented  with  vignettes  or 
miniatures,  attached  to  the  chapters,  either  de- 
signed in  black  outlines,  or  painted  in  primary 
colors  in  tempera.  Except  these  papyri,  no  other 
manuscripts  of  antiquity  were,  strictly  speaking, 
illuminated;  such  Greek  and  Roman  ones  of  the 
first  century  as  have  reached  the  present  day  be- 
ing written  only.  Pliny,  indeed,  mentions  from 
Varro  that  authors  had  their  portraits  painted 
on  their  works,  and  mentions  a  biographical 
work  with  niunerous  portraits  introduced,  but 
all  such  have  disappeared  in  the  wreck  of  ages, 
the  oldest  illuminated  manuscripts  which  have 
survived  dating  from  the  fourth  century.  Saint 
Jerome  complains  of  the  abuse  of  the  practice,  as 
shown  by  filling  up  books  with  capital  letters  of 
preposterous  size.  The  art  of  illuminating  manu- 
scripts with  gold  and  silver  letters  is  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  from  Egypt,  but  it  is  re- 
markable that  no  papyrus  has  any  gold  or  silver 
introduced  into  it.  The  artists  who  painted  in 
gold,  called  chrysographi,  are  mentioned  as  early 
as  the  second  century.  There  were,  in  fact,  from 
the  beginning  two  distinct  classes  of  illuminated 
manuscripts:  (1)  those  with  decorative  letters 
and  (2)  those  with  figured  compositions.  These 
were  often  crossed,  and  figures  painted  within 
and  around  the  letters.  The  purely  figured  il- 
lustrations, similar  to  the  larger  compositions 
in  mosaic  and  fresco,  originated  in  early  Byzan- 
tine art,  and  the  decorative  letter  style  was  a 
specialty  of  the  northern  races,  especially  Irish 
and  Saxon.  One  of  the  oldest  manuscripts  of  this 
style  is  the  Codex  Argenteus  of  Ulphilas  (c.50O 
AJ>.),  and  the  charter  of  King  Edgar  (a.d.  966) 
eihovffi  the  use  of  these  letters.  The  principal  late 
Roman  illustrated  manuscripts  are  the  two  Ver- 
gils  of  the  Vatican,  the  Iliad  of  the  Ambrosian 
(Milan),  and  the  Roman  Philocalian  Calendar  at 
Vienna,  all  belonging  to  the  fourth  century  or  the 
early  part  of  the  fifth,  and  illustrating  the  last 
phase  of  the  secular  school.  There  exist  also  a 
few  copies  of  originals  of  this  date  or  earlier, 
such  as  the  Terence  plays  at  the  Vatican  and 
Biblioth^ue  Nationale  and  the  Calendar  of  Ara- 
tus  at  Boulogne.  Of  Greek  classic  descent  are 
the  exquisite  pictures  in  the  Viennese  manuscript 
of  the  medical  writings  of  Dioscorides,  not  exe- 
cuted till  A.D.  505. 

Fifth  and  Sixth  Centubies.  It  was  during- 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  that  illuminating 
became  an  important  branch  of  Christian  art,, 
to  remain  so  until  the  sixteenth  century.  Manu- 
scripts of  the  Old  Testament,  either  as  a  whole 
or  in  separate  books,  and  Gospel  manuscripts 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


1CANTXSCBIPT& 


26 


ICAinrSGBIPTS. 


were  systematically  searched  for  incidents  of 
historic  or  religious  importance.  At  first  there 
was  even  a  superabundance  of  pictures,  ■  as  in 
the  roll  of  Joshua  at  the  Vatican,  and,  though 
less  so,  in  the  fifth-century  codices  of  Genesis 
at  Vienna  and  the  British  Museum.  The  nor- 
mal type  was  given  at  this  time  by  the  Ros- 
^cmo  Oospela,  a  work  of  the  Byzantine  school 
which  was  creating  the  new  art.  In  the  teaching 
of  the  people  by  pictures  it  is  difficult  to  decide 
which  branch  of  art  gave  the  suggestive  types 
for  the  scenes — the  mihiature  painters  or  the 
mosaicists  and  fresco-painters.  Outside  of  the 
Bible  the  chief  work  is  the  manuscript  of  Cosmas 
Indicopleustes  at  the  Vatican,  with  its  flfty-foiir 
pictures  of  the  sixth  century.  Until  the  seventh 
century  the  illuminations  were  square  or  oblong 
pictures  interrupting  the  text^  but  at  that  time 
the  calliCTaphic  style  of  decoration  began,  with 
its  initial  letters  and  its  interweaving  of  human, 
animal,  and  geometric  forms  with  the  letters. 
Already  in  the  famous  Syriac  manuscript  at  the 
Laurentian  Library  (Florence)  this  decorative 
sense  had  shown  itself.  It  was  developed  by  the 
Byzantine  artists  of  the  Iconoclastic  age,  who 
preferred  ornamentation  to  the  human  figure,  and 
by  the  Irish  and  Anglo-Saxon  schools,  which 
showed  an  originality  and  boldness  in  decorative 
work  equal  to  their  Ineptitude  in  treating  the  fig- 
ure. Meanwhile  in  toe  West  the  Benedictine 
monks  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  had 
continued  the  degenerate  Roman  style,  as  in  the 
Pentateuch  of  Tours,  or  were  copying  Byzantine 
models,  as  in  the  Cambridge  Oospela. 

Irish  and  Anglo-Saxon.  The  Irish  and  their 
pupils,  Anglo-Saxon  miniaturists,  broke  away 
entirely  not  only  from  all  classic  traditions, 
but  from  all  naturalism.  Spirals,  knots,  bands, 
zigzags,  and  other  geometric  forms,  derived  large- 
ly from  metal  work,  were  interwoven  often  with 
fantastic  beasts  and  impossible  men.  The  Book 
of  Deir,  the  Dorbeer  Life  of  Columha,  the  Lindia- 
fame  Oospela,  the  Book  of  Kelts,  the  Saint  Oall 
Ooapela,  the  WUrzhurg  Epistles,  the  Utrecht 
Psalter,  are  among  the  finest  works  of  this  school. 

Carolingian.  The  prominence  of  Irish  and 
Anglo-Saxon  monks  in  the  missionary  and  educa- 
tional worlds  in  the  eighth  century  throughout 
Northern  Europe  made  them  the  teachers  of  the 
Carolingian  school  of  illuminators  that  sprang  up 
in  France  and  Germany.  This  school,  while  adopt- 
ing much  of  the  decorative  scheme,  including  the 
immense  and  highly  ornamental  initial  letters, 
added  the  use  of  sacred  compositions  with  the 
human  figure,  largely  from  Latin  or  Byzantine 
models.  Rich  architectural  details  are  used  to 
frame  the  scenes,  and  large  single  figures  of 
Christ,  the  Emperor,  the  Evangelists,  etc.,  prevail. 
The  backgrounds  are  not  gilt,  but  plain  or  broken 
up  by  accessories.  The  Gospel-book  of  Charle- 
magne from  Soissons  (Biblioth^ue  Nationale, 
Paris)  is  dated  781  and  is  one  of  the  earliest  and 
finest  works  of  the  school.  It  had  several 
branches.  In  France  were :  ( 1 )  the  Franco-Saxon 
branch,  extending  from  Paris  to  the  Rhine,  of 
which  over  thirty  examples  remain,  including  the 
Gospels  at  Arras,  the  Psalter  at  Vienna,  and  the 
above  Gospels  from  Soissons;  (2)  the  branch  of 
Tours,  founded  by  Alcuin,  illustrated  by  Bibles 
and  Gospels,  in  the  British  Museum,  belonging  to 
Alcuin,  Charles  the  Bald,  and  Lothair;  (3)  the 
branch  of  Orleans,  with  Bibles  at  the  Biblio- 
th^ue  Nationale  and  Le  Puy.  In  Germany  were: 


( 1 )  the  branch  at  Metz,  to  which  the  Sacramen- 
taiT  of  Drogo  belongs;  and  (2)  that  at  Saint 
Gall,  which  has  specimens  in  the  Munich  Library. 
In  these  Carolingian  works  the  colored  outline 
drawing  was  brilliant  rather  than  solid,  the 
figures  clumsy  and  inclined  to  over-action.  But 
the  general  effect  was  of  splendor  and  originality. 

RoiCANESQUB.  The  true  continuators  of  the 
Carolingian  style  in  the  Romanesque  period  were 
the  German  illuminators  of  the  time  of  the 
Othos  and  the  Henrys,  who  tempered  the  ear- 
lier exaggerations  of  movement  and  size  throu^ 
contact  with  Byzantine  art.  Both  the  Rhenish 
and  the  Saxon  schools,  especially  the  latter,  have 
left  many  works  executed  for  these  emperors, 
now  preserved  at  Bamberg,  Munich,  Treves,  Paris, 
etc.,  especially  €rospel-books.  The  architectural 
details  and  borders  are  particularly  good  and 
rich,  including  also  the  animals  and  birds  so  fre- 
quent in  Romanesque  art.  Body  colors,  usually 
light  in  tone,  replaced  the  Carolingian  outline 
style;  figures  were  better  drawn  and  more  dig- 
nified. In  the  eleventh  century  the  richness  of 
initials  and  backgrounds  increased,  often  with 
tapestry  effects  as  in  the  Regensburg  Gospels; 
but  there  came  a  decadence,  which  lasted  nearly 
up  to  the  Gothic  period. 

Meanwhile  other  countries  were  lagging  far 
behind.  In  France  the  Carolingian  methods  be- 
came crude  and  barbarous,  as  in  the  Noaillea 
Bible,  Italy  had  never  even  participated  in  the 
Carolingian  revival  and  confined  itself  to  clumsy 
figure  painting,  mostly  in  outline,  without  dis- 
playing anjr  decorative  ability.  The  English 
school  contained  the  older  Irish  and  Anglo-Saxon 
work  with  modifications  first  due  to  Carolingian 
infiuence,  as  in  JEthelwold's  BenedictionaL  With 
the  Conquest,  however,  the  body-color  technique 
replaced  the  outlined  work,  as  in  Germany. 

Late  Btzantine.  The  three  centuries  before 
the  twelfth  were  most  prolific  and  successful 
in  Byzantine  miniature  painting.  The  Mace- 
donian dynasty  saw  a  return  to  more  classic 
models,  to  figure-painting  in  place  of  the  decora- 
tive work  of  the  Iconoclastic  age.  The  famous 
Paris  Psalter  has  scenes  of  antique  grace  showing 
a  copying  of  very  early  models;  but  even  worlS 
of  purely  contemporary  art  like  the  Paris  ser- 
mons of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  show  an  under- 
standing of  form  and  drapery  denied  to  Western 
art.  The  brilliant  gold  grounds,  the  rich  solid 
coloring,  the  simplicity  of  composition  and  orna- 
ment belong  to  a  severer  style.  One  of  the  most 
extensive  series  of  pictures  is  contained  in  the 
Menologium  of  Emperor  Basil  II.  (976-1025),  in 
the  Vatican,  which  heralds  a  decadence  in  Bvzan- 
tine  art.  T?he  decline  is  evident  in  the  Paris 
Saint  John  Chryaostom  illuminated  for  Nice- 
phorus  III.  (1078-81),  and  culminated  in  the 
works  done  for  the  Palseologi,  when  the  figures 
have  become  merely  decorated  puppets,  and  when 
the  artists  in  despair  turn  to  decorative  work  and 
initials. 

Gothic.  While  Byzantine  illumination  was 
dying,  the  golden  age  of  the  art  in  Europe 
was  beginning,  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. First  Germany  and  then  France  take 
the  lead.  The  Hortus  Deliciarum  of  Herrad  of 
Landsperg,  a  sort  of  cyclopaedia  in  design,  was 
a  forerunner  of  Gothic  design,  whose  first  steps 
are  shown  by  Landgrave  Hermann's  Psalter.  It 
was  under  Saint  Louis  (1226-70)  in  France, 
however,  that  the  Gothic  style  of  illumination 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ILLUMINATED      MANUSCRIPTS 


eortwwMr,  i*OA*v  soeoi  wcao  *  company 


jULIUVklCft  ACO   LrrH   NY 


MINIATURE   FROM   LATIN    MANUSCRIPT  BOOK   OF  HOURS    OF  THE   BLESSEJDi^lH^^b^XffilOOQ  IC 


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icAinrscsiPTS. 


27 


MANUSCRIPTS. 


really  originated  and  developed.  The  influence 
of  Byzantine  art  is  shown  in  the  clear  outlines, 
the  solid  strong  coloring,  the  small-sized  figures, 
the  simplicity  of  accessories,  and  the  good  taste 
shown  in  every  particular.  Of  course  the  orna- 
ments and  other  details  were  adapted  from  the 
Gothic  style  of  architecture,  with  growing  realism 
in  the  use  of  plants  and  flowers.  A  Psalter  of 
Saint  Louis  is  the  earliest  masterpiece  of  the 
type  so  familiar  to  the  strong  style  of  stained 
glass  windows.  In  the  course  of  the  fourteenth 
century  a  lighter  scheme  was  introduced,  with 
delicate  shading  instead  of  flat  tints,  with  more 
detail  and  expression.  This  French  Gtothic  school 
was  extremely  systematic  in  its  use  of  subjects — 
in  this  as  in  the  larger  arts — and  it  originated 
the  type  of  the  Bible  Historic,  corresponding  to 
the  German  Bihlia  Pauperum,  with  its  great 
wealth  of  illustrations.  The  other  main  class  of 
religious  illuminated  manuscripts  was  the  Book 
of  Hours  or  prayer-book.  Such  works,  executed 
for  the  use  of  royal  and  feudal  personages,  were 
the  most  exquisite  products  of  the  school.  But 
the  field  of  subjects  was  immeasurably  enlarged 
bevond  the  religious  sphere,  which  had  hitherto 
reigned  alone.  Works  of  poetry  and  legend,  of 
history  and  literature  of  every  kind,  were  deco- 
rated as  a  matter  of  course  with  illuminations. 

Other  countries  followed  timidly  and  awkward- 
ly in  the  wake  of  France,  adopting  her  Gothic 
style  in  this  as  in  other  branches  of  art.  Still, 
though  England,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands 
had  flourishing  schools,  there  was  a  lack  of  orig- 
inality and  far  less  perfection  of  design  and 
color.* 

In  France  itself  the  latter  part  of  the  four- 
teenth century  saw  a  further  approach  to  the 
methods  of  naturalistic  painting.  Exquisite  bor- 
ders of  elaborate  floral  patterns  commonly  in- 
closed the  entire  page,  often  enlivened  by  little 
birds,  animals,  and  figures.  Contemporary  cos- 
tume, furniture,  and  other  accessories  are  repro- 
duced with  minute  fidelity.  Brush  work  is  evi- 
dent in  the  modeling,  and  faces  are  exquisitely 
treated.  Work  in  monochrome,  in  the  light 
grisaille,  and  in  oamaieu  became  popular.  The 
libraries  of  King  Charles  V.  and  of  the  dukes  of 
Berry,  Anjou,  and  Burgundy^  were  enriched  with 
many  illuminated  manuscripts,  often  by  Court 
illuminators — missals,  gospels,  psalters,  brevi- 
aries, books  of  hours,  romances,  poems,  treatises 
on  falconry,  jousting,  astronomy,  physics.  The 
number  of  illuminations  in  some  of  these  works 
can  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  a  Bible  done  for 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  contained  over  2500  pic- 
tures. The  great  public  and  private  collections 
testify  to  the  enormous  productivity  of  the 
French  schools  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
thirteenth  and  the  whole  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  two  influences  are 
noticeable:  that  of  Italy  and  that  of  Flanders. 
The  Italian  Giottesque  revival  extended  to  illu- 
mination, and  Giotto's  contemporary,  the  Sienese 
master  Simone  Memmi,  executed  illustrations  to 
Vergil  and  to  Petrarch  in  a  simple  broad  style,  im- 
ported from  wall-painting,  which  henceforth  char- 
acterized Italian  illuminating.  The  manuscript 
statutes  of  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost  illustrate 
the  development  of  this  school.  When  the  popes 
established  themselves  at  Avignon  the  Italian 
miniaturists  with  them  began  to  influence  the 
French  artists.    On  the  other  hand,  the  powerful 

Vni.  XIII.— «. 


school  of  Flanders  began  to  dominate  French  art 
on  the  northern  side,  in  this  as  in  other  branches, 
with  tendency  to  heaviness,  realism,  and  portrait- 
ure, especially  remarkable  in  the  following  cen- 
tury. 

The  fifteenth  century  still  belongs  to  the  golden 
age  in  the  West.  In  France,  except  for  a  few 
exceptional  men  who  adopted  the  Renaissance 
style,  led  by  Fouquet,  the  Grothid  manner  still 
ruled  supreme.  Here  it  was  the  feudal  nobles 
and  the  royal  family,  and  not  the  churches  or 
monasteries,  for  whom  nearly  all  the  master- 
pieces were  executed:  the  Books  of  Hours  or 
prayer-books  were  especially  beautiful.  Those  of 
Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy,  at  The  Hague, 
and  those  of  Charles  the  Bold  and  Mary  of  Bur- 
gimdv,  at  Vienna,  are  typical  of  Flemish  art, 
which  was  taking  the  lead  in  powerful  natural- 
ism. The  Breviary  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford 
(c.  1430)  shows  Franco-Flemish  art  in  the  service 
of  England.  The  Hours  executed  for  Chevalier 
and  the  Jewish  Antiquities  of  Josephus  are 
among  the  masterpieces  of  Fouquet,  even  more 
great  as  a  painter  than  miniaturist,  who  combined 
the  pure  Italian  Renaissance  with  North  French 
realism.  In  Bohemia  also  the  art  was  royally 
patronized  by  Emperor  Charles  IV.  and  his  son 
Wenceslas,  while  King  Matthias  Corvinus  of 
Hungary  helped  develop  the  genius  of  some  of 
the  greatest  Italian  miniaturists. 

Renaissance.  Italy  forged  to  the  front  during 
this  century.  The  Sforzas  at  Milan,  the  dukes  of 
Ferrara,  the  royal  House  of  Naples,  the  Medici 
at  Florence  were  the  greatest  patrons  besides  the 
cathedral  churches.  The  Cathedral  of  Siena  still 
has  the  finest  collection  of  illuminated  missals 
and  choir  books  decorated  by  Liberale  da  Verona, 
Girolarao  da  Cremona,  Francesco  di  Lorenzo, 
Roselli,  and  other  leading  artists.  But  the  great- 
est of  all  artists  was  Attavante,  some  of  whose 
work  can  be  seen  at  Florence  ( in  the  Cathedral ) , 
beside  that  of  Gherardo,  of  Strozzi,  the  pupil  of 
Fra  Angel  ico,  and  others.  Some  of  Attavante's 
greatest  masterpieces  were  executed  for  Matthias 
Corvinus  (e.g.  Missal  of  1485-87).  This  Italian 
school  did  not  aim  at  the  delicate  French  effects. 
It  remained  broader;  preferred  to  use  large 
capital  letters  to  frame  its  compositions;  aimed 
at  simplicity  of  composition  with  few  figures. 

The  invention  of  printing,  while  it  limited  the 
scope  of  illumination  by  greatly  diminishing  the 
demand  for  manuscripts,  did  not  at  once  give  it 
its  death  blow.  Printed  books  were  often  at 
first  illuminated  with  initials  or  pictures  added 
by  hand  in  spaces  left  for  them,  a  practice  that 
lasted  even  into  the  first  decade  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Quite  as  fatal  was  the  introduction  of 
foreign  methods  into  the  art,  borrowed  from 
fresco  and  oil  painting.  The  old  simplicity  and 
aloofness  from  naturalism  gave  way  to  attempts 
at  efl'ects  that  were  totally  foreign  to  the  true 
spirit  of  illumination:  shading  and  delicacy  of 
coloring,  imitation  of  natural  objects,  importance 
given  to  perspective  and  accessories.  Prominent 
among  the  works  of  the  old  school  is  the  some- 
what earlier  Grimani  Breviary  (c.l477)  in  Ven- 
ice, so  long  ascribed  to  Memling.  A  remarkable 
facsimile  of  this  great  work  was  made  in  Ger- 
many in  IftOO,  one  of  the  copies  coming  to 
Columbia  University.  In  France  the  famous 
Missal  of  Anne  of  Brittany  ( 1.508,  Saint  Peters- 
burg Library)  is  the  expiring  eflTort  of  the 
national    school,    which    was    succeeded    by    the 


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MANUSCBIPTS. 


28 


MANUTIUS. 


Italian  masters  of  the  Fontainebleau  group.  The 
breaking  down  of  the  technical  diflferences  be- 
tween the  larger  forms  of  painting  and  illumina- 
tion, was  at  this  time  helped  by  the  work  of 
such  artists  as  Fra  Bartolommeo  della  Porta, 
who  practiced  both  branches.  Henceforth  illu- 
mination ceased  to  count  in  the  history  of  art. 
In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  the  art  became  ex- 
tinct, ending  in  the  style  called  camaieu  gris,  a 
kind  of  monochrome  in  which  the  lights  are  white 
or  gold,  and  shaded  so  as  to  emulate  bas-reliefs. 
Obiental.  Among  Oriental  nations  the  Persians, 
Hindus,  and  Chinese  have  illuminated  manuscripts 
of  great  beauty,  with  figured  compositions,  while 
the  branches  of  Mohammedan  art  stricter  than 
the  Persians  have  confined  their  illuminations  to 
ornamental  work,  as  in  the  mediaeval  works  of 
the  schools  of  Cairo  and  Damascus,  mainly  repre- 
sented by  magnificent  Korans.  The  best  works 
were  produced  during  the  comparatively  brief 
period  between  the  thirteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies. The  style  of  these  illimiinations  is  de- 
scribed under  Indian  Akt;  Mohammedan  Abt; 
etc. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  There  are  very  good  chapters 
in  such  general  historic  works  as  Woltmann  and 
VVoermann,  History  of  Painting  (Eng.  trans.. 
New  York,  1880)  ;  but  for  full  details,  see  such 
works  as  W.  J.  Audsley,  Guide  to  the  Art  of 
Illuminating  and  Missal  Painting  (London, 
1862)  ;  and  J.  W.  Bradley,  Dictionary  of  Minia- 
turists (London,  1887-89).  A  recent  special 
treatise  is  G.  E.  WsLTuer, Illuminated  Manuscripts 
(London,  1900),  in  the  "British  Museum  Series." 
In  its  special  branch,  J.  0.  Westwood,  Facsimiles 
of  the  Miniatures  and  Ornaments  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Irish  Manuscripts {Ijondonf  1868) ,  has 
never  been  displaced,  and  the  general  historic 
treatment  in  J.  Labarte,  Histoire  des  arts  indus- 
tries (Paris,  1866),  remains  excellent.  So  is  the 
handbook  in  the  French  series  of  Quantin,  Lecoy 
de  la  Marche,  Les  manuscrits  et  la  miniature 
(Paris,  1884).  Good  German  works  are:  Tik- 
kanen,  Die  Psalter-Illustrationen  im  Mittelalter 
( Helsingfors,  1895  seq.)  ;  Kobell,  KunstvoUe 
Miniaturen  und  Initialen  aus  Handschriften 
des  4-  ^w  ^^-  Jahrhunderts  (2d  ed.,  Munich, 
1892). 

MANXmTTS,  m&nti'shi-tls.  The  Latin  name 
of  a  famous  family  of  Italian  printers.  Teobaldo 
Manucci,  better  known  as  Aldo  Manuzio  (Aldus 
Manutius),  was  born  at  Sermoneta,  near  Rome, 
in  1450.  Having  studied  Latin  at  Rome  under 
Gasparino  da  Verona  and  Greek  at  Ferrara  under 
Guarino  da  Verona,  Manuzio  went  in  1482  to  live 
at  Mirandola  with  his  old  friend  Giovanni 
Pico.  Pico  got  Manuzio  a  place  as  tutor  to  his 
nephews,  Alberto  and  Lionello  Pio,  princes  of 
Carpi.  Alberto  supplied  the  funds  with  which 
the  great  press  was  founded.  Manuzio,  or  Aldo, 
to  use  the  name  now  most  familiar,  settled  in 
Venice  in  1490,  and  soon  published  the  undated 
Eero  and  Leander  of  Musffius,  the  Galeomyo- 
machia,  and  the  Greek  Psalter.  In  1495  the  first 
volume  of  Aristotle  appeared.  Nine  comedies  of 
Aristophanes  followed  in  1498.  Thucydides, 
Sophocles,  and  Herodotus  came  out  in  1502; 
Xenophon's  Hellenics  and  Euripides  appeared  in 
1503,  Demosthenes  in  1504.  In  1513  Plato  was 
issued,  and  Pindar,  Hesychius,  and  Atheneeus 
came  out  in  1514.  Aldo's  press  now  devoted  itself 
to  printing  Latin  and  Italian  works,  including 
the  Divine  Comedy.     These  works    (1495-1514) 


were  printed  with  Aldine  types,  a  style  said  ta 
have  been  copied  from  the  handwriting  of  Pe- 
trarch. Italic  type  was  invented  by  Aldo,  as  is 
shown  by  his  Monitum  of  March  16,  1503,  re- 
printed in  Renouard  (vol.  iii.).  Italics  were 
soon  adopted  by  Lyonese  printers.  Apparently 
the  first  book  thus  printed  at  Lyons  was. 
issued  in  1501.  Aldo  was  an  ardent  hu- 
manist. He  loved  the  books  that  he  printed 
and  wished  to  make  not  only  them  but  his 
manuscripts  accessible  to  many.  Symonds 
roughly  estimates  the  current  price  of  Aldo's 
pocket  series  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian 
classics,  begun  in  1501,  at  two  shillings  a  vol- 
ume. The  five  volumes  of  Aristotle  were  worth 
about  £8.  Thus  Aldo*s  books  were  cheaper  than 
those  of  modem  publishers,  who  have  hardly  sur- 
passed him  in  quality  at  their  best.  In  1499^ 
Aldo  had  wedded  Maria  Torresano  of  Asola.  Her 
father,  Andrea,  a  celebrated  printer,  jointed  Aldo, 
and  Asolanus  came  to  be  printed  along  with 
Aldus  on  the  title  pages  of  Aldine  editions* 
On  February  6,  1515,  Aldo  died,  leaving  three 
sons  to  help  carry  on  his  business. — PAULua 
Manutius  (1512-74),  born  in  Venice,  June  12,. 
1512,  took  up  in  1533  the  task  which  had  mean- 
while been  done  mainly  by  his  grandfather,  Andrea 
Torresano.  Paolo  set  up  his  own  firm  and  de- 
voted himself  mainly  to  the  Latin  classics.  He 
skillfully  edited  Cicero's  Letters  and  Orations, 
and  published  his  own  J>atin  version  of  Demos- 
thenes. In  1561,  at  the  invitation  of  Pius  IV.,  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  to  have  500  ducats  a 
year  and  enough  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  press. 
The  profits  were  to  be  equally  divided  between 
Paolo  and  the  Camera  Apostohca.  Aldo  seems  to 
have  fared  well  under  Pius  IV.,  but  the  coldness 
of  Pius  V.  compelled  him  to  leave  Rome.  He  went 
back,  however,  and  died  there  in  1574.  His 
partnership  with  the  Papacy  was  more  favorable 
to  theological  writers  than  to  classic  literature. 
— Aldus  Manutius,  the  younger  (1547-97),  son 
of  Paolo,  was  born  February  13,  1547,  and  died 
in  Rome,  October  28,  1597.  At  the  age  of  nine 
his  name  appeared  on  the  title  page  of  the 
Eleganze  delta  lingua  toscana  e  latina.  In  1561, 
whether  with  or  without  help  we  do  not  know, 
he  produced  a  work  on  Latin  spelling,  Ortho- 
graphiw  Ratio,  which  he  completed  with  an 
Epitome  Orthographies  in  1575,  both  highly  valu- 
able books.  In  1572  Aldo  married  Francesca 
Lucrezia,  daughter  of  Bartolommeo  Giunta, 
grandson  of  a  Giunta  who  had  established  a 
famous  Venetian  press.  This  was  a  lucky  alli- 
ance, for  the  Aldine  press  had  been  steadily  de- 
clining, while  the  other  was  growing  richer.  In 
1574  his  father's  death  in  Rome  made  Aldo  the 
younger  head  of  the  firm.  His  commentary  of  the 
Ars  Poetica  of  Horace  (1576)  maintained  the 
family's  traditional  blending  of  good  printing  and 
scholarship.  As  a  professor  of  belles-lettres  Aldo 
went  to  Bclcctia  (1585),  and  thence  to  Pisa 
(1587).  There  he  printed  Alberti's  comedy 
Philodoxius,  and  attributed  it  strangely  to 
Lepidus.  In  1588  he  went  to  Rome  and  again 
turned  to  printing,  with  Clement  VIII.  as  his 
patron,  until  his  death.  Consult:  Schlick, 
Aldus  Manutius  und  seine  Zeitgcnossen  (Berlin, 
1862)  ;  Goldsmid,  A  Bibliographical  Sketch  of 
the  Aldine  Press  at  Venice  (Edinburgh,  1887)  ; 
and  Omont,  Catalogue  des  livres  grecs  et  latins 
imprimis  par  Aide  Manuce  (Paris,  1892).  See 
Aldine  Editions. 


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MAN  WHO  LAUGHS. 


29 


MANZONI. 


MAN  WHO  LAUGHS,  The.     See  Homme 

QUI  BIT,  L*. 

MAN  WITHOXrr  A  COUNTBY,  The.  A 
story  by  Edward  Everett  Hale,  published  anony- 
mously in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  (1863).  Philip 
Nolan,  a  young  army  officer,  became  involved  in 
Aaron  Burr's  treason,  and  in  his  disgrace  he 
publicly  cursed  the  United  States.  He  was  sen- 
tenced never  to  hear  his  coimtry's  name  again, 
and  until  he  died,  repentant,  was  transferred 
from  one  United  States  ship  on  foreign  service  to 
another,  so  that  he  never  saw  his  own  land. 

MANX  CAT.    See  Domestic  Cats,  under  Cat. 

MANX  LITEBATUBE.  The  Celtic  dialect 
still  spoken  on  the  Isle  of  Man  is  closely  related 
to  Irish  and  Scotch  Gaelic,  standing  nearer  on 
the  whole  to  the  latter.  (See  cSltic  Lan- 
guages.) Unlike  both  of  them,  Manx  has  aban- 
doned the  traditional  Gaelic  orthography  and 
modeled  its  spelling  rather  upon  English.  Manx 
literature,  so  far  as  preserved,  is  scanty  and  con- 
fined to  the  modem  period.  The  principal  monu- 
ments are  the  translations  of  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  and  of  the  Bible.  The  former  was 
first  published  in  1765;  the  latter  in  1771-75. 
But  an  older  manuscript  version  of  the  Prayer- 
book,  completed  by  Bishop  Phillips  in  1610,  has 
been  recently  printed  by  John  Rh^s  and  A.  W. 
Moore  (Douglas,  1894).  Moore  has  also  pub- 
lished several  books  dealing  with  the  history 
and  popular  traditions  of  the  Isle  of  Man. 

BiBLiOGRAFHT.  A  general  account  of  Manx 
remains  was  given  by  H.  Jenner  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  London  Philological  Society  for 
1875.  Kelh^'s  Practical  Grammar  of  Manx  and 
Manx  Dictionary  have  both  been  published  by  the 
Manx  Society.  Professor  Rh^s  contributed  an 
investigation  on  the  Outlines  of  Manx  Phonology 
to  the  edition  of  Bishop  Phillips's  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  (Douglas,  1894).  The  following 
publications  of  A.  W.  Moore  are  all  of  value: 
The  Surnames  and  Place  Names  of  the  Isle  of 
Man  (London,  1890)  ;  The  Folklore  of  the  Isle 
of  Man  (Douglas,  1891);  Manx  Carols  (Doug- 
las, 1891)  ;  and  A  History  of  the  Isle  of  Man 
(London,  1900). 

MAN-YOSHUy  mAn'yd-8h?55'  (Japanese,  Col- 
lection of  a  Thousand  Leaves) .  The  most  ancient 
anthology  in  the  Japanese  language.  It  was 
formed  in  the  eighth  century  a.d.,  being  one  of 
the  first  books  written  in  Japan.  It  retains  the 
highest  place  in  the  estimation  of  Japanese  crit- 
ics, and  a  whole  literature  has  gathered  around 
it.  To  the  foreign  student  its  chief  value  is  in 
its  facts  and  allusions,  which  make  it  a  prime 
source  for  the  study  of  ancient  Japanese  history 
and  sociology. 

MANZANABES,  mUn'thii-nrrfts.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Ciudad  Real,  Spain,  situated  98 
miles  south  of  Madrid,  in  a  vast  and  arid  plateau 
known  as  La  Mancha,  1882  feet  above  the  sea- 
level  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  The  town  is  well 
built,  and  contains  a  modern  church  of  Gothic 
architecture  and  an  ancient  castle  surrounded 
by  a  moat.  The  countrv  around  is  flat,  requiring 
irrigation  to  render  tne  soil  productive.  The 
climate  is  healthful  and  delightiful;  the  chief  in- 
dustry is  the  raising  of  saffron  and  making  Val- 
de-Pefias  wine.  There  are  manufactures  of  cloth, 
soap,  and  brandy.     Population,  in  1900,  11,181. 

MANZANILLO,  m^'sA-n$^yA.  A  seaport 
and  port  of  entry  of  Cuba,  in  the  Province  of  San- 


tiago de  Cuba  (Map:  Cuba,  H  6).  It  is  situated 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  province,  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guacanabo,  in  a  low  and  unhealthful 
region  surrounded  by  mangrove  swamps.  Though 
not  very  attractive  in  appearance,  it  is  regularly 
built,  with  straight  and  wide  streets  crossing  at 
right  angles.  It  has  four  high  schools,  several 
hospitals,  and  a  good  market.  The  roadstead, 
protected  by  the  Keys  of  Manzanillo,  forms  a 
capacious  harbor.  The  city  serves  as  the  port 
of  Bayamo,  and  is  the  outlet  for  the  products 
of  the  fertile  Canto  Valley,  the  chief  of  which 
are  sugar,  tobacco,  and  lumber.  Population,  in 
1899,  14,464;  of  the  municipal  district,  32,288. 

MANZANILLO  (Puerto  de  Colima).  A  sea- 
port of  the  State  of  Colima,  Mexico,  situated  on 
the  Pacific  coast  at  the  entrance  to  the  lagoon 
of  Cuyutlan  (Map:  Mexico,  G  8).  A  railroad 
connects  the  town  with  Colima,  the  capital  of 
the  State,  40  miles  inland.    Population,  4000. 

MANZANITA,  m&n'z&-ne^tA.  A  California 
shrub.  See  Abctostaphtlos  and  Plate  of  Cali- 
fornia Shrubs. 

MANZONTy  m&n-z(/n6,  Alessandro  (1785- 
1873).  An  Italian  poet  and  novelist,  born  at 
Milan,  March  7,  1785.  Having  completed  his 
earljr  training  at  Milan  and  Pavia,  he  accom- 
panied his  mother  to  Paris  in  1805,  and  with  her 
he  frequented  some  of  the  most  fashionable  sa- 
lons, especially  those  in  which  the  encyclopaedic 
and  rationalistic  ideas  of  the  preceding  century 
still  retained  a  hold.  But  the  skeptical  opinions 
that  this  Parisian  sojourn  gave  him  were  not  to 
last.  His  acquaintance  with  the  French  scholar 
Fauriel  began  at  this  time  and  greatly  influenced 
his  later  artistic  development.  Back  in  Milan  in 
1808,  he  married  Enrichetta  Blondel,  a  follower  of 
the  Reformed  religion.  The  couple  went  to  Paris, 
and  there  in  1810  the  marriage  was  resolemnized 
according  to  the  rites  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
which  the  wife  embraced  and  which  Manzoni 
practiced  from  this  time  on  with  sincere  ardor. 
After  1810  he  made  his  home  in  the  region  of 
Milan.  He  was  on  terms  of  close  friendship 
with  such  writers  as  Massimo  d'Azeglio,  who 
married  his  daughter,  Tommaso  Grossi,  the  nov- 
elist, and  Berchet.  Although  an  avowed  patriot, 
he  played  no  very  public  part  in  the  struggles 
for  political  independence,  so  that  he  was  in- 
cluded in  no  proscription.  He  became  a  Senator 
in  I860.  He  died  May  22,  1873.  During  his 
youthful  period  Manzoni  produced  poems  after 
the  manner  of  the  school  of  classicists,  reflecting 
his  earlier  skeptical  feelings,  e.g.  the  Trionfo 
delta  liberty,  obviously  written  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Monti;  a  composition  in  blank  verse 
entitled  In  morte  di  Carlo  Imhonati,  and  the 
Urania.  The  period  between  1816  and  1825  was 
his  most  active  one  in  the  production  of  works 
in  both  prose  and  verse.  To  it  belong  the  Inni 
sacrif  which  are  full  of  exalted  religious  senti- 
ment, one  or  two  political  canzoni,  and  the  poem 
that  made  him  really  famous,  the  Cinque  maggio, 
an  ode  on  the  death  of  Napoleon  (1821).  Of  this 
same  period  are  his  dramatic  compositions  with 
which  he  hoped  to  inaugurate  a  reform  in  the 
Italian  theatre.  They  are  the  Conte  di  Car- 
magnola  and  the  Adelchi,  the  former  published  in 
1820  and  the  latter  in  1822  (at  Milan).  Admir- 
able as  literary  performances,  they  are  not 
adaptable  to  scenic  production,  and  neither  was 
well  received  at  home,  although  Goethe  warmly 


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MANZONI. 


80 


HAP. 


praised  the  Conte  di  Carmagnola.  In  connection 
with  these  pieces  Manzoni  enunciated  the  follow- 
ing principles:  the  dramatic  composer  should 
adapt  the  poetic  invention  to  the  historic  fact 
and  not  follow  the  contrary  practice;  the  unities 
of  time  and  place  need  not  be  observed ;  the  style 
and  the  dialogue  should  be  perfectly  natural; 
and  the  Chorus^  a  sort  of  commentary  on  the 
events  enacted,  should  provide  a  place  in  which 
the  author  may  freely  express  his  own  feelings. 
Of  the  prose  publications  of  Manzoni,  the  first 
to  be  noted  is  the  Morale  oattolico  (Milan, 
1819),  a  reply  to  Sismondi's  strictures  upon 
Catholicism.  His  masterpiece  is  the  novel  / 
promeasi  sposi  (Milan,  1825-26),  which  is  more 
remarkable  as  an  excellently  framed  psycholog- 
ical novel  than  as  an  historic  novel.  The  story 
relates  events  supposed  to  have  taken  place  in 
Lombardy  during  the  years  1628  to  1631,  and 
as  background  to  the  account  of  the  marriage  of 
two  peasants,  long  thwarted  by  a  tyrannous 
local  potentate,  gives  a  picture  of  the  manners 
of  the  time.  The  novel  contains  a  most  graphic 
description  of  the  ravages  of  the  plague  in  Milan 
in  1630.  /  promessi  sposi  has  passed  through 
about  150  Italian  editions,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  very  many  modem  languages.  Con- 
vinced that  pure  Tuscan  was  the  only  true  literary 
Italian,  he  revised  the  form  of  the  tale  with  a 
view  to  expunging  Gallicisms  and  Lombard  dia- 
lect expressions,  and  republished  it  in  1840.  With 
the  second  edition  of  /  promeasi  spoai  appeared 
a  sort  of  sequel  to  it,  the  Colonna  infame.  His 
Sacred  Hymns  and  The  Napoleonic  Ode  were 
translated  into  English  rhyme  (Oxford,  1905). 

Consult:  Opere  varie  di  A.  Manzoni  (Milan, 
1845-70,  with  additional  prose  works)  ;  the  edi- 
tion of  his  letters  or  Epistolario,  byG.  Sforza 
(Milan,  1882-83)  ;  Vismara,  Bibliografia  man- 
eoniana  (Milan,  1875)  ;  Bersezio,  A.  Manzoni, 
studio  hiografico  e  oritico  (Turin,  1873)  ;  De 
Gubematis,  A,  Manzoni,  studio  hiografico  (Flor- 
ence, 1879)  ;  C.  Canttl,  A.  Manzoni,  reminiscenze 
(Milan,  1885)  ;  V.  Waille,  Le  romantisme  de 
Manzoni   (Paris,  1890). 

MAOBI,  mS/d'To,  The  Polynesian  race  found 
in  New  Zealand  by  the  first  white  men  who  dis- 
covered the  island.  Above  the  average  in 
stature,  they  are  more  or  less  robust,  with 
athletic  frames.  The  head-form  is  dolicho- 
cephalic. The  women  for  the  most  part  are 
strong  and  vigorous.  Both  sexes  are  adepts 
in  swimming,  and  the  people  are  fond  of  bodily 
exercise.  Some  authorities  hold,  on  insuflBcient 
grounds,  that  the  Maoris  and  other  Eastern 
Polynesians  are  non-Malay,  and  Caucasic  rather 
than  Mongol ic,  although  they  admittedly  speak 
dialects  of  the  common  Malayo-Polynesian  speech. 
A  few  more  venturesome  inquirers  have  even 
sought  to  sAow  that  the  Maori  tongue  is  related 
to  the  Aryan  family  of  languages.  But  all  such 
efforts  are  vain.  The  Moriori  of  Chatham 
Islands  are  hardly  more  than  a  branch  of  the 
Maori,  with  perhaps  more  of  a  pre-Maori  Mela- 
nesian  intermixture,  noticeable  not  only  in  phys- 
ical characteristics,  but  also  in  art,  weapons, 
etc.  The  Maoris  are  noted  for  their  tattooing, 
their  ornamental  and  decorative  art,  their  epic 
poetr}\  legends,  and  mythology.  In  early  times 
they  were  among  the  most  cannibalistic  of  Poly- 
nesian peoples,  despite  their  relatively  high  cul- 
ture. Their  long  and  valiant  struggle  with  the 
British  colonists,   in  the  course  of  which  they 


displayed  some  brilliant  war  tactics,  gained  for 
them  the  respect  of  their  opponents,  and  they 
now  have  their  representatives  in  the  Legislature 
on  the  same  basis  as  their  white  fellow  country- 
men. The  Maoris,  scattered  over  parts  of  the 
northern  island  and  the  northern  portion  of  the 
southern  island,  seem,  according  to  the  last 
census,  to  be  increasing  in  numbers.  Consider- 
able intermarriage  has  also  taken  place.  There 
were  two  Maoris  in  the  New  Zealand  Cabinet  of 
1906.  Consult:  Finsch,  Reise  in  der  SUdsee  ( Wien, 
1884)  ;  White,  The  Ancient  History  of  the  Maori, 
His  Mythology  and  Traditions  (London,  1889)  ; 
Tregear,  Maori  Polynesian  Comparative  Diction- 
ary (Wellington,  New  Zealand,  1891);  id.,  The 
Maori  Race  { ib.,  1904 ) ;  Robley,  Moko,  or  Maori 
Tattooing  (London,  1896)  ;  Reeves,  The  Long 
White  Cloud  (London,  1898).  See  Polyne- 
sians. 

MAP  (from  Lat.  mappa,  napkin).  A  delinea- 
tion upon  a  plane  surface  of  objects  that  are 
actuaUy  located  upon  a  spherical  surface.  The 
word  was  brought  into  use  in  the  Middle  Ages 
and  signified  that  maps  were  originally  printed 
on  cloth.  In  common  usage  map  is  nearly 
synonymous  with  chart,  although  there  is  a 
tendency  to  limit  the  former  word  to  representa- 
tions of  the  earth's  surface,  while  delineations 
of  stars  in  the  celestial  vault  and  of  hydrographic 
facts  are  generally  designated  as  charts.  The 
earliest  maps  were  purely  empirical  drawings 
presenting  the  relative  positions  of  known  points 
and  defining  in  a  general  way  the  limits  of  land 
and  water  areas.  Modern  maps,  however,  whose 
construction  involves  a  high  degree  of  skill  and 

i'udgment,  are  faithful  epitomes  of  our  earth 
Tiowledge,  recording  that  which  is  revealed  by 
geographical  surveys  and  discoveries  or  added  to 
or  taken  away  from  the  earth  by  man's  industry. 
HiSTOBT  OF  Map-Makino.  The  earliest  ex- 
amples of  cartographic  art  are  furnished  by  the 
Egyptians  and  Babylonians.  Picture  maps  illus- 
trating events  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century 
B.C.  have  been  found  among  the  Babylonians,  to 
whom  also  belongs  the  credit  of  dividing  the  circle 
into  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  according  to 
cur  present  sexagesimal  system.  The  Greeks  de- 
veloped the  knowledge  of  these  ancient  peoples 
upon  a  scientific  basis.  Anaximander  of  Miletus 
(sixth  century  B.C.)  is  credited  with  the  first 
attempt  to  draw  a  map  of  the  then  known  world, 
but  the  honor  of  founding  the  methods  of  rational 
cartography  must  be  assigned  to  Claudius  Ptole- 
mseus,  who  lived  in  the  second  century  a.d.  Al- 
though largely  indebted  to  the  labors  of  Hip- 
pa  rchus,  who  provided  the  necessary  means  for 
the  determination  of  geographical  position,  to 
Eratosthenes,  the  keeper  of  the  Alexandrian  Li- 
brary, and  especially  to  Marinus  of  Tyre,  Ptolemy 
combined  the  results  of  their  investigations  and 
constructed  a  general  map  of  the  world  that  not 
only  excelled  all  previous  efforts  in  this  direction, 
but  is  generally  recognized  as  the  most  complete 
summary  of  geographical  knowledge  available 
previous  to  the  sixteenth  century.  Under  the 
Romans  map-making  was  confined  to  such  de- 
lineations as  were  useful  for  military  and  polit- 
ical purposes.  They  did  not  apply  astronomical 
methods  to  the  art,  and  the  few  examples  of 
world  maps  were  constructed  upon  an  oval  plan, 
in  which  the  earth  appeared  to  be  twice  as  long 
from  east  to  west  as  from  north  to  south. 
The  Middle  Ages  witnessed  a  return  to  the 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


KAP.  81 

Homeric  conception  of  a  flat  circular  earth  sur- 
rounded by  the  ocean.  With  the  Renaissance, 
however,  Ptolemy's  work  again  came  into  use, 
and  when  wood  and  copper  engraving  began  to  be 
employed  for  the  reproduction  of  maps  cartog- 
raphy made  rapid  progress.  To  satisfy  the  in- 
creasing requirements  of  navigation,  the  Italians 
produced  a  series  of  nautical  charts  called  loxo- 
dromes,  in  which  all  points  were  connected  with 


KAP. 

The  earliest  attempt  to  construct  a  map  of  an 
extended  territory  upon  a  trigonometric  and  to- 
pographic survey — that  is,  upon  modern  scientific 
principles — was  made  in  1733  by  C4sar  Gassini, 
the  director  of  the  astronomical  observatory  at 
Paris.  Assisted  at  first  by  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences  and  afterwards  by  a  private  company, 
he  undertook  to  map  the  entire  area  of  France. 
The  first  sheets  appeared  in  1744  and  the  last 


PTOLEMY'S  MAP  (C.  150). 


each  other  by  straight  lines,  which  represented 
compass  bearings  and  enabled  the  navigator  to 
lay  out  his  course  to  any  objective  point.  With  the 
progress  of  geographical  discoveries  in  the  fif- 
teenth, sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries,  map- 
making  became  an  established  industry  in  Ger- 
many and  Holland.  To  this  period  belong  the 
great  cartographers — Johann  Werner,  of  Nurem- 
berg, who  in  1513  devised  the  equal  area  cordi- 
form    projection;    Gerhard    Kramer,    generally 


were  completed  in  1793.  The  work  aroused 
widespread  interest  among  all  civilized  govern- 
ments, and  so  forcibly  illustrated  the  value  of 
accurate  maps  that  the  French  Government  soon 
undertook  an  elaborate  survey,  an  example  that 
has  been  generally  followed  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. 

Thbobt  of  Map  Constbuction.  As  it  is  im- 
possible to  make  the  surface  of  a  sphere  conform 
with  a  plane,  the  problem  of  representing  por- 


OBTHOOBAPHIO  PBOJECTIOK. 

known  as  Mercator,  who  invented  the  first  de- 
veloped projection  and  published  a  map  of  the 
world  (1569);  Ortelius,  the  publisher  of  an 
atlas,  Theatrum  Orhis  Terrarum  (1570);  and 
Blaeu  (died  1638),  author  of  Atlas  Novua,  Ho- 
mann  (died  1724)  issued  the  first  school  atlas, 
AtUis  8cholasticu8.  Mercator*s  projection  prac- 
tically revolutionized  the  method  of  map-matcing, 
as  it  solved  for  the  navigator  the  complex  prob- 
lems involving  the  relations  of  courses  and  dis- 
tances to  latitude  and  longitude. 


STBBBOGHAPHIC  PBOJKCTION. 

tions  of  the  earth's  surface  upon  a  map  can  be 
solved  with  only  approximate  accuracy.  The 
solution  may  be  approached  by  various  methods 
which  lead  to  results  more  or  less  valuable  for 
particular  purposes.  Among  these  methods  are 
the  orthographic  and  stereographic  projections  of 
Hipparchus,  the  gnomic  projection  of  Thales,  and 
the  globular  or  equidistant  projection  devised  by 
Niccolisi.  These  projections,  which  are  based 
upon  the  relative  positions  of  the  eye  and  the 
plane  of  projection,  are  best  adapted  for  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HAP. 


82 


HAP. 


representation  of  hemispheres  and  are   seldom 
used  in  mapping  small  areas. 

The  orthographic  projection  assumes  that  the 
eye  is  placed  at  an  infinite  distance,  so  that  all 
lines  leading  from  it  to  the  object  are  parallel. 
The  plane  of  projection  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  of  sig^t  and  every  point  upon  the  hemi- 


ONOMIC  PBOJECTION. 

(On  plane  of  the  Equator.) 

sphere  is  referred  to  the  plane  by  a  perpendicular 
let  fall  on  it.  In  this  projection  the  central 
portions  of  the  hemisphere  are  faithfully  repre- 
sented, but  near  the  circumference  the  areas  be- 
come greatly  diminished  and  the  relative  angular 
directions  are  greatly  changed. 

The  stereographic  projection  is  obtained  when 


the  surfaces  are  much  larger  than  on  the  globe; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  relative  positions  of 
objects  that  are  near  together  are  well  preserved. 

The  gnomic  projection  assumes  that  the  eye  is 
placed  at  the  centre  of  a  sphere  while  the  plane 
of  projection  is  tangent  to  its  surface. 

The  globular  or  equidistant  projection  was  de- 
signed to  correct,  as  much  as  possible,  the  con- 
traction of  the  orthographic  and  the  expansion  of 
the  stereographic  projections.  In  this  method 
the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed  along  the  diameter 

of  the  sphere  at  a  distance  — =  times  the  radius 

above  the  surface,  and  the  plane  of  projection  is 
perpendicular  to  the  diameter.  In  this  con- 
struction all  circles  on  the  sphere  become  ellipses, 
and  objects  are  not  represented  with  their  true 
outlines,  but  the  relative  dimensions  are  fairly 
well  preserved.  An  equidistant  method  for 
polar  projections  of  the  sphere  is  employed  in 
the  meteorological  charts  of  the  Northern  and 
Southern  hemispheres  frequently  used  by  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau. 

Modern  maps  upon  large  scales  are  constructed 
by  so-called  projections  which  are  actually  de- 
velopments  of  projections.  Development  is  ren- 
dered possible  by  the  substitution  of  a  cylindrical 
or  conical  surface  for  the  ordinary  plane  of 
projection,  the  eye  occupying  an  arbitrary  posi- 
tion when  not  assumed  at  the  centre  of  the 
sphere.  The  surface  of  the  cylinder  or  cone  is 
developed  subsequently  in  a  plane.  Various  re- 
sults may  be  obtained  by  changing  the  place  at 
which  the   cone   or  cylinder   is   tangent  to  the 


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MKBCATOR  S  PROJBCTION. 


the  eye  is  placed  at  any  point  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere  and  the  line  of  sight  to  any  point  on 
the  opposite  hemisphere  is  prolonged  until  it  in- 
tersects the  plane  of  projection  tangent  to  the 
hemisphere.  By  this  method  the  central  portion 
of  the  map  is  enlarged  relative  to  the  correspond- 
ing surface  of  the  globe,  and  in  the  outer  zones 


sphere,  while  by  substituting  for  the  tangent 
cylinder  or  cone  a  secant  cylinder  or  cone  lying 
partly  within  and  partly  without  the  sphere, 
projections  are  obtained  which  are  known  as 
equal  surface  projections  and  which  are  valuable 
for  the  construction  of  maps  exhibiting  statis- 
tical information  and  for  celestial  charts. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KAP. 

Among  the  most  important  projections  using 
the  idea  of  development  is  that  devised  by  Mer- 
«ator.  In  this  projection  a  cylinder  is  assumed 
as  tangent  to  the  sphere  at  the  equator,  the  axis 
of  the  former  being  coincident  with  that  of  the 
latter.  The  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed  at  the 
centre  of  the  sphere  and  the  lines  of  sight  passing 
through  points  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  are 
prolonged  until  they  intersect  the  circumscribing 
cylinder.  On  developing  (unrolling)  the  cylinder 
in  a  plane  the  projected  meridians  become  paral- 
lel and  equidistant  straight  lines  which  are  inter- 
sected at  right  angles  by  parallel  straight  lines 
representing  latitudes.  The  defects  of  Mercator's 
projection  relate  to  scale  and  area.  The  scale  is 
correct  only  on  the  equator,  from  which  north- 
ward and  southward  the  successive  parallels  of 
latitude  increase  in  distance  from  each  other  in 
the  ratio  of  the  tangent  of  the  latitude,  attaining 
an  infinite  value  at  the  poles.  This  increase  of 
the  latitudes,  together  with  the  parallelism  of 
the  meridians,  produces  such  an  exaggeration  of 
areas  as  to  make  the  map  of  little  use  for  any 
purpose  except  that  of  navigation. 


POLYCONIC  PBOJBCTION. 

•If  a  cone  is  placed  tangent  to  the  surface  of  the 
sphere,  with  its  axis  coincident  with  the  axis  of 
the  latter,  the  surface  of  the  sphere  may  be  pro- 
jected from  the  centre  of  the  cone,  which  can 
then  be  unrolled  or  developed  on  a  plane.  In 
this  case  each  parallel  of  latitude  is  a  curved 
line  concave  to  the  pole,  while  the  longitudes  are 
straight  lines  converging  toward  the  poles.  A 
modified  form  of  this  projection  known  as  the 
polyconic  projection  assumes  that  an  infinite 
number  of  cones  inclose  the  sphere.  By  this 
method  each  parallel  of  latitude  is  developed  by 
its  own  cone  and  determines  the  value  of  its 
own  longitudinal  intervals.  This  method,  devised 
by  Hassler,  the  former  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  is  the 
most  perfect  of  all  projections  for  mapping  areas 
not  exceeding  a  latitudinal  amplitude  of  more 
than  40**,  as  it  preserves  an  almost  absolutely 
uniform  scale  over  the  entire  map.  It  has  been 
universally  adopted  for  the  construction  of  maps 
of  land  areas  on  large  scales. 


83  HAP. 

Practical  Methods.  The  construction  of  the 
necessary  basic  projections  as  a  preliminary  to 
the  making  of  a  map  is  now  a  very  simple  mat- 
ter, since  the  work  is  accomplished  by  merely 
laying  off  tabular  values  computed  for  the  gen- 
eral use  of  map-makers.  Tables  for  these  pro- 
jections are  easily  obtained;  those  computed  and 
published  by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey  for  various  scales  in  meters  and 
inches  and  by  the  Hydrographic  OflSce  of  the 
United  States  Navy  Department  are  the  most 
useful  for  the  purpose. 

The  preparation  of  an  exact  map  presupposes 
a  corresponding  exact  survey.     For  all  maps  of 
permanent  value  the  survey  must  be  based  upon 
careful  geodetic  triangulations  and  levelings.  For 
less  exact  work  there  are  corresponding  styles  of 
maps,  such  as  the  plattings  of  sections  and  town- 
ships by  the  United  States  Land  Office ;  the  general 
maps  of  the  counties,  compiled  by  county  sur- 
veyors by  the  use  of  the  pedometer  and  the  sur- 
veyor's compass;   the  rapid  military  reconnais- 
sance in  which  the  en^neer  officer,  note-book  in 
hand,  sketches  in  such  features  as  may  afl'ect 
military  operations ;  the  elab- 
orate   maps    of    the    United 
States      Geological      Survey, 
which  undertake  to  give  mi- 
nute   details    as    to    geology, 
mines,     forests,     and     topog- 
raphy ;  and  the  perfect  hydro- 
graphic    maps    of   the   Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey. 

The  maps  of  the  Coast  and 
Geodetic   Survey   are   mainly 
hydrographic   in    their   char- 
acter.   The  original  maps  are 
projected  on  a  polyconic  base, 
and  on  this  base  the  elaborate 
system  of  triangulations  con- 
necting    carefully     measured 
base  -  lines    is    platted    from 
the    field    notes    by    skillful 
draughtsmen.  The  main  points 
of  the  coasts  being  thus  indi- 
cated, the  interlying  areas  of 
the  triangles   are   worked  in 
from    the    notes    of    surveys 
made    by    stadia,    chain,    or 
tape;    and    the   hydrographic 
data     obtained     by     careful 
soundings  along  definite  lines  are  also  entered. 
The  base  map  thus  prepared  is  reduced  by  hand 
to  the  scale  of  publication,  and  a  finished  map 
is  prepared  as  a  guide  for  the  engraver.    On  this 
map  the  hydrography  is  indicated  by  uniform 
signs.    The  shoals  and  sandbars  are  represented 
by  dots,  close  together  along  the  shore  and  wider 
apart   as    they   fall    away    into   deeper   waters. 
Lighthouses  are   indicated   in  their  exact  posi- 
tions,   together    with    their    bearings    from    im- 
portant  points   and    their    relation   to   channel 
entrances,   etc.      In   short,    all    information    re- 
lating to  the   hydrography  of  the   seaboard   is 
carefully   marked   by   appropriate   signs   consis- 
tent on  all  the  maps.     From  the  finished  map 
the   engraver    makes    a    tracing   on    hard    gela- 
tin   sheets,    which    he    transfers    in    reverse    to 
a  copper  plate  from  which  the  ultimate  prints 
are     obtained.      In     late     years,     in     order     to 
satisfy    the    increased    demand    for    maps,    a 
great  deal  of  the  hand  reduction  has  been  super- 
seded by  photographic  methods,  and  lithographs 


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MAP.  84 

have  taken  the  place  of  the  beautiful  copper-plate 
prints. 

The  general  scope  of  the  work  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  is  the  surveying  and 
mapping  of  the  entire  territory  of  the  United 
States  to  obtain  basic  topographic  maps  for  the 
exhibition  of  geological  data.  Each  square  de- 
gree, called  a  *  rectangle/  in  which  the  country  is 
divided,  is  surveyed  and  mapped  separatelv.  (See 
Surveying.)  The  detailed  information  thus  ob- 
tained in  the  field  survey  is  roughly  inked  in  at 
the  close  of  the  season^  and  then  turned  over  to 
the  photographer  for  reduction  to  the  scale  of 
publication.  From  the  reduced  photographic 
copies  engravings  are  made  on  stone,  each  sheet 
requiring  three  separate  stone  engravings.  From 
the  engraved  stones  transfers  are  made  to  other 
stones  and  the  sheets  printed  on  a  lithographic 
press. 

The  map  shown  on  the  accompanying  plate 
has  been  designed  to  illustrate  the  methods  of 
delineation  employed  by  the  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  and  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey  in  the  preparation  of  their  charts  and 
topographical  maps.  The  map  is,  of  course, 
ideal,  and  shows  the  use  of  the  various  conven- 
tional signs.  In  the  upper  right-hand  comer  is 
a  compass  card  indicating  the  true  north  and  the 
magnetic  variation  of  the  particular  locality, 
while  the  depths  of  the  ocean  are  given  in  fath- 
oms. The  shoals  are  indicated'  as  already  ex- 
plained, and  also  the  lighthouses,  rocks,  beacons, 
buoys,  etc.  The  contour  lines  which  form  such  a 
prominent  feature  of  a  topographical  map  connect 
all  places  at  the  same  height  above  sea-level,  and 
the  interval  between  them  is  60  feet,  darker  lines 
being  drawn  at  the  intervals  of  250  feet.  (See 
CoNTOUBS.)  In  the  topographical  maps  of  the 
United  States  Government  the  contour  interval  is 
generally  20  feet,  with  heavier  lines  marking  every 
100  feet.  In  the  maps  of  the  Geological  Survey 
these  contour  lines  or  relief  figures  are  in  brown  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  drainage,  which  is  in 
blue.  Such  cultural  features  as  buildings,  roads, 
trails,  railroads,  tunnels,  ferries,  and  bridges  all 
have  their  appropriate  markings,  which  are 
shown  in  the  map.  Fresh  marshes  are  distin- 
guished from  salt  marshes  by  different  conven- 
tional signs,  while  wooded  country  is  shown  in 
the  lower  right-hand  comer  of  the  map.  Triangu- 
lation  stations  are  marked  by  a  A  and  bench 
marks  by  an  X.  Mines  and  quarries,  mine  tun- 
nels and  shafts,  also  have  their  appropriate  signs 
as  indicated. 

Relief  maps  are  usually  constructed  after  a 
contour  map  has  been  prepared  by  building  up 
the  surface  of  the  country,  using*  cardboard  of 
uniform  thickness  to  represent  the  successive 
contour  lines.  When  one  such  relief  map  has 
been  constructed,  copies  are  made  either  in 
plaster  of  Paris  or  papier  mach#. 

Maps  of  the  United  States.  The  following 
is  the  list  of  the  more  important  bureaus  of  the 
United  States  Government  which  publish  maps 
for  general  distribution:  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey,  Washington — maps  pertain- 
ing to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the 
United  States,  and  those  of  Alaska,  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  Philippines.  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey,  Washington — topographical  maps, 
special  monograph  maps  of  mining  districts,  and 
maps  relating  to  irrigation.  General  Land  Office, 
Washington — township  plats,  State  maps,  maps 


MAPLE. 


of  mineral  and  private  land  claims,  enlarged 
maps  of  the  United  States.  United  States  Hy- 
drographic  Office,  Navy  Department,  Washing- 
ton— hydrographic  charts  of  domestic  and  foreigu 
harbors,  of  coast  lines,  and  pilot  charts  of  the 
North  Atlantic  Ocean.  Office  of  the  Survey  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  Detroit,  Mich. — ^maps  pertain- 
ing to  the  hydrography  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Mis> 
sissippi  River  Commission,  Saint  Louis,  Mo. — 
maps  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

BiBLiOQBAPHT.  Gretschel,  Lehrhuch  der  Kar- 
tenprojektion  (Weimar,  1873) ;  Schott,  "A  Com- 
parison of  the  Relative  Value  of  the  Polyconic 
Projection,"  Report  of  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey ,  Appendix  15  ( Washington,. 
1880)  ;  Fiorini,  Le  projezioni  delle  carte  geogra- 
fiche  (Bologna,  1881);  Tissot,  M&moire  sur  la 
representation  des  surfaces  et  les  projections  des^ 
cartes  g4ographiques  (Paris,  1881);  Craig,  "A 
Treatise  on  Projections,"  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  (Washington,  1882)  ;  Stein- 
hauser,  GrundzUge  der  mathematischen  Geogrft^ 
phie  und  Landkartenprojektion  (3d  ed.,  Vienna^ 
1887)  ;  Vemer,  Map  Reading  and  Elementary 
Field  Sketching  (London,  1893)  ;  West,  The 
Elements  of  Military  Topography  (London,. 
1894)  ;  Woodward,  Geographical  Tables  (Wash- 
ington, 1894)  ;  Cebrian  and  Los  Arcos,  Teoria 
general  de  las  proyecciones  geogrdficas  (Madrid,. 
1895) ;  Gelcich  and  Sauter,  Kartenkunde  ge- 
schichtlich  dargestellt  (Stuttgart,  1897)  ;  Zon- 
dervan,  Allgemeine  Kartenkunde  (Leipzig,  1901). 
See  Chabt;  Hydrogbapht;  Surveying. 

MAP,  or  MAPES,.  Walteb.  A  mediaeval  au- 
thor,  of  Welsh  descent,  bom  probably  in  Here- 
fordshire, England,  about  1140.  He  studied  in 
Paris  soon  after  1154;  was  connected  with  the 
household  of  Henry  II.,  whom  he  attended 
abroad;  was  sent  on  missions  to  Paris  (1173) 
and  Rome  (1179)  ;  and  was  precentor  of  Lincoln, 
incumbent  of  Westbury,  Gloucestershire,  canon 
of  Saint  Paul's,  and  Archdeacon  of  Oxford 
( 1197 ) .  He  died  about  1210.  Map's  one  undoubted 
work  is  De  Nugis  Curialium  ("The  Triflings  of 
Courtiers"),  a  curious  and  interesting  medley 
of  anecdotes,  reminiscences,  and  stories,  to  which 
we  owe  most  of  our  knowledge  of  Map's  life.  In 
several  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  prose  Lancelot, 
Grail,  and  Morte  d'Arthur  his  name  occurs  as  the 
author.  But  recent  scholarship  places  them  at  a 
later  date.  With  some  doubt  the  Golias  poems 
are  ascribed  to  him,  satires  in  Latin  on  the 
clergy.  Map  was  especially  a  foe  of  Jews  and 
Cistercians.  In  this  collection  occurs  the  famous 
drinking  song  "Meum  est  propositum  in  tabema 
mori,"  which  was  rendered  into  English  by^ 
Leigh  Hunt.  Consult  the  Latin  Poems  Attributed 
to  Map  and  De  Nugis  Curialium^  ed.  by  Wright, 
Camden  Society  (London,  1841  and  1850). 

MAPLE  (AS.  mapol,  mapul,  mafpel^  Icel. 
mopurr,  OHG.  mazzaltra,  mazzoltra^  Get.  Mas- 
holder ,  maple),  Acer,  A  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Aceracese,  containing  nearly  100 
species,  natives  of  north  temperate  regions,  espe- 
cially abundant  in  North  America  and  Eastern 
Asia.  They  have  opposite,  lobed  or  palmate 
leaves  without  stipules;  flowers  in  small  axil- 
lary racemes  or  corymbs,  rich  in  nectar,  and  at- 
tractive to  bees;  fruits,  two  small  winged  nuts, 
one  or  two  seeded.  With  a  few  exceptions  the 
entire  order  is  embraced  in  the  genus  Acer. 
The  best-known  European  species  are  Acer  cam- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   MAP 


Scale: 


«a.EF:{tss2j:f;:£if- 


Mlfes. 


_f  ^  KlIomelTa.  ^OQIP 
^  HYDROGRAPHY  :(r'«".'»  <'!•'■<'"**«' "T?**^  ^ 


/Contour  interval  50  &eti 


[dcfith*  infttt,other«  in  Athemi. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


MAPLE. 


85 


MAPLE. 


pestre  and  Acer  Pseudo-Platanus.  The  common 
maple  {Acer  campestre),  a  shrub  or  small  tree 
seldom  attaining  a  height  of  50  feet»  is  a  native 
of  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Its  wood  is 
hard,  fine-grained,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is 
much  used  hj  turners  and  for  carved  work.  The 
greater  maple,  sycamore,  or  plane  tree  of  Eu- 
rope {Acer  PaetidO'Platanus)  is  extensively 
planted  both  in  Europe  and  in  America.  It  is  a 
laree  tree  with  a  spreading  head,  70  to  00  feet 
tall,  of  rather  quick,  vigorous  growth.    Its  wood, 


if  A  PL*  LKATS8. 

1.  European  maple  (Acer  campeatre) ;  %  striped  maple 
{Acer  PennBylvAuicum):  3,  sugar  maple  (i4c0r«aeeAariDum); 
4.  cot  leaved  form  of  Japanese  maple  (Acer  Juponicum, 
Tar.  disaeetum). 

which  is  white,  compact,  moderately  hard,  re- 
ceives a  fine  polish,  and  is  much  used  by  wheel- 
wrights, turners,  etc.  Sugar  is  sometimes  made 
from  the  sap. 

The  Norway  maple  {Acer  platanoidea) ,  a  na- 
tive of  Europe,  is  commonly  planted  in  the  East- 
em  United  States  and  elsewhere  as  a  shade  tree. 
It  grows  to  a  height  of  100  feet,  and  has  a  com- 
pact, round  head,  that  renders  the  shade  very 
dense.  It  is  by  some  preferred  as  a  shade 
tree  to  the  sugar  maple,  which  it  resembles. 
Among  the  American  species 
perhaps  the  best  known  is  the 
sugar  maple  {Acer  aacchari- 
num),  a  large  tree,  90-120  feet 
high,  and  found  from  New- 
foundland to  Georgia  and  west- 
ward to  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  eastern  Ne- 
braka,  and  Kansas.  The  wood 
has  a  satiny  appearance  and  is 
extensively  used  in  cabinet  work 
and  finishing  houses.  When  the 
grain  has  a  pronounced  wavy 
appearance  the  wood  is  called 
bird*8-eye  maple,  and  is  used  as 
veneer.  From  the  sap  of  this 
tree  large  quantities  of  syrup 
and  sugar  are  made.  To  obtain 
the  sap,  holes  are  bored  into  the 
tree  for  half  an  inch  or  more 
when  the  sap  is  circulating 
freely  in  the  late  winter  or 
early  spring.  The  sap  caught  in  vessels  is 
evaporated  imtil  the  residue  becomes  syrupy 
or  until  a  yellowish  or  brown  sugar  is  obtained. 
Trees  will  yield  from  2  to  6  pounds  of  sugar 
during  a  season,  and  if  the  tapping,  as  it  is 
called,  is  properly  done,  the  tree  sufl'ers  little 
in  j  ury .  The  black  maple  ( A cer  nigrum ) ,  by  some 
botanists  considered  identical  with  Acer  saccha- 
rinum,  is  also  an  abundant  producer  of  sugar. 
The  tree  is  of  similar  habit  and  range  to  the 
former,  and  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  black 
bark  and  generally  duller  appearance.  By  many 
it  is  considered  only  a  variety.    The  silver  maple 


{Acer  saccharinum,  better  known  as  Acer  daay- 
carpum)  is  a  large,  rapidly  growing  species  of 
the  same  range  as  the  last.  It  is  an  ornamental 
tree,  with  li^t,  brittle  wood,  and  is  extensively 
planted  as  a  shade  tree,  but,  aside  from  its  rapid 
growth, 'is  not  equal  in  this  respect  to  the  sugar 
maple.  The  tree  is  very  hardy  and  easily  grown, 
but  on  account  of  its  brittleness  is  especially 
liable  to  damage  by  winds  and  storms  breaking 
its  limbs.  This  species  was  named  Acer  aaccha- 
rinum  by  Linnaeus  under  the  impression  that  it 
was  the  true  sugar  maple,  a  tree  which  it  is  now 
believed  he  never  saw.  Sugar  is  made  from  it, 
but  the  sap  is  less  sweet  than  that  of  either  of 
the  two  species  most  commonly  tapped.  The 
striped  maple  {Acer  Pennsylvanicum)  is  a  small 
tree  with  greenish  bark  striped  with  white  lines. 
Its  compact  habit  of  growth  and  large  leaves 
make  it  an  excellent  shade  tree.  The  red  or 
scarlet  maple  {Acer  rubrum)  has  about  the  same 
range  as  the  sugar  maple.  It  somewhat  resembles 
the  silver  maple  in  habit,  but  is  of  slower  growth. 
Its  timber  is  valuable,  and  the  sprine  coloring 
of  the  fiowers  and  fruits  and  the  autumn  coloring 
of  the  leaves  make  it  a  very  qmamental  tree. 
The  mountain  maple  {Acer  spioatum)^  a  small 
tree  in  the  Eastern  United  States,  the  large- 
toothed  or  Oregon  maple  {Acer  grandidentata) , 


BBD  MAPLK. 

a.  Btaminate 
flowers ;  b,  pistil- 
late flowers. 


BID  MAPLB  {Acer  rubrum). 
Spray  with  fruits. 

and  the  vine  maple  ( Acer  circinnat urn  )  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Pacific  Coast,  are  other  common 
and  well-known  species  possessing  the  habits  and 
uses  described  above.  All  of  the  species  are  valu- 
able for  fuel,  in  this  respect  exceeding  all  other 
woods  except  hickory  in  popular  estimation.  Of 
many  of  the  species  there  are  numerous  culti- 
vated varieties  difi'ering  in  their  habit  of  growth, 
color  and  character  of  foliage,  etc.  The  autumn 
coloring  of  the  maples,  especially  in  the  United 
States,  is  not  surpassed  by  any  other  group  of 
trees,  the  reds  and  yellows  of  their  leaves  adding 
greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  autumn  landscape. 

Among  the  species  of  Eastern  Asia  are  a  num- 
ber that  have  been  introduced  into  Western  coun- 
tries, and  some  have  proved  valuable  for  plant- 
ing, such  as  the  famous  Japanese  maples,  most 
of  which  are  varieties  of  Acer  palmatum  and 
Acer  Japonicum,  They  are  mostly  small  trees  or 
shrubs,  and  on  account  of  their  great  variety  in 
color  and  the  deep  and  often  curious  lobing  of 
their  leaves,  they  are  extensively  planted  as  or- 
namentals. 

There  is  one  group  of  Acer  called  the  ash- 
leaved  maples,  on  account  of  their  compound 
leaves,  that  is  often  separated  under  the  generic 
name  Negundo.  There  are  representatives  of  this 
group  in  Japan  and  in  the  United  States^  the 


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MAPLE. 


86 


MABA. 


best  known  of  which  is  Acer  Negundo  {Negundo 
aceroides),  the  box  elder  (q.v.). 

The  earliest  fossil  representatives  of  the  genus 
Acer  have  been  recognized  by  leaves  and  fruits 
from  the  Cretaceous  rocks.  In  the  Miocene  Ter- 
tiary beds  the  genus  is  abundantly  represented, 
not  only  in  the  temperate  regions,  but  also  in 
the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America  and  Europe. 
Some  flowers  of  the  maple  have  been  found  in 
the  amber  of  the  Baltic  region.  The  ash-leaved 
maple  {Negtmdo)  is  represented  by  fossil  ances- 
tors, very  like  the  modem  forms,  in  the  Miocene 
beds  of  North  America. 

MAPLE  INSECTS.  The  different  species  of 
maple  are  greatly  subject  to  the  attacks  of  in- 
jurious insects,  certain  species,  such  as  the  silver- 
leaved  maple,  being  more  susceptible  than  others. 
Several  insects  bore  in  the  trunks  of  these  trees. 
The  sugar-maple  borer  {Qlycobiua  speciosus),  a 
black.  Ions-horned  beetle  which  has  yellow  bands, 
destroys  tne  sugar  maple  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  United  States;  the  homtail  borer  (see  Horn- 
tail)  and  the  larva  of  a  clear- winged  moth 
{^geria  acemi)  also  bore  the  trunks,  the  latter 
being  especially  abundant  in  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. A  buprestid  beetle,  Dicer ca  divaricata,  in 
the  larval  stage  bores  in  red  maple  stumps, 
although  undoubtedly  originally  an  enemy  of  the 
beech.  The  principal  bark-borer  of  the  sugar 
maple  in  the  Northern  United  States  is  Corthylus 
punciatissimus,  one  of  the  Scolytidae.  The  striped 
maple-worm  (larva  of  Anisota  rubicunda)  is 
a  widespread  enemy  of  these  trees,  frequently 
feeding  up<Mi  the  leaves  in  such  great  numbers 
as  entirely  to  defoliate  long  rows  of  shade  trees. 
The  tent-caterpillar  of  the  forest  {Malacosoma 
disstria)  is  a  decided  enemy  of  all  species  of 
maples,  and  has  greatly  damaged  the  sugar 
maples  in  New  York  and  New  England.  The  tus- 
sock-moth's caterpillar  (Orgyia  leucostigtna) 
and  the  fall  webworm  {Hyphantria  cunea)  fre- 
quently defoliate  the  shade  trees  of  the  larger 
cities.  The  cottony  maple  scale  {Pulvinaria  in- 
numerahilis)  is  occasionally  so  numerous  as  to 
cause  serious  injury,  and  another  scale-insect 
( Pseudococcus  aceris ) ,  probably  introduced  from 
Europe,  is  very  abundant  on  the  shade  trees  of 
•certain  cities.  The  so-called  gloomy  scale  {Aspi- 
diotus  tenehricosua)  has  a  southern  range,  and 
is  frequently  the  unnoticed  cause  of  the  death  of 
otherwise  vigorous  shade  trees.  Several  species 
of  plant-lice,  notably  Pemphigus  (icerifolii, 
damage  the  leaves  of  early  summer,  and  a  gall- 
mite  {Phytoptus  quadripes)  disfigures  the  leaves 
with  its  massed  reddish  galls.  Consult  Packard, 
Fifth  Report  of  the  United  States  Entomological 
Commission    (Washington,   1890). 

MAPLESON,  ma'p'1-son,  James  Henry 
(1821)1901).  An  English  operatic  impresario, 
born  in  London.  He  studied  the  violin  for  two 
years  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and  then 
went  to  Italy  for  singing  lessons ;  but  soon  after 
his  return  a  throat  affection  made  a  vocal  career 
out  of  the  question,  and  he  was  engaged  in  the 
-orchestra  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre.  After  hav- 
ing made  tours  with  several  leading  artists,  in 
1861  he  succeeded  E.  T.  Smith  as  manager  of 
the  Italian  opera  at  the  Lyceum  in  London.  He 
controlled  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  (1862-69),  and 
then  went  to  Drury  Lane  until  1877.  when  he 
returned  to  Her  Majesty's,  and  the  foUowinsr  year 
he  brought  Italian  opera  to  the  United  States. 


He  was  successor  to  Strakosch  at  the  Academy 
of  Music  in  New  York  City.  He  introduced  Patti 
(1883-84),  Gerster,  Campanini,  Del  Puente,  Ga- 
lassi,  Marie  Roze,  Belocca,  Albani,  Scalchi,  Nor- 
dica,  and  Minnie  Hauck  to  New  York  audiences. 

MAPLE  SUaAB.    See  Sugar. 

MAP  TXJBTLE.  One  of  the  names  of  a  com- 
mon North  American  land-turtle  {Malaclemmys 
geographicus) ,  also  called  'geographic  tortoise.' 

MAPITBITO,  ma'p<R5-r6'td.  See  Conepate; 
Skunk. 

MAQTJET,  mA'kd',  Auouste  (1813-88).  A 
French  author,  bom  in  Paris.  He  was  educated 
at  the  College  Charlemagne,  where  he  was  for  a 
time  teacher.  Having  written  the  drama  Ba- 
thilde,  he  was  introduced  to  Alexandre  Dumas, 
who,  impressed  by  his  talent,  proposed  their 
working  together.  It  has  generallv  been  ad- 
mitted that  in  this  capacity  of  collaborateur  he 
furnished  large  portions  of  Dumas's  most  famous 
books  and  plays.  Under  his  own  name  he  pub- 
lished the  romances  Beau  d'Angennes  (1843), 
La  belle  Gabrielle  (1853-55),  and  many  others. 
For  the  theatre  he  prepared  Le  chdteau  de  Gran- 
tier  (1852),  Le  comte  de  Lavemie  (1855),  La 
belle  Oabrielle  (1857),  and  a  number  of  others. 

MAQTTIy  malcw^  (Sp.  maqui,  from  the  Chilean 
name),  Aristotelia  Macqui.  One  of  a  few  species 
of  a  genus  of  plants  sometimes  referred  to  the 
natural  order  Tiliacese,  a  Chilean  evergreen  or 
sub-evergreen  shrub  of  considerable  size.  The 
small  green  or  yellow  flowers,  borne  in  axillary 
racemes,  are  followed  by  three-celled  edible  black 
acid  berries  about  the  size  of  peas,  and  are  used 
by  the  Chileans  to  make  wine.  The  wood  is  used 
for  making  musical  instruments,  and  the  tough 
bark  for  instrument  strings.  The  maoui  is  fre- 
quently cultivated  as  an  ornamental  shrub,  and 
in  favorable  conditions  sometimes  bears  fruit  in 
northern  countries. 

MAQT7I.  A  peculiar  type  of  xerophytic  thick- 
et characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean  region 
of  Europe.  The  plants  are  chiefly  evergreen 
shrubs  and  half -shrubs,  and  comprise  a  large 
number  of  well-known  plants,  such  as  the  myrtle, 
box,  laurel,  and  oleander.     See  Thicket. 

MAQUOKETA,  m&kd^«-tA.  A  city  and  the 
county-seat  of  Jackson  County,  Iowa,  38  miles  by 
rail  northwest  of  Clinton;  on  the  Maquoketa 
River,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  railroads 
(Map:  Iowa,  G  2).  It  has  a  Boardman  reference 
and  a  Carnegie  library  containing  about  6000 
volumes.  Maquoketa  is  a  trade  and  industrial 
centre  of  considerable  importance,  its  manufac- 
tures including  lime,  flour,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  woolen  goods,  brick  and  tile,  etc. 
In  the  vicinity  are  valuable  hardwood  forests  and 
quarries  of  limestone.  The  water-works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  3777;  in  1905,  3666. 

MAUA,  mll'rA,  Gertbude  Elizabeth  Schmel- 
ING  (1749-1833).  A  German  singer,  born  at  Cas- 
sel.  She  began  to  play  the  violin  at  such  an  early 
age  that  her  father,  a  poor  musician,  gave  her  a 
few  lessons,  and  then  exhibited  her  as  a  prodigy 
in  Vienna  and  London.  In  the  latter  citv  she 
took  a  few  singring  lessons  from  Paradisi  and  was 
so  successful  that  thereafter  she  devoted  herself 
entirelv  to  vocalization.  Her  first  engajjement 
was  at  Leipzig;   she  then  sang  at  the  Dresden 


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Court  Opera,  and  in  1771  accepted  an  engagement 
for  life  at  the  Berlin  Court  Opera.  In  Berlin  she 
married  the  violoncellist  Mara,  who  squandered 
her  fortune.  In  1780,  owing  to  a  series  of  an- 
noyances, she  broke  her  contract  and  went  to 
Vienna,  and  from  there,  in  1782,  to  Paris,  where 
her  great  rivalry  with  Todi  (q.v.)  became  an  his- 
toric event,  and  the  French  public  was  divided 
into  *Maradists'  and  *Todists.*  With  the  excep- 
tion of  two  visits  to  Italy,  she  spent  the  period 
from  1784  to  1802  in  England.  Upon  leaving 
London  she  went  to  Paris,  and  then,  after  an  ex- 
tensive tour,  to  Russia,  where  she  lost  her  prop- 
erty at  the  time  of  the  French  invasion.  Her 
voice  had  now  failed  her,  and  she  became  a 
singing  teacher  at  Keval,  where  she  died  in  great 
poverty.  Consult  Rochlitz,  Fur  Freunde  der 
Tonkunst,  vol.  i.   (Leipzig,  1824). 

MAKABOXJ  {mSiT'ii-h^)  STOBK  (Fr.  mar- 
-about,  Sp.  marabu,  from  Ar.  murHbit,  hermit, 
from  rabata,  to  bind).  The  African  name  of  a 
stork  allied  to  the  adjutant  (q.v.)  or  argala  of 
India.  Both  species  belong  to  the  genus  Leptop- 
tilus,  which  is  remarkable  for  having  the  feathers 
of  the  anal  region  lengthened,  so  as  to  conceal 
the  true  tail  feathers,  and  these  elongated  feath- 
ers are  the  so-called  'marabou  feathers'  which 
■were  formerly  much  used  for  trimming  ladies' 
hats  and  dresses.  The  African  species  is  Leptop- 
tilus  crumenifer.  It  is  white  with  the  back  and 
wings  greenish  slate  color.  The  sausage-like 
pouch  which  hangs  from  its  neck  is  capable  of 
being  inflated,  giving  the  bird  a  strange  appear- 
ance. It  is  gregarious  in  its  wild  state,  frequent- 
ing the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  living  upon  animals 
too  large  for  other  storks  to  swallow.  It  is  easily 
domesticated,  but  its  exceeding  voracity  impels  it 
on  every  occasion  to  purloin  poultry,  cats,  and 
puppies,  swallowing  them  whole. 

MABABOXTTS,  mJlr'A-boots'.  The  French 
form  of  the  name  of  a  Mohammedan  sect,  from 
-which  sprang  the  Almoravides  (q.v.) ,  who  founded 
a  dynasty  in  Northwest  Africa  and  in  Spain 
during  the  eleventh  century.  The  descendants  of 
these  ascetic  missionaries  form  to-day  a  sort  of 
order  among  the  Berbers,  leading  a  sanctified  and 
contemplative  life,  though  the  appellation  Mara- 
bout is  generally  given  them  only  after  their 
death.  TTiey  are  the  western  counterpart  of  the 
eastern  Mujdhid,  who,  suppressing  the  passions, 
seeks  union  {IttihUd)  with  Allah,  and  of  the 
saints  (toUlis)  of  the  Sufis.  They  are  often  at- 
tached to  mosques,  chapels,  or  places  of  pilgrim- 
age, explaining  the  Koran  and  providing  the 
faithful  with  amulets.  As  their  influence  is  very 
great,  their  orders  are  implicitly  obeyed.  There 
are  various  divisions  among  them;  the  higher 
Marabouts  living  in  a  sort  of  monastery  {Zd- 
wiyah),  composed  of  a  mosque^  a  domed-building 
ikubbah),  in  which  are  the  tomb  of  some  saint, 
schools  for  children  and  for  the  teaching  of  the 
Koran  and  the  sciences,  as  well  as  living  rooms 
for  scholars  and  travelers.  The  tomb  of  the  saint 
is  sometimes  itself  called  a  Marabout,  and  is  an 
object  of  pilgrimage  for  the  pious  Mohammedans. 
Consult  Rinn,  Marabouts  et  Khouans  (Algiers, 
1884). 

MABACAIBO,  ma'rti-kl'b6.  A  city  of  Vene- 
zuela, situated  on  a  sandy  plain  on  the  west  shore 
of  the  strait  which  connects  Lake  Maracaibo  with 
the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  (or  of  Venezuela)  (Map: 
Venezuela,  CI).     It  is  a  handsome  town,  with 


MABAJ6. 


a  hot  but  healthful  climate,  and  has  several  fine 
buildings,  notably  the  Government  palace,  the 
city  hall^  and  the  school  of  arts.  Among  its 
other  educational  institutions  are  a  nautical 
school  and  several  libraries.  The  town  hospital 
has  a  fine  location  on  an  island  opposite  the 
city.  Its  streets  are  lighted  by  electricity  and 
traversed  by  surface  railroads.  Maracaibo  does 
some  manufacturing,  but  its  importance  is  due 
to  its  harbor,  which  has  the  finest  dockyards  in 
the  Republic,  and  is  deep  enough  to  admit  the 
largest  vessels;  the  entrance  is,  however,  made 
difiicult  by  a  shifting  bar.  The  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port are  coffee,  hides,  and  cabinet  woods.  Steam- 
ship lines  run  to  the  United  States,  and  a  United 
States  consulate  is  established  here.  Population, 
35,000.  Maracaibo  was  founded  in  1571  by  Manso 
Pacheco.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
State  of  Zulia. 

HABACAIBO,  Gulf  of.  See  Venezuela, 
Gulf  of. 

MABACAIBOy  Lake.  A  large  sheet  of  water 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  Venezuela,  connected 
with  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  (or  of  Venezuela)  by  a 
strait  nearly  nine  miles  wide  ( Map :  Venezuela,  C 
2 ) .  It  is  of  nearly  rectangular  shape,  with  a  length 
from  north  to  south  of  100  miles  and  a  width  of 
50  to  60  miles.  Its  extreme  depth  in  the  north- 
em  part  is  500  feet,  but  it  shoals  rapidly  toward 
the  south,  where  the  shores  are  low  and  marshy 
and  the  water  shallow.  The  entrance  is  obstruct- 
ed by  a  bar  with  only  7  to  14  feet  of  water,  so 
that  large  vessels  cannot  enter.  Owing  to  the 
narrow  entrance  and  to  the  great  number  of 
rivers  which  discharge  into  it,  the  water  of  the 
lake  is  fresh  and  the  tides  are  scarcely  felt,  so 
that,  though  its  form  is  that  of  a  marine  inlet,  it 
is  to  be  considered  as  an  inland  lake.  It  occu- 
pies part  of  a  much  larger  lake  basin  surrounded 
by  lofty  mountains.  This  basin  has  been  partly 
filled  up  by  alluvium,  leaving  a  number  of 
smaller  lakes  connecting  by  creeks  with  the  main 
lake. 

MABAGHA,  ma'r&gft^  An  old  town  in  the 
west  of  Persia,  in  the  Province  of  Azerbaijan, 
55  miles  south  of  Tabriz  and  20  miles  east  of 
Lake  Urumiah  ( Map :  Persia,  B  3 ) .  It  consists 
mostly  of  mud  houses  inclosed  by  a  high,  dilapi- 
dated wall.  The  town  is  celebrated  as  the  site  of 
an  observatory  which  Hulaku  Khan  built  for  the 
astronomer  Nasir-ed-Din.  The  famous  marble 
pits  produce  a  nearly  transparent  marble.  Pop- 
ulation, about  15,000. 

MABAIS,  m&'rft^  Le.  (1)  A  name  given 
during  the  French  Revolution  to  the  centre  party 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  and  of  the  Conven- 
tion, usually  called  the  Plain.  (2)  A  quar- 
ter of  Paris,  built  on  marshy  ground,  east 
of  the  Rue  Saint  Denis  and  including  the  Place 
des  Vosges,  formerly,  as  the  Place  Royale,  the 
centre  oi  aristocratic  Paris.  It  contains  fine 
buildings  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  and  Louis 
XIII.  (3)  Vast  plains  in  the  west  of  France, 
reclaimed  ifrom  the  sea,  consisting  of  two  distinct 
divisions,  the  Breton  or  western  and  the  Poitevin 
or  southern.  The  soil,  since  the  draining  of  the 
region,  is  exceedingly  fertile.  The  Marais  con- 
tains many  scattered  hills,  representing  former 
islands.    It  is  still  inundated  during  the  winter. 

MABAjd,  ma'rA-zh</.  or  Joannes.  A  large 
island  formed  bv  the  estuaries  of  the  Amazon  and 
the  Parft  and  the  network  of  river  arms  connect- 


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1IARAJ6.  S8 

ing  them  (Map:  Brazil,  H  4).  It  is  165  miles 
long  from  east  to  west  and  120  miles  wide.  Its 
surface  is  very  low  and  flat;  the  northern  part 
consists  of  immense  swamps,  while  the  western 
part  is  covered  with  forests,  consisting  largely 
of  rubber  trees.  There  are  several  large  lakes 
in  the  interior,  and  in  the  wet  season  the  greater 
part  of  the  island  is  flooded.  In  the  dry  season 
it  affords  excellent  grazing.  The  population  is 
scanty,  consisting  largely  of  hunters  and  rubber- 
gatherers  visiting  the  island  during  the  dry 
season.  The  principal  settlement  is  Saur6,  on 
the  eastern  coast. 


ITAKASH, 


it,  mA'rHK.  A  large  species  of  deer 
{Cervus  maral)  of  the  Caspian  provinces  of  Per- 
sia, which  is  closely  related  to  the  European  red 
deer  in  structure  and  habits,  and  perhaps  is  only 
a  variety  of  that  species.  Its  antlers  always 
terminate  in  more  than  two  tines.  Consult  Lyd- 
deker,  Deer  of  All  Lands    (London,   1898). 

MAKAMABOS  -  SZIQET,  A  town  of 
Hungary.     See  MAbmabos-Sziget. 

MAB'ANATH^A.  An  expression  found  in  the 
New  Testament  near  the  close  of  Paul's  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (xvi.  22 — "If  any  man 
love  not  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  let  him  be  anath- 
ema, maranatha'').  The  term^  not  being  Greek, 
but  Aramaic,  has  occasioned  much  discussion. 
Interpreters  ignorant  of  Aramaic,  or  in  localities 
where  there  was  no  old  tradition  as  to  its 
meaning,  considered  it  a  threat  of  some  sort.  But 
ancient  Eastern  tradition  and  modern  scholar- 
ship explain  it  as  made  up  of  two  Aramaic  words, 
mUran  or  nUlrand  ('Lord'  or  *C)ur  Lord*)  and 
athd  or  thd,  'come'  (or  'has  come,'  if  ath&  be  the 
form).  It  is  therefore  to  be  under9tood  as  a 
fervent  prayer  or  exclamation,  'Lord  (or  Our 
Lord),  Come!'  A  parallel  is  found  in  Rev. 
xxii.  20  ("Even  so,  come.  Lord  Jesus").  Mara- 
natha  is  also  found  in  the  Didache  (see  Teach- 
ing OF  THE  Twelve  Apostles)  apparently  with 
the  same  sense,  at  the  end  of  a  thanksgiving 
prayer  in  connection  with  the  Eucharist.  The 
expression  doubtless  came  into  vogue  very  early 
in  Palestinian  circles  in  connection  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  the  speedy  return  of  Jesus,  and  prob- 
ably as  a  part  of  the  celebration  of  the  agapse  or 
love  feasts.  Consult:  Thayer  in  the  Hastings 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible;  Schmidt,  in  the  Journal 
of  Biblical  Literature,  vol.  xiii.  (1894)  ;  Dalman, 
Orammatik  dea  jiidisch-paldatinischen  AranUiisch 
(Leipzig,  1894). 

MABANHA,  m&-r£l^ny&,  MIKANHA,  or 
MABIANA.  A  fierce  cannibal  tribe  of  Ara- 
wakan  stock  (q.v.),  ranging  from  the  Jutahy 
River  on  the  south,  across  the  Amazon  and  Putu- 
mayo,  to  the  YapurA  on  the  north,  in  Western 
Brazil  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  Colombia  and 
Peru.  They  wear  wooden  labrets  and  ear  pen- 
dants, with  nose  pendants  of  shell,  but  do  not 
tattoo.  The  boring  of  a  child's  lips  is  celebrated 
by  a  feast.  When  a  boy  is  twelve  years  old  four 
gashes  are  cut  near  his  mouth  by  his  father,  and 
he  must  then  fast  five  days.  At  a  later  period 
the  boys  whip  themselves  as  a  test  of  manhood. 
In  fighting  expeditions  each  man  carries  a  small 
bag  of  salt  as  an  antidote  against  poisoned 
arrows. 

MABANHiO,  mR'rft-nyouN^  or  MABAN- 
HAM.  A  northern  State  of  Brazil,  bounded  by 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  north,  the  State  of 
Piauhy  on  the  east,  and  by  Goyaz  and  ParA  -on 


the  west  (Map:  Brazil,  H  4).  Its  area  is  177,561 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  only  slightly  ele- 
vated and  traversed  by  a  number  of  rivers.  The 
coast  land  is  generally  low  and  subject  to  inunda- 
tions. The  whole  State  is  well  wooded  and  the 
climate  is  excessively  hot,  but  on  the  whole  not 
unhealthful.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Parana- 
hyba,  which  marks  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
State,  Itapicurfl,  GuajahO,  Mearim,  and  Pindare. 
The  soil  is  largely  fertile  and  produces  sugar,^ 
coflTee,  cacao,  cotton,  rice,  corn,  and  many  kinds  of 
southern  and  tropical  fruits.  Stock-raising  is 
increasing  in  importance,  as  the  natural  condi- 
tions of  the  region  are  very  favorable  for  the 
development  of  that  industry.  The  agricultural 
development  of  the  State  is  greatly  handicapped 
by  the  scarcity  of  population,  and  efforts  are 
being  made  to  establish  agricultural  colonies  for 
the  natives  as  well  as  to  attract  foreign  set- 
tlers by  liberal  grants  of  land.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  rice,  rubber,  to- 
bacco, cattle,  hides  and  skins.  The  population  of 
Maranhao  in  1800  was  430,854,  and  in  1900,  499,- 
308.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  whites  of  Portu- 
guese descent,  but  there  is  also  a  considerable 
number  of  negroes  and  mulattoes  and  about  20,-» 
000  Indians.    The  capital  is  MaranhSo. 

MABANHJlO,  or  Sto  Luiz  db  MabanhXo. 
The  capital  of  the  State  of  Maranhffo,  Brazil.  It 
is  situated  on  an  island  in  the  Bay  of  Sfto  Marcos, 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Mearim  and  Itapi- 
curd  rivers,  280  miles  southeast  of  Par&  (Map: 
Brazil,  J  4).  The  ground  is  low,  but  hilly,  and 
though  the  cliaate  is  very  warm,  the  location 
is  not  unhealthful.  The  town  is  well  built  and 
clean,  and  has  handsome  public  buildings,  a  the- 
atre, a  hospital,  a  cathedral,  and  a  fine  bishop's 
palace.  The  commerce  is  declining  and  the  orig- 
mally  good  harbor  is  gradually  filling  with  sand. 
A  United  States  consular  agent  is  stationed  here. 
Population,  with  the  surrounding  district,  about 
32,000  in  1902.  The  town  was  founded  by  the 
French  in  1612. 

MABANO  BI  NAPOU,  m&r&''n6  d^  nH^- 
p6-l6.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Naples,  Italy, 
situated  about  five  miles  northwest  of  Naples 
(Map:  Italy,  D  10).  It  lies  in  a  fertile  region 
and  produces  wine,  grain,  and  fruit.  Population^ 
in  1901,  10,317. 

MABASTON,  mU'rA-nyon'.  A  name  some- 
times applied  to  the  upper  course  of  the  Amazon 
(q.v.). 

MABASCHINOy  m&'iift-ske^nd  (It.,  from  ma- 
rasca,  sort  of  cherry,  from  Lat.  amarus,  bitter ) . 
A  liqueur  distilled  from  the  fermented  juice  of 
the  marasca  cherry  and  flavored  with  its  pits. 
The  marasca  cherry  is  a  small  black  fruit,  so 
named  from  its  bitterness.  Maraschino  is  chiefly- 
made  in  Zara,  Dalmatia.     See  Liqueur. 

MABASH,.  m&r&sh^  The  capital  of  the 
sanjak  of  the  same  name  in  the  Vilayet  of  Aleppo, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Taurus,  about  90  miles  north -northeast  of  its 
port,  Alexandretta  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  4). 
It  is  a  well-built  city  with  fine  bazaars  and  a 
considoTable  trade  in  Kurd  carpets  and  embroid- 
eries. Besides  mosques  and  Mohammedan 
schools  there  are  a  number  of  Christian  churches, 
a  college  and  schools  attached  to  the  American 
miRsion.  and  a  Jesuit  establishment.  In  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  town  are  found  traces  of  Roman 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABASH.  89 

fortifications  and  tombs  with  Greek  inscriptions. 
Many  Hittite  monuments  have  also  been  discov- 
ered near  Marash.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  from  40,000  to  52,000,  including  many  Ar- 
menians, 

MABAS^MTJS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /mpafffjuit, 
marasmo8f  decay,  from  fMpalvtLv,  marainein,  to 
weaken;  ultimately  connected  With  Skt.  mar,  to 
grind,  mid,  weaken,  Olr.  meirb,  AS.  mearu,  OHG. 
tiiuruwi,  munoi,  Ger.  murhe,  soft).  A  term  some- 
what vaguely  used  by  the  older  medical  writers 
to  designate  those  cases  of  general  emaciation 
or  atrophy  for  which  they  did  not  see  any  special 
cause.  The  word  is  now  seldom  used  except  occa- 
sionally as  a  synonym  for  tabes  mesenterica,  or 
tubercular  disease  of  the  mesenteric  glands.    See 

IrBEBCULOSIB. 

MARAT,  mA'ri',  Jean  Paul  (1744-93).  One 
of  the  radical  leaders  of  the  French  Hevolution^ 
bom  May  24,  1744,  at  Boudry,  near  Neufch&tel, 
Switzerland.  In  youth  he  made  himself  master 
of  several  languages;  subsequently  he  studied 
medicine  at  Bordeaux  and  at  Paris,  and,  after 
traveling  extensively  in  Europe,  removed  to  Lon- 
don. There  he  practiced  medicine  and  published 
An  Essay  on  Man  (1772)  and  the  Chains  of 
Slavery  (1776).  Keturning  to  Paris,  he  wrote 
on  optical  subjects  and  electricity,  and  entered 
the  service  of  the  Count  of  Artois  as  a  veterinary 
surgeon  in  1777.  The  fruits  of  his  studies  in 
physics  appeared  in  a  number  of  paradoxical  pub- 
lications on  electricity  and  optics.  Upon  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  Marat  soon  came 
to  the  front  as  one  of  its  most  extravagant,  pas- 
sionate, and  demagogical  leaders,  and  won  a  large 
following.  On  September  12,  1789,  he  established 
a  journal,  Le  Puhliciste  Parisien,  which  became 
better  known  as  L'Ami  du  Peuple,  and,  after 
♦September  21,  1792,  as  Le  Journal  de  la  R^puh- 
lique.  The  more  conservative  revolutionists 
looked  with  abhorrence  upon  this  incarnation  of 
the  worst  passions  of  the  hour^  but  the  support 
of  the  lowest  among  the  populace  kept  him  in 
a  position  of  influence.  His  violence  caused  an 
order  of  arrest  to  be  issued  against  him  in  1790, 
but  he  succeeded  in  evading  capture,  thanks  to 
the  protection  of  the  Club  of  the  Cordeliers,  of 
which  he  was  a  member.  A  bitter  foe  of  the  Gi- 
rondists, he  clamored  for  their  destruction  after 
the  return  of  the  King  from  Varennes.  Danton, 
who  had  found  Marat  useful  in  the  preparation 
of  the  events  which  led  up  to  the  storming  of  the 
Tuileries  (August  10,  1792),  made  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Commune  of  Paris.  It  was  in  a  great 
measure  the  influence  of  Marat  which  led  to  the 
cruelties  and  massacres  of  September,  1792,  in 
the  midst  of  which  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Convention.  His  journal  became  more  fero- 
cious and  sanguinary  than  ever.  During  the 
King's  trial  he  was  urgent  for  his  immediate 
execution,  and  in  his  journal  called  upon  the 
people  to  slay  200,000  of  the  adherents  of  the 
old  regime.  On  April  14,  1793,  he  was  brought 
before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  on  the  charge 
of  fomenting  sedition,  but  was  acquitted  (April 
24th)  and  returned  to  the  Convention  more 
powerful  than  ever.  He  played  probably  the 
leading  part  in  the  events  of  May  31- June  2, 
which  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  Giron- 
dists, who  had  long  regarded  him  as  their  most 
inveterate  enemy.  On  July  13,  1793,  Marat  was 
stabbed  in  his  own  house  by  Charlotte  Corday 
iq.v.).     His   death   aroused   tremendous   public 


MABATHON. 

feeling.  His  bust  was  placed  in  the  Hall  of 
the  Convention;  the  scene  of  his  murder  was 
painted  by  David;  fetes  in  perpetuation  of  his. 
memory  were  held  all  over  France;  mothers 
named  their  children  after  the  *martyr  of  the 
people,'  and  in  November  the  Ck)nvention  de- 
creed to  Marat's  remains  the  honors  of  the  Pan- 
theon. Consult:  Bax,  Jean  Paul  Marat,  the 
People's  Friend  (Boston.  1901),  a  rehabilita- 
tion; Burnet,  Marat  (Paris,  1862),  Cabanes,  Ma- 
rat inconnu,  Vhomme  priv6,  le  mMecin,  le  satHint, 
d*apr^  des  documents  nouveaux  et  inMits  ( Paris, 
1891);  Ch^vremont,  Jean  Paul  Marat  (Paris, 
1880)  ;  Polish  Letters  from  The  Original  Un- 
published M88.   (2  vols.,  Boston,  1905). 

MARATHI,  mk'TJi't^,  A  language  spoken  in 
Western  India,  and  closely  related  to  Sindhi, 
Gujarati,  and  other  modern  vernaculars  of  Indo- 
Iranian  origin.  It  is  the  tongue  of  between 
15,000,000  and  20,000,000  people,  and  is  divided 
into  several  dialects,  which  are  comprised  under 
the  two  great  groups  Dakhani  and  Konkani.  The 
former  of  these  is  found,  as  its  name  implies,  in 
the  Deccan,  and  contains  the  standard  dialect, 
called  Deshi,  spoken  near  Poona.  The  district 
of  the  Konkani  is  along  the  coast  in  the  south- 
western portion  of  the  coimtiy  of  the  Mahrattas. 
It  contains  a  considerable  mixture  of  Dravidian 
words  from  the  neighboring  Kanarese,  and  around 
Goa  it  has  numerous  Portuguese  loan-words. 
Marathi  as  a  whole,  despite  its  importations  from 
Persian  and  Arabic,  has  departed  less  from  the 
Sanskrit  form  than  almost  any  other  New  In- 
dian language.  It  is  probably  descended  from 
the  vernacular  form  of  the  Maharashtri  Prakrit 
dialect  of  mediaeval  India. 

Marathi  literature  is  abundant.  It  begins  in 
the  thirteenth  century  with  Namdev,  a  predeces- 
sor of  the  famous  Tukaram  (a.d.  1609),  who 
wrote  religious  poems  of  a  pronounced  Vishnu- 
itic  trend.  Another  poet  almost  as  highly  es- 
teemed as  Tukaram  was  Mayur  Pandit  or  Moro- 
pant  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Prose  works  in 
Marathi  are  comparatively  unimportant.  Mod- 
ern literature  in  this  language,  under  English  in- 
fluence, is  copious  but  rather  mediocre.  The 
alphabet  employed  by  the  Marathi  is  the  Devana- 
gari,  in  which  Sanskrit  is  written. 

Consult:  Navalkar,  Student's  Marathi  Gram- 
mar (Bombay,  1880)  ;  Joshi,  Comprehensive 
Marathi  Grammar  (Poona,  1900)  ;  Moles  worth 
and  Candy,  MarHthi  and  English  Dictionary 
(2d  ed.,  Bombay,  1857)  ;  Godbole,  Selections  from 
the  Marathi  Poets  (5th  ed.,  Bombay,  1864)  ;  Mit- 
chell, "The  Chief  Marathi  Poets,"  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Ninth  International  Congress  of  Ori- 
entalists, vol.  i.  (London,  1892)  ;  Manwaring, 
Marathi  Proverbs  Collected  and  Translated  (Ox- 
ford, 1899). 

MAB/ATHON*  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  UapaOiiw), 
Anciently  a  small  town  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Attica,  about  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Athens. 
The  modem  village  lies  at  the  point  where  a 
valley  opens  into  the  plain  of  Marathon,  which 
is  surrounded  by  a  semicircular  range  of  moun- 
tains on  the  north,  west,  and  south,  while  on  the 
east  it  is  washed  by  the  Bay  of  Marathon.  South 
of  the  valley  of  Marathcm  is  another  valley,  in 
which  is  the  little  village  of  Vrana,  probably  the 
site  of  the  ancient  town,  while  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  plain,  between  the  sea  and  the 
mountains,  a  road  leads  by  a  circuitous  route 
between  Mounts  Pentelicus  and  Hymettus  into 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABATHOir. 


40 


MAKBflT.LA. 


the  Attic  plain.  Along  with  three  other  towns  Mar- 
athon belonged  to  the  Tetrapolis,  which  claimed  a 
very  early  legendary  origin  and  independent  ex- 
istence until  the  time  of  TheBeus.  It  is  clear 
that  the  league  continued  to  exist  for  religious 
purposes  until  at  least  the  fourth  century  B.C., 
and  probably  for  a  longer  time.  The  plain  of 
Marathon  is  espnecially  famous  as  the  scene  of  the 
decisive  battle  in  which  Miltiades  led  the  Athe- 
nians and  Platsans  to  victory  over  the  army  of 
Darius  under  the  command  of  Datis  and  Arta- 
phemes  in  B.C.  490.  The  details  of  the  battle  are 
not  easy  to  determine,  as  the  ancient  accounts  are 
confused.  It  is  probable  that  the  Athenians  occu- 
pied the  valley  of  Vrana,  and  attacked  the  Per- 
sians either  when  they  were  preparing  to  re- 
embark  or  to  execute  a  turning  movement  by  the 
road  to  the  south.  The  Greek  force-  seems  to 
have  numbered  about  10,000,  of  whom  192  fell. 
The  numbers  of  the  Persians  are  unknown,  but 
the  traditional  100,000  is  certainly  much  exag- 
gerated; their  loss  is  said  to  have  been  6400. 
Contrary  to  custom,  the  Athenian  dead  were 
buried  on  the  field,  and  over  their  remains  was 
raised  the  great  mound  (or  Soros)  which  is  still 
conspicuous  in  the  southern  part  of  the  plain. 
Its  identity,  at  one  time  much  disputed,  was 
proved  by  the  excavations  of  the  Greek  Archae- 
ological Society  in  1890  and  1891,  which  brought 
to  light  human  bones,  ashes,  vases  of  the  early 
fifth  century  B.C.,  and  a  sacrificial  trench,  where 
offerings  had  been  made  before  the  earth  was 
heaped  up.  The  literature  on  the  subject  is  very 
extensive.  Besides  the  standard  histories  of 
Greece,  may  be  consulted:  Fraser,  P^usanias, 
vol.  ii.  (London,  1898),  where  is  a  large  bibli- 
ography; Milchhefer's  Text  to  Curtius  and  Kau- 
pert.  Karten  von  Attika  (Berlin,  1881-95)  ; 
Macan,  HerodotuSy  iv.,  v.,  vi.  (London,  1895)  ; 
and  Journal  of  Hellenio  Studies,  vol  xix.  (Lon- 
don. 1899). 

MAHATTI,  m&-r&t^t«,  or  MARATTA,  Carlo, 
(1625-1713).  An  Italian  painter,  bom  at  Cam- 
erano.  May  13,  1625.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Andrea  Sacchi,  of  the  Roman  school,  and  was 
influenced  by  the  works  of  Raphael  and  the 
Carracci.  Considered  the  most  eminent  painter 
in  Rome,  he  long  enjoyed  the  Papal  patronage. 
In  1702-03  Clement  XI.  commissioned  him  to 
restore  Raphael's  frescoes  in  the  Vatican,  and 
Innocent  XI.  appointed  him  superintendent  of  the 
paintings  in  the  Vatican.  He  died  at  Rome, 
December  15,  1713.  while  Prince  of  the  Academy 
of  Saint  Luke.  Most  of  his  pictures  are  small 
easel  paintings  in  oil,  his  best  works  being 
portraits.  His  design  is  academic,  his  color 
pleasing,  his  brush -handling  weak;  his  style  re- 
sembles that  of  Guido  Rem,  and  lacks  original- 
ity of  character.  He  etched  a  number  of  im- 
portant plates.  Among  his  best  paintings  are 
the  following:  "Madonna,"  Palazzo  Doria,  Rome; 
"Annunciation,"  Turin  Gallery;  "Adoration  of 
Shepherds,"  Basel  Museum ;  "Holy  Night,"  Dres- 
den Museum;  "Saint  John  at  Patmos,"  "Sleep- 
ing Child."  "Portrait  of  a  Cardinal,"  Old  Pina- 
kothek,  Munich;  "Presentation  in  the  Temple." 
"Portrait  of  Clement  IX.,"  Hermitage,  Saint 
Petersburg;  "Madonna  in  Glory,"  "Hagar  and 
Ishmael,"  Madrid  Museum;  portrait  of  Cardinal 
Cerri,  National  Gallery,  London. 

MAB'AVE'DI,  8p,  pron,  ma'rA-vA-d§'  (Sp., 
from  Ar.  Murdhitiny  name  of  a  Moorish  dynasty, 
pi.   of   murahit,  hermit).     The  name   borne   by 


certain  Spanish  coins.  One  of  gold  weighing  about 
60  grains  wae  issued  by  the  Moorish  emirs  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries;  subsequently 
the  maravedi  constituted  the  lowest  denomina- 
tion in  the  Spanish  coinage,  varying  in  value  from- 
one-seventh  to  one-third  of  a  cent. 

MABBEAXJ,  mir'by,  Jean  Baptiste  (1798- 
1875).  A  French  philanthropist,  bom  at  Brives. 
In  1841,  while  a  city  official  at  Paris,  in  mak- 
ing some  investigations  of  the  charitable  insti- 
tutions, he  was  struck  with  the  lack  of  pro- 
vision for  the  care  of  babies  under  two  years 
of  age  whose  mothers  were  compelled  to  go  out 
to  work.  He  wrote  a  book,  Des  creches,  ad- 
vocating the  establishment  of  day  nurseries. 
The  first  was  established  at  Chaillot  November 
11,  1844.  An  association  of  cr^hes  was  formed 
in  1846.  Throughout  the  rest  of  his  life,  while 
specially  interested  in  creches,  he  took  an  active 
part  in  furthering  various  charities.  Among 
his  writings  are:  Etudes  sur  V^conomie  socials 
(1844;  2d  ed.  1875)  ;  Des  creches,  ou  le  moyen 
de  diminuer  la  misSre  en  augmentant  la  popula- 
tion (1845;  many  later  editions)  ;  Du  paup&riante 
en  France  et  des  moyens  d'y  remidier  (1847)  ; 
De  Vindigence  et  des  secours  (1850).  He  died 
at  Saint  Cloud,  October  10,  1875. 

MAB^ECK,  or  MEBBECK,  John  ( ?-c.l585) . 
An  English  musician  and  theologian,  organist 
of  Saint  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  and  his  successor.  He  early 
read  Calvin's  writings,  adopted  his  views,  and 
joined  an  association  in  support  of  the  Reformed 
doctrines.  Among  the  members  were  a  priest, 
a  chorister  of  Saint  George's  Chapel,  and  a 
tradesman,  and  these  men,  together  with  Mar- 
beck,  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy.  Their 
papers  were  seized,  and  in  Marbeck's  handwriting 
were  found  notes  on  the  Bible,  a  concordance 
in  English,  and  a  copy  of  an  epistle  of  Calvin 
against  the  mass.  They  were  all  condemned 
to  the  stake,  but  Marbeck,  on  account  of  his 
musical  talents  and  through  the  interposition  of 
Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  was  pardoned 
and  restored  to  his  place  as  organist.  He  lived 
to  see  the  triumph  of  his  principles,  and  to  pub- 
lish his  work.  The  Boke  of  Common  Prater 
Noted  (1550);  reprinted  in  facsimile  1844, 
and  in  Jebb's  Choral  Responses  and  Lit  antes , 
1857).  He  published  also  his  Concordance  to 
the  Bible  (1550),  which  was  the  first  work  of 
the  kind  in  English  on  the  entire  Bible.  A  Te 
Deum  of  his  and  a  mass  of  five  voices  are  found 
in  Smith's  Musica  Antiqua,  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  In  1574  was  published  The  I/yves  of 
Holy  Sainctes,  Prophetes,  Patriarches,  and  oth- 
ers ;  and  subsequently  The  Eolie  Historic  of  King 
Davidy  draton  into  English  meetre  (1579),  and 
.4  Ripping  Up  of  the  Pope's  Fardel  (1581). 

MABBEIXA,  roar-bft1y&.  A  port  of  South- 
ern Spain  in  the  Province  of  Malaga.  It  is  situ- 
ated amid  picturesque  surroundings  on  the  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean,  35  miles  northeast  of  Gib- 
raltar. It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  a  notable 
Church  of  the  Incarnation.  In  the  neighborhood 
are  granite  quarries,  and  mines  of  sulphur,  lead, 
and  iron;  the  town  has  iron  foundries  and  sugar 
refineries.  The  harbor  is  used  principally  in 
local  coasting  trade;  it  is  an  ill -sheltered,  open 
roadstead,  but  equipped  with  a  large  iron  pier 
reaching  into  deep  water  and  a  lighthouse  visible 
for   twelve    miles.      The    principal    exports    are 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MARBLE 


aUTMERLANO  FALLS  QUAflRV  OF  THE  VERMONT  MARBLE  CO.,   AT  PR 


c*eTOP|t)i^^ed  by  CiOOglC 


Digitized  by 


Google 


iron,  grain,  sugar,  cork,  and  fish.     Population, 
in  1900,  9075. 

MABBLE  (OF.  marble,  marhre,  Fr.  marbre, 
Prov.  marme,  marbre,  from  Lat.  marmor,  marble, 
from  Gk.  ftdpfMpos,  marmaros,  bright  stone, 
marble,  from  /iopfuUpeip,  marmairein,  to  sparkle). 
In  a  strict  sense  a  crystalline  limestone  having 
a  granular  structure.  The  term  has,  however, 
become  broadened  as  a  result  of  commercial  use 
and  now  includes  any  limestone,  either  crystalline 
or  non-crystalline,  which  will  take  a  polish. 
Marbles  vary  considerably  in  their  texture  and 
color.  Some  are  extremely  fine-grained,  like 
those  of  Vermont,  while  others  are  coarsely 
granular,  as  in  New  York  State.  ITiose  com- 
posed entirely  of  carbonate  of  lime  are  pure 
white,  but  many  are  colored  gray  or  blue  by  car- 
bonaceous matter,  while  others  exhibit  beautiful 
shades  of  pink,  yellow,  red,  and  brown,  due  to 
iron  compounds.  The  presence  of  fossil  remains 
may  also  add  to  their  beauty.  Marbles  are 
usually  found  in  regions  of  metamorphic  rocks 
(see  (jEOLOGy),  and  hence  the  rock  has  been  at 
times  subjected  to  crushing  forces.  These  have 
developed  fissures  in  the  rock,  which  subsequently 
became  filled  by  foreign  mineral  matter,  and  it  is 
to  this  that  much  of  the  beautiful  marking  or 
veining  of  many  ornamental  marbles  is  due. 

Marble  occurs  in  many  geological  formations, 
but  in  the  United  States  it  is  obtained  mostly 
from  the  Paleozoic  rocks.  The  best-known  de- 
posits are  found  in  the  Eastern  States.  In  •west- 
em  Vermont,  at  West  Rutland,  Proctor,  Bran- 
don, and  other  localities,  some  of  the  quarries 
have  reached  a  depth  of  400  feet,  and  contain 
many  grades,  varying  from  the  purest  white 
statuary  marble  to  the  gray,  or  *true  blue' 
variety,  as  it  is  called.  Vermont  supplies  80 
per  cent,  of  the  marble  used  for  monimiental 
work  in  the  United  States.  A  fine-grained,  white, 
dolomitic  marble  is  quarried  at  Lee,  in  western 
Massachusetts,  and  also  near  Pittsfield.  Much 
marble  for  structural  work  is  obtained  from  Saint 
Lawrence  and  Westchester  counties,  N.  Y.;  from 
Cockeysville,  Md.,  and  Pickens  County,  Ga.  These 
are  all  magnesian  marbles  of  coarsely  crvstalline 
character.  A  lustrous  black  marble  is  quar- 
ried near  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.;  and  at  Swanton, 
Vt.,  there  occurs  a  deposit  of  variegated  marble' 
much  used  for  wainscoting  and  floors.  Some  of 
the  varieties  found  here  resemble  imported 
marbles.  About  60  per  cent,  of  the  marble  used 
in  the  United  States  for  furniture  tops  and  in- 
terior decoration  is  obtained  from  near  Knox- 
ville,  Tenn.  The  colors  are  variegated,  but 
chiefly  veinings  and  mottlings  in  red,  brown, 
pink,  and  gray.  Aside  from  these  areas,  marble 
of  white  and  gray  striping  is  quarried  in  Inyo 
County,  Cal.  Two  types  which  have  attracted 
some  attention  are  the  serpentine  or  verde  an- 
tiques found  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
onyx  marbles  from  Arizona,  Colorado,  and  Cali- 
fornia. These  latter  are  not  true  onyx,  but  a 
travertine,  comoosed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
formed  in  caves  or  around  calcareous  springs. 

Many  ornamental  marbles  are  imported  into 
the  United  States  from  various  European  coun- 
tries. Among  the  more  important  types  are: 
Black  and  Oold^  a  black  Italian  limestone  veined 
with  yellow;  Brocatelle,  a  light  yellow  marble 
with  red  cloudings,  obtained  from  the  Pyrenees; 
Carrara,  the  white  marbles  quarried  at  Carrara, 
Italy;    Giallo  antico,    a    yellow    marble    much 


sought  after  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans; 
and  Oriotte,  a  bright  red  variety,  obtained  in 
the  Pyrenees,  The  last  named  is  also  found  at 
Swanton,  Vt.  Landscape  marble  is  a  variety  con- 
taining coloring  matter  dispersed  through  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  resemble  a  landscape.  Nero 
antico  is  a  greenish-black  'serpentine  marble; 
Numidian  marble  is  an  African  variety,  often  of 
yellow  color;  Parian,  a  white  marble  much  used 
by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  obtained  from  the 
island  of  Paros;  Pentellic  is  another  white 
marble  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  occurring 
near  Athens;  Roaso  antico,  a  red  marble;  Siena, 
a  yellowish  marble,  often  with  veins  or  patches 
of  gray  or  purple. 

The  most  famous  marble  known  to  the  ancients 
was  the  Parian  marble,  which  was  a  finely  granu- 
lar and  very  durable  stone,  of  waxy  appearance 
when  polished.  Some  of  the  finest  Grecian  sculp- 
tures were  formed  of  this  marble,  among  them 
being  the  Venus  de*  Medici.  The  Pentellic 
marble  was  at  one  time  preferred  by  the  Greeks 
to  Parian,  because  it  was  whiter  and  finer  grained. 
The  Parthenon  was  entirely  built  of  it.  It  does 
not  resist  the  weather  well.  The  quarries  at 
Carrara  were  known  to  the  ancients,  but  their 
chief  importance  has  been  in  modem  times.  The 
temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis  near  Naples  was 
constructed  of  a  gray  streaked  micaceous  marble, 
much  used  by  the  ancients  and  known  as  cipo- 
lino. 

Marble  suitable  for  structural  work  sells  at 
from  $1.50  to  $4  per  cubic  foot,  while  statuary 
marble  brings  $12  or  $15  per  cubic  foot.  Marble 
must  commonly  meet  certain  requirements  as 
to  strength,  color,  texture,  freedom  from  flaws, 
and  durability  in  the  open  air.  Its  crushing 
strength  is  commonly  from  10,000  to  12,000 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  opening  of  a  marble  quarry  is  usually 
expensive  and  attended  with  financial  risks,  as  a 
thickness  of  from  10  to  30  feet  of  rock  usually 
has  to  be  taken  off  before  sound  marble  is  reached. 
After  a  sufficient  area  of  surface  has  been  pre- 
pared by  the  removal  of  the  imperfect  stone, 
channeling  machines,  which  may  be  either  per- 
cussion or  diamond  drills,  are  set  to  work,  and 
rectangularly  crossed  channels  are  cut  to  a 
desired  depth,  say  from  6  to  7  feet.  One  of  the 
blocks,  called  the  key  block,  is  then  broken  off 
at  the  base  by  wedging  and  lifted  out  with  a 
crane.  This  gives  ready  access  to  the  others, 
which  are  then  drilled  as  circumstances  may 
require,  the  quarry  being  worked  out  in  floors. 
The  blocks  removed  commonly  run  4  feet  6 
inches  by  6  feet  6  inches,  but  much  larger  ones 
are  sometimes  extracted  on  special  demand.  The 
marble  after  quarrying  is  taken  to  the  mill  and 
sawed  into  blocks  or  slabs,  or  chiseled  into  mon- 
umental pieces.  The  first  smoothing  is  done  with 
sand  and  water,  but  the  final  polishing  with  a 
mixture  of  putty  powder  and  weak  acid  rubbed 
on  with  a  flannel -covered  revolving  bufl'er.  The 
total  value  of  marble  produced  annually  in  the 
United  States  exceeds  $6,000,000. 

Bibliography.  Merrill,  Stones  for  Building 
and  Decoration;  "Mineral  Resources,"  United 
States  Geological  Sun^'i/  (Washington,  annual)  ; 
McCallie,  "Marbles  of  Oeorgria,"  in  Georgia  Geo- 
logical Survey;  Hopkins,  "Report  on  Marbles." 
Arkansas  Geological  K«rrei/.  vol.  iv.  (1890)  ; 
Ries,  "Limestones  and  Marbles  of  Western  Now 
England,"    Seventeenth    Annual   Report    United 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HABBLE. 


42 


MABBUBG. 


States  Oeological  Survey  (Washington,  1896) ; 
Stone  (New  York,  monthly).  See  Building 
Stone. 

MABBLEy  Manton  (1835—).  An  American 
journalist.  He  was  born  in  Worcester,  Mass. ; 
graduated  at  Rochester  University  in  1855,  and 
became  a  journalist  in  Boston,  where  he  was  con- 
nected successively  with  the  Journal  and  the 
Traveller,  He  removed  to  New  York  in  1858, 
and  was  employed  during  the  next  two  years  on 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Evening  Post.  In  1860 
he  united  with  others  in  founding  the  World, 
of  which  he  eventually  became  sole  proprietor. 
Under  his  management  the  paper  gained  influence 
as  a  Democratic  free-trade  organ.  In  1876  he 
retired  from  the  World,  and  in  1878  published 
A  Secret  Chapter  of  Political  Uistory,  in  which 
he  upheld  Mr.  Tilden's  claim  to  the  Presidency. 
In  1885  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Bimetallic  Con- 
gress in  Europe. 

MABBLED  GOBWIT.    See  Godwit. 

MABBLED  .TiaEB-CAT.  A  very  distinct 
and  beautiful  wild  cat  of  the  eastern  Himalayas 
and  Malayan  region  {Felis  marmorata),  which 
in  appearance  is  a  miniature  of  the  clouded 
leopard.  It  is  al)out  the  size  of  the  domestic  cat, 
and  has  unusually  soft  and  warm  fur  and  a  long 
tail,  not  ringed,  but  spotted.  The  ground  color 
is  dull  reddish  yellow,  marked  with  numerous 
elongate,  wavy  black  spots,  somewhat  clouded 
or  marbled.  There  are  dark  lines  on  the  head, 
and  the  flanks  and  legs  are  thickly  spotted  with 
black,  while  the  belly  is  vellowish  white.  It  has 
a  Tibetan  variety.  Its  habits  are  little  known, 
but  arc  supposed  to  be  mainly  arboreal. 

MABBLE  FAUN,  The.  A  romance  by  Haw- 
thorne (1860).  The  title  originally  proposed 
was  The  Transformation  of  the  Faun,  changed 
in  the  English  edition  to  Transformation,  and  in 
the  American  to  The  Marble  Faun. 

Iff  A  BBLEHE  A  TV.  A  town,  including  the  vil- 
lages of  Clifton,  Devereux,  and  Marblehead 
Neck,  in  Essex  County,  Mass.,  18  miles  northeast 
of  Boston;  situated  on  a  rocky  peninsula  in 
Massachusetts  Bay,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railroad  (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  3).  It  has  a 
commodious  harbor;  is  a  popular  yachting  and 
summer  resort,  and  possesses  many  pre-revolu- 
tionary  buildings  and  other  features  of  historic 
interest.  In  Abbot  Hall  are  the  town  offices, 
the  public  library,  and  an  art  gallery.  There  are 
Crocker,  Fort  Sewall,  and  Fountain  parks.  The 
principal  industries  include  boat-builaing  and  the 
manufacture  of  shoes,  though  fishing  and  seed 
growing  are  of  some  importance.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  by  town  meetings.  Popula- 
tion, 1900,  7582;  1905,  7209.  Settled  in  1629  by 
emigrants  from  the  east  and  south  of  England, 
and  later  by  people  from  the  islands  of  Jersey 
and  Guernsey,  Marblehead  was  under  the  juris- 
diction of  Salem  until  1649,  when  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a  separate  town.  It  ranked  for  a  time 
next  to  Boston  in  its  maritime  and  fishing  trade. 
Marblehead  was  the  birthplace,  and  for  many 
years  the  home,  of  Elbridge  Gerry  and  Judge 
Story.  Consult  Roads,  The  History  and  Tradi- 
iions  of  Marblehead  (Marblehead,  1897). 

MABBLEHEAD.  A  sailors'  name  for  the 
"North  Atlantic  fulmar   (q.v.). 

MABBLES  AND  Mabble-Plating.  Marbles 
«ro  little  balls  of  marble  or  some  other  hard  sub- 


stance, and  are  used  as  playthings  by  children. 
They  have  been  in  use  from  the  earliest  times, 
and  are  to  be  foimd  among  all  the  peoples  of  the 
world.  They  are  manufactured  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  Saxony,  and  are  exported  to  India,  China, 
Africa,  and  practically  every  nation  of  Europe 
and  America.  There  is  an  endless  variety  of 
games  of  marbles. 

MAB'BO,  or  MABOBCyDXTUS  (c.ll  B.C.-41 
A.D.).  A  Germanic  chief.  King  of  the  Marco- 
manni.    See  Mabcomanni. 

MABBOD,  mftr'bd'  (c.1035.1123).  A  French 
bishop  and  author.  He  was  bom  at  Angers,  the 
son  of  a  merchant,  and  taught  with  great  suc- 
cess, becoming  in  1067  head  of  the  diocesan 
school,  in  which  he  trained  many  prominent 
scholars  and  statesmen.  Marbod  was  made  arch- 
deacon in  1081  and  Bishop  of  Rennes  in  1096. 
His  works  include  biographies,  hymns,  the  Versus 
Canonicales,  valuable  as  giving  a  picture  of  the 
monkish  life  of  the  period,  and  De  Lapidibus 
Pretiosis,  which,  following  a  Greek  original, 
treats  of  the  mysterious  properties  of  gems.  Mar- 
bod's  works  are  contained  m  Migne,  Patrologia 
Latina,  vol.  clxxi.  (1854). 

HABBOia,  mar'bwa',  FEANgois,  Marquis  de 
Babb£.    a  French  statesman.     See  Babb£-Mab- 

BOIS. 

MABBXJBG,  mar^oorK.  A  town  in  the 
Crowqland  of  Styria,  Austria,  40  miles  by  rail 
south-southeast  of  Gratz,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
navigable  Drave  (Map:  Austria,  D  3).  The  town 
has  a  cathedral,  a  castle,  and  a  casino,  and  is 
the  seat  of  the  Bishop  of  Lavant.  Its  educational 
institutions  include  schools  of  theology  and  |)eda- 
gogy  and  a  pomological  school.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  leather,  foot- 
wear, flour,  beer,  and  spirits.  The  extensive  work- 
shops of  the  Southern  Railway  are  situated  in  the 
suburbs  of  Sankt  Magdalena.  Marburg  carries  ou 
an  extensive  trade  in  wine  and  lumber,  the  chief 
products  of  the  surrounding  country.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  19,898;  in  1900,  24,501,  mostly 
Germans.  Consult  BUcking,  Geschichtliche  Bilder 
aus  Marburgs  Vergangenlwit  (Marburg,  1901). 

MABBUBG-.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia,  situated  on  the  Lahn, 
60  miles  by  rail  north  of  Frankfort  (Map:  Prus- 
sia, C  3).  It  is  commanded  by  a  thirteenth- 
century  castle,  originally  the  residence  of  the 
landgraves  of  Hesse,  and  later  a  State  prison.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  extensive  ancient  secular  build- 
ings in  Germany,  and  is  of  interest  on  account 
of  the  disputation  between  Luther  and  Zwingli 
which  took  place  in  the  Rittersaal  in  1529.  An- 
other architectural  feature  of  Marburg  is  the 
thirteenth-century  Church  of  Saint  Elizabeth, 
a  perfect  specimen  of  early  Gothic  architecture. 
It  was  erected  by  the  Teutonic  knights  soon  after 
the  death  of  Saint  Elizabeth,  and  was  restored  in 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  con- 
tains the  fine  tomb  of  the  Saint,  as  well  as  nu- 
merous monuments  to  the  Hessian  rulers  and 
Teutonic  knights.  Noteworthy  are  also  the  Rat- 
haus  (1512)  and  the  administration  buildings. 
The  educational  institutions  of  Marburg  include 
the  university  (see  Marbubq,  University  op), 
a  gymnasium,  a  'real'  school,  and  an  agricultural 
school.  The  chief  manufactures  are  leather, 
pottery,  machinery,  surgical  instruments,  car- 
pets, and  tobacco.     The  environs  are  of  great 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KABBUBG. 


43 


MABCEL. 


natural  beauty.  Population,  in  1890,  14,520;  in 
1900,  17,527;  in  1905,  20,136,  chiefly  Protestante. 

First  mentioned  in  the  thirteenth  century,  Mar- 
burg was  endowed  with  municipal  rights  by  the 
Landgrave  Louis  of  Thuringia  in  1227,  and  after 
his  death  became  the  residence  of  his  widow, 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  later  canonized.  During 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  Marburg 
was  one  of  the  residences  of  the  landgraves  of 
Hesse.  It  passed  with  Hesse-Cassel  to  Prussia  in 
1866.  The  fortifications  were  demolished  by  the 
French  in  1810-11. 

MABBUBG,  Uni\'ER8Ity  of.  The  first  Prot- 
estant imiversity  of  Germany,  founded  by  Philip, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse,  in  1527,  and  endowed  with 
the  income  of  thirteen  suppressed  monasteries. 
The  Imperial  assent  was  ffiven  in  1541.  The  new 
foundation  drew  largely  from  Wittenberg  for  its 
early  teaching  staff,  became  a  stronghold  of 
Lutheran  doctrine,  and  flourished  accordingly.  In 
1607  Landgrave  Moritz  converted  it  into  a  Cal- 
vinistic  school,  which  conversion  resulted  in  the 
departure  of  many  professors  and  students,  and 
the  foundation  of  the  University  of  Giessen.  ITie 
Thirty  Years*  W^r  nearly  ruined  the  university, 
which  was  reconstituted  in  1653.  Since  the  incor- 
poration of  Hesse-Cassel  with  Prussia  it  has 
flourished  greatly.  In  1905  it  had  a  budget  of 
1,077,000  marks,  and  1650  students,  including 
eighteen  women,  in  theology,  medicine,  law,  and 
philosophy,  the  majority  being  in  the  two  latter 
faculties.  Its  library  contains  about  200,000  vol- 
umes, and  150,000  dissertations. 

MABBUBY  vs.  MADISON.  The  title  of  a 
famous  decision  rendered  by  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  in  1803  and  reported  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  Cranch*8  Reports,  Its  impor- 
tance in  the  constitutional  development  of  the 
XJnited  States  lies  in  the  fact  that  this  was  the 
first  instance  in  which  the  Supreme  Court  as- 
sumed the  right  to  declare  a  statute  of  Congress 
null  and  void  on  account  of  its  repugnance  to  the 
Constitution.  It  is  popularly  regarded  as  the 
chief  basis  for  the  American  doctrine  of  the  right 
of  the  courts  to  disregard  unconstitutional  stat- 
utes, although  the  right  had  been  asserted  by 
State  courts  in  some  naif  a  dozen  instances  be- 
fore the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
The  case  of  Marbury  vs.  Madison  arose  out  of  an 
attempt  of  the  plaintiff  to  secure  a  writ  of  man- 
damus from  the  Supreme  Court  to  compel  James 
Madison,  then  Secretary  of  State,  to  deliver  to 
him  a  commission  as  justice  of  the  peace  of  the 
District  of  Columbia.  Marbury  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  this  office  by  President  Adams,  the 
Senate  had  confirmed  the  nomination,  and  his 
commission  had  been  made  out,  signed  and  sealed, 
but  had  not  been  delivered.  When  Madison  en- 
tered upon  his  duties  as  Secretary  of  State  he 
found  the  commission  and  refused  to  deliver  it. 
Marbury,  in  bringing  his  suit,  relied  upon  an  act 
of  Congress,  which  empowered  the  Supreme  Court 
to  issue  the  writ  of  mandamus  to  executive  offi- 
cers to  compel  them  to  perform  their  duties  in 
certain  cases.  But  as  the  Constitution  expressly 
enumerates  the  cases  in  which  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  original  jurisdiction  and  nowhere 
mentions  the  right  of  issuing  the  writ  of  man- 
damus, the  Congressional  act  in  question  was 
clearly  without  constitutional  warrant.  This 
evident  repugnance  of  the  statute  to  the  Con- 
stitution was  the  first  question  decided  by  the 
court.  The  second  point  in  the  decision  related 
Vol.  XIII.-4. 


to  the  power  of  the  court  to  declare  the  act 
null  and  void  and  to  refuser  to  be  bound  thereby 
when  its  repugnance  to  the  C<mstitution  was 
once  established.  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  who 
delivered  the  opinion  of  the  court,  declared  that 
if  two  laws  conflict  with  each  other,  the  courts 
must  decide  on  the  operation  of  each,  and  if  a 
law  be  in  opposition  to  the  Constitution  so  that 
the  court  would  have  to  decide  the  case  conform- 
ably to  the  law  disregarding  the  Constitution,  or 
conformably  to  the  Constitution  disregarding  the 
law,  the  court  must  decide  which  of  these  con- 
flicting rules  governs  the  case.  If  then,  he  said, 
the  courts  are  to  regard  the  Constitution,  and  if 
the  Constitution  is  supreme  over  any  ordinary 
statute,  the  Constitution  and  not  the  statute 
must  govern  the  case  to  which  they  both  apply. 
Marshall's  argument  was  readily  accepted  as  the 
only  correct  and  just  rule,  and  thus  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  judicial  prerogative  which  has 
immensely  influenced  the  legal  and  constitutional 
development  of  the  United  States — a  power,  too, 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  American  courts. 

MAB^CASITE  (Fr.  marcassite,  Sp.  mar- 
guesitOy  from  Ar.  marqashitha,  from  raqashOf  to 
speckle,  to  embellish).  An  iron  disulphide  that 
crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombic  system,  has  a 
metallic  lustre,  is  of  a  pale  bronze-yellow  color, 
and  resembles  pyrite,  from  which  it  differs 
only  in  crystalline  form.  It  is  found  in  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  Hungary,  and  in  the  United  States  at 
various  localities  in  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  and  New  Hampshire.  The  mineral 
is  mined  in  some  parts  of  Europe  for  its  sulphur, 
and  for  the  ferrous  sulphate  that  may  be  made 
from  it.  The  word  was  applied  indifferently  to 
crystallized  varieties  of  iron  sulphide  until  1845, 
when  it  was  retained  exclusively  for  the  ortho- 
rhombic  variety. 

MABCATO,*  mar-ka'td  (It.,  marked).  In 
music,  a  term  signifying  in  a  strongly  accentu- 
ated manner. 

MABCEAU,  m&r'sy,  FBANgois  S^vebin  Dbs- 
GRAVIEB8  (1769-96).  A  soldier  of  the  French 
Revolution,  bom  at  Chartres.  He  joined  the 
army  as  a  private  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  partici- 
pated actively  in  the  capture  of  the  Bastille,  and 
in  1792  was  in  the  Army  of  the  Ardennes  com- 
manded by  Lafayette.  His  services  under  West- 
ermann  in  La  Vend^  made  him  general  of  divi- 
sion in  1793.  With  K16ber  he  crushed  the  re- 
bellion at  Cholet,  then  fought  under  Jourdan  at 
Fleurus,  and  in  1795  and  1796  on  the  Rhine,  at 
Coblenz  among  other  places.  A  Prussian  sharp- 
shooter mortally  wounded  him  at  Altenkirchen. 
In  1889  his  remains  were  placed  in  the  Pantheon 
at  Paris. 

MABCEL,  mAr'sCK,  Etienne  (T-1358).  Pro- 
vost of  the  merchants  of  Paris  from  December, 
1355,  until  his  death.  After  the  battle  of 
Poitiers  (q.v.).  Marcel  took  the  entire  govern- 
ment of  Paris  into  his  own  hands.  To  check  the 
abuses  to  which  the  citizens  were  subjected,  he 
had  two  of  the  most  prominent  officials  of  the 
King  put  to  death.  In  order  not  to  be  obliged 
to  obey  the  commands  of  King  John,  who  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  English,  Marcel  induced  the 
Dauphin  to  take  the  regency.  Finding  the  Re- 
gent opposed  to  him,  he  sought  aid  from  Charles 
the  Bad,  King  of  Navarre,  from  the  Jacquerie 
(q.v.),  and  finally,  from  the  English.  This  made 
him  unpopular  and  he  was  slain  by  a  rising,  on 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABCEL.  44 

July  31,  1358.  For  a  few  months  he  had  been  the 
most  powerful  man  in  France.  It  is  impossible 
now  to  judge  his  conduct  or  his  aims  with  cer- 
tainty. Consult  Lavisse,  Histoire  de  France^  vol. 
iv.,  part  i.  (Paris,  1902),  and  the  works  cited 
there. 

MAB'CELU'NTJSy  Saint.  Bishop  of  Rome, 
or  Pope,  296-304.  He  was  bom  in  Rome,  but  lit- 
tle is  known  of  his  life  or  administration.  There 
is  an  account  of  a  synod  held  at  Sinuessa  in  303 
or  304,  at  which  Marcellinus  is  said  to  have  con- 
fessed that,  at  the  instance  of  Diocletian,  he  had 
offered  incense  to  Vesta  and  Isis.  The  synod  is 
said  to  have  deposed  Marcellinus,  who,  with 
many  members  of  the  synod,  was  put  to  death 
by  Diocletian.  The  story  is  denied  by  Augustine 
and  Theodoret,  and  is  not  credited  by  either  the 
Roman  Catholics  or  the  Protestant  controver- 
sialists. The  Roman  Church  commemorates  Mar- 
cellinus on  April  24th.  Consult  DOllinger,  Fables 
Respecting  the  Popes  of  the  Middle  Ages  (New 
York,  1871). 

MABCELLO,  m&r-chend,  Benedetto  (1686- 
1739).  An  Italian  composer.  He  studied  music 
under  Gasparini  and  Lotti,  and  is  chiefly  known 
for  a  mass,  the  oratorio  Oiudetta,  the  opera 
Psyche,  and  the  music  to  Giustiniani's  para- 
phrase of  fifty  Psalms.  The  characteristics  of  his 
musical  style  are  melody,  simplicity,  and  a  sound 
good  taste.  He  was  also  an  instructor  of  wide 
reputation,  and  a  conservatory  at  Venice  is 
named  after  him.  He  wrote  the  satire  II 
teatro  alia  moda  (1720). 

MABCEI/LUS.  The  name  of  two  popes. 
Mabcellus  I.,  Saint,  Pope  308-309,  a  Roman  by 
birth,  elected  after  an  interregnum  of  four  years 
due  to  the  persecution  of  Diocletian.  A  new  out- 
break under  Maxentius  drove  him  from  Rome, 
the  attention  of  the  heathen  authorities  being 
directed  to  him  by  his  severity  against  the 
lapsed.  He  died  in  exile,  but  his  body  was 
brought  back  to  Rome  and  buried  in  the  Cemetery 
of  Priscilla  with  that  of  his  predecessor,  Marcel- 
linus.— Mabcellus  II.,  Pope  1555,  Marcello  Cer- 
vini  degli  Spannocchi.  He  was  bom  in  1501  at 
Montepulciano,  and  made  Bishop  of  Nicastro  and 
Cardinal  in  1539.  He  was  one  of  the  legates  ap- 
pointed to  preside  over  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
was  elected  Pope  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
the  Imperial  party.  His  reign,  however,  for 
which  his  character  and  learning  had  given  great 
hopes,  lasted  only  twenty-two  days.  He  disliked 
the  new  polyphonic  music,  and  was  thinking  of 
prohibiting  its  use  in  church  when  Palestrina 
wrote  his  famous  "Missa  Papae  Marcelli,"  had 
it  performed  in  the  presence  of  the  Pope,  and  so 
charmed  him  that  he  withdrew  his  opposition. 

MABCELLUS^  Marcus  Claudius.  (1)  A 
famous  Roman  general.  He  belonged  to  a  distin- 
guished plebeian  family.  He  was  consul  for  the 
first  time  in  B.C.  222,  and  obtained  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  the  Insubrians  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  slay- 
ing with  his  own  hand  their  King,  Britoraartus  or 
Viridomarus,  whose  spoils  .le  dedicated  to  Jupi- 
ter, and  was  honored  with  i  triumph.  This  was 
the  third  and  last  occasion  in  Roman  history  on 
which  spolia  opima  were  offered  to  Jupiter 
Feretrius.  In  the  Second  Punic  War  Marcellus 
fought  as  prsptor,  in  B.C.  216  against  Hannibal  at 
Nola,  in  Campania;  and  the  victory  which  he 
gained  was  the  more  important,  as  it  showed 
that  Hannibal  was  not  invincible,  and  that  the 


MABCH. 


Romans  had  not  been  irreparably  overthrown  at 
Canns.  In  the  course  of  two  years  he  thrice 
repulsed  the  Carthaginian  general  at  this  place. 
Being  consul  again  in  b.c.  214,  he  was  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  war  in  Sicily.  He  took 
Leontini,  massacring  in  cold  blood  2000  Roman 
deserters  whom  he  found  there,  and  then  ad- 
vanced against  Syracuse,  which  he  tried  to  storm. 
All  his  efforts  were  rendered  unavailing  by  the 
skill  of  Archimedes,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
blockade  the  city.  Famine,  pestilence,  and  ul- 
timately treachery  on  the  part  of  the  Spanish, 
auxiliaries  of  the  Syracusans  enabled  Marcellus 
to  make  himself  master  of  the  place  (b.c.  212),. 
after  which  the  remainder  of  Sicily  was  soon 
brought  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans.  In 
B.C.  210  he  was  again  consul,  and  was  again  op- 
posed to  Hannibal^  with  whom  he  fought  an  in- 
decisive battle  at  Numistro,  in  Lucania,  and  by 
whom  he  was  defeated  at  Canusium,  in  Apulia^ 
in  B.C.  209,  but  on  the  day  following  retrieved  the 
defeat.  In  B.C.  208  he  was  for  the  fifth  time 
elected  to  the  consulate,  and  assumed  once  more 
the  command  of  the  Roman  army  against  Han- 
nibal. When  out  reconnoitring  one  day  he  fell 
into  an  ambuscade  and  was  slain.  (2)  A  de- 
scendant of  the  above,  the  son  of  Augustus's  sister 
Octavia,  born  B.c.  43.  In  B.C.  25  the  Emperor 
adopted  him  as  his  son  and  successor,  and  mar- 
ried his  daughter  Julia  to  him,  but  two  yeara 
later  the  young  man  died.  The  famous  lines  of 
Vergil  {A'Jneid,  vi.  860-886)  refer  to  his  death. 
Augustus  named  a  theatre  in  Rome  in  his  honor. 

MABCELLUS,  Tiieatbe  of.  A  theatre  in 
Rome,  begun  by  Julius  Caesar,  completed  by 
Augustus  in  B.c.  13,  and  named  for  his  nephew 
and  son-in-law  Marcellus.  The  stage  lay  toward 
the  river.  The  semicircular  portion  is  similar 
to  the  Coliseum,  and  is  built  of  travertine  with 
Doric  arcades  in  the  lower  tier  and  Ionic  in 
the  upper.  The  pilasters  of  the  attic  were  Corin- 
thian and  the  windows  were  rectangular.  The 
theatre  could  seat  about  13,500  spectators.  In  the 
fourth  century  some  of  the  travertine  blocks 
were  used  in  restoring  the  Cestian  bridge.  In 
the  eleventh  century  the  building  was  turned  into 
a  stronghold  of  the  Pierleoni,  and  in  the  four- 
teenth century  it  was  purchased  by  the  Savelli^ 
upon  whose  extinction  it  passed  to  the  Orsini  in 
1712.  The  palace  of  the  latter  family  stands 
upon  the  stage  and  seats  which  are  buried  under 
fifteen  feet  of  modem  soil.  Many  corridors  and 
chambers  of  the  original  building  are  preserved 
and  are  used  as  offices  of  the  palace.  The  remains 
of  the  Doric  arcades  are  used  as  low  shops. 

MABCH.     See  Mabchino. 

MABCH.     See  Month. 

MABCH  (OF.,  Fr.  marche,  from  Goth.,  OHG. 
marka,  Ger.  Mark,  AS.  mearc,  border;  connected 
with  Lat.  mar  go,  Olr.  bril,  Welsh,  Corn,  hro, 
Av.  m^r^zu,  boundarj').  A  term  applied  in  Eng- 
land during  the  early  Middle  Ages  and  later  to 
the  frontier  or  border  line  between  England  and 
Wales  and  between  England  and  Scotland.  In 
Anglo-Saxon  times  the  word  appears  \mder  the 
form  Mercia  as  the  name  of  the  most  western  of 
the  English  kingdoms.    See  Mabk. 

In  Scotland  the  word  came  into  common  use  to 
designate  the  boundaries  of  real  property,  corre- 
sponding to  the  English  term  boundary    (q.v.). 

MABCH,  mftrK  (Lat.  Marus,  Slav.  Morava), 
A  tributary  of  the  Danube  and  the  princip*) 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABCH.  45 

river  of  Moravia  (Map:  Austria,  E  2).  It  rises 
in  the  Sudetic  Mountains  on  the  boundaiy  of 
Silesia,  and  runs  southward,  forming  in  its  lower 
course  the  boundary  between  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary, and  entering  the  Danube  26  miles  east  of 
Vienna,  after  a  course  of  about  217  miles,  for  the 
last  80  of  which  it  is  navigable.    See  Mabchfeld. 

ICABCH  (Fr.  marche,  from  marcher,  to  walk, 
march,  probably  from  OF.,  Fr.  tnarche,  boundary ; 
or  possibly  from  Lat.  marcua,  hammer;  connected 
with  Skt.  mar,  to  grind,  on  account  of  the  beat 
of  the  feet).  A  musical  composition  having 
primarily  for  its  object  to  regulate  the  steps 
of  a  large  number  of  persons  in  motion.  Even 
in  remote  antiquity,  solemn  processions  were  al- 
ways accompanied  by  music.  In  the  Greek 
tragedy  the  entrance  as  well  as  the  exit  of  the 
chorus  was  so  accompanied.  The  military  march 
undoubtedly  was  developed  from  soldiers'  songs. 
The  ordinary  march  used  for  parades,  drills,  etc., 
has  about  75  steps  to  the  minute,  the  quick-step 
about  100,  and  the  double  quick  or  charge  about 

120.  The  march  as  an  art  form  was  developed 
from  the  dance  forms  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Lully  in  his  operas  and  F.  Couperin  in  his 
piano  works  established  the  march  form  as  con- 
sisting of  two  reprises  of  eight  or  sixteen  meas- 
ures. To  this  was  added,  somewhat  later,  a  por- 
tion distinguished  by  repose  and  broad  melodic 
outline,  generally  in  a  closely  related  key.  This 
was  called  the  trio,  because  at  first  it  was  in 
three-part  writing  as  against  the  two-part  writ- 
ing of  the  first  section.  After  the  trio  the  first 
section  is  repeated.  To-day  the  art  form  of  the 
march  is  highly  developed  and  employed  on  vari- 
ous occasions.  A  special  kind  of  march  is  the 
fimeral  march.     It  is  written  in  very  slow  time 

(grave,  lento,  adagio),  and  always  in  the  minor 
mode.  The  trio  is  in  the  relative  or  correspond- 
ing major.  Beethoven's  great  funeral  march  in 
the  Eroica  Symphony  is  in  C  minor  with  trio  in 
C  major;  Chopin's  funeral  march  in  the  Sonata 
op.  35  is  in  B  flat  minor  with  trio  in  D  flat 
major. 

MABCH,  AusiAS  (  ?-c.l458) .  A  Catalan  poet, 
bom  in  Valencia,  probably  before  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  He  was  admired  and  praised 
not  only  by  his  fellow  citizens  in  Catalonia,  but 
also  by  noted  Spanish  authors.  In  March's  chief 
works,  the  Cants  d*amor  and  the  Cants  de  mort, 
he  is  visibly  \mder  the  influence  of  Petrarch,  as 
are  so  many  of  his  contemporaries.  He  avoided  all 
close  imitation,  however,  and  may  safely  stand  on 
his  own  merits.  Liveliness  of  fancy  and  genuine- 
ness of  sentiment  are  among  his  best  traits;  his 
chief  defect  is  a  certain  obscurity  of  expression. 
Consult  the  edition  of  his  poems  by  Pelayo  y  Britz 
(Barcelona,  1864),  and  that  of  Barcelona,  1888, 
neither  of  them  a  good  reproduction  of  the  six- 
teenth century  editions;  J.  Rubio  y  Ors,  Ausias 
March  y  su  ipoca  (Barcelona,  1862)  ;  A.  Pagjfes, 
"Documents  in^its  relatifs  ft  la  vie  d'Ausias 
March,"  in  the  Romania,  vol.  xvii.  (Paris,  1888). 

KABCH,  Fbancts  Andbew  (1825—).  An 
American  philologist  and  author,  bom  at  Mill- 
bury,  Mass.  He  graduated  in  1845  at  Amherst, 
where  he  was  tutor  in  1847-49,  and,  after  study- 
ing law  in  New  York,  was  in  1850  admitted  to 
the  bar.  Having  taught  at  Fredericksburg,  Va., 
from  1852  to  1855,  he  was  appointed  tutor  in 
Lafayette  College  in  the  following  year,  and  in 
1856  became  professor  of  the  English  language 


MABCHESI. 

and  comparative  philology.  In  1873  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  American  Philological  Associa- 
tion, and  in  1891  succeeded  James  Russell  Lowell 
as  president  of  the  Modern  Language  Association 
of  America.  In  1879  he  was  chosen  to  be  the  head 
of  the  American  staff  of  A  Neto  English  Diction- 
ary on  Historical  Principles,  prepared  under  the 
direction  of  the  Philological  Society  of  London. 
His  publications  include:  A  Method  of  Philo- 
sophical Study  of  the  English  Language  (1865) ; 
Anglo-Saxon  Reader  (1870);  and  Comparative 
Qrammar  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language  (1870). 
He  also  edited  a  series  of  text-books  of  Greek  and 
Latin  authors,  and  was  consulting  editor  of  the 
Standard  Dictionary  (1890-94).  In  1906  he  be- 
came  a  pensioner  under  the  Carnegie  fund.  He  re- 
ceived various  distinctions  from  foreign  societies. 

MABCHAND,  mar'shftw^  F£lix  Gabriel 
( 1832 — ) .  A  Canadian  statesman,  bom  at  Saint 
John's,  Quebec.  He  studied  at  Saint  Hyacinthe 
College,  and  was  admitted  a  notary  in  1855.  In 
1867  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly  of  the  Province  of  Quebec,  and  from 
1878  to  1879  was  Provincial  Secretary.  From 
1887  to  1892  he  was  Speaker  of  the  Assembly, 
and  in  1897  was  appointed  Premier  and  Treas- 
urer. In  1860  he  established  Le  Franco-Canadien, 
which  he  edited  for  some  time.  He  wrote: 
Fatenville  (1869);  Erreur  n'est  pas  compte 
(1872)  ;  Un  honheur  en  attire  un  autre  (1884) ; 
and  Lea  fauw  hrillants  (1885). 

MABCHAND,  Jean  Baftiste  (1863—).  A 
French  officer  and  explorer,  born  at  Thoissey,  Ain. 
His  explorations  in  search  of  an  improved  route  to 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea  from  the  valley  of  the  Niger 
resulted  in  a  scheme  for  the  Transnigerian  Rail- 
way between  the  Bandama  and  Niger  rivers.  In 
1898  he  established  on  the  White  Nile  the  post 
of  Fashoda,  which  resisted  attacks  from  the 
Dervishes,  but  found  a  more  formidable  foe  in 
General  Kitchener  with  British  forces  fresh  from 
their  victory  over  the  Mahdi  and  determined  to 
take  possession  of  the  country.  Major  Marchand 
refused  to  withdraw,  and  international  complica- 
tions ensued;  but  the  affair  was  settled  when 
the  French  Government  retired  from  the  posi- 
tion while  Marchand  was  on  his  way  home  to  re- 
port.   See  Fashoda. 

MABCHENA,  mftr-cha^nft.  A  town  of  South- 
em  Spain  in  the  Province  of  Seville,  situated  28 
miles  east  of  Seville,  on  the  railroad  between 
Cadiz  and  Cordova  (Map:  Spain,  C  4).  It  is  a 
picturesque  old  town,  partly  surrounded  by  the 
grass-covered  remains  of  Moorish  fortifications, 
and  contains  a  half-ruined  palace  of  the  dukes 
of  Areos,  and  two  notable  Gothic  churches.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  sulphur  springs;  the  sur- 
rounding region  is  fertile,  growing  fine  olives. 
Population,  in  1900,  12,255. 

MABCHES,  The  (It.  Le  Marche,  the  boun-. 
daries).  A  name  frequently  occurring  in  Italian 
history  as  applied  to  a  stretch  of  territory  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Peninsula,  comprising  the 
present  provinces  of  Ancona,  Ascoli-Piceno,  Ma- 
cerata,  and  Pesaro  e  Urbino. 

KABCHESA  COLOMBI^  mar-ka'zft  kd-ldm^- 
b$.  A  pseudonym  of  the  Italian  author  Maria 
Torelli-Torriani  (q.v.). 

MABCHESI,  mftr-ka'zft,  Mathtlde,  n^e  Grau- 
MANN  (1826—).  A  German-French  singing 
teacher,    bom    at    Frankfort-on-the-Main.      She 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XABCHESI.  46 

studied  under  Nicolai  in  Vienna,  and  with  Man- 
uel Garcia  in  Paris,  afterwards  appearing  as 
a  concert  singer  in  London  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent. Her  voice  was  pleasing,  but  not  remark- 
able. In  1862  she  married  Signor  Marchesi  and 
taught  singing  at  the  Vienna  Conservatory  from 
1854  to  1861,  after  which  she  moved  to  Paris 
and  succeeded  in  making  her  salon  one  of  the 
most  important  circles  of  musical  life  in  .the 
city.  She  taught  at  Cologne  from  1865  to  1868, 
then  at  Vienna  for  a  number  of  years,  but  ulti- 
mately settled  in  Paris.  Among  her  pupils  were 
Tremelli,  Caroline  Sulla,  Emma  Schuk-Proska, 
Gerster,  Melba,  Eames,  Calv6,  Sibyl  Sanderson. 
Consult  Hayme,  Marchesi  and  Music:  Passages 
from  the  Life  of  a  Famous  Singer  (New  York, 
1898). 

MABCHESI,  PoMPEO Cavaliere  ( 1789-1858) . 
An  Italian  sculptor.  He  was  bom  at  Sal  trio, 
near  Milan,  August  7,  1789,  and  studied  at  Rome 
under  Canova.  He  was  professor  of  sculpture  at 
the  Academy  of  Milan  for  many  years.  Among 
his  earliest  works  are  the  relief  sculptures  "Terp- 
sichore" and  "Venus  Urania"  for  the  Simplon 
Arch  and  the  colossal  statue  of  King  Charles  Em- 
manuel in  the  Cathedral  at  Turin.  His  later  works 
include  the  sitting  statue  of  Goethe  for  the 
Frankfort  Library;  a  statue  of  Emperor  Fran- 
cis I.  of  Austria  for  Gratz,  and  another  for  the 
Hofburg  in  Vienna.  One  of  his  best  works  is 
the  colossal  group  for  the  Church  of  San  Carlo 
at  Milan,  in  which  is  the  figure  of  the  famous 
"Mater  Dolorosa;"  also  important  is  the  sepul- 
chral monument  for  Duke  Emmanuel  Philibert  of 
Savoy  (1843)  in  the  Turin  Cathedral.  He  died 
at  Milan,  February  6,  1858. 

MABCHETTI,  mttr-kSt't^,  Fillippo  (1835- 
1902).  An  Italian  composer,  bom  in  Bolognola. 
His  principal  work,  Oiulietta  e  Romeo,  first  pro- 
duced at  Triest  in  1865,  and  afterwards  at  La 
Scala,  Milan,  was  the  corner-stone  of  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  composer,  after  which  time  Ruy  Bias 
(1869)  was  his  only  conspicuous  success.  In 
1881  he  was  appointed  Director  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Saint  Cecilia,  Rome.  His  com- 
positions include  considerable  chamber  music,  be- 
sides several  symphonies,  choruses,  and  a  few 
masses. 

MABCHFELD,  m&rK^f6lt.  A  large  plain  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite  Vienna. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  river  March.  It 
contains  only  a  few  villages.  Because  of  the 
physical  characteristics,  this  has  been  a  noted 
battle  field.  Here  Marcus  Aurelius  contended 
with  the  Marcomanni.  In  1260  King  Ottokar  of 
Bohemia  defeated  B6la  IV.  of  Hungary  on  the 
Marchfeld.  On  the  same  plain  in  1278  Ottokar 
was  defeated  by  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  and  slain. 
In  modern  times  the  most  important  battles 
fought  on  the  Marchfeld  were  those  of  Aspem 
(q.v.)  and  Wagram  (q.v.)  in  1809. 

MARCH  FLY.  Any  one  of  the  dipterous  in- 
sects of  the  family  Bibionidap,  so  called  because 
these  flies  are  most  common  in  the  early  spring. 
They  are  of  medium  size,  rather  thick-bodied  and 
rather  hairy,  but  they  are  weak  fliers.  The 
wings  are  frequently  fuscous.  More  than  300 
species  are  kno\m.  The  larvae  feed  upon  excre- 
mental  or  vegetable  substances,  and  are  supposed 
to  attack  the  roots  of  growing  grass.  The  larvje 
of  some  species  have  been  found  on  the  surface  of 


MABCHING. 

snow.  One  of  the  commonest  species  in  the 
United  States  is  the  white-winged  bibio  {Bihio 
albipennis)y  which  sometimes  occurs  in  enor- 
mous numbers.  The  smallest  forms  belong  to  the 
genus  Scatopse  and  breed  in  decaying  animal  and 
vegetable  matter. 

MABCHIENNE-ATr-PONT,  mar'sh^'«^n'6'- 
pON^  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Hainault, 
Belgium,  two  miles  west  of  Charleroi,  on  the 
Sambre  River.  It  is  an  important  coal-mining 
centre.     Population,  in  1900,  18,461. 

KABCHING.  One  of  the  essentials  to  mo- 
bility and  effectiveness  in  the  field  is  the  ability 
of  the  soldier  to  carry  out  long  marches  with  a 
minimum  of  fatigue.  To  this  end  his  physical 
development  is  advanced  by  various  systems  of 
physical  exercise,  both  in  the  gymnasium  and  on 
the  drill  ground;  while  equal  importance  is  at- 
tached to  foot-drill,  to  insure  precision  and  regu- 
larity of  step.  Throughout  the  world  drill  evo- 
lutions and  all  ceremonial  exercises  are  carried 
out  in  cadenced  step.  On  the  march,  troops  are 
frequently  allowed  to  break  or  march  in  route 
step.  Units  of  organization  are  kept  intact  as 
much  as  possible;  the  cavalry  belongs  in  front, 
and  the  engineers  and  bridge-train  must  also  be 
well  advanced  in  the  column;  the  field  artillery 
is  needed  early,  but  it  also  requires  protection, 
therefore  no  general  rule  as  to  its  proper  position 
can  be  given:  the  circumstances  must  decide. 
The  artillery  of  position  is  in  the  main  column, 
at  the  end  of  which  march  the  ammunition  col- 
umns, and  finally  the  train.  If  an  army  corps 
marches  on  two  roads,  each  division  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  portion  of  the  ammunition  columns  and 
the  train.  The  average  march  of  infantry  is  a  mile 
in  from  18  to  20  minutes,  and  an  average  of  14  or 
15  miles  a  day,  which  in  extreme  emergency  could 
be  increased  to  38  or  40  miles  in  from  28  to  30 
hours.  Under  fair  to  good  conditions,  cavalry 
usually  accomplish  from  30  to  38  miles  in  a  day 
of  24  hours — several  days  in  succession;  doing 
15  minutes  at  the  walk,  and  45  at  the  trot,  the 
average  march  of  14  or  15  miles  a  day  being 
accomplished  in  three  hours.  Artillery  consume 
four  hours  in  accomplishing  the  same  result,  and 
the  train  five  hours.  The  average  European  in- 
fantry division  at  war  strength,  marching  on  a 
single  road,  and  observing  the  usual  distances, 
would  occupy  a  length  of  10%  miles,  and  would 
take  4  hours  and  19  minutes  to  pass  a  given 
point.  Under  the  same  conditions  an  army  corps 
occupies  a  stretch  of  nearly  24  miles,  and  takes 
9%  hours  to  pass.  The  shortest  or  most  direct 
road  is  given  to  infantry,  the  best  to  artillery, 
and  the  softest  to  cavalry — ^when  conditions  per- 
mit. 

Halts  are  as  a  rule  governed  by  conditions, 
and  are  regulated  under  ordinary  conditions 
either  by  time  or  distance.  The  United  States 
infantry  drill  regulations  prescribe  a  halt  of  15 
minutes  after  the  first  45  minutes*  marching,  to 
enable  the  men  to  relieve  themselves  and  to  ad- 
just their  clothing  and  accoutrements.  After- 
wards there  is  a  halt  of  10  minutes  every  hour. 
If  marching  in  the  vicinity  of  an  enemy  the 
march  is  made  in  several  columns,  avoiding  ex- 
treme depth,  and  facilitating  deployment.  Strag- 
glers are  picked  up  by  the  provost-guard,  which 
marches  in  the  rear.  The  following  table  gives 
in  round  numbers  the  rate  of  marching  in  the 
leading  armies  of  the  world: 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABCHINa. 


47 


MABGOMAKNI. 


Mabcbino 


Nation 


Austria 

England 

Prance 

Germany 

Italy 

Rneida. 

United  States. 


Infantry 


Average  per 
minute 
(paces) 


116 
116 
120 
lU 
116 
118 
120 


Average  per 

hour 

(miles) 


3 
2% 


Cavalry 
(Average  milee  per  hour) 


Walk 


4 
4 
4 
8% 

4 

4 


Trot 


8H 

8 

8 

7% 

7 

8 


ArtUlery 


Average 

per  hour 

(miles) 


8% 
3Mi 
3% 

8 

8H 
3H 


Train 


Average 

per  hour 

(miles) 


8 
3 

2% 

3 

2% 

3 

3 


VJlBCHINQ  thbough  geobgia.     a 

"widely  popular  ballad  of  the  Civil  War,  begin- 
ning "Bring  the  good  old  bugle,  boys."  It  com- 
memorates Sherman's  famous  march  to  the  sea, 
and  was  written  by  H.  C.  Work  soon  after  the 
march  commenced,  on  November  16,  1864. 

MABCHIONESS,  The.  In  Dickens's  Old 
Curiosity  Shop,  a  small  servant  to  Sampson 
Brass,  and  a  friend  of  Dick  Swiveller. 

MABCIANISE,  mftr'ch^-Ane^zd.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  18  miles  by  rail 
from  Naples,  in  a  low,  unhealthful  plain,  where 
are  several  small  lakes  (Map:  Italy,  J  6).  The 
raising  of  fruits  and  grain  constitutes  the  prin- 
cipal industry.  Population,  in  1901  (commime), 
12,785. 

MABCIONy  mUr^shon.  A  second  century 
Christian,  classed  among  the  heretics.  He  was 
bom  in  Sinope,  Pontus,  and  died  after  160.  About 
the  year  140  he  came  to  Rome,  where  he  fell 
imder  the  influence  of  the  Syrian  Cerdon,  from 
whom  his  Gnostic  ideas  were  perhaps  derived,  and 
here  he  foimded  his  church.  He  afterwards  trav- 
eled through  the  East,  visiting  Rome  again  in 
the  episcopate  of  Anioetus  (154-165).  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  later  life.  His  disciples,  chief 
among  whom  was  Apelles,  continued  his  work, 
and  Marcionite  churches  were  soon  to  be  found 
scattered  over  North  Africa,  Gaul,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Egypt. 

It  is  said  that  Polycarp  (q.v.)  once  met  Mar- 
cion  in  the  streets  of  Rome  and  saluted  him  as 
*the  first-bom  of  Satan.'  In  this  he  gave  expres- 
sion to  the  general  sentiment  of  the  Church,  for 
Marcion  was  attacked  by  almost  every  orthodox 
writer  from  Justin  onward.  Yet  Marcion 
regarded  himself  in  the  light  of  a  reformer. 
He  believed  that  Christianity  marked  an  essen- 
tially new  departure,  but  that  it  had  already 
become  corrupted  through  the  admixture  of 
Jewish  elements.  These  must  be  purged  out. 
For  him  Paul  was  the  only  true  Apostle,  because 
he  alone  thoroughly  abjured  Judaism.  These 
principles  appear  in  Marcion's  Scripture  canon — 
the  earliest  Christian  collection  known — ^which 
embraced  one  Gospel  (Luke,  without  the  intro- 
ductory part,  which  was  'Jewish')  and  ten  of 
Paul's  Epistles  (omitting  those  of  Timothy  and 
Titus).  Church  writers  accused  him,  with  ap- 
parent justice,  of  'mutilating*  the  Scriptures. 
His  own  chief  work,  entitled  Antitheses^  set  forth 
the  alleged  contradictions  between  Law  and  Gos- 
pel. The  Creator  of  the  Old  Testament  was  rep- 
resented as  a  cruel  and  vindictive  being,  wholly 
different  from  the  God  of  love,  revealed  through 
Christ.  Marcion's  Christology  was  docetic,  i.e. 
he  taught  that  Christ  suffered  only  in  appear- 
ance. (See  DocET-«.)  Hi.s  ethics  resulted  in  a 
severe  asceticism.    His  Gnostic  tendency  appears 


in  the  dualistic  tenet  that  man's  body  cannot  be 
saved,  only  his  spirit,  which  is  the  opposite  of 
matter.  This  was  a  striking  departure  from 
the  common  Christian  belief.  An  attempt 
has  recently  been  made  to  prove  anti-Mar- 
cionite  influence  in  the  formulation  of  the 
old  Roman  symbol,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of 
the  Apostles'  Cre^.  The  Marcionite  Church 
was  completely  organized,  having  its  clergy,  its 
rites,  ana  its  Scriptures.  The  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism was  administered  much  as  in  the  orthodox 
Church,  but  in  the  Eucharist  water  was  substi- 
tuted for  wine.  In  the  East  Marcionite  churches 
are  foimd  as  late  as  the  sixth  century,  but  in  the 
West  they  disappeared  earlier,  being  absorbed  by 
the  more  virile  Manichaeans.  ( See  A^NiCHi£iSM. ) 
Their  downfall  was  due  in  part  to  ecclesiastical 
opposition,  and  in  part  to  hostile  legislation  un- 
der Christian  emperors  from  Constantine  on- 
ward. In  the  persecutions  through  which  they 
passed,  not  a  few  Marcionites  suffered  a  mar- 
tyr's death,  and  the  property  of  their  churches 
was  declared  forfeited  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
For  information  as  to  the  surviving  fragments  of 
Marcion's  works,  consult:  Krtiger,  History  of 
Early  Christian  Literature  (New  York,  1897); 
Cruttwell,  Literary  History  of  Early  Christianity 
(London,  1893).  Among  the  sources  consult  the 
interesting  work  of  Tertullian,  Against  Marcion, 
trans,  in  The  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  vol.  iii.,  ed. 
by  Roberts  and  Donaldson  (American  edition). 
In  general,  consult:  Harnack,  History  of  Dogmay 
vol.  i.  (London,  1894)  ;  Smith  and  Wace,  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography,  article  "Marcion." 

MABCO  BOZZABIS.  A  well-known  poem 
by  Fitz-Greene  Halleck  on  the  death  of  the 
Greek  patriot  Bozzaris  (q.v.).  It  appeared  in 
the  New  York  Review  in  1825.  First  Ime:  "At 
midnight  in  his  guarded  tent." 

MABCO  DA  OGGIONE,  marOcO  da  6d-jyni. 
An  Italian  painter.    See  Oqqione,  Mabco  da. 

MAB'COMAN^NI  (Lat.,  from  OHG.  •J/arfca- 
man,  border-man,  from  marca,  border  -f  man, 
man).  An  ancient  German  people  who,  in  the 
time  of  CflBsar,  lived  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine, 
but  afterwards,  as  appears  from  Tacitus  and 
Strabo,  settled  in  Bohemia,  from  which  they 
expelled  the  Boii.  Their  King,  Maroboduus,  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  tribes  living 
around  them  to  defend  Germany  against  the  Ro- 
mans. The  combined  forces  of  the  alliance  num- 
bered 70,000  men,  and  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
signed  a  treaty  with  them  in  a.d.  6;  but  the 
Marcomannic  alliance  was  beaten  eleven  years 
later  by  the  Cherusci  and  their  allies;  and  in 
19  the  Gothic  Catualda  drove  Maroboduus  from 
the  throne,  and  himself  usurped  the  sovereignty. 
But  he  was  soon  overthrown,  and  the  native 
dynasty  established,  under  whose  mle  the  Mar- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XASCOMAKKI. 


48 


MABCY. 


comanni  extended  their  territory  up  to  the  Dan- 
ube, till  their  encroachments  alarmed  the  Ro- 
mans, who  attacked  them  in  the  time  of  Domi- 
tian.  This  war,  which  subsided  for  a  time  in 
the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  broke  out 
again  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  was  carried 
on  with  bitterness  from  166  to  180,  when  it  was 
ended  by  the  Peace  of  Commodus.  The  Marco- 
manni  continued  to  make  raids  into  the  provinces 
of  Noricum  and  Rhstia,  and  in  270  invaded  Italy 
as  far  as  Ancona.  Soon  after  this  their  name 
fades  away  from  history,  the  people  figuring  later 
tuider  the  name  of  Boiarii.    See  Bavabia. 

KABCCVNTy  GuGLiELMO  (1875—).  An  Ital- 
ian electrician,  inventor  of  the  wireless  telegraph. 
He  was  bom  near  Bologna  at  Griffone,  studied 
under  Rosa  at  Leghorn,  and  then  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bologna.  There  he  came  in  contact 
with  Professor  Righi,  who  had  long  been  inter- 
ested in  the  nature  of  the  Hertzian  waves.  The 
young  man  saw  the  possibilities  of  using  these 
waves  for  the  transmission  of  messages,  improved 
the  coherers  of  Onesti  and  Branly,  made  several 
successful  experiments  at  GrifTone  in  1895,  and 
in  1896,  having  failed  to  interest  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment in  his  behalf,  went  to  England,  where 
his  plans  were  laid  before  the  post-office  authori- 
ties. There  his  project  was  well  received.  Sir 
William  Preece,  engineer-in-chief  of  the  British 
telegraph  system,  who  had  himself  made  experi- 
ments in  1893  and  1894,  took  up  the  new  method, 
tested  it,  and  declared  it  successful,  but  limited  in 
application.  Almost  immediately  afterwards, 
t^ts  of  the  Marconi  method  were  made  by  the 
Italian  Ministry  of  Marine  at  Spezzia.  In  1897 
the  Marconi  Wireless  Telegraph  Company  was 
founded  with  a  large  capital.  Two  years  later 
signals  were  succesHfully  exchanged  across  the 
English  Channel,  and  the  system  was  established 
pretty  generally  in  the  British  and  Italian 
navies,  although  some  insular  jealousy  was 
aroused  in  England  that  the  scheme  of  a  for- 
eigner should  be  adopted  in  view  of  Preece's  early 
study  of  the  problem,  and  this  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  Marconi's  mother  was  an  Irish  woman. 
In  December,  1901,  from  Saint  John's,  N.  F., 
Marconi  sent  a  signal  to  the  Irish  coast,  and  on 
December  19,  1902,  succeeded  in  transmitting  a 
message.    See  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

MABCO  POLO.    See  Polo,  Marco. 

MABCOU,  mar'k?55',  Jules  (1824-98).  A 
French  geologist,  born  in  Sal  ins.  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Jura.  He  was  educated  in  Paris,  and, 
after  completing  his  course  at  the  College  Saint 
Louis,  made  geological  excursions  through  the 
Alps.  In  1846  he  was  attached  to  the  mineral- 
ogical  department  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  conducted 
geological  investigations  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  and  from  1848  to  1850  in  the  United 
States.  For  some  time  he  was  employed  by  the 
United  States  Government  in  surveying  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  but  he  returned  in  1855  to  Eu- 
rope to  accept  the  chair  of  paleontological  geol- 
ogy in  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Zurich.  In  1860 
he  again  visited  the  United  States  and  was 
engaged  with  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz  in  paleonto- 
logical researches,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
Government  service.  Professor  Marcou  is  best 
known,  perhaps,  for  his  works,  Rccherches  g6o- 
logique  sur  le  Jura  aalinoia  (1848),  and  The 
Taconic  fiystem  and  Its  Position  in  Stratigraphic 
Geology    (1885).     He  published  many  scientific 


papers  besides  the  following  more  important 
works:  Geology  of  North  America  (1858)  ;  Geo- 
logical Map  of  the  World  (1861) ;  De  la  science 
en  France  (1869)  ;  Origin  of  the  Name  America 
(1875)  ;  First  Discoveries  of  California,  and  the 
Origin  of  Its  Name  (1878). 

MAB^CUS.  Bishop  of  Rome,  or  Pope,  Janu- 
ary 18  to  October  7,  333.  He  was  a  native  of 
Rome,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a  share  in  the 
building  of  two  churches,  one  of  which  still  re- 
mains as  San  Marco,  although  frequently  altered 
and  repaired. 

ULAB/CUB  AUBEOJUS  AKTONI'NUS. 
See  Aurelius. 

MAB/CY,  Mount.  The  loftiest  of  the  Adiron- 
dack Mountains,  and  the  highest  point  in  New 
York  State,  situated  in  Essex  County,  10  miles 
south  of  Lake  Placid  (Map:  New  York,  G  1). 
It  is  5344  feet  high,  and  was  known  to  the  In- 
dians as  Tahaious,  the  'cloud-divider.'  On  its 
side,  4327  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  picturesque 
Lake  Tear  of  the  Clouds,  one  of  the  sources  of 
the  Hudson  River. 

MABCYy  Henbt  Oblando  (1837—).  An 
American  surgeon,  bom  at  Otis,  Mass.  He  volun- 
teered in  the  Union  Army  as  assistant  surgeon  in 
1863.  He  was  assistant  in  chemistry  at  Har- 
vard after  the  close  of  the  war;  then  studied 
surgery  at  Berlin  (1869)  and  in  England  under 
Lister,  and  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  bac- 
teriology of  wounds.  Marcy  wrote  Best  Methods 
of  Operative  Wound  Treatment  (1882),  and  the 
very  valuable  work  on  Anatomy  and  Surgical 
Treatment  of  Eemia   (1892). 

MABCY,  Randolph  Barnes  (1812-87).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Greenwich,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832,  was  promoted 
to  a  captaincy  in  1846,  and  served  in  the  war 
with  Mexico.  Subsequently  he  was  engaged  in 
explorations  in  the  Red  River  coimtry  (1852) , 
in  operations  against  the  Seminoles  (1857),  and 
in  the  Utah  expedition  of  1857-58.  He  was  ap- 
pointed paymaster,  with  the  rank  of  major,  in 
1859,  and  inspector-general,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel,  in  1861 ;  was  chief  of  staflf  to  General 
McClellan,  his  son-in-law,  in  West  Virginia,  on 
the  Peninsula, and  in  Maryland;  and  in  1865  was 
brevetted  major-general  in  the  Regular  Army  for 
faithful  and  meritorious  services  during  the  war. 
In  1868  he  was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the 
United  States  Army,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  was  president  of  the  Army  Regula- 
tion Board  until  January  1,  1881,  when  he  retired 
from  active  service.  He  published:  Exploration 
of  the  Red  River  (1853)  ;  The  Prairie  Traveler 
(1859)  ;  Thirty  Years  of  Army  Life  on  the  Bor- 
der (1866)  ;  and  Border  Reminiscences  (1871). 

MABCY^  William  Learned  (1786-1857).  An 
American  statesman,  bom  December  12,  1786, 
at  Southbridge,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1808,  and  soon  entered  upon  the 
practice  of  law  at  Troy.  N.  Y.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  War  of  1812  he  entered  the  volunteer 
service  as  a  lieutenant,  and  on  October  22,  1812, 
led  a  successful  attack  upon  Saint  Regis,  a 
Canadian  post.  For  this  he  was  soon  after- 
wards promoted  to  be  captain.  Before  the  end 
of  the  war  he  returned  to  Troy,  where  he  was 
active  as  a  newspaper  writer  and  politician,  sup- 
porting the  Tompkins  faction  against  the  Clinto- 
nians.  and  allying  him.self  with  the  *Albany  Re- 
gency* (q.v.).    After  filling  several  minor  offices, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABCT. 


and  after  a  service  of  six  years  as  Comptroller  of 
the  State,  he  was  made  an  associate  justice  of  the 
New  York  Supreme  Court  in  1829.  In  1831  he  was 
elected  Senator  of  the  United  States  by  the  Demo- 
cratic Party,  but  resigned  the  office  upon  being 
chosen  Governor  of  New  York  in  1832.  In  the 
Senate  he  served  as  chairman  of  the  Judiciary 
Committee,  and  gained  distinction  by  his  defense 
of  Martin  Van  Buren  against  the  attacks  of  Henry 
Clay.  In  the  course  of  a  speech  on  the  question  of 
appointment  to  office,  he  upheld  the  right  of  the 
President  to  bestow  the  offices  upon  his  political 
supporters,  saying,  "We  can  see  nothing  wrong  in 
the  maxim  that  to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils," 
thus  associating  his  name  in  history  with  the 
spoils  system.  He  served  as  Governor  for  three 
terms,  and  was  nominated  for  a  fourth  term  in 
1838,  but  was  defeated  by  William  H.  Seward 
(q.v.).  He  was  appointed  a  commissioner  on 
claims  against  the  Mexican  Government  in  the 
same  year,  and  served  in  that  capacity  until 
1842.  In  1845  he  became  the  Secretary  of  War 
in  President  Polk's  Cabinet.  His  ability  in  this 
position  was  severely  tested  by  the  Mexican 
War.  In  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1848  he 
supported  General  Cass.  The  last  and  most  im- 
portant public  station  in  which  he  served  was 
that  of  Secretary  of  State  during  Pierce's  admin- 
istration (1853-57).  Among  the  foreign  compli- 
cations or  treaties  which  demanded  action  on  his 
part  in  this  capacity  were  the  settling  of  the 
Mexican  boundary,  the  Canadian  reciprocity 
treaty.  Commodore  Perry's  negotiations  with 
Japan,  the  British  fishery  dispute,  the  Ostend  Con- 
ference, and  the  so-called  *Koszta  AflTair*  (q.v.), 
which  added  much  to  his  popularity.  In  these 
and  in  other  matters  Marcy  successfully  defended 
the  interests  of  his  country,  and  displayed  the 
qualities  of  a  trained  statesman  and  accomplished 
diplomat.  One  of  his  notable  diplomatic  papers 
was  his  instructions  to  the  American  ministers 
abroad  to  appear  at  Court  in  the  simple  dress 
of  an  American  citizen  when  this  could  be  done 
without  detriment  to  the  interests  of  the  United 
States.  Marcy's  death  occurred  at  Ballston  Spa, 
X.  Y.,  but  a  few  months  after  the  expiration 
of  his  term  of  office.  He  is  entitled  to  high  rank 
as  a  statesman,  while  as  a  shrewd  politician  he 
was  at  his  time  almost  unsurpassed.  Consult 
Lives  of  the  Oovemors  of  Neto  York,  by  Jenkins 
(Auburn,  1851),  and  Alexander,  Political  History 
of  the  State  of  Neto  York  (New  York,  1906). 

MABDI  GBAS,  mfir'd^'  grft^    See  Carnival. 

MABDIN,  mar-d§n^  The  capital  of  a  san- 
jak  in  the  Vilayet  of  Diarbekir,  in  Northern 
Mesopotamia,  Asiatic  Turkey  (Map:  Turkey  in 
Asia,  J  4).  It  is  strikingly  situated  on  the 
steep  slopes  of  a  conical  hill,  crowned  by  the 
ruins  of  an  old  castle.  It  has  a  number  of 
mosques,  bazaars,  and  baths,  as  well  as  Chris- 
tian churches  and  monasteries,  and  is  the  seat 
of  an  important  American  mission  with  a  church 
and  a  school.  Population,  about  15,000,  of  whom 
over  one-half  are  Moslem  Kurds;  the  rest  are 
Christians  of  various  Eastern  sects. 

MABDO^NITTS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ma/)(J<Jv£Of, 
Mardonioa,  from  OPers.  Marduniya) .  A  Persian 
general,  son  of  Gobryas,  and  son-in-law  of  Darius 
Hystaspes.  In  B.c.  492  he  conunanded  an  expedi- 
tion sent  out  by  Darius  to  punish  the  Eretrians 
and  Athenians  for  the  aid  they  had  given  to  the 
lonians.     Near  Mount  Athos,  however,  his  fleet 


49  MABE  CLAUSUM. 

was  destroyed  by  a  storm,  and  when,  shortly 
afterwards,  his  land  forces  were  cut  to  pieces,  he 
returned  to  Asia^  and  was  relieved  of  his  com- 
mand by  Darius.  On  the  accession  of  Xerxes  he 
was  restored  to  favor^  and  was  appointed  one  of 
the  generals  of  the  expedition  against  Greece. 
After  the  battle  of  Salamis  (b.c.  480),  he  was 
left  by  Xerxes  with  300,000  men  to  conquer 
Greece.  In  the  following  year,  B.C.  479,  he  was 
defeated  and  probably  slain  in  the  battle  of 
Platsea,  by  the  Greeks  imder  Pausanias.  (Herodo- 
tus, vi.  43-45,  94 ;  vii.  5,  9,  82 ;  viii.  100  et  seq., 
113  et  seq.,  133-44;  ix.  1-4,  12-15,  38-65.) 
MABa>XTK.     See  Mebodacu. 

MABE  AU  DIABLE,  mftr  A  d^'H^iV,  La  (the 
devil's  pool).  A  romance  by  George  Sand 
(1846).  The  story  of  a  young  farmer  who  seeks 
another  wife  for  the  sake  of  his  children,  and 
finds  her  in  a  young  girl  who  accompanies  him 
part  way  on  his  visit  to  a  rich  widow  recom- 
mended to  him  as  a  suitable  spouse.  The  story 
is  written  with  much  charm  and  naturalness. 

MAB^CHAIi,  mA'r&'sh&F,  Pierre  Sylvain 
(1750-1803).  A  French  atheistical  writer,  bom 
in  Paris.  He  studied  law,  but  became  sub-libra- 
rian at  the  College  Mazarin,  and  held  that  position 
until  1784.  His  parody  on  the  Psalms  (1784) 
caused  his  dismissal,  and  four  years  afterwards 
his  Almanach  dee  honndtea  g€n»,  a  sort  of  cal- 
endar, in  which  the  names  of  celebrated  men 
were  substituted  for  those  of  saints,  earned  him 
four  months  in  prison.  His  other  works  include : 
Lea  voyagea  de  Pythagore  (1799)  and  a  Diction- 
naire  dea  atMea  anciena  et  modernea  (1800),  in 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Lalande,  the  astrono- 
mer. 

MABE  CliAUSUM,  mft'rfe  klft'siim  or  ma'rft 
klou^sym  (Lat.,  closed  sea).  A  sea  or  portion  of 
a  sea  under  the  jurisdiction  of  one  nation  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  high  or  open  sea  {mare  libe- 
rum).  The  two  terms  were  used  in  contradis- 
tinction by  Grotius  and  Selden  in  the  seventeenth 
century  as  the  titles  of  their  respective  works, 
the  former  attacking  the  pretensions  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  to  universal  sovereignty,  the  latter 
in  his  reply  (If are  Otei^«MW )  defending  England's 
claim  to  control  over  her  adjacent  waters. 

Though  as  a  doctrine  of  international  law 
mare  clauaum  has  practically  disappeared,  it 
formed  the  text  for  the  controversy  finally  deter- 
mining the  modern  principles  of  maritime  territo- 
rial jurisdiction.  The  conditions  of  the  ancient 
world  rendered  the  sea  "open  to  all  for  depreda- 
tion;" but  during  the  Middle  Ages  the  mari- 
time jKJwers  of  Europe  asserted  a  claim  to  sov- 
ereignty over  those  portions  of  the  high  seas  ad- 
jacent to  their  territories  or  by  any  assumption 
under  their  control.  Thus  England  claimed  do- 
minion over  the  Channel,  North  Sea,  the  seas 
westward  from  Ireland,  and  more  vaguely  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  ocean  north  of  Scotland. 
Denmark  and  Sweden  held  the  Baltic  jointly,  and 
the  former  disputed  England's  pretensions  to  the 
Icelandic  fisheries,  while  Venice  enforced  strict 
sovereignty  over  the  Adriatic.  This  claim  was 
not  deemed  to  carry  with  it  the  right  of  ex- 
cluding the  ships  of  other  nations  from  these 
waters,  and  was  supposed  to  involve  the  duty  of 
keeping  the  seas  free  from  pirates,  though  under 
the  pretext  of  providing  funds  for  this  purpose 
it  was  sought  to  impose  tolls  on  passing  ships, 
and  compensation  was  required  for  fishing  privi- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KABE  CLAUSUM. 


50 


MABENCO. 


leges  within  the  territorial  zone.  But  with  the 
impetus  given  to  commerce  and  navigation  by  the 
discovery  of  the  New  World  and  the  exorbitant 
pretensions  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  whereby  the 
former  not  only  claimed  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the 
.  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  latter  the  Indian  Ocean 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  south  of  Morocco,  but 
sought  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  other  nations 
to  these  waters,  the  commercial  powers  of  the 
seventeenth  century  revolted  against  these  exac- 
tions. The  predatory  voyages  of  Drake  and 
Cavendish  and  the  steadily  growing  trade  of  Hol- 
land were  the  practical  answer  to  these  claims, 
while  the  jurists  of  the  Northern  nations  sought 
theoretical  justification  for  their  acts  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Roman  law  that  the  ocean  was 
incapable  of  appropriation. 

England,  however,  persisted  in  her  claim  of 
sovereignty  over  surrounding  waters.  In  1609 
Grotius  published  his  treatise  on  Mare  lAherum, 
contending  that  the  sea  was  wholly  free  under 
the  principles  of  the  precedents  of  the  civil  law, 
though  in  a  later  work  this  doctrine  was  some- 
what modified  to  permit  the  exception  of  gulfs 
and  marginal  waters  that  could  be  reduced  to 
actual  ownership.  This  has  formed  the  founda- 
tion for  the  modern  rules  of  international  law.  In 
1635  Selden  sought  to  defend  England's  position, 
though  maintaining  that  a  State  could  not  re- 
fuse the  navigation  of  the  seas  to  other  nations. 
The  contest  between  England  and  Holland  over 
the  waterways  which  formed  the  avenues  for 
Dutch  commerce  resulted  in  the  series  of  wars 
terminated  by  the  Treaty  of  Westminster  ( 1674) , 
in  which  England's  sovereignty  was  recognized 
from  Cape  Finisterre  to  Stadland  in  Norway.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  recognition  of  the 
British  flag  within  these  waters  was  strenuously 
maintained,  though  the  practical  value  of  this 
claim  gradually  diminished.  It  proved,  however, 
an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  closing  of  ne- 
gotiations with  the  United  States  in  1803  on  the 
question  of  search,  through  the  imwillingness  of 
the  English  Government  to  surrender  this  right 
within  the  British  Seas.  In  1805  the  Admiralty 
Regulations  directed  that  foreign  ships  be  re- 
quired to  *strike  their  topsails  and  take  in  their 
nag*  within  these  waters.  The  engrossing  de- 
mands of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  however,  nullified 
this  order,  and  since  their  close  nothing  has  been 
heard  of  the  English  claim.  The  pretensions  of 
Denmark  during  the  eighteenth  century  shrank 
to  a  prohibition  of  fishing  within  69  miles  of 
Greenland  and  Iceland,  but  the  difficulty  of  en- 
forcing such  a  rule  resulted  in  its  final  surrender. 

The  only  occasion  upon  which  the  doctrine  of 
mare  clauaum  was  invoked  during  the  nineteenth 
century  was  in  1893  by  the  United  States  in  the 
controversy  with  Great  Britain  over  the  Bering 
Sea  seal  fisheries.    See  Bering  Sea  Contbo\t:bsy. 

Thus,  partly  through  insensible  abandonment, 
but  more  because  of  the  principle  that  maritime 
occupation  must  be  effective  in  order  to  be  valid, 
the  old  doctrine  of  mare  clausum  has  been  cur- 
tailed to  the  assertion  of  territorial  jurisdiction 
over  deeply  indented  gulfs  or  bays  or  other 
waters  wnose  peculiar  conditions  render  feasible 
a  national  control.  In  general,  such  waters  form 
the  only  exception  to  the  limit  of  one  maritime 
league  from  the  shore  as  laid  down  by  Bynker- 
shoek,  though  the  principle  has  been  nullified 
in  practical  effect  by  the  increase  in  range  of 
modern  guns.     Not  only  are  territorial  waters 


open  to  the  commercial  vessels  of  a  foreign  State^ 
but  ships  of  war  have  right  of  'innocent  passage.^ 
Consult  the  authorities  referred  to  under  Inter- 
national Law;  High  Sea;  and  Bering  Sea 
Controversy. 

MABEEy  Loch.  A  beautiful  lake  in  Ross  and 
Cromartyshire,  northwestern  Scotland.  It  is 
about  12  miles  long  by  2  miles  wide,  and  very 
deep.  It  is  studded  with  islets,  and  surrounded 
by  moimtains  3000  feet  high. 

MABEFA,  or  MA'BEO^TIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
MapeQris),  A  salt  lake  in  the  north  of  Egypt, 
south  of  Alexandria,  separated  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  a  narrow  isthmus  of  sand.  Its  mod- 
ern name  is  Birket  or  Behcet  Marydt.  It  is 
some  12  miles  long,  with  width  of  about  the  same 
extent,  but  in  antiquity  it  is  said  to  have  been 
somewhat  larger.  The  surrounding  district  was 
anciently  very  fruitful  and  the  Mareotic  wine 
had  a  high  reputation.  During  the  Middle  Ages 
the  lake  dried  up  because  the  canals  flowing  into 
it  from  the  Nile  were  choked  with  sand.  In 
1801  the  English,  during  the  siege  of  Alexandria, 
cut  through  the  isthmus  west  of  Abukir,  allowed 
the  sea  to  flow  in,  and  destroyed  150  villages. 
Mehemet  Ali  tried  to  reclaim  the  resulting 
salt  marsh  (6-10  feet  deep),  but  with  little 
success.  The  water  of  the  lake  is  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  salt  by  evaporation.  Consult: 
Lane-Poole,  History  of  Egypt  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(London,  1901);  Baedeker,  Aegypten  (4th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1897). 

MABE  ISLAND.  An  island  in  Solano  Coun- 
ty, Cal.,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Bslj  of  San 
Pablo  and  opposite  the  city  of  Vallejo,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  half  a  mile  wide. 
It  has  ferry  connection  with  that  city.  On 
it  is  situated  the  Pacific  station  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  its  yard  being  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  country.  It  has  a  naval  arsenal,  sec- 
tional floating  dock,  an  observatory,  and  a  light- 
house of  the  first  order. 

MABEMMA,  m&-r$m^m&  (corruption  of  Ma- 
rittima^  *situated  on  the  sea').  A  vast  marshy 
region  of  Western  Italy,  extending  along  the  coast 
of  Tuscany,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Cecina  to 
Orbetello,  and  15  to  20  miles  inland  (Map:  Italy, 
F  6).  The  Pontine  marshes  and  the  Campagna 
of  Rome  are  similar  districts.  In  ancient  times 
these  districts  were  well  cultivated  and  inhabited, 
but  the  neglect  of  watercourses  has  broujrfit 
about  their  present  pestiferous  condition.  The 
area  of  land  free  here  from  the  deadly  malaria  is, 
however,  growing  steadily  larger.  The  railway 
line  along  the  coast  of  Tuscany  has  greatly  con- 
tributed to  the  improvement  of  the  district. 

MABENCO,  mA-r^o^A,  Carlo,  Count  ( 1800- 
46).  An  Italian  dramatist,  born  at  Cassolnuovo, 
in  Piedmont.  He  was  the  author  of  some  fifteen 
tragedies,  dealing  with  medicpval  subjects  and 
revealing  the  influence  of  Alfieri,  as  well  as  a 
tendency  to  adopt  the  methods  of  the  historical 
drama  of  Romanticism.  The  most  popular  of 
his  plays  were  Buondclmontc,  Pia  de^  Tolomci, 
and  Amaldo  da  Brescia.  The  last-named  piece 
treats  the  same  subject  as  Niccolini's  play,  but 
is  manifestly  inferior  to  it.  Consult:  the  edition 
of  his  Tragedie  (Turin.  1837-44)  ;  the  Tragedie 
inSdite,  etc.  (Florence,  1856)  ;  Ponte,  L'Arnaldo 
da  Brescia  del  Niccolini  e  di  C,  Marenoo  (Son- 
drio,  1880). 


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KABENCO. 

IffAKENCO,  Leofoldo,  Count  (1831-99).  An 
Italian  poet  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Ceva,  in 
Piedmont.  He  was  the  son  of  Carlo  Marenco, 
and  wrote  his  play  Isabella  Orsini  when  only 
twenty  years  old.  His  plays  include:  Picoarda 
DoncUi  (1869)  ;  8affo  (1880)  ;  Rosalinda {ISS^)  ; 
Lo  spiritismo  (1869);  II  ghiaociaio  di  Monte 
Bianco  (1870) ;  Quel  che  nostro  non  d  (1877) ; 
Giorgio  Qandi  (1882);  and  Bice  (1884).  His 
collected  works  were  published  in  twenty  volumes 
(1884etseq.)  at  Turin. 

MARENGO^  m&-r$o^gd.  A  locality  near  Ales- 
sandria, Italy,  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  Napoleon's  battles,  fought  on  June 
14,  1800,  in  which  the  French  completely  def^ted 
the  Austrians  under  General  Melas.  In  1798  a 
second  coalition  had  been  formed,  by  England, 
Austria,  and  Russia,  against  France.  Napoleon 
was  absent  in  Egypt,  and  the  coalition  had  been 
completely  successful,  though  Russia  soon  de- 
serted the  allies,  the  Czar,  Paul  I.,  believing  him- 
self to  have  been  betrayed  by  Austria.  Mean- 
while on  the  18th  Brumaire  (November  9),  1799, 
Napoleon,  who  had  returned  from  Egypt,  ob- 
tained complete  control  of  the  Grovernment,  and 
a  vigorous  war  was  resolved  upon.  Moreau 
(q.v.)  was  sent  to  Germany,  while  Napoleon 
crossed  the  Great  Saint  Bernard  Pass  into  Italy 
with  about  40,000  men.  Though  he  was  too  late 
to  relieve  Genoa,  where  Mass^na  (q.v.)  had  been 
besieged  a  long  time,  the  Austrian  advance- 
guard  was  defeated  on  June  9,  1800,  at  Monte- 
bello,  and  thereby  Napoleon  barred  farther  Aus- 
trian advance.  On  June  14th  Melas  crossed  the 
Bormida,  assailed  the  French,  and  at  first  was 
successful,  but,  luckily  for  Napoleon,  at  five  in 
the  afternoon  Desaix  (q.v.)  and  Kellermann 
(q.v.)  appeared  with  fresh  troops,  and  swept 
all  before  them,  though  the  former  lost  his  life 
in  the  charge.  The  battle  firmly  established  Na- 
poleon's supremacy  in  France.  General  ^felas 
was  compelled  to  sign  the  Convention  of  Ales- 
sandria, oy  which  he  surrendered  Genoa,  Pied- 
mont, and  the  Milanese,  and  promised  to  with- 
draw the  Austrian  garrisons  from  all  cities  to 
the  west  of  the  Mincio.  Military  critics  have 
generally  maintained  that  the  Marengo  campaign 
was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  conceptions  in  the 
history  of  warfare.    See  Napoleon  I. 

MABENGO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Iowa  County,  Iowa,  31  miles  west  by  north  of 
Iowa  City;  on  the  Iowa  River,  and  on  the  Rock 
Island  System  Railroad  (Map:  Iowa,  Ed).  It 
haa  a  Carnegie  Library,  is  surrounded  by  an  agri- 
cultural and  stock-raising  district,  and  has  some 
manufactures.  Marengo  was  settled  in  1846. 
Population,  in  1900,  2007;  in  1905,  2072. 

MABEll^OLTZ-B'tlXOW,  ma'ren-h^lts  h\V- 
16,  Bebtha  von  (1810-93).  A  German  educator, 
born  in  Brunswick.  Attracted  by  the  ideas  of 
Friedrich  Frobel  (q.v.),  whom  she  met  in  1850, 
she  became  his  disciple  and  devoted  her  life  to 
foimding  kindergartens  in  Germany  and  many 
other  European  countries.  Among  her  writings 
are:  Beitrage  zum  Verst-dndnis  Friedrich  Fro- 
hels  (1876),  and  a  number  of  pamphlets  on  the 
kindergarten,  several  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English.  Consult  Goldschmidt,  "Ber- 
tha von  Marenholtz-Balow,"  No.  239,  in  the 
Sammlung  toiaaenschaftlicher  Voririige  (Ham- 
burg, 1896). 


51  MABEY. 

MABENZIO,  m&rSn'tsI-A,  LuOA  (c.l656- 
99).  An  Italian  composer  of  madrigals,  bom  at 
Coccaglio,  between  Bergamo  and  Brescia.  He 
was  a  chorister  in  the  Brescia  Cathedral  and  re- 
ceived musical  instruction  from  its  organist,  Gi- 
ovanni Contini.  He  began  publication  in  Venice 
(1581),  with  a  collection  of  madrigals  for  five 
voices,  and  he  issued  nine  books  of  the  same 
within  ten  years.  About  1584  he  was  living  in 
Rome,  employed  by  Cardinal  d'Este  as  maestro 
di  cappella,  and  in  1587  he  had  a  post  at  the 
Polish  Court,  but  went  back  to  Rome  (1595), 
and  received  an  appointment  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Pope.  He  composed  a  quantity  of  Church  music, 
but  it  is  on  account  of  the  great  advance  he 
made  upon  his  predecessors  in  the  production  of 
madrigals  that  he  is  chiefly  remembered.  Six 
books  of  them  for  six  voices  were  published  in 
Venice  (1582-1609),  and  he  wrote  others  for 
three,  four,  eight,  and  twelve  voices. 

MABESCH,  ma'resh,  Johann  Anton  (1719- 
91).  A  Russian  musician  of  Bohemian  birth, 
and  the  inventor  of  Russian  'hunting  horn'  mu- 
sic. He  was  born  at  Chotebor,  Bohemia,  and 
studied  music  in  Dresden  and  Berlin.  He  made 
many  mechanical  improvements  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Russian  horn,  an  unbent  brass  tube  of 
conical  shape.  In  1755  he  gave  an  exhibition 
before  the  Imperial  Court,  when  a  band  of  37 
men,  furnished  with  horns  varying  from  7  feet  to 
1  foot  in  length,  produced  concerted  pieces,  each 
being  careful  I  v  drilled  to  sound  his  own  instru- 
ment at  precisely  the  proper  instant.  For  the 
skill  and  dexterity  displayed  in  this  somewhat 
ludicrous  performance,  Maresch  was  richly  re- 
warded by  the  Empress  Elizabeth.  He  died  at 
Saint  Petersburg. 

KABET,  mA'rA',  HuouES  Bebnabd.  A  French 
general  and  statesman.  See  Bassano,  Hugues 
Bebnabd  Mabet,  Duke  of. 

MABETZEK,  mil're-ts&k.  Max  ( 1821-97 ) .  A 
German-American  composer,  director,  and  im- 
presario, born  in  Briinn,  Moravia.  He  studied 
music  there,  and  also  at  Vienna  and  Paris. 
In  1843  he  composed  the  opera  Hamlet,  which 
secured  him  the  place  of  music  director  at  the 
Royal  Opera  in  London.  In  1847  he  went  to  New 
York,  and  in  1848  was  the  musical  director  at  the 
Astor  Place  Opera  House.  In  1849  he  commenced 
his  career  as  an  impresario  of  Italian  opera  in 
New  York,  and  continued  it  until  1878,  subse- 
quently teaching.  He  published  in  1855  Crotchets 
end  Quavers:  or.  Revelations  of  an  Opera  Mana- 
ger in  America;  composed  the  opera  Sleepy  Hol- 
low (1879)  ;  and  wrote  chamber  and  orchestral 
music.    He  died  in  Staten  Island,  N.  Y. 

MABEY,  m&'ri',ETiENNE  Jules  (1830-1904). 
A  French  physiologist,  born  at  Beaune  (COte- 
d'Or).  He  went  to  Paris  when  twenty  years  old 
and  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  in 
18G0,  and  the  same  year  opened  a  course  in 
physiology  at  the  College  de  France.  In  1864 
he  established  a  physiological  laboratory,  and 
in  1867  was  appointed  adjunct  professor  of 
physiology  in  the  College  de  France.  He  be- 
came a  laur^at  of  the  Tnstitut,  and  of  the 
Ecole  de  M^decine.  Ho  beean  to  publish  scien- 
tific tracts  as  early  as  1857.  and  worked  on  the 
experimental  physiology  of  the  heart  and  circula- 
tion, on  animal  heat,  on  the  electric  phenomena 
which  provoke  or  accompany  movements  in  ani- 
mals, and  on  the  action  of  poisons  which  espe- 


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MABEY. 


52 


MABOABET  OF  ANJOU. 


cially  concern  the  nerves  and  muscles.  His 
studies  and  works  on  motion  in  animals,  espe- 
cially on  the  flight  of  birds  and  insects,  have  given 
him  a  wide  reputation,  since  he  devised  new 
methods  of  recording  the  motions  of  the  wings. 
His  works  in  this  direction  are:  Du  mouvement 
dans  les  fonctions  de  la  me  (1869)  ;  M^moire  sur 
le  vol  des  insectes  et  des  oiseauw  (1872)  ;  Animal 
Mechanism :  A  Treatise  on  Terrestrial  and  Aerial 
Locomotion  (Paris,  1874;  New  York,  1879); 
Movement  (1895). 

MABFO^IO.  The  popular  name  of  a  colos- 
sal statue  of  a  river  god,  holding  a  shell,  now  in 
the  Capitoline  Museum  in  Rome.  The  statue 
probably  represents  the  Rhine  and  received  its 
name  from  its  position  in  the  Forum  of  Mars 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  at  one  time  cus- 
tomary to  afiix  to  this  statue  replies  to  the  gibes 
and  satirical  notices  posted  on  the  Pasquino 
(q.v.). 

MABGADAKT^  mar-gft-dant',  Simon.  The 
real  name  of  the  German  humanist  Simon  Lem- 
nius  (q.v.). 

MAB^GABET  (1353-1412).  Queen  of  Den- 
mark, Norway,  and  Sweden.  She  was  the  second 
daughter  of  Valdemar  IV.,  King  of  Denmark, 
and  the  wife  of  Haakon  VI.,  King  of  Norway, 
whom  she  married  in  1363.  On  the  death  of  her 
father  without  direct  male  heirs,  the  Danish  no- 
bles, after  an  interregnum,  offered  the  crown  in 
1376  to  Margaret  and  her  husband  in  trust  for 
their  infant  son  Olaf.  By  the  death  of  Haakon  in 
1380  Margaret  became  sole  guardian  of  the  young 
Prince,  who  died  in  1387.  Such  was  the  skill  with 
which  she  had  conducted  the  Grovernment  during 
her  sole  regency  that  the  estates  of  both  kingdoms 
concurred  in  electing  her  as  their  joint  sovereign. 
With  the  concurrence  of  her  subjects,  she  nomi- 
nated her  grand-nephew,  Eric  of  Pomerania,  her 
successor;  and  although,  owing  to  Eric's  infancy 
a.t  the  time,  and  his  subsequent  incapacity,  the 
real  power  rested  in  the  hands  of  Margaret,  she 
oontented  herself  from  that  time  with  the  title 
of  *'Margaret,  by  the  grace  of  God,  daughter  of 
Valdemar,  King  of  Denmark."  At  the  moment  that 
Margaret  was  cementing  the  union  of  Norway 
■and  Denmark,  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Sweden 
opened  the  way  for  a  further  extension  of  her 
power.  The  Swedish  King,  Albert  of  Mecklen- 
burg, had  so  thoroughly  alienated  the  affections 
of  his  subjects  that  the  nobles,  declaring  the 
throne  vacant,  offered  to  acknowledge  Margaret 
as  their  ruler.  The  Queen  lost  no  time  in  sending 
an  army  into  Sweden  to  support  her  pretensions, 
and  defeated  the  King's  German  troops  at  Fal- 
koping  in  1389,  where  Albert  fell  into  her  hands. 
The  King  remained  in  prison  till  1395,  during 
which  time  Margaret  continued  the  work  of  sub- 
jugating Sweden.  In  1397  she  effected  the  so- 
called  Union  of  Kalmar,  by  which  the  crowns  of 
the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  were  henceforth 
to  remain  united.  Eric,  who  was  in  his  sixteenth 
year,  was  invested  with  the  triple  dignity.  Mar- 
garet continued  to  exert  great  influence  in  the 
Government.  She  died  toward  the  close  of  1412, 
while  she  was  attempting  to  bring  about  peace 
between  Eric  and  the  Duke  of  Holstein.  Con- 
sult Ott^,  Scandinavian  History  (London,  1874). 

KABGABET,  or  MABGTJEBITE,  mftr'- 
ffret  (variously  called  of  ANOOULftME,  op  Va- 
ix)i8,  OF  Alenqon,  and  of  Navarre)  (1492- 
1649).    A  daughter  of  Charles  of  Orleans,  Duke 


of  Angoul^me,  sister  of  King  Francis  I.  of 
France.  She  was  bom  in  Angoultoie,  April  11, 
1492.  She  married  (1509)  the  Duke  d'Alencon, 
and  later  (1527)  Henri  d'Albret,  who  became 
King  of  Navarre.  His  small  dominions  she 
governed  after  his  death  (1544).  Their  daugh- 
ter, Jeanne  d'Albret,  was  mother  of  Henry  of 
Navarre  (Henry  IV.  of  France).  Margaret  was 
active  in  politics,  in  religious  reform,  and  in 
literature.  She  favored  religious  liberty  rather 
than  Protestantism,  and  was  for  a  time  an  effect- 
ual defender  and  patron  of  advocates  of  reform  of 
such  varied  complexion  as  Rabelais,  Desp^riers, 
Marot,  Dolet,  and  many  lesser  men  of  letters 
and  learning.  Her  little  courts  at  N^rac  and 
at  Pau,  for  a  time  the  most  brilliant  intel- 
lectually in  Europe,  roused  seemingly  ground- 
less slander.  Her  literary  remains  comprise: 
Letters  (1842-43)  ;  a  collection  of  poems,  largely 
dramatic  and  religious,  poetically  called  Mar- 
guerites de  la  Marguerite  (which  was  first 
printed  at  Paris,  1873)  ;  and  other  poems  dis- 
covered in  the  National  Library  in  1895  and  pub- 
lished as  Derni^res  poesies  (Paris,  1896).  Until 
recently  Margaret  of  Navarre  was  supposed  to  be 
the  author  of  the  famous  collection  of  tales  called 
the  Heptameron  (q.v.),  but  this  is  now  generally 
regarded  as  the  work  of  various  hands.  Though 
apparently  of  no  great  personal  beauty,  she 
combined  in  singular  measure  sweetness  oif  dis- 
position with  intellectual  strength,  and  prob- 
ably contributed  more  to  the  renaissance  of  learn- 
ing in  France  than  did  Francis  himself.  Consult : 
Brant()me,  Les  dames  illustres,  vol.  vi.  (Paris, 
1668)  ;  Bayle,  Dictionnaire  historique  (ib.,  1820- 
24)  ;  Leroux  de  Lincy,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  lea 
ouvrages  de  Marguerite  d'AngouMme  (ib.,  1853)  ; 
La  Ferrifere,  Le  livre  de  d^penses  de  la  reine  de 
Navarre  (ib..  1862)  ;  Comtesse  d'Haussonville, 
Marguerite  de  Vatois  (ib.,  1870)  ;  Lotheissen, 
Konigin  Margarete  von  Navarra  (Berlin,  1885)  ; 
and  Freer,  The  Life  of  Marguerite  d''AngouUme 
(London,  1895). 

MABGABET,  Saint  (c.I046-93).  A  queen  of 
Scotland.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Edward  the 
Exile,  a  son  of  Edmund  Ironside,  and  was  born, 
according  to  tradition,  in  Himgary.  In  1067  she 
came  to  Scotland  with  her  brother  Edgar  Athe- 
ling  (q.v.),  and  soon  after  became  the  wife  of 
King  Malcolm  III.  She  appears  in  the  chronicles 
as  a  woman  of  almost  angelic  character  and 
saintly  virtues,  and  numerous  instances  are  re- 
corded of  her  works  of  piety  and  unceasing  de- 
votion to  the  cause  of  the  Church.  She  exercised 
a  refining  influence  on  the  rough  manners  of  the 
Scottish  Court  by  the  example  of  her  stainless 
life,  and  advanced  the  welfare  of  her  people  by 
her  wide  beneficence  to  the  crippled,  the  orphaned, 
and  the  poor.  She  died  November  16,  1093,  after 
receiving  news  of  the  death  of  her  husband  and 
her  eldest  son  in  a  border  raid.  She  was  canon- 
ized by  Pope  Innocent  IV.  in  1250. 

MABGABET  OP  ANJOU,  a^'zhSS'  (1430 
82).  Queen  Consort  of  Henry  VI.  of  England. 
She  was  born  on  March  23,  1430,  and  was  the 
daughter  of  Ren^  the  Good  of  An  jou,  titular  King 
of  Naples.  When  in  1439  the  peace  party  in  Eng- 
land, headed  by  Cardinal  Beaufort,  came  into 
power,  they  sought  to  end  the  Hundred  Years' 
War,  and  as  a  step  in  this  direction  looked 
around  for  a  suitable  French  princess  as  a  xi^ife 
for  the  young  Henry  VI.   Their  choice  fell  upon 


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HABOABET  OF  AN JOU.  58 

Margaret,  though  the  powerful  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter opposed  the  match.  In  1445  the  marriage  took 
place,  and  when  in  1447  the  Duke  of  Gloucester 
fell,  Margaret  obtained  complete  control  over  the 
weak  King  and  the  whole  Government.  She  be- 
came, however,  rapidly  unpopular,  the  loss  of  the 
English  possessions  in  France  being  charged 
against  her.  When  in  1453  a  son  was  bom  to  her, 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  gave  up  all  hope  of  suc- 
ceeding peacefully  to  the  crown,  and  in  1455  he 
led  the  Yorkists  in  arms  against  the  House  of 
Lancaster,  inaugurating  the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 
Margaret  became  leader  of  the  Lancastrians.  Li 
1460  she  was  victorious  at  Wakefield,  where  the 
Duke   of  York  fell,  but  the  battle  of  Towton 

(q.v.)  in  1461  was  disastrous  to  the  Lancastrian 
cause.  In  1464  Margaret  made  an  attempt  to 
restore  the  fortunes  of  her  house  and  invaded 
England,  but  her  adherents  were  defeated  at 
Hexham,  after  which  she  lived  for  some  years 
with  her  father.  In  1470  Warwick  (q.v.)  joined 
the  Lancastrians  and  restored  Henry  VI.  to 
the  throne,  but  in  1471  Edward  IV.  won  a  de- 
cisive victory  at  Bamet,  and  Henry  was  recap- 
tured, and  spent  the  remaining  month  and  a 
half  of  his  life  in  the  Tower.  Meanwhile  Mar- 
garet had  landed  in  England,  but  was  defeated 
and  taken  at  Tewkesbury  in  1471,  while  her' son 
lost  his  life  on  the  battlefield.  She  remained  in 
captivity  for  about  five  years,  till  Louis  XI.  re- 
deemed her  for  50,000  crowns.  She  then  retired 
to  France,  and  died  at  the  Chateau  of  Dampierre, 
near  Saumier,  in  Anjou,  on  August  15,  1482. 
Consult:   Ramsay,  Lancaster  and  York,  vol.  ii. 

(Oxford,  1892)  ;  Gairdner*s  introduction  to  the 
Past  on  Letters  (London,  1872-75).  See  Roses, 
Wabs  of  the,  and  Henby  VI. 

MABGABET  OF  AUSTBIA  (1480-1530). 
A  daughter  of  Maximilian  I.  of  Austria  and  of 
Mary  of  Burgundy.  She  was  bom  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  brought  up  at  the  French  Court.  Affi- 
anced to  the  Dauphin,  afterwards  Charles  VIII., 
by  the  Treaty  of  Arras  ( 1482) ,  she  was  sent  back 
in  1491  by  the  King,  who  married  Anne  of  Brit- 
tany. About  five  years  later  she  married  John, 
Prince  of  Asturias,  heir  to  the  Spanish  throne, 
but  he  died  the  next  year.  In  1501  she  became 
the  wife  of  Philibert,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  died 
three  years  later.  In  1507  her  father  made  her 
Regent  of  the  Netherlands.  In  this  office  she  dis- 
played great  ability,  carried  on  the  policy  of  cen- 
tralization, repressed  heresy,  but  watched  also 
over  the  material  welfare  of  the  country.  She 
participated  in  the  conference  at  Cambrai  in 
1508,  and  negotiated  with  Louise  of  Savoy  the 
Peace  of  Cambrai  (1529),  called  the  Paix  des 
Dames  (Ladies'  Peace). 

ICABGABET  OF  FLANDEBS,  or,  of  Con- 
st antit^ople  (c.  1200-79).  0)unte8s  of  Flanders 
and  Hainault.  She  was  the  younger  daughter  of 
Baldwin  IX.,  Coimt  of  Flanders  and  Hainault, 
who  died  without  male  issue,  the  succession  pass- 
ing to  her  elder  sister,  Jeanne.  Margaret  mar- 
ried Bouchard  d'Avesnes,  bailiff  of  Hainault,  in 
opposition  to  her  sister's  wishes,  and  after  a 
number  of  years  the  marriage  was  annulled,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  Bouchard  in  early  life  had 
taken  the  lower  orders  of  priesthood.  Bouchard 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Jeanne  and  put  to  death. 
In  1223  Margaret  married  William  of  Dampierre, 
and  between  the  children  of  the  two  marriages 
bitter  strife  ensued  for  the  succession  to  the 


HABOABET  OF  VALOI& 


lordship  over  the  two  counties,  which  Margaret 
had  attEkined  in  1244,  on  the  death  of  her  sister. 
The  dispute  was  referred  to  the  arbitrament  of 
Louis  IX.  of  France,  who  decided  that  after  the 
death  of  Margaret  Hainault  should  go  to  the  sons 
of  d'Avesnes,  while  the  children  of  the  second 
marriage  were  to  receive  Flanders.  Margaret's 
reign  of  thirty-five  years  seems  to  have  been  one 
of  prosperity  for  her  subjects. 

MABGABET  OF  PAB'ICA  (152286). 
Regent  of  the  Netherlands.  She  was  an  illegiti- 
mate daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and 
was  bom  and  brought  up  in  Brussels.  In  1536 
she  married  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  Duke  of 
Florence,  who  was  murdered  in  1537;  and  in 
1538  Ottavio  Farnese,  who  became  Duke  of  Farma 
and  Piacenza.  She  was  appointed  by  Philip  II. 
in  1559  to  govern  the  Netherlands  with  Granvella 
(q.v.)  as  her  chief  adviser.  Though  well  in- 
clined personally  to  the  people  of  the  Netherlands 
and  their  liberties,  she  yielded  readily  to  the 
fanatic  orders  of  Philip  and  the  counsels  of 
Granvella.  The  attempt  to  introduce  the  Inquisi- 
tion into  the  country  brought  about  the  insurrec- 
tion of  1566,  which  was  the  beginning  of  the  long 
struggle  for  independence  in  the  Netherlands.  In 
1567  Alva  (q.v.)  was  sent  to  crush  out  all  oppo- 
sition with  halter  and  sword,  and  Margaret  re- 
signed her  office.  She  was  a  gifted  woman,  mas- 
culine in  stature  and  in  mind,  and  liberal  in 
opinions. 

MABGABET  OF  VALOIS,  v&'lwa^  or  of 
France  (1553-1615).  A  French  princess,  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  II.  of  France  and  Catharine  de' 
Medici,  and  wife  of  Henry  IV.  She  was  born 
at  Saint-Germain-en-Laye,  May  14,  1553,  and 
received  an  excellent  education.  Her  marriage  to 
Henry  of  Navarre  at  Paris  on  August  18,  1572, 
was  intended  to  be  a  bond  of  perpetual  reconcilia- 
tion between  Catholics  and  Huguenots,  but  was 
followed  after  a  week  by  the  massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew.  With  no  love  lost  on  either  side, 
husband  and  wife,  during  Henry's  forced  sojourn 
at  the  French  Court,  lived  in  good-natured  tolera- 
tion of  each  other's  transgressions.  After  the 
flight  of  Henry  of  Navarre  in  February,  1576,  she 
was  detained  for  some  time  as  a  hostage,  but  in 
1578  reioined  her  husband  at  Pau,  in  Gascony. 
There  she  remained  for  four  years  and  then  re- 
turned to  Paris.  Her  intrigues  at  CJourt  aroused 
the  resentment  of  Henry  III.,  who  subjected  her 
to  repeated  humiliations,  imprisoned  her,  and 
finally  destroyed  her  reputation  entirely  by  a 
public  investigation  into  her  conduct  (1583). 
From  1587  to  1605  she  lived  at  the  Chateau 
of  Usson  in  Auvergne,  and  there  wrote  her 
M Moires,  which  are  frank  and  light-hearted 
in  tone,  and  evince  but  an  elementary  grasp 
on  certain  moral  truths.  In  1599,  after 
the  death  of  Gabriel le  d'Estr^s,  the  favor- 
ite of  Henry  IV.,  whom  Margaret  detested,  she 
consented  to  a  divorce  from  the  King,  who  for  a 
number  of  years  had  been  desirous  of  an  heir.  In 
1606  she  returned  to  Paris,  where  she  lived  on 
the  best  of  terms  with  Henry,  attending  the  coro- 
nation of  her  successor,  Maria  de'  Medici,  in 
1610.  Her  hdtel  in  the  Rue  de  Seine  was  a  centre 
for  Paris  learning  and  fashion  until  her  death. 
With  her  the  House  of  Valois  became  extinct. 
Her  J/dmotrcs,  Poesies,  and  Lettres  were  published 
by  Guessard  (Paris,  1842).  Consult  Saint-Poncy, 
Histoire  de  Margiierite  de  Valois  (Paris,  1887) ; 
Merki,  La  reine  Margot  (Paris,  1905). 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABOABET  TTJDOB. 


MAB'GABET  TU^DOB  (1480-1541).  The 
wife  of  the  Scottish  King  James  IV.  (q.v.).  She 
was  born  at  Westminster,  November  29,  1489, 
the  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  by  Elizabeth  oit  York. 
She  was  married  after  considerable  negotiation 
to  King  James  IV.  of  Scotland  on  August  8, 
1503.  She  played  a  considerable  rOle  in  the 
shifting  politics  of  her  time,  especially  after  the 
death  of  her  husband  in  1513,  but  her  importance 
to  posterity  consists  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  from 
her  James  VI.  of  Scotland  derived  his  claims 
to  the  English  throne,  which  he  ascended  as 
James  I.  of  England  in  1603. 

MABGAB^C  ACID  (from  Lat.  margarita, 
from  Gk.  ftapyaplnis,  margarita,  pearl,  from 
fuipyapotf  margaroa,  pearl-oyster;  so  called  from 
being  deposited  as  pearly  scales  during  cool- 
ing m  alcohol  in  which  it  has  been  dissolved), 
CiJlajCOOH.  An  artificial  solid  fatty  acid,  sim- 
ilar to  stearic  acid  and  melting  at  about  60°  C. 
It  is  said  to  occur  in  adipocere.  An  acid  having 
the  same  molecular  composition  as  margaric  acid, 
but  melting  at  a  somewhat  lower  temperature 
(55°  C),  has  been  found  in  the  seeds  of  Datura 
Stramonium,  Linn6,  and  is  therefore  named 
daturio  acid.  The  name  margaric  acid  was  for- 
merly applied  to  a  mixture  of  palmitic  and 
stearic  acids  that  occurs  in  certain  natural  prod- 
ucts. The  fact  that  this  substance  was  a  mix- 
ture, and  not  a  dcfinitcf  chemical  compound,  was 
demonstrated  by  Heintz. 

MABGABITA,  m&r'g&re^t&.  An  island  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea  close  to  the  coast  of  Venezuela, 
to  which  country  it  belongs.  From  1863  to  1881, 
and  again  from  1901  to  1904,  it  constituted  the 
State  of  Nueva  Esparta ;  it  forms  now  a  part  of 
the  Federal  District  (Map:  Venezuela,  El).  It 
is  about  45  miles  long  and  from  5  to  20  miles 
broad,  with  an  area  of  444  square  miles.  It  con- 
sists of  two  mountain  ranges,  one  of  them  over 
4000  feet  high,  united  by  a  low  isthmus.  There 
is  a  little  agriculture  and  cattle-raising,  but  the 
principal  industries  are  fisheries  and  the  produc- 
tion of  salt.  Formerly  there  were  valuable  pearl 
fisheries,  whence  the  island  received  its  name, 
which  means  "pearl."  The  population  is  about 
40,000,  mostly  civilized  Indians.  The  island  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498.  Principal  towns, 
Asunci6n  and  Pampatar. 

MAB^GABITE  (OF.  marguerite,  Fr.  mar- 
garitCy  marguerite,  pearl,  from  Lat.  margarita, 
pearl),  or  Peabl  Mica.  A  hydrated  calcium- 
aluminum  silicate,  closely  related  to  the  mica 
group  and  crystallizing  in  the  monoclinic  system. 
It  is  of  a  light  gray,  red,  or  yellow  color,  and  is 
found  associated  with  corundum,  especially  in  the 
emery  deposits  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  of 
the  Grecian  Archipelago;  also  in  Chester,  Mass., 
Unionville.  Pa.,  and  localities  in  North  Carolina.- 

MABGABITONE  D'ABEZZO,  mftr'gft  r^ 
to'nA  d&-r6'ts6  (c.1236-89).  The  earliest  promi- 
nent Tuscan  painter  after  Giunta  Pisano.  He 
was  a  native  of  Arezzo,  Italy.  His  frescoes  in 
San  Clemente  at  Arezzo  have  perished,  but  his 
Madonna  and  his  Crucifix  at  San  Francesco,  his 
altar-piece  at  the  National  Gallery,  and  his  vari- 
ous portraits  of  Saint  Francis,  show  crude  color, 
childish  drawing,  and  lack  of  life;  he  was  a 
representative  of  the  end  of  the  Italo-Byzantine 
decline  rather  than  a  herald  of  the  Giottesque 
revival.  Portraits  of  Saint  Francis  were  his 
favorite  theme;  several  remain,  both  signed  and 


54  MABOHBBITA. 

unsigned,  in  the  Vatican,  at  Siena,  Florence^ 
Pisa,  Castiglione,  and  elsewhere.  Vasari's  con- 
tention that  he  excelled  as  a  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect is  open  to  doubt,  as  the  works  he  attributes 
to  him — the  Church  of  San  Ciriaco  at  Ancona 
and  the  monument  of  Gregory  X.  at  Arezzo— are 
not  of  his  age  or  manner. 

MAB/GATE.  A  popular  watering  place  in 
the  Isle  of  Thanet,  Kent,  England,  70  miles  east- 
southeast  of  London  (Map:  England,  H  5).  It 
has  important  fisheries,  but  is  more  noted  for  all 
the  usual  resources  of  a  watering  place,  theatre, 
baths,  libraries,  zoological  gardens,  esplanade, 
etc.  It  is  the  great  resort  for  Londoners.  The 
shore,  covered  with  fine,  firm  sand,  affords  good 
sea-bathing,  and  there  are  many  pleasant  walks 
along  the  sands  and  cliffs,  and  inland.  The  town 
owns  its  water  supply.  Its  ancient  name  was^ 
Meregate — ^the  gate  to  the  sea.  Its  interesting 
parish  church  was  founded  in  1050.  Population, 
m  1891,  18,600;  in  1901,  23,000. 

MABOATE  FISH,  or  Mabgabet  Grunt.  A 
food  fish  {Hcsmulon  album),  one  of  the  grunts 
or  roncos  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  southward, 
where  it  is  common  in  water  of  moderate  depth; 
and  reaches  a  length  of  two  feet  or  more.  It  ia 
white,  with  olive-colored  back  and  fins  and  in- 
distinct spots;  the  mouth  is  orange.  In  some 
places  no  one  will  eat  it,  but  at  Pensacola  and 
Key  West,  and  in  Nassau  and  other  parts  of  the 
British  West  Indies,  it  is  commonly  sold  in  the 
markets,  frequently  imder  the  name  *porgy.* 

MABGAY,  m&r^g&  (Brazilian  name).  A  wild 
cat  {Felia  tigrina)  of  the  forested  parts  of  tropi- 
cal America.  The  animal  is  so  variable  in  size, 
color,  and  markings  that  several  species  have 
been  described  from  its  varieties.  It  seems  to 
differ  little  from  cats  generally  in  its  habits,  and 
occasionally  is  domesticated. 

MABGELAN,  n^r'ge-lan^  Old  and  New. 
Two  towns  in  the  Territory  of  Ferghana,  Rus- 
sian Turkestan  (Map:  Asia,  Central,  Ml).  Old 
Margelan,  about  40  miles  east  of  Khokand,  is 
an  Asiatic  city,  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  con- 
taining mosques  and  bazaars,  etc.  Population, 
in  1897,  36,592,  mostly  Sarts,  Tajiks,  and  Jews. 
New  Margelan,  situated  about  10  miles  south  of 
the  old  town,  is  the  seat  of  the  administration  of 
the  Territory,  and  had  in  1897  a  population  of 
8977,  mostly  Russians. 

MABGGBAFE,  mftr^grftf,  Hermann  (1809- 
64 ) .  A  German  poet  and  humorous  author.  He 
was  born  at  ZUllichau;  studied  at  Berlin,  and, 
devoting  himself  to  journalism,  lived  and  wrote 
in  Leipzig,  Munich,  Aujifsburg,  and  Frankfort, 
finally  settling  in  Leipzig  (1853)  as  editor  of 
the  Blatter  fiir  literarische  Unterhaltung.  He 
wrote  the  critical  essay,  Deutachlands  jUngste 
Litteratur  und  Kulturepoche  (1839)  ;  several 
plays;  humorous  novels,  including  Justus  und 
Chn/sostomuSy  Oehriider  Pech  (1840),  Johannes 
Mackel  (1841),  and  Fritz  Beutel  (1855);  a  bi- 
ography of  Ernst  Schulze  (Leipzig,  1855)  ;  FIchil- 
lets  und  Komera  Freundachaftahund  (1859); 
Oedichte  (1857)  ;  and  Balladenchronik  (1862). 

MABGHEBITA  (Maria  Maboherita  Te- 
resa GiovANNA  DE  Savoia)  (1851 — ).  Queen 
Dowager  of  Italy,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Genoa.  She  was  married  in  1868  to 
her  cousin,  Humbert,  the  Prince  Royal,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  as  King 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XABGHEBITA. 


55 


HABHEINEKX. 


of  Italy,  January  9,  1878,  and  who  was  assas- 
sinated at  Monza  on  July  29,  1900.  Her  charm 
of  manner  and  sweetness  of  disposition  made 
her  extremely  popular  in  Italy. 

MABGOT  DEAI<S  (OF.  margine,  from  Lat. 
§nargo,  boundary).  Transactions  in  which  one 
person,  in  the  character  of  purchaser,  puts  up 
collateral  security  for  the  performance  of  his 
agreement  to  purchase.  At  tmies,  they  are  legal 
transactions.  For  example,  a  person  employs  a 
broker  to  purchase  stock  or  other  property  for 
him.  Not  naving  the  money  with  which  to  pay 
the  price,  the  broker  advances  it,  upon  receiving 
from  the  buyer  (his  principal)  the  deposit  of  a 
specified  sum  and  an  agreement  that  he  (the 
broker)  may  sell  the  stock  in  case  it  depreciates 
80  that  the  stock  and  margin  are  no  longer  ample 
security  for  his  advance.     Such  a  transaction  is 

Serfectly  valid  and  enforceable  at  common  law. 
y  constitutional  or  statutory  provisions  in  some 
of  our  States,  however,  even  margin  deals  of  that 
sort  have  been  put  under  the  ban  and  are  void. 
In  such  jurisdictions  the  buyer  may  repudiate 
the  agreement  and  recover  from  the  broker  any 
moneys  put  into  his  hands  as  a  margin. 

The  term  is  more  frequently  applied  to  con- 
tracts entered  into,  and  deposits  made,  to  dis- 
guise gambling  transactions  m  stocks  or  in  prop- 
erty sold  for  future  delivery.  Deals  of  this  sort 
are  illegal  and  void  at  common  law.  Not  only 
is  the  contract  itself  unenforceable,  but  nego- 
tiable paper  or  other  securities  given  as  a  part 
of  the  transactions  are  void,  and  property  de- 
posited as  a  margin  may  be  recovered.  Margin 
deals,  which  are  in  reality  gambling  transac- 
tions, are  punishable  in  some  of  our  States  as 
criminal  offenses.  Consult :  Mechem,  The  Law  of 
Agency  (Chicago,  1889)  ;  CJonstitution  of  Cali- 
fornia, Art.  4,  §  26;  Sheeby  V8,  Shim,  103  Cal. 
Rep.,  p.  325,  or  37  Pac.  Rep.,  p.  393  ( 1894) ;  Dos 
Passos,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Stock  Brokers 
and  Stock  Exchanges  (2d  ed..  New  York,  1905). 

MABGITES,  mllr-ji't€z.  A  mock-heroic  epic, 
ascribed  to  Homer  by  Aristotle,  and  by  him  con- 
sidered to  be  the  germ  of  comedy.  It  has  also 
been  attributed  to  Pogres  of  Halicarnassus,  the 
brother  of  Queen  Artemisia.  It  describes  the  va- 
rious predicaments  in  which  Margites,  a  foolish 
young  fellow,  who  knew  many  things  badly,  was 
placed. 

MABOOUOUTH,  mUT-gG^X-T^t,  David  Sam- 
uel ( 1868— ) .  An  English  Arabic  scholar,  bom 
in  London.  He  studied  at  Winchester  and  New 
College,  Oxford,  was  fellow  of  New  College 
( 1881),  and  in  1889  became  Laudian  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Oxford.  He  also  held  the  post  of  as- 
sistant keeper  of  Oriental  books  and  manuscripts 
in  the  British  Museimi.  He  wrote :  Analecta  Ori- 
entalia  ad  Poeticarti  Aristoteleam  ( 1888) ;  Jepheth 
Ben  EH,  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Daniel 
(1889)  ;  Arabic  Papyri  of  the  Bodleian  Library 
(1893);  Chrestomathia  Baidawiana  (1894); 
Letters  of  Abul  *Ala  (1898) ;  Lines  of  Defense  of 
the  Biblical  Revelation  (19()0) ;  Mohammed  and 
the  Rise  of  Islam  (1905). 

KABGBAVE  (Ger.  Afarfc^raf,  border-count). 
In  early  mediceval  times  the  military  chieftains 
or  guardians  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  defense 
of  the  border,  with  the  government  over  such 
frontier  provinces,  known  as  marks  or  marches. 
In  Continental  Europe  these  margraves  at  first 
held  their  offices  only  during  life,  but  as  they 


became  more  independent  and  powerful,  their 
positions  and  titles  became  vested  in  the  same 
line,  and  they  were  established  as  a  powerful 
hereditary  order  of  nobility.  In  England  the 
lords  or  wardens  of  the  marches  were  appointed 
to  guard  the  frontiers  of  Wales  and  Scotland,  and 
the  office  was  long  regarded  as  special  or  tem- 
porary; the  term  marquis  was  not  applied  to 
the  office  imtil  1385.     See  Gbaf;  Mabk;  Mab- 

QUIS. 

MABGBY,  mar'gry,  Pierre  (1818-94).  A 
French  historian,  bom  at  Paris.  He  became  as 
a  young  man  adjimct  curator  of  the  archives 
of  the  department  of  the  Minister  of  Ma- 
rine, and  in  1842  was  intrusted  with  the 
task  of  studying  the  colonial  history  of  France 
in  America.  Among  his  works  are:  La  na- 
vigation du  Mississippi  et  les  pr4curseurs  de 
Fulton  aum  Etats-Unis  (1859);  Les  Normands 
dans  les  valUes  de  VOhio  et  du  Mississippi 
(1860)  ;  Les  navigateurs  frangais  et  la  r&oolu- 
tion  maritime  du  XlVdme  au  XVIdme  siicle 
(1867);  Relations  et  m^moires  pour  servir  d 
rhistoire  de  la  France  dans  les  pays  d*outre  mer 
(1867) ;  Les  seigneurs  de  la  Martinique  (1879)  ; 
D^couvertes  et  ^tablissements  des  Frangais  dans 
l*Am4rique  septentrionale  (1879-88);  and  Le 
€0nqu4rant  des  ties  Canaries  (1880).  He  edited 
Les  souvenirs  d*un  homme  de  lettres,  based  on 
Augustin  JaPs  manuscripts   (1877). 

MABGTTEBITE.  A  garden  plant.  See 
Chrysanthemum. 

MARGUEBITE,  or  MARGARET.  The  prin- 
cipal female  character  in  Goethe's  Faust, 

MARGUERITTE,  mSr'g'-r^t',  Paul  ( I860—) , 
and  Victor  (1867 — ),  French  novelists,  brothers, 
sons  of  a  general  who  fell  at  Sedan,  born  in  Alge- 
ria. Paul  made  his  debut  as  a  naturalist  writer 
but  has  turned  more  and  more  towards  introspec- 
tion and  problems  of  individual  and  natural  mor- 
ality. Alone  he  wrote:  Tous  quatre  (1885)  ;  La 
confession  posthume  (1886);  Maison  ouverte 
(1887) ;  Pascal  Gefosse  (1887)  ;  Jours  d'^preuve 
(1889)  ;  Amants  (1890)  ;  Ma  grande  (1893) ;  La 
tourmente  (1894);  Uessor  (1896).  Victor  had 
published  some  verse,  and  the  novels  Le  camaval 
de  Nice  { 1897 )  and  Poum  { 1897 ) ,  when  he  entered 
into  one  of  the  most  notable  collaborations  in 
literary  history  with  his  brother.  Together  they 
produced  a  series  of  romances  dealing  with  the 
Franco-German  War,  including  Le  d^sastre 
( 1898) ,  Les  tronqons  du  glaive  ( 1900) ,  Les  braves 
gens  (1901),  and  La  commune  (1904).  Their 
views  on  the  social  position  of  women  are  em- 
bodied in  Femmes  nouvelles  (1899),  Les  deux 
vies  ( 1902),  and  Le  prisme  (1905),  the  second  of 
which  was  dramatized  with  great  success  as  La 
caour  et  la  loi  ( 1905).  They  also  published  a  pop- 
ular history  of  the  war  with  Germany  ( 1903 ) ,  and 
a  volume  of  miscellaneous  essays,  Quelques  Id^es 
(1905).  Paul  Margueritte  was  one  of  the  origi- 
nal members  of  the  Acad^mie  Goncourt.  Con- 
sult Pilon,  Paul  et  Victor  Margueritte  (Paris, 
1905). 

KARHEINEKE^  mftr-hl'ne-ke,  Phiupp  Kon-  . 
RAD    (17801846).     A   German  theologian.     He 
was  bom  at  Hildesheim,  May  1,  1780;  educated 
at  G5ttingen;  became  repetent  there  1804;  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  theology  at  Heidelberg,  , 
1805;    professor   ordinary   there    1809;    and   in 
1811  was  called  to  the  same  position  at  Berlin^ 
and  chosen  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Trinity, 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MABHEINBKE.  56 

where  he  became  a  colleague  of  Schleiermacher. 
His  studies  lav  principally  in  the  direction  of 
Christian  symbolism  and  dogmatics.  To  the 
former  he  devoted  his  Chriatliche  Symbolik 
(1810-14)  and  his  Institutiones  Symholicce 
( 1812) ;  to  the  latter,  his  Orundlehren  der  christ- 
lichen  Dogmatik  (1819).  His  method  of  treat- 
ment is  historical  rather  than  dogmatic  and  his 
position  entirely  independent.  The  positive  form 
of  his  theology  may  be  found  in  his  Enttourf  der 
praktischen  Theologie  (1837).  He  wrote  many 
books  besides  those  named,  including  the  impor- 
tant Geschiohte  der  deutschen  Reformation 
(1816)  and  Die  Reformation,  ihre  Entstehung 
und  Verbreitung  in  Deut8chlandf  dem  deutschen 
Volke  erzahlt  (1846).  He  died  in  Berlin,  May 
31,  1846.  His  Theologische  Vorleaungen  appeared 
posthumously  (1847-49),  with  biographical 
sketch.  Consult  Weber,  Le  syatHne  dogmatique 
de  Marheineke  (Strassburg,  1867). 

MABIA  CHBISTINA,  krls-tS^nA  (1806-78). 
Queen  of  Spain.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Francis 
I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  was  bom  in 
Naples,  April  27,  1806.  In  1829  she  became  the 
fourth  wife  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain.  In  1830 
Ferdinand  restored  the  law  by  which,  in  default 
of  male  issue,  the  right  of  inheritance  was  given 
to  females.  In  October  of  that  year  the  Queen 
gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  Isabella.  The  Spanish 
Liberals  gladly  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Queen, 
rejoicing  to  see  Ferdinand's  brother,  the  reac- 
tionary Don  Carlos  (q.v.),  further  removed  from 
the  succession  to  the  throne.  Ferdinand  died 
September  29,  1833,  and  by  his  testament  his 
widow  was  appointed  guardian  of  her  children — 
the  young  Queen  Isabella  and  the  Infanta  Louisa 
— and  Regent  until  the  Queen  should  attain  the 
age  of  eighteen.  A  civil  war  at  once  broke 
out  between  the  opposing  parties  known  as  Car- 
lists  and  Cristinos,  but  the  Queen  mother  seemed 
indifferent  to  everything  except  the  company 
of  Don  Fernando  Mufioz,  one  of  the  royal  body- 
guard, whom  she  made  her  chamberlain,  and 
with  whom  she  was  united  in  December,  1833, 
in  a  morganatic  marriage.  Her  practice  as  Regent 
was  to  adopt  the  course  agreeable  to  the  Minis- 
ter of  the  day,  and  thus  her  Government  was 
despotic  under  one  Ministry  and  liberal  under  an- 
other. She  contrived,  however,  upon  many  oc- 
casions to  embrace  the  proceedings  of  her  more 
liberal  or  constitutional  Ministers ;  but  when  she 
sanctioned  by  her  signature  the  law  respecting 
the  local  liberties  of  the  communes  (see  Ayunta- 
MiENTO),  a  popular  commotion  ensued  and  she 
was  compelled  to  resign  the  regency  (1840),  be- 
ing succeeded  by  the  Prime  ^Minister  Espartero. 
She  retired  to  France,  but  continued  to  interfere 
in  the  affairs  of  Spain.  After  the  fall  of  Espar- 
tero ( 1843)  she  returned  to  Madrid,  and  in  Octo- 
ber, 1844,  her  marriage  with  Mufioz,  who  was 
now  made  Duke  of  Rianzares,  was  publicly  solem- 
nized. Her  participation  in  the  schemes  of  Louis 
Philippe  in  the  matter  of  t^e  marriage  of  her 
daughters,  in  1846,  and  the  continued  exercise  of 
all  her  influence  in  a  manner  unfavorable  to  con- 
stitutional liberty,  made  her  the  object  of  great 
dislike  to  the  whole  Liberal  Party  in  Spain.  At 
length,  in  July,  1854,  a  revolution  expelled  her 
from  the  country,  and  she  again  took  refuge  in 
France.  She  returned  to  Spain  in  1864,  only  to 
retire  again  in  1868.  She  died  at  Havre,  August 
22,  1878.    See  Spain. 


MABIAGE  DE  FIGABO. 


MABIA  CHBISTINA  (1858-).  A  Queen 
of  Spain.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Archduke 
Karl  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and  in  1879  married 
Alfonso  XII.  of  Spain,  to  whom  she  bore  a  post- 
humous son  in  1886,  Alfonso  XIII.  She  acted  as 
Regent  until  Alfonso  XIII.  was  declared  of  age. 
May  17,  1902,  carrying  on  the  Government  with 
much  ability  and  tact. 

MABIA  DE'  MEDICI,  mkr^k  d&  mftM*-ch6 
(1573-1642).  The  second  wife  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Francis  I., 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and  was  bom  at  Flor- 
ence, April  26,  1573.  She  was  married  to  Henry 
IV.  in  1600,  and  in  1601  ^ave  birth  to  a  son, 
afterwards  Louis  XIII.  The  union  did  not 
prove  happy.  Maria,  though  beautiful,  was 
an  obstinate,  ambitious,  passionate,  and  dull- 
headed  woman,  and  her  quarrels  with  Henry 
over  her  favorites  and  the  King's  gallantries 
soon  became  the  talk  of  Paris.  Two  Italians^ 
Leonora  Galigai  and  her  husband,  Concini  (see 
Ancbe  ) ,  exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  her 
mind,  and  encouraged  her  dislike  to  her  husband, 
who  on  his  part  avoided  her  as  much  as  possible. 
She  was  not  publicly  crowned  as  (Jueen  until 
the  day  before  Henry's  assassination ( May,  1610) . 
For  the  next  seven  years  she  governed  as  Regent, 
but  proved  incapable  as  a  ruler.  After  the 
murder  of  Concini,  in  1617,  Louis  XIII.  as- 
sumed royal  power,  aided  by  his  favorite,  the 
Duke  de  Luynes,  who  had  put  Concini  out  of  the 
way.  Maria  was  kept  under  surveillance  in  the 
castle  at  Blois.  She  escaped  in  1619,  and  began 
a  war  against  the  King  and  Court,  being  allied 
with  certain  of  the  disappointed  nobles.  The  con- 
flict was  brief,  and  ended  in  the  discomfiture  of 
Maria.  In  1621  the  death  of  Luynes  led  to  her 
return  to  Court.  Maria  hoped  to  win  over 
Richelieu  to  her  party,  and  he  was  created  car- 
dinal and  Minister  of  State,  partly  through, 
her  influence.  She  soon  found  out,  how- 
ever, that  he  had  no  mind  to  be  ruled  by 
her,  whereupon  she  resolved  to  undermine  his 
influence  with  the  King.  Her  intrigues  for  this 
purpose  in  1630  failed,  and  she  was  imprisoned 
in  Compi^gne,  whence  she  escaped  to  Brussels 
in  1631.  She  finally  found  her  way  to  Eng- 
land to  the  Court  of  her  son-in-law,  Charles  I., 
but  was  compelled  to  leave  London  in  1641,  and 
her  last  years  were  spent  in  utter  destitution. 
She  died  at  Cologne  on  July  3,  1642.  Maria 
de'  Medici  was  a  lover  and  patron  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  Paris  owes  to  her  the  Luxem- 
bourg Palace  and  other  public  works.  Consult: 
Pardoe,  Life  and  Times  of  Marie  de*  Medici 
(London,  1852)  ;  Zeller,  Henry  IV.  et  Marie  de 
MHicis  (Paris,  1877),  and  La  minority  de  Louis. 
Xm,— Marie  de  MHicis  et  Sully,  1610-1612 
(ib.,  1892)  ;  id..  La  minority  de  Louis  XIII. — 
Marie  de  M6dicis  et  Villeroy  (ib.,  1897)  ;  Freer, 
Henry  IV.  and  Marie  de'  Medici  (London,  1861). 
See  Henry  IV. ;    France. 

MABIAGE  DE  FIGABO,  mA'ryAzV  de  f^ 
gft'rd',  Le,  ou  la  Folle  JouRNfiE.  A  five-act 
comedy  by  Beaumarchais,  produced  at  the  Coro^- 
die  Frangaise  in  1784.  It  forms  the  continu- 
ation of  the  Barhier  de  Seville,  and  represents 
the  situations  produced  by  Figaro's  schemes  to 
render  ineffectual  Almaviva's  pursuit  of  Su- 
zanne, the  barber's  fiancee.  The  play  is  brilliant 
though  unequal.  It  embodies  in  a  Spanish  set- 
ting an  attack  on  the  French  nobility  and  magis- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABIAGE  DE  FIGABO.  67 

tracy,  and  was  considered  by  Louis  XVI.  too 
dangerous  for  public  representation. 

ITAKTAGE  FOBC^!,  m&'r^&zh^  fOr's&^  Le 
(Fr.,  the  forced  marriage).  A  one-act  prose 
comedy-ballet  by  Moliftre  (1664).  The  old  Sgana- 
relle,  under  promise  of  marriage  to  a  young 
coquette,  Dorimtoe,  hesitates  to  fulfill  his  prom- 
ise and  seeks  advice  without  result  from  two 
philosopher  friends,  but  is  finally  forced  to  con- 
sent by  her  brother  Alcidas.  The  piece  bore  the 
name  'Pallet  du  roi,"  because  Louis  XIV.  danced 
in  it  as  a  gypsy. 

KA^BIA  GENS.  A  plebeian  gens  at  Rome. 
It  was  never  divided  into  families.  Its  most 
celebrated  member  was  Caius  Marius,  conqueror 
of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones. 

ICABIAGEKr  m£'r^rg§r,  Peteb  (1827—). 
A  Danish  novelist,  born  at  Nyborg.  He  became 
known  through  translations  from  the  French  and 
German,  such  as  that  of  Flammarion's  Inhabited 
Worlds.  His  original  works  are:  Fra  Hellas, 
Fern  aniike  ForioBllinger  (1881) ;  Den  sidste  La- 
mia, og  andre  aniike  Foriosllinger  (1884)  ;  Mag- 
thaveren  paa  Rhodos  (1885)  ;  Sybaris,  a  drama; 
Dronningen  af  Kyrene,  og  andre  antike  Fortcel- 
linger  (1801)  ;  and  Et  Bryllup  i  Katakombeme 
(1893).  All  of  his  stories  relate  to  Greek  and 
Roman  subjects. 

MABIA  n.  DA  GLOBIA,  mk-r^k  d&  gW- 
T^k  (1819-53).  A  Queen  of  Portugal.  She  was  ir 
daughter  of  Dom  Pedro  I.,  Emperor  of  Brazil, 
and  a  granddaughter  of  King  John  VI.,  of  Portu- 
gal. She  succeeded  to  the  Portuguese  throne  in 
1826  on  the  death  of  her  grandfather,  Dom  Pedro 
renouncing  his  claim  to  the  throne  in  her  favor, 
and  though  only  a  child  was  promised  in  mar- 
riage to  her  uncle,  Dom  Miguel,  who  was  to  act 
as  Regent.  The  latter,  however,  in  1828  usurped 
the  throne.  In  1832-33  Pom  Pedro  successfully 
attacked  Dom  Miguel  by  land  and  sea,  and  in 
1834  the  usurper,  yielding  to  the  threats  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  submitted.  Maria  was  estab- 
lished on  the  throne,  and  in  1835  she  married  the 
Duke  Charles  Augustus  of  Leuchtenberg,  who 
died  a  few  months  later.  The  next  year  she  mar- 
ried Duke  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha-Ko- 
hary.  She  was  succeeded  by  her  eldest  son, 
Pedro  V. 

MABIA  LESZCZYNSKA,  l^h-chln'skA 
(1703-68).  Wife  of  King  Louis  XV.  of  France. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Stanislas  Leszczynski, 
King  of  Poland,  and  was  bom  in  Breslau  before 
he  came  to  the  throne.  Maria  accompanied  her 
father  in  his  wretched  wanderings  after  his  ex- 
pulsion from  Poland.  He  settled  in  Alsace  in 
1719,  after  the  death  of  Clharles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
and  there  the  Duke  of  Bourbon  saw  Maria,  and 
arranged  her  marriage  with  Louis  XV.,  who  was 
seven  years  her  junior.  She  lived  in  retirement, 
devoting  herself  to  acts  of  piety  and  charity,  and 
died  at  Versailles,  survived  by  four  daughters. 
Consult :  d'Armaille,  La  reine  Marie  Leszczynska 
(Paris,  1870),  and  Des  Reaux,  Le  roi  Stanislas 
€t  Marie  Leszczynska  (Paris,  1895). 

ICABLA.  LOUISA  (1751-1819).  Daughter  of 
Duke  Philip  of  Parma,  and  wife  of  King  Charles 
rV.  of  Spam  (q.v.),  whom  she  married  in  1765, 
while  he  was  still  Infante.  When  he  succeed- 
ed to  the  crown  in  1788,  she  and  her  lover, 
Godoy,  Duke  of  Alcudia,  managed  to  secure 
practical  control  of  the  Government.  After  the 
revolution  in  1808  which  placed  Ferdinand  VIL 


MABIAJINE. 


on  the  throne  of  his  father,  she  and  her  hus- 
band fled  to  France  and  appealed  to  Napoleon, 
who  induced  the  young  King  to  restore  the  crown 
to  his  father  and  then  persuaded  the  latter  to 
cede  it  to  him ;  whereupon  he  promptly  bestowed 
it  on  his  brother  Joseph  (q.v.).  Maria  spent  the 
remainder  of  her  life  in  exile  at  Marseilles  and 
Nice  and  latterly  at  Rome,  where  she  died. 

MABIA  LOUISA  (1782-1824).  Queen  of 
Etruria,  daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain  (q.v.) 
and  Maria  Louisa  of  Parma  (q.v.).  She  married 
Louis,  eldest  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Parma. 
In  1801  her  husband  was  invested  by  Napoleon 
with  the  Kingdom  of  Etruria  (Tuscany),  the 
consideration  being  that  Parma  should  revert  to 
France  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand.  When  Louis 
died  in  1803,  her  son,  Charles  Louis,  succeed- 
ed to  the  Etrurian  throne  under  her  regency, 
but  the  kingdom  was  incorporated  in  1807  in  the 
French  dominions.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
compensation  gave  the  young  prince  Lucca,  which 
his  mother  governed  as  Regent  until  he  came  of 
age,  and  in  a  subsequent  treaty  it  was  stipulated 
that  Parma  should  revert  to  him  on  the  death 
of  the  ex-Empress  Maria  Louisa.  The  Queen's 
memoirs  were  published  under  the  title  Mdmoires 
de  la  reine  d*Etrurie  (Paris,  1814). 

KABIA  LOUISA  (1791-1847).  The  second 
wife  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  She  was 
bom  December  12,  1791,  the  daughter  of  the 
Archduke  Francis,  afterwards  the  Emperor  Fran- 
cis I.  of  Austria,  and  was  married  to  Napoleon 
on  April  2,  1810.  The  marriage  seemed  to  give 
stability  to  the  Bonaparte  dynasty,  and  in  some 
measure  to  afl'ord  a  prospect  of  peace  to  Europe. 
On  March  20,  1811,  she  bore  a  son,  who  was 
called  King  of  Rome.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
campaign  of  1813  Napoleon  appointed  her  Regent 
in  his  absence,  but  under  many  limitations.  On 
the  abdication  of  Napoleon  she  was  not  permitted 
to  follow  her  husband,  but  went  with  her  son  to 
SchOnbrunn,  where  she  remained  till,  in  1816, 
she  received  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and 
Guastalla.  In  1821  she  contracted  a  morga- 
natic marriage  with  her  chamberlain.  Count  von 
Neipperg,  who  died  in  1829.  In  1833  she  entered 
into  a  secret  marriage  with  (Ik>unt  Bombelles, 
likewise  her  chamberlain.  She  died  at  Vienna, 
December  17,  1847.  Consult:  the  works  of  Im- 
bert  de  Saint  Amand,  The  Happy  Days  of  the 
Empress  Marie  Louise  (trans.  New  York,  1890- 
91 )  ;  Marie  Louise  and  the  Decadence  of  the 
Empire  (trans.  New  York,  1891)  ;  Marie  Louise 
and  the  Invasion  of  18J4  (trans.  New  York, 
1891);  Marie  Louise,  the  Island  of  Elba,  and 
the  Hundred  Days  (trans.  New  York,  1891); 
and  Marie  Louise  et  le  Due  de  Reichstadt  (Paris, 
1892).    See  Napoleon  I. 

KABIA  LOUISA,  Order  of.  A  Spanish 
order  founded  by  CHiarles  IV.,  in  1792,  and  be- 
stowed by  the  Queen  on  women  of  the  old  no- 
bility. The  recipient  is  expected  to  devote  her- 
self to  charitable  and  pious  works.  The  order 
has  one  class. 

TffAKTAMNE,  ma'rl-Sm'n^.  Wife  of  Herod 
the  Great  (q.v.).  She  belonged  to  the  family  of 
the  Maccabees  (q.v.),  being  the  granddaughter 
of  Hyrcanus  II.  Although  she  was  deeply  be- 
loved by  her  husband,  he  had  her  put  to  death 
in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  and  remorse  for  the  act  em- 
bittered the  later  years  of  his  life.  She  is  famed 
for  her  beauty  as  well  as  her  tragic  fate. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MABIAMNE. 

MATlTAirWE.  The  title  of  plays  hy  Alex- 
andre Hardy  (1610),  Tristan  TErmite  (1637), 
and  Voltaire  (1723),  based  on  the  story  of  Mari- 
amne,  wife  of  Herod  the  Great. 

MART  ANA.  (1)  In  Shakespeare's  Measure 
for  Measure,  the  charming  and  womanly  lover 
of  Angelo.  Tennyson's  Mariana  in  the  Moated 
Orange  and  Mariana  in  the  South  were  based  on 
her  character.  (2)  In  Knowles's  The  Wife,  a 
gentle  and  faithful  character  married  to  Leo- 
nardo. She  is  the  victim  of  a  plot  to  make  her 
appear  guilty  of  infidelity  with  a  coimtryman, 
who  turns  out  to  be  her  brother. 

MABIANA.  The  name  given  by  Capt.  John 
Mason  to  the  land  granted  him  by  the  Council  for 
New  England  on  March  9,  1621.  The  patent, 
which  was  the  second  granted  by  the  Council, 
covered  the  lands  lying  between  the  Naimikeag 
(Salem)  and  Merrimac  rivers,  with  the  islands 
within  three  miles  of  the  shore,  and  was  included 
in  the  present  territory  of  Massachusetts. 

MABIANA,  mrr^a^nS,  Juan  (15361623). 
A  distinguished  Spanish  historian  and  scholar, 
bom  at  Talavera.  In  1554  he  entered  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits.  His  early  studies  in  languages 
and  theology  were  so  brilliant  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  teach  in  the  schools  of  his  Order,  first 
at  Rome  (where  the  celebrated  Bellarmine  [q.v.] 
was  one  of  his  scholars)  in  1561,  afterwards  in 
Sicily  in  1565,  and  finally  in  Paris  in  1569. 
After  a  residence  there  of  seven  years  he  settled 
at  Toledo,  where  he  resided  till  his  death,  at  an 
extreme  old  age.  His  retirement,  however,  was 
passed  in  sus&ined  literary  activity.  From  an 
early  period  he  devoted  himself  to  writing  a  his- 
tory of  Spain  (1592-1605).  The  original  of  this 
history  was  Latin,  the  elegance  and  purity  of 
which  have  secured  for  Mariana  a  place  among 
the  most  distinguished  of  modern  Latinists. 
Mariana  himself  published  a  Spanish  translation, 
which  still  remains  one  of  the  classics  of  the 
language.  Among  his  other  productions  are  a 
scholia  of  the  Bible  and  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Isidore  of  Seville.  But  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  works  of  Mariana  is  his  well-known  treatise, 
De  Rege  et  Regis  Institutione  ( 1599),  in  which  is 
raised  the  important  question  whether  it  is  law- 
ful to  overthrow  and  kill  a  tyrant.  Mariana  de- 
cides that  it  is  right  for  every  man  to  do  so,  even 
where  the  tyrant  is  not  a  usurper,  but  a  lawful 
king,  and  esteems  Jacques  Clement  (q.v.)  equally 
with  Brutus.  This  tyrannicide  doctrine  drew 
much  odium  upon  the  entire  Order  of  Jesuits; 
but  the  same  doctrines  were  taught  in  almost  the 
same  words  by  several  of  the  Protestant  contem- 
poraries of  Mariana  (consult  Hallam.  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Literature  of  Europe^  6th  ed.,  London, 
1855-56),  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Mariana's 
book  was  condemned  by  the  general,  Acquaviva. 
Mariana's  views  on  other  siibjects  were  broad- 
minded  and  liberal. 

MABIANA  ISLANDS.  See  Ladrone  Isl- 
ands. 

MAB'IAN^A.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Lee  County,  Ark.,  106  miles  by  rail  east  of 
Little  Rock,  on  L'Anguille  River,  at  the  head  of 
navigation,  and  on  the  Saint  Louis,  Iron  Moun- 
tain and  Southern  Railroad  (Map:  Arkansas,  E 
3).  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  cotton, 
and  has  cotton-gins,  cottonseed-oil  mills,  lumber- 
mills,  etc.    The  water-works  are  owned  and  oper- 


58  iffATtTA  THEBESA. 

ated  by  the  municipality.  Population,  in  1900, 
1707;  m  1906  (local  est.),  2600. 

MABIANNE,  m&'r^&n^  on  les  Aventures 
DE  LA  CoMTESSB  DE.  .  .  .  An  unfinished  ro- 
mance by  Marivaux  ( 1731-41 ) ,  to  which  a  second 
part  was  added  in  1755  by  Madame  Riccobini. 
The  novel  has  been  said  to  be  the  origin  of  Pa- 
mela. It  is  important  as  the  first  novel  of  analy- 
sis rather  than  of  incident,  and  contains  minute 
pictures  of  bourgeois  and  conventual  life. 

MABIANNE  (m&'ri-ftnO  ISLANDS.  See 
Ladbonb  Islands. 

MAB'IA'NTTS  SCCyXUS  (1028-C.1082).  An 
Irish  chronicler,  whose  real  name  was  Moelbrigte. 
He  left  his  native  land  at  the  age  of  twenty-four, 
when  he  became  a  monk,  and  in  1056  entered 
the  monastery  at  Cologne,  where  he  remained 
for  two  years.  He  then  went  to  Fulda  for  ten 
years,  and  became  a  recluse  there  in  1059  and  at 
Mainz  in  1069.  His  claim  to  remembrance  rests 
upon  a  Chronicon  Universale,  extending  from  the 
birth  of  Christ  to  1082,  which  contains  extracts 
from  Bede  and  other  chroniclers,  besides  new  ma- 
terial. The  first  printed  edition  was  made  at 
Basel  in  1559,  and  others  appeared  in  1601,  1613, 
and  1726. 

MABIA  OF  AUSTBIA  ( 1505-58) .  A  Queen 
of  Hungary,  a  daughter  of  Philip  the  Fair  of 
Burgundy  and  Joan  of  Castile,  and  sister  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  Ferdinand  I.  of 
Hapsburg.  She  was  bom  at  Brussels  in  1505. 
She  married  Louis  II.  of  Hungary  in  1522,  and 
became  a  widow  in  1526,  when  her  husband  was 
overwhelmed  by  the  Turks  at  Mohftcs.  In  1530 
she  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Neth- 
erlands by  Charles  V.,  succeeding  Margaret  of 
Austria.  There  she  ruled  ably  and  firmly.  In 
general,  she  aided  Charles  in  his  foreign  policy, 
often  acted  as  mediator  between  him  and  Ferdi- 
nand, and  resigned  from  her  office  in  the  Nether- 
lands upon  the  abdication  of  Charles  (1555). 
She  retired  to  Spain,  and  died  at  Cigales.  Maria 
was  a  patron  of  arts  and  letters,  and  left  a  valu- 
able collection  of  manuscripts  now  in  the  Bur- 
gundian  Library  of  Brussels. 

MABIA  STUABT.  A  tragedy  by  Schiller, 
first  undertaken  about  1787,  then  abandoned,  and 
resumed  in  1799.  It  was  printed  and  presented 
in  1800.  It  was  based  on  a  considerable  study 
of  the  period  by  Schiller,  but  takes  great  license 
with  historical  facts. 

MABIA  THEBESA,  mkrl^k  te-re^ek  (1717- 
80).  Queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  and  Arch- 
duchess of  Austria,  and  wife  of  the  German  Em- 
peror, Francis  I.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.  (q.v.),  and  was  bom  at 
Vienna,  May  13,  1717.  By  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion (q.v.)  her  father  sought  to  secure  from  the 
European  powers  her  undisputed  succession  to 
the  Hapsburg  dominions.  On  February  12,  1736, 
she  married  Francis  Stephen,  Duke  of  Lorraine 
(soon  after  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany),  and  on 
the  death  of  her  father,  October  20,  1740,  she 
succeeded  to  the  hereditary  possessions  of  the 
House  of  Austria,  which,  in  addition  to  the 
German,  Hungarian,  and  Slavic  lands,  included 
Lombardy  and  the  Belgian  Netherlands.  She 
found  the  monarchy  exhausted,  the  finances  em- 
barrassed, the  people  discontented,  and  the  army 
weak:  while  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Naples, 
and  Sardinia,  stirred  up  by  France,  put  forward 
claims    to    portions    of    her    dominions,    chiefly 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABIA  THEBE&A. 


59 


MABIE  ANTOINETTE. 


lounded  on  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of 
tbe   House    of    Hapsburg   and   in   contravention 
of  the    Pragmatic   Sanction.     The   War   of   the 
Austrian  Succession  (1740-48)   ensued,  in  which 
England    supported   Austria.     (See   Succession 
Waks.)      Frederick    II.    of    Prussia    soon    made 
himself  master  of  Silesia;  Spain  and  Naples  laid 
hands  on  the  Austrian  dominions  in  Italy;  and 
tie  French,  Bavarians   (whose  ruler  was  elected 
Holy  Roman  Emperor  as  Charles  VII.  in  1742), 
and*  Saxons    overran    the    hereditary    Austrian 
territories.    The  young  Q\ieen  was  in  the  utmost 
danger  of  seeing  her  realms  dismembered,  hut 
was  8aved  by  thS  chivalrous  fidelity  of  the  Hun- 
garians,  the   assistfince  of   Ekigland,   and   most 
of  all  by  her  own  resolute  spirit.     Her  eaemiei 
quarreled   among   themselv^;    and   the   war   of 
tbe  Austrian  Succession  was  terminated  by  the 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.    Maria  Theresa 
lost    Silesia    and    date    and    the    du<^es    of 
Parma,  PiaoeuEa,  and  Guastalki.     In   1745  her 
husband  (Francis  I.)  had  been  raised  to  the  Im- 
perial throne  of  Gremiany  on  the  death  of  Charles 
Vll.    During  the  period  of  peace  that  followed 
she  initiated  great  financial  reforms;  agriculture, 
manufactures,  and  commerce  flourished,  the  na- 
tional revenues  greatly  increased,  and  the  bur- 
dens of  tbe  peasantry  were  diminished.    All  this 
time  she  was  strengthening  her  resources  in  an- 
ticipation of  a  renewal  of  the  war  with  Freder- 
ick the  Great.     Her  indomitable  pride  and  her 
devout  Catholicism  would  not  permit  her  to  re- 
linquish Silesia  as  long  as  she  could  fight  for  it. 
She  found   in   Kaunitz    (q.v.)    a  minister   pos- 
sessed of  the  wisdom  and  energy  requisite  for  the 
conduct  of  affairs,  and  in  him  she  placed  almost 
unlimited  confidence.     He  effected  the   alliance 
with  France  which  disturbed  all  existing  inter- 
national  arrangements    (1756).      In   the    Seven 
Years'  War  (q.v.)  Maria  Theresa  and  her  allies 
^rell-nigh    achieved    the    ruin    of    Frederick    the 
Great;  but  the  generalship  of  the  indomitable 
Prufisian  King,   the   incapacity  of  the  generals 
of  Louis  XV.,  and  Russia's  abandonment  of  the 
cause  of  ^laria  Theresa,  enabled   Frederick  to 
emerge   from   the   struggle   with   his   dominions 
intact.    The  war  reduced  Austria  to  a  state  of 
p-eat  exhaustion ;  but  when  it  was  concluded,  Ma- 
ria Theresa  renewed  her  efforts  to  promote  the  na- 
tional prosperity,  and  made  many  important  re- 
forms, ameliorating  the  condition  of  the  peasan- 
try and   mitigating  the   penal   code.     Her  son 
Jc«eph    (IT.)   became  Holy  Roman  Emperor  on 
the  death  of  her  husband  in  1765.    Maria  Theresa 
aswwiatcd  him  with  herself  in  the  government  of 
her  hereditary  States,  but  in  reality  committed 
to  him  the  charge  only  of  military  affairs.     She 
joined  with  Russia  and  Prussia  in  the  first  parti- 
tion of  Poland    (1772),  Galicia  falling  to  her 
share.    She  also  compelled  the  Porte  to  give  up 
Bukowina  to  her  (1777).    The  brief  War  of  the 
Bavarian  Succession    (1778-79)  ended  in  her  ac- 
quisition of  a  district  along  the  Inn  (Innviertel) , 
but  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Fiirstenbund  or 
league  of  German  Princes,  which  set  bounds  to 
the  Austrian  power  in  Germany.    Maria  Theresa 
died  in  Vienna.  November  29,  1780.    Throughout 
her  reign  she  displayed  a  resolute  and  masculine 
character.    Although  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
■be  maintained  the  rights  of  the  Crown  against 
the  Cimrt  of  Rome,  and  endeavored  to  correct 
•ome  of  the  worst  abuses  in  the  Church.     She 
prohibited  the  presence  of  priests  at  the  making 
\OL.  xiil.— *• 


of  wills,  abolished  the  right  of  asylum  in  churohes 
and  convents,  and  suppressed  the  Inquisition  in 
Milan.  Her  son  succeeded  her  as  Joseph  II. 
(q.v.). 

Consult:  Ameth,  Oeschichte  Maria  Theresias 
(10  vols.,  Vienna,  1863-79);  Kern,  "Die  Refor- 
men  der  Kaiser  in  Maria  Theresias,"  in  Hisior- 
%8ohe8  Taschenhuoh,  id.  (Leipzig,  1809);  Broghe, 
Frederick  the  Great  and  Maria  Theresa,  from 
unpublished  dociunents,  translated  (London. 
1883)  ;  id.,  Marie  Thdr^e,  Imp6ratrice,  1744-^6 
(Paris,  1888)  ;  Villermont,  Marie  Th^^se,  1717- 
80  (Paris,  1895)  ;  Bright,  Maria  Theresa  (Lon- 
don, 1897).  Her  correspondence  has  been  edited 
by  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  Lettres  in^dites  de 
Marie  Th6r^se  et  de  Joseph  II. y  Royal  Academy 
of  Belgium,  and  by  Ameth  (Vienna,  1867-81). 

MABIA  THEBESA,  Order  of.  An  Aus- 
trian order  conferred  exclusively  for  distin- 
guished conduct  in  war,  founded  in  1767.  The 
monarch  is  the  head  of  the  order.  Pensions  rang- 
ing from  600  to  6000  florins  are  given  to  mem- 
bers.   The  distinction  is  very  sparingly  conferred. 

XABIA-THEBESIOPEL.       See    Thebesio- 

PEL. 

KABIAZEIiL,  ma'r6-&-ts6l'.  A  village  in  the 
Crownland  of  Styria,  Austria,  60  miles  southwest 
of  Vienna  (Map:  Austria,  D  3).  It  is  the  great- 
est pilgrim  resort  of  Austria-Hungary,  being 
visited  annually  by  about  200,000  people.  The 
church  containing  the  famous  image  of  the  Vir- 
gin was  originally  founded  in  1363  and  rebuilt 
in  1827.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  large  iron  foundry. 
Population,  in  1900,  1499. 

MABIBOJOC,  ma'r*-b6-H6k'.  A  town  of  Bo- 
hol,  Philippines,  situated  on  high  ground  on 
the  southwestern  coast,  7^!  miles  north  of  Tag- 
bilaran.  It  is  an  important  road  centre.  Popu- 
lation, in  1903,  11,830. 

KABICOPA,  ma'r^-ko'pA,  or  Coco-Mabicopa. 
A  tribe  of  Yuman  stock  (q.v.),  formerly  living 
about  the  junction  of  the  Gila  and  Colorado 
rivers,  southwestern  Arizona.  About  seventy 
years  ago,  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the 
Yuma,  they  moved  up  the  Gila  and  confederated 
with  the  Pima  (q.v.),  with  whom  they  are  now 
living  upon  the  Gila  River  reservation.  They  de- 
pend upon  agriculture  by  irrigation  and  formerly 
raised  large  crops,  but  both  they  and  the  Pima 
are  now  reduced  to  a  condition  of  chronic  starva- 
tion on  account  of  the  cutting  oflf  of  their  water 
supply  by  white  settlers.  They  liye  in  houses  of 
corn-stalks  and  straw  woven  upon  a  framework 
of  poles,  with  storehouses  and  arbors  surround- 
ing. Their  women  are  superior  potters,  basket- 
makers,  and  weavers  of  native  cotton.  The  men 
formerly  wore  only  the  G-string,  while  the  women 
wound  a  strip  of  cotton  cloth  about  the  waist. 
The  hair  was  worn  flowing  and  cut  across  the 
forehead.  At  present  they  are  practically  civil- 
ized through  missionary  effort  and  have  a  high 
reputation  for  industry  and  general  good  quali- 
ties. They  number  about  350.  A  sample  of 
their  work  is  shown  on  the  Plate  of  Indian 
Baskets. 

MABIE  AM^LIE  DE  BOUBBOK,  mA'r^ 
k'mk'W  de  boor'b6N'.  Queen  of  the  French. 
See  Amalie,  Marie. 

MABIE  ANTOINETTE,  ftN'twft'net'  (1755- 
93).  Wife  of  Louis  XVT.  of  France.  She  was 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Emperor  Francis  I.  and 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MABIE  ANTOINETTE. 


60 


MABIE  DE  FBANCE. 


Maria  Theresa,  and  was  bom  at  Vienna,  Novem- 
ber 2,  1755.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  she  was 
betrothed  to  the  French  Dauphin,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  married  at  Versailles.  Her  re- 
ception by  her  husband  and  the  King,  Louis  XV., 
was  flattering;  but  her  naivete,  unceremonious 
pleasantry,  and  detestation  of  rigid  etiquette 
scandalized  Versailles.  Soon  after  the  accession 
of  Louis  XVL  (1774),  libels  were  circulated  by 
her  enemies,  chief  among  them  being  the  Count 
of  Provence,  younger  brother  of  the  King,  who 
subsequently  ruled  as  Louis  XVIII.,  accusing  her 
of  constant  intrigues,  not  one  of  which  has  ever 
been  proved.  Her  faults  as  a  queen  (and  in  that 
age,  rapidly  growing  earnest,  angry,  and  imbit- 
tered,  they  were  fatal  ones)  were  a  certain  levity 
of  disposition,  girlish  love  of  pleasure,  banquets, 
and  fine  dress,  an  aristocratic  indifference  to 
general  opinion,  and  a  lamentable  incapacity  to 
see  the  actual  misery  of  France.  She  attempted 
to  use  her  influence  with  Louis  XVI.  to  shape 
the  foreign  policy  of  France  in  accordance  with 
the  interests  of  Austria,  but  her  imconcealed 
pro-Austrian  sympathies  aroused  dissatisfaction 
among  the  nation  and  gained  her  the  unpleasant 
epithet  of  *the  Austrian  Woman'  ( VAutrichienne) . 
The  affair  of  the  Diamond  Necklace  (q.v. ) ,  in  1785, 
hopelessly  compromised  her  good  name  in  the  eyes 
of  the  public.  Her  influence  on  the  internal  politics 
of  the  country  was  not  more  fortunate.  LomOnie 
de  Brienne  and  Calonne  were  ministers  of  her 
choice,  and  she  shared  the  opprobrium  called 
down  upon  them  for  their  reckless  squandering 
of  the  national  finances.  She  strongly  opposed 
the  summoning  of  the  Notables  (1787),  and  of 
the  States-General  (1789);  and  she  had  good 
reason  to  dread  their  convocation,  for  one  of  the 
very  first  things  the  Notables  did  was  to  declare 
the  Queen  the  cause  of  the  derangement  of  the 
finances.  From  the  first  hour  of  the  Revolution 
she  was  an  object  of  fanatical  hatred  to  the  mob 
of  Paris,  who  regarded  her  as  conspiring  with 
her  brother,  Leopold  II.  of  Austria,  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  absolute  monarchy.  In  hours 
of  crisis  her  resolute  bearing  spurred  on  the 
weak-willed  Louis  XVI.  to  spasmodic  assertions 
of  his  authority  without  bringing  him  to  take  a 
decisive  step  in  defense  of  his  rights.  After  the 
removal  of  the  royal  family  from  Versailles  to 
the  Tuileries  (October  6,  1789),  she  attempted 
on  various  occasions  to  conciliate  the  good  will 
of  the  people,  but  failed  before  the  vindictive 
enmity  of  the  Parisian  populace.  Out  of  hatred 
of  Mirabeau  she  could  not  be  brought  to  accept 
the  aid  of  the  man  who  alone  might  have  saved 
the  monarchy  from  destruction.  At  last  she  re- 
solved on  flight.  Her  husband  long  refused  to 
abandon  his  country,  but  she  could  not  go  with- 
out him,  and  flnally  the  King  consented.  The 
flight  took  place  on  the  night  of  June  20th,  but 
the  royal  fugitives  were  recognized  and  turned 
back  at  Varennes.  The  flight  to  Varennes  only 
served  to  conflrm  the  popular  belief  as  to  the 
Queen's  intrigue  with  foreign  powers,  and,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  no  doubt  that  Marie 
Antoinette  had  corresponded  and  continued  to 
correspond  with  her  brother  relative  to  the  in- 
vasion of  France  by  an  Austrian  army  for 
the  purpose  of  rescuing  the  royal  family.  On 
June  20,  1792,  a  mob  invaded  the  Tuileries, 
forced  Louis  XVI.  to  don  a  liberty  cap,  and 
heaped  outrageous  insults  on  the  Queen  as  they 
filed  past  her  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 


afternoon.  On  August  10th  came  the  final  storm- 
ing of  the  Tuileries.  Marie  Antoinette's  guards 
were  murdered  at  her  chamber  door,  and  the 
unhappy  Queen  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge 
with  her  husband  in  the  hall  of  the  (inven- 
tion, whence  they  were  consigned  on  the  13  th 
as  prisoners  to  the  Temple.  Louis  XVI.  was 
executed  on  January  21,  1793.  Marie  Antoi- 
nette was  separated  from  her  son  July  3,  1793, 
and  on  August  1st  was  removed  to  the  Concier- 
gerie.  Twice  while  she  was  a  prisoner  in  the 
Temple  were  unsuccessful  attempts  made  to  effect 
her  escape.  On  October  14th  she  was  brought  be- 
fore the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  and  charged 
with  fomenting  civil  war  and  lending  counsel  to 
the  foreign  enemies  of  France.  Testimony 
against  her  was  given  by  the  unspeakable  H^bert^ 
who  sought  to  blacken  her  personal  character 
with  trumped-up  charges.  She  was  foimd  guilty 
of  treason  after  a  two  days'  trial,  was  condemned 
to  death  on  October  16th,  and  was  executed 
the  same  day. 

The  tragic  fate  of  Marie  Antoinette  has  given 
rise  to  a  voluminous  literature,  in  which  the 
Queen  has  been  depicted  as  the  victim,  the  sainted 
martyr,  almost,  of  the  Revolution.  In  reaction 
against  this  view,  other  writers  have  dealt  with 
her  character  and  with  her  rOle  in  French  his- 
tory in  a  spirit  of  cruel  analvsis  that  probably 
sins  in  its  way  as  much  as  the  exaggeration  of 
the   sentimentalists. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  The  memoirs  of  Madame  de 
Campan,  lady-in-waiting  to  the  Queen,  are  im- 
portant. They  were  first  published  in  France  in 
1822,  and  have  since  appeared  in  numerous  French 
and  English  editions.  The  latest  edition  in  Eng- 
lish is  entitled  The  Private  Life  of  Marie  An- 
toinettCy  Queen  of  France  and  Navarre  (New 
York,  1887).  Much  of  the  Queen's  correspondence 
has  been  published  bv  Von  Ameth,  d'Hunolstein, 
De  Reiset,  and  Geffroy.  The  memoirs  of  the 
Prince  de  Ligne  and  the  Duke  de  Ohoiseul  are  of 
value.  Consult,  also :  Bicknell,  The  Story  of  Marie 
Antoinette  (New  York,  1897)  ;  Jacob,  "Ueber 
den  politischen  Einfluss  der  Kdnigin  Marie  An- 
toinette von  Frankreich,"  in  Historisches  Ta- 
schenhuchy  vol.  ix.  (Leipzig,  1838),  with  a  list  of 
authorities;  Lenotre,  La  captivity  et  la  mort  de 
Marie  Antoinette  (Paris,  1897)  ;  Weber,  La 
jeunesse  de  Marie  Antoinette  (ib.,  1897) ;  E. 
and  J.  de  Goncourt,  Histoire  de  Marie  Antoinette 
(ib.,  1858  and  1878)  ;  Brunier,  Marie  Antoinette 
(3  vols.,  Vienna,  1902-5). 

MABIE  DE  FBANCE,  de  fr^Ns  (twelfth 
century?).  The  earliest  French  poet.  She  was 
bom  in  France.  She  dedicated  her  fables  to 
a  certain  William,  whom  some  have  identified 
with  William  Longsword  of  Salisbury;  and  she 
alludes  in  her  Fables  to  a  king,  sometimes  iden- 
tified with  Henry  III.  of  England.  If  these 
hypotheses  be  correct,  it  would  appear  that 
she  lived  in  England  and  in  the  early  thirteenth 
century,  but  textual  evidence  points  to  an  earlier 
date.  She  wrote  Lata  and  a  collection  of  animal 
fables,  a  so-called  Ysopet.  A  poem  of  2300  lines 
on  Saint  Patrick's  purgatory  { L'espugatoire 
Seint  Patriz)  she  derived  ifrom  a  Latin  treatise 
by  Henry  of  Saltrey,  written  before  1185.  The 
Lais  are  fourteen  narrative  poems,  ranging 
in  length  from  100  to  1200  verses.  Of  these 
the  best  known  is  the  Ch&orefeuille,  describ- 
ing an  episode  in  the  loves  of  Tristan  and 
Iseult  (Isolde)  ;  the  finest  is  Eliduc.    Noteworthy 


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MABIE  DE  FBANCR  61 

also  are  Le  roasignol,  Lea  deuw  amants,  Yoneo 
(a  fairy  tale  of  the  bluebird) ,  and  Lanval.  These 
Marie  got  from  Kymric  sources.  Marie  says 
she  translated  her  103  fables  from  an  English 
version  by  King  Alfred  {roi  Alvrez),  or,  as  two 
JdSS.  read,  "Kmg  Henry."  The  English  version 
from  which  she  worked  is  lost;  the  Latin  that 
stood  behind  it  comprised  nearly  all  the  collec- 
tion of  Romulus  (ninth  century),  supplemented 
from  the  Jewish-Oriental  fables  preserved  in  the 
collection  of  Berachyah  and  Pisore  Alphonse,  and 
apparently  also  from  early  native  sources.  The 
poems  of  Marie  de  France  are  edited  by  Roque- 
fort (Paris,  1820),  and  better  by  Wamke  in  vol. 
iii.  of  Bibliotheoa  Normannica,  with  an  essay  by 
R5hler  (Halle,  1885).  Consult:  B^ier,  "Les  Lais 
de  Marie  de  France/'  in  Revue  dee  Deux  Mondes 
(Paris,  1891),  and  on  the  Ysopet,  a  chapter  by 
Sudre  in  Petit  de  Julleville,  Histoire  de  la  langue 
et  de  la  litt^ature  frangaiae,  vol.  ii.  (Paris, 
1896) ;  also  Wamke,  Die  Quellen  dea  Eaope  der 
Marie  de  France    (Halle,   1900). 

MASIE  GATiANTE,  g&'l&Nt^  An  island  in 
the  West  Indies,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles.  It 
belongs  to  France,  and  lies  seventeen  miles 
southeast  of  Guadeloupe,  of  which  it  is  an 
administrative  dependency  (Map:  West  Indies, 
Q  4).  It  is  nearly  circular  in  shape;  area,  68 
square  miles.  It  consists  of  a  limestone  plateau, 
300  to  600  feet  high,  surroimded  by  steep  rocky 
shores.  The  chief  products  are  sugar,  coffee, 
and  cotton.  The  chief  town  is  Grandbourg,  on 
the  southwest  coast.  The  population  in  1901 
was  15,181.  Marie  Galante  is  so  called  from 
the  name  of  the  ship  commanded  by  Columbus 
when  he  discovered  the  island  in  1493. 

ICABIENBAD,  mA-rS'en-bJlt.  One  of  the 
most  famous  watering  places  of  Europe,  situated 
near  the  western  border  of  Bohemia,  Austria, 
amidst  pine-clad  hills,  at  an  altitude  of  nearly 
2100  feet,  47  miles  by  rail  northwest  of  Pilsen 
(Map:  Austria,  C  2).  It  is  a  small  town,  with 
a  fine  Roman  Catholic  church  (1844-50)  in  By- 
zantine style,  a  tasteful  synagogue,  a  theatre, 
and  a  military  'curhaus.'  Its  fine  promenading 
grounds  are  adorned  with  monuments.  The 
springs  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those  of 
Karlsbad  except  that  they  are  cold.  They  range 
in  temperature  from  48**  to  53°  F.  The  prin- 
cipal springs  are  the  saline  Kreuzbrunnen  and 
Ferdinandsbrunnen,  used  both  for  bathing  and 
drinking.  They  yield  large  quantities  of  water 
for  export.  The  Marienquelle  is  used  only  for 
bathing,  and  contains  a  large  proportion  of  car- 
bonic acid.  The  chalybeate  Ambrosius-  and 
Karolinenbrunnen  are  used  both  for  drinking  and 
bathing.  Besides  the  above-mentioned*  springs 
there  are  at  Marienbad  baths  of  mud,  pine  cones, 
and  gas,  and  a  new  hydropathic  establishment. 
Considerable  qiiantities  of  salt  are  exported.  Al- 
though the  springs  of  Marienbad  enjoyed  a  local 
reputation  long  fcfore  the  nineteenth  century,  it 
was  only  in  1808  that  the  first  bathing  estab- 
lishment was  opened,  and  the  place  assumed  its 
present  name.  Population,  in  1900,  4588,  chiefly 
Germans. 

1CABIENBT7BO,  mA-r§^en-bo5rK.  An  old 
town  of  Prussia,  30  miles  south-southeast  of  Dan- 
zig, on  the  Nogat  River  ( Map :  Prussia,  HI).  It 
is  chiefly  interesting  because  it  was,  for  one  and  a 
half  centuries,  the  seat  of  the  grand  masters  of 
the  Teutonic  Order.     These   knights   built   the 


MAKTETTA. 

Marienburg  Schloss,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
strongly  fortified  buildings  in  Germany,  and  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  secular  buildings  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Marienburg  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  knights  till  1457,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
Poles.  The  town  has  large  wool-cleaning  works, 
and  manufactures  of  machinery.  It  trades  in 
grain,  wood,  linen,  and  horses.  Population,  1900, 
10,732;  1906,  13,095.  Consult  Bergau,  Daa  Or- 
denahaupthaua  Marienburg  in  Pruaaia  (Berlin, 
1871). 

KABIENWEBDEB^  m&r^en-ver'ddr.  The 
capital  of  a  district  in  the  Prussian  Province  of 
West  Prussia,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Vistula, 
about  forty-five  miles  south  of  Danzig  (Map: 
Prussia,  H  2) .  It  has  a  fourteenth-century  cathe- 
dral and  a  castle  built  by  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
the  founders  of  the  town,  in  1233.  The  principal 
industries  are  susar-refining  and  the  manufacture 
of  cloth  and  machinery.  'Hiere  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  fruit.  Population,  1900,  9686;  1905, 
10,258. 

MABIE  TH]£b£:SE  (m&'r^  tA'r^s^)  of  Aus- 
TBIA  ( 1638-83) .  A  wife  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  born  in  Ma- 
drid. By  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees 
(1659)  she  was  married  to  Louis  XIV.  (1660). 
She  lived  very  unhappily  with  Louis,  but  at 
length  seemed  to  find  comfort  in  religion.  Con- 
sult Duclos,  Mme,  de  la  Valli^e  et  Marie  Th6r^e 
(Paris,  1869). 

KABltTON,  mft'rft-&'t6N',  Paul  (1862-). 
A  French  poet  and  critic,  bom  at  Lyons.  He 
early  became  associated  with  the  Provencal  move- 
ment in  Southern  France,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  that  revival.  His  writings  include :  8ou- 
venance  (1884),  a  poem;  La  viole  d* amour 
(1886)  ;  and,  in  poetry,  Hellaa  (1888)  ;  La  terre 
provencale  (1890);  and  Le  livre  de  m^lancolie 
(1896). 

MAKIETTA,  mft'rl-et'tA.  A  city  and  the 
county-seat  of  Cobb  County,  Ga.,  20  miles  north 
by  west  of  Atlanta;  on  the  Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville and  the  Western  and  Atlantic  railroads 
(Map:  Georgia,  B  2).  It  has  the  Clarke  Library 
of  5000  volumes.  In  the  large  National  Cemetery 
here  there  are  10,279  graves,  2967  of  unknown 
dead.  Kenesaw  Mountain  (q.v.)  is  situated  a 
short  distance  west.  The  city  is  the  centre  of  a 
farming  and  stock-raising  district,  and  has  ex- 
tensive marble  works  and  chair  factories,  besides 
miscellaneous  manufactures.  Marietta,  first  in- 
corporated in  1852,  is  governed,  under  a  charter 
of  1885,  by  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  city 
council,  chosen  at  large.  Population,  1900,  4446; 
1906  (local  est.),  6000. 

MABIETTA.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Washington  County,  Ohio,  132  miles  by  rail 
southeast  of  Columbus;  at  the  junction  of  the 
Ohio  and  the  Muskingum  rivers,  the  former 
being  spanned  by  a  bridge  connecting  with  Wil- 
liamstown,  W.  Va. ;  and  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania  Company,  and  the  Mari- 
etta, Columbus,  and  Ohio  railroads  (Map:  Ohio, 
H  7).  It  is  the  seat  of  Marietta  College  (q.v.), 
with  a  library  of  60,000  volumes,  and  has  a  city 
park,  set  apart  in  1788,  and  the  oldest  church 
and  the  oldest  building  in  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory, the  latter  having  been  the  office  of  the  Ohio 
Land  Ompany.  In  the  cemetery  are  buried 
many  Revolutionary  soldiers.  The  city  is  in  a 
petroleum,  coal,  and  iron  region,  and  has  large 


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XABIETTA. 


62 


XABINDUQUE. 


commercial  interests  througli  its  river  trade;  it 
manufacturea  flour,  lumber  products,  chairs, 
tables,  and  furniture,  cars,  tanned  leather,  car- 
Tiages  and  wagons,  refined  petroleum,  boats,  oil- 
^well  tools,  boilers,  wooden  bicycle  rims,  brick, 
liamess,  glass,  caskets,  ete.  The  government  is 
«,dmini8tered  under  the  Ohio  municipal  code  of 
1902  by  a  mayor,  a  unicameral  council,  a  board 
of  public  safety,  appointed  by  the  mayor  with 
the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  council,  and 
a  board  of  public  service  elected  by  the  people. 
AH  these  officers  are  chosen  for  a  term  of  two 
years.  The  city  owns  and  operates  the  water- 
works and  electric-light  plant.  Population,  in 
18«0,  8273;  in  IftOO,  13,348. 

Marietta,  the  first  settlement  within  the 
present  limits  of  Ohio,  was  founded  in  1788  by 
^ufus  Putnam  and  a  colony  from  New  England 
under  the  authority  of  the  'Ohio  Company*  (q.v.) . 
It  was  named  in  honor  of  Marie  Antoinette.  In 
July,  1788,  the  Northwest  Territory  was  formally 
organized  here  by  Governor  Arthur  Saint  Clair, 
^iennerhasset  Island,  twelve  miles  below,  was 
the  scene  of  various  incidents  in  the  *Burr  Con- 
flpiracy.'  Marietta  was  first  incorporated,  as  a 
town,  in  1800.  In  1890  the  village  of  Harmar, 
where,  in  1785,  Fort  Harmar  had  been  built,  was 
annexed.  Consult  Hoar,  Oration  at  the  Celehra- 
tion  of  the  Centennial  of  the  Founding  of  the 
Jiorthvcest  at  Marietta   (Washington,  1888). 

MABIETTA  COLLEGE.  A  co-educational 
institution  of  learning  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  founded 
in  1835.  It  has  a  regular  college  course  and  also 
departments  of  art  and  music,  and  a  preparatory 
•department.  Marietta  Academy.  The  courses  are 
X)artially  elective,  and  lead  to  the  B.A.,  Ph.B., 
and  B.L.  degrees.  Provision  is  made  for  grad- 
uate instruction  and  for  summer  courses.  The 
library,  of  over  60,000  volumes,  is  especially 
strong  in  the  history  of  the  old  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory. In  1906-7  the  college  had  a  faculty  of  27 
iustructors,  and  an  attendance  of  369,  including 
'97  collegiate,  148  academic,  and  121  music  stu- 
dents. Its  endowment  was  $265,000,  its  income 
$25,000,  the  value  of  its  grounds  and  buildings 
$350,000,  and  the  total  value  of  the  college  prop- 
erty $600,000. 

KAlLIETTEy  mk'x^'hVy  Auguste  Edouabd 
<  1821-81).  A  French  Egyptologist,  born  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer.  He  became  in  1849  assist- 
ant in  the  Egjrptian  museum  at  the  Louvre. 
He  was  sent  to  Egypt  to  collect  Coptic  manu- 
scripts, but  there  bewime  interested  in  the  ruins 
of  itemphis  and  in  excavations.  Aided  finan- 
cially by  the  French  Government  and  by  the 
Duke  de  Luynes,  he  excavated,  in  1851,  the  Sera- 
peum  near  the  modern  Sakkara  and  the  tombs 
of  the  Apis  bulls,  finding  thousands  of  inscrip- 
tions and  statues,  as  well  as  many  mummies  of 
sacred  bulls  and  cows,  which  went  chiefly  to 
Paris.  In  1854  he  returned  to  Paris  and  was 
made  curator  in  the  Egyptian  Museum.  In  1858 
lie  went  to  Egj^pt  and  became  director  of  the 
governmental  excavations  and  curator  of  the 
monuments.  Acting  in  this  capacity,  he  cleared 
most  of  the  ancient  temples,  the  great  Sphinx, 
the  tombs  at  Sakkara,  and  other  historic  spots 
from  sand  and  rubbish,  and  formed  the  Egyptian 
National  Museum.  In  1873  he  received  the  bien- 
nial prize  of  20,000  francs  from  the  Institute  of 
France.  The  Egvptian  Government  gave  him 
the  title  of  Bey,  later  that  of  Pasha.  He  died 
in  1881  and  was  buried  in  a  huge  stone  sarcopha- 


gus standing  before  the  museum.  He  produced^ 
with  the  aid  of  collaborators  and  draughtsmen, 
many  books,  among  them:  M^moire  sur  la  mH-e 
(VApis  (1856);  Rcnseignementa  eur  lea  6J^  apis 
troiiv^s  dans  les  soutcrraina  du  B^rap4um  ( 1856)  ; 
Choix  de  monumenta  ct  de  deaaina,  ddcouvcria  ou 
ex^ciit^a  pendant  le  d^hlayement  du  HH-ap^um  de 
Memphia  ( 1850)  ;  Le  ti^ap^m  de  Memphiai  1857 
et  seq.)  ;  Apercu  de  Vhiatoire  d'Egypte  (1867)  ; 
Abpdoa  (1870)  ;  Lea  papyrua  ^gyptiena  du  mua^ 
de  Boulaq  ( 1872-77 )  ;  Denderah  ( 1869-75 )  ;  Mon^ 
menta  divera  (1872  et  seq.);  Deir-el-Bakari 
(1877)  ;  Kamak  (1875)  ;  Voyage  dana  la  Haute 
Egypte  ( 1878)  :  Catalogue  dea  mon^umenta  d'Aby- 
doa  (1880);  Lea  Maatabaa  de  Vancien  empire 
(1881  et  seq). 

MABIOLIAKO,  mE'r^-lya'nd.  A  to\*-n  in  the 
Province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  on  the  railway  line 
Naples-Bajano,  about  10  miles  northeast  of 
Naples  (Map:  Italy,  J  7).  It  has  a  fine  church 
and  a  large  palace.  It  markets  grain  and  wine. 
Population  (commune),  in  1901,  12,491. 

MABIOHAHO,    ma'r^-nyrnd.      See    Meudo- 

ITANO. 

MABIOOLD  {Mary,  in  allusion  to  the  Virgin 
Mary,  gold).  A  name  given  to  certain  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Composit«,  chiefly  of  the  gen- 
era Calendula  and  Tagetes.  The  genus  Calen- 
dula comprises  about  twenty  annual  and  peren- 
nial herbs  and  shrubs,  of  which  some  of  the 
former  are  found  in  the  countries  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean,  the  latter  chiefly  in  South 
Africa.  Pot  marigold  {Calendula  officinalis)  is 
a  common  cultivated  annual,  native  of  Southern 
Europe,  with  an  erect  stem,  1  to  2  feet  high, 
obovate  lower  leaves  on  long  stalks,  and  large, 
deep  yellow  flowers.  There  are  a  number  of 
varieties,  some  of  which  have  double  flowers.  • 
The  whole  plant  has  a  slight  aromatic  odor,  and 
a  bitter  taste.  The  dried  florets  are  often  em- 
ployed to  adulterate  aafl'ron,  and  sometimes  for 
coloring  butter  or  cheese.  They  are  also  used 
in  the  preparation  of  soups.  The  plants  are 
propagated  by  seeds  sown  in  spring  in  ordinary 
garden  soil  in  simny  or  half  shady  places.  Later 
they  are  thinned  to  about  one  foot  apart.  The 
genus  Tagetes  consists  of  annual  and  perennial 
herba,  natives  of  thb  warmer  parts  of  America. 
Aitliough  Tagetes  erecta,  one  of  those  most  fre- 
quently cultivated,  bears  the  name  of  African 
marigold,  and  Tagetes  patula,  another  well- 
known  annual,  is  called  French  marigold,  both 
species  are  Mexican.  Corn  marigold  is  a  chrys-  , 
anthemum.  Marsh  mari^ld  has  no  botanical 
affinity  with  the  true  marigolds. 

XABXKINA,    mhT'lkeuk,     See   Mabmoset. 

KABIKA^  mA-re'nA,  or  Maliktzin,  mft'- 
l^n-tsen'.  A  Mexican  woman.  She  was  bom  in 
Goazacoalco,  probably  in  the  early  years  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  She  was  of  a  noble  family, 
but  when  a  child  was  sold  in  slavery  to  the  Ta- 
bascan  Indians.  Soon  after  Cort^  invaded  Mexi- 
co she  became  his  interpreter  and  his  mistress. 
She  constantly  acted  as  intermediary  between 
the  Spanish  and  the  natives,  and  thus  became 
prominent  in  all  the  aflfairs  of  the  Conquest. 
Their  son,  Don  Martin  Cortes,  attained  to  con- 
siderable importance  in  Meidco.  She  was  after- 
wards married  to  Juan  de  Jaramillo,  and  was 
living  as  late  as  1550. 

MABIKDX7QUE,  mE'r^n-dcJiJ^cft.  One  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  situated  in  the  Visayan  Sea» 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABINDUQUE. 


63 


ICASINE  IKSUBAKCE. 


19  miles  south  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tayabas.  sep- 
arating North  from  South  Luzon  (Map:  Philip- 
pine Islands,  C  4.)  It  is  roughly  circular  in 
shape,  with  a  diameter  of  20  miles  and  an  area 
of  352  square  miles.  Its  surface  is  hilly,  with  a 
maximum  altitude  near  the  centre  of  probably 
2500  feet.  Tlie  interior  is  forested,  witii  some 
fine  grazing  grounds.  The  principal  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants  are  cattle-raising  and  the  cul- 
tiration  of  rice  and  hemp.  Copra  is  manufactured 
and  exported.  The  population,  in  1903.  was  51,- 
674,  almost  entirely  Tagdlog.  Marinduque  was  a 
separate  province  until  June  23,  1902,  when  the 
large  island  of  Mindoro  (q.v.)  was  annexed  to  it; 
it  forms  now  a  sub-province  of  the  Province  of 
Tayabas,  Luzon.  The  capital  is  B6ac,  a  strongly 
fortified  town  near  the  nortliwestern  coast,  with 
a  popuhition  of  15,823.  Marinduque  is  a  port  of 
call  on  the  main  line  of  conuuunication  between 
Luzon  and  Mindanao. 

ITAKTNE,  American  Merchant.  See  United 
States,  paragraph  Shipping;  Subsidies;   Siiip- 

BULLDINe. 

MABINE  CITY.  A  city  in  Saint  Clair 
County,  Mich.,  46  miles  (direct)  northeast  of 
Detroit;  on  the  Saint  Clair  River,  and  on  the 
Rapid  Railroad,  a  freight  line  <Map:  Michigan, 
G6).  It  is  a  residential  town  and  summer  resort. 
Important  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  salt 
and  beet  sugar,  and  the  building  of  wooden  ves- 
sels for  the  Great  Lakes.     Pop.,  1904,  3762. 

MABINE  COBFS  (OF.,  Fr.  marin,  from  Lat. 
marinus,  pertaining  to  the  sea,  from  mare,  sea; 
connected  with  Goth,  marei,  AS.  mere,  OHG, 
mart,  Ger.  Meer,  Ir.  muir,  OChurch  Slav,  morye, 
Lith.  mdres,  sea;  possibly  connected  with  Gk. 
?P^i  6rya?,  sea-depth).  A  body  of  soldiers  en- 
listed for  service  in  the  navy,  either  on  board 
ship  or  on  shore  at  naval  stations  or  elsewhere. 
Marines,  as  these  soldiers  are  called  in  ther  United 
States  and  British  navies,  are  a  relic  of  the  days 
when  ships  were  manned  by  soldiers  as  their 
fighting  complememt.  Instead  of  constituting  the 
greater  part  of  a  ship's  company,  they  now  form 
ittoally  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  it. 

At  the  present  time  marines  are  used  in  the 
United  States  Navy  on  board  ship  and  to  guard 
naval  stations  at  home  and  in  tne  insular  pos- 
•esions ;  and  wh«i  on  board  ship  they  constitute 
a  quickly  available  infantry  force  for  service 
abroad.  Sailors  are  also  drilled  as  infantry  and 
artillery,  but  as  their  chief  duties  are  connected 
with  the  ship,  when  they  are  landed  the  fighting 
eflfciency  of  the  ship  is  greatly  reduced. 

A  small  number  of  sea  soldiers  were  perma- 
nently kept  on  men-of-war  even  in  very  ancient 
times,  the  number  varying  from  15  to  50, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  vessel.  When  the 
heavy  guns  of  ships  had  gradually  caused  the 
employment  of  soldiers  as  the  fighting  comple- 
ment of  ships  to  be  done  away  with,  there  ensued 
an  interval  in  which  there  were  no  marines. 
In  1653  Admiral  Blake  embarked  a  number  of 
tokiiers  on  his  ship  to  act  as  riflemen  in  his 
aetimi  against  Van  Tromp.  The  British  marine 
corps  was  first  established  in  1664,  but  it  was 
•everal  times  wholly  or  partly  abolished. 

In  the  United  States  Navy  the  provision  for 
the  enlistment  of  marines  antedat^  the  actual 
fonnatioD  of  the  regular  establishment  of  the 
nsvy,  being  authorized  in  an  act  of  Congress 
dtted  November  10.  1775.  This  act.  however, 
naily  intended  to  provide  for  a  naval  establish- 


ment under  the  designation  of  marines,  as  the 
enlisted  men  and  ottioers  were  required  to  be 
"good  seamen,  or  so  acquainted  with  maritime 
aHairs  as  to  be  able  to  serve  to  advantage  by 
sea  when  required,"  The  actual  establishment  of 
the  corps  dates  from  June  25,  1776,  when  a 
marine  corps,  consisting  of  1  major  (Samuel 
Nichols),  9  captains,  10  first  lieutenante,  and  7 
second  lieutenants,  was  provided  for  and  the 
officers  appointed.  After  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tion the  navy  was  practically  abolished,  and^ 
with  other  branches,  the  marine  corps  disap- 
peared. When  the  reorganization  of  the  navy- 
took  place,  in  1798,  the  marine  corps  was  again 
established,  with  an  authorized. strength,  officer* 
and  men,  of  881,  commanded  by  a  major.  The- 
marine  corps  has  been  found  especially  useful 
where  it  is  necessary  to  make  landing  parties  an 
essential  part  of  a  naval  movement. 

In  1899  the  number  of  men  and  officers  was 
greatly  increased.  In  1907  it  consisted  of  1  brig- 
adier-general and  commandant,  8  colonels,  ^ 
lieutenant-colonels,  21  majors,  81  captains,  85 
first  lieutenants,  68  second  lieutenants,  and  600O 
enlisted  men.  Consult  Collum,  The  History  of  the 
Marine  Corps   (New  York,  1902). 

MABIKEB.  A  term  in  heraldry,  applied  to 
an  animal  whose  lower  extremity  terminates  in 
a  tail  like  that  of  a  fish.    See  Heraldry. 

MABINE  HOSPITAL  SEBVICE.  A  bu- 
reau in  the  Treasury  Department  of  the  United 
States,  charged  with  the  management  of  marine 
hospitals  and  relief  stations  for  the  cure  of  sick 
and  disabled  seamen  of  the  American  merchant 
marine.  It  has  also  under  its  supervision  the 
national  quarantine  stations,  the  supervision  of 
local  qiiarantines,  the  investigation  and  3uppre»> 
sion  of  epidemics  and  plagues,  the  collection  and 
dissemination  of  mortality  statistics  and  sani- 
tary information,  the  scientific  investigation  of 
sanitary  problems,  and  the  examination  of  immi- 
grants under  the  laws  excluding  those  affeeted 
with  contagious  diseases.  At  present  there  are 
20  marine  hospitals,  a  sanitarium  for  consump- 
tive seamen  in  New  Mexico,  and  115  relief  sta- 
tions. The  Marine  Hospital  Senice  of  the  United 
States  owes  its  origin  to  an  act  of  Congress  of 
July  16,  1798.  For  a  long  time  the  service  con- 
sisted mainly  of  independent  hospitals  built  as 
necessity  arose  and  placed  under  ciiarge  of  a  sur- 
geon appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
lu  1871  the  service  was  reorganized  and  placed 
under  the  charge  of  a  supervising  surgeon-genoraf 
with  an  office  in  Washington.  In  1906  the  staff 
consisted  of  a  surgeon-general,  12  assistant  sur- 
geons-general, 31  surgeons,  59  passed  assistant 
surgeons,  and  31  assistant  surgeons,  all  com- 
missioned officers.  There  were  l)esidos  188  act- 
ing assistant  surgeons  appointed  by  the  Ser- 
retary  of  the  Treasury.  The  marine  hospitals  are 
located  on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  sea- 
boards, on  the  Gulf  of  ^Mexico,  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  in  several  of  the  larger  river  cities, 
and  in  Alaska,  while  relief  stations  exist  in  the 
new  insular  possessions.  By  an  act  of  Congress 
of  July  I,  1902,  the  official  title  of  the  service 
was  changed  to  the  Public  Health  and  Marine 
Hospital  Service.  Consult  the  annual  reports 
and  public  addresses  of  the  Surgeon-General. 

MABINE  IKSUBANCE.  The  practice  of 
marine  insurance,  at  least  on  a  purely  commer- 
cial basis,  antedates  by  centuries  the  applicatiott 


Digitized  by 


C^oogle 


MABINE  INSITBAKCE. 

of  the  insurance  principle  to  other  kinds  of  risks. 
Even  in  ancient  times  there  was  developed  a 
system  of  quasi -insurance  in  the  form  of  loans  on 
bottomry  by  which  risks  were  at  least  partially 
transferred.  In  the  Middle  Ages  marine  insur- 
ance on  a  commercial  basis  first  appeared  as 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century  in  Flanders  and 
in  Portugal.  The  oldest  legal  document  relating 
to  insurance  which  has  come  down  to  us  consists 
of  the  ordinances  issued  by  the  magistrates  of 
Barcelona  in  1435  to  r^ulate  the  business  of 
marine  insurance.  Marine  underwriting  appears 
to  have  been  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Lombards  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  By 
the  eighteenth  century  that  country  had  obtained 
the  leading  position  in  the  business,  which  she 
has  since  maintained. 

For  many  years  marine  underwriting  in  Eng- 
land was  carried  on  exclusively  by  unassociated 
individuals  and  continued  to  be  conducted  on  a 
strictly  individual  basis  until  late  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  first  step  toward  the  regula- 
tion of  marine  underwriting  by  the  Lloyds  Asso- 
ciation (q.v.)  was  taken  in  1779,  when  a  printed 
form  of  policy  was  adopted,  practically  the 
same  as  the  one  still  in  use.  In  1871  the  Lloyds 
Association  was  incorporated  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment, the  articles  of  incorporation  stating  as 
the  main  objects  of  the  organization  the  conduct 
of  the  business  of  marine  insurance,  the  protec- 
tion of  the  interests  of  the  members  of  the 
association,  and  the  collection  and  publication  of 
information  in  regard  to  shipping.  It  is  for 
the  accomplishment  of  the  last-named  purpose 
that  the  association  has  developed  its  remarkable 
system  of  agencies,  whose  intelligence  and  dis- 
patch in  gathering  and  reporting  shipping  news 
are  unequaled  in  any  similar  organization. 
Marine  underwriting  at  Lloyds  is  still  exclu- 
sively an  individual  transaction,  though  under 
the  general  supervision  of  the  association.  The 
method  of  transacting  business  is  as  follows :  A 
merchant  having  a  ship  to  insure  sends  through 
a  broker  a  slip  setting  forth  the  characteristics 
of  the  risk  he  desires  insured.  Any  underwriter 
who  desires  to  assume  a  part  of  the  risk  places 
on  the  slip  his  initials  and  the  amount  he  is 
willing  to  assume.  No  one  underwriter  assumes 
very  large  risks,  a  ship  and  cargo  being  usually 
imderwntten  by  a  large  number  of  individuals, 
each  of  whom  carries  from  £100  to  £500.  The 
responsibility  of  each  underwriter  is  limited  to 
the  amount  for  which  he  has  subscribed.  When 
the  entire  amount  has  been  subscribed,  the  policy 
is  made  out  and  signed  by  those  who  have  already 
put  their  initials  on  the  slip. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  two  insurance  com- 
panies, the  Royal  Exchange  and  the  London,  were 
authorized  to  transact  a  marine  business,  while 
the  privilege  was  denied  to  all  other  companies. 
These  two  companies  appear  to  have  done  little 
marine  underwriting.  In  1824  the  monopoly  re- 
striction was  removed,  and  since  that  time  many 
companies  have  gone  into  the  business.  Even 
these  companies,  however,  find  it  advantageous 
to  work  through  Lloyds,  each  of  them  having  a 
representative  on  the  floor  of  that  association. 

In  America  marine  insurance  was  the  first 
form  to  be  written.  In  1759  the  first  office  was 
established,  although  a  large  amount  of  indi- 
vidual underwriting  had  previously  been  carried 
on.  This  office  was  opened  in  New  York,  and 
was   known   as  the  Old   Insurance  Office.     The 


64  MABINE  INSITBAKCE. 

method  of  conducting  business  was  by  individual 
underwriting,  after  the  manner  of  the  English 
Lloyds. 

It  was  not  until  near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  that  corporations  took  up  the  husiness 
of  marine  imderwriting.  The  first  in  the  field 
were  the  Insurance  Company  of  North  America 
and  the  Insurance  Company  of  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Both  were  located  in  Philadelphia, 
and  both  began  marine  underwriting  in  1794. 
The  growth  of  the  business  was  rapid  and  was 
greatly  stimulated  by  the  expansion  of  American 
shipping  during  the  period  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars  in  Europe.  The  companies  rapidly  ab- 
sorbed the  entire  business  of  the  coimtry,  and  by 
the  year  1825  individual  imderwriting  was  prac- 
tically at  an  end  in  the  United  States. 

The  period  of  the  Civil  War  subjected  the 
marine  companies  to  a  severe  strain,  and  several 
of  them  succumbed.  Since  that  time  the  condi- 
tion of  marine  underwriting  has  reflected  the  con- 
dition of  the  shipping  industry  of  the  country. 
The  great  growth  of  the  business  has  been  seen, 
not  in  the  insurance  of  risks  on  the  high  seas, 
but  in  the  insurance  of  risks  on  inland  waters. 
The  headquarters  for  the  insurance  of  shipping 
on  the  lakes  is  Chicago.  The  business  is  espe- 
cially hazardous  on  account  of  the  limited  area 
over  which  the  operations  extend,  and  a  conse- 
quent great  fluctuation  in  loss-rate. 

The  general  principles  on  which  marine  in- 
surance is  based  are  not  difi'erent  from  those 
underlying  other  forms  of  insurance,  but  in 
practice  the  former  presents  a  number  of  peculiar 
features. 

The  Poucy.  The  common  form  of  marine  pol- 
icy is  the  'voyage'  policy,  that  is,  a  policy  to  be 
in  force  for  a  voyage  from  one  specified  port  to 
another.  Occasionally,  however,  a  ship  is  in- 
sured imder  a  *time'  policy,  which  is  to  be  in 
force  for  a  specified  time,  usually  a  year.  The 
chief  practical  distinction  between  the  two  is 
that  with  a  voyage  policy  there  is  always  a  war- 
ranty, express  or  implied,  that  the  ship  is  sea- 
worthy at  the  beginning  of  the  voyage,  while  with 
a  time  policy  no  such  warranty  is  implied. 

An  'open'  policy  is  one  which  provides  that  in 
case  of  total  loss  the  amount  of  the  indemnity 
shall  be  determined  by  ascertaining  the  amount 
of  loss  actually  suffered.  It  is  incumbent  upon 
the  insured  to  prove  the  value  of  the  destroyed 
property.  A  'valued*  policy,  on  the  other  hand, 
provides  that  in  case  of  total  loss  the  amount 
stated  in  the  policy  shall  be  regarded  as  the 
value  of  the  insured  property  and  paid  as  in- 
demnity. Valued  policies  are  more  frequently 
issued  on  the  ship,  while  the  cargo  is  more  com- 
monly covered  by  an  open  policy.  The  use  of 
the  valued  policy  has  undoubtedly  tended  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  over-insurance  and  delib- 
erate destruction  of  vessels.  This  practice  is 
especially  easy  under  the  system  of  individual 
underwriting  prevailing  at  Lloyds,  since  the  un- 
derwriter frequently  Knows  little  or  nothing 
about  the  ship  he  is  insuring  beyond  what  is 
stated  in  the  slip. 

Objects.  The  objects  most  commonly  insured 
under  a  marine  policy  are  ship,  cargo,  and 
freights.  Sometimes  other  objects  are  covered, 
such  as  the  expected  profits  of  the  voyage,  or, 
more  frequently,  the  liability  for  damages  on  ac- 
count of  collision.  The  insurance  of  freight  is 
an  illustration  of  a  peculiar  feature  of  marine 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ICABIHE  INSUBAKCE. 


65 


ICABINE  INSUBANCE. 


insurance.  In  all  other  forms  of  insurance  of 
property  the  amount  of  indemnity  that  can  be 
recovered  in  case  of  loss  is  determined  by  the 
value  of  the  property  destroyed,  damnum  emer- 
gens. In  marine  insurance  it  is  possible  to 
insure  an  expected  gain  and  to  obtain  indemnity 
if  the  occurrence  of  any  of  the  events  covered 
by  the  policy  makes  it  impossible  to  realize  the 
gain,  lucrum  cessans. 

Dangers.  A  marine  policy  covers  a  far  greater 
number  and  variety  of  dangers  than  any  other 
form  of  policy  issued.  Besides  the  more  char- 
acteristic perils  of  the  seas,  such  as  wind  and 
wave,  fire,  collision,  stranding,  jettison,  and  the 
like,  the  policy  covers  three  distinct  kinds  of 
danger — ^war  risks,  including  detention  as  well  as 
capture  or  destruction;  pirates,  rovers,  and 
thieves;  and  barratry,  or  illegal  acts  of  captain 
or  crew.  As  to  the  losses  caused  by  the  perils 
of  the  sea,  they  must  be  due  to  extraordinary 
action  of  wind  and  wave,  or  to  some  other  un- 
usual cause.  The  losses  caused  by  ordinary 
forces  are  known  as  wear  and  tear,  and  are  not 
covered  by  the  insurance.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  kinds  of  losses  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  litigation,  and  the  present  condi- 
tion of  the  law  of  the  subject  is  precise  but 
complex.  Modem  policies  cover  some  further 
kinds  of  loss,  especially  liability  for  damages  on 
account  of  collision. 

Insubance  After  the  Loss.  Uncertainty  as  to 
the  fate  of  a  vessel  may  continue  for  an  indefinite 
time  after  the  loss  has  occurred.  Insurance 
may  be  taken  out  on  an  overdue  ship,  and  even 
though  it  should  afterwards  appear  that  the  ves- 
sel had  already  suffered  shipwreck  at  the  time 
when  the  insurance  was  effected  the  indemnity 
could  still  be  collected.  The  premium  rate  on 
an  overdue  ship  indicates  the  judgment  of  the 
underwriters  as  to  the  probability  that  the  vessel 
has  already  suffered  disaster. 

Reinsurance.  Individual  underwriters  enjoy 
to  only  a  limited  extent  the  advantages  that  come 
from  the  combination  of  a  large  number  of  risks 
in  a  group,  and  consequently  single  losses  may 
involve  a  considerable  share  of  their  capital.  They 
avoid  this  danger  partly  by  underwriting  only 
a  small  portion  of  the  value  of  each  ship  they 
insure,  and  partly  by  resorting  to  reinsurance. 
As  it  is  always  possible  to  insure  a  ship  as  long 
as  it  is  unknown  whether  she  has  suffered  dis- 
aster or  not,  it  is  customary  for  those  who  have 
insurance  in  force  on  a  vessel  that  is  overdue  to 
protect  themselves  by  reinsuring  her.  They  are 
naturally  obliged  to  pay  higher  premiums  than 
they  themselves  received.  If  this  process  of  rein- 
surance is  repeated  several  times,  as  is  frequently 
the  case,  the  effect  is  that  a  loss  is  distributed  in 
small  proportions  over  a  large  number  of  under- 
^^-riters. 

The  Loss.  Loss  may  be  complete  or  partial. 
When  it  is  complete  the  settlement  between  the 
insured  and  the  underwriters  is  comparatively 
simple.  On  a  valued  policy  an  insurer  becomes 
liable  for  the  amount  stated  in  the  face  of  the 
policy.  In  the  case  of  an  open  policy  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  insured  to  prove  the  value  of  the 
property  destroyed  or  the  amount  of  freight  lost. 
Unl«8  otherwise  airreed,  the  value  of  the  ship  is 
its  value  at  the  time  of  starting  on  the  voyage 
with  the  value  of  the  ship's  stores  included ;  the 
value  of  the  cargo  is  its  invoice  value  with  the 
addition     of     insurance     premium     and     other 


charges;  and  the  value  of  the  freight  is  the 
amount  the  ship  would  have  earned  if  she  had 
reached  her  destination  in  safety. 

Abandonment.  A  peculiar  feature  of  marine 
insurance  is  the  practice  of  abandonment,  when 
the  insured  surrenders  or  abandons  to  the  under- 
writers the  property  covered  by  the  policy  and 
demands  his  entire  indemnity.  This  right  does 
not  always  exist,  but  arises  only  when  the  in- 
sured property  has  suffered  so  serious  damage 
from  perils  covered  by  the  policy  that  it  amounts 
to  'constructive*  total  loss.  With  regard  to  the 
ship  or  the  cargo  there  is  held  to  be  constructive 
total  loss  when  the  damage  exceeds  one-half  the 
value  of  the  vessel  or  cargo  respectively,  and 
when  the  vessel  is  captured  by  the  enemy  or  de- 
tained by  embargo.  There  is  constructive  total 
loss  of  cargo  when  it  is  so  badly  injured  that  it 
has  to  be  sold  at  some  other  place  than  its  orig- 
inal destination.  There  is  constructive  loss  of 
freight  when  the  ship  is  unable  to  complete  her 
voyage,  or  the  goods  on  which  the  freight  is  to 
be  paid  are  so  badly  damaged  that  they  cannot 
be  carried  to  their  original  destination. 

When  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  give  a 
legal  right  to  abandon,  it  is  optional  with  the 
insured  whether  he  will  take  advantage  of  the 
right  or  not.  If  he  decides  to  do  so  he  must  give 
notice  to  the  insurer  within  a  reasonable  time; 
and  having  once  elected  to  abandon,  it  is  im- 
possible for  him  to  draw  back.  The  effect  of 
abandonment  is  to  vest  the  title  to  the  insured 
property  in  the  underwriter  and  to  convey  to  him 
all  rights  and  claims  on  account  of  the  ship  and 
cargo. 

Average.  When  there  is  partial  loss  and  the 
insured  cannot  or  does  not  elect  to  abandon 
and  receive  the  entire  indemnity,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  ascertain  the  amount  for  which  the 
insurer  is  liable.  Such  partial  losses  are  known 
by  the  name  of  average,  a  term  borrowed  by 
marine  insurance  from  general  maritime  law.  It 
is  frequently  necessary  to  sacrifice  some  part  of 
the  ship  or  cargo  in  order  to  save  the  rest.  It 
is  obviously  unjust  to  have  the  entire  burden  of 
loss  imder  such  circumstances  fall  upon  the  party 
whose  property  is  thus  voluntarily  destroyed  or 
injured.  Maritime  law  therefore  prescribes  the 
way  in  which  such  losses  shall  be  apportioned 
or  'averaged'  among  all  the  interests  at  stake. 
The  term  average  was  later  extended  to  include 
losses  of  all  kinds.  To  distinguish  those  losses 
which  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  ought  to  be 
apportioned  among  all  the  parties  from  those 
which  ought  to  be  borne  entirely  by  the  party 
whose  property  is  damaged,  the  former  kind  of 
loss  is  called  general  average,  the  latter  particu- 
lar average.  In  the  case  of  the  ship,  the  volun- 
tary cutting  away  of  a  mast  to  save  the  ship 
would  be  general  average;  the  loss  of  a  mast 
through  the  violence  of  the  wind  would  be  par- 
ticular average.  There  is  general  average  on  the 
cargo  when  a  part  of  it  is  jettisoned,  or  thrown 
overboard  to  lighten  the  ship ;  there  is  particular 
average  when  a  part  of  it  is  damaged  as  the 
result  of  the  action  of  forces  which  are  included 
in  the  policy.  So  far  as  the  insurance  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  the  general  rule  that  the  insurer 
is  liable  for  all  general  averages  under  all  con- 
ditions, in  the  absence  of  fraud.  His  liability 
for  particular  average,  however,  is  usually  lim- 
ited in  the  policy.  For  certain  kinds  of  com- 
modities the  policy  exempts  the  insurer  from  all 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ICABINE  INSXTKANCB.  66 

liability;  for  others,  from  liability  for  losses 
of  less  than  5  per  cent.,  or  sonie  other  speciiied 
proportion,  unless  the  ship  be  stranded,  while  for 
all  other  commodities,  anid  for  ship  and  freight. 
Liability  does  not  attach  unless  the  loi^s  exceed 
3  per  cent,  or  the  ship  be  stranded.  When  sev- 
eral successive  losses  are  experienced  during  the 
same  voyage,  the  sum  oi  all  the  losses  is  the 
amount  considered  in  determining  whether  the 
percentage  of  loss  is  high  enough  to  render  the 
underwriters  liable. 

The  measure  of  the  liability  of  the  insurer  for 
particular  average  on  the  ship  is  the  cost  el 
repairs,  including  all  extra  expenses  which  they 
involve,  with  a  deduction,  usually  of  one-third, 
from  the  value  of  new  material  used  in  repairing 
the  ship;  in  the  case  of  freight  it  is  the  amount 
actually  lost  through  the  diminution  in  the 
weight  of  the  cargo;  and  for  the  cargo  it  is  that 
part  of  the  invoice  value  of  the  damaged  goods 
which  remains  after  there  has  been  subtracted 
from  their  total  value  such  a  proportion  of  the 
total  value  as  the  gross  value  of  the  damaged 
goods  at  the  port  of  destination  is  of  the  gross 
value  of  similar  goods  in  a  sound  condition. 

General  Average.  In  the  absence  of  insurance 
general  average  would  be  apportioned  among  all 
the  owners  of  ship,  cargo,  and  freight.  Each 
party,  including  the  one  whose  property  was 
sacrificed,  would  make  contribution  in  propor- 
tion to  the  value  of  the  property  he  had  at  stake. 
In  estimating  that  value  the  value  of  ship  and 
cargo  is  usually  taken  at  their  actim.1  value  when 
they  I  each  their  destination,  while  the  value  of 
the  freight  is  ascertained  by  subtracting  the 
wages  of  captain  and  crew  from  the  gross 
amount  received  as  freight.  When  the  diflFerent 
parties  are  insured,  general  average  is  paid  by 
the  underwriters  and  not  by  the  owners  of  the 
property.  So  far  as  general  average  is  con- 
cerned, insurance  is  a  transfer  from  owners  to 
underwriters  of  liability  for  contributions  to  re- 
imburse those  whose  property  has  been  sacrificed 
for  the  general  good. 

*SuE  AND  Labor.'  When  loss  or  disaster 
threatens  a  ship  or  cargo,  the  master  c^  the 
vessel  is  bound  to  do  everjrthing  in  his  power 
to  avoid  the  danger  or  avert  the  loss.  Whatever 
expense  is  incurred  for  that  purpose  the  under- 
writers are  responsible  for,  under  the  so-called 
'suing  and  laboring'  clause,  which  reads  as  fol- 
lows: "In  case  of  any  loss  or  misfortune,  it  shall 
be  lawful  to  the  assured,  their  factors,  servants 
and  assigns,  to  sue,  labor,  and  travel  for,  in, 
or  about  the  defense,  safeguard,  and  recovery 
of  the  said  goods  and  merchandise,  or  ship,  or 
any  part  thereof,  without  prejudice  to  this  in- 
surance: to  the  charges  whereof,  we,  the  assur- 
ers, will  contribute,  each  one  according  to  the 
rate  and  quantity  of  the  sum  herein  insured.'* 
While  the  clause  says  that  the  insured  'may* 
so  sue  and  labor,  it  is  the  established  rule  of 
law  that  he  is  bound  so  to  act.  The  general  rule 
is  that  in  case  of  damage  or  partial  loss  the 
insured  is  bound  to  act  as  a  prudent  man  would 
act  under  the  circumstances  if  he  were  unin- 
sured. 

MABIKE  BAM.    See  Ram,  Marine. 

XABIKEB'S  COMPASS.    See  Compass. 

MABINETTB,  mftr'I-n^t'.  A  city  and  the 
county-Heat  of  Marinette  County,  Wis/,  178  miles 
north  of  Milwaukee;  on  the  C'iiicago  and  North- 


MABINOHI. 

western,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Saint  Paul* 
and  the  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  railroads  ( Map: 
Wisconsin,  F  3).  It  is  situated  at  the  mouth 
OI  the  Menominee  River,  on  (ireen  Bay,  opposite 
Menominee,  Mich.,  with  whicli  it  is  connected  by 
bridges,  and  by  steam  and  electric  trams.  Mari- . 
nette  has  a  fine  harbor,  and  carries  on  an  ex- 
tensive lake  commerce;  and  its  good  water  power 
and  proximity  to  valuable  forests  have  developed 
its  exteuHive  lumber  interests.  It  is,  moreover, 
growing  in  favor  aa  a  sumnjer  resort.  There 
are  also  large  box  factories,  several  establish- 
ments making  various  cedar  products,  pail  and 
broom  factories,  paper  and  pulp  mills,  iron 
works,  and  manufactories  of  steam  threshing 
machines  and  gas  and  traction  engines.  Settled 
about  1850,  Marinette  was  incorporated  in  1887. 
The  governnipnt  is  administered  under  a  general 
charter  of  1898,  which  provides  for  a  mayor, 
elected  everv  two  venrs,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil.    Population,  1900,  16,195;  1905,  15,354. 

MABINI,  mA-r^nd,  Giambattista  (15df- 
1625).  An  Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples,  Octo- 
ber 18,  1569.  He  entered  upon  the  study  of 
jurisprudence,  but  lived  so  wildly  that  his  father 
eventually  banished  him  from  home.  He  waa. 
received  into  the  house  of  the  chief  admiral  of 
Naples  as  a  secretary,  but  the  part  that  he  played 
in  connection  with  a  certain  abduction  finally 
forced  him  to  flee  to  Rome,  There  he  prospered,, 
and  before  long  ( 1003)  he  was  able  to  undertake 
a  journey  to  Venice  to  superintend  the  publica- 
tion of  his  verse.  Attached  to  the  household  of 
Cardinal  Aldobraadini,  he  traveled  with  him  in 
Italy^  and,  luider  his  auspices,  came  into  contact 
with  many  men  of  letters  of  the  time.  He  next 
won  the  favor  of  the  ducal  ruler  of  Turin,  Charles 
Emmanuel  I.,  but,  being  suspected  of  a  quip  upon 
the  Duke,  he  was  arrested,  and  upon  his  release 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  succeeded  in  recommend- 
ing himself  to  the  good  graces  of  Maria  de'  Me- 
dici. He  remained  in  France  from  1615  to  1623, 
and  then,  returning  to  Italy,  he  was  everywhere 
received  with  extraordinary  honor.  He  died  at 
Naples,  March  25,  1625.  Before  his  twentieth 
year,  Marini  had  already  gained  considerable  re- 
pute by  his  Canzone  de*  had.  The  first  collection 
of  his  verse  was  that  of  Venice  (1602-14).  en- 
titled La  lira,  in  which  there  is  an  obvious  imita- 
tion of  Ovid,  Tibullus,  Spanish  writers*  and 
earlier  Italian  poets.  His  most  noted  production 
is  the  Adone  (Paris,  1623),  a  long  poem  in  oc- 
taves, ostensibly  on  the  loves  of  Venus  and 
Adonis,  but  containing  long  digressions.  WTiat 
most  attracted  attention  in  this  work  was  its  man- 
nerisms, the  excess  of  imagery,  and  its  over- 
wrought style.  Marini  is  equally  reprehensible 
for  the  notorious  license  and  indecency  of  many  of 
his  writings.  Cf.  the  ed.  of  the  Adone  of  Florence, 
1886;  the  Galleria  (Venice,  1619);  his  Lettere 
(Venice,  1647)  ;  M.  Menghini.  La  vita  e  le  opere 
di  G.  B.  Marini  (Rome,  1888). 

MABINO  FAUEBO,  m&-re^n6  f&lya^rd.  A 
drama  by  Byron  ( 1820) .  It  is  the  story  of  a  tra- 
gedy of  1355,  when  the  Doge  Faliero,  detected  in 
a  conspiracy  to  overthrow  the  Venetian  Republic, 
was  beheaded. 

MABHrONI,  ma'r^-nS'n^,  Hippoltte  ( 1825- 
1904).  A  French  inventor,  born  at  Paris.  He 
invented  a  rotary  press  which  could  print  40,000 
copies  in  an  hour,  and  another  which  printed 
polychromes  in  six  colors  at  the  rate  of  20,000 
an  hour,  as  well  as  many  other  improvements  in 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABINONI. 

priating.     His  rotary  press  was  used  by  news- 
papers in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

MABIO,  ma^'r^A,  Giuseppe,  Marquis  di  Oan- 
dia  ( 1810-83 ) .  An  Italian  dramatic  tenor  singer, 
l»m  at  Cagliari,  Sardinia.  In  1830  be  received 
bis  eommission  as  officer  in  the  Chasseurs 
bardes^  but  abandoned  his  commission  and  fled 
to  Paris,  where  he  later  secured  the  appointment 
of  first  tenor  at  the  opera.  At  the  same  time 
lie  adopted  the  name  ilario.  After  two  years* 
study  at  the  conservatory  he  made  his  d^but  in 
1838  m  Robert  le  Diahle,  and  achieved  the  first 
of  a  long  seriear  of  operatic  triumphs.  From 
1845  to  1850  he  fulfilled  an  engagement  in  Rus- 
sia, and  on  his  return  appeared  in  London,  and 
in  1854  he  went  to  Ameriea.  In  his  private  life 
he  WRS  known  for  generosity  to  struggling  artists. 
His  repertoire  embraced  all  the  staged  operas  of 
Rossini,  Bellini,  Donizetti,  and  Verdi,  In  1844 
he  married  the  singer  GrisL    He  died  in  Rome. 

KABION,  mftr^-on  or  ma^ri-on.  A  town  and 
the  county-seat  of  Perry  County,  Ala.,  26  miles 
northwest  of  Selma;  on  the  Southern  Railroad 
(Map:  Alabama,  B  3).  It  has  the  Judson  Fe- 
nale  Institute  (Baptist),  opened  in  1839;  Mar- 
ion Female  Seminary,  opened  in  1836;  Marion 
Military  Institute;  and  the  Lincoln  Normal 
School  for  colored  pupils  (Congregational).  An 
agricultural  country  surrounds  the  town.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1900,  1698;  in  1906  (local  est),  2000. 

ICARIOK.  A  city  and  the  eounty-seat  of 
Wiiliamson  County,  111.,  114  miles  southeast  of 
Saittt  Louis,  Mo.;  on  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
ChicagD  and  Eastern  Illinois  and  the  Coal  Belt 
railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  D  6).  It  has  a  trade  in 
grain  and  live  stock,  and  manufactures  of  flour, 
cigars,  etc.  In  the  vicinity  are  fine  timber  lands 
aaii  deposits  of  coal,  the  raining  of  which  con- 
stiliites  the  leading  industry.  Population,  in 
ttOO,  2510;  in  1906   (local  cen.),  6790. 

ITAKTOy.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Grant  County,  Ind.,  on  the  Mississinewa  River, 
68  miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis ;  on  the  Cleve- 
land, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis;  the 
Pittsburg.  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis; 
the  Toledo,  Saint  Louis  and  Western,  and  the 
Chicago,  Cincinnati,  and  Louisville  railroads 
(Map:  Indiana,  D  2).  Interurban  electric  lines 
connect  the  city  with  IndianapoHs  and  other 
cities  and  towns.  It  has  a  Federal  building,  a 
handsome  court-house,  a  large  normal  college,  and 
a  $65,000  public  library  building.  A  National 
Soldiers'  Home,  which  cost  over  $1,500,000,  is 
three  miles  south  of  the  city.  Marion  is  the 
centre  of  a  farming  section  and  has  good  water 
power  and  a  supply  of  natural  gas.  There  are 
extensive  nuinufactures,  principally  of  window 
glass,  fruit  jars,  bottles,  bar  iron,  and  bedsteads; 
also  flouring,  saw  and  planing,  linseed  oil,  and 
pulp  and  paper  mills;  foundries,  cornice  and 
brick  works,  etc.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral 
conneil.  Blarion  owes  and  operates  its  water- 
works and  electric-light  plant.  Population,  1900, 
17,337;  1906  (local  est.),  26,000. 

1CABI0K.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Ijnn  County,  Iowa,  5  miles  northeast  of  Cedar 
Rapids;  at  the  junction  of  divisions  of  the  C'hi- 
cagD,  \tilwankee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad  (Map: 
Iowa,  F  2).  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  agricul- 
tarml  country  and  is  a  healthful  residential  city, 
and  has  the  county  buildings,  a  public  library, 


67  MABiaV. 

and  a  park  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  There  are 
large  freight  yards  and  repair  shops  of  the  Chi- 
(•ago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad;  also 
flouring  mills,  cigar  factories,  a  creamery,  a  broom 
factory,  and  two  greenhouses.  Marion  was  settled 
in  1839  and  was  incorporated  in  1852.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  4102:  in  1905,  4112. 

MABION.  A  cit^'  and  the  county -seat  of 
Marion  County,  Kan.,  104  miles  by  rail  southwest 
of  Topeka;  on  the  Cottonwood  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  and  the  Atchi- 
son, Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  railroads  (T^Iap:  Kan- 
sas, F  3).  It  has  considerable  trade  as  a  centre 
of  a  fanning  and  stock-raising  region,  and  some 
manufactures,  principally  of  flour.  Population, 
in  1900,  1824;  in  1905,  1802. 

T/ULRIOTK,  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Marion  County,  Ohio.  45  miles  north  of  Colum- 
bus; on  the  Hocking  Valley,  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  Erie  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  D  4). 
There  are  a  public  library,  a  normal  school,  the 
Sawyer  Sanitarium,  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building. 
Marion  is  the  centre  of  a  farming  district,  and 
has  lime  works,  malleable  iron  works,  silk-mills, 
a  piano  factory,  and  manufactories  of  engines, 
steam  shovels,  agricultural  machines,  etc.  Pop- 
ulation, 1900,  11,862;  1906  (local  est.),  17,000. 

MAJUON.  A  city  and  the  county -scat  of 
Marion  County,  S.  C,  103  miles  east  of  Cohun- 
bia,  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  and  the  Raleigh 
and  Charleston  railroads  (Map:  South  Carolina, 
E  2).  It  is  in  a  fertile  region  interested  chiefly 
in  cotton  and  tobacco  growing,  and  has  cotton 
and  cottonseed-oil  mills,  a  foundry,  lumber  mills, 
etc.  There  is  a  public  library.  Population,  in 
1890,  1640;  in  1900,  1831. 

HULRIOK,  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Smyth  County,  Va.,  107  miles  west  by  south  of 
Roanoke;  on  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Railroad, 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Marion  and  Rye  Valley 
Railway  (Map:  Virginia,  C  5).  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  Southwestern  State  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, accommodating  about  four  hundred  inmates, 
and  of  the  Marion  Female  College  (Lutheran). 
The  principal  industries  are  wood-working,  mill- 
ing, mining,  and  stone-quarrying.  Settled  in 
18.32,  Marion  was  first  incorporated  in  1J^71.  The 
town  has  its  own  water  supply,  obtained  by  tlie 
gravity  system  from  springs  which  are  about 
three  miles  distant.  Population,  in  1890,  1651; 
in  1900,  2045;  in  1906  (local  est.),  3000. 

MABJOTSTy  Francis  (1732-96).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  bom  at  Winyah,  near  (George- 
town, S.  C.  in  which  neighborhood  his  grand- 
father, a  Huguenot  refugee,  had  settled  soon 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  in 
1685.  In  1759  he  removed  to  Pond  Blufl",  near 
Eutaw.  In  1775  he  represented  Saint  John's 
Parish,  Berkeley  County,  in  the  Provincial  Con- 
gress, which  axlopted  the  Bill  of  Rights,  and 
voted  to  raise  forces  after  the  battle  of  I^xing- 
ton.  He  was  commissioned  a  captain  in  Colonel 
Moultrie's  regiment,  June  2l8t,  and  took  part 
in  the  occupation  of  Fort  Johnson,  which  caused 
the  flight  of  the  royal  Governor,  Lord  William 
Campbell.  After  his  promotion  to  major,  in 
1776,  he  was  stationed  at  the  unfinished  Fort 
Sullivan  (afterwards  called  Fort  Moultrie),  in 
Charleston  Harbor.  He  showed  great  coolness 
during  Sir  Peter  Parker's  bombardment,  June  28y 


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MABION. 


68 


HABIS. 


1776,  and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
regular  service.  For  a  time  he  was  in  command 
of  Fort  Moultrie,  and  then  took  part  in  the  un- 
successful attack  of  D'Estaing  and  Lincoln  on 
Savannah  in  1779.  When  the  British  captured 
Charleston  in  1780  and  began  to  overrun  the 
State^  Marion  fled  to  North  Carolina,  where  he 
met  General  Gates,  who  received  him  coldly.  Soon 
he  was  asked  to  command  four  companies  of  ir- 
re^lar  cavalry,  which  had  been  raised  around 
Williamsburg,  S.  C,  and  in  August,  1780,  (Gov- 
ernor Rutledge  gave  him  a  commission  as  briga- 
dier-general of  State  troops.  After  the  defeat 
of  Gates  at  Camden  and  of  Sumter  at  Fishing 
Creek,  this  was  for  a  time  the  only  American 
force  of  any  strength  in  the ,  State.  The  men 
furnished  their  own  equipment  and  came  and 
went  almost  at  will,  as  it  was  necessary  to  pro- 
tect their  families  from  the  Tories  and  to  plant 
their  crops. 

The  first  important  action  was  on  August  2, 
1780,  at  Nelson's  Ferry,  where  two  companies  of 
British  re^lars  were  routed  and  160  Conti- 
nental soldiers  taken  at  Camden  were  recap- 
tured. Marion's  men  caused  much  trouble  to 
Comwallis  by  intercepting  communications,  cap- 
turing foraging  and  scouting  parties,  and  intimi- 
dating the  Tories.  Major  Wemyss  and  Colonel 
Tarleton  were  especially  instructed  to  take  him. 
For  a  time  Marion  was  forced  to  retreat  toward 
North  Carolina,  but  in  1781  he  established  him- 
self at  the  conftuence  of  Lynch's  Creek  and  the 
Pedee  River,  in  a  swampy  forest  known  as  Snow's 
Island.  He  took  Fort  Watson  in  conjunction 
with  Col.  Henry  Lee,  captured  Fort  Motte  and 
Georgetown,  fought  at  Quinby's  Bridge  and  Park- 
er's Ferry,  and  at  Eutaw  Springs.  The  force 
was  not  disbanded  until  after  the  British  evac- 
uation, in  December,  1782.  Marion  was  elected 
to  the  General  Assembly  in  1782,  and  was  pub- 
licly thanked  bv  that  body  in  1783.  As  he  had 
been  impoverished  by  the  war,  the  sinecure  of 
commandant  of  Fort  Johnson  was  created  for 
him.  After  his  marriage  to  a  wealthy  woman, 
Mary  Videau,  he  represented  Saint  John's  in 
the  State  Senate  and  in  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1790.  Consult:  Simms,  Life  of  Fran- 
cie  Marion  (1844),  and  Tarleton,  History  of  the 
Campaigns  of  1780-1781   (Dublin,  1787). 

MABION*  DBLOBME,  m&'r^ON^  de-l^rm^ 
A  drama  by  Victor  Hugo  (1831),  based  on  thef 
life  of  the  notorious  courtesan  of  that  name. 
She  appears  in  De  Vigny*8  Cinq-Mars  and  in  Bul- 
wer's  Richelieu, 

MABIOKETTE  (Fr.  marionnette,  diminutive 
of  Marion,  diminutive  of  Marie,  Mary,  denoting 
originally  a  little  figure  of  the  Virgin  Mary).  A 
small,  jointed  ficrure,  representing  a  character  in 
the  miniature  drama  of  a  puppet  theatre.  See 
Puppet. 

KABIOTTE,  mA'r^5t',  Edme  (c.  1620-84).  A 
distinguished  French  natural  philosopher.  He 
was  bom  in  Burgundy,  and  was  the  prior  of 
Saint  Martin-sous-Beaune,  near  Dijon.  He  was 
active  in  developing  experimental  research  in 
France  and  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Academic  des  Sciences,  founded  in  1666.  He 
repeated  Pascal's  experiments  on  gravitation, 
and  detected  some  peculiarities  which  had  es- 
caped that  philosopher;  confirmed  Galileo's 
theorv  of  motion;  enriched  hydraulics  with  a 
multitude  of  discoveries;  and  finally  made  a 
thorough   investigation  into  the  subject  of  the 


conduction  of  water,  and  calculated  the  strength 
necessary  for  pipes  under  different  circumstances. 
His  collected  works  were  published  at  Leyden 
in  1717  and  at  The  Hague  (2  vols.,  4to)  in  1740. 
His  Traits  du  mouvement  des  eauw  was  pub- 
lished at  Paris  in  1686.  Mariotte's  name  is 
associated  with  the  law  of  gases  discovered  four- 
teen years  previously  by  Robert  Boyle,  this  law 
being  always  known  in  France  as  Mariotte's  law. 
It  is  in  substance  that  the  volume  of  a  gas  varies 
inversely  as  the  pressure  it  is  under. 

ICABIOTTE'S  LAW,  often  referred  to  as 
*the  law  of  Bovle  and  Mariotte.'  See  Boyle's 
Law;  Gases,  General  Pbopebties  of. 

MAB'IPCnSA  (Sp.,  butter fiy).  A  local  name 
in  California  for  the  opah   (q.v.). 

MABIPOSA  OBOVE.  A  tract  of  land  four 
square  miles  in  extent  in  Mariposa  County,  Cal., 
containing  two  groves  of  the  Sequoia  gigantea, 
consisting  of  about  465  fine  specimens.  The  largest 
of  the  trees,  the  'Grizzly  Giant,'  has  a  circum- 
ference of  04  feet,  and  its  main  limb,  at  a  height 
of  200  feet,  is  6%  feet  in  diameter.  The  rSad 
between  the  groves  passes  through  an  opening 
9%  feet  wide,  cut  through  the  heart  of  one  of  the 
trees.  The  tallest  tree  is  272  feet  high,  and  a 
number  exceed  260  feet.  The  tract  is  reserved 
as  a  State  park. 

KABIPCySANy  or  Yokijt.  A  linguistic  stock 
or  family  of  North  American  Indians,  formerly 
located  in  southern  California,  about  Tulare 
Lake,  and  extending  as  far  north  as  the  junction 
of  the  Fresno  with  the  San  Joaquin.  Twenty- 
four  sub-trib€«  are  mentioned  by  Powell.  Every 
village  consisted  of  a  single  row  of  wedge-shaped 
huts  of  tule,  with  an  awning  of  brush  stretched 
along  the  front.  These  houses  were  used  for 
sleeping  purposes  only.  The  mountainous  con- 
dition of  the  country  was  naturally  productive  of 
a  series  of  isolated  areas,  in  which  each  camp 
with  its  separate  captain  and  medicine-man  re- 
sided. It  is  noteworthy  that  the  braves  took  no 
scalps  in  war,  differing  herein  from  most  Indii^i 
tribes.  The  main  sources  of  their  food  supply- 
were  fishing,  himting,  and  gathering  acorns.  Their 
weapons  were  sinew-backed  bows  and  excellent 
arrows.  There  are  no  more  delicate  and  beauti- 
ful baskets  made  anywhere  than  in  the  villages 
which  constitute  at  once  the  Yokut  tribe  and  the 
Mariposan  stock,  and  specimens  are  to  be  seen 
in  every  fine  collection.  These  Indians  are  espe- 
cially interesting  to  the  ethnologist,  since  they 
preserve  ancient  industries  and  social  customs 
which  antedate  even  the  coming  of  the  Ute  tribes 
into  their  area.  Fish-weirs,  fishing  booths,  fish- 
traps,  tule  boats  are  survivals  of  ancient  life. 
Consult:  Powers,  Contributions  to  North  Ameri- 
can Ethnology,  vol.  iii.  (Washington.  1877)  ; 
Powell,  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology  (ib.,  1891). 

MABIQUIKA,  mtt'rA-k§'ni.  A  town  of  Lu- 
zon, Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  Rizal  (Map: 
Luzon,  F  8).  It  is  situated  eight  miles  north- 
east of  Manila,  at  the  intersection  of  several  im- 
portant roads,  and  has  manufactures  of  shoes  and 
other  leather  work.  In  the  neighborhood  are  the 
medicinal  iron  springs  of  Chorillo.  Population, 
in  1903,  8187. 

MABIS,  mU'rTs,  Jakob  (1837—).  A  Dutch 
painter,  bom  at  The  Hague.  He  studied  in  Ant- 
werp under  De  Keyser  and  Van  Lerius,  and  then 
in  Paris,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Hubert  (1866). 


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MABIS.  60 


HABITIME  LAW. 


His  works  include:  ''The  Seaweed-Gatherers/' 
**View  in  Holland,"  "On  the  Beach,"  and  "Sou- 
venir  of  Dordrecht." 

MA'BISTS  (Neo-Lat.  M arista,  from  Lat. 
Maria,  Mary).  A  name  applied  to  two  religious 
congregations  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  Swiety  of  Fathers  of  Mary  was  founded  at 
Lyons  in  1816  for  missionary  work,  and  con- 
firmed by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1836.  Its  first  for- 
eign mission  was  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 
It  was  introduced  into  Australia,  at  Sydney,  in 
1845.  Almost  simultaneously  with  this  society, 
another  of  Brothers  of  Mary  was  founded  in  1817 
by  Abb6  Chaminade  at  Marseilles,  which  did 
much  for  Christian  education  in  the  south  of 
France  and  extended  its  work  to  England  and 
ber  colonies,  and  to  the  foreign  mission  stations, 
where  they  haver  frequently  worked  in  concert 
with  the  Fathers  of  Mary.  They  entered  the 
United  States  in  1849,  and  have  now  76  members 
there,  with  four  houses  and  a  college  in  the 
Catholic  University  at  Washington.  In  all  they 
number  about  6500  members. 

KABITIME  LAW  (Lat.  maritimus,  relating 
to  the  sea,  from  Lat.  mare,  sea) .  In  its  broadest 
sense,  that  system  of  law,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate, which  relates  to  commerce  and  navigation 
upon  the  high  seas  or  other  navigable  waters. 
The  sources  of  the  law  of  the  sea  as  now  applied 
in  England  and  the  United  States  are  more  an- 
cient and  perhaps  more  complex  than  those  of 
any  other  branch  of  English  law.  Some  of  its 
doctrines,  as  the  law  of  general  average,  are 
traceable  to  the  Rhodian  laws,  dating  as  early 
as  B.C.  900,  from  which  they  were  adopted  into 
the  civil  law,  and  by  it  transmitted  to  modem 
Europe.  Many  of  them  may  be  attributed  to 
customs  established  by  the  revival  of  trade  in  the 
countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean  and  in 
Southwestern  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries.  During  this  period  the  com- 
mercial States  and  cities  began  the  compilation 
of  the  usages  and  customs  of  sea  commerce  and 
the  judgments  of  the  various  maritime  courts. 
The  earliest  of  these  is  the  Consolato  del  mare 
(q.v.).  A  later  compilation,  having  even  greater 
influence  upon  English  law,  was  the  laws  of 
OUron.  (See  OiisoN.)  The  laws  of  Wisby, 
being  a  compilation  of  mercantile  customs  and 
usages  adopted  by  a  congress  of  merchants  at 
Wisby  in  the  island  of  Gotland  in  the  Baltic 
Sea,  about  1288,  which  became  the  basis  of  the 
ordinances  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  were  also 
of  great  influence  in  the  development  of  the 
modem  laws  of  the  sea;  as  were  also  those  ordi- 
nances themselves,  and  French  marine  ordinance, 
promulgated  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1681,  by  which 
the  whole  law  of  shipping,  navigation,  marine 
insurance,  bottomry,  etc.,  was  collected  and  sys- 
tematized. The  local  ordinances  of  Barcelona, 
Florence.  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  Co^nhagen,  and 
KOnigsberg  were  also  not  without  influence. 

The  earliest  Eng]ish  compilation  of  maritime 
law  appears  to  have  been  the  Black  Book  of  the 
Admiralty,  supposed  to  have  been  published 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  but  later  addi- 
tions weref  made.  It  was  based  substantially  upon 
the  laws  of  016ron.  England  never  passed  general 
maritime  ordinances,  but  the  maritime  law 
drawn  from  the  sources  here  indicated  has  been 
embodied  in  a  series  of  decisions  of  the  courts 
of  admiralty  jurisdiction,  which,  with  the  de- 
cisions of  our  own  Federal  courts  rendered  since 


the  American  Revolution,  constitute  the  maritime 
law  of  the  United  States.  See  the  article  Ad- 
miralty Law;  and,  for  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  public  maritime  law,  see  Intebnational 
Law  and  the  titles  belonging  to  that  subject. 

Maritime  law  is  administered  in  England  by 
the  courts  of  admiralty;  in  the  United  States 
by  the  Federal  courts,  which,  by  the  United 
States  Constitution,  have  jurisdiction  over  all 
causes  in  admiralty.  This  jurisdiction  of  the 
Federal  courts  is  not,  however,  exclusive,  and  a 
suitor  may  seek  his  remedy  at  common  law  in  the 
State  courts  wherever  the  common  law  is  com- 
petent to  give  a  remedy.  In  England  maritime 
causes  are  said  to  be  those  which  directly  affect 
commerce  or  navigation  upon  waters  in  which 
the  tide  ebbs  and  flows.  In  the  United  States, 
where  the  conditions  are  different,  maritime 
causes  are  deemed  to  be  those  directly  affecting 
commerce  upon  navigable  waters  which  in  them- 
selves or  by  means  of  other  waterways  form  a 
continuous  highway  to  foreign  countries.  Hence 
the  fact  that  commerce  in  a  given  case  is  car- 
ried on  only  upon  waters  within  a  single  State 
does  not  necessarily  affect  jurisdiction  of  the 
Federal  courts ;  and  jurisdiction  is  not  dependent 
upon  the  power  of  Congress  to  regulate  commerce. 
Maritime  jurisdiction  therefore  depends  upon  the 
subject  matter  and  not  the  parties,  hence  a  Unit- 
ed States  court  may  take  jurisdiction  over  a 
maritime  cause  arising  in  a  foreign  vessel  be- 
tween foreigners.  The  exercise  of  jurisdiction 
over  foreigners  is,  however,  purely  discretionary, 
and  may  be  refused;  and  it  is  a  general  prin- 
ciple that  a  maritime  court  will  not  take  juris- 
diction over  a  ship  of  war  of  a  friendly  foreign 
nation. 

Liability  for  torts  is  recognized  and  enforced 
by  the  maritime  law.  Maritime  torts  include  all 
wrongful  acts  or  direct  injuries  arising  in  con- 
nection with  commerce  and  navigation  occurring 
upon  the  seas  or  other  navigable  waters,  includ- 
ing negligence  and  the  wrongful  taking  of  prop- 
erty. The  maritime  law,  however,  regards  only 
actual  damages,  and  allows  no  recovery  for 
merely  nominal  damages.  The  test  for  deter- 
mining whether  a  tort  is  of  a  maritime  nature  is 
the  locality  where  the  tortious  act  is  consum- 
mated or  takes  effect.  Thus  an  injury  to  a 
bridge  or  wharf  by  a  ship,  inasmuch  as  the  in- 
jury is  effected  upon  land,  is  not  within  the  juris- 
diction of  the  admiralty  court,  but  an  injury  to  a 
ship  by  a  draw-bridge  is  a  maritime  tort,  of 
which  the  admiralty  court  has  jurisdiction.  The 
maritime,  like  the. common  law,  does  not  recog- 
nize a  right  of  recovery  for  wrongful  death,  but 
a  statute  may  confer  the  right,  which  will  then 
be  recognized  in  admiralty  in  accordance  with 
the  settled  principle  that  both  the  Federal  courts 
of  admiralty  and  of  equity  will  provide  a  remedy 
for  new  substantive  rights  created  by  State 
statute.  See  Collisions  of  Vessels;  Bounty; 
Babbatby. 

The  maritime  law  recognizes  and  enforces  con- 
tracts by  awarding  damages  or  enforcing  liens 
which  it  recognizes  as  created  on  the  basis  of 
contract.  In  general  the  essential  elements  of 
a  contract  are  the  same  under  the  maritime  as 
at  the  common  law.  The  maritime  law  differs 
from  the  common  law  only  in  the  method  by 
which  it  may  enforce  the  contract  and  in  attach- 
ing to  the  various  classes  of  contracts  certain 
legal  incidents  peculiar  to  each  class.    A  contract 


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MABITIMB  LAW.  70 

is  deemed  to  be  of  a  maritime  nature  so  as  to  be 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  an  admiralty  court 
when  in  its  essence  it  is  purely  maritime,  relat- 
ing to  commerce  and  navigation  upon  navigable 
waters  as  already  defined,  as  contracts  for  the  bet- 
terment of  a  vessel  in  aid  of  navigation  or  for  the 
sustenance  and  relief  of  those  engaged  in  conduct- 
ing commercial  operations  at  sea.  Thus  a  con- 
tract of  partnership  in  a  vessel  is  not  a  mari- 
time contract,  neither  is  a  contract  to  build  a 
vessel,  nor  b  a  preliminary  agreement  leading  to 
a  maritime  contract,  as  a  contract  to  procure 
marine  insurance,  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
admiralty  court.  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  the 
various  forms  of  maritime  contracts  and  their 
incidents,  see  such  special  articles  as  Bottomby 
Bond;  Respondentia;  Chabter-Pabty  ;  Af- 
freightment;   Mabinb    Insubancb;    Salvage; 

WlIABFAGE ;     DeMUBBAGE. 

The  jurisdiction  of  maritime  oourts  also  ex- 
tends to  all  prize  causes  growing  out  of  captures 
of  vessels,  of  ships  of  war  or  privateers,  made 
upon  navigable  water,  or  started  there^  althou^ 
consimimated  on  land.  In  England  the  law  of 
prize  is  administered  in  a  separate  department 
of  the  Admiralty  Court,  as  distinguished  from 
the  instance  court  in  admiralty,  fii  the  United 
States  no  distinction  is  made  between  prize  and 
other  admiralty  causes,  all  being  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  District  Courts  of  the  United 
States.  By  act  of  Congress  captures  made  upon 
inland  waters  of  the  United  iStates  are  deemed 
not  to  be  prizes^  and  consequently  are  not  within 
the  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States 
courts.     See  Pbize;  Intebnational  Law. 

The  adjustment  of  the  rights  of  tiie  parties  to 
a  marine  venture  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  'general  average'  is  also  an  important 
function  of  maritime  courts,  and  the  doctrines  of 
general  average  are  among  the  most  important  of 
the  maritime  law.  (See  paragraph  on  Average, 
in  Mabine  Insubancb.)  The  English  admiralty 
courts  received  jurisdiction  over  crimes  com- 
mitted on  the  high  seas  outside  the  marine  league 
Similar  jurisdiction  is  conferred  on  the  United 
States  District  Courts,  except  over  crimes  pim- 
ishable  by  death,  which  are  imder  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Circuit  Courts. 

The  peculiarities  of  maritime  law  and  the 
character  of  the  jurisdiction  exercised  by  mari- 
time courts  is  best  illustrated  by  the  law  relat- 
ing to  maritime  liens,  which  are  enforced  by 
proceedings  in  rem.    See  In  Rem;  Lien. 

A  maritime  contract  may  give  rise  to  a  mari- 
time lien  when  made  for  the  benefit  or  assistance 
of  a  marine  venture,  and  when  made  on  the 
credit  of  the  vessel  rather  than  on  the  credit  of 
the  owner  or  charterer.  There  is  a  presumption 
that  all  contracts  for  necessary  supplies  and  re- 
pairs to  a  vessel  are  made  on  the  credit  of  the 
owner  if  in  a  home  port,  but  upon  the  credit  of 
the  vessel  if  in  a  foreign  port.  The  seamen  and 
subordinate  officers,  but  not  the  master  of  the 
ship,  have  a  lien  upon  the  ship  for  wages  due. 
The  marine  carriers  also  have  a  lien  for  freight 
and  demurrage. 

Analogous  to  the  contract  lien,  although  strict- 
ly not  based  on  contract,  is  the  lien  which  any 
party  to  a  marine  venture  who  has  made  a  gen- 
eral average  sacrifice  has  upon  vessel  or  cargo, 
or  both,  to  secure  contribution  in  general  average. 
Maritime  liens  may  also  decide  ex  delicto  for  all 
wrongs  or  injuries  caused  by  the  ship,  or  by  col- 


MABiriHE  PBOVTNCE. 


lision,  or  by  failure  of  the  ship  as  a  common  oar- 
rier  to  carry  or  deliver  goods  safely. 

It  is  a  general  principle  of  the  maritime  law 
that  the  master  has  the  power,  when  necessity 
arises  and  he  is  unable  to  communicate  with  the 
owners,  to  sell  both  ship  and  cargo  and  confer 
a  valid  title  on  the  purchaser  to  sell  free  of  liens^ 
which  then  attach  to  the  proceeds.  Lienors  do 
not  share  pro  rata  in  the  subject  of  the  liens,  but 
have  priority  according  to  their  importance  as 
contributing  to  the  safety  or  preservation  of  the 
property.  Thus,  as  between  different  voyages, 
liens  have  priority  in  the  inverse  order  of  their 
creation.  In  the  same  voyage  the  order  of  pri- 
ority is  as  follows:  (1)  Costs  of  litigation;  (2> 
salvage;  (3)  salary  of  seamen,  cost  of  supplies 
and  repairs,  bottomry  and  respondentia,  pilotage 
and.  towage. 

The  procedure  of  maritime  law  is  extremely 
simple,  never  having  been  characterized  by  oom- 
plex  and  technical  rules,  as  was  the  procedure^ 
at  common  law.  The  most  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic is  the  power  of  the  plaintiff  to  make  the- 
proceeding  purely  one  in  rem,  that  is,  one  di- 
rected solely  toward  the  property  which  the  plain- 
tiff wishes  to  subject  to  the  maritime  lien  which 
he  claims.  The  procedure,  however,  may  be  at 
the  plaintiflfs  option  one  in  pursuance  of  which 
a  personal  judgment  may  be  recovered  against 
the  defendant;  or,  in  the  absence  of  rules  of 
court  to  the  contrary,  it  may  be  both  in  rem  and 
in  personam.  The  proceeding  in  admiralty  is 
begun  by  filing  a  libel  (q.v.).  Upon  filing  of  the- 
libel  the  court  issues  its  writ  or  mesne  process, 
which  is  executed  by  the  marshal  or  correspond- 
ing officer  by  attaching  the  res,  if  the  proceeding 
is  in  rem,  or  by  citing  the  respondent  to  appear 
and  answer,  if  the  proceeding  is  in  personam^ 
The  respondent  is  then  required  to  file  his  answer, 
or  he  may  file  exceptions,  which  correspond  to 
the  demurrer  in  an  action  at  law.  The  issues 
raised  are  laid  before  a  judge  without  a  jury, 
or,  as  is  more  usually  done,  tiie  testimony  in  the 
case  is  taken  before  a  commissioner  or  correspond- 
ing officer,  who  reports  it  to  the  judge.  The  judge 
does  not  usually  assess  damages,  but  refers  that 
question  to  a  commissioner  by  an  interlocutory 
judgment;  and  upon  the  commissioner's  report 
renders  a  final  juagment  fixing  the  rights  of  the 
parties.  See  Admibalty  Law  ;  Coubts  ;  Cabbteb, 
Common  ;  Masteb  ;  etc. ;  and  consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  such  titles.  Consult,  also, 
Abbott,  Law  of  Merchant  Ships  and  Beamen, 
(14th  ed.,  London,  1901);  Pritchard,  Digest  of 
Admiralty  and  Maritime  Law  (3d  ed.,  London, 
1887);  Hughes,  Handbook  Admiralty  Law  (St. 
Paul,  1901 )  ;  Parsons.  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Shipping  (Boston,  1869). 

MABITIMB  FBOVINCE  (Russ.  PHmor^ 
skaya  Ohlast).  An  eastern  province  of  Siberia.  It 
extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  it  reaches 
as  far  west  as  Tchaun  Bay,  to  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  Korea.  Its  western  boundary  runs  alon;;^ 
the  Stanovoi  Mountains  to  about  longitude  130* 
E.,  then  southeast  and  south  to  the  Amur  (which 
traverses  the  province  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion ) ,  then  along  the  Usuri,  which  forma  part  of 
the  boundary  of  Manchuria,  and  finally  south- 
west to  the  Korean  border,  along  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Manchuria  to  Korea  (Map:  Asia,  O 
3).  Its  area,  including  Kamtchatka  (q.v.)  an* 
tne  islands  (Karagin,  Commander,  etc.),  is  715,- 
920  square  miles.    The  northern  portion,  forming- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABITIICE  FBOVINCE. 

"the  northeastern  extremity  of  Asia,  is  a  mountain-* 
ous  peninsula,  exceeding  8000  feet  in  elevation  in 
-the  northern  part  and  watered  by  the  Anadyr  and 
many  other  rivers.  Its  coasts  are  deeply  in- 
•dented  and  present  a  number  of  promontories 
toward  Bering  Strait  and  Bering  Bea — promon- 
-tories  that  range  from  1000  to  2000  feet  in 
height.  The  central  part  of  the  province  is  a 
narrow  strip  of  land  along  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
-^CQupied  by  the  fitanovoi  Mountains  and  inter- 
sected by  numerous  short  streams. 

The  southern  part  is  somewhat  lower  west  of 
the  Amur^  while  the  portion  east  of  that  river  is 
occupied  to  some  extent  by  the  moimtainous  dis- 
trict of  Sikhota  Alin,  rising  above  5000  feet  in 
its  highest  peaks.  The  flora  of  the  northern  part 
is  extremely  poor,  consisting  only  of  some 
lichens,  mosses,  and  dwarf  trees.  The  lower 
mountain  slopes  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
province  and  the  deep  river  valleys  are  thickly 
wooded.  The  same  is  true  of  the  mountains  in 
the  southern  part,  where  the  lowlands  are  cov- 
ered with  thick  grass,  and  some  plants  peculiar 
to  warmer  regions,  such  as  the  wild  vine,  are 
iound.  Northern  Siberia  has  long  been  famois 
ior  its  rich  fauna,  but  many  species,  such  as 
-the  blue  fox,  the  black  sable,  the  sea-otter,  the 
sea-lion,  the  sea-cow,  and  the  whale,  have  either 
entirely  disappeared  or  are  rapidly  approaching 
extinction.  The  fauna  of  the  southern  region  is 
Temarkable  for  its  variety,  including  such  differ- 
ent species  as  the  tiger  and  the  bear.  The  rivers 
in  this  part  of  the  country  are  exceedingly  rich 
in  fish,  and  it  is  along  their  banks  that  the 
population  of  the  province  is  concentrated.  The 
northern  part  of  the  province  is  inhabited  chief- 
ly by  the  Tchuktches,  who  are  engaged  in  fish- 
ing on  the  coast,  and  in  reindeer  breeding  and 
hunting  in  the  interior.  Besides  the  Tcduktohes 
there  are  found  some  Koryaks  on  the  coast. 
The  central  part  of  the  province  is  inhabited  only 
"by  a  few  Tunguses. 

The  climate  presents  great  variety,  owing  to 
the  large  extent  of  the  region,  but  even  in  the 
south  it  is  very  severe.  The  temperature  at 
Vladivostok,  at  the  southern  end  of  the  province, 
averages  only  39.5  o  F.,  while  at  Nikolayevsk,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  it  is  below  the  freezing 
point.  The  summers  in  the  southern  part  are 
extremely  wet,  and  inundations  are  frequent. 

Agriculture  is  confined  by  natural  conditions 
to  the  southern  portion  of  the  province  and  is 
progressing  very  slowly.  Hunting  and  fishing  are 
still  the  chief  occupations.  Some  gold  is  pro- 
duced along  the  Amur.  Inunigration  has  made 
some  progress  of  late,  owing  no  doubt  to  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway.  Manv  Little  Russian 
peasants  and  Cossacks  from  the  Don  territory 
and  Orenburg  have  been  transported  to  the  prov- 
ince bv  the  (Jovemment.  Roads  are  very  scarce, 
but  a  branch  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line  traverses 
the  province  from  Khabarovsk  to  Vladivostok 
for  a  distance  of  409  miles.  Nikolskoye,  69  miles 
north  of  Vladivostok,  is  the  eastern  U-rminal  of 
the  Manchurian  branch  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line. 
The  population  in  1897  was  223,336,  including 
a.hout  45,000  natives,  more  than  23,000  Koreans, 
and  over  29,000  Chinese.  The  Russians  constitute 
over  one-half  of  the  entire  population.  The  orig- 
inal Russian  population  is  organized  on  a  mili- 
tary basis,  and  are  known  as  Cossacks.  The 
capital  of  the  province  is  Khabarovsk  (q.v.),  but 
.the  most  important  town  is  Vladivostok   (q.v.). 


Tl  MABXUB. 

MABEDZA,  mA-r^tsA  (Lat.  Hehrm).  The 
principal  river  of  European  Turkey  (Map:  Tur- 
key in  £urope,  F  4).  It  rises  in  the  Balkans, 
flows  southeast  through  the  Province  of  Eastern 
Rumelia  past  the  town  of  Philippopolis,  and  con- 
tinues in  that  direction  ns  fnr  as  Adrianople, 
where  it  bends  south  and  falls  into  the  ^^gean 
Sea  near  its  northeast  corner.  It  is  300  miles 
in  length,  and  is  navigable  for  small  boats  to 
Adrianople,  about  100  miles  from  its  mouth. 

MABTCTFOL,  ma'r6-^5(5'p6l-y\  The  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the  Government 
of  Ekaterinoslav,  Russia,  situated  on  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  63  miles  west  of  Tagan- 
rog (Map:  Russia,  G  5).  It  has  two  gymnasia, 
a  theatre,  and  a  custom  house.  Soap  and  leather 
are  its  chief  manufactures;  it  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  grain.  Its  harbor  is  visited 
annually  by  over  1300  coasting  and  about  100 
sea-going  vessels.  Mariupol  was  founded  in 
1779  by  Greek  emigrants  from  the  Crimea.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1897,  31,600,  chiefly  Greeks  and  Jews. 

MA^KEITS,  Gaiub  (c.  156-86  b.g.).  A  Roman 
general,  bom  of  an  obscure  family,  at  the  village 
of  Cereatse,  near  Arpinum,  about  b.c.  156.  In  the 
Numantine  War  (b.c.  134-133)  he  served  with 
great  distinction  under  the  younger  Soipio  Afri- 
canuB.  In  B.C.  119  he  was  elected  tribune  of  the 
plebs,  and  vigorously  opposed  the  nobles,  by  whom 
he  was  intensely  hated.  He  acquired  political 
influence  by  his  marriage  \vith  Julia,  aunt  of 
Julius  Ctesar.  In  B.C.  114  he  went  to  Spain  as 
propraetor,  and  cleared  the  country  ot  the  robbers 
who  infested  it.  He  accompanied  Q.  Coecilius 
Metellue  to  Africa  in  B.C.  109,  was  elected  consul 
two  years  after,  and  intrusted  with  the  conduct 
of  the  Jugurthine  War,  which  he  brought  to  a 
successful  clof^e  in  the  beginning  of  B.C.  106. 
Marius  sent  Sulla,  then  his  queestor,  to  receive 
Jugurtha,  and  this  laid  the  foundation  of  future 
personal  enmity.  The  military  success  of  Marius 
had  now  made  him  the  most  conspicuous  oflicor 
in  the  Roman  army,  while  he  had  aroused  enthu- 
siastic admiration  among  his  soldiers.  Meanwhile 
an  immense  horde  of  Gimbri,  Teutones,  and  other 
northern  barbarians  had  burst  into  Gaul,  and  re- 
peatedly defeated  the  Roman  forces  with  great 
slaughter.  Marius  was  again  called  to  the  con- 
sulate for  the  year  b.c.  104,  and  for  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  times  in  B.C.  103-101,  for  it  was 
felt  that  he  alone  could  save  the  Republic.  The 
war  against  the  Teutones  in  Transalpine  Gaul 
occupied  him  for  more  than  two  years;  but  he 
finally  annihilated  them  in  a  battle  of  two  days* 
duration  at  Aquae  Sexti»,  now  Aix,  in  Provence, 
where  200,000 — according  to  others,  100,000 — 
Teutones  were  slain.  After  this  he  assumed  the 
chief  command  in  the  north  of  Italy  against  the 
Cimbri  (q.v.),  whom  he  also  overthrew  on  the 
Raudian  Fields  with  a  like  destruction  (B.C.  101). 
The  people  of  Rome  knew  no  bounds  to  their  joy. 
Mnrius  was  declared  the  savior  of  the  State,  the 
third  rounder  of  Rome,  and  his  name  was  men- 
tioned along  with  those  of  the  gods  at  banquets. 
He  was  made  consul  for  the  sixth  time  in  B.C.  100. 
When  Sulla,  as  consul,  was  intrusted  with  the 
conduct  of  the  Mithridatic  War,  Marius,  who 
had  long  manifested  an  insane  jealousy  of  his 
patrician  rival,  and  was  himself  an  aspirant  for 
the  command  of  the  war,  attempted  to  deprive  him 
of  the  command,  and  a  civil  war  began  (b.c.  88). 
By  procuring  a  new  organization  of  the  Roman 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABIT7S. 

tribes,  through  passage  of  a  law  to  distribute  the 
Italian  allies  among  all  the  tribes,  Marius  se- 
cured an  election  to  the  command  of  the  war. 
Sulla  fled  to  his  army  at  Nola,  refused  to  resign 
the  command,  and  marched  on  Rome.  Marius 
was  soon  forced  to  flee,  and  after  enduring  the 
greatest  hardships,  and  making  numerous  hair- 
breadth escapes,  he  reached  Africa,  where  he 
remained  until  a  rising  of  his  friends  took 
place  under  Cinna.  He  then  hurried  back  to 
Italy,  in  the  absence  of  Sulla,  and,  along  with 
Cinna,  marched  against  Rome,  which  was  obliged 
to  yield.  Marius  was  delirious  in  his  revenge 
upon  the  aristocracy;  a  band  of  4000  slaves  is 
said  to  have  carried  on  the  work  of  murder  for 
five  days  and  nights.  Marius  and  Cinna  were 
elected  consuls  together  for  the  year  B.C.  86. 
Marius  was,  however,  already  in  his  seventy- 
first  year,  and  died  after  he  had  held  the  office 
seventeen  days. 

Unlettered,  arrogant,  and  rude  of  manner, 
Marius  did  not  possess  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  maintaining  influence  in  times  of  peace.  The 
effect  of  his  personal  presence  is  illustrated  by 
the  scene  when,  during  his  flight  to  Southern 
Italy,  a  barbarian  entered  his  room  with  drawn 
sword  to  assassinate  him.  When  Marius  called 
out  in  the  darkness,  "Man,  durst  thou  murder 
C.  Marius?"  the  intruder  dropped  his  sword  in 
terror  and  fled.  See  Beesly,  Marius  and  Sulla 
(New  York,  1878).      . 

KABTCJS,  Mercatob  (T-449?).  An  ecclesias- 
tical writer  of  the  earlier  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, born  in  Africa.  He  was  living  in  Rome, 
418,  and  ten  years  afterwards  in  Constantinople, 
but  authorities  differ  as  to  whether  he  was  priest 
or  layman.  He  is  known  to  have  been  a  iriend 
and  defender  of  Augustine,  a  denouncer  of  the 
Pelagian  and  Nestor ian  doctrine.  His  determined 
opposition  to  the  promulgators  of  these  heresies 
bore  fruit  in  their  expulsion  from  Constantinople. 
He  made  Latin  translations  of  Nestorius,  Theo- 
dosius  of  Mopsuestia,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Pro- 
clus,  Theodoret,  and  other  Greeks  which  are  in- 
valuable to  students  of  Church  history.  These, 
together  with  his  own  controversial  writings, 
were  twice  published  in  Paris  with  different 
editors,  1673  and  1684. 

KABIVAUXy  m&'r^'vy,  Pierre  Carlet  de 
Chamblain  de  (1688-1763).  A  French  dram- 
atist important  in  the  development  of  French 
comedy,  and  a  novelist,  epocn-making  in  the 
evolution  of  French  fiction.  He  was  bom  in 
Paris,  February  4,  1688;  his  father  was  a 
Norman,  director  of  the  Mint  at  Riom  in  Au- 
vergne,  where  and  at  Limoges  Marivaux  passed 
his  youth.  His  literary  taste  developed  early.  At 
eighteen  he  had  written  a  play,  Le  p^e  prudent 
et  Equitable  (published  1712),  and  between  1713 
and  1715  he  produced  three  romances.  Effete  aur- 
prenants  de  la  sympathies  La  voiture  emhowrhie, 
and  Le  Don  Quichote  modeme,  all  wholly  out  of 
key  with  his  later  work.  Then,  falling  under 
the  influence  of  the  parodist  La  Motte,  he  under- 
took to  travesty  Homer  and  F6nelon,  but  turned 
from  this  ignoble  task  to  the  production  of  essays 
in  the  vein  of  the  Spectator  for  the  journal  Le 
Mercure  ( 1717) .  These  showed  keenness,  but  also 
preciosity.  The  year  1720  marks  a  turning  point 
in  Marivaux's  genius  and  fortune.  He  lost  his 
considerable  wealth  in  the  Mississippi  scheme, 
became  dependent  on  his  pen,  wrote  a  poor 
tragedy,  Annihah  and  a  good  comedy,  Arlequin 


72  MABK. 

poli  par  Vamour,  and  started  the  Spectaieur 
Francois,  a  weekly  "Spectator,"  that  might  have 
succeeded  if  his  unmethodical  habits  had  allowed 
it  to  appear  regularly.  For  the  next  twenty 
years  he  support^  himself  as  a  playwright,  suc- 
ceeding in  comedy  at  the  Italian  Theatre  and 
failing  in  tragedy  at  the  Th^fttre  Francais.  The 
more  noteworthy  of  his  thirty  plays  are:  Les 
surprises  de  Vamour  (1722);  Le  triompke  de 
Plutus  (1728)  ;  Le  jeu  de  Vamour  et  du  hasanl 
(1730)  ;  Le  legs  (1736) ;  and  Les  fausses  confix 
dences  (1737).  He  founded  two  other  unsuc- 
cessful journals,  and  in  1731  began  the  publica- 
tion of  a  novel,  Marianne,  which  he  left  incom- 
plete at  its  eleventh  part  in  1742.  Madame 
Ricciboni  finished  it.  In  1735  he  began  I/e 
paysan  parvenu,  which  also  remained  a  torso. 
Yet  these  are  his  most  important  works.  In  1736 
he  was  elected  to  the  Academy.  Late  in  life  he 
received  a  pension  from  Helv^tius  (q.v.)  and  an- 
other from  Madame  de  Pompadour  (q.v.).  He 
died  February  12,  1763.  Marivaux  shows  him- 
self in  his  dramas  and  in  his  fiction  interested 
primarily  in  the  analysis  and  display  of  human 
feeling.  He  drew  in  both  his  novels  pictures  of 
contemporary  society  and  of  Parisian  street  life 
that  remained  uneaualed  for  a  century  in  their 
impressionistic  realism,  but  his  delight  is  in 
verbal  surprise — a  somewhat  affected  style  known 
in  French  literature  as  marivaudage.  Marivaiix^s 
Worfc^are  in  10  vols.  (Paris,  1827-30).  There  is 
a  modem  edition  of  the  plays  by  Foumier  and 
also  of  Marianne.  Consult:  Savoll^,  Marivaua 
inconnu  (Paris,  1880)  ;  Fleury,  Marivauw  et  le 
marivaudage  (ib.,  1881)  ;  Gossot,  Marivaux  mo- 
raliste  (ib.,  1881)  ;  Larroumet,  Marivaux^  sa  vie 
et  ses  ceuvres  (ib.,  1894)  ;  and  Deschamps,  Mari- 
vauw (ib.,  1897). 

MABJOBAM  ( OF.  marjolaine,  margelyne,  Fr. 
marjolaine,  It.  majorana,  maggiorana,  from  ML. 
majoranca,  from  Lat.  amaracus,  amaracum,  from 
Gk.  afidpoKoc,  amarakos,  kfidpoKov,  amarakon,  mar- 
joram, probably  connected  with  Heb.  mdraq, 
to  purify;  influenced  by  popular  etymology  with 
Lat.  major,  greater).  Origanum.  A  genus  of 
annual,  perennial,  and  shrubby  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Labiatse,  natives  chiefly  of  the  East, 
and  of  the  Mediterranean  region.  Some  of  the 
species  abound  in  a  yellow  essential  oil,  marjo- 
ram oil  or  oil  of  origanum,  which  is  obtained  by 
distillation.  The  common  marjoram  {Origanum 
vulgare),  which  has  become  naturalized  in  the 
United  States^  is  a  perennial  plant,  one  foot  high 
with  ovate  leaves,  and  roundish,  panicled  crowned 
heads  of  purple  flowers,  with  large  bracts.  It  is 
used,  as  are  also  other  species,  as  a  seasoning  in 
cookery,  and  is  said  to  be  stimulant  and  tonic. 
Sweet  marjoram  {Origanum  majorana)  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  a  native  of  Greece  and  the  East,  with 
ovate  grayish-green  leaves,  wrinkled  bracts,  and 
small  white  flowers.  Its  uses  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  common  marjoram,  being  commonly 
used  for  garnishing. 

MABJOBIBANKS,  m^rch^Snks,  Edwabd, 
second  Baron  Tweedmouth.     See  Twkedmodth. 

MABK,  mftrk  (Ger.,  border,  march).  A  Ger- 
man geographical  term,  signifying  primarily  the 
mark  of  a  country's  limits  (the  march),  and 
hence  applied  as  a  designation  of  the  border 
countries  or  districts  of  the  German  Empire,  con- 
quered from  neighboring  nations.  Prussia  began 
its  existence  as  the  north  mark,  erected  against 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


JMLAJuL*  id 

the  inyasion  of  the  Wends,  while  Austria  arose 
from  the  east  mark,  erected  against  the  Hun- 
garians. The  governor  intrusted  with  the  charge 
of  one  of  these  border  districts  was  called  mark- 
graf,  or  margrave  (q.v.).  There  has  been  a  long 
dispute  among  scholars  as  to  the  original  mean- 
ing of  mark.  On  this  dispute,  consult:  Fustel  de 
Coulanges,  Histoire  des  institutions  poUtique»  de 
Vancienne  France  (Paris,  1875-90) ;  Maurer,  Ge- 
sehii^te  der  Markenverfassung  in  Deutschland 
(Erlangen,  1856). 

MARK  (AS.  marc,  Qer,  Mark;  perhaps  iden- 
tical originally  with  mark,  token,  boundary). 
Originally  the  term  appears  to  have  been  used  to 
designate  a  unit  of  weight,  most  commonly  of 
gold  or  silver.  It  was  about  equal  to  eight 
ounces,  but  it  varied  from  country  to  country. 
In  1524  the  Cologne  mark  was  made  the  standard 
weight  for  gold  and  silver  throughout  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  but  the  standard  was  never 
properly  enforced.  In  Anglo-Saxon  times  the 
term  mark  was  used  to  designate  a  money  of 
account,  consisting  of  100  pennies — in  the  twelfth 
century,  160  pennies.  In  1663  a  silver  mark 
was  issued  in  Scotland  which  was  valued  at  13s. 
Id.  English  money.  In  the  nineteenth  century 
the  mark  was  a  common  small  coin  among  the 
German  States,  varying  considerably  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Germany.  In  1873  the  gold  mark 
of  100  pfennige  was  adopted  as  the  monetary 
imit  of  the  German  Empire.  It  represents  .3082 
grammes  of  gold  (900  fine)  and  is  valued  at 
$0.23821  in  American  money. 

M AKK  (Lat.  Marcus,  Gk.  MdpKot,  Markos), 
or  JoHN^  with  the  surname  Mask  (Acts  xii. 
12).  The  writer  of  the  second  Gospel.  The  in- 
cidental notices  in  the  New  Testament  give  the 
following  facts:  Mark  was  the  son  of  a  certain 
Mary,  a  householder  of  Jerusalem,  at  whose 
home  the  early  Christians  held  meetings  in  the 
days  of  persecution  (Acts  xii.  1-12).  He  was  a 
cousin  of  Barnabas  (CIJol.  iv.  10),  hence,  possibly, 
in  case  the  relationship  was  on  the  fathers'  side, 
of  Levitical  descent.  An  old  tradition  says  that 
he  had  his  thumbs  cut  off  so  as  to  be  unfit  for 
the  priesthood.  Peter  calls  him  his  'son*  ( I.  Pet. 
V.  13),  which  means  probably  that  he  was  con- 
verted to  dlhristianity  under  Peter's  ministry  in 
Jerusalem.  He  came  to  Antioch  from  Jerusalem 
with  Barnabas  and  Paul  (Acts  xii.  25),  and  ac- 
companied them  as  an  assistant  on  their  first 
missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii.  6).  But  he  left 
them  at  Perga  and  returned  to  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xiii.  13;  cf.  xv.  37-39).  Again  at  Antioch  he  ac- 
companied Barnabas  to  Cyprus,  Paul  being  un- 
willing to  take  him  with  him  on  the  second 
ioumey  (Acts  xv.  37-40).  This  was  about  a.d.  50. 
We  hear  nothing  more  of  him  until  the  time 
of  Paul's  first  Roman  captivity  (c.60  a.d), 
when  we  learn  (Col.  iv.  10;  Philem.  24)  that 
he  was  then  in  Rome,  reconciled  to  Paul  and 
esteemed  by  him,  and  was  about  to  visit  Asia 
Minor.  He  may  hav^  come  to  Rome  with  Peter, 
who  mentions  him  (I.  Pet.  v.  13)  as  with  him  in 
the  city.  The  proposed  journey  to  Asia  was 
probably  undertaken,  as  he  was  in  the  East  when 
Paul  wrote  from  Rome  (c.65)  to  Timothy  at 
Ephesus  (?),  asking  him  to  bring  Mark  with 
him  (11.  Tim.  iv.  11).  At  Rome,  according  to 
early  tradition,  he  wrote  his  Gospel,  not  alto- 
gether as  his  own  work,  but  as  containing  the 
substance  of  Peter's  preaching.     Another  tradi- 


MARK 

tion  makes  him  the  organizer  and  first  Bishop  of 
the  Alexandrian  Church.  In  the  nature  of  the 
case^  such  traditions  are  difficult  of  proof.  Con- 
sult the  commentaries  on  Mark^  especially  that 
of  Swete;  Zahn,  Einleiiung  in  das  Neue  Testa- 
ment, vol.  ii.  (Leipzig,  1900).  See  Mabk,  Gos- 
pel or. 

MABK,  Gospel  op.  The  second  of  the  New 
Testament  (]k>spels.    Its  first  verse  opens  with  a 

ghrase  (*The  beginning  of  the  Grospel  of  Jesus 
hrist")  that  is  evidently  intended  to  be  a  cap- 
tion for  the  narrative  which  follows.  Unlike 
Matthew,  whose  tendency  is  to  a  topical  treat- 
ment of  his  material,  and  Luke,  who  gives  himself 
to  rhetorical  enrichment,  Mark  arranges  his  nar- 
rative simply  and  in  an  order  which  shows  itself 
to  be,  generally  speaking,  the  normal  chrono- 
logical order  of  the  Gospel  events.  There  is  first 
the  preliminary  history  reciting  the  ministry  of 
John  the  Baptist  and  the  entrance  of  Jesus  upon 
His  work,  through  the  symbolic  act  of  the  bap- 
tism and  the  personal  experience  of  the  tempta- 
tion (i.  2-13).  There  then  follows  the  main 
portion  of  the  narrative,  which  gives,  first, 
Jesus'  popular  work  in  Galilee  (i.  14-vii.  23) 
and  His  similar  work  in  the  region  north  of  Gali- 
lee (vii.  24-viii.  26),  and  then  breaks  in  upon 
this  northern  work  with  a  presentation  of  it  in 
the  light  rather  of  a  work  of  instruction,  chiefly 
to  His  disciples,  than  a  work  of  construction 
among  the  people  (viii.  27-ix.  29).  This  new 
character  of  Jesus'  work  is  carried  on  into  what 
may  be  generally  considered  His  journey  toward 
Jerusalem  ( ix.  30-x.  52 ) .  The  event  that  marks 
this  chan^  is  the  disciples'  confession  of*  Jesus' 
Messiahship  given  in  the  neighborhood  of  Caesarea 
Philippi,  which  was  followed  by  Jesus'  first 
clear  declaration  of  His  coming  death  (viii.  27- 
ix.  1).  This  is  evidently  considered  by  the 
Evangelist  as  the  turning  point  in  Jesus'  work, 
leading  Him  to  a  change  in  its  character  and 
method.  Chaps,  xi.-xiii.  are  given  to  the  final 
work  in  Jerusalem,  which  Mark,  in  common 
with  the  other  Evangelists,  presents  as  a  work 
in  which  Jesus'  Messianic  claims  are  openly 
laid  before  the  nation's  religious  leaders.  The 
narrative  closes,  as  in  all  the  Crospels,  with  the 
Passion  and  Resurrection  (xiv.-xvi.). 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  verses  9-20  of 
the  last  chapter  (xvi.)  are  a  later  addition  to  the 
Gospel,  the  original  ending  having  been  lost. 
Just  how  much  further  the  narrative  went  and 
whether  it  included,  as  Luke  alone  can  be  pos- 
sibly said  to  do,  an  account  of  the  Ascension 
can  only  be  conjectured. 

In  comparison  with  the  other  Synoptists  Mark 
is  quite  distinctly  the  shortest  Gospel,  consider- 
able portions  of  the  history  appearing  in  Mat- 
thew and  Luke  being  absent  from  Mark — such  as 
the  Nativity,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  and  that 
part  of  Luke  which  is  devoted  apparently  to  a 
story  of  Jesus'  last  joumeyings  to  the  Holy 
City;  and  yet  where  Mark  gives  the  narrative 
in  common  with  the  other  two,  he  gives  it  with 
a  fullness  of  graphic  detail  which  the  others  do 
not  possess.  It  is  also  characteristic  of  Mark  that, 
though  he  has  an  account  of  the  parables  by  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  he  does  not  give  the  discourses  of 
Jesus  in  a  measure  equal  to  that  of  Matthew 
and  Luke.  In  the  opinion  of  most  critics  this 
indicates  that  Mark  had  not  access  to,  or,  at 
least,  did  not  make  use  of  the  Logia  collection  of 
Matthew.    See  Matthew,  Gospel  op. 


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liABK  74 

It  is  plain  that  this  Gospel  was  written  by  a 
Jewish  Christian — not  because  of  any  Jewish 
cast  of  the  Gospel,  as  in  the  case  of  Matthew,  for 
such  a  cast  it  does  not  possess — but  because  (a) 
of  the  author's  familiarity  with  Jewish  things 
and  his  ready  ability  in  explaining  them  (cf. 
ii.  18;  vii.  3  sqq.j  xii.  18;  xiv.  12;  xv.  6,  42), 
and  (b)  because  of  his  acquaintance  with  the 
Aramaic  language,  which  he  frequently  trans- 
lates (cf.  iii.  17;  v.  41;  vii.  11,  34;  ix.  43;  x.  46; 
xiv.  36;  XV.  22,  34).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
clear  that  the  readers  were  Gentile  Christians — 
not  simply  because  they  were  unacquainted  with 
Palestinian  customs  and  speech,  for  so  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  were  the  Jewish  readers  of  Matthew, 
but  because  this  ignorance  seems  to  be  not  only 
very  much  more  extensive  on  the  part  of  Mark's 
readers,  but  also  to  be  surrounded  by  a  very  gen- 
eral Latin  atmosphere,  as  though  the  readers 
not  merely  needed  the  above  interpretations  and 
explanations,  but  needed  them  cast  in  this  mold 
(cf.  V.  9;  vi.  27,  37;  vii.  4;  xii.  42;  xv.  16,  39). 
As  to  the  place  of  the  Gospel's  origin  there  is 
nothing  definite  to  be  gathered  from  the  con- 
tents, though  perhaps  it  is  more  likely  to  have 
been  writtc^  outside  of  Palestine  than  within  it. 
The  Latin  atmosphere  would  most  easily  be 
thrown  around  the  narrative  in  a  Latin  country. 
As  to  date,  it  is  universally  admitted  that  what- 
ever may  be  the  year  of  its  composition,  it  gives 
every  evidence  of  being  the  earliest  of  all  the 
Gospels.  In  fact,  a  comparison  of  Mark's  order 
of  narrative  with  that  of  Matthew  and  Luke 
shows  that  Mark's  order  was  that  which  Matthew 
and  Luke  had  before  them  when  they  wrote.  If, 
therefore,  there  is  any  likelihood  that  either  of 
these  latter  were  written  prior  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  it  becomes  almost  necessary  to  place 
Mark  before  that  event.  See  Matthew,  Gospel 
OF;  Luke,  Gospel  of. 

In  all  of  this  there  is  nothing  that  would  make 
impossible  an  authorship  by  Mark ;  but  such  an 
origin  would  seem  almost  necessitated  by  the 
elear  testimony  of  patristic  evidence.  This  evi- 
dence, in  brief,  ascribes  the  authorship  of  the 
Gospel  to  Mark,  and  to  Mark  as  in  some  way 
connected  in  the  writing  with  Peter.  The  varia- 
tion in  the  evidence  is  at  the  latter  point.  Some 
of  the  Fathers,  as  Jerome  and  Origen,  make  the 
relation  that  of  an  amanuensis;  others,  as  Euse- 
bius,  that  of  a  reporter;  others  again,  as  Clem- 
■ent  of  Alexandria,  Justin  Martyr,  and  Irenseus, 
that  simply  of  a  disciple  recalling  his  Master's 
words.  The  most  explicit  testimony,  and  that 
which  seems  to  bear  upon  its  face  the  strongest 

?roof  of  credibility,  is  the  testimony  from 
^apias,  who  describes  Mark  as  the  interpreter 
of  Peter's  preaching,  and  Mark's  Gospel  as  his 
conscientious  reproduction  of  what  Peter's  dis- 
courses contained.  This  testimony  of  Papias 
would  agree  with  the  original  Greek  character 
of  the  Gospel's  composition;  for,  according  to 
this  testimony,  the  service  which  Mark  rendered 
to  Peter  was  evidently  that  of  interpreting  his 
Aramaic  discourses  into  the  Greek  which  his 
audiences  could  understand.  It  would  further 
agree  with  the  fresh  and  vi\nd  style  of  the  Gos- 
pel's narrative;  since  such  immediate  contact 
with  Peter's  reminiscences  as  Mark  must  have 
had  would  give  the  stamp  of  an  eye-witness  to  all 
his  record.  And  it  would  yet  further  agree  with 
a  certain  Petrine  element  which  seems  to  be 
present  at  frequent  points  throughout  the  Gospel ; 


MABKET  AND  KABEETING. 


since,  however,  Mark  may  have  reconstructed 
these  discourses  of  Peter's,  he  is  not  likely  to 
have  lost  out  of  them  altogether  the  personal 
element  they  must  have  contained. 

Accordingly,  the  general  verdict  of  criticism  is 
that  the  second  canonical  Gospel  is  from  the 
hand  of  Mark,  reproducing  Peter's  personal 
knowledge  of  and  participation  in  the  Gospel 
events.  At  the  same  time  this  verdict  attaches 
only  to  the  substance  of  the  Gospel;  since  there 
are  evidences  which  seem  to  show  that  Mark's 
production  has  undergone  editing  to  bring  it  to 
its  present  form,  while  there  are  clear  traces  of 
documentary  sources  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
Gospel  which,  if  belonging  to  Mark's  original 
work,  show  him  to  have  gone  outside  of  Peter 
for  a  considerable  amount  of  his  material. 

Naturally  in  proportion  as  Mark's  Gospel  is 
the  reproduction  of  Peter's  preaching,  so  far  mo^t 
its  purpose  be  a  homiletic  rather  than  a  purely 
historical  one.  This  purpose  may  be  described 
as  the  evidencing  of  Jesus'  Messiahship  through 
the  acts  and  deeds  of  His  earthly  life.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  this  evangelistic  element  is  promi- 
nent throughout  the  narrative  and  is  due,  not 
merely  to  the  spirit  of  Jesus'  own  ministry,  but 
also  to  the  method  of  the  general  apostolic  mis- 
sion, which  was  not  so  much  to  tell  the  story  of 
Jesus'  life,  as  rather  to  testify  to  the  impres- 
sion which  Jesus  Himself  had  made  upon  their 
spiritual  experience. 

Bibliography.  Besides  the  usual  New  Testa- 
ment Introductions,  the  introductory  portions  of 
the  more  recent  commentaries  on  Mark,  and 
the  special  Synoptic  works  referred  to  in  the  lit- 
erature attached  to  the  article  on  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew,  consult:  Badham,  Saint  Mark's  /«- 
dehtedneas  to  Baint  Matthew  (London,  1897)  ; 
Titius,  Das  Verhdltniss  der  Herrenworte  in 
Markus  Evangelium  zu  den  Logia  dee  Matthaus, 
in  "Theologische  Studien"  (Gottingen,  1897)  ; 
Hadom,  Die  Entstehung  des  Markusevangelium 
(Gtttersloh,  1898)  ;  Blass,  Philologie  der  Evan- 
gelien  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1898)  ;  Chajea,  Mar- 
ku8  Studien  (Berlin.  1899)  ;  Du  Buiason,  Origin 
of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Mark  (Oxford,  1896)  ; 
Abbott,  The  Oorreotions  of  Mark  (London,  1901 ) . 

MABK,  Edwabd  Latjbenb  (1847 — ).  An 
American  zoologist,  born  at  Hamlet,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1871^ 
and  in  1872-73  acted  as  assistant  astronomer  on 
the  United  States  Northern  Boundary  Survey. 
He  then  studied  zoology  in  Europe  under  Leuck- 
art,  Haeckel,  and  others,  and  obtained  a  degree  in 
lieipzig.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  instructor  at 
Harvard  College,  in  1883  assistant  professor  of 
zo(ilog3',  and  in  1885  Hersey  professor  of  anatomy. 
In  1903  he  became  director  of  the  Bermuda  Bio- 
logical Station  for  Research.  His  publications 
include:  Maturation,  Fecundation,  and  Segmen- 
tation in  Limax  Campestris  (1881)  ;  Simple  Eyes 
in  Arthropods  ( 1887 )  ;  Trichinw  in  Swine  ( 1889 )  ; 
Studies  on  Lepidostcus  (1890).  Consult,  Parker 
ed.,  Mark  Anniversary  Volume  ( New  York,  1904 ) . 

MABK  ANTONY.  See  Antonius,  Mab- 
cus. 

ILABKET  and  KABXETIN0  (AS.  mar- 
ketf  from  Lat.  mercatus,  traffic,  market,  from 
mercari,  to  trade,  from  merw,  merchandise,  from 
merere,  to  earn,  deserve;  connected  with  Gk. 
iWpot,  meros,  share) .  A  market  may  be  defined 
as  an  assemblage  of  people  for  buying  and  flellii)^ 


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MABKET  AND  MABKETING.  75 

goods.  The  tenn  is  applied  at  the  present  time 
more  particularly  to  certain  public  places  or 
buildings  where  goods  are  offered  for  purchase 
and  sale.  In  a  broader  sense^  it  is  the  country, 
city,  or  locality,  where  goods  are  bought  and 
sold,  as  the  foreign  market,  domestic  market. 
New  York  market,  etc.  Markets  have  existed 
from  the  time  when  men  first  began  to  diversify 
their  products.  They  were  the  meeting  places 
for  barter  aad  exchange,  and  during  the  Middle 
Ages  were  a  8o«rce  of  considerable  revenue  to  the 
State.  The  State  authorized  them,  made  laws 
for  their  control,  and  collected  certain  tolls.  In 
Europe  to-day  nearly  every  town  and  in  America 
nearly  all  the  large  cities  have  one  or  more 
market  places.  These  may  be  simply  open  public 
squares  in  some  centrally  located  district,  or  they 
may  be  a  commodious,  substantial  building,  fitted 
up  with  stalls,  booths,  and  containing  cold  stor- 
age rooms  for  the  preservation  of  quickly  perish- 
able goods.  Modem  stores  and  shops  are  the 
outgrowths  of  the  early  markets  and  have  de- 
veloped in  comparatively  recent  times. 

Owing  to  local  productions,  to  transit  facili- 
ties, or  to  some  other  favorable  circumstances, 
many  cities  have  developed  special  markets,  as 
for  example  the  Liverpool  wheat  market,  Buffalo 
live-stock  market,  New  Orleans  cotton  market, 
Leipzig  book  and  for  market,  etc.  The  manner 
of  marketing  has  changed  greatly  in  modem 
times.  Much  of  the  produce  formerly  sold  in 
bulk  is  now  marketed  in  small  attractive  pack- 
ages ready  for  family  use.  ^lany  firms  have  ouilt 
up  a  lucrative  business  by  buying  commodities 
in  bulk  and  repacking  them  in  smaller,  more 
convenient  and  attractive  packages. 

The  development  of  the  cold  storage  system,  in- 
cluding the  use  of  refrigerator  cars  for  goods  in 
transit,  has  in  recent  years  profoundly  affected 
the  methods  of  marketing  perishable  products 
and  indefinitely  prolonged  the  season  during 
which  many  kinds  of  agricultural  products  may 
be  found  on  sale,  even  in  the  markets  of  regions 
remote  from  the  place  of  original  shipment.  Con- 
sult United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  62,  Marketing  Farm  Produce 
(Washington,  1897). 

KABXBT  OVEBT  (Fr.  ouvert,  open).  In 
the  English  law,  certain  'open'  or  public  markets, 
where  the  law  protects  a  purchaser  in  his  title 
to  any  goods  which  he  may  buy  in  good  faith, 
even  though  the  tradesman  did  not  own  or  have 
a  right  to  sell  them.  The  law  originated  in  an 
old  Saxon  custom  which  prohibited  the  sale  ni 
anything  above  the  value  erf  twenty  pence,  except 
in  open  market  and  in  the  presence  of  witnesses. 
The  theor\'  was  that  lost  or  stolen  goods  would 
probably  be  identified  in  a  public  market  by  the 
owner,  before  the  tradesman  or  original  thief 
could  dispose  of  them.  This  custom  became  the 
law  of  England  after  the  Conquest,  and  was 
modified  to  inc^lude  goods  of  any  value,  and  by 
dispensing  with  the  necessity  of  witnesses.  It 
is  applied  to  every  kind  of  personal  property 
except  horses.  By  subsequent  statutes  the  law 
was  further  modified  so  that  at  present  if  stolen 
goods  are  sold  in  open  market,  the  title  revests 
in  the  owner  upon  the  conviction  of  the  thief. 
Only  certain  ancient  markets  have  this  character, 
ontaide  of  London,  where  every  public  shop  is  a 
market  overt  and  every  day  i«  market  day.  This 
law  never  existed  in  the  United  States.  See 
Sales. 

Vol,  XIII.— 6. 


MABKHAX. 

IffARKET  VALUE.  The  value  of  an  artwle 
as  established  bv  public  sales  of  such  property 
in  a  particular  locality.  At  times  this  value  is 
proved  by  regular  market  quotations.  It  is  also 
proved  by  persons  familiar  with  the  price  at 
which  such  property  sells  regularly  in  tiie 
market.  If  the  market  price  is  abnormally  en- 
hanced or  depressed  at  the  time  and  place  for 
delivery  of  any  goods,  by  wrongful  combinations 
or  by  an  illegal  monopoly,  other  evidence  than 
the  market  sales  may  be  resorted  to  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  fair  value  of  the  propertv  in 
question.  Consult  the  authorities  referred  to 
under  Tobt;  Damages;  Cbiminai.  Law. 


I,  Sir  Albebt  Hastinos  (1841 
— ).  An  admiral  of  the  English  Royal  Navy, 
bom  at  Bagn^res.  After  his  education  in  the 
Royal  Navy  Academy  at  Southsea,  be  entered  the 
navy  and  served  in  China,  taking  an  active  part 
in  the  fall  of  Peking.  He  rose  to  lieutenant 
(1862),  conmiander  (1872),  captain  (1876), 
rear-admiral  (1892-94),  and  admiral  (1903). 
He  commanded  the  Alert  in  the  Arctic  expedi- 
tion of  1875-70,  when  he  reared  the  Union  Jack 
in  the  most  northern  point  reached  up  to  that 
time  (830  20'  26").  He  explored  Davis  Strait, 
Lancaster  Sound,  Nova  Zembia,  and  Hudson  Bay. 
Among  his  publications  are:  The  Cruusc  of 
the  Rosario  (1873);  The  Great  Frozen  Sea 
(1877);  Northward  Ho!  (1878);  The  Life  of 
John  Davis  (he  NatHgator  (1882);  A  Polar 
Reconnaissance  (1880);  and  Life  of  Sir  John 
Franklin  (1890). 

MABKHAM,  Sir  Clements  Robert  (1830 
— ).  An  English  geographer  and  author,  bom  at 
Stillingflcet.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster, 
and  in  1844  entered  the  navy.  In  1850  he  was 
made  lieutenant,  and  in  1851  accompanied  the  ex- 
pedition sent  to  search  for  Sir  Jolm  Franklin. 
He  accompanied  the  British  expedition  against 
Abyssinia  in  1867-68,  entered  the  geographical 
department  of  the  India  Office,  was  editor  of  the 
Oeographical  Magazine ^  secretary  of  the  Hakluyt 
Society  in  1858-87,  and  later  secretary  and  then 
president  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  from 
which  he  retired  in  1905.  He  published:  Frank- 
lin's Footsteps  (1852);  Travels  in  Peru  and 
India  (1862)  ;  A  History  of  the  Abyssinian  Ex- 
pedition (1869);  Major  James  Rennell  and  the 
Rise  of  Modem  English  Geography  ( 1895 )  ;  Rich- 
ard Hakluyt:  His  Life  and  Work^  with  a  Short 
Account  of  the  Aims  and  Achievements  of  the 
Hakluyt  Society  (1896)  ;  Memoir  of  Archbishop 
Markham    (1906);  Richard  III.   (1906). 

XABXHAM,  Edwin  (1852—).  An  Ameri- 
can poet,  bom  in  Oregon  City,  Ore.  When  five 
years  old  he  was  taken  to  live  in  California  and 
struggled  for  an  education  there  while  engaged 
in  general  farm  work.  He  began  to  write  verse 
for  the  California  papers  at  an  early  age,  be^ 
came  a  teacher,  and  rose  to  be  principal  and 
school  superintendent.  In  1899  he  removed  to 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  subsequently  to  Staten  Isl- 
and. His  best-known  poem  is  The  Man  toith  the 
Hoe,  published  in  book  form  with  other  verses 
in  1899.  His  other  books  include  Lincoln  and 
Other  Poems  (1901)  and  Field  Folk:  Interpreta^ 
tions  of  Millet  (1901). 

MARKHAM,  Gervase  (c.1568-1637).  An 
English  author,  bom  at  Gotham,  Nottingham- 
shire. He  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, and  attained  a  captaincy  in  the  English 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


76  MABL. 


army.  Well  versed  in  the  classical  and  modern 
languages,  he  took  up  literature  as  a  means  of 
livelihood  and  prepared  numerous  volumes  for 
the  press.  He  wrote  largely  on  topics  connected 
with  sport,  and  is  also  known  for  some  indifferent 
poetry.  A  few  works  attributed  to  him  were 
certamly  written  by  others,  but  those  regarded 
as  ^nume  include :  The  Moat  Honorable  Tragedie 
of  Sir  Richard  Grinvile  (1595);  The  Poem  of 
Poems  (1595)  ;  Cavelarice,  or  the  English  Horse- 
man (1607) ;  and  Hunger's  Prevention  (1621). 

MABKHATff,  William  (c.1635-1704).  An 
American  Colonial  Governor,  born  in  England. 
He  was  a  cousin  of  William  Penn,  and  was  sent 
to  America  as  Deputy  Governor  of  Pennsylvania 
after  the  grant  in  1681.  On  his  arrival  at  New 
York,  BrockhoUs,  acting  Governor  in  the  absence 
of  Andros,  surrendered  his  authority  over  Penn's 
grant  and  gave  him  a  letter  to  the  local  authori- 
ties. Proceeding  to  Pennsylvania,  Markham 
called  a  council  August  3,  1681,  and  almost 
immediately  began  a  controversy  with  Lord  Balti- 
more about  the  Maryland  boundary.  He  chose 
the  present  site  of  Philadelphia  for  the  great  city 
to  be  built,  instead  of  that  of  Upland  (Chester), 
which  was  Penn's  choice.  When  Penn  arrived  in 
1682,  Markham  went  to  England  to  represent  the 
colony  in  the  boundanr  dispute,  and  when  Penn 
returned  was  made  Secretary  of  the  Province 
and  the  Territories  (the  lower  counties  on  the 
Delaware).  He  was  Deputy  Governor  of  the  Ter- 
ritories in  1691,  and  was  Lieutenant-Governor  for 
Governor  Fletcher  of  New  York  (1693  to  1695), 
the  Crown  having  revoked  the  grant  miide  to 
Penn  and  assumed  control.  He  was  continued  in 
officer  until  1699  by  Penn,  who  in  1695  had  again 
secured  possession,  and  during  this  time  the  new 
Constitution  was  passed.  Many  charges,  such  as 
conniving  at  piracy  and  using  courts  to  protect 
fraud,  were  made  against  him.  Penn  was  not  al- 
together satisfied  with  his  course,  but  ordered 
him  to  be  appointed  Register-General  of  Wills  in 
1703. 

MAKKHOB.     See  Goat. 

lLAItKIN(}-NT7T.  The  fruit  of  Semecarpus 
Anacardium,  a  large  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Anacardiacese,  a  native  of  the  mountains  of  India. 
It  has  oblong  leaves  and  terminal  panicles  of 
flowers.  The  fruit  is  a  heart-shaped,  black  nut, 
seated  on  a  large  swollen  receptacle,  which, 
when  ripe,  is  roasted  and  eaten,  although  when 
raw  it  is  astringent  and  acrid.  Between  the 
two  coats  of  the  nut-shell  is  a  black,  acrid  juice, 
much  in  use  for  marking  cotton  cloths,  a  mixture 
of  quicklime  and  water  being  applied  to  prevent 
it  from  running,  and  to  brighten  the  color.  It  is 
also  used  as  an  external  application  in  rheu- 
matism. 

MABKIBGH,  mftr^^rK  (Fr.  Sainte-Mane- 
auw-Mines),  A  town  of  Upper  Alsace,  Germany, 
situated  about  forty  miles  southwest  of  Strass- 
burg.  It  is  an  important  manufacturing  centre 
for  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  the  industry  hav- 
ing been  introduced  there  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  town 
was  famous  for  its  silver  rainen,  which  liave 
since  been  abandoned.  Cotton  weaving  was  be- 
gun here  in  1755.  Population,  in  1905,  12,336, 
about  one-half  Protestants. 

ULARKrLAND,  Jeremiah  (1693-1776).  An 
English  classical  scholar  and  text  critic.  He 
was  bom  at  Childwall,   England,  and  was   ed- 


ucated at  London  and  Cambridge.  His  works 
included  a  number  of  emendations  of  the  text 
of  Lysias  and  of  Euripides;  an  edition  of  the 
difficult  Silvw  of  SUtius  (1728;  1824),  which 
is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  acute  criticism; 
and  Remarks  on  the  Epistles  of  Cicero  to  Brutus 
(1745),  in  which  he  tried  to  prove  them  spurious. 
His  attacks  on  the  authenticity  of  the  Ciceronian 
orations  Pro  Domo  Sua,  Post  Reditum  in  Sena- 
tUf  Ad  QuiriteSy  and  the  De  Haruspicum  Respon- 
sis,  in  which  he  was  afterwards  followed  by  F.  A. 
Wolf,  started  a  famous  and  long-standing  con- 
troversy. Consult  Wolf,  Litterarische  AntUekten 
(Berlin,  1817-20). 

MABKS,  Henbt  Stact  (1829-98).  An  Eng- 
lish genre  painter,  bom  in  London.  He  studied 
at  the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy,  London, 
and  under  Picot  in  Paris.  In  1853  he  began  to 
exhibit  at  the  Academy,  and  was  elected  a  Royal 
Academician  in  1878.  His  works  are  often  of  a 
humorous  nature,  and  he  painted  many  scenes 
from  Shakespeare.  "Saint  Francis  Preaching 
to  the  Birds'^  (1870)  is  one  of  his  most  charac- 
teristic paintings.  He  was  very  fond  of  intro- 
ducing birds  into  his  works,  and  painted  them 
with  particular  care.  His  paintings  in  water 
color  are  also  notable. 

MABK  TWAIN.  The  nom-de-plume  of  S. 
L.  Clemens. 

ICABli  (OF.  marie,  merle,  Fr.  mame,  OHG. 
mergily  Ger.  Mergel,  from'  ML.  margila,  diminu- 
tive of  Lat.  marga,  marl,  from  Gall,  marga, 
Bret,  marg,  marl,  Gk.  d^iXof,  argilos,  white 
clay).  A  somewhat  indefinite  term  applied  in 
different  localities  to  widely  different  materials. 
In  a  general  sense  it  means  essentially  a  natu- 
rally occurring  mixture  of  calcium  carbonate  and 
clay  with  more  or  less  sand,  which  usually  falls 
to  pieces  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Although  prob- 
ably the  greater  nimiber  of  the  marls  of  the 
United  States  conform  to  this  definition,  and 
depend  for  their  ain'icultural  value  on  their  lime 
content,  there  are  quite  extensive  deposits  of  the 
Cretaceous  marls,  known  as  greensand  (espe- 
cially in  New  Jersey),  which  contain  variable 
but  usually  small  amounts  of  lime  and  con- 
siderable amounts  of  potash  (mainly  silicate) 
and  phosphoric  acid.  The  name  is  also  some- 
times applied  to  friable  clays,  or  mixtures  of 
clay  and  sand,  in  which  there  is  almost  no  trace 
of  lime.  Marl  beds  are  widely  distributed  in  the 
United  States  and  have  been  exploited  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  and  South 
Carolina.  The  marls  of  these  deposits  generally 
belong  to  three  classes  and  occur  in  geological 
formations  which  are  found,  as  a  rule,  one  above 
the  other  in  immediate  succession.  The  upper 
layer,  blue  or  shale  marl  (Neocene),  generally 
found  at  or  near  the  surface,  consists  chiefly  of 
sea  mud  with  partially  decomposed  shells  and 
bones.  Its  value  depends  mainly  upon  its  con- 
tent of  carbonate  of  lime  (40-50  per  cent.),  al- 
though it  contains  in  addition  small  percentages 
of  potash  (.25  to  4.75  per  cent.)  and  phosphoric 
acid  (trace  to  1.75  per  cent.).  This  class  pre- 
dominates in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North 
Carolina,  and  has  been  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  with  good  results  on  worn-out  or  nat- 
urally infertile  soils.  The  second  class.  Eocene 
or  chalky  marl,  is  commonly  a  coarse,  friable 
chalk,  consisting  of  comminuted  shells  and  corals. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


TMTATtT. 


of  a  light  yellowish  or  grayish  color  to  white, 
sometimes  compacted  into  a  solid  limestone.  Its 
content  of  lime  is  greater  (50-95  per  cent.)  than 
that  of  the  shell  marl  and  the  percentage  of  pot- 
ash and  phosphoric  acid  is  smaller.  In  the 
lower  layer  occur  the  Cretaceous  marls  (green- 
sand),  which  vary  considerably  in  chemical  com- 
position and  agricultural  value.  Their  fertilizing 
value  is  determined  largely  by  their  content  of 
potash  (3.5  to  7  per  cent.)  and  phosphoric  acid 
( I  to  4  per  cent. ) ,  although  man v  are  calcareous 
(1.25  to  9  per  cent,  of  lime).  These  marls  have 
long  been  used  with  beneficial  results  by  New  Jer- 
sey farmers,  although  the  benefit  is  more  marked 
in  case  of  marls  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  and  lime 
than  in  case  of  pure  greensand  containing  a  hi^ 
|«rcentage  of  potash,  probably  because  the  potash 
IS  in  the  form  of  an  insoluble  silicate  (glau- 
oonite)  and  is  very  slowly  available  to  plants. 

Marl  is  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect  fertilizer, 
improving  both  the  chemical  and  physical  condi- 
tkms  of  soils,  correcting  acidity,  unlocking  in- 
soluble plsmt  food,  and  promoting  nitrification. 
It  is  very  lasting  in  effect  and  has  been  used 
from  ancient  times  for  restoring  worn-out  lands 
to  fertility  or  for  improving  naturally  infertile 
soils.  But  because  lime  (q.v.)  is  quicker  in 
action  and  of  greater  eflficiency  it  has  been  used 
in  many  cases  instead  of  marl,  although  some 
kinds  of  marl  are  extremely  useful  on  certain 
soils.  On  account  of  its  bulkiness  and  the  large 
amounts  which  must  be  applied  in  order  to  secure 
beneficial  results,  marl  can  be  used  profitably 
only  in  close  proximity  to  the  deposits.  Booth, 
in  a  report  of  the  State  geologist  of  Delaware, 
reeonunends  60  to  190  bushels  per  acre  as  the 
proper  amount  to  be  applied  on  poor  light  soils, 
100  to  290  bushels  on  clay  soils,  while  290  to  500 
bushels  may  be  used  with  advantage  on  soils  of 
good  quali^  abundantly  supplied  with  humus. 
The  addition  of  quicklime  to  marl  (30  to  40  bush- 
els of  lime  to  300  to  400  bushels  of  marl)  has 
been  found  to  guicken  the  action  of  the  marl. 
It  is  generally  advisable  to  let  marl  lie  exposed 
to  tiie  air  some  time  before  it  is  incorporated 
with  the  soil,  thus  destroying  any  poisonous 
compounds  which  may  be  present. 

CoDsult:  IRuffin,  Calcareous  Manures;  Ullmann, 
Kalk  %tnd  Mergel;  State  Geological  reports  of 
Delaware,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  New  Jersey, 
Xorth  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Virginia; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Re- 
port, 1889. 

KABL.     See  Calcite. 

XABIiBOBOy  mJlrl^tir-6.  A  city,  including 
several  villages  in  Middlesex  County,  Mass.,  32 
miles  west  of  Boston,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
and  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
railroads  (Map:  Massachusetts,  D  3).  Among 
the  features  of  Marlboro  are  a  handsome  city 
ball,  public  library,  high  school  building,  and  a 
soldiers*  monument.  There  are  extensive  boot 
and  shoe,  box,  automobile,  and  carriage  factories, 
electrical  machine  and  lamp  works,  and  manu- 
factories of  shoe-making  machinerv.  The  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  annually  elected,  a  bi- 
cameral council,  and  administrative  departments. 
The  members  of  the  license  department  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  mayor;  of  the  police,  fire,  and 
•treet  departments,  by  the  mayor  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  council;  while  the  members  of  the 
water,  health,  and  poor  departments  are  elected 
by  the  council.     Population,  in  1890,  13,806 ;  in 


77  XABLBOBOUGH. 

1900,  13,600;  in  1906,  14,703.  Settled  in  1656, 
Marlboro  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1660, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1890.  In  1676, 
during  King  Philip's  War,  it  was  almost  wholly 
destroyed  by  the  Indians.  Out  of  the  parts  of  the 
original  township,  Westborough  was  formed  in 
1717,  Southborough  in  1727,  and  Hudson  in  1866. 
Consult  Hudson,  History  of  the  Town  of  Marl- 
boro, Massachusetts   (Boston,  1862). 

MABLBOBOUGH,  mftrl^be-rO.  An  old  and 
interesting  town  in  Wiltshire,  England,  pleas- 
antly situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Kennet,  75 
miles  west-southwest  of  London  (Map:  England, 
E  6).  The  chief  edifice  is  the  'college,'  a  hand- 
some building  occupying  the  site  of  the  old  castle. 
As  early  as  the  days  of  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion 
there  was  a  castle  at  Marlborough ;  and  a  Parlia- 
ment, whose  enactments  were  called  the  'Statutes 
of  Marlbridge,'  was  held  there  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  The  town  corporation  dates  from 
1200.  It  owns  remunerative  real  estate  and  a 
water  supply,  and  maintains  an  isolation  hospital 
and  sewage  farm.   Population,  in  1891,  3012;  in 

1901.  3046. 

MABLBOBOUGH.  The  northeastern  dis- 
trict of  South  Island,  New  Zealand.  Area,  2,792,- 
500  acres,  a  minor  portion  of  which  is  suitable 
for  agricultural  purposes;  1,680,000  have  been 
taken  for  grazing  purposes  (Map:  New  Zealand, 
D  2).  Coal,  gold,  and  copper  are  found  in  the 
district.    Population,  in  1906,  14,308. 

ICABLBOBOITGHy  John  Churchill,  first 
Duke  of  (1650-1722).  A  celebrated  English  gen- 
eral! He  was  bom  probably  June  24,  1650,  at 
Ashe  in  the  Parish  of  Musbury,  Devonshire,  the 
second  son  of  Sir  Winston  Churchill,  a  politician 
and  historian,  and  a  stanch  supporter  of  the 
Stuarts.  John  Churchill  was  educated  at  Saint 
Paul's  School,  but  early  in  life  entered  the  army.  ' 
He  saw  some  service  at  Tangier  against  the 
Moors,  and  from  1672  to  1677  he  bore  arms  on 
the  Continent  against  the  Netherlands,  serving 
part  of  the  time  under  the  great  Turenne.  A 
new  era  in  the  history  of  war  was  then  beginning. 
Artillery  and  musketry  had  displaced  entirely 
the  old  pikeman,  and  rapidity  of  movement  hence- 
forth decided  campaigns.  In  1674  Louis  XIV. 
made  Churchill  a  colonel  of  his  regiment,  and  in 
1678  he  was  made  colonel  of  foot  in  the  English 
service.  Though  there  was  no  question  of  Church- 
ill's ability,  still  the  rapidity  of  his  promotion 
was  due  also  to  the  fact  that  some  time  between 
1665  and  1668  his  sister  Arabella  had  become  the 
mistress  of  the  Duke  of  York.  About  1676 
Churchill  fell  in  love  with  Sarah  Jennings  ( q.v. ) , 
who  was  a  lady-in-waiting  of  Princess  Anne 
(later  Queen  Anne),  and  noted  for  her  imperious- 
ness  and  her  beauty.  Throughout  life  she  was  the 
one  person  to  whom  Churchill  was  faithful; 
otherwise  he  was  ever  ready  to  betray  if  it 
suited  his  interests.  The  couple  were  married 
early  in  1678,  and  thus  Churchill  gained  the 
favor  of  Princess  Anne,  who  was  under  the 
complete  domination  of  her  dictatorial  attend- 
ant. In  the  following  years  he  was  occasion- 
ally employed  in  diplomatic  missions  to  Hol- 
land, but  usually  he  was  in  attendance  on 
the  Duke  of  York.  In  1682  he  w^as  created  a 
baron.  When  in  1685  the  Duke  of  York  as- 
cended the  throne  as  James  II.  Churchill  be- 
came still  more  prominent.  He  commanded  a 
body  of  troops  to  suppress  the  rebellion  of  the 


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78 


MABLBOBOXTGH. 


Duke  of  Idknuuouth  (q.v.);  and  his  coolness  pre- 
Tented  a  serious  disaster  to  the  royal  troops  at 
Sedgemoor  (q.v.).  Churchill  was  strongly  at- 
tached to  the  £ii^liflh  Church,  and  hifi  eulogists 
have  maiataiAed  wat  he  would  not  have  betrayed 
it  under  any  eircumstanoes.  This  may  be  doubted, 
but  he  certainly  did  not  desert  the  cause  of  the 
Church  when  he  noticed  the  current  ot  public 
opinion  turning  more  and  more  against  King 
James.  The  result  was  that  he  withdrew  gradu- 
ally from  participation  in  the  acts  of  this  reign, 
and,  though  still  affecting  loyalty  to  the  King,  he 
began  negotiations  with  Wiuiam  of  Orange,  and 
when  the  latter  landed  in  England  in  1688, 
Churchill  was  one  of  the  first  to  go  over  to  him 
■  with  his  troops-  During  the  early  pirt  of  the 
reign  of  William  III.  he  was  in  high  favor;  in 
1689  was  made  Earl  of  Marlborough,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  greatly  during  the  invasion 
of  Ireland,  but  lost  all  favor  when  he  was  sus- 
pected, and  justly  so,  of  preparing  to  betray  Wil- 
liam III.  and  aid  James  II.  to  recover  the 
throne,  of  which  he  had  helped  to  deprive  him. 
Nevertheless,  on  the  commencement  of  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  in  1701  Marlborough  was 
intrusted  by  William  III.  with  the  command  of 
the  British  army  in  the  Netherlands.  On  March 
8,   1702,  however,  the  King  died. 

With  the  accession  of  Anne  began  the  great 
epoch  of  Marlborough's  life.  Through  his  wife 
he  controlled  the  (^leen,  while  the  son  of  the 
powerful  minister  Godolphin  (q.v.)  had  in  16^ 
married  his  daughter.  Thus  he  had  a  fairly  free 
hand  to  carry  out  his  great  military  exploits, 
though  the  Allies,  Dutch  and  Germans,  often 
caus^  difficulties.  The  troops  of  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold I.  were  commanded  by  the  great  Prinee 
Eugene  <q.v.).  Marlborough,  who  had  been 
elected  also  Captain-Oeneral  of  the  Dutch  forces, 
took  command  in  May,  1702,  and  in  December 
iras  created  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  had  un- 
4fer  him  about  10,000  English  troops,  20,000 
Dutch  troops,  and  as  many  mercenaries,  chiefly 
Germans.  He  was  opposed  by  a  French  army  of 
aeventy-five  thousand  men.  The  great  danger  to 
the  Allies  was  that  the  French  would  control  the 
Rhiae  Valley,  and  thus  completely  isolate  Aus- 
tria. In  order  to  prevent  this,  Marlborough,  who 
had  been  oonductmg  a  series  of  brilliant  opera- 
tions in  the  Low  Coimtries,  in  the  summer  of 
1704  made  a  rapid  march  to  Bavaria,  and  there 
joined  Prince  Eugene.  His  march  was  not  so 
marvelous  a  performance  as  has  sometimes  been 
claimed,  but  it  enabled  the  Allies  to  meet  the 
French  on  equal  terms  at  Blenheim  (q.v.)  on 
August  13,  1704.  The  battle  was  decided  when 
Marlborough,  by  a  skillful  use  of  his  cavalry, 
broke  throu^  the  French  centre,  and  the  enemy 
retired  in  great  confusion.  In  this  series  of 
operations,  instead  of  the  old  method  of  detailed 
operations  and  sieges,  tlie  two  great  leaders  had 
concentrated  all  their  forces  in  the  important 
territory,  and  there  by  one  decisive  victory  had 
won  the  w^hole  campaign.  Not  the  whole  credit 
of  the  successes  of  the  Allies  is  due  to  Marl- 
borough, a  full  half  belonging  to  Eujjene.  For 
this  victory  great  honors  and  pecuniary  rewards 
were  bestowed  on  ^larlborough,  and  he  was  made 
JL  Prince  of  the  Empire  (Austria).  (See  Blen- 
heim House.)  He  won  other  important  victories 
during  the  war,  as  when  he  compelled  the  French 
under  Villeroi  to  evacuate  the  wliolo  of  Flanders 
by   his  victory  at  Ramillies  on   May   23,    ITOO, 


and,  together  with  Eugene,  defeated  Vend6nie 
at  Oudenarde  on  July  11,  1708.  By  this  last 
victory  aad  the  capture  of  Lille  the  road  to 
Paris  was  opened,  but  Marlborough  had  no  longer 
a  free  hand.  His  wife  had  had  several  quar- 
rels with  Abdc,  and  the  Qaeen  was  ridding  her- 
self of  the  complete  asoendency  of  the  Duchess. 
Moreover,  England  was  suffering  from  the  bur- 
dens imposed  by  the  long  struggle,  and  the  Tories, 
who  opposed  the  war,  were  coming  into  power. 
On  September  11,  1700,  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
won  a  doubtful  victory  at  Malpiaquet,  but  it  was 
the  last  great  battle  of  the  English  general.  The 
same  year  the  Duchess  was  dismissed  by  Anne,  a 
Tory  Ministry  assumed  office,  and  in  1711  Marl- 
borough was  relieved  of  his  command.  His 
enemies  accused  him  of  having  embezded  the 
public  money,  and  for  a  time  he  was  deprived  of 
his  offices,  though  the  charge  was  not  pressed. 
In  his  last  years  he  was  without  influence  or 
friends,  being,  in  spite  of  his  victories,  unpopu- 
lar on  account  of  his  avarice,  (jodolphin  had 
died  and  most  of  the  great  lords  were  his  ene- 
mies. Upon  the  accession  of  George  I.  in  1714 
he  was  made  Captain-General  and  master  of 
the  ordnance,  but  took  little  part  in  public  af- 
fairs. He  died  June  16,  1722,  leaving  a  large 
fortune. 

Marlborough  has  often  been  severely  treated  by 
historians.  He  was  unquestionably  unscrupulous 
and  avaricious.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  a  time 
when  this  was  true  of  nearly  all  public  men,  re- 
gardless of  party,  and  Marlborough  has  received 
more  blame  simply  because  he  was  more  promi- 
nent. His  military  abilities,  however,  have  never 
been  questioned.  Unlike  his  two  great  suc- 
cessors, Frederick  the  Great  and  Napoleon,  he 
was  never  entirely  unhampered.  He  was  al- 
ways compelled  to  have  regard  for  the  wishes  of 
his  allies  and  the  political  situation  in  England. 
But  he  was  the  first  since  classic  times  to  im- 
press upon  generals  the  need  of  rapidity  of  move- 
ment and  the  execution  of  campaigns  as  a  whole. 
Moreover,  he  had  the  ability,  which  only  the 
greatest  commanders  have,  to  amalgamate  the 
different  elements  of  his  army,  to  become  the 
hero  of  his  soldiers.  His  campaigns  always 
showed  a  grasp  of  the  proportion  of  things.  He 
never  frittered  his  strength  away  on  details,  but 
waited  for  the  decisive  battle.  Among  generals, 
he  is  one  of  the  ^'ery  few  who  never  lost  a  bat- 
tle, and  never  failed  in  a  campaign. 

Consult:  Murray.  Letters  and  Dispatches  <jf 
John,  Duke  of  Marlborough,  from  1702  to  1712 
(5  vols.,  London,  1845)  ;  id..  Private  Correspond- 
ence of  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Marlborough  (2 
vols.,  London,  1838)  ;  id..  Letters  of  the  Duchess 
of  Marlborough  (London,  1875).  The  most  com- 
plete life  is  that  of  Coxe,  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  (3  vols.,  London,  1847-4S),  but  it 
is  too  partial  to  Marlborough.  A  bitter  attack  on 
Marlborough  is  in  Macaulay's  History;  while  an 
impartial  character-study  is  to  be  found  in 
Saintsbury,  Marlborough  (London,  1879).  For 
the  military  history  of  ^Marlborough,  and  an 
estimate  of  him  as  a  general,  consult :  Dodge,  Gus- 
tarus  Adolphus  and  the  Der-^lopment  of  the  Art 
of  War  (Boston  and  New  York,  1895)  ;  Fortescue, 
^•Marlborough,"  in  From  Cromwell  to  Wellington 
(Ix)ndon,  1809)  ;  Alison,  Military  Life  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough  (London,  1879)  ;  also  gen- 
eral histories  like  Green,  History  of  the  English 
People  (New  York,  1879). 


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MABLBOBOUGH  HOUSE. 

KABLBOBOXrOH  EOXXSB.  A  mansion  on 
the  south  side  of  Pall  Mall,  London,  erected  in 
1710  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  for  the  first 
Dolce  of  Marlfoorongh.  It  was  bought  by  the 
Govemcot  in  1S17.  In  it  Prineess  Charlotte 
aad  her  hnsband,  Prinee  Leopold,  and  subse- 
qncBtly  the  Queen  Dowager  Adelaide,  lired.  In 
1863  it  became  the  property  and  city  residence 
of  the  Prinee  id  Wales. 

KAB^IH.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Falls  Comity,  Tex.,  26  miles  sontheast  of  Waco; 
on  the  Houston  and  Texas  Central  and  the  Inter- 
mtional  and  Great  Northern  railroads  (Map: 
Texas,  F  4).  It  is  in  a  noted  cotton-growing 
district  and  carries  on  an  important  trade  in 
cotton,  grain,  and  lire  stock.  Among  tlie  rndiw- 
trial  plants  are  several  cotton-gins,  a  cotton 
eompress,  and  a  large  c^ttonseed-oil  mill.  As  a 
heslth  resort,  Marlin  has  considerable  reptrtation, 
deriyed  from  its  hot  artesian  well,  3360  feet 
deep,  tiie  waters  of  which  have  a  temperature  of 
1470  F.  and  possess  valuable  medieinal  proper- 
ties. There  are  fine  hotels  and  sanatoriums,  a 
coort-house,  an  opera  house,  and  a  new  school 
boiWing  coeting  $25,000.  Population,  in  1»00, 
3092;  in  1904    (local  est.),  4000. 

KAUJN.    A  godwit  (<i,t.). 

KABLIVO  8PIXB  (from  marline,  from 
Datch  marUjn,  from  marren,  to  bind,  Goth. 
fMrzjan,  OHG.  marrjan,  dialectic  Ger.  merren, 
to  retard,  hinder,  Eng.  mar  +  lijn,  Eng.  lit%e), 
or  Maruxe  Spike.  A  pointed  iron  instrument, 
used  by  sailors  in  knotting,  splicing,  serving,  etc. 
It  is  generally  eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  about 
an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  head  and  tapering  to 
a  point  at  the  other  end.  It«  chief  use  is'  in 
aeptnting  the  strands  of  rope  or  in  opening  out 
a  knot  which  is  janmied  so  tightly  that  it  cannot 
be  QBtied  otherwise.  In  marling  and  in  serving 
it  is  need  aa  a  heaver  .to  haul  the  tarns  taut.  A 
large  wooden  instrument  of  the  same  general 
sh^ie  is  termed  a  /td.    See  the  article  KiforriNG 

A5B  SPLIGI3i«. 

MAKLTB'BFIMM,  The  New  Enghind  nane 
for  the  boatswain  bird   ( q.v. ) . 

HABO^TT,  E.,  the  psemdonym  of  Extoknie 
John  (1825-87).  A  popular  German  novelist, 
bom  Decenrfier  5,  1825,  at  Arn^^t,  where  ahe 
died,  ^une  22,  1887.  Her  father  was  a  portrait 
painter;  her  patroness  was  the  Princess  of 
Scfawarzbnri^^-Sondershausen,  who  sent  her  to 
Vienna  to  study  mvBic.  She  beeaine  deaf,  lived 
for  eieven  years  at  Court,  and  then,  withdrawing 
to  Amstadt,  b^;aa  there  her  novelistie  eareer. 
a*  gwolf  ApottH  (1866);  Goldelse  (1868); 
Dot  GdletiMtiw  def  alien  Mamsell  ( 1868)  ;  TMir- 
wfer  Brvihlmmgen  (1869);  Reichsgriffin  Gisela 
(1876);  HeidepriwKiS9ehen  (1872);  Die  tfweite 
i^s  (1874) ;  and  other  novels  are  familiar  in 
Englirii  translatione. 

XABXOW,  or  G«EAT  Mablow.  A  nraniei- 
ptl  borough  in  Buckinghamshire,  Eii^and,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  31  miles  west  of 
London  (Map:  England,  F  5).  It  is  a  pic- 
turesque fishing  resort.  Here  Shelley  wrote 
tbe  BevoU  of  Islmm.  It  has  manufactures  of 
silk,  lace,  and  paper.  Population  (urban  dis- 
trict), in  1901,  4526. 

KASIiOW.  In  Goldsmith's  Bht  Stoops  to 
CoMfMcr,  a  nMB  oi  great  modesty  with  virtuous 
women  of  station  and  verj»  free  ^vith  women  of 
another  class.     He  mistakes  Hardcastle's  house 


79  ICABLOWE. 

for  an  inn,  and  makes  love  to  Misa  Hardcastle, 
supposing  her  to  he  the  barmaid. 

MABLOWSy  mdr'ld,  Christofheb  (1564- 
93).  A  great  English  dramatist,  the  most  im- 
portant of  Shakespeare's  predecessors,  and  in 
some  sense  his  master.  He  was  bom  at  (IJanter- 
bury,  probably  in  February,  1564,  and  edncaterf 
at  the  King's  School  there  and  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1585. 
Here  he  made  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
Latin  classics,  and  translated  Gvid's  Am^yres  into 
English  verse.  His  life  after  leaving  Cambridge 
is  hard  to  trace  in  detail.  It  seems  to  have  been 
spent  chiefly  in  London  and  to  have  been  char- 
acterized by  a  revolt  against  conventional  moral- 
ity and  established  religion  which  makes  its 
close  in  a  drunken  brawl  at  the  age  of  twenty  nine 
an  unhappily  fitting  climax.  His  reputation  for 
heresy  and  irreligion  (possibly  grounded  origi- 
nally on  his  association  with  his  old  Cambridger 
tutor,  Francis  Kett,  who  was  burned  as  a  heretic 
at  Norwich  in  1589)  had  caused  a  warrant  for 
his  arrest  to  be  issued  a  few  days  before  he  thn« 
passed  beyond  the  jurisidietion  of  the  Privy 
Council.  It  is  pleasanter  to  dwell  on  his  inter- 
course with  the  chief  men  of  letters  in  his  time, 
including  Kyd,  Nash,  GJreene,  Chapman,  Ral- 
eijfh,  and  probably  Shakespeare.  Wnatever  his 
life  may  have  been,  there  can  be  no  question  of 
the  magnificence  of  his  genius  and  the  far-reach- 
ing influence  which  he  had  npon  the  development 
of  the  English  drama. 

Not  only  did  he  establish  the  iambic  pentam- 
eter as  the  recognized  vehicle  for  serious  drama, 
but  he  made  it  something  more  than  it  had 
been  in  various  experiments  since  Oorbodno 
(1562).  The  metre  became  a  Uving  thing  in 
his  hand;  by  skillful  variation  of  pause  and 
accent,  by  the  swift  and  saKK>tii  carrying  along  of 
the  thought  from  line  to  line,  it  grew  to  be  that 
blank  verse  which  Milton  perfected  into  one  of 
the  glories  of  Elfish  poetry.  But  bis  work  was 
wider  than  this.  Dropping  the  knitation  oi 
Seneca  which  had  been  trying  to  natnralifle  itoeli 
in  England,  he  struck  out  boldly  to  create  Eng- 
lish tragedy  by  the  laws  of  his  own  genius.  The 
prologue  to  Tmmhmriaine  eontaine  what  is  really 
a  manifesto,  not  only  proausing  to  lead  his  audi- 
ence away 

From  Jigging:  veins  of  rhjmlng  roother-wits 

by  his  blank  verse,  but  proclaiming  a  doctrine  of 
unity  far  more  healthful  than  the  classical  tradi- 
tion which  was  endeavoring  to  impose  itself  upon 
England — the  unity  which  comes  from  centring 
the  action  about  one  great  passkm,  one  mighty 
character.  Great  as  was  the  age,  stupendous  aa 
were  its  flights  beyond  what  had  been  thought 
the  nttermost  Ihnits  of  the  possible,  Marlowe  is 
able  to  keep  up  with  them,  to  find  for  them  the 
*high  astounding  terms*  which  lend  his  tragedies 
such  snblimity.  In  humor  hie  was  deficient;  hiH 
touch  is  no*  always  snre,  and  in  his  search 
for  effect  he  sometimes  overleaps  himself  and 
falls  into  bathos;  hut  as  a  daring  pioneer  he 
won,  and  now  more  than  ever,  since  Lamb  and 
Hazfitt  restored  him  to  his  place,  keeps  a  rank 
among  the  very  highest.  It  is  hard  to  set  limits 
to  what  he  might  have  been  had  his  life  been 
prolonged ;  but  after  all  his  achievement  is  ample 
u  that  li^  made  Shakespeare  possible.  After 
Tamhvrlaine  ( ?1687;  printed  1590),  comes  prob- 
ably the  first  dramatic  rendering  of  the  Faust 


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MABLOWE. 


l^nd  in  Doctor  Faustua  (?1589;  printed 
1^4) ;  The  Jew  of  M<Hta,  specially  noteworthy 
for  its  relation  to  the  Merchant  of  Venice 
(?1589;  printed  1633);  his  most  successful  at- 
tempt at  English  historical  drama,  Edvoard  II. 
(?1592;  printed  1694).  The  probable  sources 
of  Marlowe's  important  plays  may  be  indi- 
cated here.  In  his  Tamhurlaine  he  seems  to 
have  relied  mainly  on  Fortescue's  translation 
(1571)  of  Pedro  Mexias's  Spanish  life  of 
Timur  (1543),  supplemented  by  hints  from 
the  Vita  Magni  Tamerlanis  of  Perondino 
(1551).  Doctor  Faustua  was  based  on  a  story 
familiar  enough  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  used  in 
a  variant  form  by  Calderon  in  El  Magico  Prodi- 
SfioBo;  its  earliest  literary  form  appeared  at 
Frankfort  in  1587.  For  Edward  II,,  like  Shake- 
speare, he  makes  free  use  of  the  chronicles  of 
Stowe  and  Holinshed.  In  other  works  he  collabo- 
rated with  Nash,  and  possibly  with  Shakespeare, 
a  share  in  at  least  the  second  and  third  parts  of 
Henry  VI.  being  plausibly  attributed  to  him. 
Of  his  non-dramatic  work  the  most  impor- 
tant things  are  his  imfinished  paraphrase  of 
the  Hero  and  Leander  of  Museeus,  and  tne  famous 
lyric,  "CJome  live  with  me  and  be  my  love."  Con- 
sult his  WorkSy  ed.  by  Dyce  (3  vols.,  London, 
1850)  ;  by  Bullen  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1885)  ;  four 
plays,  ed.  by  Ellis,  with  an  introduction  by  Sy- 
monds,  in  the  "Mermaid  Series"  (London,  1887)  ; 
also  Symonds,  Shakespeare's  Predecessors  (ib., 
1884) ;  Ward,  History  of  English  Dramatic  Lit- 
'Crature  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1899)  ;  Lewis,  Christopher 
Marlowe  (ib.,  1891)  ;  Verity,  Marlowe*s  Influence 
on  Shakespeare  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Fischer,  Zur  Charac- 
teristik  der  Dramen  Marlowes  (Munich,  1889). 

MABLOWE,  Julia  (1870~).  An  American 
actress,  bom  near  Keswick,  England,  August  17, 
1870,  her  real  name  being  Sarah  Frances  Frost. 
She  came  with  her  parents  to  this  country  when 
five  years  old.  Her  later  childhood  was  passed 
in  Cincinnati,  where  at  the  age  of  twelve  she 
began  her  dramatic  experiences  in  a  juvenile 
opera  company.  Four  years  afterwards  she  be- 
gan seriously  to  study  for  the  stage  and  in  1887 
she  appeared  in  New  York,  but  it  was  in  Boston, 
in  December,  1888,  that  she  won,  as  Parthenia  in 
Ingomar,  an  assured  place  as  a  star.  She  is  an 
actress  of  unusual  personal  charm,  and  soon  be- 
came a  popular  favorite  in  a  variety  of  rdles, 
especially  as  Viola  in  Twelfth  Night  and  as  Rosa- 
lind in  As  You  Like  It.  In  1894  she  was  married 
to  Robert  Taber,  with  whom  for  a  time  she 
played,  but  they  separated,  and  in  1899  were 
divorced.  Among  Miss  Marlowe's  successes  may 
be  mentioned  her  Highland  Mary  in  For  Bonnie 
Prince  Charlie  (1897);  Barbara  Frietchie  in 
Clyde  Fitch's  play  of  that  name  (1899);  and 
Charlotte  Durand  in  the  dramatization  of  Cable's 
Cavalier  (1902);  Colinette  (1903);  Queen  Fia- 
metta,  and  When  Knighthood  was  in  Flmcer 
( 1904).  In  1905  and  1906  she  played  with  E.  H. 
Sot  hern  in  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Much  Ado  About 
Sothing,  Hamlet,  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  and 
The  Merchant  of  Venice;  in  1907,  Salome.  In  the 
hitter  year  she  played  with  Mr.  Sothern  in  Eng- 
hmd.  Consult:  McKay  and  Wingate,  Famous 
American  Actors  of  To  Day  (New  York,  1896); 
Strang,  Famous  Actresses  of  the  Day  in  America 
(Boston,  1899). 

MAB/MADUKE,  John  Sappinoton  (1833- 
87).  An  American  soldier,  bom  near  Arrow 
Rock,  Mo.     He  studied  for  two  years  at  Yale 


80  lEABXIOH. 

and  for  one  at  Harvard,  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1867,  and  saw  service  in  the  West,  participat- 
ing in  the  Utah  expedition.  On  April  17,  1861 , 
he  entered  the  Confederate  Army  as  first  lieu- 
tenant, though  almost  immediately  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant-colonel.  In  1862  as  colonel  of  an 
Arkansas  regiment  he  bore  the  guiding  colors 
at  Shiloh  and  captured  the  first  prisoners.  He 
was  seriously  wounded  on  the  second  day,  and 
while  recovering  was  recommended  for  promotion 
to  brigadier-general.  During  1863  he  was  in 
Missouri  and  defeated  the  Federal  forces  at 
Tavlor's  Creek.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  at 
Price's  defense  of  Little  Rock  and  here  fought  a 
duel,  killing  Gen.  L.  M.  Walker.  The  next  year 
he  was  promoted  to  be  major-general  and  led 
one  of  the  three  columns  in  General  Price's  Mis- 
souri raid,  was  taken  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  was 
held  until  after  the  close  of  hostilities.  He  then 
engaged  in  the  commission  and  insurance  busi- 
ness for  several  years,  was  editor  of  several 
papers  in  1871-74,  and  was  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Agriculture  in  1874.  From  1875  to 
1880  he  was  a  railroad  commissioner.  In  1884 
he  was  elected  Governor  of  Missouri  and  died  in 
office. 

MABMANDE,  mftr'm^d^  The  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Lot-et- 
Garonne,  France,  40  miles  southeast  of  Bordeaux, 
on  the  Garonne  River  ( Map :  France,  S.,  E  4 ) .  Its 
only  interesting  feature  is  the  parish  church,  a 
thirteenth-century  Gothic  edifice.  Marmande  is 
situated  in  a  region  extensively  engaged  in  agri- 
culture and  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  Popula- 
tion, in  1901,  9873. 

mAbMABOS-SZIGET,  mftr'md-rdsh  sVg^t. 
or  MAbamaros-Sziqet.  A  town  of  Northeastern 
Hungary,  capital  of  the  County  of  Mftrmaros. 
It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Theiss  and  at  the 
base  of  the  wooded  Carpathians,  225  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Budapest.  It  has  important  salt 
mines  worked  from  ancient  times  and  still  giving 
a  large  output.  There  are  also  steam  sawmills 
and  trade  in  lumber.  Population,  in  1890,  14,- 
768;  in  1900,  17,446. 

MABMTEB»  m&r'myA^  Xavieb  (1809-92).  A 
French  author,  bom  in  Pontarlier.  He  trav- 
eled extensively  in  Switzerland,  Holland,  and 
Germany.  In  1836  he  was  attached  to  the  scien- 
tific voyage  of  the  Recherche  to  the  Arctic  Sea, 
at  which  time  he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 
Danish,  Swedish,  and  Finnish  languages.  On 
his  return  in  1839  he  was  made  professor  of  for- 
eign literature  at  Rennes,  and  two  years  later 
received  a  sinecure  under  the  Minister. of  Pub- 
lic Instruction.  In  1842-49  he  was  again  travel- 
ing, everywhere  studying  languages,  idioms,  and 
literature.  His  numerous  works  include  narra- 
tives of  his  journeys  and  translations  from  the 
(3rerman  and  Scandinavian,  such  as  Histoire  de 
la  litt&rature  en  Danemark  et  en  Sukde  (1839)  ; 
Du  Rhin  au  Nil  (1846)  ;  Voyage  pittoresque  en 
Allemagne  (1858-69);  Cimarosa  (1867);  and 
Contesrusses  (1889).  Consult  the  Life  by  Esti- 
gnard  (1893). 

KABMION.  A  metrical  romance  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott  (1808).  Lord  Marmion,  a  messen- 
ger from  Henry  VIII.  to  James  IV.  of  Scotland, 
was  conducted  on  part  of  his  journey  by  a 
palmer,  who  proved  to  be  De  Wilton,  supposed 
to  have  been  killed  by  Marmion.  The  latter 
is  killed  in  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field,  after 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XABMION. 


81 


HABMOBA. 


which  De  Wilton  recovered  his  betrothed.  Lady 
Clare. 

MAB^MION,  Shackeblet  (1603-39).  An 
English  dramatist,  educated  at  Wadham  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1622  and 
M.A.  in  1624.  After  trying  his  fortune  in  the 
Low  Countries,  he  settled  in  London.  There  he 
became  associated  with  Ben  Jonson,  Heywood, 
and  other  literary  men.  He  accompanied  Sir 
John  Suckling  on  the  showy  expedition  to  Scot- 
land ( 1638) .  Falling  ill  at  York,  he  was  brought 
back  to  London  to  die.  Marmion  made  a  verse 
paraphrase  of  the  Cupid  and  Psyche  of  Apuleius 
(1637),  which  was  greatly  admired  by  his  con- 
temporaries. It  was  reprinted  by  S.  W.  Singer 
in  1820.  For  the  Court,  Marmion  wrote  several 
comedies,  which  are  still  interesting.  They  com- 
prise Holland's  Leaguer  (performed  1632) ;  A 
Fine  Companion  (printed  1633)  ;  The  Antiquary 
(performed  1636) .  Consult  his  Dramatic  Works, 
ed.  by  Maidment  and  Logan  (Edinburgh,  1875). 

ICABMOL,  mftr-mOK,  Jos£  (c.1818-71).  A 
South  American  poet  and  patriot,  bom  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  As  Deputy  and  Senator  for  his 
native  province,  he  took  so  firm  a  :»tand  for  the 
rights  of  the  people  that  he  was  banished  by 
Rosas.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  dictator 
Marmol  was  again  Senator  for  Buenos  Ayres 
and  had  charge  of  the  National  Library  until  he 
lost  his  eyesight.  In  1856  he  published  Pere- 
grino  and  Armonias,  then  two  plays,  El  cru- 
zado  (1860)  and  El  poeta  (1862),  and  La  Ama- 
lia  (1866),  an  historical  romance  of  the  period 
of  Rosas's  control  of  Buenos  Ayres.  After 
his  death  some  of  his  poems  and  dramas  were 
collected  and  published  in  Paris  under  the  title 
Obras  porticos  y  dramdticas  de  Jos6  Marmol 
(1875). 

ICABMONTy  mar'mON',  Auouste  FRfiD^Rio 
Louis  Viesse  de,  Duke  of  Ragusa  (1774-1852). 
A  marshal  of  France,  bom  July  20,  1774,  at 
Chfttillon  -  sur  -  Seine.  He  entered  the  French 
Army  in  1791  and  was  rapidly  promoted.  He 
met  Bonaparte  at  Toulon,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Italian  campaign,  particularly  at  Lodi 
and  Castiglione,  and  later  accompanied  Bona- 
parte to  Egypt,  where  he  became  brigadier-gen- 
eral. On  returning  to  France  Marmont  sup- 
ported Napoleon  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the 
eighteenth  Brumaire,  and  afterwards  continued 
in  active  military  service.  After  the  battle  of 
Marengo  (1800)  ne  was  made  a  general  of  divi- 
sion. In  1801  he  was  inspector-general-in-chief 
of  artillery,  and  in  1805  he  was  made  command- 
ant of  the  army  in  Holland.  His  services  in 
defending  the  Ragusan  territory  against  the 
Russians  and  Montenegrins  in  1806-07  won  him 
his  title  of  Duke  of  Ragusa.  After  the  battle  of 
Wagram  (1809)  he  was  intrusted  with  the  pur- 
suit of  the  «iemy,  and  after  the  battle  of  Znaim 
he  was  made  a  marshal.  He  was  thereafter  for 
eighteen  months  Governor  of  the  Illyrian  prov- 
inces, and  in  1811  succeeded  Mass^na  in  the  chief 
command  in  the  Peninsula,  where  he  assumed  the 
offensive,  and  kept  Wellington  in  check  for  fifteen 
months,  but  was  eventually  defeated  in  the  battle 
of  Salamanca  (July  22,  1812).  A  wound  com- 
pelled him  to  retire  to  France.  In  1813  he  fought 
at  the  battles  of  Ltitzen,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden. 
He  maintained  the  contest  with  great  spirit  in 
France  in  the  beginning  of  1814;  and  it  was  not 
until  further  resistance  was  hopeless  that  he  con- 


cluded a  truce  with  Prince  Schwarzenberg,  which 
was  followed  by  the  abdication  of  Napoleon.  The 
Bourbons  at  first  loaded  Marmont  with  honors 
and  distinction.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from 
Elba  Marmont  was  excluded  from  the  general 
amnesty,  and  he  fled  to  Aix-la-Chapelle.  After 
the  second  Restoration  he  spent  much  of  his 
time  in  agricultural  pursuits,  till  the  Revolution 
of  1830,  when^  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops, 
he  attempted  in  vain  to  put  down  the  insurrec- 
tion, and  finally  retreating  with  6000  Swiss,  and 
a  few  battalions  that  had  continued  faithful  to 
Charles  X.,  conducted  him  across  the  frontier. 
From  that  time  he  resided  chiefly  in  Vienna.  He 
died  in  Venice,  March  2,  1852.  He  was  the 
last  survivor  of  the  marshals  of  the  first  French 
Empire.  His  M6moires  (9  vols.,  1856-57)  are 
valuable  for  the  history  of  his  time.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  Voyage  en  Hongrie  (1837)  and 
Esprit  des  institutions  mUitaires  (1845). 

MABMONTEI^  m&r'mCN'ti6K,  Antoine  Fran- 
cois (1816-98).  A  French  pianist,  born  at  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Puy-de-D<)me.  He  studied  in  1828- 
32  at  the  Paris  Conservatory,  where  he  returned 
to  teach  in  1836,  and  in  1848  succeeded  his 
former  master,  Zimmermann,  as  pianoforte  pro- 
fessor. He  published  three  books  of  piano 
studies,  besides  sonatas,  nocturnes,  serenades, 
minuets,  reveries,  and  mazurkas,  and  his  literary 
productions  are:  Art  classique  et  moderne  du 
piano  (1876)  ;  Elements  d'esihStique  musicale  et 
consid^ations  sur  le  beau  dans  les  arts  (1884) ; 
and  Histoire  du  piano  et  de  ses  origines  (1885). 

MABlCONTEXi,  Jean  FBANgois  (1723-99). 
A  French  dramatist,  novelist,  and  critic,  bom  at 
Bort,  July  11,  1723,  best  known  for  two  series  of 
Contes  moraux  (1761-86),  and  the  moralizing 
novels  Bilisaire  ( 1767 )  and  Les  Incas  ( 1777 ) .  He 
studied  for  the  Church,  but  was  attracted  to  let- 
ters by  the  patronage  of  Voltaire,  went  to  Paris 
(1745),  became  a  journalist,  and  won  some  suc- 
cess by  his  tragedies:  Denys  le  tyran  (1748) 
and  Aristom^e  (1749).  In  1753  a  sinecure 
office  attached  him  to  the  Court  at  Versailles. 
During  1758  and  1759  he  edited  the  Mervure. 
He  was  imprisoned  ten  days  in  the  Bastille  for 
political  satire  in  1760,  was  elected  to  the  Acad- 
emy in  1763,  and  made  its  permanent  secretary  in 
1783.  His  numerous  contributions  to  the  Ency- 
clopMie{see  Didebot)  were  collected  as  El6mentH 
de  litt6rature  in  1787.  He  wrote  also  M^oires 
and  a  treatise  on  French  versification  (1763). 
MarmontePs  Works  were  edited  by  himself  in  17 
volumes,  to  which  14  were  subsequently  added. 
They  were  reSdited  by  Villeneuve  (Paris,  1819- 
20).  The  Mimoires  are  best  edited  by  Tourneux 
(Paris,  1891).  There  was  an  English  transla- 
tion in  1904.  Consult  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries 
du  lundi,  vol.  iv.  (Paris,  1857-62). 

MABMOBA,  mllr'md-r&.  Sea  of  (anciently 
Pkopontis  ) .  A  small  sea  between  European  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  communicating  with  the  ^gean 
Sea  by  the  Strait  of  the  Dardanelles  (anciently 
Hellespont)  y  and  with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Strait 
of  Constantinople  (anciently  Bosporus)  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Europe,  G  4).  It  is  of  an  oval  form, 
140  miles  in  length  by  45  miles  in  breadth,  and 
the  eastern  shore  is  indented  by  the  two  large 
gulfs  of  Ismid  and  Tnjir  Liman  (Mudania) .  Tlie 
depth  is  generally  over  600  feet,  and  in  some 
places  reaches  over  4000.  There  is  a  current  run- 
ning through  it  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  ^gean. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


HABMOBA. 


82 


MABHIAK  EPOCH. 


Its  navigation  is  not  difficult  and  it  is  a  great 
avenue  of  commerce.  It  contains  many  islands, 
of  which  the  largest  is  Marmora  or  Marmara, 
famous  for  its  marble  quarries. 

MABKOSET  (OF.  marmoset,  marmomet,  Fr. 
marmouset,  puppet,  from  ML.  marmoretumy 
marble  figure,  from  Lat.  marmor,  Gk.  /idp/ui^t, 
marmaroa,  marble,  from  fMapfudpeiv,  marmairein, 
to  sparkle).  One  of  the  small  and  pretty  Ameri- 
can monkeys  of  the  family  Hapalide.  These  lit- 
tle creatures  are  distinguished  from  all  other 
American  monkeys  by  several  features  besides 
their  diminutive  size,  long  hind  legs,  long  fur, 
and  penciled  ears.  Their  dentition  is  like  that 
of  the  Old  World  monkeys  in  that  it  comprises 
only  32  teeth,  without  the  four  'wisdom*  molars 
possessed  by  the  Cebid«.  (See  Monkey.)  Their 
thumbs  are  not  opposable,  their  nails  are  in  the 
form  of  claws,  and  their  tails  (which  are  long 
and  bushy)  are  not  prehensile.  These  and  other 
characters  place  them  at  the  foot  of  the  scale 
of  the  monkeys,  and  next  to  the  lemurs.  They 
are  arboreal  in  habits  and  climb  about  in  small 
parties  in  search  of  fruit  and  insects,  much  as 
squirrels  do;  and  thev  habitually  produce  two  or 
three  young  at  a  birth  instead  of  one,  as  is  usual 
with  higher  monkeys.  Two  genera  are  estab- 
lished, one  the  typical  marmosets  or  'ouistitis' 
(Hapale),  and  the  other  the  silky  marmosets  or 
'tamarins*  (Midas).  Of  the  former,  the  com- 
mon ouistiti  {Hapale  jacchus)  of  Brazil  is  a 
familiar  pet  throughout 
tropical  America,  and  is 
often  brought  to  the  United 
States  or  taken  to  Europe, 
but  rarely  survives  even  the 
first  northern  winter.  It  19 
not  larger  than  a  half-grown 
kitten,  and  is  usually  black- 
ish, with  the  back  and  thighs 
banded  with  gray,  and  two  great  tufts  of  hair 
on  the  ears  pure  white;  the  tail  is  ringed  with 
black  and  gray.  Several  other  species  and  va- 
rieties are  known,  some  of  which  are  varicolored, 
and  others  pure  white.  The  smallest,  and  one 
of  the  most  widely  distributed,  is  only  seven 
inches  long. 

The  tamarins  or  marmosets  of  the  genus  Mida» 
differ  in  dentition  and  also  in  the  absence  of 
tufts  on  the  ears,  and  the  rings  of  color  on  the 
tail.  Like  the  others,  they  are  common  pets  in 
South  and  Central  America,  and  some  kinds 
stray  as  far  north  as  Central  Mexico.  Several 
species  are  well  known,  especially  the  negro 
tamarin  (Midas  ursiilus)  of  the  lower  Amazon 
Valley;  the  queer  little  pinchft  {Midas  (Edipus) 
of  the  Isthmus,  which  has  a  great  growth  of 
white  hair  on  the  head;  and  the  silky  marmoset, 
or  *marikina*  (Midas  rosalia),  which  is  clothed 
in  long  silky  hair  of  a  golden  hue;  this  hair 
forms  a  long  mane  on  the  head  and  neck,  giving 
the  name  'lion  monkey*  to  some  varieties.  This 
species  is  often  seen  in  menageries,  and  is  a 
common  pet  in  its  own  country.  Consult  authori- 
ties mentioned  under  Monkey;  especially  Bates, 
A  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon  (London, 
1892).     See  Plate  of  Amebican  Monkeys. 

XABKOT  (Fr.  marmotte^  from  It.  marmotta, 
marmontana,  from  Rumanian  murmont,  from 
OHG.  murmunto,  Ger.  Mnrmcl.  from  ML.  mus 
montanus,  mountain  mouse,  mannot).  A  genus 
of  rodents    (Arctomys)    of  the  ground  squirrel 


DENTITION  OF  TBI 
MARMOSETS. 


family.  Thej  resemble  squirrels  in  their  denti- 
tion, although  in  their  form  and  habits  they  more 
resemble  rata  and  mice.  The  animal  to  which  the 
term  (now  little  used)  was  first  applied  was  the 
common  species  {Arctomys  alpinus)  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Europe.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit, 
giayish  yellow,  brown  toward  the  head.  It  feeds 
on  roots,  leaves,  insects,  and  the  like,  is  gregari- 
ous, and  often  lives  in  large  societies.  It  digs 
large  burrows  with  several  chambers  and  two 
entrances,  generally  on  the  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains, where  the  marmots  may  be  seen  sporting 
and  basking  in  the  sunshine  during  the  fine 
weather  of  summer.  They  spend  the  winter  in 
their  burrows,  in  one  chamber  of  which  is  a  store 
of  dried  grass ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  winter 
is  passed  in  torpidity.  The  alpine  marmot  is 
easily  tamed.  These  features  and  habits  are 
characteristic  of  the  group.  A  half  dozen  other 
species  occur  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Amer- 
ica. The  best  known  American  species  are  the 
woodchuck  and  its  larger  relative  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.    See  Whistleb;  Woodchuck. 

MABMOTJSETS,  mar'm^'zft'  (Fr.,  little 
men).  A  name  given  in  contempt  to  the  coun- 
cilors of  Charles  V.  and  Charles  VI.  of  France 
(q.v.).  They  were  for  the  most  part  members  of 
the  lesser  nobility  or  of  tlie  citizen  class  and 
were  despised  by  his  uncles,  who  governed  the 
kingdom  during  the  minority  of  Charles. 

KABNSy  mam  (Lat.  Matrona).  A  river  of 
France,  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Seine 
(Map:  France,  N.,  J  3).  It  rises  in  the  Plateau 
of  Langres,  flows  first  northwest,  then  westward, 
with  many  windings  through  the  departments  of 
Haute-Marne,  Mame,  Aisne,  and  Seine-et-Mame, 
passes  Chaumont,  Saint-Dizier,  ChAlons,  £  per  nay, 
and  Meaux,  and  joins  the  Seine  at  Charenton, 
about  four  miles  above  Paris.  Its  length  is  325 
miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  226  miles  to  Saint- 
Dizier.  It  is  a  rather  rapid  stream,  supplying 
power  to  a  number  of  mills.  Its  large  traffic  has 
been  extended  by  means  of  canals,  of  which  the 
most  important'  is  the  Mame-Rhine  Canal,  which 
extends  195  miles  from  Vitry  to  Strassburg,  pass- 
ing through  several  tunnels. 

MABNE.  An  inland  department  in  the  north- 
east of  France,  part  of  the  old  Province  of 
Champagne,  extending  southward  from  the  fron- 
tier department  of  Ardennes  ( Map :  France,  N.,  J 
4).  Area,  3108  square  miles.  The  department 
is  traversed  by  the  Marne  River.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile  in  the  south,  but  chalky  and  arid  in 
the  north ;  on  this  dry  and  chalky  soil,  however, 
the  best  grapes  for  champagne  wine  are  grown, 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Eperuay  and 
Avize  and  between  the  Marne  and  the  Vesle. 
Cotton,  metal,  and  woolen  manufactures  are 
largely  carried  on.  Capital,  Chalons.  Popula- 
tion, in  1896,  439,577;  in  1906,  434,157. 

MARNE,  Haute.  A  department  of  France. 
See  Haute-Mabne. 

KAB^KIAN  EPOCH.  The  name  applied  to 
the  second  Iron  Age.  or  culture  stage  of  Europe. 
It  is  so  called  from  the  Department  of  Mame, 
in  Xortheastem  France;  also  termed  La  T^ne 
Period,  from  a  station  of  that  name  in  Switzer- 
land. It  lasted  until  the  first  century  B.c^  in 
France,  Bohemia,  and  England,  and  until  the 
tenth  century  a.d.  in  Scandinavia.  It  cone- 
snonda  with  the  late  Celtic  of  English  archapolo- 
irists.    The  Marnian  or  La  Tdne  culture  probably 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABHIAir  EPOCH. 


eame  to   WeBtem  Eurqpe  through  Greece  and 
mjna. 


I,  m&r^iilks,  Phiup  van,  Baron 
Sainte-Aldegonde  (153S-98).  A  Flemish  states- 
man and  writer,  bom  at  Brussels.  He  studied 
theology  at  Geneva  and  returned  to  his  native 
country  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Reformed  re- 
ligion and  a  sworn  foe  of  the  Spanish  Government 
and  the  Inquisition.  Upon  the  appointment  of 
the  Duke  of  Alva  to  the  governorship  of  the 
Netherlands  (1567)  Marnix  sought  refuge  in 
Germany.  He  shared  in  the  labors  of  William  of 
Oranger,  who,  in  1572,  sent  him  as  his  repre- 
sentative to  the  first  meeting  of  the  Estates  of 
Holland  at  Dordrecht.  After  a  year's  captiv- 
ity in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards  he  entered 
upon  an  active  diplomatic  career  as  representa- 
tive of  the  Protestant  provinces  at  Paris  and 
London,  and  in  1578  at  the  Diet  of  Worms.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Union  of  Utrescht.  (See  Nbtheblawds. )  In  1583 
he  became  burgomaster  of  Antwerp,  and,  after 
a  siege  of  over  a  year,  was  forced  to  surrender 
the  city  to  Alexander  of  Parma  (1586).  There- 
after he  took  little  share  in  political  life.  His 
writings  in  prose  and  verse  form  a  part  of  the 
classic  literature  of  the  Netherlands.  Of  these 
the  most  important  are:  De  roomsehe  hpen- 
korf,  a  satire;  an  excellent  translation  of  the 
Paahns,  and  Wilhelmus  van  Vas^ouwe,  which  has 
become  one  of  the  national  h^ns  of  the  Nether- 
lands. His  works  were  published  at  Brussels  in 
seven  volumes  (1865-57).  CJonstdt  Juste,  Vie  de 
Mamix  de  Sainte-Aldegonde  (Brussels,  1858). 

KABHO^  rafii^nd,  Ebnst  (1844-83).  A  Ger- 
man explorer  of  Western  Africa.  He  was  bom  at 
Vienna,  and  in  1866  went  to  Abyssinia.  Three 
years  later  he  traveled  to  Khartum,  then  south 
to  Fadasi,  and  in  1871  and  1872  explored  the 
upper  course  of  the  White  Nile.  In  1874  he 
joined  Gordon,  who  in  1878  put  him  in  command 
of  the  District  of  Cklabat,  where  he  did  much  to 
!^pre!»  the  slave  trade.  He  died  in  Khartum. 
He  wrote  Reisen  im  Qebiet  des  weissen  und 
hlauen  Nil  ( 1874) ,  and  Reise  m  der  MgypHacken 
Aequatorialprovine  and  in  Kordofan  in  den  Jah- 
ten  7874-76  (1878). 

KABOCCO.  m&rdk'd.     See  Morocco. 

KABOCHSm,  mATA-kfet't^  Carlo,  Baron 
(1805-68).  A  French  sculptor.  He  was  bom 
at  Turin,  studied  imder  Basio,  in  Paris, 
and  resided  at  Rome  from  1822-30.  In  1827  he 
received  a  medal  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  for 
his  "^irl  Playing  with  a  Dog."  His  first  im- 
portant work  was  a  statue  of  Emmanuel  Phili- 
bert  of  Savoy  at  Turin,  which  he  presented  to 
his  native  city,  in  recognition  of  which  service 
he  was  made  a  baron.  He  subsequently  returned 
to  Paris.  The  most  important  of  his  works  at 
Paris  include:  "Battle  of  Jemappes,"  a  relief 
upon  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  de  l^ioile;  a  monu- 
ment to  Bellini  in  P^re-la-C^aise  Cemetery ;  and 
tiie  high  altar  of  the  Church  of  the  Madeleine. 
He  received  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1839.  In 
consequence  of  the  revolution  of  1848  he  emi- 
grated to  England.  At  the  Great  Exhibition  of 
1851  he  exhibited  a  colossal  equestrian  statue  of 
Kichard  Cceur  de  L.ion,  which  was  placed  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Crystal  Palace  and  was  cast  in 
bronze  by  national  subscription.  His  other 
▼orks  in  England  include:  An  equestrian  statue 
^  the  Queen  and  of  Wellington,  for  Glasgow ;   a 


88  MAB0KITB8. 

portrait  bust  of  Prince  Albert;  a  statue  of 
Lord  Clyde,  in  Saint  James  Park,  and  that  of 
Thackeray  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  was  made 
an  Academician  in  1866.  He  died,  near  Paris, 
January  4,  1868. 

KABOKI;  mU'rd-ne'  (Dutch  Marowijne),  A 
river  forming  the  boundary  between  Dutch  and 
French  Guisfna  (Map:  South  America,  D  2). 
It  rises  in  the  Tumuc  Humac  Mountains  on  the 
frontier  of  Brazil,  and  flows  northward  through 
a  densely  forested  region,  falling  in  a  number  of 
cascades  over  the  successive  escarpments  of  the 
terraced  plateau.  It  enters  the  Atlantic  after  a 
course  of  425  miles.  Below  the  last  cascade,  46 
miles  from  its  mouth,  it  is  a  wide,  deep,  and 
beautiful  stream,  connected  with  the  estuary  of 
the  Surinam  by  the  navigable  Cottica  Creek 
running  parallel  with  the  coast. 

MAB^ONITES.  A  Christian  sect  of  Syria,  of 
very  ancient  origin.  The  most  probable  ac- 
count represents  them  as  descendants  of  a 
remnant  of  the  Monothelite  sect  (see  MoNO- 
thelitism)  who,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth 
century,  settled  on  the  slopes  of  the  Lebanon, 
their  chief  seats  being  around  the  monastery 
of  Maron,  a  saint  of  the  fourth  century, 
whose  life  is  found  in  Theodoret's  Religious  His- 
tories (iii.  p.  1222).  The  emigrants  are  said  to 
have  elected  as  their  chief  and  patriarch  a  monk 
of  the  same  name,  with  the  title  of  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  and,  throughout  the  political  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  succeeding  centuries,  to  have  main- 
tained themselves  in  a  certain  independence 
among  the  Moslem  conquerors.  In  the  twelfth 
century,  on  the  establishment  of  the  Latin  King- 
dom of  Jerusalem,  the  Maronites  abandoned 
their  distinctive  monothelite  opinions,  and  rec- 
ognized the  authority  of  the  Boman  Church.  In 
1445  they  entered  into  a  formal  act  of  union  with 
Rome.  In  1584  a  college  was  founded  in  Rome  by 
Gregory  XIII.  for  the  education  of  the  Maronite 
clergy;  and  in  1736  they  formally  subscribed  to 
the  decrees  of  the  Conncil  of  Trent.  Neverthe- 
less, although  united  with  Rome^  they  are  per- 
mitted to  retain  their  distinctive  national  rites 
and  usages.  They  administer  communion  in 
both  kinds;  they  use  the  ancient  Syriac  lan- 
guage in  their  liturgy;  their  clergy,  if  married 
before  ordination,  are  permitted  to  retain  their 
wives;  and  they  have  many  festivals  and  saints 
not  recognized  in  the  Roman  calendar.  The 
Maronites  at  present  are  about  125,000  in  num- 
ber. Their  patriarch  is  still  styled  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  and  resides  in  the  Convent  of  Kanobin, 
in  the  heart  of  the  Lebanon.  He  is  chosen  by  the 
bishops  subject  to  the  approval  of  Rome,  and 
always  bears  the  name  Butrus  (Peter).  Every 
tenth  year  he  reports  the  state  of  his  patriarchate 
to  the  Pope.  Under  him  are  14  bishops,  to 
whom  are  subject  the  oflRciating  clergy  of  the 
smaller  districts.  The  revenues  of  all  orders  of 
ecclesiastics,  however,  are  very  narrow,  and  the 
inferior  clergy  live  in  great  measure  by  the 
labor  of  their  hands.  Very  many  convents  for 
both  sexes  are  spread  over  the  country,  contain- 
ing, on  the  whole,  from  20,000  to  25,000  members, 
who  all  wear  a  distinctive  costume,  but  follow  tho 
rule  of  Saint  Anthony.  The  chief  seat  of  the 
Maronites  is  the  district  called  Kesrowan,  on  the 
western  declivity  of  Mount  Lebanon;  but  they 
are  to  be  found  scattered  over  the  whole  territory 
of  the  Lebanon,  and  in  all  the  towns  and  larger 
villaces   toward   the   north   in   the   direction   of 


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I 


MABONITES. 


84  MABPUBO. 


Aleppo,  and  southward  as  far  as  Nazareth.  Their 
political  constitution  is  a  kind  of  military  re- 
public, regulated  for  the  roost  part  by  ancient 
usages  and  by  unwritten,  but  well-recognized 
laws.  Like  the  Arabs  of  Syria,  they  have  a  po- 
litical hierarchy,  partly  hereditary,  partly  elec- 
tive. The  chief  administration  is  vested  in  four 
superior  sheiks,  who  possess  a  sort  of  patriar- 
chal authority,  and  under  these  are  subordinate 
chiefs,  with  whom,  as  in  the  feudal  system,  the 
people  hold  a  military  tenure.  They  are  bitter 
enemies  of  their  neighbors,  the  Druses  ( q.v. ) .  In- 
tellectually and  morally  they  are  on  a  low  plane. 
Their  chief  occupations  are  cattle-raising  and  silk 
culture.  Consult:  Socin,  Palaatina  und  Syrien 
(Leipzig,  1880)  ;  Bliss,  "Essays  on  the  Sects  of 
Syria  and  Palestine — the  Maronites,"  in  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund  Quarterly  Statement 
(London,  1892)  ;  Koehler,  Die  katholische  Kirche 
der  Morgenldnder  (Darmstadt,  1886). 

MABOON  (Fr.  marron,  chestnut,  chestnut- 
colored,  from  It.  marron€y  chestnut ) .  A  subdued 
crimson  color,  not  so  yellow  as  chestnut  (mar- 
ron), from  which  the  name  is  probably  de- 
rived, nor  so  brilliant  as  magenta. 

MABOONS  (Fr.  marrony  apocopated,  from 
aimarronf  Sp.  cimarron,  fugitive,  from  dma, 
mountain-top,  twig,  from  Lat.  cyma,  Gk.  xvfia, 
kymat  sprout,  from  ickip^  kyein,  to  conceive). 
A  name  given  in  Jamaica  and  Dutch  Guiana  to 
runaway  negro  slaves.  The  term  was  first  ap- 
plied to  those  slaves  who  ran  away  and  took 
refuge  in  the  uplands  when  their  Spanish  mas- 
ters were  driven  out  by  the  British  after  the  lat- 
ter conquered  Jamaica,  in  1655.  For  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  years  they  maintained  a  constant 
warfare  with  the  British  colonists;  but  in  1795 
they  were  subdued,  and  a  portion  of  them  re- 
moved to  Nova  Scotia,  where  they  gave  so  much 
trouble  that  most  of  them  were  transported  to 
Sierra  Leone.  The  Maroons  of  Dutch  Guiana 
still  form  a  number  of  small  independent  com- 
munities practicing  various  pagan  rites,  some 
of  which  can  be  traced  to  analogous  African 
ceremonies.  They  are  now  known  more  common- 
ly as  Bush  negroes. 

ICABOSy  m6^rdsh.  The  principal  river  of 
Eastern  Hungary.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of 
Eastern  Transylvania,  and  flows  westward, 
emptying  into  the  Theiss  at  Szegedin,  after  a 
course  of  643  miles  (Map:  Hungary,  G  3).  It  is 
navigable  about  two-thirds  of  its  length  to  Karls- 
burg,  but  its  navigation  is  impeded  by  the  great 
irregularity  of  its  volume. 

MABOS-VAsABHELY,  va'shftr  h§l  y'.  A 
royal  free  town  and  capital  of  the  County  of 
Maros-Torda  in  Transylvania,  Hungary,  situ- 
ated on  the  river  Maros,  60  miles  east-southeast 
of  Klausenburg  (Map:  Hungary,  J  3).  It  has  a 
castle  which  is  now  used  for  barracks,  and  con- 
nected with  which  is  a  fifteenth-century  Gothic 
church;  a  palace  with  a  fine  library  of  over 
60,000  volumes  (including  a  manuscript  of  Taci- 
tus), and  a  natural  history  collection;  a  techni- 
cal school,  two  gymnasia,  and  an  industrial 
museum.  The  industries  of  the  town  include  the 
manufacture  of  sugar,  spirits,  tobacco,  beer, 
trimmed  lumber,  and  the  refinincf  of  petroleum. 
Population,  in  1890,  15,264;  in  1900,  19,091. 

XABOT,  m&'ry,  Clement  (1495-1544).  A 
French  poet,  bom  at  Cahors.  In  youth  he  studied 


law  at  Paris,  but  early  abandoned  this  for  litera- 
ture. He  soon  won  the  passing  favor  of  Francis 
I.  and  the  enduring  patronage  of  Margaret  of 
Navarre.  He  accompanied  Francis  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1520  and  1625  and  was  wounded  at 
Pa  via.  Taken  prisoner,  but  soon  released,  he  re- 
turned to  France,  was  suspected  of  Protestantism, 
and,  in  spite  of  a  strong  denial,  imprisoned  first 
in  Paris,  then  less  rigorously  at  Chartres.  He 
was  freed  by  the  King  in  1627,  but  soon  reimpris- 
oned  on  another  charge.  Again  released,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  royal  valet  de  chambre  and  in 
1632  published  a  volume  of  verses,  the  Adolescence 
Cl&mentine,  followed  by  a  second  volume  in  1533. 
He  now  fell  once  more  under  suspicion  of  heresy, 
fled  to  Margaret's  (Dourt  in  1534,  and  thence  to 
Italy.  Hence  he  returned  to  Lyons  in  1536  and 
enjoyed  seven  years  of  court  favor,  terminated 
by  his  translation  of  Psalms  i.-l.  (1541),  which 
was  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne.  It  was  com- 
pleted by  Beza  and  is  still  used  in  French  Protes- 
tant churches.  Marot  fled  to  Geneva  (1543), 
quarreled  with  Calvin,  and  went  to  Turin,  where 
he  died.  The  best  of  Marot's  poetry  is  his  lighter 
work,  fables,  epistles,  epigrams,  songs.  Ma- 
irot's  Works  were  frequently  collected  (1538, 
1644,  etc.),  best  by  Jannet  (4  vols.,  1863-72), 
and  by  Pifteau  (4  vols.,  1884).  An  elaborate 
edition  by  Guifi'rey  in  six  volumes  is  not  yet  com- 
pleted (vol.  iii.  1881).  There  is  a  Life  by  Douen 
(Paris,  1878-79),  and  a  study  with  a  good  bib- 
liography by  Bourciez  in  Petit  de  JuUeville,  His- 
toire  de  la  langue  et  de  la  littirature  frangaise, 
vol.  iii.   (ib.,  1898). 

KABCXZIA.  A  Roman  lady  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury who  played  an  important  part  in  the  political 
history  of  the  times.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
the  infamous  Theodora  (q.v.)  and  Theophylact, 
'Consul  and  Senator  of  the  Romans.'  Her  first 
husband  was  Alberic  (q.v.)  ;  after  his  death  she 
married  Guido  of  Tuscany;  and  after  the  death 
of  the  latter,  Hugo,  King  of  Italy.  By  the  power 
of  her  family  and  by  her  marital  alliances  she 
had  entire  control  of  Rome  for  some  years.  She 
deposed  Pope  John  X.  in  928,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  either  strangled  or  starved  to 
death.  A  little  later  she  bestowed  the  Papacy 
upon  her  son  John  XI.,  who  by  popular  rumor 
was  supposed  to  be  the  offspring  of  her  guilty  love 
with  Pope  Sergius  III.  She  styled  herself  'Sena- 
trix*  of  all  the  Romans,  and  'Patricia.*  Soon 
after  her  third  marriage  Marozia  and  her  hus- 
band were  thrown  into  prison  in  932  by  her  son 
Alberic  II.  (q.v.).  Her  husband  escaped,  but 
nothing  is  known  of  her  fate.  Consult  Gregoro- 
vius,  History  of  the  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  translated  by  Hamilton  (London,  1894- 
1900). 

MABPLOT.  A  meddling,  good-natured  busy- 
body in  the  Busybody  (q.v.). 

KABPLOT,  OB  THE  Second  Part  of  the  Busy- 
body. A  comedy  by  Susanna  Centlivre  (q.v.). 
It  was  performed  at  the  Drury  Lane  Theatre  De- 
cember 10,  1710,  and  afterwards  altered  by  Henry 
Woodward  and  called  The  Marplot  of  Lisbon. 
This  character  reappears  in  1826  as  Paul  Pry  in 
the  comedy  by  John  Poole,  and  resembles  Sir 
Martin  Marall  in  Dryden's  successful  comedy, 
founded  on  Lord  Newcastle's  Marplot,  a  transla- 
tion of  Moli^re's  L^Etourdi. 

MABPUBOy  mttr'pSSrK,  Fbiedrich  Whjielm 
(1718-95).    A  German  writer  on  music,  bom  at 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABPXJBG. 

Seehausen  in  Prussian  Saxony.  Little  is  known 
of  his  early  life,  but  in  1746  he  was  secretary 
to  General  von  Rothenburg  at  Paris,  where  he 
met  Rameau,  Voltaire,  and  D'Alembert.  From 
there  he  went  to  Hamburg,  and  in  1763  was 
made  director  of  the  Government  lottery  in  Ber- 
lin. He  composed  six  clavier  sonatas,  organ 
pieces,  and  sacred  and  secular  songs.  He  is,  how- 
ever, better  known  as  a  writer  on  music,  his 
most  noteworthy  works  being:  Ahhandlung  von 
der  Fuge  (1753-54),  a  standard  work;  Ha/ndhuch 
heim  OeneralbMs  und  der  Composition  (1755- 
58)  ;  Anleitung  zum  Clavierapielen  (1755)  ;  and 
Anleitung  zur  Musik  iiberhaupt  und  zur  Sing- 
kunat  insbesondere  (1763),  which  are  of  inter- 
est at  the  present  time. 

KABQITAND,  mftr-kand^  Henbt  Gubdon 
( 1819-1902) .  An  American  capitalist  and  philan- 
thropist, bom  in  New  York  City.  He  prepared  for 
college,  but  went  into  business  as  agent  of  his 
brother,  Frederick  Marquand  ( 1799-1882) ,  a  New 
York  jeweler  and  a  benefactor  of  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  and  Yale  Divinity  School.  This 
post  the  younger  brother  held  for  twenty  years, 
after  Frederick's  retirement  in  1839.  Afterwards 
he  became  prominent  in  Wall  Street,  especially  in 
connection  with  railroad  enterprises.  Among  his 
benefactions,  mention  should  be  made  of  a  chapel 
and  gymnasium  presented  to  Princeton  Univer- 
sity, of  a  pavilion  to  Bellevue  Hospital,  and  of 
contributions  of  paintings  and  other  beautiful 
objects  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art. 

MABQUABDT,  mftr^vftrt,  Joachim  (1812- 
82).  A  German  historian,  bom  at  Danzig.  He 
studied  at  Berlin  and  at  Leipzig,  and  in  1859  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Gotha, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  His  chief 
work  was  his  continuation  of  W.  A.  Becker's 
Handhuch  der  rdmischen  AltertUmer  (1849-67). 
To  the  second  edition  ( 1871-82) ,  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  Theodor  Mommsen,  he  contributed 
Romische  StaatavenoiUtung,  vols,  iv.-vi.  (1873- 
78,  1881-85) ;  and  Das  Privatlehen  der  Rlkner^ 
vol.  viL   (1879-82;  2d  ed.  1886). 

MABQXTB  (Fr.,  seizure),  Letters  of.  Com- 
missions issued  by  a  belligerent  State  to  vessels 
owned  and  manned  by  private  persons  authorizing 
them  to  carry  on  hostilities  at  sea  against  the 
other  belligerent.  The  usage  originated  in  the 
practice  of  issuing  letters  of  license  to  go  across 
the  boundary  {mark  or  march)  and  make  re- 
prisals.   See  Privateering. 

ICABOITESAS  (mttr-k&'s&s)  ISLANDS^  or 
KEXTDASA  (m&n-d&'ny&)  ISLANDS  (Fr.  les 
Marquises).  A  groxi^  of  islands  in  Polynesia, 
in  about  latitude  10©  S.,  and  longitude  140©  W. 
Area,  494  square  miles  (Map:  World,  Western 
Hemisphere,  K  7 ) .  The  most  important  members 
of  the  group  are  Nukahiva  ( 183  square  miles) ,  and 
Hiva-oa  (153  square  miles).  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  atolls,  the  islands  are  mountainous, 
falling  abruptly  into  the  sea  on  all  sides,  and 
reaching  in  Hiva-oa  an  altitude  of  4158  feet.  The 
summits  are  bare,  and  only  the  narrow  valleys, 
terminating  in  small  bays,  and  filled  with  luxuri- 
ant vegetation,  are  inhabited.  The  climate  is 
hot  and  generally  humid,  though  for  six  months 
in  the  year  there  is  very  little  rainfall.  The 
chief  product,  like  that  of  Polynesia  in  general, 
is  copra ;  oranges  are  also  produced.  The  Marque- 
sans  form  an  interesting  ^up  of  the  Polynesian 
race,  of  which  they  are  physically  among  the 


85  MABQUETTE. 

best  representatives.  They  are  very  tall,  with 
sub-dolichocephalic  head-form.  In  language  they 
are  closely  related  to  the  Hawaiians,  and  some 
hold  that  the  Hawaiian  Islands  were  peopled 
from  the  Marquesas.  The  Marquesans  themselves 
seem  to  have  received  their  human  inhabitants 
from  the  Society  and  Friendly  Islands.  Among 
Marquesan  things  worthy  of  note  are  the  carved 
and  ornamented  axes  and  oars,  the  figures  on 
which  recall  somewhat  the  'writing*  of  the  Easter 
Islanders;  feather  diadems;  cocoanut  slings; 
carved  paddle-shaped  clubs,  etc.  Their  food  con- 
sists very  largely  of  breadfruit.  The  Marque- 
sans appear  to  have  been  warlike,  and  traces  of 
cannibalism  lingered  long  among  them.  The  stone 
terraces  of  Waiko  are  of  interest  in  connection 
with  similar  remains  elsewhere  in  Polynesia. 
The  inhabitants  are  steadily  decreasing  in  num- 
bers. In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  population  was  estimated  at  20,900;  in 
1876  it  was  5240,  and  in  1900  4300.  The  Mar- 
quesans are  all  civilized  and  Christians;  there 
are  very  few  Europeans  in  the  islands.  The 
group  is  administered  by  native  chiefs  subject  to 
the  French  Resident  at  Hiva-oa.  The  southern 
group  of  the  Marquesas  was  discovered  in  1595 
by  Mendafia  de  Neyra,  a  Spanish  navigator;  the 
northern  group  was  discovered  in  1791  by  an 
American,  Ingraham,  who  gave  it  the  name  of 
Washington  Islands.  They  were  left  very  much 
to  themselves  until  1842,  when  they  were  an- 
nexed by  France,  Consult  Vincendon,  Ilea  Mar^ 
quiaea   (Paris,  1843). 

MAB'QXTBTBY  (Fr.  marqueterie,  from  mar- 
queter,  to  inlay,  from  marque,  mark;  connected 
with  AS.  mearo,  Eng.,  Icel.  mark).  The  art  of 
inlaying  wood  with  wood  of  other  colors  or  with 
other  materials^  as  metal,  ivory,  shell,  etc.  See 
BouLLE,  Andr£  Charles;  Inlaying;  Mosaic. 

MABQUETTE,  mttr-ket^  A  city  and  the 
county-seat  of  Marquette  County,  Mich.,  155 
miles  by  rail  west  of  Sault  Sainte  Marie;  on 
Iron  Bay,  an  inlet  of  Lake  Superior,  and  on  the 
Duluth,  South  Shore  and  Atlantic,  and  the  Mar- 
quette and  Southeastern  railroads  (Map:  Michi- 
gan, B  2).  The  city,  noted  for  its  charming 
scenery,  clear  and  cool  atmosphere,  and  fine 
buildings  and  streets,  is  popular  as  a  summer 
resort,  and  is  the  principal  shipping  point  for  the 
mineral  wealth,  mainlv  iron,  of  the  region.  It 
has  a  fine  harbor  and  regular  steamship  com- 
munication with  important  lake  ports,  and  its 
ore  docks,  well  equipped  with  the  latest  devices 
for  handling  traffic,  are  among  the  largest  in  the 
world.  There  are  blast  furnaces,  a  large  brown- 
stone  quarry,  iron  works,  foundries,  and  machine 
shops;  carriage,  sash,  door,  and  blind  factories; 
lumber  and  flouring  mills,  a  wood  alcohol  plant, 
etc.  Among  the  notable  structures  are  the  United 
States  (lovernment  building,  city  hall,  new  court- 
house, Northern  Normal  School,  new  manual 
training  and  high  school,  opera  house,  Peter 
White  Public  Library,  Protestant  Episcopal  and 
Roman  Catholic  cathedrals,  and  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula State  Prison  and  House  of  Correction. 
Presque  Isle,  a  headland  of  400  acres  north  of 
Marquette,  was  presented  to  the  city  by  the 
Federal  Government  and  has  been  converted  into 
an  attractive  park.  The  water- works  and  electric- 
light  plant  are  owned  by  the  municipality.  Mar- 
quette, named  in  honor  of  P&re  Marquette,  the 
French  missionary  explorer,  was  settled  in  1846, 


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MABQXJETTE.  86 

when  the  rich  deposits  of  iron  ore  began  to  be  ex- 
ploited. The  first  dock  was  completed  in  1834 
and  a  railroad  to  the  mines  three  years  later. 
The  city's  subsequent  prosperity  has  been  marked. 
Population,  in  1900,  10,068;  in  1904,  10,665. 

MABQUBTTB^  Jacques  (1637-75).  A 
French  misskmary  aad  explorer  in  America.  He 
was  bom  at  Laon,  in  France.  When  serenteen 
he  entered  the  Jesuit  Order,  and  in  1666  was 
sent  as  a  missionary  to  Canada.  There  his 
superiors  sent  him  to  the  country  of  the  Upper 
Lakes,  and  in  1668  he  founded  the  Mission  of 
Sault  Sainte  Marie.  In  1673  Marquette,  who 
was  then  in  charge  of  the  newly  founded  mission 
at  Mackinaw,  was  instructed  to  accompany  Louis 
Joliet  <m  his  expedition,  sent  by  the  Governor, 
Coimt  Frontenac,  to  find  the  Mississippi.  Seven 
men,  in  two  birch  canoes,  set  out  on  May  17th. 
They  went  to  Green  Bay,  up  the  Fox  River,  the 
rapids  of  which  they  passed  by  portage,  and  then 
on  to  its  source,  where  guides  were  olSained  from 
an  Indian  village.  They  crossed  to  the  Wisconsia 
and  floated  down  that  stream  for  a  week.  On 
June  17th  they  entered  the  Mississippi,  on  the 
waters  of  which  another  week  was  passed  before 
they  reached  a  village  of  Illinois  Indians.  They 
passed  the  junction  of  the  Mississippi  and  Mis- 
souri rivers,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas 
found  Indian  villages,  whose  occupants  received 
them  with  great  kindness  and  no  little  curiosity. 
The  voyagers  continued  southward  to  latitude 
SO'',  then,  fearing  lest  they  should  be  made 
prisoners  by  the  Spaniards,  they  started  on  the 
return  trip.  On  reaching  the  Illinois  River  they 
ascended  it,  and  are  supposed  to  have  made 
the  portage  from  the  head  of  this  stream  to 
Lake  Michigan,  at  or  near  the  site  of  .Chi- 
cago. After  an  absence  of  four  months,  and 
a  voyage  in  canoes  of  2550  miles,  they  again 
made  Green  Bay,  in  the  latter  part  of  Septem- 
ber. In  October  (1674)  Marquette  obtainea  per- 
mission from  his  superior  to  found  a  mission 
among  the  Illinois  Indians.  With  ten  canoes  be 
went  to  Green  Bay,  made  a  difficult  portage 
through  the  forest  to  Lake  Michigan,  and  fol- 
lowed the  west  shore  of  the  lake  to  the  Chicago 
River,  where  the  party  built  a  hut  and  passed 
the  winter,  as  Marquette  had  become  so  en- 
feebled by  illness  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  proceed  farther.  In  March  he  was  able 
to  resume  the  journey.  The  party  crossed  the 
portage  to  the  Illinois  River,  and  were  most 
hospitably  received  at  the  Indian  town  of  Kas- 
kaskia.  Marquette's  condition  was  so  serious 
that  his  party  was  forced  to  turn  homeward. 
They  reached  Lake  Michigan  and  followed  the 
eastern  shore  toward  Michilimackinac.  Mar- 
quette did  not  live  to  reach  his  post,  dying  on 
May  18,  1675,  near  a  small  stream,  a  little  south 
of  that  which  now  bears  his  name.  He  was 
buried  in  the  wilderness,  but  in  1676  the  bones 
were  exhumed  by  a  party  of  Ottawa  converts  and 
carried  to  the  mission  of  Saint  Ignace,  north  of 
Mackinaw,  where  they  were  interred  beneath 
the  floor  of  the  chapel.  Marquette  was  a  man  of 
singular  sweetness  and  serenity  of  disposition, 
and  his  influence  over  the  Indians  was  great  and 
beneficent.  For  a  detailed  account  of  his  voyages 
consult:  Parkman,  Discovery  of  the  Great  We^ 
(Boston.  1869)  ;  Shea,  Duteovery  and  Explora- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  Valley  (New  York,  1852)  ; 
id..  Early  Voyapes  Up  and  Down  the  MisMssippi 
(New  York,  1862),  containing  translations  from 


MABBIAQE. 


the  original  narratives,  which  will  be  found  in 
full  in  The  Jesuit  Relations  (QeveUnd,  1896 
sqq.);  also  Tkwaites,  Father  Mmrquette  (New 
York,  1902). 

MABQXTEZ,  m&r^kfts,  Leonardo  (c.l820-f). 
A  Mexican  general.  He  served  against  the  United 
States  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  a  prominent 
supporter  of  Santa  Anna  in  the  revolutionary 
movement  of  1849.  After  the  fall  of  that  dictator 
Marquei  espoused  the  cause  of  Miramon  and 
Zuloaga  against  Juares.  In  1862  he  took  up 
the  cause  of  the  French,  and  rendered  important 
service  to  the  establishment  of  the  power  of 
Maximilian,  by  whom  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  regular  army,  and  was,  in  1864,  given  the 
mission  to  Constantinople.  He  returned  in  1866, 
and  a  year  later,  when  the  French  witbifa-ew,  he 
undertook  to  organize  a  native  army  to  support 
the  Empire.  He  joined  Maximilian  at  Quer^taro, 
but  broke  through  the  besiegers  and  made  his 
way  to  Mexico  City  for  the  purpose  of  organizang 
a  force  to  relieve  the  Emperor.  Finding  thb 
impossible,  he  conceived  the  plan  of  setting  up 
an  independent  government  of  his  own  in  the 
Southern  States,  with  Puebla  as  its  capital.  He 
was  defeated  before  he  could  reach  that  city  and 
returned  to  Mexico,  where  he  was  besieged  by  Gen- 
eral Diaz.  The  eity  was  captured,  Jime21,  1867, 
and  Marquez,  after  remaining  in  conoealment  for 
several  months,  made  his  way  to  Vera  Cruz,  and 
that  to  Havana.  He  was  expressly  excluded  from 
the  amnesty  of  1870.  As  a  soldier  aad  politician 
his  motives  were  less  marred  by  personal  ambition 
than  those  of  most  of  the  leaders  of  Mexican 
affairs.  He  was  fanatical  and  cold-blooded  in  his 
disregard  of  human  life,  receiving  the  nickname 
of  'The  Tiger  of  Tacubaya"  for  the  wholesale 
executions  which  followed  one  of  his  guerrilla 
victories  in  1859.  For  an  account  of  Marquez's 
military  career  consult  Bancroft,  "History  of 
Mexico,"  vols.  v.  and  vi.,  in  his  History  of  the 
Pacific  States  (San  Francisco,  1882-90). 

MABQinS^  mUr^wIs,  or  ]ICAKQXr£8S  (OF. 
markiSj  marquis,  Fr.  marquis,  from  ML.  war- 
chensis,  prefect  of  a  frontier  town,  from  marcha, 
marca,  from  OHG.  m^rka,  boundary,  march). 
The  degree  of  nobility  whidi  in  the  peerage  of 
England  ranks  next  to  duke.  Marquises  were 
originally  commanders  on  the  borders  or  fron- 
tiers of  countries,  or  on  the  seacoast,  which 
they  were  bound  to  protect;  the  GJerman  equiva- 
lent is  Markgraf.  The  first  English  marquis  in 
the  modern  sense  was  Robert  de  Vere,  Earl  of 
Oxford,  who  was  created  Marquis  of  Dublin  by 
Richard  II.  in  1385.  The  oldest  existing  marquis- 
ate  is  that  of  Winchester,  created  by  Edward 
VI.  in  1551.    See  !Mabk. 

KABBADI,  mft-rn'd^,  Gtovai^nt  (1852—). 
An  Italian  poet,  born  at  Leghorn.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Pisa  and  afterward* 
studied  at  Florence.  He  is  a  disciple  of  Car- 
ducci,  a  writer  of  force  and  charm,  and  a  word 
painter  of  more  than  usual  excellence.  His 
works  are:  Cansoni  modeme  (1878)  ;  Fantamc 
marine  (1881);  Cansoni  e  fantasie  (1883); 
Ricordi  lirici  (1884)  ;  Poesie  (1887)  :  ^ttort  canti 
(1891);  and  Ballate  modeme  (1895). 

KAIfBAM  GBASS.    See  AMMOPfiiui. 

MABMAaK  (OF.,  Fr.  mariage,  from  ML. 
maritaticum,  marriage,  from  maritus,  husband, 
from  masy  male,  husband).  A  consortinc  or 
imion  of  man  and  woman  which  is  sanctioned 


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87 


MABBIAQX. 


by  the  community.  The  sanction  may  be  moral, 
religious,  or  legal.  This  definition  is  broader 
than  that  of  k^l  usage,  which  makes  marriage 
only  a  legal  form  or  the  status  eoa*respoiiding 
thereto ;  tmd  it  is  not  so  broad  as  Westermarck's 
definition,  '^a  more  or  leas  durable  connection 
between  male  and  female,  lasting  beyond  the 
mere  act  of  propagation  till  after  the  birth  of 
the  offspring.  Properly  speaking,  the  mating 
of  animals  is  not  marriage,  and  in  no  community 
of  human  beings  is  sexual  union  regarded  as  mar- 
riage imtil  it  is  socially  sanctioned  in  some  way. 
On  the  other  hand^  communities  which  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  a  positive  law  not  infre- 
quently atta^  the  deepest  significance  to  cus- 
tomary and  religious  sanctions  applied  to  sexual 
relations.  There  has  been,  however,  an  unbroken 
continuity  of  hiBtorical  forms,  some  of  which 
have  fallen  short  of  marriage  in  any  true  soise, 
some  of  which  have  fallen  short  of  marriage  in  a 
l^al  sense,  while  others,  emerging  as  civil  mar- 
riage, have  dropped  the  earlier  religious  sanc- 
tions. A  complete  understanding  of  marriage  as 
a  socaal  institution,  therefore,  can  be  arrived  at 
only  through  a  survey  of  its  historical  evolu- 
tion. 

Such  a  survey  shows  us  that  the  consortings  of 
males  with  females  among  animals  and  among 
men  have  not  been  restricted  to  the  simple  mat- 
ing of  one  individual  with  one  ol  the  opposite 
sex  which  becomes  the  basis  of  monogamy.  There 
hsve  been  unions  of  one  woman  with  two  or  more 
men  (polyandry)  and  of  one  man  with  two  or 
more  women  (polygyny),  and  such  arrangements 
have  been  socially  approved.  It  reveals  also 
interesting  restrictions,  which  have  had  a  dis- 
tinct evolution  of  their  own,  marking  off  groups 
or  classes  that  might  not  intermarry  from  tho«e 
that  mi^t.  Finally,  it  discloses  the  origin  and 
development  of  the  social  sanctions  themselves, 
whereby  natural  mating  becomes  the  social  in- 
stitution, marriage. 

Disttngnished  ethnologists  have  maintained 
that  relatively  permanent  sexual  unions  have 
slowly  developed  out  of  an  original  promiscuity. 
There  is,  however,  no  satisfactory  evidence  that 
a  state  of  true  promiscuity  ever  existed  among 
human  beings,  and  the  hypothesis  Is  rendered  in- 
herently improbable  by  our  knowledge  that 
among  the  lower  animals  a  distinct  progress  to- 
ward true  pairing  is  observed  as  we  ascend  the 
scale  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  vertebrata. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  few  life-long 
unions  of  one  male  with  one  female  in  any 
animal  species,  even  among  the  birds,  whose  ten- 
dencies toward  an  exclusive  mating  have  been 
the  subject  of  some  exaggeration.  As  a  rule  in 
the  animal  kingdom  within  the  reproductive 
period  of  life  the  female,  no  less  than  the  male, 
consorts  at  one  time  or  another  with  more  than 
ODe  individual  of  the  other  sex,  and  among  the 
relatively  numerous  gregarious  animals  many 
females  commonly  associate  with  one  male. 

(^ief  among  the  facts  which  suggested  the 
hypothesis  of  a  primitive  promiscuity  is  the 
widespread  custom  among  uncivilized  men  of 
tracing  names  and  descent  through  the  mother 
instead  of  the  father.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  civilized  races  also,  including  the  peoples 
of  Aryan  culture,  in  all  probahility  passed 
throuf^  this  matronymic  stage.  Furthermore, 
an  all-sufficient  explanation  of  descent  in  the 
female  line  is  found  in  the  general  instability  of 


pairing  arrangements  snaong  primitive  men.  If 
a  mother  with  her  infant  remains  with  her  own 
kindred,  or  returns  to  thouy  she  naturally  keeps, 
and  her  child  takes,  her  clan  name;  and  her 
brethren  or  other  near  clansn^en  become  the 
child's  natural  protectors. 

It  seems  probable  that  from  the  first  sexual 
mating  among  human  beings  has  t^ided  toward 
monogamie  unions,  but  that  permanency  has  been 
of  slow  growth.  Among  the  lowest  savages,  such 
as  the  Australians,  the  Bushmen,  the  Fuegians, 
the  forest  hordes  of  Brazil,  and  the  Innuit,  a 
mating  of  one  man  with  one  woman  for  an 
indefinite,  but  usually  not  long  period,  is  the 
common  arrangeinent.  Sometimes,  as  in  Aus- 
tralian tribes,  it  is  complicated  by  a  system  of 
relationships  more  nominal  than  real,  such  that 
each  man  in  a  given  class  or  group  is  theoretic- 
ally the  husbax^  of  each  woman  in  some  other 
class  or  group,  and  in  like  manner  each  woman 
in  the  latter  class  is  theoretically  the  wife  of 
each  man  in  the  former.  These  nominal  unions 
probably  do  not  point  to  a  primitive  promis- 
cuity, but  rather  to  an  early  limitation  of  the 
range  of  choice  in  the  selection  of  consorts; 
that  is  to  say,  each  woman  of  a  certain  class 
is  a  possible  mate  for  any  man  of  some  other 
class. 

Nevertheless,  in  tribes  somewhat  more  ad- 
vanced but  usually  dwelling  in  extreme  poverty, 
various  forms  of  polyandry,  or  the  union  of 
one  woman  with  two  or  more  men,  or  of  a  group 
of  women  to  a  group  of  men,  is  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  worH,  and  imdoubtedly  prevailed 
widely  in  the  past.  In  Tibetan  polyandry,  so 
called,  the  husbands  are  brothers.  In  Nair  pol- 
yandry, or  the  form  which  prevails  among  the 
Nairs  of  India,  the  husbands  of  a  woman  may 
originally  have  been  strangers  to  one  another. 
Csesar  speaks  of  a  polyandry  like  the  Tibetan  as 
practiced  among  the  Britons.  In  the  Hawaiian 
IbImmIs  before  they  were  invaded  by  whites,  a 
common  form  was  the  so-called  Punaluan  family, 
in  which  a  number  of  brothers  cohabited  with  a 
group  of  sisters,  each  man  consorting  with  each 
woman,  and  each  woman  with  each  man.  The 
men  were  not  own  brothers  of  their  waves,  but 
Lewis  H.  Morgan,  from  evidence  which  he 
brought  together  in  his  work  on  Sffstems  of  Con- 
tmnguinitp  and  Afjinity^  drew  the  conclusion  that 
Punaluan  polyandry  had  survived  from  what  he 
called  a  '(Consanguine  Family*  formed  by  the  mat- 
ing of  near  kindred,  such  as  own  brothers  and 
sisters  and  cousins.  A  conservative  explanation 
of  the  known  facts  seems  to  be  that  primitive 
hordes,  except  perhaps  in  the  most  favorable  en- 
vironments, were  small,  as  are  the  hordes  of 
the  lowest  savages  to-day,  and  were  therefore 
composed  of  near  kindred  commonly  marrying  in 
and  in.  Under  such  circumstances  the  cohabit- 
ing group  may  often  have  been  a  consanguine 
family  in  Morgan's  sense  of  the  term,  a  Pimaluan 
family,  or  a  family  like  that  created  by  the 
Tibetan  polyandry.  Yet  probably  from  the  first 
a  temporary  consorting  of  one  man  with  one 
woman  was  the  more  frequent  arrangement.  A 
horde  thus  marrying  in  and  in  is  called  endog- 
amous.  Two  ways  in  which  a  group  becomes 
cxoffamoua  (taking  consorts  from  other  groups) 
are  known.  Where  neighboring  hordes,  or 
groups  of  kindred,  live  on  friendly  terms  with 
one  another,  often  participating  in  common  fes- 
tivities or  religious  observances,  men  frequently 


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MABBIAGE. 


88 


leave  their  own  kindred  and  go  to  dwell  with 
women  in  another  group.  They  become  in  such 
cases  in  many  particulars  subject  to  the  male 
kindred  of  their  wives.  This  arrangement  has 
been  called  Beenah  marriage,  the  name  given 
to  it  in  Ceylon  where  it  was  first  carefully  ob- 
served. Where  neighboring  groups  live  on  bad 
terms  with  one  another,  frequently  engaging  in 
war,  captured  women  may  be  appropriated  by 
their  captors.  That  wife  capture  has  been  a 
custom  in  every  part  of  the  world  is  admitted  by 
all  ethnologists,  and  there  is  a  general  agree- 
ment that  the  not  less  widespread  custom  of  wife 
purchase  may  have  grown  out  of  wife  capture. 
It  is  not,  however,  by  any  means  certain  that 
these  methods,  creative  of  the  marriage  relation 
which  Robertson-Smith,  in  his  work  on  Kinship 
and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia,  has  called  Baal 
marriage,  to  distinguish  it  from  Beenah  mar- 
riage, have  been  a  more  important  cause  of  ex- 
ogamy than  the  voluntary  going  of  the  men  of 
one  group  to  the  women  of  another.  The 
theories  which  seek  to  explain  exogamy  primarily 
by  an  avoidance  of  close  interbreeding  do  not 
very  well  agree  with  the  facts  as  thus  far 
known.  The  practice  of  offering  women  to  actual 
or  potential  foes  as  an  act  of  propitiation  prob- 
ably played  a  large  part  in  the  origin  of  ex- 
ogam  ic  custom.  The  strict  rule  of  exogamy  is 
found  only  where  the  clan  or  gens  (see  Gens) 
is  well  developed,  and  it  there  is  a  rule  of  the 
clan  as  such,  rather  than  of  the  horde  or  tribe. 
Where  tribes  are  constituted  of  clans  the  clan 
is  exogamous,  and  the  tribe  as  a  rule  is  endoga- 
mous.  That  is  to  say,  men  may  not  marry  their 
clanswomen,  but  usually  marry  women  of  an- 
other clan  within  the  same  tribe. 

The  forms  of  sexual  relationship  thus  far 
mentioned,  let  us  now  recall,  are  not  necessarily 
marriages.  Any  one  of  them  may  exist  in  a  com- 
munity where  the  only  legal  union  of  man  and 
woman,  and  the  only  one  sanctioned  by  religion 
and  public  opinion,  is  monogamy.  Any  one  of  them 
becomes  marriage  through  social  sanction.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  religious  sanctions  consti- 
tuting marriage  are  older  than  the  legal.  Very 
suggestive  studies  of  the  origins  of  the  religious 
sanctions  have  been  made  by  Ernest  Crawley, 
The  Mystic  Rose:  A  Study  of  Primitive  Mar- 
riage, To  the  savage  with  his  belief  in  imitative 
and  sympathetic  magic  many  things  appear  dan- 
gerous, and  he  avoids  them,  making  them  taboo. 
Crawley  finds  that  in  savage  communities  the 
sexes  are  usually  taboo  to  one  another  until  by 
some  ceremony  of  magic  the  taboo  is  broken.  The 
initiation  ceremonies,  whereby  boys  and  girls  at 
puberty  are  admitted  to  certain  sexual  mysteries, 
are  of  this  nature.  They  partially  break  the 
sexual  taboo.  The  marriage  ceremony  is  the 
complete  and  final  breaking.  Usually  whatever 
is  taboo  may  safely  be  touched — in  the  case  of 
a  food  it  may  be  eaten — if  first  it  has  been 
approached  in  some  exceedingly  careful  way,  or 
partaken  of  in  a  ho\pcEopathic  portion,  whereby 
an  immunity  is  established.  Conformably  to  this 
idea  the  sexual  taboo  is  broken  by  such  harmless 
approaches  as  the  joining  of  hands  or  the  partak- 
ing of  a  meal  together.  Some  of  the  most  fre- 
quent incidents  of  marriage  ceremony  are  thus 
seen  to  have  had  their  origin  in  that  savage 
magic  whicli  was  the  first  great  system  of  social 
sanctions,  long  antedating  those  which  were  de- 
veloped into  positive  law. 


MABBIAGE. 


lAW   OF   MABBIAOE. 


HiSTOBiOAL  Development.  The  law  of  mar- 
riage in  all  Christian  countries  is  derived  from 
the  canon  law,  i.e.  the  law  established  by  the 
Christian  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
canon  law  drew  many  of  its  rules  regarding 
marriage  from  the  Roman  civil  law,  and  it 
was  influenced,  to  some  extent,  by  Teutonic  ideas ; 
but  in  many  respects  its  marriage  law  was 
novel.  In  nearly  all  Christian  countries  the 
canonical  rules  have  been  seriously  modified 
during  the  last  four  hundred  years.  The  changes 
which  began  with  the  Protestant  Reformation 
were  at  first  worked  out  by  the  Protestant 
churches  and  embodied  in  Protestant  ecclesias- 
tical law;  but  a  tendency  to  regulate  marriage 
by  civil  legislation  appeared  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  at  the  present  day,  even  in  those 
countries  which  have  adhered  most  closely  to 
the  rules  of  the  canon  law,  marriage  is  governed 
by  the  ordinary  civil  law. 

Roman  Civil  Law.  Marriage  could  be  estab- 
lished only  between  Roman  citizens,  or  between 
Romans  and  such  foreigners  as  had  by  treaty 
the  right  of  intermarrying  with  Romans  {ius 
connubii ) .  Originally,  no  intermarriage  was  pos- 
sible between  the  gentiles  or  patricians  and  the 
plebeians;  and  after  intermarriage  between  the 
orders  had  been  legalized  (b.c.  445),  gentiles 
continued  to  marry,  in  most  cases,  within  their 
own  order,  and  often  within  their  own  gens. 
The  marriage  of  near  blood-relations,  however, 
was  forbidden;  originally,  those  related  in  the 
sixth  degree  (e.g.  children  of  first  cousins)  were 
not  allowed  to  intermarry.  In  the  third  century 
B.C.  marriage  was  permitted  between  persons  re- 
lated in  the  fourth  degree  (e.g.  first  cousins). 
The  legislation  of  the  Empire  varied:  at  one 
time  (a.d.  49)  a  man  was  allowed  to  marry  his 
brother's  daughter,  but  in  the  fourth  century  this 
was  made  a  capital  offense,  and  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury the  marriage  of  first  cousins  was  again  for  a 
time  prohibited.  The  relations  established  by  adop- 
tion (q.v.)  were  treated  as  equivalent  to  rela- 
tions of  blood-kinship.  Affinity  was  a  bar  in 
the  direct  line  only,  until  the  end  of  the  third 
century,  when  marriage  with  a  sister-in-law  (the 
brother's  widow  or  his  divorced  wife,  and  the  de- 
ceased or  divorced  wife's  sister)  was  prohibited. 
Justinian,  under  the  influence  of  the  Christian 
Church,  forbade  marriage  between  godparents  and 
godchildren  on  the  ground  that  baptism  estab- 
lished a  spiritual  kinship.  Under  the  same  in- 
fluence the  Theodosian  Code  had  already  pro- 
hibited marriage  between  Christians  and  Jews. 

In  the  older  civil  law  there  were  three  modes 
of  establishing  marital  power  {manus).  For  the 
patricians  there  was  a  religious  ceremony,  con- 
farrcatio;  for  the  plebeians  there  was  fictitious 
purchase,  coemptio,  and  also  prescription,  usua. 
The  acquisition  of  marital  power  by  prescription 
implied  that  the  man  and  the  woman  were  living 
together  without  any  preceding  oonfarreatio  or 
coemptio;  and  it  is  probable  that  such  a  union 
was  not  originally  regarded  as  a  marriage  until 
the  man  had  acquired  marital  power;  but  at 
an  early  period  this  informal  union  was  treated 
as  marriage,  even  though  the  prescription  was 
annually  interrupted  and  never  became  complete. 
This  marriage  consensu,  i.e.  by  agreement,  was 
usually  accompanied  by  religious  observan^, 
such  as  the  taking  of  auspices,  by  a  banquet. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABBIAGE.  89 

and  by  the  ceremonial  taking  of  the  -wife  to  the 
husband's  house,  but  none  of  these  things  was 
necessary:  consensus,  non  ooncubitus,  facit 
nupticis.  The  consensual  marriage  supplanted  all 
other  forms  except  the  oonfarreaiio,  which  was 
occasionally  used  in  some  of  the  old  families  until 
the  empire  became  Christian.  The  consensual 
marriage  was  a  'free  marriage'  in  two  senses:  it 
gave  the  husband  no  power  over  the  person  or 
property  of  his  wife,  and  it  was  dissoluble  at  the 
will  of  either  party.    See  Divorce. 

Marriage  could  be  established  when  both  par- 
ties had  reached  the  age  of  puberty,  which  was 
fixed  at  the  completed  fourteenth  year  for 
males,  at  the  completed  twelfth  for  females. 
Betrothal  (q.v.),  sponsaliay  could  take  place  at 
any  time  after  the  completed  seventh  year.  When 
the  parties,  or  either  of  them,  were  under  pater- 
nal authority,  no  betrothal  or  marriage  was  valid 
without  the  paternal  authorization. 

The  remarriage  of  widows  was  regarded  in  the 
older  Roman  ethics  as  improper,  but  it  was 
never  legally  prohibited.  In  the  later  Imperial 
law  it  was  prohibited  for  ten  months,  unless 
within  that  period  a  child  had  been  bom.  In 
the  later  Imperial  law,  certain  property  disadvan- 
tages were  attached  to  second  marriages,  both  as 
regarded  husbands  and  wives ;  but  the  object  was 
not  to  penalize  second  marriages,  but  to  secure 
the  interests  of  the  children  oif  the  previous 
marriages. 

Early  German  Law.  The  usual  form  of  mar- 
riage among  the  Scandinavians,  the  Crermans 
proper,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  wife-purchase. 
The  girl  was  bought  from  her  father  or  guardian, 
and  delivered  bv  the  father  or  guardian  to  the 
buyer.  Abduction  of  a  girl  without  payment 
seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  mode  of  mar- 
riage, but  the  husband  did  not  obtain  marital 
authority  {mundium)  until  he  had  paid  the  cus- 
tomary compensation  to  the  father  or  guardian. 
In  the  earliest  written  laws  the  price  paid  is 
beginning  to  be  regarded  as  something  that  be- 
longs to  the  woman,  not  to  the  father  or  guard- 
ian ;  it  is  dos  or  dower  in  the  later  English  sense 
— i.e.  a  provision  for  widowhood — and  instead  of 
paying  it  over  to  the  father  or  guardian,  the 
bridegroom  gives  security  for  its  payment  on  his 
death  to  his  widow.  In  the  earliest  written  laws 
also  the  purchase  marriage  consists  of  two  sepa- 
rate transactions:  (1)  the  agreement  between 
the  bridegroom  and  the  bride's  father  or  guard- 
ian, in  which  each  formally  binds  himself  to 
perform  his  part  of  the  contract,  and  (2)  the 
delivery  of  the  bride,  together  with  the  payment 
of  the  price  or  the  giving  of  seicurity  for  its 
payment  to  the  widow.  As  the  formal  contract  of 
the  old  German  law  consisted  in  the  giving  of 
symbolic  pledges,  wadia,  the  first  of  these  trans- 
actions was  a  wadiaiio  (Anglo-Saxon,  hewed- 
dung)^  while  the  second  was  a  'giving*  (Anglo- 
Saxon,  gifta).  The  %oadiaiio  was  more  than  a 
betrothal,  it  was  an  inchoate  marriage.  It  pro- 
duced some  of  the  legal  results  of  marriage,  while 
other  results  attached  to  the  giving,  and  others 
again  to  cohabitation.  In  the  later  develop- 
ment of  the  Grerman  law  the  wadiatio  was  de- 
scribed as  Verlohung  or  promising,  and  consisted 
in  the  exchange  of  promises  between  bridegroom 
and  bride,  and  the  giving  became  the  Trauung 
or  intrusting.  Verlohung^  however,  in  the  Ger- 
man view,  was  always  something  more  than  a 
Roman  betrothal,  and  the  Grerman  view  was  not 


MABBIAGE. 


without  influence  upon  the  development  of  the 
canon  law. 

Roman  Canon  Law.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  considers  marriage  as  a  sacrament  which 
conveys  divine  grace  to  the  recipients  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  them  to  perform  well  the 
duties  of  the  conjugal  state.  This  aspect  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  validity  of  the  marriage 
as  a  civil  contract;  nor  does  the  Church  by  this 
teaching  deny  that  valid  marriages  are  contracted 
outside  its  communion.  But,  considered  as  a 
sacrament  of  the  Catholic  Church,  it  cannot  be 
received  by  an  unbaptized  person,  or  properly  by 
any  one  who  is  in  a  state  of  mortal  sin.  By  the 
general  view  of  theologians,  since  the  consent 
of  the  parties  is  considered  the  essential  part  of 
the  sacrament,  they  are  themselves  held  to  be 
the  'ministers*  of  it:  the  priest  simply  adds  the 
Church's  f)enediction.  Since  marriage  was  con- 
sidered a  sacrament,  it  was  early  asserted  that 
as  such  its  regulation  fell  within  the  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  the  Church.  The  claim  was  recog- 
nized; and  in  the  exercise  of  its  jurisdiction  the 
Church  developed  a  uniform  law  of  marria^  for 
all  Western  Christendom.  It  did  not  claim  to 
regulate  the  property  relations  of  husband  and 
wife,  but  it  regulated  the  establishment  and  de- 
termined the  validity  of  marriages.  The  prin- 
cipal inference  which  the  Church  drew  from  the 
sacramental  theory  was  that  marriage  was  indis- 
soluble. The  Church  courts  could  declare  that 
an  existing  union  was  not  a  valid  marriage,  i.e. 
they  could  declare  a  marriage  null,  on  account  of 
circumstances  antecedent  to  or  simultaneous  with 
its  establishment ;  and  they  could  grant  a  separa- 
tion from  bed  and  board  on  account  of  circum- 
stances that  had  arisen  since  the  marriage;  but 
they  could  not  dissolve  a  marriage  validly  estab- 
lished by  reason  of  any  occurrences  subsequent  to 
its  establishment.    See  Divorce. 

There  were  numerous  grounds  on  which  a 
marriage  could  be  set  aside  or  annulled,  called 
dividing  or  destructive  impediments  {impedi- 
menta  dirimentia) ,  such  as  a  previous  marriage, 
a  previous  vow  of  celibacy,  a  difference  of  re- 
ligion, impotence,  etc.  To  the  dividing  impedi- 
ments belonged  also  relationship  within  the  for- 
bidden degrees.  The  wide  range  of  this  impedi- 
ment was  perhaps  the  most  peculiar  feature  of 
the  canon  law.  The  Church  not  only  forbade 
marriage  by  reason  of  consanguinity  and  the  legal 
aflfinity  established  by  marriage;  it  attached  the 
same  result  to  the  spiritual  relationship  estab- 
lished by  participation  in  the  sacraments  of  bap- 
tism and  of  confirmation,  and  to  the  illegitimate 
affinity  established  by  unlawful  concuhitus;  and 
it  carried  prohibitions  based  on  affinity  to  the 
same  degree  as  those  based  on  blood-kinship. 
Before  1215  the  impediments  of  consanguinity 
and  affinity  extended  to  the  seventh  degree 
(which,  by  civil  computation,  might  be  the  four- 
teenth degree,  for  in  tracing  collateral  relation- 
ship the  canonists  reckoned  only  up  to  the  com- 
mon ancestor  and  not  down  again)  ;  and  mar- 
riage was  forbidden  not  only  with  affines,  but 
with  their  a/fines  {affinitds  secundi,  tertii  gra- 
dus)  ;  but  at  the  fourth  Lateran  Council  In- 
nocent III.  abolished  the  latter  rule,  and  limited 
the  prohibition  based  on  consanguinity  and  affin- 
ity to  the  fourth  degree  (e.g.  third  cousins). 
From  all  these  impediments  of  relationship, 
except  those  between  ascendants  and  descendants 
and  brother  and  sister,  dispensation  might  be 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XABBIAGE. 


90 


GB. 


granted,  as  also  from  a  tow  of  celibacy,  a  dif- 
ference of  religion,  and  lack  of  age.  Lack  of  age, 
moreover,  and  lack  of  consent,  were  curable 
defects.  In  most  cases,  therefore,  these  dividing 
impediments  did  not  render  the  marriages  void, 
but  oidy  voidable.  The  hardships  logicaily  re- 
sulting from  the  annulm^it  of  marriage  were 
lessened  By  the  doctrine  of  the  'putative  mar- 
riage.' Where  one  of  the  parties  to  the  invalid 
marriage  was  unaware  of  the  impediment,  that 
party,  and  also  any  children  bom  of  the  union, 
were  entitled  to  all  the  rights  which  would  have 
been  theirs  if  the  marriage  had  been  valid.  In 
particular,  the  children  were  legitimate.  This 
doctrine,  however,  reached  over  into  a  field 
which,  even  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  regarded  as 
secular.  The  Church  could  say  what  was  and 
what  was  not  a  marriage,  but  it  could  not  regu- 
late all  the  civil  results  of  marriage,  nor  all  the 
civil  results  of  its  annulment.    See  Divorce. 

Other  impediments  were  known  as  impeding* 
or  'prohibitive.'  To  this  class  belonged,  for  ex- 
ample, a  pre-contract  de  future  (i.e.  a  previous 
betrothal  to  another  person)  ;  also  the  non-ob- 
servance of  ecclesiastical  rules  regarding  banns. 
Disregard  of  such  impediments  subjected  the 
offen&r  to  penalties,  but  did  not  invalidate  the 
marriage. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Church's 
view  of  betrothal  changed  in  the  twelfth  century. 
In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  Church  was  strongly 
influenced  by  the  German  idea  that  betrothal 
was  an  inchoate  marriage.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  went  back  to  the  Roman  view  that  an 
agreement  de  futuro  was  a  thing  wholly  distinct 
from  marriage.  Nevertheless  some  concessions 
were  still  made  to  German  ideas.  It  was  ad- 
mitted that  an  agreement  to  marry  in  future  and 
subsequent  concubituM  constituted  marriage. 
Moreover,  marriages  not  consummated  were 
treated  somewhat  differently  from  those  which 
had  been  consummated:  they  were  annulled  vnth 
more  freedom. 

On  the  whole,  the  canonical  marriage  was  the 
consensual  marriage  of  tne  Roman  law,  made 
indissoluble.  The  ages  of  consent  were  the  same, 
fourteen  and  twelve.  It  was  customary  to  pub- 
lish banns,  to  exchange  troth-plight  at  the  church 
door,  and  to  have  the  marriage  consecrated  by 
the  priest  inside  of  the  church,  but  none  of  these 
things  was  necessary.  The  sacrament  of  mar- 
riage was  one  which  the  parties  could  administer 
to  each  other,  and  the  clandestine  unconsecrated 
marriage  was  completely  valid.  The  consent  of 
parents  to  the  marriages  of  their  children,  which 
was  required  by  the  Roman  law,  was  not  re- 
quired by  the  Church,  not  even  in  the  case  of 
minors.  The  law  was  changed,  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, by  the  C^wincil  of  Trent.  The  decrees  of 
that  council  required  that  marriage  should  be 
celebrated  by  the  priest  of  the  parish  in  the 
presence  of  two  witnesses.  These  decrees,  how- 
ever, were  not  put  in  force  in  all  Catholic  coun- 
tries (it  is  affirmed  that  they  were  not  intro- 
duced into  the  American  possessions  of  Spain), 
and  where  the  Tridentine  laws  are  not  in  force, 
the  Catholic  Church  continues  to  recognize  the 
secret  and  unconsecrated  marriage. 

Protestant  Ecclesiastical  Law.  The  Prot- 
estant churches  of  the  Continent  rejected  the 
sacramental  theory  of  marriage.  They  ro^mrded 
divorce  (q.v.)  as  admissible.  Luther  revived  the 
theory   that   betrothal    (q.v.)    was   an    inchoate 


marriage,  and  this  view  was  dominant  until  tha 
eighteenth  century.  Early  in  that  century,  how- 
ever, Bohmer,  a  distinguished  writer  on  Protest- 
ant ecclesiastical  law,  retntrodueed  the  Roman 
distinctions.  In  order  to  suppress  secret  mar- 
riages the  Protestant  churches  demanded  the 
coaaent  of  parents,  or  the  presoiee  of  witnesses, 
or  an  ecclesiastical  ceremony,  or  all  these  things. 
So  long,  however,  as  secret  betrothal  followed  by 
cancubitus  was  r^iarded  as  a  legal  marriage,  re- 
quirements of  publicity  of  marriage  were  in- 
effective. Bdhmer  insisted  that  such  a  marriage 
was  only  a  'natural  marriage,'  and  that  the 
benediction  of  the  Church  was  necessary  to  its 
legal  validity.  The  ecclesiastical  marriage,  be 
held,  was  the  only  perfect  marriage.  Bdhmer's 
ideas  were  generally  accepted;  but  in  cases 
where  cotteuMu^  had  occurred  after  a  promise 
of  marriage,  it  was  usual  not  only  to  compel  the 
man  to  go  through  the  religious  ceremony,  but 
to  'supply'  his  assent  when  1^  refused  to  give  it. 
The  impediments  to  marriage  based  on  con- 
sanguinity and  affinity  were  greatly  reduced. 
Consanguinity  was  treated  as  a  bar  only  within 
the  third  or  fourth  degree  (civil  computation), 
affinity  only  in  the  direct  line.  Spiritual  kin- 
ship was  not  recognized.  There  was  manifested 
also  a  tendency  to  treat  fraud  as  a  ground  for  an- 
nulling marriage,  provided  it  was  made  clear  that 
but  for  the  fraud  the  marriage  would  not  have 
been  contracted.  Some  of  these  changes  were 
made  by  civil  legislation,  but  until  the  nineteenth 
century  legislation  was  for  the  most  part  guided 
by  ecclesiastical  opinioiL 

MooEBN  Continental  Lbgislation.  Even  in 
Catholic  countries  marriage  is  governed  at  the 
present  time  by  civil  legislation.  The  most  im- 
portant innovation  of  the  nineteenth  century  is 
the  civil  marriage.  In  the  eighteenth  centuiy 
publicity  of  marriage,  establiuied  in  Catholic 
countries  by  the  Tridentine  decrees,  was  secured  in 
Protestant  States  in  the  same  way,  i.e.  by  compul- 
sory religious  marriage.  In  some  States  it  was 
demanded  that  the  rites  of  the  established  Church 
be  observed;  but  exceptions  were  generally  made 
in  favor  of  the  adherents  of  other  confessions  or 
of  no  confession,  first,  by  permitting  marriage 
to  be  celebrated  according  to  the  forms  of  any 
recognised  confession,  and  finally  by  establishing 
civil  marriage,  i.e.  marriage  before  a  civil  offi- 
cer. The  civil  marriage  is  regularly  preceded 
by  notices,  posted  or  otherwise  published  in  the 
domicile  of  each  of  the  parties,  and  the  civil 
officer  does  not  proceed  to  the  marriage  until  he 
is  satisfied  that  all  the  requirements  of  the  law 
have  been  observed.  At  the  outset,  the  civil 
marriage  was  usually  'facultative,'  i.e.  the  parties 
could  choose  between  civil  and  religious  marriage, 
or  the  religious  marriage  was  made  compulsory 
only  upon  members  of  the  State  Church.  Such 
a  facultative  civil  marriage  exists  to-day  in 
Austria,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  In  a  larger  num- 
ber of  Continental  States,  however,  civil  mar- 
riage is  obligatory.  The  parties  may  add  a  re- 
ligious ceremony,  but  the  religious  marriage  has 
no  legal  effect.  This  system  obtains  in  France, 
Holland,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy. 

The  age  of  consent  has  generally  been  raised 
(to  eighteen  and  fifteen  in  France,  to  twenty -one 
and  sixteen  in  Germany),  but  not  in  Spain.'  The 
consent  of  parents  or  guardians  is  required  for 
the  marriage  of  minors,  and  in  many  legislations 
the   consent   of   parents   is   required   even  after 


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MABBIAGE.  91 

majority.  In  some  of  these  legislations,  the  only 
result  attached  to  parental  opposition  after  ma- 
jority is  to  delay  the  marriage.  In  Germany,  if 
the  opposition  of  the  parents  appears  unreason- 
able, the  necessary  consent  can  be  given  by  the 
court.  The  Roman  rule  forbidding  remarriage 
of  a  woman  within  the  ten  months  following  the 
dissolution  of  the  previous  marriage  is  generally 
retained  in  modem  legislations.  The  hindrances 
based  on  consanguinity  and  affinity  vary  con- 
siderably in  different  States.  In  Germany  con- 
sanguinity is  a  bar  only  in  the  direct  line 
and  between  brothers  and  sisters ;  affinity  is  a  bar 
only  in  the  direct  line.  In  France  uncle  and 
niece,  aunt  and  nephew,  and  brother-in-law  and 
sister-in-law  are  forbidden  to  intermarry,  but 
dispensation  may  be  granted  by  the  head  of  the 
State.  Even  in  the  more  conservative  Catholic 
countries  there  is  a  tendency  to  limit  the  impedi- 
ments of  consanguinity  and  affinity.  In  Spain 
marriages  within  the  fourth  degree  are  pro- 
hibited, but  for  non-Catholics  the  fourth  degree 
is  computed  civilly,  so  that  the  restriction 
reaches  no  further  than  to  first  cousins.  As 
regards  lack  of  consent,  the  doctrines  of  the 
canon  law  are  generally  followed  in  the  modem 
civil  legislations.  Fraud  per  ae  does  not  gener- 
ally invalidate  a  marriage,  but  in  the  German 
Code  fraud  by  which  consent  has  been  induced 
has  this  ^ect. 

Engijsh  Common  Law,  and  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment. That  the  general  ecclesiastical  law  of 
Western  Christendom  prevailed  ia  the  British 
Islands  until  the  Reformation,  and  that  it  contin- 
ued to  prevail  after  the  Reformation  until  changed 
by  Parliamentary  enactments,  was  not  seriously 
<mestioned  by  the  courts  until  1843.  In  that  year 
the  House  of  Lords  decided,  in  Queen  vs,  Millis 
(10  Clark  and  Finelly,  534),  that,  even  before 
the  Reformation,  there  was  a  special  ecclesiastical 
law  of  England  and  Ireland,  which  was  not  in 
all  points  identical  with  the  Roman  canon  law; 
that,  in  particular,  the  Roman  doctrine  that 
parties  could  contract  a  valid  marriage  by 
consent  alone  had  never  been  a  rule  of  English 
ecclesiastical  law;  that,  on  the  contrary,  the 
assistance  and  benediction  of  a  priest  had  always 
been  essential  to  a  perfect  marriage  in  England 
and  Ireland.  This  decision  denied,  accordingly, 
that  the  form  of  marriage  which  is  still  known  in 
the  United  States  as  the  'common-law  marriage* 
had  ever  been  a  perfect  marriage  at  English 
common  law.  The  correctness  of  this  decision 
(which  was  rendered  by  a  divided  court)  has 
been  widely  questioned,  and  further  historical  in- 
vestigation has  strengthened  the  opposite  opinion 
(see  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English 
Law,  II.,  372,  and  Maitland,  Canon  Law  in 
England),  The  opposite  theory  has  always  been 
held  by  the  courts  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
decision  in  Queen  vs,  Millis  has  not  been  accepted 
by  the  courts  of  Canada. 

The  marriage  of  which  the  validity  was  denied 
in  (^een  vs,  Millis  was  an  Irish  marriage.  As 
far  as  England  was  concerned,  the  question  had 
been  settled  by  the  acts  26  Geo.  II.,  c.  33  (Lord 
Hardwicke's  Act)  and  4  Geo.  IV.,  76,  which  re- 
quired a  church  marriage  preceded  by  the  publi- 
cation of  banns,  except  when  a  special  license 
was  secured,  and  which  declared  any  other  form 
of  marriage  invalid.  Church  marriage  meant 
marriage  according  to  the  forms  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  from  1753  to  1836  no  exceptions 
Vol.  Xlll.-fl. 


MABBL/LGE. 

were  made  except  in  the  cases  of  (Quakers  and 
Jews.  Lord  Russell's  Act,  6  and  7  William  IV., 
c.  85,  supplemented  by  Acts  1  Vict.,  c.  22,  and 
10  and  20  Vict.,  c.  119,  furnished  a  choice  be- 
tween marriage  according  to  the  forms  of  the 
Established  (jhurch,  marriage  according  to  the 
forms  of  other  registered  confessions,  and  civil 
marriage  before  a  registrar.  Lord  Hardwicke's 
act  fuAher  demanded  the  assent  of  parents  or 
guardians  to  the  marriage  of  minors,  and  the 
fact  that  it  did  not  operate  outside  England  led 
to  the  numerous  *Gretna  Green'  marriages.  At 
present,  under  later  acts  of  Parliament,  the  same 
election  between  various  forms  of  marriage  is 
given  in  Scotland  and  in  Ireland  as  in  England — 
an  election  between  religious  marriage  accord- 
ing to  the  rites  of  any  recognized  confession  and 
civil  marriage.  In  Ireland  the  marriage  by 
consent  without  ecclesiastical  or  civil  ceremony 
has  been  abolished  by  the  decision  in  Queen  vs, 
Millis;  in  Scotland  this  formless  marriage  still 
exists,  as  it  still  exists  in  the  great  majority 
of  the  commonwealths  of  the  United  States.  All 
that  is  necessary  to  establish  the  marriage  is  the 
consent  or  agreement  in  presenti,  i.e.  an  agree- 
ment of  marriage  as  distinct  from  an  agreement 
to  marry  at  some  future  time. 

With  the  requirement  of  public  marriage  in 
England  and  Ireland,  the  canonical  rule  that  an 
agreement  to  marry  followed  by  oonouhitus  is 
marriage  has  been  abrogated.  In  Scotland  the 
rule  is  maintained.  In  the  United  States  there 
is  a  conflict  of  authorities.  Even  at  the  canon 
law  the  rule  was  based  on  a  presumption  that 
consent  in  presenti  had  intervened,  but  this  pre- 
sumption was  not  rebuttable.  Some  of  the  Ameri- 
can courts  treat  the  presumption  as  rebuttable ;  a 
few  decline  to  recognize  the  rule.  Of  course 
neither  in  Scotland  nor  in  the  United  States  will 
a  relation  which  was  originally  meretricious  be 
transformed  into  marriage  by  a  promise  to  marry ; 
nor  was  any  such  result  recognized  by  the  Cath- 
olic CJhurch.  In  accordance  with  the  common  rules, 
the  common-law  ages  of  consent  are  fourteen  and 
twelve.  If  either  party,  by  reason  of  idiocy,  im- 
becility, or  insanity,  does  not  comprehend  the  na- 
ture and  effect  of  the  marriage  contract,  there  is 
no  marriage ;  but  if  the  lack  of  comprehension  is 
due  to  intoxication,  the  marriage  is  not  void,  but 
only  voidable.  Mistake,  as  at  canon  law,  must  be 
of  such  a  character  that  there  was  really  no  con- 
sent. As  regards  fraud,  the  English  courts  follow 
the  Roman  ecclesiastical  rule,  that  fraud  per  se  is 
not  a  ground  for  annulling  a  marriage.  As  Sir  P. 
H.  Jeune  said  (in  Moss  vs.  Moss,  1897,  P.  D. 
268),  where  marriage  is  said  to  be  annulled  for 
fraud,  it  is  really  annulled  because  of  the  absence 
of  consent.  The  American  courts,  however,  are 
inclined  to  admit  that  a  marriage  may  be  an- 
nulled by  fraud,  and  they  are  especially  inclined 
to  admit  such  an  annulment  if  the  marriage 
has  not  been  consummated. 

In  England,  as  elsewhere,  the  Reformation 
brought  about  a  considerable  reduction  in  the 
prohibitions  of  marriage  based  on  relationship. 
Statutes  of  Henry  VIIL,  repealed  in  part  by  a 
statute  of  Edward  VI.  and  wholly  repealed  by  a 
statute  of  Philip  and  Mary,  were  partially  re- 
vived in  the  first  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign;  and 
the  provision  that  survived  simply  stated  that 
"no  prohibition,  God's  law  except,  shall  trouble 
or  impeach  any  marriage  outside  the  Levitical 
degrees."    This  was  interpreted  by  the  eoclesias- 


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MABBIAGE. 

tical  courts  to  mean  that  consanguinity  and 
afi^ity  were  impediments  to  marriage  as  far  as 
the  third  degree  of  civil  computation.  Under 
this  rule  a  man  might  not  marry  his  aunt  or  his 
niece  or  the  daughter  of  his  deceased  wife's 
sister,  but  might  marry  his  first  cousin.  Rela- 
tionship by  the  half  blood  was  put  on  the  same 
footing  as  that  by  the  full  blood,  and  illegitimate 
consan&;uinity  was  treated  as  equivalent  to  legiti- 
mate blood-relationship.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
illegitimate  or  natural  affinity  of  the  canon  law, 
which  was  affirmed  in  28  Henry  VIII.,  c.7,  is  held 
to  have  disappeared  from  English  law  with  the 
repeal  of  that  statute.  The  courts  regarded  mar- 
riages within  the  forbidden  degree  as  voidable 
rather  than  void,  but  such  marriages  were  de- 
clared void  by  Act  of  5  and  6  William  IV. 
(1835).  Repeated  efforts  to  legalize  marriage 
with  the  deceased  wife's  sister  have  thus  far 
failed  in  England,  although  in  all  the  British 
colonies  the  prohibitions  based  on  collateral  affin- 
ity have  been  removed. 

As  to  proof  of  marriage,  the  common  law  ad- 
mits any  evidence  of  matrimonial  consent.  Where 
a  formal  marriage,  religious  or  civil,  has  taken 
place,  it  is  presumed,  until  the  contrary  is  shown, 
that  the  parties  were  able  to  marry,  that  their 
consent  was  complete  and  free,  and  that  all 
necessary  forms  were  observed.  If  no  formal 
marriage  has  taken  place,  or  none  is  proved,  the 
fact  that  the  parties  have  lived  together  as  hus- 
band and  wife,  have  acknowledged  themselves,  or 
have  been  g«ierally  reputed,  to  be  husband  and 
wife,  raises  a  presumption  of  marriage.  This 
presumption,  however,  is  invalidated  if  it  can 
be  shown  that  the  relation  was  illicit  in  its 
origin. 

It  is  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  English  common 
law  that  it  gives  an  action  for  damages  for  breach 
of  contract  to  marry.    See  Breach. 

Foreign  Marriages.  The  question  whether  and 
under  what  conditions  a  court  of  law  will  recog- 
nize as  marriage  a  imion  established  in  another 
jurisdiction  is  a  question  of  conflict  of  laws 
(q.v.).  The  general  rule,  all  over  the  civilized 
world,  is  that  if  the  forms  required  where  the 
marriage  was  established  have  been  observed,  the 
marriage  will  be  recognized  as  formally  perfect 
everywhere.  The  capacity  of  parties  to  marry 
is  determined,  according  to  the  prevailing  Euro- 
pean theory,  by  the  law  of  their  domicile,  and 
the  English  courts  now  follow  this  rule.  In  some 
of  the  European  States,  however,  capacity  to 
marry  is  determined  by  the  law  of  the  country  of 
which  the  person  is  a  citizen  or  subject,  whether 
he  or  she  be  domiciled  there  or  elsewhere.  In 
the  United  States  the  courts  follow  the  older 
English  decisions,  according  to  which  the  capacity 
of  the  parties  to  marry,  as  well  as  the  sufficiency 
of  the  forms  obsen^ed,  is  determined  by  the  law 
of  the  State  in  which  the  marriage  takes  place: 
so  that  citizens  of  any  State  can  escape  the  re- 
strictions imposed  by  their  own  State  by  simply 
crossing  the  State  line. 

Statlttory  Rules  in  the  United  States. 
Lord  Hardwicke's  act  did  not  apply  to  the  colo- 
nies, and  never  became  a  part  of  the  common  law 
of  the  United  States.  In  nearly  all  of  the  United 
States,  however,  statutes  have  been  enacted  pro- 
viding for  a  ceremonial  marriage,  and  in  most 
cases  requiring  also  a  license  to  marry  granted 
by  the  properly  constituted  officer,  usually  the 
clerk  of  the  municipality  where  the  marriage 


92  HABBIAGE. 

is  solemnized  or  the  officer  having  supervision 
over  vital  statistics. 

The  marriage  ceremony  is  usually  required  to 
be  performed  in  the  presence  of  two  or  more 
witnesses,  by  a  priest  or  clergyman  of  some 
church,  or  by  certain  enumerated  civil  officers, 
such  as  judges  of  courts  of  record,  justices  of  the 
peace,  police  justices,  mayors,  aldermen  of 
cities,  and  county  clerks.  Various  penalties  are 
imposed  for  failure  to  comply  with  the  provisions 
of  the  statute,  and  in  some  States  intentional  vio- 
lation of  the  law  is  made  a  criminal  offense.  In 
most  States,  in  the  absence  of  a  positive  provision 
of  the  statute  that  marriages  not  complying  with 
the  requirements  of  the  statute  shall  be  void, 
the  statute  is  deemed  to  be  directory  only,  and 
not  in  any  manner  to  affect  the  validity  of  the  so- 
called  common-law  marriage.  This  is  substan- 
tially the  law  in  all  of  the  States,  except  Cali- 
fornia, Iflinois,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Maryland, 
Massachusetts,  North  Carolina,  Vermont,  Wash- 
ington, and  West  Virginia,  in  all  of  which  it  is 
held  that  the  common-law  marriage  has  been 
abolished  by  statute.  But  in  some  of  these 
States,  notably  Massachusetts,  Washington,  and 
West  Virginia,  there  are  validating  statutes  pro- 
viding that  mere  irregularities  when  an  attempt 
is  made  in  good  faith  to  comply  with  the  statute 
shall  not  affect  the  validity  of  the  marriage. 

A  statute  of  New  York,  passed  in  1901,  re- 
quires a  non-ceremonial  marriage  to  be  evidenced 
by  a  written  agreement  to  be  entered  into  in  the 
presence  of  two  witnesses  and  acknowledged  in 
the  same  manner  as  conveyances  of  real  estate. 
It  is  probable  that  this  statute  does  away  with 
common-law  marriage  in  New  York. 

In  many  of  the  United  States  the  age  at  which 
an  infant  may  consent  to  marry  has  been  raised 
by  statute  to  sixteen  and  in  some  of  the  States  to 
eighteen  years.  These  statutes  do  not,  however, 
change  the  common-law  rule  that  such  marriagpes 
are  not  void,  but  voidable  only  at  the  option  of 
the  infant  or  of  his  parent  or  guardian.  See 
Infant;  Parent  and  Child;  Morganatic  Mar- 
riage. In  Minnesota  epileptics  and  feeble-minded 
persons  are  not  allowed  to  marry,  and  several 
States  have  somewhat  similar  statutes. 

Bibliography.  On  the  history  of  marriage  as 
an  institution,  consult:  Westermarck,  The  His- 
tory of  Human  Marriage  (3d  ed.,  London,  1902)  ; 
Letourneau,  L*^volution  du  mariage  et  de  l€t 
famille  (Paris,  1888;  trans..  The  Evolution  of 
Marriage  and  of  the  Family,  New  York,  1891)  ; 
Howard,  A  History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions 
(Chicago  and  London,  1904)  ;  Bryce,  Marriage 
and  Divorce  (Oxford,  1905).  These  are  general 
works.  The  original  studies  which  have  developed 
the  scientific  theory  of  the  subject  are:  Mor^n, 
The  League  of  the  Iroquois  (Rochester,  1849; 
reprinted.  New  York,  1901),  the  first  work  to 
direct  scientific  attention  to  the  character  of 
marital  and  kinship  systems  among  uncivilized 
men;  id.,  Systems  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity 
of  the  Human  Family  (Washington,  1871)  ;  id.. 
Ancient  Society  (London  and  New  York,  1877)  ; 
Bachofen,  Das  Mutterrecht  (Stuttgart,  1861); 
Maine,  A.ncient  Law  (London,  1861)  ;  Early  Jjaxo 
and  Custom  (London,  1883;  New  York,  1886)  ; 
McLennan,  Primitive  Marriage  (London.  1865), 
reprinted  in  Studies  in  Ancient  Historif  (London, 
1876)  ;  The  Patriarchal  Theory  (London,  1885)  ; 
Studies  in  Ancient  History:  Second  Series  (Lon- 
don, 1896) ;  Galton,  Hereditary  Genius  (London, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XABBIAGE. 


93 


UABrBIOTT. 


1869),  containing  a  study  of  the  effects  of  close 
interbreeding;  Darwin,  The  Descent  of  Man 
(London  and  New  York,  1871);  Dargun,  Mutter- 
reeht  und  Raubehe  und  ihre  Keste  im  germa- 
nischen  Recht  und  Leben  ( Breslau,  1883)  ;  Smith, 
Kmahip  and  MarricLge  in  Early  Arabia  (London, 
1885) ;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  The  Native  Tribes 
of  Central  Australia  (London,  1899)  ;  Crawley, 
The  Mystic  Rose:  A  Study  of  Primitive  Marriage 
(London,  1902).  For  the  Roman  law,  Rossbach, 
Homische  Ehe  (Stuttgart,  1863)  ;  Karlowa,  Rd- 
wische  Ehe  und  Manus  (Bonn,  1868).  For  the 
old  Crerman  law,  Sohm,  Die  Eheschliessung 
(Weimar,  1875) ;  Trauung  und  Verlobung  (Wei- 
mar, 1876),  Zur  Trauungsfrage  (Heilbronn, 
1879) ;  Friedberg,  Verlobung  und  Trauung 
(Leipzig,  1876)  ;  the  works  on  German  legal 
history  by  Brunner  (Leipzig,  1892) ;  Schro- 
der (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1889)  ;  and  Heusler,  Insti- 
tutionen  des  deutschen  Privatrechts  (Leipzig, 
1886).  For  the  ecclesiastical  law.  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  Freisen,  Oeschichte  des  kanonischen 
Eherechts  (2d  ed.,  Paderborn,  1892)  ;  Binder, 
Katholisches  Eherecht  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg-im- 
Breisgau,  1891)  ;  Esmein,  Le  mariage  en  droit 
eanonique  (Paris,  1891) ;  Schnitzer,  Katholisches 
Eherecht  (Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  1898) ;  and 
works  on  Kirchenrecht  by  Friedberg  (4th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1S95)  ;  Schulte  (Giessen,  1886)  ;  and 
Richter  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1886).  For  English 
ecclesiastical  law.  Burn,  Ecclesiastical  Law  (9th 
ed.,  London,  1842)  ;  VhiWimore,  Ecclesiastical  Law 
of  the  Church  of  England  (2d  ed.,  London,  1895). 
For  modem  civil  marriage,  Gneist,  Die  burger- 
liche  Ehe^chliessung  (Berlin,  1869)  ;  Glasson, 
Mariage  civil  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1880).  Compara- 
tive legislation,  Lehr,  Le  mariaoe  dans  les  prin- 
cipaux  pays  ( Paris,  1899 ) .  See  also :  Howard,  His- 
tory of  Matrimonial  Institutions^  chiefly  in  Eng- 
land atid  the  J7m<ed£f/a<es(  3  vols.,  Chicago,  1904) ; 
Bryce,  Marriage  and  Divorce   (Oxford,  1905). 

Consult:  Domestic  Relations;  Husband  and 
Wife  ;  Parent  and  Chiu)  ;  Doweb  ;  Curtesy  ;  etc. 

KABBIAGE  JL  LA  MODE,  &  la  mdd.  A 
series  of  six  paintings  by  Hogarth  (1744)  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London,  intended  as  designs 
for  a  series  of  engravings,  as  which  they  are 
most  widely  known.  They  show  the  results  of 
t  fashionable  marriage  between  the  son  of  an 
earl  and  the  daughter  of  a  rich  London  alder- 
man, in  subjects  as  follow:  I.  The  Marriage 
Contract;  II.  After  the  Marriage  (see  illustra- 
tion under  Hogarth)  ;  III.  Visit  to  the  Quack 
Doctor;  IV.  The  Countess's  Dressing  Room;  V. 
The  Duel  and  Death  of  the  Earl ;  VI.  Death  of 
the  0>unte8s. 

If  ATIRX  tiu  WOMAN*.  A  woman  who  con- 
tracts a  marriage  thereby  changes  her  legal 
rtatns  as  to  her  personal  rights,  her  contractual 
rights,  her  property  rights,  her  rights  before  the 
criminal  law,  and  in  some  cases  her  political 
rights.  So  complete  is  this  change  at  the  com- 
n»n  law  that  she  has  been  spoken  of  as  becom- 
ing a  legal  nonentity.  Generally  speaking,  she  is 
after  marriage,  at  the  common  law,  in  a  less 
ftTorable  position  in  all  these  respects  than  be- 
fore, except  possibly  at  the  criminal  law,  where 
the  presumption  of  her  husband's  coercion  in  case 
of  criminal  acta  done  in  his  presence  makes  her 
irresponsible  for  such  acts,  except  in  case  of  the 
nwre  serious  crimes.  Her  personal  property  in 
possession  and  her  chattels  real,  generally  speak- 


ing, become  her  husband's  or  can  be  disposed  of 
by  him;  in  her  real  property  he  has  an  estate 
for  their  joint  lives,  and  may  have  an  estate 
during  his  own  life.  ( See  Curtesy.  )  Her  rights 
in  his  property  during  their  joint  lives  are  prac- 
tically limited  to  her  right  to  the  necessaries  of 
life,  and  the  control  over  his  real  property  that 
arises  from  her  dower  rights  which  enable  her  as 
a  matter  of  law  to  refuse  to  release  her  dower 
right.  (See  Dower.)  In  fact  this  right  is  of 
little  avail,  as  the  husband's  position  generally 
enables  him  practically  to  coerce  her  into  com- 
pliance with  his  wishes  in  this  respect. 

By  the  fact  of  her  marriage  she  loses  her  ca- 
pacity to  enter  into  any  contract  except  the  re- 
lease of  dower  (which  can  only  be  done  jointly 
with  the  husband)  and  for  the  necessaries  of  life, 
whether  living  with  her  husband  or  apart  from 
him,  except  as  concerns  her  separate  estate.  Her 
capacity  cannot  be  increased  by  any  act  or  repre- 
sentation of  her  own,  nor  can  any  implied  prom- 
ise be  raised  against  her,  nor  any  liability  be 
imposed  by  estoppel.  Even  for  torts  against  her 
person  she  is  forced  to  seek  damages  through  her 
nusband.  The  hardship  of  these  disabilities  of 
the  common  law,  and  of  the  merger  of  the  wife's 
property  in  the  husband's  estate,  caused  the 
courts  of  equity  to  give  certain  equitable  reme- 
dies against  the  husband  in  order  to  protect  her 
and  her  children  in  the  enjoyment  of  at  least  a 
portion  of  her  property,  and  to  neglect  some  of 
the  legal  formalities  in  giving  effect  to  agree- 
ments to  create  a  separate  estate  for  the  wife, 
and  to  protect  her  by-  establishing  the  doctrine 
that  the  use  of  the  separate  estate  must  be  for 
its  use  or  her  benefit,  and  that  its  income  could 
not  be  anticipated. 

Modem  legislation  has,  however,  largely  re- 
moved these  disabilities.  There  is  a  mass  of 
heterogeneous  legislation,  so  local  and  various  in 
its  provisions  as  not  to  admit  of  any  except  the 
most  general  classification.  The  first  tendency 
of  this  legislation  was  to  free  the  wife  and  her 
property  from  the  husband's  control;  but  there 
has  been  in  the  United  States  a  subsequent  tend- 
ency to  impose  upon  them  a  joint  liability  for 
sucn  obligations  as  naturally  arise  from  the 
marriage  relation.  In  most  of  the  States  the 
wife  is  practically  free  from  common  law  disa- 
bilities. In  England,  the  legislation  on  this  sub- 
ject has,  of  course,  had  more  unity  than  that  of 
the  various  States  of  this  country,  but  it  is  not 
based  upon  any  general  and  definite  plan.  The 
disabilities  of  the  wife  have  not  been  removed  to 
such  an  extent  as  generally  in  the  United  States. 
The  subject  is  practically  governed  in  England 
by  the  Married  Women's  Property  Act  of  1882 
(45  and  46  Vict.,  c.  75),  as  supplemented  by  the 
law  of  1893  (6Q  and  67  Vict,  c.  63).  See  Ca- 
pacity; Curtesy;  Husband  and  Wife;  Dower; 
Separate  Estate;  etc.  Consult  the  local  stat- 
utes for  special  matters,  and  also  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  Husband  and  Wiee. 

MARRIOTT,  John  (1780-1825).  An  Eng- 
lish  poet.  He  was  the  son  of  Robert  Marriott, 
rector  of  Cotesbach  Church  in  T^icestershire,  and 
was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford  (B.A.  1802;  M.A.  1806).  He  left  Oxford 
in  1804  to  become  tutor  to  GJeor^e  Henrv-,  Lord 
Scott  (d.  1808),  elder  brother  of  the  fifth  Duke 
of  Buccleuch.  While  livincr  at  Dalkeith  (1804- 
08)  he  made  the  intimate  acquaintance  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.     Ordained  priest  in  1805,  he  re- 


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MABBIOTT. 

ceived*  from  the  Buccleuch  family  the  rectory  of 
Church  Lawford  in  Warwickshire.  Though  he 
retained  this  benefice  till  his  death,  he  resided 
mostly  in  Devonshire,  serving  in  various  curacies. 
To  the  third  edition  of  Scott's  Minstrelsy  he  con- 
tributed three  poems.  Marriott's  best  known 
poem  is  '^Marriage  is  Like  a  Devonshire  Lane" 
(in  Joanna  Baillie's  CoUection  of  Poems,  1823). 
He  also  wrote  several  popular  hymns,  as  **Thou 
whose  Almighty  Word/* 

MABBOW  (AS.  mearg,  mearh,  OHG.  mwrag, 
marg,  Ger.  Mark;  connected  with  Welsh  mer, 
Com.  maru,  OChurch  Slav.  tnozgH,  Av.  mazga, 
Skt.  majjan,  marrow,  from  majj,  Lat.  mergere, 
to  dip).  A  substance  filling  the  cells  and  cavi- 
ties of  the  bones  of  mammals.  There  are  two  varie- 
ties, which  are  known  as  red  marrow  and  yellow 
marrow.  In  some  of  the  short  bones,  as  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebrae  and  the  sternum,  the  mar- 
row has  a  reddish  color,  and  is  found  on  analysis 
to  contain  75  per  cent,  of  water,  the  remainder 
consisting  of  albuminous  and  fibrinous  matter 
with  salts  and  a  trace  of  oil.  In  the  long  bones 
of  a  healthy  adult  mammal,  the  marrow  occurs  as 
a  yellow,  oily  fiuid,  contained  in  vesicles  like 
those  of  common  fat,  which  are  imbedded  in  the 
interspaces  of  the  medullary  membrane,  which  is 
a  highly  vascular  membrane  lining  the  interior 
of  the  bones.  This  marrow  consists  of  96  per 
cent,  of  oil  and  4  of  water  connective  tissue,  and 
vessels.  The  oily  matter  of  the  marrow  is  com- 
posed of  the  same  materials  as  common  fat,  with 
the  oleine  (or  fluid  portion)  in  ^eater  abund- 
ance. Beinff  of  low  specific  gravity,  it  is  well 
suited  to  fill  the  cavities  of  the  bones  and  forms 
an  advantageous  substitute  for  the  bony  matter 
which  preceded  it  in  the  young  animal.  Prepara- 
tions of  red  bone-marrow  are  in  the  market,  for 
internal  administration.  They  are  useful  in 
ansemia,  with  other  reconstructives. 

MABBOW  CONTBOVEBSY.  One  of  the 
memorable  struggles  in  the  religious  historv  of 
Scotland.  It  took  its  name  from  a  book  entitled 
the  Marrow  of  Modem  Divinity,  published  at  Ox- 
ford in  1646.  The  authorship  of  the  book  has  been 
attributed,  though  probably  incorrectly,  to  Edward 
Fisher.  The  high  *evangelicar  character  of  this 
work,  and  especially  its  doctrine  of  the  free  grace 
of  Ood  in  the  redemption  of  sinners,  had  made  it 
a  great  favorite  with  certain  of  the  ministers  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  in  1718  an  edition 
was  published  in  Edinburgh  by  the  Rev.  James 
Hog  of  Camock,  followed  in  1719  by  an  explana- 
tory pamphlet.  A  committee  appointed  by  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  same  year,  after  an  ex- 
amination, drew  up  a  report  which  was  presented 
to  the  Assembly  of  1720,  and  the  result  was  the 
formal  condemnation  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
M arrow f  a  prohibition  to  teach  or  preach  them 
for  the  future,  and  an  exhortation  to  the  people 
of  Scotland  not  to  read  them.  This  act  of  the 
Assembly  was  immediately  brought  by  Thomas 
Boston  before  the  Presbytery  of  Selkirk,  who 
laid  it  before  the  Synod  of  Merse  and  Teviotdale. 
The  'evangelical'  ministers  in  the  Church,  few  in 
number,  but  supported  by  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  popular  sympathy,  resolved  to  pre- 
sent a  representation  to  the  next  General  Assem- 
bly (1721),  complaining  of  the  late  act,  and  vin- 
dictating  the  'truths'  which  it  condemned.  A 
commission  of  the  Assembly  of  1721  was  ap- 
pointed to  deal  with  the  ministers,  and  a  series 
of  questions  was  put  to  them,  to  which  answers 


94  ICABBYAT. 

were  drawn  up  by  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  Gabriel 
Wilscm.  These  replies  did  not  prove  satisfactory; 
and  the  *Marrow-men'  were  called  before  the  bar 
of  the  Assembly  (1722)  and  solemnly  rebuked. 
The  matter  was  then  quietly  dropped,  but  it 
really  occasioned  the  secession  of  1734.  See  Bos- 
ton, Thomas,  and  Ebskine,  Ebenezeb. 

MAB'BXJCI'NI.  An  ancient  peoole  in  Cen- 
tral Italy,  on  a  narrow  tract  of  land  along  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Atemus,  now  the  Pescara. 
Their  territory  extended  from  the  Apennines  to 
the  Adriatic;  between  the  Vestini  on  the  north- 
west and  the  Frentani  on  the  southeast,  and  be- 
tween the  Pseligni  on  the  southwest  and  the  Adri- 
atic on  the  northeast.  They  were  an  independent 
nation,  said  to  be  descended  from  the  Sabines, 
and  generally  were  in  alliance  with  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Marsi  and  Pseligni.  They  entered  into 
alliance  with  the  Romans  in  B.C.  304,  but  rebelled 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Social  War.  Their  only 
place  of  importance  was  Teate,  now  (Thieti,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Aternus. 

MABBYAT,  mfir'ri-fit,  Flohsnge  (1837-09). 
An  English  autiioress,  daughter  of  Captain  Mar- 
ryat.  She  was  bom  at  Brighton,  July  9, 1837,  edu- 
cated at  home,  and  began  writing  at  twelve.  She 
was  twice  married,  first  to  Col.  Ross  Church,  of 
the  Madras  Staff  Corps,  and  second  to  Col.  Francis 
Lean,  of  the  Royal  Light  Infantry.  She  died  in 
London,  October  27,  1899.  As  a  writer  she  first 
ffained  public  attention  by  Love'a  Conflict  ( 1865) . 
Miss  Marryat  was  also  known  as  a  lecturer,  an 
operatic  singer,  and  a  comedienne.  In  collabora- 
tion with  Sir  C.  L.  Young  she  wrote  Miss  Chester^ 
a  three-act  drama,  and  in  1881  she  acted  the 
principal  comedy  rOle  in  her  own  play.  Her 
World.  Among  her  works,  which  number  over 
seventy,  are:  My  Own  Child;  My  Sister  the 
Actress;  **€hup,**  Sketches  of  Anglo-Indian  Life 
and  Character;  Petronel;  The  Qirls  of  Fever- 
sham  ;  Nelly  Brooke  ;  No  Intentions  ;  SyhiVs  Friend 
and  How  She  Found  Him;  Mad  Dumaresq;  Open 
Sesame;  Her  Word  Against  a  Lie;  Facing  the 
Footlights;  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Captain 
Marryat.  In  her  later  years  she  had  an  interest 
in  spiritualism,  and  among  her  writings  dealing 
with  this  subject  are  The  Risen  Dead  and  There 
Is  No  Death. 

MABBYAT,  Fbedebick  (1792-1848).  An 
English  sailor  and  novelist,  bom  in  London,  July 
10,  1792.  On  leaving  school  he  entered  the  navy 
as  midshipman.  In  1812  he  attained  his  lieu- 
tenancy. In  1814  he  was  fighting  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast.  His  health  gave  way  and  he  went 
home.  He  was  made  commander  in  1815.  In 
1820  he  was  in  the  sloop  Beaver  on  the  Saint 
Helena  station.  After  an  able  service  he  re- 
signed in  1830.  During  his  naval  career  Marryat 
saved  at  great  personal  risk  more  than  a  dozen 
lives.  He  was  rewarded  on  this  score  and  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1819,  mainly 
because  he  had  adapted  Popham's  signal  system 
to  the  mercantile  marine.  He  was  also*  decorated 
by  the  King  of  France  for  "services  rendered  to 
science  and  navigation."  Marryat  wrote  easily 
and  made  money  quickly,  but  he  was  somewhat 
lavish,  and  toward  1844, was  in  straitened  cir- 
cumstances. Upon  the  Admiralty's  refusal  to  let 
him  reenter  the  service  he  burst  a  blood  veaael, 
and  six  months  later,  when  almost  well,  he  was 
mortally  shocked  by  hearing  that  his  son  Freder- 
ick had  been  lost  in  the  Avenger.    He  died  An- 


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HABa 


*  fl,  JLS48y  at  Langham.  Among  his  numerous 
tales  are  the  avow^ly  autobiographical  Frank 
Mildmay  (1829);  then  Peter  Simple  (1834); 
Mr,  Midshipman  Easy  (1836);  The  Phantom 
Bhip  (1839) ;  Poor  Jack  (1840) ;  and  The  Priva- 
ieer*8  Man  (1846).  In  fun  and  humor  Marryat 
is  the  Dickens  of  the  sea.  Consult:  Life  and 
Letters,  by  his  daughter,  Florence  Marryat  (Lon- 
don, 1872) ;  and  Life,  by  Hannay  (ib.,  1889). 

MABS  (Lat.,  also  Mavors,  or  Marspiter,  like 
Jupiter,  6k  *Afnis,  ArSs,  of  unknown  derivation). 
With  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  the  god 
of  war  and  tumult  of  battle.  The  Qreek  and 
Roman  conceptions  differ  radically. 

Greek.  Ares,  though  prominent  in  the  poets, 
plays  no  large  part  in  Greek  cult  or  myth.  It  is  true 
that  a  somewhat  long  list  can  be  compiled  of  tem- 
ples of  the  god,  but  he  did  not  fill  a  large  place,  in 
religious  thought,  and  at  but  few  localities  was 
his  worship  important.  At  Thebes  and  Athens 
he  seems  to  have  been  more  prominent  than  in 
most  communities.  At  Thebes  he  was  said  to 
have  been  father  of  the  dragon  who  guarded  his 
sacred  spring  and  was  slain  by  Cadmus,  who  in 
the  final  reconciliation  wedded  Harmonia,  daugh- 
ter of  Ares  and  Aphrodite,  who  here,  as  often  in 
Greek  legend,  appears  as  his  recognized  consort. 
The  connection  of  Aphrodite  with  Hephaestus,  and 
her  adultery  with  Ares,  though  told  in  the 
Odyssey,  was  not  everywhere  canonical,  and 
seems  to  have  received  its  chief  prominence  at  a 
late  period.  At  Athens  there  was  a  celebrated 
temple  with  a  statue  by  Alcamenes,  and  a  legend 
which  connected  him  with  the  founding  of  the  court 
of  the  Areopagus  (or  Mars'  Hill) .  He  was  said  to 
have  killed  a  son  of  Poseidon  for  an  outrage  on 
his  daughter,  and  to  have  been  tried  by  the 
twelve  gods  and  acquitted  on  the  hill,  which 
henceforth  bore  his  name.  Cults  in  Thessaly 
and  at  Argos,  Tegea,  and  Sparta  are  also  men- 
tioned. In  legend  Ares  is  commonly  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  Hera,  whose  quarrelsome  disposition 
he  inherits.  His  sister  in  Homer  is  Eris,  his 
sons  Deimos  (Terror)  and  Phohos  (Fright),  who 
so  with  him  into  battle.  He  is  always  greedy 
for  war,  battle,  and  bloodshed.  The  tumult  of 
battle  is  his  delight,  and  in  later  poets,  as 
Sophocles,  he  appears  as  the  sender  of  pesti- 
lence and  destruction.  He  was  certainly  associ- 
ated in  the  minds  of  the  Greeks  with  Thrace,  and 
there  is  much  probability  in  the  view  that  his 
worship  was  derived  from  Thracian  tribes  or 
their  kindred.  In  the  earlier  art,  especially  on 
vases.  Ares  is  often  bearded  and  regularly  in  the 
full  armor  of  a  Greek  soldier.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury and  later  this  equipment  disappears,  and 
the  god  is  often  represented  clad  in  the  chlamys 
or  nude,  though  usually  with  his  attributes  of 
shield  and  spear.  Amons  the  most  celebrated 
statues  are  the  standing  "Ares  Borghese"  ( some- 
times called  Achilles)  in  the  Louvre,  which  goes 
back  to  a  fifth-century  work,  and  the  seated 
"Ares  Ludovisi"  in  Rome,  which  seems  to  be 
copied  from  a  statue  of  Scopas,  though  the  Erotes 
are  probably  the  addition  of  the  Hellenistic 
copyist. 

Roman.  Mars  was  an  ancient  Italian  deity  and 
seems  everywhere  to  have  been  the  god  of  war. 
At  Rome  his  worship  is  among  the  most  ancient 
and  important.  His  temple  and  oldest  altar 
stood  in  the  Campus  Martins,  and  another  fa- 
mous temple  just  outside  the  Porta  Capena  on  the 
south  of  the  city.    At  each  lustrum  at  the  close 


of  the  census,  when  the  com^tia  oenturiata,  or 
Roman  citizens  as  an  arm^,  gathered  in  the 
Campus  Martins,  the  gathermg  was  purified  by 
leading  around  it  the  souvetaurilia  (boar,  ram, 
and  bull),  an  offering  sacred  to  Mars,  which  was 
afterwards  sacrificed,  and*  similar  ceremonies  are 
found  in  connection  with  other  purifications  as 
of  the  city,  villages,  and  even  single  farms.  The 
sacred  emblems  of  Mars  were  the  spear  and 
shield,  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  which 
were  preserved  in  the  Re^a,  and  carried  by  the 
Salii,  priests  of  the  god,  m  their  festivals.  The 
chief  festivals  of  Mars  were  in  the  months  of 
March  (Martins,  from  the  god)  and  October, 
which  are  clearly  connected  with  the  opening 
and  close  of  the  campaigning  season. 

MABS.  The  first  of  the  superior  planets.  Its 
mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  141.4  million  miles 
or  nearly  )  times  that  of  the  earth ;  its  periodic 
time,  686.9  days;  its  diameter,  4230  miles;  vol- 
ume ^7^  that  of  the  earth;  density,  0.71,  earth's 
being  unity.  When  it  is  nearest  to  the  earth 
(i.e.  in  favorable  opposition)  its  apparent  angu- 
lar diameter  is  25",  but  when  farthest  away  (i.e. 
in  conjunction)  its  diameter  is  not  more  tlum 
4".  The  axis  of  rotation  is  inclined  24*  60'  to 
the  plane  of  the  orbit  and  therefore  the  planet 
presents  phenomena  of  seasons  similar  to  the 
earth's.  The  diurnal  rotation  period  of  Mars 
is  known  very  accurately  from  observations  of 
surface  markings  to  be  24  hours  37  minutes  22.67 
seconds.  The  planet  shines  with  a  red  light  and 
is  a  brilliant  object  in  the  heavens  at  midnight 
when  near  opposition.  Mars  has  two  satellites, 
discovered  by  Hall  in  1877.  They  are  very  small, 
and  visible  with  powerful  telescopes  only.  The 
inner  satellite,  Phobos,  revolves  around  the  planet 
in  7  hours  39  minutes,  which  is  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  Martian  day.  Consequently,  Phobos 
will  rise  in  the  west  and  set  in  the  east,  ite  real 
motion  more  than  counterbalancing  the  apparent 
diurnal  motion  of  Mars  on  ite  axis.  The  outer 
satellite  is  called  Deimos. 

Beginning  with  the  telescopic  researches  by 
Sir  William  Herschel,  Mars  has  possessed  special 
interest  owing  to  the  indication  of  the  existence 
upon  its  surface  of  physical  conditions  not  unlike 
those  of  the  earth.  The  Martian  seasons  have 
already  been  mentioned.  The  'canal  system*  of 
Mars,   suggested  by   SchiaparelU   in    1877,  has 

§iven  rise  te  a  careful  study  of  the  planet,  ren- 
ered  possible  by  the  construction  of  our  great 
modem  telescopes.  Many  things  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  Mars  is  enveloped  in  an  atmosphere 
with  physical  properties  similar  to  those  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere.  According  to  observations 
by  Lowell,  at  Flagstaff,  Ariz.,  carried  on  for 
six  months,  this  atmosphere  would  appear  to 
be  of  remarkable  clearness.  Two  white  patehes, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  poles,  are  very  con- 
spicuous and  so  brilliant  that  they,  in  the  proper 
light  of  the  sun,  have  been  seen  sparkling  like 
stars.  They  are  generally  explained  as  accumu- 
lations of  snow  and  ice,  and  this  view  is  sup- 
ported by  the  fact  that  they  change  with  the  Mar- 
tian seasons. 

A  mixture  of  orange  patches  and  gray-green 
markings  is  seen  extending  over  more  than  half 
the  surface  of  the  planet  in  a  central  zone,  al- 
most parallel  to  the  equator.  The  orange  patches 
are  assumed  to  be  land.  This  assumption  is 
based  upon  the  similar  appearance  that  the  great 
deserts  of  the  earth  would  present  under  the 


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same  conditions.  Also  permanent  markings  on 
these  patches  have  been  observed.  The  gray- 
green  markings  were  at  first  explained  to  be  seas 
and  Sir  William  Uugeins  discovered  water  in  the 
atmosphere  of  MarsTbut  the  recent  observations 
of  Douglass  in  Arizona  (1894)  and  Barnard  at 
the  Lick  Observatory  (1896)  seem  to  disprove 
the  aqueous  character  of  the  *seas.'  In  1894 
Lowell  and  Pickering  discovered,  a  month  after 
the  Martian  vernal  equinox,  a  dark  belt  con- 
nected with  the  south  polar  cap,  which  was  ex- 
plained by  them  as  a  gathering  of  water  resulting 
from  the  melting  of  the  cap  by  the  summer  heat. 
A  similar  appearance  has  been  observed  around 
the  north  polar  cap. 

Of  all  the  markings  that  have  been  observed  on 
the  surface  of  Mars^  the  *canals*  have  created  the 
most  interest.  Since  their  first  observation  at 
the  very  favorable  opposition  of  the  planet  in 
1877,  they  have  been  studied  carefully  at  later 
favorable  oppositions.  They  have  been  described 
by  observers  as  faint  lines,  becoming  finer  and 
straighter  at  closer  observation,  fofiowing  the 
course  of  great  circles,  and  distributed  like 
a  network  over  the  surface  of  the  planet.  Several 
appear  to  pass  through  the  same  point,  at  which 
round  spots,  called  iakes,*  are  seen.  Various 
theories  have  been  advanced  for  the  explanation 
of  this  "canal  system."  They  were  first  taken  to 
be  waterways,  and  the  change  in  their  appearance 
was  explained  as  due  to  the  Martian  seasons. 
Pickering  considered  them  to  be  tracts  of  land 
rather  than  waterways.  Lowell  advanced  the 
view  that  these  "canals"  and  "lakes"  constituted 
a  system  of  irrigation,  carried  out  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Mars  for  the  purpose  of  leading  the  water 
obtained  from  the  melting  snow  of  the  polar 
regions  over  the  surface  of  the  planet.  It  has  been 
urged  that  the  appearance  of  the  canal  system 
may  be  nothing  but  an  optical  illusion,  but  Lowell 
in  1905  obtained  photographs  which  seem  to  settle 
decisively  the  Question  of  the  reality  of  the  canals. 
Consult:*  Lowell,  Mara  and  Its  Canals  (New  York, 
1906).    See  Planets;  Solab  System. 

MABS,  PoBUM  OF.  A  name  for  the  Forum  of 
Augustus  (q.v.). 

MABSy  mftrs,  Anne  FBANgoiSE  Htppoltte 
BouTET,  Mademoiselle  (1779-1847).  A  famous 
French  actress.  She  was  bom  in  Paris.  Her 
father  was  the  actor  Jacques  Monvel ;  her  mother 
was  an  actress,  Mile.  Mars-Boutet.  At  an  early 
age  she  appeared  at  the  Com^mie  Francaise  in 
personations  of  ingenuous  childhood,  but  it  was 
not  till  she  had  reached  her  twenty-fourth  year 
that  her  first  great  success  was  obtained  in  VdbhS 
de  V^p^e,  in  the  part  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  girl. 
From  that  time  forward,  through  a  period  of 
nearly  forty  years,  she  acted  through  the  whole 
range  of  dramatic  art  with  a  fullness  of  talent 
that  never  failed  to  present  with  delicacy,  power, 
and  good  taste  each  new  character  in  which  she 
appeared.  Her  last  appearance  was  in  1841  as 
C^limftne  in  Le  misanthrope  and  as  Araminther 
in  Les  femmes  savant es^  She  died  in  Paris, 
on  March  20,  1847.  Consult,  though  they  are  of 
doubtful  value,  the  Mimoires  de  Mademoiselle 
Mars  (Paris,  1849),  and  the  Confidences  de 
Mademoiselle  Mars  (ib.,  1855),  published  by 
Roger  de  Beauvoir. 

MABSAIiA,  mttr-salft.  A  city  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Trapani,  Sicily,  famous  for  Marsala  wine 
that  is  manufactured  here  by  building  up  and 


strengthening  the  wines  of  Sicily  (Map:  Italy^ 
G  10).  Marsala  is  the  w^estemmost  city  of  the 
island  and  is  102  miles  by  rail  southwest  of 
Palermo.  It  is  modern  in  appearance  and  the 
cathedral  is  the  only  building  of  special  interest. 
Marsala  has  a  gynmasium,  a  technical  school, 
an  agricultural  school,  a  city  library,  and  a 
theatre.  The  exports  are  wine,  salt,  grain,  and 
oiL  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  40,342;  in 
1901,  57,567.  It  is  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Lilybseum. 

MABSBANKEB^  MABSHBANKEB,  etc. 
(Dutch  marshanker,  scad,  apparently  from  mars, 
peddler's  pack,  or  mas,  crowd  +  hank,  bank;  so 
called  because  the  fish  appears  in  shoals).  Old 
or  local  names  of  the  menhaden  (q.v.).    Compare 

MOSSBUNKEB. 

MABSCHALL  VOK  B  lEBEBrSTEIM*, 

mdr'sh&l  f6n  be'bgr-stin,  Adolf,  Freiherr  von 
(1842 — ).  A  German  statesman  and  diplomat, 
bom  in  Karlsruhe,  and  educated  at  Heidelber;g^ 
and  Freiburg.  He  entered  the  judicial  service 
of  Baden,  and  from  1875  to  1883  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Upper  House  of  its  Parliament. 
In  the  Imperial  Diet,  from  1878  to  1881,  he 
allied  himself  with  the  Grerman  Conserva- 
tives. In  Baden  he  made  a  strong  effort  to 
unify  Protestant  opposition  to  the  Ultramonta- 
nists ;  and  his  activity  in  the  Empire  was  largely 
in  paving  the  way  for  social  reforms.  After 
four  years  as  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, an  office  in  which  he  devoted  himself  espe- 
cially to  commercial  treaties,  he  was  named 
Prussian  Minister  of  State  in  1894.  Upon  his 
retirement  in  1897  he  was  sent  as  Ambassador 
to  Constantinople. 

MABSCHNEB,  mftrsh^nSr,  Heinbich  (1795- 
1861).  A  German  composer,  bom  at  Zittau,  in 
Saxony.  In  1813  he  entered  the  University  of 
Leipzig  to  study  law,  but  soon  abandoned  it  in 
favor  of  music.  He  met  Beethoven  in  1817,  through 
the  medium  of  his  patron,  the  Count  von  Amad^, 
and  in  1823  shared  with  Weber  the  directorship 
of  the  German  and  Italian  operas  at  Dresden. 
He  succeeded  Weber  as  kapellmeister  of  the  Leip- 
zig Theater,  and  produced  on  its  stage  his  popu- 
lar opera  Der  Templer  und  die  Jiidin  (1829), 
which  made  him  famous  throughout  Germany. 
Heinrich  IV,  und  D'Auhigne  had  appeared  in  1819 
(produced  by  Weber  in  1820),  and  Der  Vampyr 
( regarded  as  his  best  work )  in  1828.  His  composi- 
tions also  include  a  great  number  of  songs, 
pianoforte  pieces,  part  songs,  and  choruses,  and 
considerable  chamber  music.  Other  operas,  not 
mentioned  above,  are:  Hans  Eeiling  (1833),  a 
remarkable  work;  Der  Babu  (1837)  ;  Adolph  von 
Nassau  ( 1843) ;  Hjame  der  Mngerkonig  ( 1863) , 
reproduced  in  1883  as  Konig  Hjame  und  das 
Tyrfingschwert,  He  was  kapellmeister  to  the 
King  of  Hanover  (1831-59).  His  music  belongs 
to  the  romantic  school  of  Weber,  whom  he  great- 
ly resembled  in  style,  although  in  a  way  his 
ideals  leaned  toward  the  style  of  Wagner.  His 
operas  had  a  great  vogue  in  Germany,  and  still 
remain  in  the  repertoire  of  most  of  the  pro- 
vincial theatres.    He  died  in  Hanover. 

UABSDEN,  m^rz^den,  Samuel  (1764*1838). 
An  English  missionary.  He  was  bom  at  Hors- 
forth,  near  Leeds,  July  28,  1764;  educated  at  the 
free  grammar  school  at  Hull,  and  began  life  as  a 
tradesman  at  Leeds.  He  joined  the  Methodists, 
but,  desiring  to  obtain  a  collegiate  education. 


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MABSDEN. 


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MABSEILI1E& 


entered  the  English  Church;  studied  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  ordained  ii^ 
1793,  and  in  1794  sailed  as  chaplain  to  the  penal 
colony  at  Paramatta,  near  Sydney,  Australia. 
Beceiving  a  grant  of  land  and  13  convicts  to  till 
it  as  part  payment  for  his  services,  he  made  it 
the  model  farm  in  New  South  Wales,  and  devoted 
the  profits  from  it  to  the  support  of  schools  and 
missions.  A  mutinous  spirit  showing  itself 
among  the  convicts,  Marsden  sailed  for  England 
( 1807 ) ,  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  per- 
mission for  the  friends  of  tne  convicts  to  accom- 
pany them  to  the  penal  colony.  This  was  re- 
fused, but  his  proposal  that  the  convicts  should 
be  taught  trades  was  well  received.  Having  had 
some  intercourse  with  the  Maoris  of  New  Zea- 
land, and  found  them  to  be  superior  to  the  Aus- 
tralian natives,  he  endeavored,  while  in  England, 
to  obtain  funds  for  the  formation  of  a  mis- 
sion among  them,  and  missionaries  to  accompany 
him.  Two  laymen,  William  Hall  and  John  King, 
oonsented  to  go  as  pioneers,  and  accompanied 
Marsden  to  Australia,  August,  1809.  They  were 
soon  followed  by  Thomas  Kendall.  He  employed 
these  teachers  in  laying  the  foundations  of  a 
Christian  civilization,  frequently  visited  them, 
and  in  hb  fourth  visit  took  with  him  the  Rev. 
Henry  Williams,  who  afterwards  became  bishop 
of  a  Maori  district.  He  procured  reinforcements 
for  the  mission  from  the  English  and  Wesleyan 
churches,  induced  the  natives  to  adopt  a  fixed 
form  of  government,  provided  for  the  preparation 
of  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Maori  lan- 
guage, and  lived  to  see  the  people  Christianize^. 
He  died  at  Windsor,  May  12,  1838.  Consult  his 
Life  by  J.  B.  Marsden  (London,  1859). 

MABSDEK,  William  (1754-1836).  An  Eng- 
lish Orientalist,  bom  in  Dublin.  In  1770  he  was 
appointed  to  the  civil  service  of  the  East  India 
Ownpany  at  Bencoolen,  Sumatra,  became  secre- 
tary to  the  Government,  and  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  Malay  language.  Returning 
to  England  in  1779  with  a  pension,  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature,  and  published  a  History  of 
Sumatra  (1783).  In  1807  he  retired  to  private 
life  and  study,  in  1812  published  his  Orammar 
ond  Dictionary  of  the  Malay  Language,  and  in 
1817  a  translation  of  Marco  Polo.  In  1834  he 
presented  to  the  British  Museum  his  collection  of 
3447  Oriental  coins,  and  in  1835  his  library  of 
Oriental  books  and  manuscripts  to  King's  CJol- 
lege.  He  published  also  A  Orammar  of  the 
Malayan  Language  (1812)  and  Numiamata 
Orientalia   (1823). 

KASSETLLAISE,  mftr's&'y&z'.  The  hymn 
of  the  French  Revolution  and  anthem  of  freedom 
in  all  European  movements  of  liberation  since. 
In  April,  1792,  when  a  column  of  volunteers  was 
about  to  leave  Strassburg,  the  Mayor  of  the  city, 
Biedrich,  gave  a  banquet  on  the  occasion  and 
asked  an  officer  of  artillery  named  Rouget  de 
Lisle  to  compose  a  song  in  their  honor.  Rouget 
wrote  the  words  during  the  night,  adapting  the 
mnsic  probably  from  the  Oratorio  Esther,  by 
Jean  ^ptiste  Lucien  Orison,  and  calling  it  the 
Chant  de  guerre  de  I'armSe  du  Rhin.  On  the 
following  day  it  was  sung  with  rapturous  en- 
thusiasm, and  instead  of  600  volunteers,  1000 
inarched  out  of  Strassburg.  The  whole  Army  of 
the  North  soon  took  up  the  song.  In  Paris  the 
*ong  was  unknown  till  the  Marseilles  battalion 
bv'tra^t  it  to  the  city  and  sang  it  at  the  storming 
^  the  Taileries.      It  was  received  with  trans- 


ports by  the  Parisians,  who — ignorant  of  its 
real  authorship — named  it  Hymne  dea  Ma/raeiU 
lais,  which  name  it  has  ever  since  borne.  The 
last  and  most  pathetic  strophe,  the  stance  dea 
enfants,  was  no£  written  by  Kouget  de  Lisle,  but 
was  added  later. 

The  following  is  the  first  stanza,  with  refrain, 
approved  in  1887  by  a  commission  appointed  by 
the  French  Minister  of  War  to  determine  the 
exact  form  of  the  song: 

Aliens  enfants  de  la  patrie, 

Le  Jour  de  orloire  est  arrlvfi  I 
Centre  nous  de  la  tyrannie 

L'6tendard  sanglant  est  lev6  (bis) 
Entendez-vous  dans  ces  campagnes 

Mu^r  ces  f^roces  soldats? 
Ils^ennent  Jusque  dans  nos  bras 

Egorger  nos  flls,  nos  cempagnee. 

See  Rouget  de  Lisle. 

MABSEILLEy  mftr'si'y',  Folquet  de.       See 

FOLQUET  DE  MaBSEILLE. 

MABSEHiLES,  m&r-salz"  (Fr.  MAR- 
SEILLE, mar'sft'y').  The  principal  seaport  of 
France,  the  second  city  of  the  Republic  in  point 
of  population;  capital  of  the  Department  of 
Bouches-du-Rh6ne,  and  an  important  military 
and  naval  station.  It  is  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  25  miles  east  of  the 
principal  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  and  516  miles  by 
rail  southeast  of  Paris;  latitude  43°  17'  N.,  longi- 
tude 5  o  23'  E.  ( Map :  France,  S.,.K  6 ) .  Its  location 
is  picturesque,  the  ground  rising  on  all  sides  in  an 
amphitheatre  of  wood-crowned  hills  1200  to  1800 
feet  high,  which  terminate  in  a  steep  promontory 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  city.  The  immediate 
surroundings  were  formerly  arid,  but  since  the 
completion  of  the  canal  bringing  the  waters  of 
the  Durance  to  the  city  the  adjoining  district  has 
been  irrigated  and  is  now  covered  with  gardens. 

Few  European  cities  have  shown  such  rapid 
modem  development.  A  century  ago  the  town 
was  a  cluster  of  narrow,  crooked  streets  grouped 
around  the  cove  which  formed  the  old  harbor. 
Several  large  avenues  now  traverse  this  old  por- 
tion, while  practically  the  whole  city  is  laid  out 
with  broad  and  straight  streets,  and  generally 
presents  a  modern  aspect.  The  city  is  dominated 
Dv  the  hill  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Garde,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  480  feet  on  the  southwest,  be- 
tween the  town  and  the  shore.  This  hill  is  en- 
circled on  the  water  side  by  a  picturesque  road, 
the  Chemin  de  la  Corniche,  which  leads  south- 
ward along  the  shore  of  the  gulf.  There  is 
a  citadel  on  a  promontory  guarding  the  nar- 
row entrance  to  the  old  harbor,  which  as  a 
land-locked  cove  reaches  into  the  heart  of  the 
city.  The  harbor  is  also  defended  by  the  forti- 
fied islands  of  Ratonneau  and  Pom^gue,  and  the 
Chateau  d'lf,  the  latter  a  former  State  prison 
immortalized  by  Dumas  in  his  Monte  Cristo. 
Two  principal  avenues  crossing  at  right  angles 
divide  the  city  into  four  quarters.  One  is  the 
Rue  Gannehi^e,  the  principal  business  street, 
which  begins  at  the  head  of  the  old  harbor,  and 
is  continued  eastward  as  the  Boulevard  Made- 
leine, The  other,  running  north  and  south,  is  the 
Rue  de  Rome,  which  terminates  at  the  obelisk  in 
the  Place  Castellane,  whence  it  is  prolonged  as 
the  Prado,  the  principal  boulevard  of  Marseilles. 
This  is  a  magnificent  avenue  with  two  double 
rows  of  trees,  which  runs  two  miles  south  and 
southwestward,  terminating  on  the  seashore  at 
Borely  Park. 


Digitized  by 


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98 


MAHSH. 


Marseilles  has  few  architectural  monuments, 
and  no  interesting  remains  of  ancient  times.  It 
is  an  episcopal  see  and  its  most  prominent  build- 
ing is  the  new  cathedral,  which  faces  the  south- 
ern basin  of  the  new  harbor.  It  is  built  of  Flor- 
ence green  stone  in  the  Byzantine  style  mixed 
with  Romanesque  and  classic  elements,  and  is 
surmounted  by  five  domes.  Another  church 
worthy  of  notice  is  that  of  Notre  Dame  de  la 
Garde,  built  (1863-64)  on  the  hill  of  that  name 
south  of  the  old  harbor.  Its  belfry,  surmounted 
by  a  colossal  statue  of  the  Virgin,  towers  nearly 
600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  aflfords  a 
splendid  view  of  the  city  and  the  surrounding 
country.  Among  secular  buildings  should  b« 
mentioned  the  Palais  de  Longchamp,  a  magnifi- 
cent Renaissance  building  containing  various 
museums,  the  Palais  de  Justice,  and  the  Ex- 
change. The  educational  institutions  of  the  city 
include  a  school  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  and  a 
faculty  of  sciences,  which  form  part  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aix-Marseilles,  a  School  of  Engineer- 
ing, a  School  of  Navigation,  an  independent  Law 
School,  two  lyc^s,  two  seminaries,  a  commercial 
high  school,  a  school  of  fine  arts,  a  conservatory 
of  music,  an  astronomical  observatory,  botanical 
and  zoological  gardens,  a  biological  laboratory, 
museums  of  art,  archaeology,  and  natural  history, 
and  a  municipal  library  of  112,000  volumes.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  a  number  of  scientific  and 
literary  societies.  The  water  supply  is  derived 
from  the  River  Durance  through  the  Canal  de 
Marseille,  which  delivers  water  at  the  rate  of 
9000  liters  per  second,  sufficient  both  for  the  use 
of  the  city  and  for  the  irrigation  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  An  extensive  system  of  drainage 
works  was  completed  in  1898,  bv  which  the  sew- 
age is  carried  miles  to  sea,  leaving  the  waters  of 
the  harbor  uncontaminated.  The  principal  in- 
dustry  of  Marseilles  is  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
which  gives  employment  in  the  town  and  vicinity 
to  over  15,000  persons  in  90  factories,  whose 
products  amount  to  300,000,000  lbs.  annually,  or 
half  the  quantity  produced  by  the  whole  of 
France.  Next  in  importance  are  sugar  refineries, 
producing  100,000  tons  annually,  oil  factories, 
flour-mills,  tanneries,  lead,  tin,  and  copper  plants, 
petroleum  refineries,  and  the  manufacture  of  can- 
dles, macaroni,  and  tiles  and  brick.  It  also  has 
iron  ship-building  and  naval  equipment  yards. 
The  great  development  of  Marseilles,  however,  is 
due  chiefly  to  its  commerce,  which  was  greatly 
enhanced  by  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  The 
new  harbor,  begun  in  1844,  consists  of  a  series  of 
basins  stretching  northward  from  the  entrance  of 
the  old  harbor.  An  auxiliary  harbor  has  been 
constructed  in  the  channel  between  the  two 
islets  of  Pom^gue  and  Ratonneau  lying  off  the 
promontory  south  of  the  city.  Here  are  estab- 
lished the  quarantine  and  the  marine  hospital. 
There  are  altogether  12  miles  of  quays,  accom- 
modating 2500  vessels  at  one  time.  In  1902  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  voted  91,400,000  francs 
for  building  a  ship  canal  between  the  harbor  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  and  a  canal  is  also 
projected  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Loire,  thus 
bringing  Marseilles  into  connection  with  North- 
ern France.  In  1903  the  number  of  ships  which 
entered  and  cleared  was  17,352  with  a  ton- 
nage of  14,512,740,  of  which  only  one-half  was 
French.  The  value  in  1904  of  imports  and 
exports  combined  was  2,061,000,000  francs.  The 
principal  exports  are  cotton  and  woolen  goods. 


ribbons,  silks,  sugar,  grain,  oil,  soap,  fruits, 
wine,  candles,  and  bricks;  the  chief  importa 
were  cattle,  oil  seeds,  coffee,  raw  cotton  and  ailk, 
hides,  and  grain.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  the 
Mediterranean  countries.  The  United  States  is 
represented  by  a  consul. 

The  population  of  Marseilles  in  1906  was  517,- 
498.  An  idea  of  the  growth  of  the  city  may  be 
gained  from  the  following  fisrures:  1789,  100,000; 
1851,  195,185;  1891,  403,749;  1901,  491,161;  in 
1906,  517,498.  The  increase  has  been  due,  at 
least  in  late  years,  wholly  to  immigration,  as 
the  death-rate  is  higher  than  the  birth-rate. 
There  were  in  1900  98,835  foreigners,  of  whom 
91,536  were  Italians.  The  districts  around  the 
wharves  are  frequented  by  people  of  all  nationali- 
ties, and  the  busy,  cosmopolitan  air  of  the  city 
is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  rest  of  Provence. 

Marseilles  is  popularly  supposed  to  have  bc«n 
foimded  by  Greeks  from  Phocsea,  in  Asia  Minor, 
but  archseological  discoveries  have  established 
the  fact  that  a  Phcenician  colony  preceded  the 
Greek  settlement  of  about  B.C.  600.  The  Greek 
colony,  called  Massilia,  soon  supplanted  the  Phce- 
nician,  and  became  a  flourishing  commercial  cen- 
tre, a  free  city,  and  the  mother  city  of  a  number 
of  other  Greek  colonies.  It  allied  itself  with 
Rome  during  the  Punic  wars,  at  which  time  it 
was  at  the  zenith  of  its  power.  Its  schools  were 
preferred  to  those  of  Athens  for  the  education  of 
Roman  youths.  During  the  civil  wars  it  took 
the  side  of  Marius  and  later  of  Pompey.  Csesar 
attacked  it  in  B.C.  49  and  deprived  it  of  its  pow- 
er^  and  privileges,  and  from  that  time  its  de- 
cadence began,  though  it  still  remained  for  a 
long  time  an  intellectual  centre.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  it  retained  to  a  large  degree  its  inde- 
pendence. It  was  flnally  subject  to  the  counts  of 
Provence,  and  with  Provence  it  was  united  with 
the  French  Crown  in  1481.  In  1660  Louis  XIV. 
deprived  the  city  of  its  privileges.  Consult: 
Boudin,  Hiatoire  de  Marseille  (Paris,  1852) ; 
Sooi4t4  de  statistique  de  Marseille  (Marseilles, 
1837  et  seq.)  ;  Teissier,  Histoire  du  commerce  de 
Marseille,  1855-7 ^  (Marseilles,  1887). 

MABSH,.  Anne  Caloweix  (c.1798-1874).  An 
English  author,  bom  at  Lindley  Wood,  Stafford- 
shire. She  wrote  many  novels,  of  which  Two  Old 
Men's  Tales  (1846),  Emilia  Wyndham  (1846), 
and  Norman's  Bridge  (1847)  are  thought  to  be 
the  best.  Most  of  her  works  were  written  anony- 
mously, and  it  is  not  certain  how  many  are 
rightly  attributed  to  her.  Her  best  work  is  of 
delicate  conception,  but  lacks  power.  Several 
of  the  stories  have  been  republished  in  the  United 
States. 

MABSH,  Geobge  Pebkins  (1801-82).  An 
American  diplomatist  and  philologist.  He  was 
born  at  Woodstock,  Vt. ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1820;  studied  law,  and  in  1835  was 
elected  to  the  Supreme  Executive  Council  of  the 
State.  From  1843  to  1849  he  was  a  member  of 
Congress,  and  in  the  latter  year  resigned  to 
become  Minister  Resident  at  Constantinople.  In 
1852  he  was  charged  with  a  special  mission  to 
Greece,  and  having  traveled  extensively  in  Europe 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1854.  Between 
1857  and  1859  he  served  as  railroad  commissioner 
for  Vermont,  and  from  1861  until  his  death,  was 
first  United  States  Minister  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy.  His  publications  include:  The  Camels  Bis 
Organization,  Babits^  and  Uses,  Considered  with 
Reference  to  Bis  Introduction  into  the  United 


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XAB8H.  99 

Bt^tes  (1856);  Lectures  on  the  English  Lan^ 
fuage  (1861)  ;  The  Origin  and  History  of  the 
English  Language  (1862)  ;  and  Man  and  Nature 
(1864;  enlarged  in  1874  as  The  Earth  as  Modi- 
tied  by  Human  Action), 

KABSH,  Herbert  (1757-1839).  Bishop  of 
P^Urborough.  He  was  bom  in  Faversham, 
Kept ;  was  graduated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1779,  and  studied  theology  at  Leipzig 
and  Giottingen.  He  was  appointed  Lady  Mar- 
garet professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge  in  1807, 
Bishop  of  Llandaff  in  1816,  and  Bishop  of 
Peterborough  in  1819.  Opposing  the  allegorical 
sj^tems  of  interpretation  of  the  Fathers  and  the 
Middle  Ages,  he  insisted  that  Scripture  has  but 
one  sense,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce 
(jerman  methods  of  research  into  English  bibli- 
cal scholarship.  His  publications  include:  a 
translation  of  Michaelis's  Introduction  to  the  New 
Testament  ( 1792-1801)  ;  Authenticity  of  the  Five 
Books  of  Moses  (1792)  ;  The  National  Religion 
the  Foundation  of  National  Education  (1813)  ; 
Lectures  on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of 
the  Bible  (1828)  ;  Lectures  on  the  Authenticity 
end  Credibility  of  the  New  Testament  ( 1822-23) ; 
and  On  the  Authority  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1823). 

XABSH,  James  (1794-1842).  A  theologian 
and  critic,  bom  in  Hartford,  Vt.  Marsh  was 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  (1817)  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  (1822).  He  was 
ordained  to  the  Congregational  ministry  (1824) 
and  for  the  next  two  years  taught  languages  at 
Hampton-Sidn^  College,  Va.,  beginning  there  his 
translation  of  Herder's  Spirit  of  Hebt^  Poetry, 
completed  in  1833,  a  work  of  value  in  the  de- 
Telopment  of  American  criticism.  In  1826  he 
was  made  president  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont, a  post  which  he  resigned  (1833)  for  the 
professorship  of  philosophy.  His  edition  of  Cole- 
ridfpe's  Aids  to  Reflection,  with  its  preliminary 
«*ayj  gave  him  considerable  repute. 

IfAKSH,  Othniel  Chables  (1831-99).  An 
American  zo5logist  and  paleontologist.  He  waa 
bom  in  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, and  studied  in  Germany.  Upon  his  return 
to  the  United  States  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  paleontology  and  curator  of  the  geological  mu- 
semn  at  Yale,  and  held  these  positions  imtil  his 
death.  Professor  Marsh  accomplished  a  great 
amomit  of  valuable  scientific  work  in  the  discov- 
ery and  description  of  new  fossil  vertebrates  from 
the  geological  formations  of  the  Western  States 
and  Territories.  In  carrying  out  his  investiga- 
tions he  organized  many  exploring  expeditions  at 
his  own  expense,  and  directed  others  which  were 
equipped  by  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
Wy.  More  than  400  new  fossil  species  of  verte- 
biates  were  described  by  Professor  Marsh,  among 
tbem  such  interesting  types  as  the  Dinocerata 
(huge  tapir-like  animals).  Pterodactyls  (flying 
lizards),  and  Odontomithes  (toothed  birds).  His 
disforeries  of  the  fossil  ancestors  of  the  horse 
inarked  an  epoch  in  evolutionary  science  and 
ha?e  been  frequently  emi>loyed  as  an  illustration 
of  the  prindple  of  evolution.  The  more  extended 
*nd  genera]  articles  by  Professor  Marsh  were 
incorporated  in  the  Reports  and  Monographs  of 
the  United  States  (geological  Survey.  He  served 
•8  president  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
AdTaneement  of  Science  in  1878,  and  of  the  Na- 
iiooa]  Academj  of  Sciences  from  1883  to  1895. 


MAKSHAL, 

The  Geological  Society  of  London,  of  which  he 
was  a  fellow,  bestowed  upon  him  the  first  Bigsby 
medal  in  1877.  He  also  received  the  Cuvier  prise 
of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  valu- 
able collection  of  fossil  vertebrates  was  left  to 
Yale  University. 

MABSH,  Stlvesteb  (1803-84).  An  Ameri- 
can merchant  and  promoter,  bom  at  Campton, 
N.  H.  In  1833  he  removed  to  Chicago,  ana  set 
up  as  a  butcher.  He  was  the  originator  of  the 
meat-packing  industry  and  invented  many  of 
the  appliances  now  used  in  that  business.  Later 
he  entered  the  grain  business  and  invented  the 
dried  meal  process.  During  a  visit  to  his  old 
home  in  1852  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  railroad 
to  the  top  of  Mount  Washington,  and  insisted 
upon  the  feasibility  of  the  plan,  and  persisted 
until  in  1868  he  obtained  a  charter  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  road,  but  because  of  the  Civil 
War  was  unable  to  begin  work  until  1866. 

MABSBLAL  (OF.  mareschal,  marescal,  Fr. 
mar6chaly  from  ML.  mareschalcus,  carescalcus, 
from  OHG.  marahsccUh,  groom,  master  of  the 
horse,  marshal,  from  mara/i,  AS.  mearh,  Ir.» 
GaeL  marc,  Gk.  fiApKat,  markas,  horse  +  soalh,. 
Ger.  Schalky  Goth,  skalks,  AS.  scealc,  obsolete 
Eng.  shalk,  servant).  A  term  in  English  history, 
originally  meaning  a  groom  or  manager  of  the 
horse,  tnough  eventually  the  King's  marshal 
became  one  of  the  great  officers  of  the  household 
of  the  Norman  and  Plantagenet  kings,  being 
conjointly  with  the  constable  (q.v.)  a  judge  in 
the  ouricB  martiales,  or  courts  of  chivalry,  and 
enjoying  equal  rank  with  the  CHiancellor.  The 
constable's  functions  were  virtually  abolished  in 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the  marshal  be- 
came thenceforth  the  sole  judge  in  (juestions  of 
honor  and  arms.  The  earl  marshal  is  president 
of  the  English  (Ik>llege  of  Heralds,  and  appoints 
the  kings-at-arms,  heralds,  and  pursuivants.  The 
dignity  of  marshal  existed  formerly  in  Scotland, 
where  a  different  orthography  was  adopted,  and 
the  office  of  marischal  became  hereditary  in  the 
fourteenth  century  in  the  family  of  Keith.  In 
France  the  highest  military  officer  is  called  a 
marshal,  a  dignity  which  originated  early  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  There  was  at  first  only  one 
mar^chal  de  France,  and  there  were  but  two  till 
the  time  of  Francis  I.  Their  number  afterwards 
became  unlimited.  Originally  the  marshal  was 
the  esquire  of  the  King,  and  commanded  the  van- 
guard in  war;  in  later  times  the  command  be- 
came supreme,  and  the  rank  of  the  highest  mili- 
tary importance.  From  the  title  of  this  class  of 
general  officers  the  Germans  have  borrowed  their 
Feldmarschall,  and  the  English  the  title  of  field- 
marshal,  a  dignity  bestowed  on  commanders  dis- 
tinguished either  by  elevated  rank  or  superior 
talents.  The  title  marshal  in  the  United  States 
is  used:  (1)  to  denote  the  ministerial  officer  of 
the  United  States  courts,  there  being,  with  sev- 
eral exceptions,  one  appointed  for  each  judicial 
district.  The  exceptions  are  the  few  instances 
where  one  marshal  is  required  to  perform  the 
duties  of  two  districts.  The  duties  of  this  officer 
resemble  those  of  a  sheriff  in  the  State  courts; 
he  opens  and  closes  the  sessions  of  the  district 
and  circuit  courts,  serves  warrants,  and  executes 
throughout  the  district  all  lawful  precepts  di- 
rected to  him.  Marshals  are  also  appointed  for 
Porto  Rico,  Alaska,  and  Hawaii.  (2)  In  many 
States  of  the  South  and  West  the  marshal  is  the 


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MABSHAL. 


100 


IfABSHATJ, 


town  or  village  police  officer,  and  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  officers  of  the  county  called 
sheriffs,  and  from  the  officers  of  the  justices' 
courts  called  constables.  Besides  their  functions 
in  connection  with  the  courts,  the  United  States 
marshals  discharge  duties  in  connection  with  the 
administration  of  the  internal  revenue  service, 
public  lands,  the  mail  service,  etc.  They  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate  for  a  term  of  four  years. 

MABSBLA.LING  (of  assets,  securities,  liens). 
The  act  of  directing  the  application  or  dis- 
tribution of  assets,  securities,  liens,  etc.,  so 
that  the  rights  of  creditors,  lienors,  and  others 
having  rights  in  the  same  fund  or  funds  or  other 
property  are  protected  according  to  the  equities 
of  the  different  parties  in  interest.  The  princi- 
ple upon  which  this  is  done  is  the  equitable  rule 
that  a  party  who  is  entitled  to  satisfaction  or 
security  out.  of  one  or  more  of  several  funds  or 
properties  which  must  be  looked  to  by  others 
for  their  satisfaction  or  security  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  elect  to  satisfy  or  secure  himself  so 
as  to  exclude  another  who  is  entitled  to  resort  to 
only  one  of  the  funds,  when  the  first  party  can 
otherwise  sufficiently  protect  himself.  This  rule 
is  applied  where  A  has  a  mortgage  on  two  pieces 
of  property,  one  of  which  is  also  subject  to  a 
subordinate  mortgage  to  another  party.  In  that 
case  A,  in  the  event  of  foreclosure,  will  be  com- 
pelled to  first  exhaust  that  parcel  of  land  which 
IS  otherwise  unincumbered  m  order  that  the  se- 
curity of  the  other  party  may  not  be  entirely 
destroyed;  or  A  may  be  allowed  to  foreclose  the 
doubly  incumbered  piece  upon  condition  that  he 
subrogate  the  other  party  to  his  rights  in  the 
other  piece.  The  more  common  applications  of 
the  rule  are  to  foreclosures,  the  settlement  of 
decedents*  estates,  and  the  distribution  of  assets 
of  insolvents  or  bankrupts.  Consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  Equity. 

MARSHALING  OF  ABICS.  In  heraldry, 
the  science  of  arranging  several  coats  of  arms 
on  the  same  escutcheon.    See  Hebaldrt. 

ICAB^HALL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Clark  County,  111.,  18  miles  west  by  south  of 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.;  on  the  Vandalia  Line  and  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  Saint  Louis 
railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  £  4).  It  has  some 
trade  and  manufactures  of  flour,  lumber,  woolen 
goods,  condensed  milk,  etc.,  and  is  in  an  oil  and 
an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  district.  Popu- 
lation, 1890,  1900;  1900,  2077;  1906  (local  est.), 
2300. 

MABSHALL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Calhoun  County,  Mich.,  108  miles  by  rail  west  of 
Detroit;  on  the  Kalamazoo  River,  and  on  the 
Michigan  Central  Railroad  (Map:  Michigan,  E 
6).  It  has  the  grounds  of  the  County  Agricul- 
tural Society,  and  a  fine  high  school  building, 
county  courthouse,  and  jail.  The  city  is  the  cen- 
tre of  a  rich  farming  section,  and  manufactures 
steel  castings,  hot-air  furnaces,  school  and  church 
furniture,  carriages  and  wagons,  bathtubs,  wind- 
mills, electrical  appliances,  farming  implements, 
medicines,  flour,  breakfast  food,  etc.  There  are 
also  marble  and  granite  works,  and  roundhouses 
of  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad.  Marshall  owns 
and  operates  the  water-works  and  electric-light 
plants,  both  of  which  are  run  by  water-power,  on 
a  profitable  basis.  Population,  in  1900,  4370;  in 
1904,  4361. 


MABSTTALL.  A  city  and  the  coimty-seat  of 
Lyon  County,  Minn.,  165  miles  west  by  south  of 
Saint  Paul;  on  the  Redwood  River,  and  on  the 
Great  Northern  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwest- 
ern railroads  (Map:  Minnesota,  B  6).  It  has  a 
public  library;  and  among  the  prominent  build- 
ings are  the  public  schools,  county  courthouse, 
and  county  jail.  An  important  trade  is  carried 
on,  and  there  are  several  grain  elevators,  a  flour 
mill,  and  a  creamery.  Population,  in  1890,  1203 ; 
in  1900,  2088;  in  1905,  2243. 

MABSHALL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Saline  County,  Mo.,  84  miles  east  of  Kansas 
City;  on  the  Chicago  and  Alton  and  the  Missouri 
Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  C  2).  It  is 
the  seat  of  Missouri  Valley  College  ( Cumberland 
Presbyterian ) ,  founded  in  1889,  and  has  a  Roman 
Catholic  academy,  and  a  handsome  court-house 
($75,000).  A  State  institution  for  the  feeble 
minded  and  epileptics  is  (1906)  being  erected* 
Marshall  is  near  deposits  of  coal,  salt,  and  build- 
ing stone,  and  carries  on  an  important  trade,  and 
manufactures  flour,  creamery  products,  lumber, 
brick  and  tile,  carriages  and  wagons,  and  canned 
goods.  Population,  1900,  5086;  1906  (local  est.), 
(»000. 

MABSHALL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Harrison  County,  Texas,  42  miles  west  of  Shreve- 
port,  La.;  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific  and  the 
Texas  Southern  railroads  (Map:  Texas,  G  3). 
It  is  the  seat  of  Wiley  University  (Methodist 
Episcopal)  and  Bishop  College  (Baptist)  for 
negroes,  and  has  a  fine  court-house  and  opera 
house.  The  city  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural  region 
adapted  particularly  for  fruit  and  vegetable  cul- 
tivation, and  the  vicinity  possesses  valuable  oak 
and  pine  forests.  Among  the  industrial  enter- 
.  prises  are  a  foundry  and  machine  shops,  cotton 
compress,  saw  and  planing  mills,  ice  factory, 
carriage  works,  railroad  shops  of  the  Texas  and 
Pacific,  car-wheel  works,  etc.  The  water-works 
are  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality. 
Population,  in  1890,  7207;  in  1900,  7855. 

MABSHALL,  Alfred  (1B42—).  An  English 
economist,  born  in  London.  From  the  Merchant 
Taylors*  School  he  passed  to  Saint  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  with  distinc- 
tion and  was  appointed  fellow  of  his  colleppe 
(1865),  and  lecturer  in  moral  science  (1868). 
In  1877  he  became  principal  of  University  Col- 
lege, Bristol,  and  in  1883-84  lecturer  and  fellow 
of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  In  1884  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  political  economy  at  Cambridge 
University.  In  1891  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Commission  of  Labor.  In 
collaboration  with  his  wife  he  published  (1879) 
Economics  of  Industry,  His  Principles  of  Econo- 
mics (1890)  won  for  him  the  position  of  one  of 
the  foremost  of  English  economists.  In  this  work 
he  seeks  to  present  and  reconcile  the  essential 
doctrines  of  both  classical  and  modem  economics. 
He  published  also:  Present  Position  of  Economics 
(1886)  ;  Elements  of  Economics  (1891)  ;  and  a 
long  list  of  articles  in  scientific  and  popular 
periodicals. 

MABSHALL,  Abthub  Milnes  (1852-93). 
An  English  naturalist,  bom  at  Birmingham.  He 
received  his  B.A.  degree  from  the  London  Uni- 
versity at  the  age  of  eighteen  and  then  went  to 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1874.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  sent  by  that  university  to 
its  zoological  station  at  Naples.  Upon  his  re- 
turn, he  began  the  study  of  medieme,  and  in 


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101 


1879  became  professor  of  zoology  at  Owens  Col- 
lege, Manchester.  He  was  made  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1885,  a  councilor  of  the  same  in 
1801-92,  and  presided  over  a  section  of  the  Brit- 
ish Association  in  1892^  but  he  was  particularly 
distinguished  as  a  teacher  and  organizer.  He 
started  the  biological  classes  at  Victoria  Univer- 
sity,  and  contributed  much  to  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  embryology  in  his  technical  publications, 
which  include  papers  for  the  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Microscopical  Science,  and  separate  memoirs 
upon  The  Segmental  Value  of  the  Cranial  Nerves 
(1882);  The  Frog  (1882;  7th  ed.  1900);  and 
Vertebrate  Embryology  (1893).  He  lost  his  life 
in  the  Alps.  His  Biological  Essays  and  Ad- 
dresses were  collected  and  published  posthumous- 
ly in  1894^  as  well  as  his  memoir  upon  The  Dar- 
tcinian  Theory. 

MABSHATiIi,  Ekma  (1832-99).  An  English 
novelist,  bom  near  Cromer,  in  Norfolk,  England, 
the  youngest  daughter  of  Simon  Martin,  a  Nor- 
wich banker.  She  was  educated  in  a  private 
school  at  Norwich.  In  1854  she  married  Hugh 
Graham  Marshall,  and  thereafter  lived  an  im- 
cventful  life  at  Wells,  Exeter,  Gloucester,  and 
Bristol.  She  died  at  Clifton,  May  4,  1899.  Be- 
ginning with  Edith  Presoott  ( 1863 ) ,  she  produced 
during  her  long  career  more  than  a  hundred  vol- 
umes of  tales,  mostly  for  the  young.  Especially 
popular  were  those  in  which  appeared  well-known 
historical  characters,  as  Sir  Philip  Sidney  and  Sir 
Thomas  Browne.  Among  her  latest  novels  were : 
In  Colston's  Days,  a  Story  of  Old  Bristol  ( 1883)  ; 
The  Tower  an  the  Cliff  (1886)  ;  Penshurst  Castle, 
in  the  Time  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  (1893)  ;  In  the 
Choir  of  Westminster  Abb^  in  the  Time  of 
Henry  Purcell  (1897)  ;  and  Under  the  Dome  of 
Saint  Paul's  in  the  Time  of  Christopher  Wren 
(1898).    She  also  wrote  verse. 

MABSHALL,  Francis  Albebt  (1840-89). 
An  English  playwright,  bom  in  London,  Novem- 
ber, 1840.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  stud- 
ied at  Exeter  (College,  Oxford,  but  left  without  a 
degree.  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  audit  office 
of  Somerset  House,  and  began  writing  for  news- 
papers and  periodicals.  In  1868  he  resigned  his 
poet  and  subsequently  joined  the  staff  of  the  Lon- 
don Figaro  as  dramatic  critic.  He  was  already 
known  for  his  comedies  and  farces:  Mad  as  a 
Hatter  (1863)  ;  Corrupt  Practices  (1870),  which 
were  followed  by  Q,  E,  D.,  or  All  a  Mistake 
(1871)  ;  FaUe  Shame  (1872)  ;  BHghton  (1874)  ; 
Lola  (1881),  a  comic  opera;  and  several  others. 
For  Henry  Irving  he  made  a  version  of  Werner 
(1887).  He  was  general  editor  of  the  Henry 
Irving  Edition  of  Shakespeare  (1888-90),  and 
had  earlier  published  A  Study  of  Hamlet  (1875) 
and  Henry  Irving,  Actor  and  Manager  ( 1883) . 

ICABSHALL,  Humphrey  (1756-1841).  An 
American  politician,  cousin  6f  CJhief  Justice  John 
Marshall,  bom  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.  He 
received  very  little  schooling,  entered  the  Conti- 
nental Army  during  the  Revolution,  and  attained 
the  rank  of  captain.  Before  the  close  of  the  war 
he  removed  to  Kentucky,  and  he  settled  in  1780 
near  Lexington,  where  he  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1787  he  was  a  delegate 
to  the  convention  held  at  Danville  to  consider  the 
question  of  separating  Kentucky  from  Virginia, 
and  strongly  opposed  that  project.  He  soon  be- 
came known  as  one  of  the  strongest  Federalist 
leaders  in  the  Kentucky  region.    In  1788  he  was 


a  delegate  to  the  Virginia  convention  that  ratified 
the  Ck)nstitution.  He  had  an  inborn  dislike  for 
Wilkinson,  whom  he  seems  to  have  suspected 
from  the  first,  and  for  a  decade  or  more  occupied 
the  position  of  a  sort  of  Vatch-dog*  of  Federal 
interests  in  Kentucky  and  was  active  in  oppos- 
ing and  exposing  the  numerous  Spanish  intrigues, 
and  plans  for  attacking  the  Spanish  or  French  at 
New  Orleans.  He  opposed  the  plan  of  (5eorge 
Rogers  Clark  for  an  expedition  against  the  Span- 
iards in  1793>  declaring  it  was  a  part  of  the 
scheme  of  Genet  (q.v.),  and  would  only  have 
the  effect  of  embroiling  the  country  with  a 
friendly  Power.  From  1795  to  1801  he  was  a 
United  States  Senator  from  Kentucky.  His  let- 
ters to  the  Western  World  signed  *Observer,'  in 
which  he  clearly  pointed  out  the  existence  of  the 
Burr  conspiracy  ( q.v. ) ,  led  to  Federal  action  and 
the  thwarting  of  Burr's  plans  of  empire.  While 
a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  in  1809  he 
fought  a  duel  with  Henry  Clay  in  which  both 
were  woimded.  He  published  a  History  of  Ken- 
tucky (1812;  enlarged,  1824),  which  is  in  re- 
ality a  curious  and  partisan  piece  of  autobiog- 
raphy, but  contains  much  of  value  in  regard  to 
early  politics  in  the  West. 

MABSHALL,  Humphrey  (1812-72).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician,  born  at  Frank- 
fort, Ky.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1832, 
but  resigned  from  the  army  the  next  year.  He 
studied  Taw  and  practiced  in  Louisville,  where  he 
took  much  interest  in  the  State  militia.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War  he  entered  as  col- 
onel of  a  Kentucky  cavalry  regiment  and  led  the 
charge  at  Buena  Vista.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  House  of  Representatives  in  1849 
and  was  reelected  in  1851,  but  resigned  in  1852 
and  accepted  the  post  of  Commissioner  to  China. 
He  retired  in  1854,  and  the  next  year  again  en- 
tered the  House  of  Representatives,  on  the 
American  ticket,  and  served  until  1859.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the  Con- 
federate Army  as  brigadier-general  and  com- 
manded in  eastern  Kentucky.  He  resigned  from 
the  army  to  practice  law  in  Richmond,  but  was 
elected  one  of  Kentucky's  representatives  in  the 
Confederate  Congress,  and  was  afterwards  re- 
elected. After  the  war  he  resumed  the  practice 
of  law  in  Louisville. 

MATISHALL,  Humphrey  (1722-1801).  An 
American  botanist,  born  in  West  Bradford  ( Mar- 
shallton),  Pa.  He  learned  the  trade  of  a  stone- 
mason, but  about  1748  turned  to  farming,  and 
began  to  cultivate  his  scientific  tastes,  which  he 
had  ample  means  of  gratifying  through  the  ac- 
quisition of  property  in  1767,  and  six  years  after- 
wards he  was  mstrumental  in  the  formation  of 
the  botanic  gardens  at  Marshallton.  He  held 
several  local  offices,  was  made  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society  (1786),  and 
published  Arboretum  Americanwn  ( 1785) ,  a  cata- 
logue of  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  America,  which 
was  translated  inte  French. 

MARSHALL,  John  (1755-1835).  The  most 
famous  of  American  juriste,  for  thirty-four  years 
Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court.  He  was  bom  September  24,  1755,  in 
Fauquier  County,  Va.;  studied  under  a  private 
tutor;  then  attended  an  academy  in  Westmore- 
land County,  and  studied  law  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution,  when  he  entered  the  army  as 
a  volunteer.  He  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  first  lieu- 


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103 


MABflHATiT, 


tenant,  and  by  1777  was  a  captain.  His  first 
fight  was  near  Norfolk;  he  afterwards  served 
in  the  New  Jersey  campaign,  was  at  Valley 
Forge  during  the  memoraole  winter  of  1777-78, 
and  participated  in  the  battles  of  Brandywine, 
Germantown,  and  Monmouth,  and  in  the  capture 
of  Stony  Point.  During  most  of  1780,  while  with- 
out a  command,  he  attended  the  law  lectures 
delivered  by  the  famous  Chancellor  George 
Wythe  at  William  and  Mary  College.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Fau- 
quier County,  where  he  practiced  for  two  years. 
In  1782  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  Virginia 
Legislature  and  soon  became  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Council.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
removed  to  Richmond.  In  1784  he  was  again 
elected  to  represent  Fauquier  County  in  the 
Legislature.  In  1787  he  was  chosen  to  represent 
Henrico,  the  county  in  which  he  had  lately  taken 
up  his  residence,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
a  delegate  to  the  State  convention  which  was 
called  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution.  The 
distinction  of  securing  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
stitution by  Virginia  belongs  to  Marshall  and 
Madison  perhaps  more  than  to  any  others. 
Marshall's  refutations  of  Patrick  Henry's  argu- 
ments against  adoption  were  particularly  effect- 
ive. In  the  meantime  his  law  practice  was  rap- 
idly increasing,  and  he  declined  a  reflection  to 
the  Leg^islature  in  1792  in  order  to  devote  his 
whole  time  to  his  growing  practice,  but  in  1796 
he  was  again  persuaded  to  stand  for  reflection 
and  was  successful.  It  was  about  this  time  that 
Marshall  appeared  before  the  Supreme  Court 
in  the  famous  case  of  Ware  vs.  Hilton,  in  which 
the  validity  of  the  Virginia  Sequestration  Act 
was  involved,  and  his  able  argument  added  great- 
ly to  his  growing  reputation.  He  declined  to 
accept  the  post  of  Attorney-General  or  the  French 
mission  tendered  him  by  President  Washington, 
but  finally  consented  to  go  to  Paris  in  1797  with 
C.  C.  Pinckney  and  Eloridge  Gerry  to  induce 
the  Directory  to  remove  the  restrictions  which  it 
had  laid  on  American  commerce.  Although  the 
negotiations  proved  fruitless,  Marshall's  conduct 
seems  to  have  been  more  satisfactory  to  the  Gov- 
ernment than  that  of  either  of  his  colleagues.  In 
1798  he  declined  to  accept  a  seat  on  the  bench  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  as  the  successor 
of  James  Wilson,  but  in  the  same  year  at  the 
solicitation  of  Washington  became  a  candidate  for 
Congress  and  was  elected,  although  his  constitu- 
ency was  decidedly  Anti-Federalist  in  politics. 
In  Confess  he  supported  the  Administration  in 
particular  and  Federalist  measures  generally,  al- 
though he  voted  for  the  repeal  of  the  notorious 
Alien  and  Sedition  Acts.  His  most  notable  effort 
in  Congress  was  a  speech  in  support  of  the  con- 
duct of  the*  President  in  surrendering  Jonathan 
Robbins,  the  murderer  of  a  man  on  a  British 
frigate,  who  had  escaped  to  the  United  States 
and  had  been  delivered  up  to  the  British  Got- 
emment  by  the  President.  Marshal!  showed 
conclusively  that  the  surrender  of  Bobbins  was 
clearly  within  the  President's  constitutional 
power.  In  May,  1800,  he  was  asked  by  President 
Adams  to  take  the  office  of  Secretary  of  War, 
but  declined.  However,  he  was  induced  to  ac- 
cept the  position  of  Secretary  of  State,  which 
he  held  for  a  short  time.  On  January  31,  1801, 
he  was  commissioned  Chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  The  accession  of  Mar- 
shall  to  the  bench  of   the  United   States   Su- 


preme Court  as  Chief  Justice  marks  a  turn- 
ing point  in  his  life  and  an  epoch  in  the 
legal  and  constitutional  history  of  the  United 
States.  For  thirty-four  years  he  dominated 
the  court  by  his  great  learning  and  master- 
ful power  of  analysis  and  clearness  of  state- 
ment. Perhaps  no  judge  ever  excelled  him  in 
the  capacity  to  hold  a  legal  proposition  before 
the  eyes  of  others  in  such  various  forms  and 
colors.  He  resolved  every  argument  by  the  most 
subtle  analysis  into  its  ultimate  principles,  and 
then  applied  them  to  the  decision  of  the  case  in 
question.  His  service  on  the  bench,  which  con- 
tinued imtil  his  death,  was  effective  and  conspicu- 
ous not  only  in  securing  for  the  court  the  recog- 
nition and  profound  respect  for  which  hitherto 
there  had  been  no  especial  occasion,  but  also  in 
so  expounding  the  Constitution  as  to  make  clear 
for  the  first  time  the  nature  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment and  to  forecast  the  lines  along  which,  im 
actual  development  as  well  as  in  judicial  inter- 
pretation, the  nation  was  to  proceed.  In  the 
Eeriod  of  Marshall's  predominance  the  court  up- 
eld  the  Federalist  tneories,  as  in  the  nationad 
bank  case  of  McCulloch  vs.  Maryland,  and  gave 
a  clear  definition  of  the  relations  of  the  State 
and  National  governments.  On  the  subject  of 
the  constitutional  prohibition  against  the  impair- 
ment of  contracts,  noteworthy  opinions  were  pre- 
sented, culminating  in  the  famous  Dartmouth 
College  Case,  the  exact  accuracy  of  which  has 
more  recently  been  (juestioned.  Particularly  in 
the  field  of  constitutional  law  the  work  of  Mar- 
shall forms  the  greatest  contribution  to  Ameri- 
can jurisprudence  made  by  any  judge,  and  his 
interpretations  of  the  Constitution  have  long 
been  recognized  as  an  important  and  permanent 
feature  of  American  public  law.  He  died  on 
July  6,  1835,  in  his  eightieth  year,  at  Philadel- 
phia, whither  he  had  gone  for  medical  treatment. 
Aside  from  his  judicial  labors  Marshall,  at  the 
request  of  Bushrod  Washington,  a  nephew  of 
George  Washington,  wrote  a  Life  of  George 
Washington  (6  vols.,  1804-07;  2d  ed.,  2  vols., 
1832).  Consult:  Magruder,  t/o/tn  Mars^o/I  (Bos- 
ton, 1885);  Dillon,  John  Marshall  2  vols.  (Chi- 
cago, 1903)  ;  Flanders,  Life  of  John  Marshall 
(Philadelphia,  1905);  and  a  chapter,  **Consti- 
tutional  Development  in  the  United  States,  as 
influenced  by  Chief  Justice  Marshall,"  in  Cooley, 
Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States 
(New  York,   1889). 

lEABSHAIil/^  Oesamus  Holmes  (1813-84t). 
An  American  historical  writer.  He  was  bom  at 
Franklin,  Conn.,  graduated  at  Union  College  in 
1831,  studied  law,  spending  some  time  at  Yale, 
and  entered  into  active  practice.  His  interest  in 
literary  and  historical  subjects  was  early  mani- 
fested. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Buf- 
falo Female  Academy  and  of  the  Buffalo  Histori- 
cal Society,  and  for  many  years  was  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Buffalo.'  His  historical  writ- 
inpfs  concern  chieflv  the  relations  of  the  Iroquois 
with  French  and  English  and  are  of  considerable 
value.  A  volume  was  collected  after  his  death 
entitled  Historical  Writings  of  Orsamus  H,  Mar* 
shall  Relating  to  the  Early  History  of  the  West 
(1887). 

MARSHALL,  Stephen  (c.  1594-1 655).  A 
Presbyterian  leader.  He  was  bom  at  Godman- 
chester,  Huntingdonshire,  England,  graduated  B. A. 
at  Cambridge  (1618),  entered  the  ministry  and 
joined  the  ranks  of  the  non-conformists.    £ie  was 


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108 


10JEU3H  HAWK. 


an  eloquent  man,  considered  in  some  quarters 
the  greatest  preacher  of  the  day,  but  not  learned 
or  original.  Beginning  with  the  advocacy  of  a 
reform  of  the  Church  of  England,  while  retaining 
episcopacy  and  litur^,  he  ended  with  the  de 
jure  divino  Presbyterian  theory.  He  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  (1643 
sqq.).  Marshall  published  many  sermons.  One 
treatise,  A  Defense  of  Infant  Baptism  (1646), 
may  be  mentioned.  He  was  also  one  of  the  joint 
authors  of  a  pamphlet  published  at  London 
( 1641 ) ,  called  An  Answer  to  a  Booke  [by  J.  Hall, 
Bishop  of  Norwich]  entituled  An  Eumhie  Remon- 
strance. In  which  the  originall  of  Liturgy  [and] 
Episcopacy  is  Discussed,  And  Quceres  Propound- 
ed Concerning  Both.    Written  by  Sm^ctymnuus. 

MABSHALI^  William  Oaldeb  (1813-94).  A 
Scotch  sculptor.  He  was  bom  at  Edinburgh, 
March  18,  1813.  He  studied  sculpture  at  the 
Trustees'  Academy,  Edinburgh,  and  at  London, 
under  Chantry  and  Bailey.  In  the  schools  of  the 
Royal  Academy  he  won  a  gold  medal  and  traveling 
scholarship,  and  from  1836  to  1838  continued  his 
studies  in  Rome.  From  the  time  of  his  return 
to  London  (1839)  he  contributed  to  almost  every 
annual  art  exhibition.  His  work  was  chiefly 
idealistic  statuary,  and  among  his  productions 
of  this  class  are:  **The  Creation  of  Adam" 
(1842);  "Christ  Blessing  Little  Children" 
(1844) ;  "Paul  and  Virginia"  (1845)  ;  "Sabrina" 
(1846),  perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  his  fig- 
ures; *The  First  Whisper  of  Love;"  and  "The 
Dancing  Girl  Reposing."  In  historical  figures 
he  modeled  the  bronze  statue  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
at  Manchester;  one  of  Dr.  Jenner;  and  in  the 
Westminster  Palace,  busts  of  Chaucer,  Lord 
Clarendon,  and  Lord  Somers.  In  decoration,  he 
was  extensively  engaged  in  the  ornamentation  of 
the  new  Houses  of  Parliament  and  the  Welling- 
ton Chapel  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral.  He  was 
also  the  designer  of  the  Wellington  monument. 
The  style  of  all  his  productions  is  marked  by  sim- 
plicity and  refinement,  and  the  conception  of  his 
statuettes  is  delicate  and  poetical.  He  died  at 
London,  June  16,  1894. 

MABSHALIi  ISLANDS.  An  archipelago  in 
Micronesia,  situated  east  of  the  Caroline  Islands 
and  belonging  to  Grcrmany  (Map:  Australasia,  J 
2).  It  consists  of  two  parallel  chains  of  atolls, 
the  Ratak  chain  in  the  east  and  the  Ralik  in  the 
west,  with  an  aggregate  area  of  158  square  miles. 
The  islands  are  low  and  the  soil  very  poor,  sup- 
porting a  scanty  flora,  in  which  the  cocoanut  and 
the  breadfruit  tree  predominate.  Copra  is  the 
only  export,  and  amounts  to  over  20()0  tons  an- 
nually. The  population  of  the  whole  archipelago 
is  about  15,000,  of  whom  less  than  a  hundred  are 
Europeans  (66  Germans  in  1905).  The  islands 
are  administered  by  an  imperial  Commissioner 
residing  on  the  island  of  Jaluit. 

KAB^HAIXTOWN.  A  city  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Marshall  County,  Iowa,  58  miles  north- 
east of  Des  Moines;  on  the  Chicago  Great  West- 
em,  the  Iowa  Central,  and  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  railroads  (Map:  Iowa,  E  2).  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Iowa  State  Soldiers*  Home,  with 
800  inmates,  and  has  a  public  library.  Among  its 
industrial  establishments  are  extensive  meat- 
packing plants,  glucose  factories,  flour-mills, 
grain  elevators,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
canning  and  bottling  works,  and  carriage  and 
furniture  factories.     Settled  in  1860,  Marshall- 


town  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1863  and  re* 
ceived  a  charter  as  a  city  of  the  second  class  in 
1868.  The  government  is  administered  under  a 
general  State  law  of  1898  which  provides  for  a 
mayor*  elected  biennally,  and  a  imicameral  coun- 
cil that  elects  the  water-works  committee.  The 
school  board  is  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  the  water-works  and  electric- 
light  plant.  Population,  in  1890,  8914;  in  1900, 
11,544;  in  1905,  12,045. 

MAB^HALSEA.  A  former  prison  in  South- 
wark,  London,  connected  with  a  court  of  the 
same  name.    It  was  abolished  in  1849. 

MABSH-CALD^WELL,  Mrs.  Anne  (1791- 
1874).  An  English  novelist,  daughter  of  James 
Caldwell,  of  Linley  Wood,  Staffordshire.  In  1817 
she  married  Arthur  Cuthbert  Marsh,  of  East- 
bury  Lodge,  Hertfordshire.  Encouraged  by  Har- 
riet Martineau,  she  published  Two  Old  Men's 
Tales  (1834).  In  the  course  of  a  few  years 
she  took  rank  among  the  popular  novelists  of 
her  time.  She  published  anonymously,  and  a 
complete  list  of  her  novels  has  never  been  made. 
Fifteen  volumes  appeared  in  the  Parlour  Library 
( 1857 ) .  They  depict  mostly  the  manners  of  the 
upper  middle  class  and  the  lower  aristocracy. 
Emilia  Wyndham  (1846)  seems  to  be  one  of  the 
best. 

MABSH  CBOCODHiE.     See  Muggeb. 

MABSH^IELD.  A  citv  in  Wood  County, 
Wis.,  185  miles  northwest  of  Milwaukee;  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Wisconsin  Cen- 
tral, and  the  Chicago,  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis 
and  Omaha  railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin,  C  4).  It 
has  a  public  library  and  a  hospital.  Marshfleld 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  lumber,  including 
staves,  headings,  barrels,  and  furniture,  also 
beds,  springs,  mattresses,  veneer,  etc.  Dairying 
has  assumed  a  position  of  great  importance  in 
recent  vears.  There  is  also  some  trade  in  grain 
and  live  stock.  Population,  in  1890,  3450;  in 
1900,  5240;  in  1905,  6035. 

MABSH  GAS.     See  Methane. 

10JEU3H  HAKE,  or  BABBIT.  A  hare  (Le- 
pus  palustris)  of  the  lowlands  along  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  seaboard,  which  is  sligjhtly  larger 
than  the  cottontail,  measuring  18  inches,  and 
differs  in  its  nearly  bare  feet  and  more  scanty 
pelage.  It  frequents  bog'ory  lands,  and  readily 
takes  to  the  water. 

MABSH  HAWK,  or  Harbteb.  A  bird  of 
prey  {Circus  cyaneus  of  Europe,  or  Circus  Hud- 
sonius  of  North  America)  which  haimts  marshy 
places.  The  adult  male  is  light  bluish  gray, 
the  tail  is  barred  with  6  to  8  bands,  and  the  tips 
of  the  wings  are  blackish.  The  female  is  dusky 
or  rusty  brown,  streaked  about  the  head.  Both 
sexes  may  be  easily  recognized  by  the  broad  white 
patch  on  the  rump.  Though  long-winged  and 
capable  of  strong  flight,  it  is  habitually  slow  in 
its  movements,  sweeping  back  and  forth  over  low 
meadows,  river  margins,  and  wet  ground  gen- 
erally, in  search  of  the  small  game  to  be  fotind 
in  such  places,  keeping  near  the  groimd,  and 
dropping  suddenly  upon  its  prey — ^more  often  a 
frog  or  a  mouse  than  anything  else.  Only  rarely 
does  it  seize  a  bird  or  disturb  poultry;  and  its 
services  are  of  great  value  to  the  agriculturists, 
and  should  be  encouraged.  It  was  classed  as 
'ignoble'  in  falconry.  These  hawks  nest  upon  the 
ground  in  some  marsh,  and  lay  four  or  flve  nearly 


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MABSH  HAWK. 


104 


MABSH-WBEV. 


globular,  dirty- white  eggs.  Consult:  Fisher, 
Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States  (Wash- 
ington, 1893)  ;  Coues,  Birds  of  the  Northwest 
(Washington,  1874),  and  standard  authorities. 
See  Plate  of  Eagles  and  Hawks. 

MABSH  HEN,  or  Mud  Hen.  A  gunner's 
name  for  various  rails,  coots,  and  gallinules 
(qq.v.). 

IIABSH-MALLOW.  A  name  applied  to  Ah 
thcea  officinalis^  native  of  Great  Britain  and  nat- 
uralized in  the  United  States,  in  both  of  which 
countries  it  grows  in  meadows  and  marshes,  par- 
ticularly near  the  seacoast.     The  whole  plant. 


MAB8H-MALLOW  {Altbma  OtBciDAUB). 


which  is  a  woody  herb,  abounds  in  mucilage,  ( 
cially  in  the  root,  confections  made  from  it  be- 
ing known  as  pdtes  de  guimauve.  The  leaves 
and  tender  twigs  are  used  for  food  in  some  re- 
gions during  seasons  of  scarcity.  The  hollyhock 
(AlthcBa  rosea)  is  an  allied  species.  See  Holly- 
hock; ALTHiBA. 

MABSH^MAN,  Joshua  ( 1768-1837 ) .  An  Eng- 
lish missionary.  He  was  bom  at  Westbury  Leigh, 
Wiltshire,  and  was  sent  in  1799  by  the  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  to  India  to  join  William  Carey 
(q.v.)  and  his  colleagues.  They  established  their 
mission  at  Serampore,  a  Danish  colony,  16  miles 
above  Calcutta,  and  to  supplement  the  scanty 
funds  sent  out  by  the  society,  schools  were  opened 
for  both  European  and  native  children.  This 
course  did  not  meet  the  approval  of  the  society, 
and  in  1826  Marshman  returned  to  England  to  try 
to  effect  a  settlement  of  the  differences.  He  failed 
in  his  object,  and  the  matter  ended  in  a  separa- 
tion of  the  Serampore  mission  from  the  society. 
He  returned  to  Serampore  in  1829  and  died  there, 
December  5,  1837.  In  addition  to  his  special  mis- 
sionary duties.  Dr.  Marshman  gave  himself  with 
great  zeal  to  the  study  of  the  Bengalee,  San- 
skrit, and  Chinese  languages,  which  he  mastered. 
He  published:  A  Dissertation  on  the  Charac- 
ters and  Sounds  of  the  Chinese  Language 
(1809);  The  Works  of  Confucius,  Containing 
the  Original  Text  with  a  Translation  (1809); 
Clavis  Sinica  (1814)  ;  Elements  of  Chinese 
Orammar,  with  a  Preliminary  Dissertation  on 
the  Characters  and  Colloquial  Medium  of  the 
Chinese  (1814).  He  also  prepared  the  first  com- 
plete Chinese  version  of  the  Bible.  He  assisted 
Dr.  Carey  in  preparing  a  Sanskrit  grammar  and 
a  Bengalee  and  English  dictionary,  and  the  Bible 


in  Telugu.  Consult:  J.  C.  Marshman,  Life  a/nd 
Times  of  the  Serampur  Missionaries  (London, 
1869)  ;  Carey,  Marshman  and  Ward,  an  abridg- 
ment of  the  above  (ib.,  1864). 

MABSH-MABIGOLD,  Caltha.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Ranunculaces. 
Caltha  palustris  is  a  very  common  American 
plant,  with  kidney-shaped,  shining  leaves,  and 
large  yellow  flowers,  a  principal  ornament  of 
wet  meadows  and  the  sides  of  streams  in  spring. 


MAB8H-MARIOOLD  {C&ltha  paluBtris). 

It  partakes  of  the  acridity  common  to  the  order ; 
but  the  flower-buds,  preserved  in  vinegar  and 
salt,  are  said  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  capiers. 
The  plant  is  used  before  flowering  as  a  pot  herb 
in  many  places. 

MABSH  PLANTS.     See  Swamp. 

MABSH-BOSEMABY.  A  name  given  to 
several  species  of  Statice,  members  of  the  natural 
order  Plumbaginaceae.  Statice  Limomum,  a  per- 
ennial plant,  grows  in  salt  marshes  along  the  sea- 
shore of  Southern  and  Western  Europe,  and  Stat- 
ice Caroliniana  is  an  American  plant,  growing  in 
similar  localities  on  the  American  coast.  Marsh - 
rosemary  has  a  tuft  of  spatulate  oblong,  bristly 
pointed,  one-ribbed  leaves,  developing  in  August 
a  much-branched,  panicled  scape,  from  one  to  two 
feet  high,  bearing  numerous  small  lavender-col- 
ored flowers. 

MABSH'S  TEST.     See  Absexic. 

MABSH  TBEPOIIi.  A  plant  widely  dis- 
tributed in  northern  latitudes.    See  Buck  Bean. 

MABSH-WBEN.  A  wren  that  inhabits 
reedy  marshes.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada 
two  species  are  more  or  less  numerous  wherever 
such  marshes  occur.  The  most  familiar  one 
along  the  Atlantic  Coast  is  the  long-billed  marsh- 
wren  {Tclmatodyies  palustris),  while  the  short 
billed  {Cistothorus  stellaris)  is  more  numerous 
in  the  interior  of  the  country.  Both  are  brown- 
ish above  and  light-colored  below,  with  little  to 
distinguish  them  besides  the  marked  difference 
in  the  length  of  the  bill;  but  the  long-billed  is 
the  larger.  Both  species  are  migratory,  and  are 
notorious  for  their  excited  activity,  mice-like  man- 


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SCABSH-WBEV. 


105 


MABS-LA-TOUB. 


ners,  and  rippling  prattling  song.  They  con- 
struct large  globular  nests,  suspended  among  the 
reeds,  woven  of  grass-blades  and  entered  by  a 
little  hole  in  the  side.  As  often  happens  among 
other  wrens  (q.v.),  many  more  nests  will  be 
built  each  season  than  there  are  pairs  in  the  lo- 
cality, some  of  which  may  be  utilized  as  sleeping- 
places  by  tiie  cock  birds.  The  nests  of  the  two 
species  are  much  alike,  but  the  eggs  are  very 
distinct,  those  of  the  long-billed  being  dark 
chocolate  in  color,  while  Siose  of  the  short- 
billed  are  pure  white, 

MAB03I.  An  ancient  tribe  of  Central  Italy, 
inhabiting  the  district  around  Lake  Fucinus 
{loigo  di  Celano,  now  drained).  Their  origin, 
like  that  of  other  Italian  tribes,  is  involved  in 
obscurity  and  fiction.  They  were  probably  of 
Sabine  origin,  but  spoke  a  dialect  akin  to  the 
Latin.  They  are  worthy  of  notice  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  their  warlike  spirit.  The  Marsians  were 
at  one  time  allies  of  the  Romans,  but  in  B.C.  308 
they  revolted  and  joined  the  Samnites.  After 
being  subdued  they  again  (b.o.  301)  shook  off  the 
alliance  of  Rome,  but  were  beaten  in  the  field, 
and  lost  several  of  their  fortresses.  From  this 
time  they  continued  the  firm  allies  of  Rome,  con- 
tributing by  their  valor  to  her  triumphs  until  the 
Italians  were  aroused  in  B.C.  91  to  demand  a  re- 
dress of  their  wrongs  and  a  share  in  the  privi- 
leges of  Roman  citizens.  A  war  ensued,  generally 
known  as  the  Social  War,  but  frequently  called 
the  Marsic  War,  because  the  Marsi  were  promi- 
nent among  the  malcontents.  Their  leader  was 
Pompeedius  Silo.  Though  they  were  often  de- 
feated, the  perseverance  of  the  allies  gained 
the  object  for  which  they  had  taken  up  arms 
in  B.C.  87.  The  Marsians,  inhabiting  a  moun- 
tainous district,  were  temperate  in  their  habits, 
but  brave,  and  unyielding.  So  marked  was  their 
valor  that  there  was  a  proverbial  saying  recorded 
by  Appian,  "that  Rome  had  achieved  no  triumph 
over  the  Aiarsi,  or  without  the  Marsi."  The  an- 
cient Marsi  were  represented  as  enchanters,  able 
to  tame  serpents  and  to  heal  their  bites ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  the  jugglers  who  now  amuse 
the  people  by  handling  serpents  are  natives  of 
the  region  in  the  vicinity  of  Lago  di  Celano. 
Their  only  important  town  was  Marruvium  ( San 
Benedetto),  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  visible. 
Consult :  Bugge,  Italische  L<mdet  Ktmde  ( Chris- 
tiania,  1878). 

MABSICE;  m&r'slk^,  Mabtin  Piebbe  Joseph 
(1848—).  A  Belgian  violinist  and  teacher,  bom 
at  Jupille,  near  Li^ge.  His  earliest  professional 
instruction  was  at  the  D6sir6-Heynberg  Conser- 
vatory at  Li^ge.  His  musical  precocity  was  such 
that  at  twelve  years  of  age  he  was  organist  of 
the  Lidge  Cathedral.  At  seventeen  years  of  age 
he  became  a  pupil  of  Leonard  at  the  Brussels 
Conservatory,  and  a  year  later  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatory,  where  he  studied  under  Massart, 
and  won  the  first  prize  for  violin-playing.  He 
completed  his  student  course  under  Joachim  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1873  made  a  very  successful  d^but 
at  the  'Concerts  populaires.*  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  faculty  of  the  Paris  Conservatory  in 
1892,  succeeding  Massart  as  professor  of  violin. 
His  compositions  are  almost  entirely  for  the 
violin,  and  are  very  popular  on  the  French  con- 
cert platform.  In  1896-96  he  toured  the  United 
States,  and  confirmed  the  reputation  that  had 
preceded  him. 


MABSIGLI,  mar-sg^y^  Luioi  (c.1330-94). 
An  Italian  humanist.  He  was  bom  at  Florence 
and  there  entered  an  Augustinian  convent,  San 
Spirito.  He  studied  theology  at  Paris,  on  the 
advice  of  Petrarch,  who  wished  him  to  become 
a  Christian  champion  against  the  Averrhoists. 
San  Spirito  under  Marsigli  became  a  society  for 
classical  study  and  discussion;  among  its  mem- 
bers was  Coluccio  Salutatio.  Marsigli  was  em- 
ployed in  several  diplomatic  errands  by  the  city 
of  Florence.  His  manuscript  comments  on  Pe- 
trarch's poems  were  preserved  at  the  Laurentian 
Library. 

HABSIGLI,  mttr-8€^y*,  Luioi  Febdinando, 
Count  (1658-1730).  An  Italian  soldier  and  schol- 
ar, l>om  at  Bologna.  He  served  as  a  common  sol- 
dier in  the  Austrian  army,  and  obtained  the  rank 
of  general.  But  after  the  fall  of  Altbreisach 
( 1703) ,  where  he  was  second  in  command,  he  was 
degraded  by  court-martial,  and  was  never  en- 
tirely reinstated,  though  generally  considered  in- 
nocent. After  this  event,  Marsigli  devoted  him- 
self to  scientific  explorations,  and  founded  the 
Institute  of  Science  and  Arts  at  Bologna  (1714). 
In  connection  with  it  he  established  a  press  for 
printing  its  reports.  His  works  include:  Oaser- 
vazione  intomo  al  Bosforo  tracio  ( 1681 )  ;  8tor%a 
del  mare  (1711);  DaniibitM  Pawnonico-Myaioua 
(1726);  and  Stato  militare  delV  imperio  otto- 
mono  (1732). 

MABSIGLia,  m&r-se^yA.     See  Mabsilius. 

MABSn/nrS,  or  MABSIGI^IO,  of  Padua 
(C.1280-C.1343).  A  Christian  polemic.  He  was 
bom  in  Padua,  and  studied  medicine  there.  Later 
he  taught  philosophy  at  Paris  and  became  rector 
of  the  university  in  1312.  There  between  1324 
and  1326  he  produced,  in  conjunction  with  John 
of  Jandun,  the  treatise  on  jurisprudence  which 
gives  him  his  lasting  fame,  the  Defensor  Pacta, 
an  arraignment  of  the  'usurpations,'  as  he  terms 
them,  of  the  Roman  pontiff.  The  way  to  peace, 
he  maintains,  is  for  the  spiritual  power  to  give  up 
its  claim  to  rule  the  temporal  power.  He  argues 
for  a  Virtual  separation  of  Church  and  State, 
and  pleads  in  singularly  modern  language  for 
religious  liberty.  He  denies  the  right  of  the 
Church  to  punish  heresy.  His  book  was  printed 
and  published  at  Basel  (1622).  The  anonymous 
editor  was  probably  the  printer  Valentinus  Cu- 
rius,  tiiough  some  think  he  was  Huldreich 
Zwingli.  It  was  translated  by  William  Marshall 
(London,  1553). 

MABSIPOBBANCnn,  mftr'sIp-d-brfto'kM. 
A  class  of  fish-like  animals,  the  lampreys,  with  a 
cartilaginous  skeleton  and  the  skull  imperfectly 
developed.     See  Cyclostomi. 

MABSIVAir,  mar's^-van'.  A  to\m  of  Asia 
Minor  in  the  Vilayet  of  Sivas,  situated  among 
gardens  and  vineyards  66  miles  south  of  the 
Black  Sea  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia  F  2) .  It  is  the 
seat  of  Anatolia  College,  also  of  a  Protestant 
theological  seminary,  as  well  as  Jesuit  and  Ar- 
menian schools.  In  the  neighborhood  are  a  sil- 
ver mine  and  hot  mineral  springs.  It  is  a  pros- 
perous town  with  a  population  of  about  16,000. 

MABS-LA-TOUB,  mars'lft-tSSr'.  A  village 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Meurthe-et- 
Moselle,  12  miles  from  Metz,  on  the  route  be- 
tween that  city  and  Verdun.  It  is  noted  for  the 
bloody  battle  which  took  place  there  between  the 


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HABS-LA-TOXTB. 


106 


10JEU3UPIAL  TBOG. 


French  and  Germans,  August   16,   1870,  better 
known  as  the  battle  of  Vionville  (q.v.). 

MAB'STON,  John  (1676?-1634).  An  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  belonging  to  the  Marstons  of 
Shropshire.  He  was  born  probably  at  Coventry, 
about  1575.  In  1594  he  graduated  B.A.  from 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  very  soon,  it 
would  seem,  studied  law.  Turning  to  literature, 
he  published  in  1598  The  Metamorphosis  of  Pyg- 
malion's Image;  and  Certain  Satires,  and  The 
Scourge  of  Villanie:  three  Books  of  Satires.  The 
first,  Pygmalion's  Image,  is  an  amatory  poem, 
written,  the  author  asserted,  to  bring  into  dis- 
repute the  whole  species.  The  satires,  some  of 
which  are  devoted  to  a  quarrel  between  Marston 
and  Joseph  Hall,  are  coarse  and  brutal.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  are  vigorous  and  perspicu- 
ous. Most  famous  are  the  lines  in  which  Marston 
dedicates  himself  to  everlasting  oblivion.  The 
earliest  trace  of  Marston  as  a  playwright  is  in 
Henslowe's  Diary  (September  28,  1599).  His 
extant  tragedies  comprise:  Antonio  and  Mellida 
and  Antonio's  Revenge  (1602)  ;  The  Malcontent 
(1604)  ;  Sophonisha  (1606)  ;  and  The  Insatiate 
Countess  (1613).  His  comedies  comprise:  The 
Dutch  Courtezan  (1605);  The  Faion  (1606); 
and  What  You  Will  (1607).  As  he  often  col- 
laborated, his  hand  is  also  discernible  in  several 
other  plays.  In  conjunction  with  Chapman  and 
Jonson,  he  wrote  Eastward  Ho  (1605);  on  ac- 
count of  certain  offensive  passages  he  and  Chap- 
man were  sent  to  prison,  where  Jonson  volun- 
tarily joined  them.  Before  this,  Marston  and 
Jonson  had  quarreled,  but  they  were  now  recon- 
ciled. The  comedies  are  lively  and  entertaining. 
The  tragedies  contain  many  blood-curdling  pas- 
sages, but  they  are  ill-constructed.  The  Sest  is 
The  Insatiate  Countess,  in  the  making  of  which 
William  Barksted  may  have  had  a  hand.  In  mid- 
dle life,  Marston  left  the  stage  and  entered  the 
Church.  From  1616  to  1631,  he  held  the  living 
of  Christchurch,  in  Hampshire.  He  died  in 
London,  June  25,  1634.  Consult  Works,  ed.  by 
Bullen  (3  vols.,  London,  1887). 

MABSTON,  John  Westland  (1819-90).  An 
English  dramatic  poet,  born  in  Lincolnshire.  He 
studied  law,  but  left  that  profession  for  litera- 
ture. He  published  Oerald  and  Other  Poems 
(1842),  besides  some  novels  and  short  stories, 
and  was  long  a  contributor  to  the  AtheruBum. 
His  principal  literary  activity,  however,  was  in 
the  field  of  dramatic  literature.  Among  his 
numerous  plays  are:  The  Patrician's  Daughter 
(1841),  a  tragedy;  Strathmore  (1849);  Ann 
Blake  (1852);  A  Hard  Struggle  (1858);  The 
Favorite  of  Fortune  (1866)  ;  A  Hero  of  Roma/nce 
(1867) ;  and  Life  for  Life  (1869). 

MABSTON,  Phujp  Boubke  (1850-87).  An 
English  poet,  bom  in  London.  From  early  child- 
hood he  suffered  a  partial  loss  of  sight  which 
ultimately  became  complete  blindness.  Besides 
vision  he  lost  friends,  relatives,  and  pecuniary 
means ;  the  whole  serving  to  develop  in  his  verse 
a  vein  of  unvaried  sac&ess.  His  sonnets  and 
lyrics  are  highly  esteemed  for  technical  excel- 
lence. It  is  generally  believed  that  he  was  the 
subject  of  Mrs.  Craik*s  Philip,  My  King.  He 
published  three  volumes  of  poetry:  Song  Tide 
and  Other  Poems  (1871)  ;  All  in  All  (1875)  ;  and 
Wind  Voices  (1883).    There  were  posthumously 

Sublished  a  collection  of  stories,  edited  by  W. 
harp  and  called  For  a  Song's  Sake  and  Other 


Stories  (1887);  and,  in  verse,  Garden  Beoretm 
(1887)  and  A  Last  Harvest  (1891),  both  edited 
by  Mrs.  Louise  C.  Moulton. 

MABSTON  MOOB.  A  plain  in  Yorkshire. 
England,  where,  July  2,  1644,  the  Royalist  army, 
under  Prince  Rupert,  was  beaten  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary forces,  English  and  Scotch,  under  Fair- 
fax, the  Earl  of  Manchester,  and  the  Earl  of 
Leven.  The  approach  of  Rupert  forced  Fair- 
fax to  abandon  the  siege  of  York,  and  he 
took  up  his  position  on  Marston  Moor,  witli 
about  25,000  men.  Rupert,  with  about  the 
same  number,  came  up  with  him  on  the  after- 
noon of  July  2d;  and  in  the  evening,  at  the 
head  of  the  Royalist  right,  he  made  a  fierce 
charge  upon  the  Parliamentary  left,  which  broke 
and  fled  in  disorder.  The  Parliamentary  centre 
had  likewise  been  broken  by  the  infantry  of  the 
Royalist  centre  and  had  suffered  heavily ;  but  while 
the  Royalists  were  dispersed  in  search  of  plunder 
or  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy,  Cromwell's  famous 
'Ironsides'  brigade,  with  the  Scotch  regiments, 
commanded  by  David  Leslie,  and  some  others, 
rallied,  charged  the  Royalists  vigorously,  and 
remained  masters  of  the  field,  capturing  1500 
prisoners  and  all  the  Royalist  artillery.  The 
killed  and  wounded  on  each  side  numbered  about 
2000.  Thi£  victory  resulted  in  the  occupation  of 
York  and  the  control  of  the  whole  North  of  Eng- 
land by  the  Parliamentary  forces. 

MABSTBAKD,  mAr'str&n,  Vilhelm  Nikolai 
(1810-73).  A  Danish  genre  painter,  bom  in 
Copenhagen.  Here  he  studied  at  the  Academy, 
and  under  Eckersberg,  but  at  an  early  stage 
worked  independently,  and  won  success  with  such 
subjects  as  a  "Sleigh  Drive  by  Torchlight" 
( 1829) ,  and  a  "Musical  Party"  ( 1834) ,  of  special 
interest  as  containing  numerous  portraits  from 
the  musical  world.  In  1836  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  joined  the  circle  that  centred  about 
Thorwaldsen  and  where,  with  others,  he  painted 
an  "Episode  in  the  October  Festival  at  Rome" 
( 1840,  Thorwaldsen  Museum,  Copenhagen ) .  After 
visiting  Florence,  he  passed  a  year  in  Munich 
and  returned  home  in  1841.  Prominent  among 
his  productions  during  the  next  decade  were  a 
"Scene  from  Danish  Peasant  Life"  (after  Hol- 
berg),  and  "Childbed  Room"  (1846),  both  in 
the  Copenhagen  Gallery;  and  "Pothouse  Politi- 
cians" (1852,  Hamburg  Gallery),  besides  other 
episodes  and  characters  from  the  plays  of  Hol- 
berg.  On  a  trip  through  Sweden  he  sketched 
hundreds  of  studies,  embodied  afterwards  in  "A 
Sunday  in  Dalecarlia"  (1853,  Copenhagen  Gal- 
lery). Later  on  he  treated  also  nistorical  sub- 
jects successfully:  witness  his  mural  paintings  in 
the  mortuary  chapel  of  Christian  IV.  at  Roes- 
kilde,  and  "Foimdation  of  Copenhagen  Univer- 
sity," in  the  Aula  of  that  building.  His  mas- 
terly illustrations  \jo  Don  Quiaaote  constitute  part 
of  his  most  meritorious  work.  He  was  appointed 
professor  at  the  Copenhagen  Academy  in  1848 
and  was  its  director  from  1853  to  1857  and 
again  from  1863  to  the  time  of  his  death. 

MABSTJPLAX  FBOG  (from  Lat.  marsu- 
pium,  from  Gk.  ftapa-liriop,  marsipion,  diminu- 
tive of  ftdfxriirot,  marsipos,  ftdpfftiriroi,  marsippos, 
fxdfxnnros,  marsypos,  pouch).  A  tree-frog  of  the 
South  American  genus  Nototrema,  which  is  pecu- 
liar among  the  Hylidae,  in  that  the  female  has 
a  pouch  on  her  back  for  the  reception  of  the 
eggs.    This  pouch  forms  two  blind  sacs  made  by 


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MABSUPIAL  FBOG. 


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3CAB8UPIALIA. 


ialolding  of  the  skin,  whkh  extend  forward  over 
the  back;  but  in  one  species  the  opening  is 
longitudinal.  The  eggs  are  few  in  number  and 
of  large  ai^e,  with  much  food-yolk,  for  in  most 
species  the  embryos  remain  in  the  pouch  until 
they  are  fully  matured.  How  the  eggs  get  into 
the  pouch  is  not  known,  but  Gadow  thinks  it 
most  likely  that  they  are  placed  there  by  the 
help  of  the  male  immediate]^  after  fertilization. 
Five  or  six  species  of  these  small,  brightly  colored 
frogs  have  been  described  from  the  tropical  for- 
ests of  Venezuela  and  the  Upper  Amazon.  Ck)n- 
sult  Gadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (London, 
1901). 

MAB'SUPIAOJLA..   The  marsupials  form  one 
of  the  great  subdivisions  of  the  class  Mammalia, 
and  are  of  special  interest  because  of  their  an- 
cestral history  and  relationships,  and  their  re- 
markable  geographical   distribution.     Although 
ranked    as    an   order,    Marsupialia   is    coexten- 
sive with  the  subclass  Metatneria    (q.v.).     Its 
principal  characters  are  as  follows:   the  brain 
IS  small,  with  the  surface-folding  absent  or  very 
simple,  the  corpus  callosimi   rudimentary,  and 
the   cerebellum   completely   exposed.      Epipubic 
bones  are  present  in  both  sexes,  and  there  are 
other  important  skeletal  characters,  prominently 
a  tendency  to  the  separation  of  bones  ankylosed 
in  the  higher  Eutheria.  The  mammary  glands  are 
provided  with  long  teats,  and  are  usiuiUy  in- 
closed in  a  marsupiimi  or  pouch,  which  serves  to 
protect  the  helpless  voung.    The  imperfection  or 
absence  of  the  pouch  is  foimd  only  among  the 
Koalas  who  grow  and   suckle  on  the  mother's 
teat  after  post-natal  removal;   the  young  being 
protected  only  by  the  hair  of  the  mother's  abdo- 
men.  The  young  when  bom  are  verv  minute  and 
undeveloped.    They  are  not  nierely  imperfect  foetr 
uses,  but  'actual  lan^e,'  inasmuch  as  t^ey  are  pro- 
vided with  a  special  sucking  mouth,  in  adapta- 
tion to  their  needs,  which  is  later  replaced  by  a 
true  mouth.  The  young  when  bom  are  transferred 
by  the  lips  of  the  mother  to  the  pouch,  where 
they  are  placed  upon  a  teat  to  which  the  tempo- 
rary sucking  mouth  clings ;  and,  as  they  are  un- 
able to  suck,  the   milk   is   injected   into  them 
by  the  action  of  special  muscles  of  the  mammary 
gland.     (See  Gland.)    The  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion are  peculiar  to  the  group,  which  is  often 
called  Didelphia*  in  reference  to  their  character. 
The  oviducts  never  unite  to  form  a  uterus  and 
the  vagina  is  always  double,  at  least  in  part; 
the  testes  hang  suspended  in  front  of  the  penis 
and  the  glans  of  the  latter  is  often  bifurcate.    The 
anus  and  urino-genital  opening  are  surrounded 
by  a  common  sphincter  muscle.    It  was  formerly 
supposed  that  no  allanteic  placenta  was  present 
in  the  group,  but  it  is  now  known  to  exist  in 
some  bandicoots  (Perameles) .    The  egg  is  minute, 
as  in  other  Eutheria,  but  incompletely  divides 
at  first. 

In  dentition  and  habite  as  great  a  variety 
exists  among  the  marsupials  as  in  all  the^rest 
of  the  mammals  together,  for  carnivorous,  herbiv- 
orous, insectivorous,  and  omnivorous  forms  are 
all  well  known.  In  distribution,  one  family,  the 
DidelphyidfiB  (opossums),  is  peculiar  to  the 
American  continent,  where  it  is  spread  from  New 
York  State  to  Patagonia;  only  one  of  the  24 
species,  however,  occurs  north  of  Mexico.  All  the 
other  marsupials  (except  one)  are  confined  to  the 
Anstralasian  region,  where  they  completely  domi- 
nate all  other  mammals,  and  form  the  most  char- 
Vol.  XIU.-S. 


acteristic  feature  of  the  fauna.  Their  surrival 
and  prosperity  in  Australia  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  entire  absence  there  of  destructive  carnivores, 
except  the  dingo,  of  doubtful  antiquity ;  and  they 
have  bec(mie  diversified  within  their  limited  cir- 
cumstances in  the  same  way  as  have  the  larger 
company  of  mammals  all  over  the  world,  to  en- 
able them  to  utilize  all  possible  advanteges.  The 
fact  of  marsupials  existing  in  Anoerica,  and 
especially  in  the  Neotropical  region,  has  excited 
much  speculation  as  to  how  they  came  there,  so 
remote  from  Australia.  Greological  researches 
show  that  during  the  Mezozoic  Age  marsupials 
inhabited  Europe  and  North  America,  but  none 
of  that  period  have  been  found  in  Australian 
rocks.  These  oldest  ancestors  of  the  race  appear 
to  have  been  mainly  of  the  polyprotodont  type, 
little  differentiated  from  the  diprotodonts,  how- 
ever; and  either  this  differentiation  occurred  very 
long  ago  (in  Jurassic  or  Creteceous  times)  or 
the  latter  is  a  condition  which  has  arisen,  as 
Beddard  suggeste,  independently  in  both  Sonth 
America  and  Australia.  At  any  rate,  before  the 
Tertiary  Age  was  finished  pouched  marsupials 
disappeared  from  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and 
survived  only  in  Australasia  and  South  America. 
The  hypothesis  of  a  former  land  connection  be- 
tween Australia  and  Patagonia  is  no  longer  re- 
garded as  tenable;  but  it  is  interesting  to  know 
that  a  diprotodont  (see  Opossum-Rat)  existe  in 
Patagonia. 

The  relationships  of  marsupials  have  become 
much  better  understood  than  formerly.  The 
name  Metatheria  was  originally  given  with  the 
idea  that  this  group  was  intermediate  between 
the  Prototheria  (monotremes)  and  higher  Eu- 
theria, and  in  a  sense  this  is  true,  but  the  former 
belief  that  it  represente  a  stage  of  development 
from  the  Prototneria  to  the  monodelphic  mam- 
mals is  not  now  accepted.  The  distinctions  be- 
tween the  marsupials  and  the  Monotremata  are 
fnndamentel,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  the 
derivation  of  the  two  branches  from  any  common 
source.  On  the  contrary,  as  Beddard  concludes 
in  a  learned  review  of  the  subject,  the  great  spe- 
cialization of  the  structure  of  the  marsupials 
(including  evidence  of  degeneration),  and  their 
age,  point  to  the  fact  that  they  are  the  descend- 
ants of  an  early  form  of  eutherian  mammal,  since 
the  time  when  the  stock  had  acquired  diphydonty 
and  the  allantoic  placenta.  See  the  article  Mam- 
malia. 

Classification.  Rather  less  than  160  species 
are  known,  but  they  exhibit  a  most  extraordinary 
variety  of  size,  form,  and  color.  The  classification 
of  the  marsupials  is  based  primarily  upon  the 
dentition,  although  the  characters  of  the  feet 
have  been  given  much  weight  recently.  There 
are  two  principal  groups,  the  Polyprotodontiaf 
which  have  numerous  small,  subequal  incisor 
teeth,  and  the  Diprodontia,  which  have  not  more 
than  six  incisors  in  each  jaw  and  usually  have 
only  two  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  former  includes 
the  opossums,  Tasmanian  wolf  and  'devil,'  the 
dasyures,  bandicoots,  and  the  like,  while  in  the 
latter  are  the  wombats,  phalangers,  koala,  and 
kangaroos.  Descriptive  articles  will  be  found 
under  each  of  these  terms  and  the  related  words. 

BiBLiOGRAPnT.  In  addition  to  stendard  works 
and  books  descriptive  of  Australia,  consult  the 
great  folio  volumes,  with  magnificent  colored 
plates,  of  J.  Gould,  entitled  Monograph  of  the 
Macropodidce  (London,  1841),  and  Mammals  of 


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MABTEN. 


Australia  (London,  1863) ;  Kreft,  Mammals  of 
Attatralia,  folio,  large  plates  (Sydney,  1871); 
Waterhouse,  Mammalia,  vol.  i.  (London,  1848) ; 
Thomas,  Catalogue  of  Maraupialia  and  Monotre- 
mata  in  the  British  Museum  (London,  1888) ; 
Parker  and  Haswell,  Text-Book  of  Zoology  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1897)  ;  Beddard,  Mammalia 
(London  and  New  York,  1902). 

ICABSUPIAL  MOLE  (notoryctes  typhlops). 
A  small  burrowing  marsupial  of  central  Southern 
Australia.  The  marsupial  mole  is  in  no  way 
connected  with  the  European  mole,  but  neverthe- 
less has  acquired  many  similar  habits — afford- 
ing a  valuable  lesson  in  parallelism  in  develop- 
ment. Consult  Beddard,  Mammalia  (London 
and  New  York,  1902). 

MAB^USy  DoMiTius  (c.54  B.C.-C.4  B.C.).  A 
Roman  poet  of  the  Augustan  Age.  He  seems  to 
have  been  a  friend  of  Mscenas  (Martial  viii. 
66,  21),  but  is  not  mentioned  by  Horace.  His 
works  include:  Cicuta,  a  collection  of  epigrams; 
De  Urhanitate,  a  treatise  on  the  use  of  wit  in 
oratory,  which  is  quoted  by  Quintilian;  Am^ 
eonis,  an  epic;  and  erotic  el^es  and  fables.  He 
is  frequently  mentioned  by  Martial  (iv.  29,  7; 
vii.  29,  7 ) ,  who  praises  the  wit  and  severity  of  his 
satire.  The  few  fragments  of  his  works  that 
remain  may  be  found  in  Btthrens,  Fragmenta 
Poetarum  Romanorum  (1886).  Consult  also: 
Weichert,  Poetarum  Latinorum  Reliquiw  ( 1830 ) . 

MAB^YAS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ma/Nrt^r).  One 
of  the  Sileni  of  Asia  Minor,  and  therefore  at  once 
a  spirit  of  the  water  and  of  music,  especially  of 
the  flute,  which  was  associated  with  the  worship 
of  the  great  goddess  Cybele,  as  whose  devoted 
servant  Marsyas  appears  in  the  Phrygian  legend. 
Thus  he  is  called  the  son  of  Hyagnis,  to  whom 
was  attributed  sometimes  the  invention  of  the 
flute,  and  a  teacher  of  Olympus,  to  whom  the 
development  of  the  art  was  assigned.  Under 
Greek  and  especially  Attic  influence  other  fea- 
tures were  added  to  the  legend.  Athena,  so  ran  the 
story,  had  invented  the  flutes,  but,  observing  the 
reflection  of  her  distorted  face,  threw  them  from 
her.  They  were  found  by  the  Silenus,  or  satyr, 
Marsyas,  who  became  so  skillful  that  he  ven- 
tured to  challenge  the  god  of  the  cithara,  Apollo, 
to  a  musical  contest.  Here  two  veTsions  follow. 
According  to  one,  King  Midas  as  judge  gave 
the  decision  to  Marsyas,  whereupon  Apollo  be- 
stowed on  the  umpire  asses'  ears  for  his  poor 
judgment.  In  the  other  version  the  muses  were 
the  arbiters,  and  gave  the  decision  to  Apollo,  as 
his  instrument  allowed  him  to  add  song.  In  both 
versions  the  god  hung  his  presumptuous  rival  to 
a  tree  and  flayed  him  alive,  or  caused  him  to  be 
flayed  by  a  Scythian  slave.  At  Celsente  in  Phrygia 
Marsyas  was  worshiped  at  the  cavern  whence 
flows  the  tributary  of  the  Maeander  that  bears  his 
name,  and  here  also  was  shown  his  skin,  which 
had  been  hung  up  in  warning  by  the  victorious 
god.  Marsyas  was  a  favorite  figure  in  art.  The 
Athenian  sculptor  Myron  made  a  famous  group 
of  Athena  and  Marsyas,  of  which  the  latter  figure 
seems  reproduced  in  a  marble  statue  in  the 
Lateran.  Another  celebrated  group  is  represented 
by  the  statues  of  Marsyas  hung  from  the  tree,  and 
the  celebrated  Florentine  figure  of  the  Scythian 
whetting  his  knife;  of  the  other  figures  of  this 
group  no  certain  copies  have  been  identified.  The 
competition  was  also  represented  on  the  base  of 
the  statues  of  Leto,  Apollo,  and  Artemis  at  Man- 


tinea,  by  Praxiteles,  and  of  this  composition 
three  of  the  four  slabs  are  now  in  the  Museum  a^ 
Athens. 
MABTEIjy  Chables.  See  Chables  Mabtei^ 
MAKTEIiy  mar't^^  Louis  Joseph  (1813-92). 
A  French  politician,  bom  at  Saint-Omer.  He 
studied  law,  entered  politics,  and  was  elected  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  1849.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Corps  L^gislatif  in  1863  and  1869 ;  in 
1871  was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly,  and 
was  vice-president  of  the  Chamber.  In  1875  he 
was  elected  life  member  of  the  Senate;  in  1876-77 
he  became  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  In- 
struction, and  in  1879-80  he  was  president  of  the 
Senate. 

MABTEL  DE  JANVTLLE,  de  zhaN'vM% 
Garbtkt.t.k,  Countess  de  (c.l850— ).  A  French 
author,  bom  at  the  Chateau  of  Ko^tsal  (Morbi- 
han),  and  better  known  by  her  pen  name.  Gyp. 
She  was  the  great-grandniece  of  Mirabeau,  and 
married  the  Comte  Martel  de  Janville  in  1869. 
She  created  the  essentially  Parisian  characters 
Petit  Bob,  Loulou,  and  Paulette,  types  of  a  more 
or  less  risque  society,  which  she  describes  in 
witty  dialogue,  and  with  piquant  satire.  Her 
novels  include:  Petit  Boh  (1882)  ;  La  vertu  de 
la  haronne  (1882)  ;  Autour  du  mariage  (1883)  ; 
Elle  et  lui  (1885);  Le  plus  heureuw  de  tons 
(1885)  ;  Autour  du  divorce  (1886)  ;  Sac  d  papier 
(1886);  Pot«r  ne  pas^  Vitref  (1887);  Pauvre9 
petit'  femmes  (1888);  Mademoiselle  Loulou 
(1888)  ;  Bob  au  salon  (1888)  ;  Oh6!  les  psycho- 
logues  (1889);  Mademoiselle  Eve  (1889),  suc- 
cessfully dramatized. 

MABTELf),  m^r'te-W  (Fr.,  hammered).  In 
music,  a  direction  for  bow  instruments,  indicat- 
ing that  notes  so  marked  are  to  be  played  with  a 
clean,  decided  stroke.  When  the  term  is  used  in 
piano  music  it  means  that  the  keys  are  to  be 
struck  heavily  and  firmly. 

MABTELTiO  TOWER.  A  round  masonry 
tower  designed  to  form  part  of  a  system  of  coast 
defense.  The  original  Martello  tower  was  situ- 
ated in  the  Gulf  of  San  Fiorenzo,  Corsica,  and 
was  named  after  its  inventor..  In  1794  two 
British  war  ships  unsuccessfully  attacked  it, 
with  loss  to  themselves ;  this  single  experience,  it 
is  said,  leading  afterwards  to  the  adoption  of 
Martello  towers  by  the  English.  They  were 
erected  along  the  more  exposed  parts  of  the 
south  coast  and  the  south  and  southeastern 
coasts  of  Ireland.  They  were  determined  on 
and  built  hurriedly  during  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
owing  to  fear  of  a  French  invasion.  They  are 
about  40  feet  high,  solidly  built,  and  situated  on 
or  near  the  beach.  The  walls  are  five  and  one- 
half  feet  thick  and  were  supposed  to  be  bomb- 
proof; the  base  formed  the  magazine,  the  gar- 
rison occupied  the  two  upper  rooms,  and  the 
swivel  heavy  gun  and  its  accompanying  how- 
itzers were  placed  on  the  roof.  They  were  a 
great  expense  to  the  nation,  and  have  always  been 
regarded  as  worthless.  They  are  now  dismantled 
and,  except  in  the  few  instances  where  they 
are  utilized  by  the  Coast  Guard,  abandoned. 

MABTEN  (Fr.  martre,  marte,  from  ML. 
martus,  marturis^  mardarus^  mardalus,  mar- 
darius,  from  OHG.  mardar,  €rer.  Marder,  from 
OHG.  mart,  AS.  mearpy  marten;  probably  con- 
nected with  Lith.  martis,  bride).  Either  of  two 
species  of  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  genus  Mus- 


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MABTEV. 


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MABTENSEN. 


tela,  which  also  contains  the  sables.  The  body 
is  elongated  and  supple,  as  in  weasels,  the  legs 
short,  and  the  toes  separate,  with  sharp,  long 
claws.  The  nose  is  grooved  and  the  ears  are 
shorter  and  broader  than  in  weasels,  and  the 
tail  is  bushy.  The  martens  exhibit  great  agility 
and  gracefulness  in  their  movements  and  are  very 
expert  in  climbing  trees,  among  which  they  gen- 
erally live,  furnishing  a  lofty  hollow  in  a  decay- 
ing trunk  with  a  bed  of  leaves.  Here  the  young 
are  brought  forth  in  litters  of  six  to  eight  early 
each  spring;  but  in  a  mountainous  country  all 
will  make  dens,  sometimes  in  crevices  of  rocks. 

The  term  marten  is  somewhat  indefinite,  but  is 
most  applied  in  America  to  the  animal  which 
is  the  nearest  analogue  to  the  Old  World 
sable  (q.v.),  and  hence  is  frequently  called  the 
American  sable  or  pine  marten:  technically  it  is 
Mustela  Americana,  This  species,  which  for  250 
years  has  supplied  the  most  valuable  of  the 
American  furs  gathered  from  its  tribe,  originally 
had  a  range  wherever  forests  grew  from  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  to  Labrador  and  Hudson 
Bay,  and  from  Colorado  and  central  California  to 
the  barren  grounds  of  the  Arctic  coast;  and  it 
was  so  plentiful  that  periodically  it  overflowed 
eertain  districts  and  spread  in  hordes,  scat- 
tering far  and  wide  in  search  of  food.  On  the 
other  hand,  periods  of  astonishing  scarcity  of 
martens  occur  every  eight  or  ten  years,  no  cause 
for  which  is  known.  The  incessant  trapping 
which  goes  on  in  the  wilderness  seems  to  have 
little  effect  upon  them,  but  this  species  every- 
where rapidly  fades  away  before  the  approach  of 
civilization.  They  keep  mostly  to  the  trees,  and 
hence  like  the  denser  parts  of  the  forest,  but 
they  constantly  descend  to  the  ground  for  food, 
especially  in  winter,  when  they  regularly  hunt 
for  hares  and  grouse  of  all  kinds,  trailing  them 
with  nose  to  the  track  like  hounds.  Their  broad 
feet  enable  them  to  move  rapidly,  even  over  soft 
snow.  They  also  hunt  persistently  for  squirrels, 
chase  them  in  the  trees  and  on  the  ground,  and 
enter  their  nests.  To  this  diet  is  added  whatever 
mice  and  birds  and  small  fare  comes  their  way. 

Martens  have  little  to  fear  from  native  foes; 
the  much  larger  fisher  is  said  to  kill  them  occa- 
sionally, and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  great 
homed  owl  now  and  then  manages  to  pounce  on 
one,  but  very  few  of  the  carnivores  care  to  taste 
tiieir  flesh  unless  driven  to  it  by  extreme  hunger. 
They  are  trapped  from  November  until  toward 
March,  when  their  coat  begins  to  become  ragged 
and  dull  in  hue,  and  with  the  approach  of  the 
rutting  season  they  are  no  longer  attracted  by  the 
baits  offered  by  trappers.  This  species  averages 
about  18  inches  in  length  of  head  and  body,  plus 
seven  to  eight  inches  of  tail.  Its  highly  variable 
tints  may  be  described  as  rich  brown,  somewhat 
lighter  below.  The  winter  fur  is  full  and  soft, 
an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  and  has  sparsely  scat- 
tered through  it  coarse  black  hairs  which  the 
furrier  pulls  out.  The  tail  has  longer  hairs,  but 
is  lees  bushy  than  that  of  the  fisher.  The  dis- 
tinction between  this  animal  and  either  the  Euro- 
pean pine  marten  or  the  Asiatic  sable  is  not 
visible  to  an  inexperienced  eye,  and  it  is  only 
recently  that  naturalists  have  agreed  to  regard 
them  as  specifically  distinct. 

A  much  larger  American  species,  unlike  any- 
thing in  the  Old  World,  is  Pennant's  marten 
{Mustela  Pewnanti),  the  'pekan'  of  French-Cana- 
dian trappers  and  commonly  known  to  Ameri- 


cans as  the  'black  cat'  or  'fisher,'  the  latter  an 
erroneous  name,  since  the  animal  never  catches 
fish.  It  is  the  largest  of  its  race,  and  is  described 
under  Fisheb.  For  illustration  of  the  pine  marten 
fcee  Plate  of  Fub-Beabing  Animals.  Two  other 
species  are  natives  of  Northern  Europe,  namely, 
the  now  rare  and  restricted  pine  or  sweet  marten 
(Mtiatela  martea)  and  the  more  common  beech 
or  stone  marten  {Mustela  foina),  which  is  not 
now  regarded  as  an  inhabitant  of  Great  Britain. 
The  habits  of  both  are  substantially  the  same  as 
have  been  described  above,  and  they  differ  mainly 
in  the  pine  marten  having  (like  the  American 
form)  a  yellowish  throat  and  chest,  while  that 
of  the  beech  marten  is  white.  Consult  Coues, 
Fur-Bearing  Animals  (Washington,  1877). 

MABTi:NE,  mAr'tAn',  Edmond  (1664-1739). 
A  Roman  Catholic  scholar.  He  was  born  at 
Saint- Jean-de-LOne,  near  Dijon;  became  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  at  eighteen,  and  joined  the  famous 
Congregation  of  Saint  Maur.  He  spent  his  life  in 
the  service  of  learning,  searching  the  libraries 
of  Grermanv,  France,  and  the  Netherlands,  the 
fruits  of  tne  search  appearing  in  many  works, 
notably  in  the  new  edition  of  the  Oallia  Christ- 
iana (14  vols.,  1715-56)  ;  Commentarius  in  Regu- 
lam  8ancti  Patris  Benedicti  (1690);  Thesaurus 
Novus  Anecdotorum  (1717);  Veterum  Scrip- 
torum  et  Monumentorum  Historicorum  Dogmati- 
corum  et  Moralium  Amplissima  Collect  to  (1724- 
33). 

MABTENSy  mftr'tens,  Fbiedbigh  Fbommhold 
VON  (1846—).  A  Russian  writer  on  interna- 
tional law,  bom  at  Pemau,  in  Livonia.  He 
studied  law  at  the  universities  of  Saint  Peters- 
burg, Vienna,  Heidelberg,  and  Leipzig.  In  1868 
he  became  an  official  of  the  Ministry  for  Foreign 
Affairs  and  thereafter  continued  to  be  an  active 
and  influential  figure  in  matters  of  foreign  diplo- 
macy. He  took  part  in  the  Brussels  conference 
for  the  codification  of  martial  law.  In  1884  and 
1887  he  was  a  member  of  the  Red  Cross  confer- 
ences. In  1889  he  represented  Russia  at  the 
Brussels  conference  for  commerce  and  maritime 
law.  He  was  intrusted  with  the  office  of  arbi- 
trator between  England  and  France  in  the  New 
Zealand  question  in  1891,  and  two  years  after- 
wards he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Hague  conference 
on  arbitration.  In  1905  he  was  legal  adviser 
to  the  Russian  peace  plenipotentiaries  at  Ports- 
mouth. He  published:  Recueil  de  trait4s  et  con- 
ventions conclus  par  la  Russie  avec  les  puissances 
4trangdres  (1874-95),  and  La  Russie  et  VAngle- 
terre  dans  VAsie  Centrale  (1879).  He  is  fa- 
mous for  his  work  International  Law  (1882). 

MABTENS,  Geobg  Fbiedbich  von  (1756- 
1821).  A  German  publicist  and  diplomat,  bom 
at  Hamburg.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of 
G5ttingen,  Ratisbon,  and  Vienna.  From  1783 
to  1789  he  was  professor  of  law  at  Gottingen. 
In  1808  he  entered  into  the  Westphalian  civil 
service  as  Counselor  of  State.  After  the  restora- 
tion, he  was  made. Privy  Coimcilor  by  the  King 
of  Hanover.  Martens's  chief  literary  work  is 
Recueil  des  trait4s  (1817-36),  but  he  acquired 
special  fame  by  his  Precis  du  droit  des  gens  mo- 
demes  de  I* Europe  (1821-64). 

MAB^ENSEN,  Hans  Lassen  (1808-84).  A 
Danish  theologian  and  bishop.  He  was  bom  at 
Flensburg,  Schleswig,  August  19,  1808;  studied 
theology  at  the  University  of  Copenhaipen ;  and 
in  1840  became  professor  at  the  university,  first 


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MABTENSEN. 


110 


MABTIAL. 


in  philosophy,  and  afterwards  in  theology.  In 
1845  he  was  appointed  preacher  to  the  Danish 
Court,  and  in  1854  elevated  to  the  bishopric  of 
Iceland,  the  highest  dignity  of  the  Danish 
Church.  In  this  position,  by  his  eminent  scholar- 
ship, his  catholic  spirit,  and  his  tireless  activity, 
he  exerted  a  powerful  and  beneficent  influence. 
He  died  in  Copenhagen,  February  3,  1884.  His 
^orks  include:  Mester  Eckart  (1840),  an  essay 
•on  the  mysticism  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  an  Outline 
of  a  System  of  Ethics  ( 1841 )  ;  Christian  Dog- 
matica  (1849;  Eng.  trans.  1866);  a  System  of 
Christian  Ethics  (1872;  Eng.  trans.  1873-82); 
Jakob  Bdhme  (1882);  an  autobiography  (Ger. 
trans.,  Aus  meinem  Lehen,  1883-84).  Consult 
also  his  correspondence  with  Domer,  Brief- 
wechsel  mit  L.  A.  Domer  (1887). 

MAB^THAy  Ger.  pron.  mfir'ti.  An  opera  in 
four  acts  by  Flotow,  with  words  by  Friedrich 
Riese,  produced  at  Vienna  in  1847.  The  music 
is  light  and  the  opera  has  won  wide  popularity. 
Among  the  arias  is  The  Last  Rose  of  Summer.* 

MAB^HA  AND  MA^Y,  of  Bethany. 
Two  sisters  named  in  the  Grospels  of  Luke  and 
John  as  special  friends  of  Jesus.  At  their  home 
in  Bethany,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  near  Jerusa- 
lem, Jesus  found  a  welcome  on  His  visits  to 
Jerusalem.  Martha  appears  to  have  been  the 
elder,  though  Mary  was  the  more  appreciative  of 
Jesus'  teaching  (cf.  Luke  x.  38-42).  The  re- 
gard in  which  Jesus  held  the  sisters  was  extended 
:to  their  brother  Lazarus  (q.v.),  at  whose  death 
Jesus  came  to  Bethany  to  comfort  the  sisters, 
not  only  by  the  raising  of  the  dead  one,  but  by 
teaching  concerning  immortal  life,  which  Martha, 
however,  found  hard  to  grasp  (John  xi.).  A  few 
'days  before  the  crucifixion  Jesus  was  a  guest  at 
:a  meal  in  the  home  of  Simon  of  Bethany,  a  leper, 
:at  which  Martha  assisted,  and  which  Mary  made 
the  occasion  of  anointing  Jesus  with  the  contents 
of  a  box  of  most  precious  ointment — a  symbol  of 
her  regard  graciously  accepted  by  Jesus  (Matt, 
xxvi.  6-13;  Mark  xiv.  3-9;  John  xii.  1-8).  The 
attempts  to  identify  this  anointing  with  that 
referred  to  in  Luke  vii.  36-50  cannot  be  pro- 
nounced successful.  Nothing  more  is  known  of 
the  sisters.  Mediaeval  legend  confounded  Mary 
with  Mary  Magdalene,  and  asserted  that  she  la- 
bored and  died  in  Southern  France. 

MABTHA'S  VEKTEYABD.  An  island  off 
the  southern  coast  of  Massachusetts,  of  which 
State  it  forms,  with  one  or  two  minor  islets,  the 
eoimty  of  Dukes  (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  5). 
It  is  20  miles  long  and  1 0  miles  in  greatest  width, 
and  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  Vineyard 
Sound,  4  to  6  miles  wide.  The  island  is  rather 
level,  and  to  a  large  extent  covered  with  low  for- 
ests presenting  a  remarkable  variety  of  flora. 
The  southern  coast  has  shallow  lagoons  and  sand 
bars,  while  on  the  north  side  the  coast  consists  of 
bluffs  about  30  feet  high,  and  to  the  west  termi- 
nates in  the  bold  headland  Gay  Head,  200  feet 
high,  and  surmounted  by  a  lighthouse.  The 
island  is  a  much  frequented  summer  resort,  and 
is  noted  for  its  large  annual  camp  meetings.  The 
principal  town  and  the  county  seat  is  Edgartown. 
The  population  in  1890  was  4369,  and  in  1900 
4561.  The  island  was  discovered  and  named  by 
Bartholomew  (3osnold  in  1602.  Its  Indian  in- 
habitants were  all  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
were  loyal  to  the  whites  during  King  Philip's 
War.  During  the  Revolution  the  island  was 
plundered  by  the  British. 


MABTI,  m&r't^,  Jos£  Julian  (1853-95).  A 
Cuban  patriot,  born  in  Havana.  As  a  youth  he 
worked  in  the  quarries,  but  he  was  afterwards 
able  to  go  to  Spain,  where  he  studied  law.  The 
independence  of  Cuba  had  been  his  dream  for 
many  vears,  and  he  was  twice  imprisoned  for  his 
radical  views  on  the  subject.  He  was  professor 
of  literature  and  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Guatemala  for  a  tune,  and  represented  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay  as  consul 
in  New  York  City.  There  he  published  La  Patria^ 
a  journal  devoted  to  Cuban  mterests.  His  writ- 
ings include  a  translation  of  Helen  Jack- 
son's Ramona  (1888).  At  the  end  of  the  year 
1894,  Marti,  with  some  friends  from  the  United 
States,  armed  and  manned  three  vessels  and 
sailed  for  Cuba,  but  they  were  captured  at  Fer- 
nandina,  Fla.  On  another  expedition  in  1895,  he 
succeeded  in  landing  at  Cabonico,  and  marched 
inland  with  Gromez.  Marti  himself  had  in- 
tended to  return  abroad,  but  the  army  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Spaniards  at  Dos  Rios,  and  he  was 
shot. 

MABTIAL,  m&r^shal  (Mabcus  Vauexius 
Mabtiaus).  The  first  of  Roman  epif^am- 
matists.  He  was  bom  at  Bilbilis,  in  Spain,  March 
1,  A.D.  38-42;  Uie  exact  year  is  in  doubt.  In  64 
he  came  to  Rome,  where  he  resided  till  98,  when 
he  returned  to  his  native  town.  Here  he  found 
many  good  friends  and  patrons,  and  a  highly 
cultivated  lady  named  Marcella  made  him  a 
present  of  a  small  estate,  where  he  passed  in  re- 
pose the  following  years  until  his  death,  which 
occurred  not  later  than  a.d.  104.  While  at  Rome 
Martial  became  famous  as  a  wit  and  poet«  and  re- 
ceived the  patronagre  of  the  emperors  Titus  and 
Domitian.  He  lived  in  a  sort  of  precarious  af- 
fluence in  a  mansion  in  the  city,  and  in  Nomen- 
tum,  a  suburban  villa,  to  both  of  which  he  makes 
frequent  reference.  From  Rome  his  reputation 
rapidly  extended  to  the  provinces;  and  even  in 
Britain  his  Epigrammata,  which,  divided  into 
fourteen  books,  now  form  his  extant  works,  were 
familiarly  read.  These  books,  which  were  ar- 
ranged by  himself  for  publication,  were  written 
in  the  following  order :  The  first  eleven,  including 
the  Liber  de  SpectamUis,  were  composed  at  Rome, 
with  the  exception  of  the  third,  which  was  writ- 
ten during  a  tour  in  Gallia  Togata;  the  twelfth 
was  written  at  Bilbilis,  and  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  at  Rome,  under  Domitian.  The  last 
two,  entitled  Xenia  and  Apophoreta,  describe^ln 
distichs  the  various  kinds  of  souvenirs  presented 
by  the  Romans  to  each  other  on  holidays.  To  the 
other  books  we  are  also  indebted  for  much  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  which  pre' 
vailed  under  the  Empire  from  Nero  to  Trajan. 
His  works  have  also  a  great  litcrarv  value, 
as  embodying  the  first  specimens  of  what  we  now 
understand  by  epigram — ^not  a  mere  inscrip- 
tion, but  a  poem  of  two  or  more  lines,  con- 
taining the  terms  of  an  antithesis,  which  ends 
with  a  witty  or  ingenious  turn  of  thought.  The 
wonderful  inventiveness  and  facility  displayed  by 
Martial  in  this  species  of  composition  have  al- 
ways received  the  highest  admiration,  only  quali- 
fied by  his  disgusting  grossness.  The  best  edition 
of  Martial  is  that  of  Friedliinder  (2  vols.,  Leip- 
zig, 1886)  ;  a  handy  text  edition  is  that  of  Gil- 
bert (Leipzig,  1886).  He  has  never  found  an 
adequate  translator,  but  a  collection  of  transla- 
tions in  prose  and  verse  will  be  found  in  Bohn's 
"Classical  Library."    See  Epigiam. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MARTIAL   LAW. 


Ill 


MABTIH. 


ICABTL/LL  LAW  (Lat.  martialis,  pertaining 
to  war  or  Mars,  from  Mara,  the  god  of  war) .  The 
exercise  of  exceptional  governing  power  by  mili- 
tary authorities  in  cases  where  the  ordinary  law 
is  superseded  by  the  control  of  military  forces. 
It  is  not  a  written  law,  but  arises  out  of  a  neces- 
sity, either  (a)  in  case  of  the  invasion  of  a 
foreign  country  by  belligerents,  or  (b)  where  by 
the  force  of  internal  dissension  or  conflict  the 
regular  civil  authority  of  a  country  is  partly  or 
wholly  overcome,  and  the  proclamation  of  martial 
law  is  necessitated  by  the  exigency  of  the  occa- 
sion. 

Martial  law  includes  imder  its  sway  all  persons 
— ^whether  civil  or  military.  In  its  administra- 
tion the  forms  of  military  law  are  adhered  to  as 
far  as  practicable.  In  the  Civil  War  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  declared  martial  law 
to  be  the  immediate  and  direct  effect  and  con- 
sequence of  occupation  or  conquest,  and  that  it 
was  simply  military  authority  exercised  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  laws  and  usages  of  war.  When 
a  place,  district,  or  country  is  occupied  by  an 
enemy,  civil  and  criminal  law  continues  to  take 
its  usual  course  unless  stopped  by  order  of  the 
occupying  military  power;  but  the  functions  of 
the  nbstile  government,  legislative,  executive,  or 
administrative,  cease,  or  continue  only  with  the 
sanction  or  participation  of  the  occupier.  Under 
martial  law  cases  which  come  withm  the  *rules 
and  articles  of  war,'  or  the  jurisdiction  conferred 
by  statute  on  courts-martial,  are  tried  by  the 
latter,  otherwise  by  military  commission.  It  was 
the  judgment  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  ear  p.  MUligan  (4  Wall  2,  127),  that 
when  the  civil  courts  are  open  and  in  *the 
unobstructed  exercise  of  their  jurisdiction/ 
a  military  tribtmal  is  without  the  necessary 
jurisdiction  to  try  civilians.  Martial  law  is 
not  retrospective.  An  offender  cannot  be 
tried  for  an  offense  committed  before  martial 
law  is  proclaimed.  Martial  law  may  continue 
in  a  conquered  country  until  a  civil  govern- 
ment can  be  established  or  restored.  Acts  done 
under  martial  law  have  no  immediate  consti- 
tutional or  legislative  authorization,  but  ema- 
nate directly  from  the  military  power.  But  where 
the  civil  authority  exists  the  Constitution  is  im- 
perative (Art.  vi.  sec.  2)  that  it  shall  be  para- 
mount. tFnder  the  constitutional  system  of  the 
United  States,  it  is  held  by  the  Supreme  Court 
that  a  State  Legislature  may  proclaim  the  exist- 
ence of  martial  law  when  demanded  by  the  public 
safety.  The  power  of  the  Federal  Government  to 
make  such  proclamation  is  a  restricted  one,  im- 
plied from  the  clause  in  the  Constitution  ( Art.  i. 
sec.  9,  sub.  2),  providing  that  only  in  cases  of 
rebellion  or  invasion,  where  necessary  for  the 
general  welfare,  shall  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
be  superseded.  For  further  information  as  to  the 
suspension  of  the  privilege  of  habeas  corpus  in 
time  of  martial  law,  see  Habeas  Corpus.  Com- 
pare MnjTABT  Law^  from  which  martial  law 
must  be  distinguished. 

KAJt'TTA^NlTS  CAVEJ/UL  See  Capella, 
Martiantjs  Mmicus  Felix. 

MABTIGVAC,  mttr't^'nyftk',  Jean  Baptiste 
Algat,  Vicomte  de  (1776-1832).  A  French  poli- 
tician and  administrator,  born  at  Bordeaux.  His 
devotion  to  the  Bourbons  and  his  services  to  the 
Duchess  d'AngonlGme  during  the  Hundred  Days 
won  him  the  post  of  Procurator-General  of  Li- 


moges in  1819.  Two  years  after,  he  was  elected  a 
Deputy;  made  himself  prominent  by  his  elo- 
quence and  his  gradual  abandonment  of  his 
extreme  Bourbon  sentiments;  and,  in  1828,  be- 
came Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  actual  head  of 
the  Ministry.  Here  his  policy  was  checked  by  a 
combination  of  the  Right  and  the  Left.  He  re- 
tired in  August,  1829,  and  signed  the  address  of 
the  Two  Hundred  and  Twenty-One;  but  after  the 
revolution  of  July  boldly  defended  Charles  X.  He 
wrote  an  Essai  historique  sur  la  rivolution  d'Es- 
pagne  et  aur  Vintervention  de  1823  ( 1832) .  Con- 
sult Daudet,  Le  minist^e  deM.de  Martignao 
(Paris,  1875). 

MABTIGNT,  mttr'tft'ny^,  or  MABTINACH 

(Lat.  Octodurum) ,  Three  united  villages  in  the 
Canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland,  situated  on  the 
left  slope  of  the  Rhone  Valley,  about  twenty-four 
miles  south  from  the  east  end  of  Lake  Geneva 
(Map:  Switzerland,  B  2).  The  two  noted  routes, 
one  to  the  Vale  of  Chamonix  by  the  T^te  Noire 
or  the  Col  de  Balme,  and  another  to  the  Great ' 
Saint  Bernard,  branch  off  here.  Martigny  is  on 
the  Simplon  road  into  Italy,  and  is  a  great  resort 
for  tourists.   Population,  in  1900,  4292. 

MABTIN  (from  Martin,  Fr.  Martin,  from 
ML.  Martinus,  Martin,  from  Lat.  Mars,  the  god 
of  war).  A  swallow;  in  the  United  States,  one 
of  the  large  purple  swallows  of  the  ^nus  Progne. 
Several  of  the  South  American  species  are  famil- 
iar birds  in  Argentina,  one  species  {Progne  ta- 
pera)  breeding  only  in  the  clay  structures  of  an 
oven-bird.  The  common  purple  martin  {Progne 
subis)  is  widely  distributed  in  North  America, 
ranging  in  summer  as  far  north  as  Newfoundland 
and  the  Saskatchewan,  and  wintering  in  Central 
and  South  America.  The  martin  is  eight  inches 
long  and  sixteen  across  the  wings.  The  male  is 
shining  blue-black,  while  the  female  i»  bluish- 
black  above  and  brownish -gray  beneath.  The 
nest  was  primitively  made  in  hollows  of  old  trees, 
but  in  all  settled  parts  of  the  country  the  birds 
now  occupy  bird-houses  set  upon  ^les  for 
their  accommodation,  and  they  have  distributed 
themselves  accordingly,  not  frequenting  farms  or 
villages  where  bird-houses  are  not  erected  for 
them.  In  occupying  these  houses  they  must  with- 
stand the  competition  of  bluebirds,  wrens,  Eng- 
lish sparrows,  and,  worst  of  all,  of  white-bellied 
swallows.  The  growing  scarcity  of  the  bird  in 
New  England  is  attributed  mainly  to  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  last-named  species,  which  arrives  in 
the  spring  somewhat  earlier  than  the  martin, 
and,  having  got  possession  of  the  quarters,  can- 
not easily  be  dislodged.  These  various  influences 
make  the  distribution  of  the  species  more  and 
more  local,  and  are  lessening  its  numbers  in 
the  Northeastern  States.  In  the  South  they  are 
more  numerous  and  familiar,  and  they  are  every- 
where regarded  with  affection.  The  eggs  are 
pure  white.  The  food  and  habits  of  the  martin 
are  like  those  of  other  swallows  (q.v.). 

In  Europe  the  black  swift  is  sometimes  called 
*black  martin,*  and  in  France  the  name  *martin* 
is  applied  to  the  kingfisher ;  but  the  French  colo- 
nists in  the  Orient  call  the  grakles  of  the  genus 
Acridotheres  'martins.'  In  the  United  States 
the  bank-swallow  (q.v.)  is  sometimes  called 
*sand-inartin,'  and  the  kingbird  is  occasionally 
called  *bee-martin.*  Such  uses  of  the  word,  how- 
ever, are  confusing,  and  it  is  desirable  that  the 
name  martin  should  be  confined  at  least  to  the 


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112 


MARTIN. 


swallows,  and  in  America  to  those  of  the  genus 
Progne.    See  Plate  of  Swallows. 

MARTIN.  The  name  of  five  popes,  the  second 
and  third  of  whom  are  more  properly  known  as 
Marinus  I.  and  II.,  though  since  the  thirteenth 
century  the  two  names  have  commonly  been  con- 
founded in  the  lists.  Mabtin  I.,  Saint,  Pope 
649-655.  He  was  a  martyr  to  his  firm  stand 
against  monothelitism,  which  he  caused  to  be 
condemned  in  the  first  Lateran  Council.  (See 
Lateran  Councils.)  In  consequence  he  was 
seized  by  the  Greek  Emperor  Constans  II.,  who 
attempted  to  depose  him  and  carried  him  off 
to  the  Crimea,  where  he  died  a  prisoner. — Mab- 
tin II.,  Pope  882-884.  Before  his  election  to 
fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  violent  death  of 
John  VIII.,  he  had  been  Bishop  of  Cere,  and 
chosen  by  three  popes  to  represent  them  as  legate 
in  the  delicate  negotiations  with  the  East,  in 
which  capacity  he  was  present  at  the  fourth  coun- 
cil of  Constantinople  in  869.  As  Pope  he  had 
close  relations  with  the  English  King  Alfred,  to 
whom  he  sent  a  relic  of  the  cross. — ^Martin  III., 
Pope  942-946.  A  Roman  by  birth  and  a  man  of 
hign  repute  for  learning  and  piety,  though  his 
pontificate  fell  in  the  unhappy  period  of  the 
domination  of  the  Italian  noble  factions. — ^Mab- 
tin IV.,  Pope  1281-85,  Simon  de  Brion.  A 
Frenchman  by  birth,  he  became  canon  of  Tours, 
was  made  cardinal  by  Urban  FV.  in  1261,  and 
was  several  times  legate  in  France.  He  was 
elected  Pope  by  the  influence  of  the  French  party 
in  the  Sacred  College,  aided  by  the  presence  at 
Viterbo  (where  the  conclave  was  held)  of  Charles 
of  Anjou,  whom  he  afterwards  constantly  sup- 
ported, especially  in  his  efforts  to  retain  pos- 
session of  Sicily. — Mabtin  V.,  Pope  1417-31, 
Ottone  Colonna.  He  was  bom  in  Rome  in  1368. 
He  was  named  cardinal  in  1406  by  Innocent  VII., 
and  in  1410  appointed  to  adjudicate  the  appeal  of 
Huss,  against  whom  he  decided.  By  his  election 
to  the  Papacy  at  Constance  the  great  schism 
( see  Schism,  Westebn  )  was  finally  extinguished. 
He  presided  in  all  the  subsequent  sessions  of  the 
council ;  and  when  the  Fathers  separated  without 
discussing  urgent  questions  of  reform,  he  was 
finally  persuaded  to  call  another  council,  origi- 
nally at  Pavia,  then,  from  fear  of  the  plague,  at 
Siena,  and  when  it  was  about  to  meet  at  Basel, 
he  designated  the  zealous  reformer  Cardinal  Ce- 
sarini  as  its  president.  Martin  himself,  how- 
ever, died  just  before  the  assembling  of  the 
council. 

MABTIN,  mar't^n,  Eduabd  (1809-75).  A 
German  obstetrician.  He  was  born  at  Heidel- 
berg; studied  medicine  there,  at  Jena,  Gottin- 
gen,  and  Berlin;  and,  in  1837,  became  professor 
of  gynaecology  at  Jena,  and  in  1858  at  Berlin. 
Martin  was  one  of  the  first  to  operate  on  diseased 
ovaries.  He  wrote:  Lehrhuch  der  Oehurtshilfe 
fur  Hehammen  (1854  and  often)  ;  HandatUxs  der 
Oytuikologie  (1862;  2d  ed.  1878)  ;  and  Die  Net- 
gungen  und  Beugungen  der  Gebdrmutter  (1866; 
2d  ed.  1870). 

MABTIN,  Ebnst  (1841  —  ).  A  German 
scholar  in  Romance  and  Germanic  philology.  He 
was  bom  at  Jena,  a  son  of  Eduard  Martin; 
studied  at  Jena,  Berlin,  and  Bonn,  and  was 
made  professor  at  Strassburg  in  1877,  after  hav- 
ing taught  in  the  universities  of  Freiburg  and 
Prague.  He  wrote  a  very  valuable  Mitielhoch- 
deutsche  Grammatik  (186*5;  12th  ed.  1896)  ;  Eso- 


amen  critique  des  manuscrits  du  roman  de 
Renard  (1872),  followed  by  two  editions  of  Rey- 
naert  (1872),  and  Roman  de  Renart  (1882-87), 
and  by  Neue  Fragmente  der  Oediohte  von  den  Vo9 
Reinaerde  (1889);  Elsdsaiache  Litteraturdenk- 
maler  des  IJ^ien  his  llien  Jahrhunderts  (1878- 
87)  ;  Worterhuch  der  elsdssischen  Mundart 
(1897)  ;  and  an  edition  of  Parcival  und  Tiiurel 
(1900). 

MABTIN,  mar'tiN',  Ftux  (1804-86).  A 
French-Canadian  Jesuit,  bom  at  Auray  in  Brit- 
tany. In  1842  he  was  sent  to  Canada  to  assist 
in  reestablishing  Jesuit  missions  there.  He  found- 
ed Saint  Mary's  College  in  Montreal ;  collected  ma- 
terial for  the  history  of  Canada,  and  published 
and  edited  many  works  throwing  light  on  the 
old  Canadian  Jesuit  missions,  among  which  are 
the  following :  Manuel  du  phlerin  de  Notre  Dame 
de  Bon  Secours  (Montreal,  1848);  Relation  dee 
Jesuitea  (1850),  an  enlarged  edition  of  O'Cal- 
laghan's  work;  Mission  du  Canada,  relations  in^ 
dites  (1861)  ;  De  Montcalm  en  Canada  (1867)  ; 
and  Le  R.  P.  Isaac  Jogues  (1873).  He  assisted 
Carayon  in  a  series  of  volumes  on  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sions. 

MABTnr,  Fban^ois  Xavieb  (c.I762-1846). 
An  American  jurist  and  historian.  He  was  bom 
in  Marseilles,  France,  and  when  about  eighteen 
years  of  age  engaged  in  business  at  Martinique. 
He  failed  and  went  to  New  Berne,  N.  C,  about 
1783.  He  learned  the  printer's  trade,  and  soon 
had  an  office  of  his  own.  Under  the  patronage 
of  ex-Governor  Abner  Nash  he  began  the  study  of 
law.  In  1792  he  compiled  by  request  of  the 
General  Assembly  the  British  statutes  which 
were  in  force  in  North  Carolina  at  the  time  of 
the  Revolution.  In  1794  he  compiled  the  private 
acts  of  the  Assembly,  and  in  1803  extended 
Judge  Iredell's  revision  from  1789.  Meanwhile 
he  had  translated  and  published  Pothier  on 
Obligations,  setting  the  type  himself.  In  1806-07 
he  represented  the  borough  of  New  Berne  in  the 
Assembly.  In  1809  President  Madison  appoint- 
ed him  judge  of  the  Territory  of  Mississippi, 
and  the  next  year  he  was  transferred  to  tne 
Territory  of  Orleans.  When  the  State  of  Louisi- 
ana was  admitted  to  the  Union,  he  became  the 
first  Attorney-General,  in  1813.  In  1816  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Supreme  0)urt  and  served 
thirty-one  years.  During  the  latter  part  of  this 
time  he  was  senior  or  presiding  judge.  At  the 
time  of  his  appointment  the  law  in  force  in  the 
State  was  a  mixture  of  Spanish  and  French 
statutes  and  decisions,  into  which  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  and  the  system  of  procedure  in 
criminal  cases  according  to  the  common  law 
had  been  introduced.  Judge  Martin's  services 
in  welding  into  a  homogeneous  whole  this  mass 
of  contradictory  statutes  and  principles  gave  him 
the  title,  *Father  of  the  jurisprudence  of  Louisi- 
ana.' During  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  he 
was  practically  blind,  but  continued  to  do  full 
work  on  the  bench  until  superseded  by  the  judges 
appointed  under  the  new  Constitution  in  1845. 
In  addition  to  his  judicial  labors,  he  published 
two  volumes  of  Reports  of  the  Superior  Courte 
of  Orleans,  from  1809  to  1812  (1811  and  1813)  ; 
eighteen  volumes  of  Reports  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Louisiana  (1813-30)  :  a  History  of  Lou- 
isiana  (1827)  :  and  a  History  of  North  Carolina 
(1829),  though  this  was  completed  before  he  left 
that  State  in  1809. 


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MARTIN. 


lIAB/TOTy  Gbegobt  (M582).  A  translator 
of  the  Bible,  bom  at  Maxfield  in  Sussex,  England. 
He  was  educated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Oxford 
(B.A.  1561,  M.A.  1565),  where  he  was  distin- 
guished as  a  Hebraist  and  Grecian.  After  leav- 
ing the  university,  he  became  tutor  to  Philip 
Howard,  afterward  Earl  Arundel.  A  stanch 
Catholic,  he  encouraged  the  Howards  to  remain 
true  to  their  faith.  Unable  to  conform  to  the 
Established  Church,  he  fled  to  Douai  in  Flanders 
(1570),  where  he  taught  Hebrew  in  the  English 
College,  then  just  established.  In  1577  he  was 
sent  to  help  organize  the  English  Colfege  at 
Rome.  In  1578  the  college  at  Douai  was  moved 
to  Eheims.  There  Martin  snent  the  rest  of  his 
life  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  He  died 
October  28,  1582.  The  famous  Douai  Bible, 
though  since  revised,  is  still  the  standard  among 
English  Catholics.  It  was  made  from  the  Latin, 
collated  with  the  Greek  and  the  Hebrew  versions. 
The  New  Testament  appeared  at  Rheilns  in  1582. 
The  Old  Testament  was  not  published  till  1609- 
10.  The  whole  was  revised  by  Bishop  Challoner 
in  1740-50.  Though  Martin's  version  was  severely 
criticised  by  English  Protestants,  it  was  freely 
used  for  the  authorized  Protestant  version  made 
under  King  James. 

KABTIH,  m&r'UN^  Henm  (1810-83).  An 
eminent  French  historian,  bom  at  Saint  Quen- 
tin,  February  20,  1810.  Educated  for  the  prac- 
tice of  law,  he  soon  abandoned  law  for  litera- 
ture. At  first  he  wrote  historical  romances 
and  poetry,  but  later,  with  Paul  Lacroix,  he 
began  the  task  of  compiling  a  history  of  France, 
to  be  made  up  of  extracts  from  different  authors. 
One  volume  only  was  published,  when  La- 
croix abandoned  it^  but  Martin  resolved  to 
go  on.  The  first  volume  appeared  in  1833, 
and  the  undertaking  was  completed  in  1836. 
Meanwhile  he  set  to  work  on  a  history  of  his 
own,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared  in  the 
years  1833-36,  in  fifteen  volumes.  The  third  and 
enlarged  edition  appeared  between  1837  and 
1854,  in  nineteen  volumes.  In  1844  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions  gave  Martin  a  prize  of  9000 
francs;  in  1851  he  received  the  Gobert  Prize,  and 
in  1869  was  awarded  the  great  prize  of  20,000 
francs  by  the  Institute.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Second  Empire  he  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly,  and  in  1876  he  was  elected  Senator. 
In  1878  he  became  a  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy. As  an  historian  Martin  belongs  to  the 
school  of  Thierry.  His  Histoire  de  France, 
which  comes  down  to  the  year  1789,  was  later 
continued  into  the  nineteenth  century  by  the 
Histoire  de  France  modeme  (2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1878-85).  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  other 
literary  and  historical  works,  but  his  great  fame 
rests  on  the  Histoire  de  France.  Consult :  Hano- 
taux,  Henri  Martin  (Paris,  1885)  ;  Jules  Simon, 
Mignety  Michelet,  Henri  Martin  (ib.,  1889); 
Mulot,  Souvenirs  intimes   (ib.,  1885). 

MAB^TIK,  Henbt  Austin  (1824-84).  An 
American  surgeon,  born  in  London  and  educated 
at  the  Harvard  Medical  School.  He  served  as 
surgeon  in  the  Union  Army  and  was  promoted  to 
lieutCTiant-colonel  and  medical  director.  In  his 
practice  in  Boston,  after  the  war,  he  made 
himself  well  known  by  introducing  the  Beau- 
gency  virus  (1870),  the  use  of  the  rubber  band- 
age (1877),  and  tracheotomy  without  tubes 
(1878). 


MABTIN,  Henbt  Newell  (1848-96).  An 
American  biologist,  bom  in  Newry,  Ireland.  He 
was  educated  at  University  College,  London,  and 
at  Christ  College,  Cambrid|?e,  where  he  became 
fellow;  and  in  1876  was  chosen  professor  of  bi- 
ology at  Johns  Hopkins  and  director  of  the 
biological  laboratory.  Martin  there  carried  out 
some  valuable  experiments  on  respiration  in  gen- 
eral and  especially  on  the  beating  of  the  heart 
of  a  mammal  after  death.  He  edited  Studies 
from  the  Biological  Laboratory  of  Johns  Hop- 
kins, and  the  Journal  of  Physiology;  assisted 
Huxley  in  his  Practical  Biology  (1876),  and 
Moale  in  a  Handbook  of  Vertebrate  Dissection 
(1881-84);  and  wrote,  apart  from  the  papers 
above  mentioned  on  respiration,  Observations  in 
Regard  to  the  Supposed  Suction-Pump  Action  of 
the  Mammalian  Heart  ( 1887 ) . 

MARTIN,  Homes  D.  (1836-97).  An  Ameri- 
can landscape  painter.  He  was  bom  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  October  28,  1836,  and  became  a  pupil  of 
William  Hart^  at  Albany,  a  landscape  painter  of 
the  Hudson  River  School.  In  1875  he  was  elect- 
ed a  member  of  the  National  Academy,  and  in 
1878  he  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society 
of  American  Artists.  He  spent  several  years  in 
France,  at  Villerville  and  Honfieur.  He  died  in 
Saint  Paul,  Minn.,  February  12,  1897.  His  in- 
terpretation of  nature  is  always  poetical;  his 
work  was  at  first  careful  in  detail,  but  later 
it  became  far  bolder  in  style.  His  composi- 
tion shows  a  keen  comprehension  of  form,  owing 
to  the  careful  studies  that  he  made  from  nature. 
His  color  is  subdued,  often  expressed  in  tones  of 
mellow  browns,  with  subtle  qualities  of  reflected 
light  and  shade.  His  brush  work  is  firm  and 
broad,  and  his  paintings  express  large  spaces, 
both  in  sky  and  land.  Among  his  iSst-known 
works  are:  "Lake  George;"  "Westchester  Hills;" 
"A  Mountain  Brook ;'^  "Trouville  at  Night;" 
"Normandy  Trees;"  "Autumn  on  the  Susque- 
hanna;" "An  Old  Church  in  Normandy;"  "View 
on  the  Seine,"  "Sand  Dunes,  Lake  Ontario,"  and 
"Mounts  Madison  and  Jefferson," — all  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York;  and  "Head- 
waters of  the  Hudson."  The  Century  Club  of 
New  York  possesses  his  "Adirondacks"  (1876); 
"High  Tide  at  Villerville,"  and  "Lighthouse  at 
Honfleur."  Consult  Caffin,  American  Masters  of 
Painting  (New  York,  1902)  ;  Isham,  History  of 
American  Painting  (ib.,  1906). 

MAKTnr,  John  (1789-1854).  An  English 
historical  and  landscape  painter.  He  was  bom 
at  Haydon,  near  Hexham,  July  19,  1789.  The 
only  art  instruction  that  he  received  was  from 
a  china  painter  at  Newcastle.  In  1806  he  moved 
to  London,  at  first  practising  china  painting.  He 
exhibited  his  first  picture,  "Sadak  in  Search  of 
the  Waters  of  Oblivion,"  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
in  1812;  "Adam's  First  Sight  of  Eve"  (1813), 
and  "Clytie"  (1814).  In  1816  "Joshua  Com- 
manding  the  Sun  to  Stand  Still"  gained  for  him 
a  premium  of  £100  at  the  British  Institute.  His 
best  known  wor^,  "Belshazzar's  Feast,"  appeared 
in  1821 ;  then  followed  the  "Destruction  of  Hercu- 
laneum"  (1822)  ;  "Seventh  Plague"  (1823)  ;  the 
"Creation"  (1824);  "Fall  of  Nineveh"  (1828); 
"Eve  of  the  Deluge"  (1840);  and  many  other 
biblical  subjects,  besides  a  number  of  water-color 
views  of  the  valley  of  the  Thames  and  other 
rivers.  He  died  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  February 
17,  1854.  Martin  was  much  criticised  for  his 
deficiencies  in  drawing  and  color,  but  he  had  a 


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MABTTBT.  114 


XABTOr. 


fertile  invention  and  pronounced  originality.  His 
best  work  is  his  illustrations  to  Milton. 

MABTIN,  J06IAH  (1737-86).  An  English 
Colonial  Governor,  bom  probably  in  the  West 
Indies.  He  entered  the  British  army  in  1756, 
was  promoted  to  be  major  in  1761,  and  later  be- 
came lieutenant-colonel.  He  sold  his  commission 
in  1769,  and  in  1771  was  appointed  Governor  of 
North  Carolina  to  succeed  William  Tryon,  who 
was  transferred  to  New  York.  At  first  his  frank* 
ness  and  honesty  favorably  impressed  the  people, 
but  his  stubbornness  and  his  high  opinion  of  the 
royal  prerogative  and  of  his  own  importance 
soon  caused  opposition.  He  attempted  to  pre- 
vent the  colony  from  sending  delegates  to  the 
Continental  Congress  of  1774,  but  a  Provincial 
Congress  met  and  elected  delegates  in  defiance  of 
his  protest.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
legislative  body  in  America  to  meet  without 
royal  authority.  After  the  battle  of  Lexington 
be  was  practically  a  prisoner  in  the  palace  at 
Newbem.  Martin  fled  to  Wilmington  and  then  to 
Fort  Johnston,  on  the  Cape  Fear  River.  On  July 
18,  1775,  he  took  refuge  in  the  Britisb  sloop- 
of-war  Cruiser  and  attempted  to  administer  the 
government  from  there  until  the  next  year.  He 
accompanied  the  British  fleet  to  Charleston  in 
1776,  and  was  with  Comwallis  in  1780-81.  After- 
wards he  went  to  New  York  and  from  there  to 
London. 

KABTIN,  mar't^n,  Karl  (1851—).  A  Ger- 
man geologist,  bom  in  Oldenburg.  He  studied  at 
Gdttingen,  where,  in  1874,  he  became  assistant  in 
the  geological  museum;  and  after  a  year's  teach- 
ing at  Wismar  in  ^lecklenburg  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  geology  at  Leyden.  In  1878  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  geological  museum  of 
liyden;  and  in  1882  became  a  member  of  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  He 
wrote,  besides  contributions  to  periodicals  on  the 
geology  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  the  East  In- 
dies :  Niederliindiache  und  nordwestdeuische  <S'edi- 
meniarpeschiebe  (1878);  Tertwrschichten  auf 
Java  (1879-80);  Reisen  in  den  Molukken^  in 
Amhotiy  den  Uliasaemy  Seran  und  Burn  (1894), 
and,  with  Becker,  Geology  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands (1001). 

MABTIN,  KoNRAD  (1812-79).  A  German 
Catholic  theologian.  Bishop  of  Paderbom.  He 
was  born  at  Geismar;  studied  at  Halle.  Munich, 
and  WUrzburg;  took  orders  in  1836;  and  taught 
in  Cologne  and  Bonn.  He  was  appointed  to  the 
see  of  Paderbom  in  1856,  and  showed  great  dili- 
gence in  advancing  Catholic  educational  and 
charitable  institutions.  Martin  was  a  member  of 
the  Vatican  Council  of  1870;  urged  the  dogma 
of  infallibility;  and  publicly  def?nded  it.  His 
opposition  to  the  Government  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Kulturkampf  (q.v.)  was  so 
violent  that  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  year, 
and  in  1875  fled  to  Belgium,  where  he  died.  He 
wrote  various  Catholic  manuals :  Drei  Getcissens- 
fragen  Uher  die  Maigesetze  (1874);  Drei  Jahre 
au8  meinem  Lehen  (1877;  3d  ed.  1878);  and 
Blieke  ins  Jenseits  (1878).  Consult  the  biog- 
raphy by  Stamm   (Paderbom,  1892). 

MAB/TTNy  Lady.    See  Favcit,  Helen. 

MABTIN,  mftr'tftN',  Louis  AiMt  ( 1786-1847) . 
A  French  writer,  bom  in  Paris.  In  1815  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  not  long  afterwards  became  professor  of  lit- 
erature and  ethics  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.  In 


1831  he  became  keeper  of  the  library  of  Sainte 
Genevid^.  He  published  Lettres  6  Sophie  »ur 
le  physique,  la  ehivUe^  ei  Vhieioire  natureUe 
(1810),  in  prose  and  verae.  His  moat  valuable 
work  was  Education  des  families  (1834),  con- 
tending that  to  improve  mankind  women  must  be 
educated  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  rear  men  of 
virtue.  He  waa  the  disciple  and  friend  of  Ber- 
nardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  wbose  widow  he  married. 
]CABTI]r,nftr^t^,Luis(1846~).  A  Spanish 
Jesuit,  twenty- fourth  general  of  t^  Order.  He  was 
bom  in  Meigar,  near  Burgos,  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  when  eighteen,  studied  at  Poyanne  in 
France,  where  he  entered  the  priesthood,  and  in 
1877  became  rector  of  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca, where  he  made  a  national  reputation  as> 
a  theologian.  In  1891,  he  became  assistant  of  the 
Order  in  Spain,  and  in  1892,  after  the  death  of 
Anderiedy,  and  on  his  recommendation,  Martin 
was  chosen  general,  removing  to  the  official  head- 
quarters at  Piesole. 

ICABTIN,  Luther  (1744-1826).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  political  leader,  bom  in  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in. 
1762;  taught  school  in  Queenstown,  Md.;  studied 
law;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1771 1  and  prac- 
ticed in  both  Maryland  and  Virginia.  In  1774 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Annapolis  convention 
that  protested  against  the  arbitrary  acts  of  the 
Crown,  and  throughout  the  Revolution  he  con- 
tinued acti\'e  on  the  Patriot  side.  In  1778  he 
was  appointed  Attorney-General  of  Maryland.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  of 
1787  at  Philadelphia;  steadfastly  contended  there 
against  the  establishment  of  a  strong  national  gov- 
ernment; finally  left  the  convention  altogether; 
and  subsequently  strongly  opposed  the  ratitication. 
of  the  Constitution  by  Maryland.  By  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  Constitution  he  earned  the  sobriquet 
of  The  Federal  Bull  Dog.'  In  1804  he  defended 
Judge  Chase  (qv.)  in  the  impeachment  proceed- 
ings before  the  United  States  Senate,  and  in  1907 
was  counsel  for  Aairon  Burr  (q.v.).  From  1814 
to  1816  he  was  Chief  Justice  oif  the  Court  of  Oyer 
and  Terminer  in  Baltimore,  and  in  1818  was 
again  made  Attorney-General.  He  was  stricken 
with  paralysis   in   1820,  and,  largely  owing   to 

gjverty,  lived  thereafter  at  the  home  of  Aaron 
urr  in  New  York.  He  published  A  Defence  of 
Captain  Cresap;  Genuine  Information  DelivevyeA 
to  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Maryland  Relrn^ 
tive  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  General  Convem- 
tion  Lately  Held  at  Philadelphia  (1788);  and 
Modem  Gratitude  (1801-02).  Consult  Goddard, 
Luther  Martin,  the  Federal  Bull-Dog  (Baltinaore, 
1887). 

MABTIKy  Robert  Montoomebt  (c.  1803-68). 
An  English  statistician,  born  in  Ireland.  In  1820- 
30  he  traveled  in  Ceylon,  Africa,  and  India,  antl 
in  1834  published  his  valuable  History  of  the 
British  Colonies.  He  prepared  for  the  press  the 
papers  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  in  1840 
founded  the  Colonial  Magazine,  which  for  two 
years  he  edited.  His  further  works  include: 
Political,  Commercial,  and  Financial  Condition 
of  the  Anglo-Eastern  Empire  (1832)  ;  History  of 
the  Antiquities  of  Eastern  India  (1838)  ;  and  This 
Statistics  of  the  British  Colonies  (1839). 

KABTnr,  Sir  Theodoee  (1816—).  An  Eni^- 
lish  author.  He  was  bora  in  Edinburgh,  and  was 
educated  at  the  high  school  and  university  of 
that  city.     In  1846  he  became  a  ParlianoditaTy 


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MABTINEAU. 


solicitor  in  London.  Among  his  earliest  Itteranr 
v^entnres  was  the  volume  of  Bon  Oaultier^s  Ballads 
(1855;  13th  ed.  1877),  written  in  collaboration 
with  Prof.  W.  E.  Aytoun.  In  1858  he  began 
his  series  of  admirable  translations  with  Poems 
and  Ballads  of  Goethe  (again  assisted  by  Pro- 
fessor Aytoun).  Faust  appeared  in  1865.  Mar- 
tinis other  versions  are  Danish  dramas  from 
Hertz  and  Oehlenschlilger  (1854-57),  the  Odes 
of  Horace  (1860),  Catullus  (1861),  the  Vita 
\uova  (1862),  Faust  (1865-86),  Heine's  Poems 
and  Ballads  (1878),  and  8iw  Books  of  VergU^s 
^neid  (1896).  The  Horaoe  renderings,  in  1882 
extended  to  include  the  entire  works,  are  gen- 
erally c<Miceded  to  be  the  best  yet  made  of  that 
poet.  They  are  supplemented  by  a  booklet  in 
the  Ancient  Classics  for  English  Readers.  His 
further  works  include  The  Life  of  W.  E.  Aytoun 
(1867)  ;  The  Life  of  the  Prince  Consort  (1874- 
80)  ;  The  Life  of  Lord  Lgndhurst  {2d  ed.,  1884)  ; 
Helena  Faucit,  Lady  Martin  ( 1901 )  ;  and  Ma- 
donna Pia  and  other  plays.  In  1881  Martin  was 
elected  rector  of  Saint  Andrews  University.  He 
was  knighted  in  1880.  For  Lady  Martin,  see 
the  article  Faucit,  Helen. 

KABTIN,  Thomas  Moweb  (1838—).  An 
English  painter,  bom  in  London  and  a  student 
there  at  the  South  Kensington  Art  School.  He 
went  to  Canada  in  1862,  and  settled  at  Toronto. 
He  was  influential  in  founding  the  Royal  Cana- 
dian Academy  and  the  Ontario  School  of  Art,  of 
which  he  became  director  in  1877.  His  pictures 
include  **Th€  Untamed  Wilderness,"  which  was 
especially  executed  for  Queen  Victoria  and  hangs 
in  Windsor  Palace. 

KABTINy  William  Alexander  Pabbons 
(1827—).  An  American  missionary  and  educa- 
tor, bom  at  Livonia,  Ind.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Indiana  State  University  and  entered  the 
Presbyterian  Seminary  at  New  Albany,  Ind. 
(nowMcCormick,  Chicago).  He  was  professor 
of  classics  at  the  Anderson  Collegiate  Institute 
for  a  year  (1849-50),  and  then  went  to  Ningpo, 
China,  as  missionary  (1850-60).  He  founded  the 
Presbyterian  mission  at  Peking  (1863),  and  re- 
mained in  charge  until  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  international  law  at  the  Tung-wOn  Col- 
lege of  Peking  (1868)  and  its  president  in  1869. 
In  this  capacity  he  translated  a  number  of  works 
on  international  law  for  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, such  as  the  Guide  diplomatique  (1874)  ; 
and  two  text-books  on  physics,  which  were  espe- 
cially reprinted  for  the  Emperor.  He  was  sent 
abroad  in  1880  by  the  Chinese  Government  to  in- 
vestigate the  educational  systems  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. In  1885  he  received  the  honorable  title  of 
mandarin  of  the  third  rank,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  made  the  first  president  of  the  Oriental 
Society  of  Peking.  From  the  presidency  of  the 
Peking  College  he  resigned  in  1898.  In  1902-5  he 
was  president  of  the  new  viceregal  univer- 
sity in  Wuchang.  His  writings  include:  The 
Chinese:  Their  Education,  Philosophy ^  and  Let- 
trrs  (1881)  ;  Evidences  of  Christianity  (1855,  in 
Chinese);  The  Three  Principles  (1856);  Reli- 
gious Allegories  (1857)  ;  A  Cycle  of  Cathay;  or 
China  South  and  North  (2d  ed.,  1897)  ;  The 
Lore  of  Cathay;  or  the  Tntellect  of  China  ( 1901)  ; 
and  The  Siege  in  Peking   (1900). 

XABTIVACH,  mttr't^nllG.  The  name  of 
three  united  villages  in  Switzerland.  See  Mab- 
Tiomr. 


MABTIKA  FBANCA,  mftr-t^nA  fi^^.  A 
city  in  the  Province  of  Lecce,  Italy,  situated  on 
a  hill  17  miles  north-northeast  of  Taranto  (Map: 
Italy,  M  7 ) .  It  is  a  comparatively  modem  town. 
Population  of  commune,  in  1901,  25,007. 

MABTIK  CHUZ^LEWIT.  A  novel  by 
Charles  Dickens,  which  appeared  in  20  monthly 
parts  in  1843  and  1844.  The  story  shows  the  vice 
of  selfishness  in  various  forms  and  the  resulting 
evils  in  the  Chuzzlewit  family.  Martin's  ad- 
ventures in  the  United  States  gave  great  offense 
to  Americans.  Some  of  Dickens's  most  inimitable 
creations  are  found  in  it,  among  them  Mr.  Peck- 
sniff and  Mrs.  Gamp. 

MABTIH  DE  MOUSSY,  mftr'tftw'  de  moo's*', 
Jean  Antoine  Vicrcm  (1810-69).  A  French 
physician  and  traveler,  bom  at  Moussy  le  Vieux. 
He  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  and  practiced  in 
the  military  hospitals.  In  1841  he  went  to 
Montevideo,  South  America,  and  in  the  nine 
years*  siege  of  that  place  (1843-52)  was  director 
of  the  medical  service  to  the  French  and  Italian 
forces.  After  the  downfall  of  Rosas,  the  dictator 
of  Argentina,  in  1852,  he  was  employed  by  the 
Government  of  President  Urquiza  to  prepare  a 
geographical  description  of  that  republic.  In 
the  execution  of  this  task  he  spent  four  years  in 
constant  travel.  The  results  of  his  labors  are 
embodied  in  his  work  in  three  volumes,  entitled 
Description  g^ographique  et  statistique  de  la 
confederation  Argentine  (1860-64),  which,  with 
the  atlas  accompanying  it,  is  of  the  highest  au- 
thority. He  presented  to  the  city  of  Monte- 
video a  well-equipped  meteorological  observatory. 

MABTINEAU^  m&r^tl-n5,  Hasbiet  (1802- 
76).  An  English  writer,  sister  of  James  Mar- 
tineau,  bom  at  Norwich,  England,  June  12,  1802; 
educated  mostly  at  home.  She  early  became  a 
convert  to  Unitarianism.  Miss  Martineau  began 
writing  when  a  girl,  contributing  her  first  article 
in  1821  to  the  Monthly  Repository,  the  Unitarian 
organ.  In  1829  the  house  in  which  had  been 
placed  the  small  fortunes  of  the  family  failed, 
and  Miss  Martineau  tumed  to  literature  for  sup- 
port. Her  health  had  been  precarious  from  girl- 
hood, and  she  now  frequently  broke  down.  For 
rest  she  visited  America  (1834-35)  and  Venice 
( 1839) .  By  1845  she  had  passed  from  Unitarian- 
ism to  agnosticism.  In  1845-46  she  settled  near 
Ambleside  by  the  English  Lakes,  where  she  lived 
till  her  death,  June  27,  1876.  Miss  Martineau 
published  thirty-six  distinct  works,  comprising 
tales,  novels,  and  essays  on  history,  politics,  eco- 
nomics, and  philosophy,  and  contributed  exten- 
sively to  periodicals.  In  the  Daily  News  alone 
appeared  more  than  1600  articles.  She  gained 
her  first  success  with  Illustrations  of  Political 
Economy  (1832-34)  Bind  Illustrations  of  Ta^cation 
(1834),  in  which  she  sought  to  popularize  cur- 
rent theories  through  fiction.  Among  her  other 
works  are:  Society  in  America  (1837)  ;  Western 
Travel  (1838);  Deerbrook,  a  readable  novel 
(1839);  The  Playfellmc,  good  children's  stories 
(1841)  ;  Life  in  the  Sick  Room,  autobiographical 
(1843)  ;  Letters  on  Mesmerism  (1845)  ;  Eastei-n 
Life,  Past  and  Present,  in  which  she  avowed  her 
religious  opinions  (1848);  History  of  England 
During  the  Thirty  Years*  Peace,  a  weighty  piece 
of  \%Titing  (1849)  ;  Letters  on  the  Laws  of  Man's 
Nature  and  Development,  written  in  conjimction 
with  H.  G.  Atkinson  (1851)  ;  The  Philosophy  of 
Comte,  a  condensation  of  the  Philosophic  post- 


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iive  (1853);  and  Biographical  Sketches  (1860). 
Though  little  of  Miss  Martineau's  work  has 
survived  as  a  permanent  literary  possession, 
it  was  of  great  value  to  her  generation.  She 
was  a  popularizer  of  the  advanced  thinking  of 
her  day.  Consult  her  Autobiography  with  Memo- 
rials, ed.  by  Chapman  (London,  1877),  and 
Miller,  Harriet  Martineau   (London,  1884). 

HABTIKEAXr,  James  (1805-1900).  An  Eng- 
lish Unitarian  divine,  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  bom  at  Norwich,  April  21,  1805.  He  was 
educated  for  the  ministry  at  Manchester  College 
(Unitarian),  which  was  then  located  at  York, 
and  was  graduated  in  1827.  He  spent  one  year 
teaching  in  Bristol  and  then,  October  26.  1828, 
he  was  ordained  to  the  Presbjrterian  ministry  in 
Dublin.  He  resigned  his  pastorate  in  Dublin  be- 
cause he  objected  to  receiving  State  aid  in  the 
Regium  Donum,  though  it  would  have  increased 
his  salary  by  £100.  From  Dublin  he  went  to 
Liverpool,  where  he  was  settled  over  Paradise 
Street  Chapel,  and  eked  out  his  income  by  taking 
pupils.  Here  he  attracted  considerable  attention 
by  engaging,  along  with  J.  H.  Thom  and  Henry 
Giles,  in  a  controversy  against  some  clergymen 
of  the  Church  of  England  on  the  subject  of  Uni- 
tarianism.  Soon  afterwards  Martineau  was  elect- 
ed professor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  at 
Manchester  New  College,  and  continued  to  lec- 
ture in  the  college  when  it  was  removed  to  Lon- 
don in  1853,  though  he  also  retained  his  pulpit 
in  Liverpool  for  four  years.  In  1857  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  London.  The  next  year  he 
added  to  his  work  the  task  of  sharing  the  pulpit 
of  Little  Portland  Street  Chapel  with  J.  J.  Tav- 
lor,  then  principal  of  the  college.  Upon  the  death 
of  Mr.  Taylor  in  1868,  he  became  principal  of  the 
college  and  filled  the  chapel  pulpit  alone  for  four 
years,  when  the  strain  compelled  him  to  give 
it  up.  He  is  the  author  of  The  Rationale  of  Re- 
ligious Inquiry  (1836);  also  Unitarianism  De- 
fended (in  collaboration  with  Thom  and  Giles, 
1839),  the  lectures  delivered  in  the  controversy 
referred  to  above;  Endeavors  After  the  Chris- 
tian Life  (2  vols.,  1843-47)  ;  Miscellanies 
(1852)  ;  Studies  of  Christianity  (1868)  ;  Essays, 
Philosophical  and  Theological  (1866-67);  Re- 
ligion as  Affected  by  Modem  Materialism 
(1874);  Hours  of  Thought  on  Sacred  Things 
(1876-79)  ;  Study  of  Spinoza  (1882)  ;  Types  of 
Ethical  Theory  (1885);  Study  of  Religion 
(1888)  ;  and  The  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion 
( 1890) .  He  received  honorary  degrees  from  Har- 
vard, Leyden,  Edinburgh,  Oxford,  and  Dublin.  He 
died  January  11,  1900.  In  philosophy  he  was 
an  intuitionist,  maintaining  that  men  have  a 
power  of  conscience,  which,  without  aid  from 
experience,  can  ascertain  the  higher  of  two  con- 
flicting motives.  In  theology  he  was,  as  already 
seen,  a  prominent  Unitarian ;  but  his  greatest  im- 
portance will  probably  remain  in  his  ethical 
work.  Consult:  Drummond,  Life  and  Letters  of 
James  Martineau  (London,  1902)  ;  Sidgwick, 
Lectures  on  the  Ethics  of  Oreen,  Spencer^  and 
Martineau  (ib.,  1902)  ;  A.  W.  Jackson,  James 
Martineau:  A  Biography  and  Study  (Boston, 
1900). 

MABTINELLA,  mftr't^nSnA  (It.,  crane). 
A  famous  bell  which  in  the  old  days  of  Florence 
used  to  announce  the  declaration  of  war.  It  is 
always  spoken  of  in  connection  with  the  carroccio, 
a  famous  car  of  great  size,  drawn  by  two  beauti- 
ful o.\en,  which  accompanied  the  citizens  to  the 


field  of  battle.  For  a  month  after  war  waa  de- 
clared, the  martinella  rang  incessantly,  and  when 
at  last  the  army  moved  out,  the  bell  was  placed 
on  the  carroccio  inside  a  wooden  tower,  and 
guided  the  troops  by  its  sound. 

MABTINELLI,  mar't^-n^ll^,  Sebastiano 
(1848—).  An  Italian  Roman  Catholic  prelate. 
He  was  bom  near  Lucca,  in  the  seminary  of 
which  town  he  received  his  theological  educa- 
tion. He  entered  the  Augustinian  Order  in  1863, 
was  ordained  priest  in  1871,  and  was  elected 
prior  general  of  the  Order  in  1889  and  again  in 
1895.  On  the  recall  to  Rtwoe  of  Cardinal  Satolli, 
the  first  Apostolic  Delegate  to  the  United  States, 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him,  and  at  the  same 
time  was  raised  to  the  episcopate  as  titular 
Archbishop  of  Ephesus.  His  wise  and  states- 
manlike conduct  of  many  difficult  questions 
brought  before  him  during  his  term  as  delegate 
was  generally  recognized.  In  1902,  having  al- 
ready been  made  a  cardinal,  he  was  recalled. 

MABTINET,  mftr'td'nA'.  A  French  military 
officer  and  disciplinarian,  of  whom  little  is  known 
save  from  a  few  lines  in  Voltaire's  Siicle  de  Louis 
XIV,  and  his  general  reputation  as  a  rigorous 
disciplinarian.  He  was  an  early  advocate  of  the 
bayonet  (1669)  and  proposed  the  change  from 
column  to  line  in  battle  formation.  He 
greatly  assisted  in  the  passage  of  the  Rhine  hj 
Louis  XIV.,  in  1672,  and  also  contributed  much 
to  the  success  of  the  campaign  in  the  Nether- 
lands by  the  use  of  a  portable  pontoon.  The 
derivation  of  the  English  noun  'martinet'  from 
his  name  is  not  proved. 

MABTINET,  Achille  Louis  (1806-77).  A 
French  engraver.  He  was  born  in  Paris,  and  was 
a  pupil  of  the  painter  Heim  and  of  Forster,  the 
engraver.  Most  of  his  important  plates  were 
after  the  old  masters,  as  Raphael's  various  Ma- 
donnas and  Murillo's  "Nativity;"  but  he  also 
engraved  the  works  of  more  recent  painters. 
Among  them  were  "The  Last  Moments  of  Count 
Egmont,"  after  Gallait;  "Charles  I.  Mocked  by 
CromwelPs  Soldiers,"  and  ''Mary  in  the  Desert,** 
after  Delaroche;  and  "Tintoretto  by  the  Couch 
of  His  Daughter,"  after  Cogniet.  He  died  in 
Paris. 

MABTINEZ,  mftr-tS'nez.  A  town  and  the 
county-seat  of  Contra  Costa  County,  Cal.,  36 
miles  northeast  of  San  Francisco;  on  the  Straits 
of  Carquinez,  and  Suisun  Bay,  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  California,  0 
5).  It  is  an  important  shipping  point  for  grain, 
grapes  and  pears,  has  copper  smelting  works  and 
oil  refinery,  and  manufactures  fertilizers,  acids, 
etc.  There  is  a  library  of  5000  volumes,  main- 
tained by  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools. 
Population,  1900,  1380;   1906   (local  est.),  2000. 

MABTINEZ,  mar-te'nAth,  Enbioo  (c.l570- 
1632).  A  Mexican  engineer,  bom,  according  to 
different  biographers,  either  in  Holland,  Grcrmany, 
or  Spain.  He  probably  received  his  engineering 
education  in  Spain,  was  appointed  roval  coemog- 
rapher,  and  went  to  Mexico  as  an  interpreter  of 
the  Inquisition.  In  1607  he  took  charge  of 
the  construction  of  the  canal  which  was  to  drain 
the  valley  of  Mexico,  a  work  which  he  completed 
in  less  than  a  year.  This  canal  soon  proved  in- 
adequate, however,  and  Martinez  was  eventually 
commissioned  to  deepen  the  cut,  but  died  while 
the  work  was  still  under  way.  He  wrote:  Reper- 
lorio  dc  los  tinnpos  c  historia  natural  de  Nueva 


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Espaiia  (Mexico,  1606) ;  Discurao  sohre  la  magna 
conjunci6n  de  los  planetaa  Jiipiter  y  Saiumo 
acaecida  en  24  Diciembre  1603  en  Sagitario 
(Mexico,  1604)  ;  and  a  Tratado  de  trigonometria, 

MABTIHEZ  CAMPOS,  mar-t^n&th  k&m'pds, 
Absenio  (1834-1900).  A  Spanish  general  and 
statesman,  bom  at  Sc^via,  December  14,  1834. 
He  served  on  General  CVDonneirs  staff  in  the 
campaign  of  Morocco,  1859,  was  with  Prim  dur- 
ing Spain's  brief  participation  in  Mexican  affairs 
in  1861,  and  joined  the  army  in  Cuba  in  1869, 
remaining  until  1872.  On  the  abdication  of  King 
Amadeus  (q.v.),  in  1873,  he  refused  adherence 
to  the  new  order,  and  his  unconcealed  enmity  to 
the  Republic  led  to  his  arrest  and  imprisonment 
as  a  conspirator.  On  December  29,  1874,  at 
Murivedro,  in  conjunction  with  General  Jovellar, 
he  proclaimed  the  son  of  the  deposed  Queen 
Isabella,  Alfonso  XII.,  King  of  Spain.  The  army 
followed  his  lead,  a  ministerial  r^;ency  under 
CiLnovas  del  Castillo  was  formed,  and  in  January, 
1875,  the  youthful  Alfonso  was  established  in 
Madrid  and  the  monarchy  was  restored.  Mar- 
tinez Campos  brought  the  civil  war  to  a  success- 
ful issue  by  the  defeat  of  the  Carlists  at  Pefia  de 
Plata  ( 1876) ,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  gift  of  the 
highest  rank  in  the  army.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  sent  to  Cuba  to  conduct  the  military  opera- 
tions against  the  insurgents.  The  central  insur- 
gent committee  submitl^  in  1878,  and,  the  insur- 
rection being  at  an  end,  Martinez  Campos  returned 
to  Spain  and  became  the  advocate  of  a  just  and 
liberal  policy  toward  the  colony.  CAnovas  del 
Castillo  resigned  March  7,  1879,  and  Martinez 
Campos  headed  a  new  Ministry,  but  was  unable 
to  hold  power  for  many  months.  Upon  his  re- 
turn to  office,  however,  Cftnovas  carried  out  the 
main  features  of  the  General's  Cuban  programme. 
In  1881  Martinez  Campos  made  a  coalition  with 
the  Liberal  leader  Sagasta  (q.v.),  which  lasted 
until  1884,  and  was  Minister  of  War  under  him. 
In  1886,  in  1891,  and  in  1899  he  was  president 
of  the  Senate.  In  1893,  as  Governor  of  Cata- 
lonia, he  found  it  necessary  to  suppress  anarchist 
riots  in  Barcelona,  occasioned  by  the  new 
taxes  of  the  Government,  and  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts were  made  to  assassinate  him  and  his 
family.  He  was  sent  to  Cuba  as  Captain-General 
upon  the  outbreak  of  a  new  insurrection  in  1895, 
in  the  hope  that  he  would  repeat  his  former  suc- 
cess as  a  pacificator;  but  ne  was  recalled  in 
January,  1896,  and  thereafter  took  part  as  a 
Moderate  Liberal  in  the  endeavor  to  bring  about 
a  reorganization  of  Spanish  affairs  and  a  restora- 
tion of  prosperity.    He  died  September  23,  1900. 

MABTINEZ  DE  LA  BOSA,  d&  1&  r5^sA, 
Francisco  (1789-1862).  A  Spanish  statesman 
and  man  of  letters.  He  was  born  in  Granada, 
March  10,  1789;  studied  law  at  the  University  of 
Granada,  and  was  appointed  lecturer  on  ethics 
there  when  less  than  twenty  years  old.  The 
French  had  just  invaded  Spain,  and  he  en- 
tered enthusiastically  into  the  national  move- 
ment. He  was  employed  by  the  Junta  of 
Granada  to  procure  arms  and  supplies  at 
Gibraltar,  and  he  afterwards  went  to  England 
on  the  same  errand.  There,  in  1811,  his  first 
poem,  Zaragozay  was  published.  Gn  his  return 
to  Spain,  he  produced,  at  (^diz,  a  tragedy  called 
La  viuda  de  PadWa,  which  was  successful,  and 
was  followed  by  a  comedy,  Lo  que  puede  un  em- 
pleo,  satirizing  political  life.     In   1813  he  was 


returned  to  the  Cortes  from  Granada,  and  at  once 
took  a  high  position  as  an  orator.  He  was  a 
supporter  of  the  Constitution  of  1812,  on  the 
abolition  of  which,  in  1814,  Martinez  was  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  ten  years.  Released 
by  the  insurrection  of  1820,  he  was  for  a  short 
time  head  of  the  Ministry,  but  resigned  and  took 
up  his  residence  in  Paris.  Between  1827  and 
1837  he  published  a  collection  of  his  Ohrcis  liter- 
arias  in  five  volumes.  In  1830  he  was  permitted 
to  return  to  Spain,  and  began  to  write  an  his- 
torical novel.  Dona  Isabel  de  8olis.  In  March, 
1834,  he  became  the  head  of  a  Liberal  Ministrv, 
and  was  the  author  of  the  royal  statute  of  1834 
which  created  a  constitutional  government  and 
took  away  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  provinces. 
Martinez  de  la  Rosa  became  more  and  more  un- 
popular, and  in  1835  he  resigned.  On  the  fall  of 
Queen  Maria  Christina  in  1840  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  resumed  the  composition  of  Espiritu  del 
aiglo,  a  work  dealing  with  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, which  had  been  begun  in  1835.  Upon 
the  fall  of  Espartero  he  entered  in  May,  1844, 
the  Narvaez  Cabinet,  and  was  from  1847 
to  1851  Ambassador  to  Paris.  He  died  at  Madrid, 
February  7,  1862.  (Ik)nsult  Godard,  Martinez  de 
la  Rosa  (Paris,  1862). 

MABTINEZ  DE  BOZAS,  d&  r^sfts,  Juan 
(1769-1813).  A  Chilean  patriot,  bom  at  Men- 
doza,  Argentine  Republic.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Cordoba,  and  for  many  years 
was  intendant  of  the  city  of  Concepci6n.  He  was 
a  man  of  advanced  ideas,  and  his  Republican  sen- 
timents were  a  dominant  influence  throughout 
South  Chile.  When  Carrasco  was  Captain-Gten- 
eral,  Rozas  was  his  secretary  ( 1808) ,  and  in  this 
capacity  put  into  practice  many  reforms.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Junta  (1810),  where  his  popularity 
was  unbounded;  but  later  the  Revolutionists 
quarreled  among  themselves  and  Rozas  was  de- 
feated and  banished. 

MABTINIy  mar-te'n*,  Giambattista  (Padbe 
Mabtini)  (1706-84).  An  Italian  composer  and 
writer  on  music.  He  was  born  at  Bologna  and 
studied  the  elements  of  music  under  his  father 
and  Padre  Predieri,  and  counterpoint  under  An- 
tonio Riccieri.  In  1729  he  entered  a  Franciscan 
monastery,  after  having  served  as  choir-master 
at  the  Church  of  San  Francesco,  Bologna,  since 
1725.  He  wrote  t\yo  of  the  most  learned  treatises 
on  music  of  the  eighteenth  century — Storia  della 
musica  and  Saggio  di  oontrappunto.  Many  of 
his  compositions  ar^  in  manuscript  at  Vienna 
and  Bologna.  His  fame  as  a  teacher  of  composi- 
tion was  very  great.  He  was  a  firm  adherent  of 
the  Roman  school  of  composition,  and  wrote  a 
considerable  number  of  works  in  that  style.  He 
died  in  Bologna. 

MABTINI,  SiMONE,  wrongly  called  Simonb 
Memmi  (1284-1344).  The  chief  painter  of  the 
early  Sienese  school.  Of  his  life  we  know  that 
he  was  born  in  Siena,  and  that  he  painted 
frescoes  in  the  churches  and  public  buildings 
of  Siena,  Assisi,  Naples,  and  Orvieto.  In 
1339  he  was  called  by  Benedict  XII.  to  the 
Papal  Court  at  Avignon,  where  he  worked  with 
his  brother  Donato  in  the  decoration  of  the 
Papal  palace.  He  died  at  Avignon  in  1344. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  portraits,  his  sub- 
jects were  drawn  from  Bible  stories  and  legends 
of   the   saints  and  of   the  early   Church.     His 


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KABTINIQTJE. 


work  is  arranged  with  a  view  to  decorative  effect 
and  is  charming  in  finish  and  coloring,  bat  the 
faces  have  the  old  conventional  expression  of 
mouth  and  eyes  and  lack  the  character  of  Giotto. 

In  Siena  his  important  work  is  a  large  wall 
painting  in  the  Palazzo  Pubblico,  the  Madonna, 
surrounded  by  saints  and  angels  (1315).  On  the 
wall  opposite  this  painting  is  an  equestrian  por- 
trait of  a  Sienese  captain  at  arms.  Guidoriccio 
Fogliano.  An  altarpiece  which  was  formerly  in  the 
Siena  Cathedral,  "The  Annunciation"  (1333), 
was  painted  by  Simone  in  collaboration  with 
Leppo  Memmi,  and  is  now  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery 
at  Florence.  In  the  Chapel  of  Saint  Martin  at 
Assisi  are  ten  pictures  of  the  legends  of  the 
saints.  In  Naples  at  the  Church  of  San  Lorenzo 
is  a  fresco,  "Saint  Louis  of  Toulouse  Crowning 
His  Brother  Robert"  (1324),  painted  when  the 
church  was  completed  by  King  Robert  I.  At 
Avignon  there  are  fragments  of  his  work  in  the 
Papal  palace,  and  in  the  Chapei  of  Saint  John 
there  are  frescoes  illustrative  of  the  life  of  that 
saint.  His  other  works  include:  "The  Way  to 
Golgotha"  (1333),  in  the  Louvre;  "Christ  Bless- 
ing,** in  the  Vatican;  and  "Christ  Returning  to 
His  Parents,**  in  the  Royal  Institution,  Liverpool. 
Consult:  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy  (London,  1864)  ;  Berenson, 
Central  Italian  Painters  of  the  Renaissance  (New 
York,  1897). 

MABTINIQTJE,  mfir't^'n^k^  An  island  and 
French  colony  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  situated 
between  latitudes  14**  23'  and  14°  62'  N.,  and  on 
the  meridian  of  61  **  W.,  between  Dominica  on  the 
north  and  Saint  Lucia  on  the  south  (Map:  An- 
tilles, G  4).  Area,  381  square  miles.  Population, 
in  1901,  207,011,  reduced  to  182,024  in  1905, 
as  the  result  of  the  destructive  eruptions  of  Mont 
(Montague)  Pel^  on  May  8th  and  August  30th, 
1902.  The  island  is  in  greater  part  of  volcanic 
origin,  the  loftier  elevations  (Mont  Pel6e,  in  the 
northwest,  now  about  4900  feet  in  elevation;  the 
Pi  tons  du  Carbet,  3960  feet;  the  Vauclin,  in  the 
south),  being  all  of  lava  or  agglomerate  masses, 
whose  age  dates  back  to  some  portion  of  the  Ter- 
tiary period.  Isolated  patches  of  limestone,  of 
Miocene  and  Pliocene  age,  occur  in  the  east  and  in 
the  south  (near  Trinity,  the  Marin,  etc.),  and 
there  is  also  a  detached  bordering  of  recent  coral 
structures.  Much  of  the  interior  surface  is  a  com- 
paratively recent  alluvium,  formed  from  the  dis- 
integration of  tli«  prehistoric  lavas.  The  relief  of 
the  land  is  essentially  mountainous,  the  momes 
and  pitons  rising  with  marked  abruptness,  and 
forming  the  landscape  that  is  so  distinctive  of 
most  of  the  inner  (volcanic)  islands  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  Between  these  are  valleys  of  beauti- 
fully flowing  contour  and  deeply  incised  cafion- 
like  troughs.  The  culminating  point  of  the 
island  is  Mont  Pel6e,  whose  height  has  increased 
by  nearly  or  fully  700  feet  since  May,  1902. 

A  large  part  of  the  island,  somewhat  over  a 
third,  is  under  cultivation.  The  principal  crop 
is  the  sugar  cane,  but  a  superior  grade  of  cacao 
has  been  raised  with  success  and  profit;  coffee 
and  tobacco  are  grown  in  some  parts.  Where  not 
under  cultivation  the  island  is  still  largely  cov- 
ered with  woodland,  and  a  forest  of  strictly 
tropical  luxuriance  is  found  in  scattered  spots. 
The  higher  animal  life  is  not  very  abundant,  and 
its  characteristics  are  largely  South  American, 
marked  with  the  deficiencies  that  belong  to  in- 
sularity.    Of  the  seemingly  native  animals,  the 


opossum,  which  has  been  known  in  the  island 
for  upward  of  two  hundred  years,  is  the  most 
notable.  Of  the  birds,  the  most  abundant  or 
common  species  is  probably  the  Martinique  black- 
bird. Of  the  dreaded  fer^ie-lance  serpent,  which 
was  at  one  time  very  abundant,  but  few  individ- 
uals remain  to-day,  the  animal  having  been  all 
but  exterminated  by  the  introduced  mungoos. 

The  interior  of  the  island  is  crossed  by  well 
constructed  highroads,  but  there  are  as  yet  no 
railroads,  excepting  a  few  that  are  used  in  pri- 
vate transport  on  the  cane  plantations.  The 
climate  is  on  the  whole  salubrious,  and  the  heat 
is  measurably  tempered,  especially  on  the  east- 
em  side,  by  fne  steadily  blowing  trade-winds,  the 
temperature  only  exceptionally  rising  above  92* 
to  94*  F.  The  humidity  is,  however,  high.  July 
and  August  are  ordinarily  the  rainy  months,  and 
February,  March,  and  April  the  months  of  least 
rainfall.  The  annual  precipitation  is  from  85  to 
95  inches.  Earthquakes  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. That  of  1839,  which  destroyed  a  large 
part  of  Fort-de-France,  was  particularly  de- 
structive. The  only  historically  recorded  vol- 
canic eruptions  before  the  year  1902  were  those 
of  1762  and  August,  1851,  both  of  Mont  Pel6e. 
See  Pel£e,  Mont. 

Of  the  population,  much  the  greater  part  con- 
sists of  the  colored  races,  especially  the  negroes 
and  mulattoes;  hardly  a  vestige,  except  in  mix- 
ture, remains  of  the  ancient  Carib  Indians.  The 
capital  of  the  island  is  Fort-de- France,  with  a 
population  (in  1901)  of  22,164.  Other  impor- 
tant towns*  are  Lamentin,  Sainte-Marie,  Trinity, 
Frangois,  Robert,  Gros  Morne,  Saint-Joseph,  and 
Corbet,  with  populations  ranging  from  6000  to 
nearly  11,000.  Saint-Pierre,  of  which  nothing 
but  ruins  now  remain,  was,  up  to  the  time  of  its 
destruction,  the  largest  and  most  important  settle- 
ment on  the  island. 

The  colony  is  under  a  Governor  (appointed  by 
the  Home  Government  of  France)  and  a  Grcneral 
Council,  and  there  are  elective  municipal  coun- 
cils. It  is  represented  in  the  Government  of 
France  by  one  Senator  and  two  members  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  1900  the  imports 
amounted  to  24,929,348  francs,  and  the  exports 
to  27,160,890  francs;  in  1905  the  imports  were 
14,759,000  francs,  and  the  exports  18,069,000 
francs.  About  one-half  of  the  imports  and  nine- 
tenths  of  the  exports  represent  commerce  with 
France.  Martinique  was  discovered  by  Columbus, 
who  subsequently  landed  near  Carbet,  on  June 
15,  1502.  in  1635  a  fort  was  erected  by  the 
Frenchman  D'Esnembuc  on  the  site  of  the 
later  Saint-Pierre.  The  English  took  the  island 
repeatedly  from  the  Frencli,  holding  it  for  the 
last  time'  during  tlie  Napoleonic  wars.  Slavery 
was  abolished  by  decree  of  April  27,  1848.  The 
Empress  Josephine  was  born  at  Trois-llets. 

Bibliography.  Daney,  Eistoire  de  la  Marti- 
nique depuia  la  colonisation  jusqu'en  1815  (Fort 
Royal,  1846)  ;  Key,  Etude  sur  la  colonie  de  la 
Martinique  (Paris,  1881)  ;  Aube,  La  Martinique, 
son  present  et  son  avenir  (Paris,  1882)  ;  Monet, 
La  Martinique  (Paris,  1882)  ;  Heilprin,  Mont 
PeUe  and  the  Tragedy  of  Martinique  (Philadel- 
phia, 1903)  ;  Dumoret,  Au  pays  du  sucre  (Paris, 
1901)  ;  Landes,  Notice  sur  la  Martinique  (Paris, 
1900) ;  Russell.  "Volcanic  Eruptions  on  Marti- 
nique and  Saint  Vincent,"  in  Xational  Geographic 
Maqazine,  vol.  xiii.,  contains  bibliography  ( Wash- 
ington, 1902). 


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MABTIH  XABPBELATE. 


119 


MABTraa 


KABTnr  KAB/PBEL'ATE  CONTBO- 
VEBSY.  A  better  religious  dispute  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan period.  It  was  occasioned  by  the  anooy- 
moQs  publication,  1588-89,  of  a  number  of  bit- 
terly personal  tracts  directed  against  what  the 
writer  conceived  to  be  abuses  in  Church  and 
State,  and  against  certain  bishops  in  particular. 
The  publisher  and  chief  instigator  was  John 
Penry  (q.v.),  or  Ap-Henry,  a  Puritan  preacher, 
abetted  by  Sir  Richard  Knightley  of  Northamp- 
tonshire, Job  Throckmorton  of  Warwickshire,  and 
others.  The  tracts  were  printed  on  a  rude  and 
peripatetic  press,  at  Kingston-on-Thames,  Cov- 
entrj,  ManAester,  etc.,  and  provoked  in  reply 
a   greater  number  of  abusive  books   and   pam- 

ghlets.  Martin's  broad  satires  were  disapproved 
y  devout  Puritans,  but  undoubtedly  they  were 
powerful  factors  in  furthering  the  Puritan  cause. 
&reat  efforts  were  made  to  discover  and  appre- 
hend the  authors.  Penry  was  executed  in  1593. 
Henry  Barrow,  one  of  his  assistants,  to  whom  the 
chief  responsibility  for  the  tracts  has  sometimes 
been  attributed,  also  suffered  death  in  the  same 
year.  The  tracts  have  been  reprinted  by  Arber 
in  the  English  Scholar'a  Lihrary  (London,  1878 
sqq. ) .  Consult :  Maskell,  A  History  of  the  Mar- 
tin Marprelaie  Controversy  (London,  1845) ; 
Arber,  Introductory  Sketch  to  the  Martin  Mar- 
prelate  Controversy  (London,  1879)  ;  Dexter, 
Congregationalism  of  the  Last  300  Years  as  Been 
in  its  Literature  (New  York,  1880). 

MAB^TINKAS.  A  festival  celebrated  on 
Saint  Martin's  Day,  November  1 1th.  Luther  was 
born  oo  the  eve  of  the  festival,  and  therefore  re- 
ceived the  saint's  name. 

VLARrriN  OF  TOTJBS,  mdr  (c.316-e.400). 
Bishop  of  Tours  and  patron  saint  of  France.  He 
was  bom  at  Sabaria,  Pannonta,  of  heathen 
parents,  about  316.  He  was  educated  at  Pavia, 
and  at  the  desire  of  his  father,  who  was  a  mili- 
tary tribune,  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age 
inder  Constantine  the  Great.  The  virtues  of  his 
life  as  a  soldier  are  the  theme  of  more  than  one 
interesting  legend.  On  obtaining  his  discharge 
froB  military  service  (336),  Martin  beeame  a 
disciple  of  Hilary  (q.v.),  Bishop  of  Poitiers.  He 
retunied  to  his  native  Pannonia,  and  converted 
his  mother  to  Christianity,  but  he  himself  en- 
dured raiich  persecution  from  the  Arian  party, 
who  were  at  that  time  dcMBinant;  and  in  eonse- 
qiienee  ol  the  firmness  of  his  profession  of  ortho- 
doxy, he  is  the  first  who,  without  suffering  death 
for  the  truths  has  been  honored  in  the  Latin 
Church  as  a  confessor  of  the  faith.  On  his  return 
to  Gaul,  about  360,  he  founded  a  convent  of  monks 
Bear  Poitiers,  where  he  himself  led  a  life  of 
great  austerity  and  seclusion;  but  in  371  he  was 
drawn  by  force  from  his  retreat,  and  ordained 
Bishop  of  Tours.  The  fame  of  his  sanctity  and 
his  repute  as  a  worker  of  miracles,  attracted 
<?rowds  of  visitants  from  all  parts  of  Gaul;  and 
in  order  to  avoid  the  distraction  of  their  impor- 
tunity, he  established  a  monastery  near  Tours, 
in  which  he  resided.  He  died  at  Cand€  (Can- 
deum)  about  400.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  the  festival  of  his  birth  is  celebrated  on 
November  11th.  Consult  his  Life^  by  Cazenove 
(London,  1883)  ;  Chamard,  Saint  Martin  et  son 
monast^re  (Poitiers,  1873). 

KAJtTINSBXrBO.  A  town  and  the  county- 
s«ftt  of  Berkeley  County,  W.  Va.,  74  miles  west  of 
Washington,  D.  C;  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 


and  the  Cumberland  Valley  railroads  (Map: 
West  Virginia,  F  2).  Its  most  prominent  struc- 
ture is  the  United  States  court-house  and  post- 
office,  which  cost  about  $100,000.  The  industrial 
intereste  are  represented  by  railroad  repair 
shojps,  woolen  and  hosiery  mills,  clothing  fac- 
tories, distilleries,  lime  works,  slate  and  lime- 
stone quarries,  wagon  shops,  and  planing  mills. 
The  surrounding  region  is  a  great  fruit  section. 
The  mimicipali^  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  It 
owns  and  operates  the  water-works.  Martins- 
bnrg  was  founded  and  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1778.    Population,  in  1890,  7226;  in  1900,  7564. 

liAB^TIH^  FEBBY.  A  city  in  Belmont 
County,  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  River,  nearly  opposite 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  and  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  J  6).  It  is  in  a 
bituminous  coal,  iron,  and  limestone  region,  and 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  tin, 
glass,  machinerr,  beaters,  shovels,  stoves,  boxes, 
and  barrels.  Walnut  Grove  Cemetery  is  interest- 
ing as  the  burial  place  of  persons  prominent  in 
the  history  of  the  settlement  of  the  Ohio  Valley. 
Settled  about  1769,  Martin's  Ferry  was  incor- 
porated as  a  village  in  1865.  It  is  ^off^rtkeA 
under  the  Ohio  municipal  code,  which  provides 
for  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  nmcamera) 
council.  The  water-works  and  electric-light  plant 
are  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality. 
Populatiwi,  in  1900,  7760;  in  1906  (local  est.), 
10,000. 

MA&^IKSVIIiLE.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Morgan  County,  Ind.,  on  the  White  River, 
30  miles  southwest  of  Indianapolis;  on  the  Van- 
dalia^  and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
Saint  Loms  railroads  (Map:  Indiana,  C  3).  It 
is  widely  noted  for  its  artesian  mineral  wells, 
which  have  been  found  valuable  in  the  treatment 
of  rheumatism  and  kidney  disorders,  and  it  has 
several  large  sanatoriums.  The  industries  are 
represented  by  foundries  and  machine  shops,  and 
flour  and  lumber  mills.  Population,  1900,  4038; 
1905  (local  een.),  5130. 

MABTINTTS      SCRIBXXBTJS,      mSr-ti^nfts 

skrib-le'r&s  (Neo-I^t.,  Martin  Scribbler).  An 
extensive  satire  on  the  abuses  of  learning,  ar- 
ranged from  miscellaneous  contributions  by  Pope> 
Swift,  and  Arbuthnot.  Of  these  Miscellanies, 
Arbuthnot  furnished  the  principal  part.  The 
work  was  never  completed.  See  Abbuthnot,  JoHif . 

ICAUTITE,  a  form  of  hematite  (q.v.)  pseudo- 
raorphous  after  noagnotite. 

MABTIlTQy  mftr^tsT-^,  Kabl  Fbiedbich  Phi- 
LIPF  VON  (1794-1868).  A  distinguished  Ger- 
man traveler  and  naturalist,  bom  and  educated 
at  Erlangen.  He  went  to  Brazil  as  a  member  of 
a  scientific  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Austrian 
and  Bavarian  governments,  and  by  his  researches 
in  that  country  acquired  a  reputation  second  only 
to  that  of  Humboldt.  He  was  specially  intrusted 
with  the  botanical  department,  but  his  researches 
extended  to  ethnography,  statistics,  geography, 
and  natural  science  in  general;  and  his  works, 
published  after  his  return,  exhibited  a  poet's 
love  M  nature  and  great  powers  of  description. 
He  was  professor  of  botany  and  director  of  the 
Botanic  Garden  at  Munich.  His  works  are: 
Reise  nach  BrasiHen  (1824-31);  Nova  Genera 
et    Species    Plantarum    (1824-32);    and   leones 


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MABTYB. 


Plantarum  Cryptogamicarum  (1828-34).  He  also 
published  a  most  valuable  monograph  on  palms, 
Historia  Naturalis  Palmarum  (1823-63);  Die 
Pflanzen  und  Thiere  des  tropischcn  Amerika 
(1831)  ;  and  Das  Naturell,  die  Krankheiten,  das 
Arzttum  und  die  Heilmittel  der  Urhewohner  Bra- 
siliens  (1843). 

MABTLET  (probably  for  *marlet,  *merl€t, 
from  OF.  merlette,  merlotte,  diminutive  of  merle, 
blackbird,  from  Lat.  merula,  blackbird).  In 
heraldry  ( q.v. ) ,  a  martin  without  legs  or  beak. 

IIIABTOS.  A  town  of  Southern  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Ja6n,  situated  among  the  mountains 
15  miles  southwest  of  Ja6n.  It  is  built  on  the 
slope  of  a  steep  hill,  surmounted  by  a  ruined 
castle,  has  mineral  baths  and  exports  excellent 
olive  oil,  produced  in  the  surrounding  district. 
Population,  in  1900,  16,682. 

MABTYN,  mar'tin,  Henry  (1781-1812).  An 
English  missionary.  He  was  bom  at  Truro,  Corn- 
wall, England,  February  18,  1781,  of  humble 
origin.  In  1797  he  entered  Saint  John's  CJol- 
lege,  Cambridge,  and  in  1802  was  chosen  fellow 
of  his  college.  After  receiving  ordination  in 
1803  he  served  as  curate  to  the  Rev.  Charles 
Simeon  (q.v.).  In  1805  he  sailed  for  India  as 
chaplain  in  the  East  India  Company's  service, 
and  reached  Calcutta  in  May,  1806;  in  Sep- 
tember he  received  his  appointment  to  Dinapore, 
and  soon  conducted  worship  among  the  na- 
tives in  their  own  language  and  established 
schools  for  their  instruction.  In  1809  he  was 
stationed  at  Cawnpore.  While  here  he  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  into  Hindustani  and 
Persian,  the  Psalms  into  Persian,  and  the  Prayer- 
Book  into  Hindustani.  His  unremitting  labor 
and  the  severity  of  the  climate  affected  his 
health,  and  having  perfected  himself  in  the  Per- 
sian language,  he  decided  to  extend  his  labors 
to  that  country,  and  took  up  his  residence  at 
Shiraz,  where  he  revised,  with  the  aid  of  learned 
natives,  his  Persian  and  Arabic  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  and  held  discussions  with  the 
native  scholars,  many  of  whom  were  greatly 
impressed.  In  view  of  the  effect  of  his  frequent 
discussions,  and  of  his  being  engaged  in  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  into  Persian,  the 
preceptor  of  all  the  mollahs  wrote  an  Arabic  de- 
fense of  Mohammedanism.  To  this  Martyn  re- 
plied in  Persian.  Ill  health  again  compelling  him 
to  change  his  plans,  he  decided  to  return  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  September,  1812,  set  out  overland 
for  Constantinople.  At  Tokat  in  Asia  Minor 
his  utter  prostration  compelled  him  to  stop,  and 
he  died  there,  October  16,  1812.  A  monument 
was  erected  at  Tokat  in  1856.  Besides  the  trans- 
lations mentioned  he  was  the  author  of  Contro- 
versial Tracts  on  Christianity  and  Mohammeda/nr 
ism  (1824)  ;  Journals  and  Letters  (1837).  Con- 
sult his  lAfey  by  G.  Smith   (London,  1892). 

MABTYN^  William  Carlos  (1843—).  An 
American  author  and  clergyman,  bom  in  New 
York  City,  and  educated  at  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  (1869).  His  first  charge  was  in  Saint 
Louis,  and  afterwards  he  held  pastorates  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  New  York  City  (1876-90),  Newark, 
and  Chicago  (1892-94).  He  became  director  of 
the  Abbey  Press  in  1897.  His  writings  include: 
Life  of  John  Milton  (1865);  Life  of  Martin 
Luther  (1865);  History  of  English  Puritans 
(1866);  History  of  the  Huguenots  (1867); 
The  Dutch  Reformation  (1867)  ;  History  of  the 


Pilgrim  Fathers  (1867);  Wendell  Phillips,  the 
Agitator  (1891),  for  the  "American  Reformers 
Series,**  of  which  he  was  editor;  for  the  same 
series,  William  E.  Dodge,  the  Merchant  (1892), 
and  John  B.  Oough  (1894) ;  and  Christian  Citi- 
zenship (1896). 

MABTYNIA  (Neo-Lat,  named  in  honor  of 
John  Martyn,  an  English  botanist  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century) .  A  genus  of  eight  or  ten  species. 
of  unpleasant  smelling,  low,  branching  annual  or 
thick-stemmed  perennial  plants  with  tuberous 
roots,  belonging  to  the  order  Bignoniacee,  mostly 
natives  of  warm  countries.  By  some  botanists 
this  genus  is  referred  to  the  order  Pedaliaceie, 
while  others  make  it  the  type  of  the  order  Mar- 
tyniace».  The  leaves  are  simple,  rounded;  flow- 
ers large,  bell-shaped,  and  somewhat  two-lipped ; 
very  similar  to  catalpa  flowers,  borne  in  racemes ; 
the  fruit  is  a  pod  with  a  long  incurved  beak ; 
when  ripe  it  splits  into  two-hooked  horns,  open- 


MABTYNIA  (UNICORH  PLANT). 

ing  at  the  apex.  The  seeds  are  numerous,  blacky 
with  a  thick,  wrinkled  coat.  Martynia  probosci- 
dea,  unicorn  plant,  which  grows  on  the  banks  of 
the  Mississippi,  in  southern  Illinois,  and  south- 
westward,  is  cultivated  in  gardens  for  its  fruit, 
which,  when  the  pods  are  young,  is  used  for  mak- 
ing pickles.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  heart- 
shaped,  oblique,  entire,  the  upper  alternative; 
corolla  dull  white  or  purple,  or  spotted  with  yel- 
low and  purple;  endocarp  of  the  fruit  crested  on 
one  side,  long-beaked.  Martynia  fragrans,  from 
New  Mexico,  has  violet-purple  flowers,  with  a 
rather  pleasant  odor,  somewhat  like  that  of 
vanilla. 

MABTYB  (AS.,  Lat.  martyr,  from  Gk.  /idif^ 
TVS,  martys,  fiAprvp,  martyr,  witness;  connected 
with  Lat.  memor,  mindful,  Skt.  smar,  to  remem- 
ber). The  name  given  in  ecclesiastical  history 
to  those  who,  by  submitting  to  death  rather  thaii 
abandon  their  faith,  bore  the  witness  of  their 
blood  to  its  superhuman  origin,  though  the  title 
was  not  strictly  confined  to  these,  but  usually 
extended  to  those  who  were  condemned  to  torture, 
to  hard  labor  in  the  mines,  or  to  banishment.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  not  attributed  to  those 
who  sought  death  by  self -denunciation  or  by 
public  breaking  of  the  statues  of  the  gods.  The 
common  teaching  of  the  Fathers  was  that  martyr- 
dom, hence  called  the  'baptism  of  blood,'  sup- 
plied the  place  of  the  ordinary  baptism  where 
there  was  no  opportunity  to  receive  the  sacra- 


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MAHX 


ment.  The  maiiyTs  were  specially  venerated  by 
their  fellow-Christians.  As  it  was  held  that 
their  superabundant  merit  might,  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Church,  compensate  for  the  weakness  of  less 
perfect  brethren,  a  practice  arose  by  which  mar- 
tyrs awaiting  death  gave  to  those  sinners  who 
were  undergoing  public  penance  letters  of  com- 
mendation to  their  bishop  in  order  that  their 
course  of  penance  might  be  shortened.  (See  In- 
dulgence. )  The  death  of  a  martyr  was  reported 
to  the  bishop  of  the  place,  who  decided  whether 
he  was  entitled  to  the  name;  this  early  form  of 
canonization  made  him  a  martyr  vindioaius.  By 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  decision 
was  becoming  more  generally,  and  since  Urban 
VIII.  (1636)  has  been  absolutely,  reserved  to  the 
Pone.  The  martyrs,  who  were  the  earliest  saints 
to  be  honored  by  a  special  anniversary  commem- 
oration, have  in  later  times  received  a  spe- 
cial precedence  in  liturgical  rank — ^their  names  ia 
the  litany  of  the  saints,  for  example,  coming  im- 
mediately after  those  of  the  Apostles.  In  the 
old  Roman  calendar  there  was  a  common  feast 
of  all  the  martyrs,  of  which  Gregory  III.,  when 
in  731  he  transferred  it  to  November  Ist,  wid- 
ened the  reference  to  include  all  saints.  The 
number  of  the  martyrs  of  the  early  ages  was 
undoubtedly  great,  although  Gibbon  and  others 
have  attempted  to  minimize  it.  Ruinart  among 
older  scholars  and  Cardinal  Wiseman  in  modem 
times  have  given  strong  evidence  in  confirmation 
of  the  large  numbers.  The  Roman  martyrology 
alone  contains  14,000  names. 

MABTYB^  Peter.  A  writer  on  early  Ameri- 
can history.     See  Peteb  Mabttb. 

MABTYEOI/OOY  (ML.  martyrologium, 
MGk.  fULpTvpok&yioWj  from  Gk.  fidprvp^  martyr, 
martyr  -f  -^/a,  -logta,  account,  from  Xtyeiv^ 
legein,  to  say).  A  calendar  of  martyrs  (q.v.), 
and  sometimes  of  other  saints,  arranged  in  the 
order  of  months  and  days.  It  early  became  usual 
to  write  on  diptychs  or  folding  tablets  the  names 
of  Christians,  living  or  dead,  who  were  to  be 
especially  commemorated  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Eucharist.  Thus  were  inscribed  particularly 
the  names  of  martyrs  whose  anniversaries  were 
honored.  These,  which  were  at  first  only  lists  of 
names,  were  gradually  expanded,  and  by  com- 
bining the  records  of  various  churches  complete 
martyrologies  were  made.  The  oldest  extant 
mar^rology  is  probably  a  Syrian  one  of  the 
year  412  (see  below),  though  the  so-called  Mar- 
tyrologium Hieronymianum  may  be  almost  con- 
temporary with  it,  at  least  in  part.  This  has 
been  ascribed  to  Saint  Jerome,  possibly  because 
he  translated  and  commented  upon  the  work  of 
Eusebius,  De  Martyribus  PaUeatince.  An  old  Ro- 
man martyrology  was  known  to  Bede  and  to  a 
contemporary  French  monk,  Usnard,  whose  work 
forms  the  basis  of  the  later  Western  martyrolo- 
gies, as  officially  published  in  Rome  by  Baronius 
in  1584,  and  in  revised  editions  by  direction  of 
various  popes  (by  Pius  IX.  in  1873).  Consult: 
Wright,  An  Ancient  Syrian  Martyrology  (Lon- 
don, 1866)  ;  Lfimmer,  De  Martyrologio  Romano, 
Parergon  Historico-criticum  (Regensburg,  1878). 

KABTYBS,  mftr't^r',  Les.  A  prose  work  by 
Chateaubriand  (1809).  It  is  the  story  of  two 
Christian  lovers  at  the  end  of  the  third  century, 
during  Diocletian's  persecutions.  After  long 
separation  and  many  adventures  they  meet  in  the 
Roman  arena,  where  they  are  devoured  by  wild 


beasts.  The  work  is  artificial  in  style,  but  con- 
tains vivid  reconstructions  of  the  ancient  world 
and  passages  of  great  beauty. 

MABJTLld,  m&rS^mch,  Mabko  (1450-1524). 
A  Croatian  poet  and  scholar,  bom  at  Spalato.  He 
studied  at  Padua  and  entered  a  monastery  in 
Spalato.  His  works  in  Latin  deal  with  politics, 
theology,  and  history;  the  best  known  was  De 
Institutione  Bene  Vivendi  (1511),  which  passed 
through  many  editions.  Much  more  important 
are  his  poems  in  the  vernacular,  which,  although 
didactic,  mark  him  as  the  first  Croatian  author, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  names  of  the  literature 
of  Ragusa.  Thej  were  republished  at  Agram 
(1869),  with  a  biographical  sketch  of  Maruli6. 

MABTJTS,  mA-r55ts'  (Skt.,  probably  the  shin- 
ing ones).  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  gods  of  the 
storm  and  the  wind.  They  play  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Rig- Veda,  especially  as  allies  or  associates 
of  Indra  (q.v.).  Tne  hymns  addressed  to  them, 
as  they  crash  through  the  forests,  make  the 
mountains  ^uake,  or  sweep  the  plain,  accom- 
panied by  lightning,  dust,  and  rain,  are  among 
the  most  spirited  in  the  Veda.  They  have  been 
translated  by  Max  MQller,  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East,  vol.  xxxii.  (Oxford,  1891).  In  post-Vedic 
times  Marut  is  used  in  the  singular,  meaning 
wind  or  the  god  of  the  wind.  Consult:  Mac- 
donell,  Vedio  Mythology  (Strassburg,  1897); 
Wilkins,  Hindu  Mythology  (London,  1900). 

MABVEL,  Ik.  The  pseudonym  of  Donald  G. 
Mitchell. 

MAB^VELL,  Andrew  (1621-78).  An  English 
poet  and  politician,  bom  March  31,  1621,  at 
Winestead,  Yorkshire;  attended  the  grammar 
school  at  Hull,  of  which  his  father  became  mas- 
ter; graduated  B.A.  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge (1638)  ;  traveled  on  the  Continent  (1642- 
46)  ;  returned  to  England  about  1650;  was  em- 
ployed by  Oliver  Cromwell  as  tutor  to  his  ward, 
VVilliam  Button;  became  assistant  secretary  to 
Milton  (1657)  ;  and  was  elected  to  Parliament 
from  Hull  (1660).  Without  fortune  or  infiuence, 
possessing  no  commanding  talent  as  a  speaker, 
he  maintained  a  character  for  integrity  so  gen- 
uine and  high  that  his  constituency  felt  itself 
honored  by  his  conduct,  and  allowed  him  to  the 
end  of  his  life  'a  handsome  pension.'  Charles  II. 
made  many  but  fruitless  efforts  to  win  him  over 
to  the  Court  party.  Marvell  died  August  18, 
1678.  His  satires  in  verse  and  in  prose  relate 
mostly  to  matters  of  temporary  interest  in 
Church  and  State.  Of  another  class,  however, 
are  several  choice  pieces  of  verse,  as,  The  Garden, 
Horatian  in  tone;  A  Drop  of  Dew,  in  which  is 
anticipated  the  Neo-Platonism  of  Wordsworth; 
the  Bermudas;  a  group  of  short  lyrics,  as  The 
Mower  to  the  Olow-Worms,  and  the  Mower's 
Song;  and  the  splendid  patriotic  ode  on  Crom- 
loelVs  Return  from  Ireland,  Consult  Complete 
Works,  ed.  by  Grossart  (London,  1872-75); 
Poems  and  Satires,  ed.  bv  Aitken  (Ix)ndon, 
1892 ) ;  Birrell,  Andrew  Marvell  ( New  York,  1905 ) . 

MABVEIf  OP  FEBXT,  p«-r55'.  A  garden 
plant.    See  Jalap. 

MABVELOTJS  BOY^  The.  A  title  given  to 
Thomas  Chatterton. 

MABWABy  mftr'wSr.  A  native  State  of 
India.    See  Jodhpub. 

MABX,  marks,  Adolf  Bebnhabd  (1795-1866). 
A  German  writer  on  musical  subjects,  bom  at 


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HABJL 


Halle.  He  studied  law  and  practiced  it  for  a 
short  time,  but  soon  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  music  and  became  editor  of  the  Berlin  Allge- 
meine  Mueikaliache  Zeitung.  In  1830  he  was 
made  professor  of  music  at  tlie  Berlin  Uni- 
versity, and  in  1832  obtained  the  post  of  musi- 
cal director  at  the  university.  His  works  in- 
clude: Die  Lehre  von  der  musikalUchen  Kom- 
position  (1837-45);  Allgemeine  Musiklehre 
(1839;  10th  ed.  1884)  ;  Ludtoig  van  Beethoven: 
Leben  und  Schaffen  (1859;  4th  ed.  1884)  ;  Gluck 
und  die  Oper  ( 1862)  ;  and  Daa  Ideal  und  die  0^ 
genwart    (1867). 

•yAKX,  Kasl  (1818-83).  A  famous  socialist, 
usually  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  modem 
school  of  socialism,  bom  of  Jewish  parents  at 
Treves,  Germany,  May  6,  1818,  and  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Bonn  and  Berlin.  In 
1842  he  became  editor  of  the  Rheiniaehe  Zeitung 
fiir  PoHtik,  Handel  und  Gexcerht,  a  Liberal 
organ.  Shortly  before  the  suppression  of  the 
paper,  in  1843,  Marx  withdrew  from  the  editorial 
force  and  removed  to  Paris,  where  be  assisted  in 
editing  the  Deutaeh-Froneomsche  JahrbUeher. 
Marx  went  to  Brussels  in  1845,  where  he  was 
associated  with  Engels  and  organized  the  German 
Workingmen's  Association,  which  later  was  con- 
nected with  the  Communistenbund,  for  which  he 
wrote,  with  Engels,  the  famous  communistie 
manifesto,  which  has  been  regarded  as  the  classic 
exposition  of  the  communistic  movement.  The 
manifesto  charges  bourgeois  society  with  having 
destroyed  the  feudal  ties  which  boimd  man  to 
his  natural  superiors  and  with  having  left  no 
other  nexus  between  man  and  man  than  *cash 
payment.*  It  has  brought  about  a  condition  in 
which  the  productive  forces  do  not  further  the 
development  of  bourgeois  property,  but  through 
commercial  crises  actually  endanger  its  very 
existence.  Under  these  conditions  the  wages  of 
workmen  tend  to  the  bare  minimum  necessary  for 
existence  and  propagation.  As  the  disagreeable- 
ness  of  the  work  increases  the  pay  decreases.  The 
aim  of  the  communists  is  the  formation  of  the 
proletariat  into  a  class;  the  conquest  of  political 
power  and  the  overthrow  of  the  present  bour- 
geois supremacy.  Communism  forbids  no  man 
to  appropriate  the  products  of  his  labor,  but  it 
does  deprive  him  of  the  power  to  control  the 
labor  of  others  by  virtue  of  such  appropriation. 
To  secure  these  ends  the  following  measures  are 
advocated  as  generally  applicable  in  civilized 
lands:  (I)  Abolition  of  property  in  land  and 
the  application  of  all  rents  to  public  purposes; 
(2)  a  progressive  income  tax;  (3)  abolition  of 
all  rights  of  inheritance;  (4)  confiscation  of  all 
property  of  emigrants  and  rebels;  (5)  centraliza- 
tion of  credit  in  the  hands  of  the  State  by  means 
of  a  national  bank  with  State  capital  and  an 
exclusive  monopoly;  (6)  nationalization  of 
means  of  communication  and  transportation ;  ( 7 ) 
extension  of  productive  enterprises  by  the  State, 
the  reclamation  of  waste  land  and  general  im- 
provement of  the  soil;  (8)  compulsory  labor  with 
establishment  of  industrial  armies  especially  for 
agriculture ;  ( 9 )  combination  of  agriculture  with 
manufacturing,  the  elimination  of  distinction  be- 
tween town  and  country  by  more  even  distribu- 
tion of  the  population;  (10)  free  education  in 
public  schools  and  abolition  of  child  labor  in 
factories.  In  1847  Marx  wrote  a  reply  to  Proud- 
hon's  Philosophie  de  la  misdre  under  the  title 
Mis&re  de  la  philosophie. 


In  1848  Marx  returned  to  Cologne  and  started 
the  Neue  Rheinisohe  Zeitung,  but  because  of  his 
revolutionary  activity  be  was  ordered  to  leave 
Germany  in  May,  1849.  He  went  to  Paris,  but 
later  in  the  year  was  forced  to  leave  that  city 
and  moved  to  London,  which  waa  henceforth  his 
home.  He  became  a  newspaper  correspondent, 
writing  for  the  ^ew  York  Tribune,  Putnam*8 
MontlUy,  and  other  papers,  a  number  of  his 
articles  subsequently  being  published  in  pam- 
phlet form.  Among  these  are  '*Der  18te  Bru- 
maire  des  Louis  Bonaparte"  (1852) ;  *^he  Life 
of  Palmerston"  (1850);  ""Palmerston  and  Po- 
land" (1853).  The  results  of  his  studies  of 
English  conditions  and  economic  works  are  first 
seen  in  his  Kritik  der  politischen  Oekoncmie, 
which  appeared  in  1869  (translated  into  English 
1004),  and  contained  the  essenee  of  the  principles 
elaborated  in  his  subeequent  work,  Dm  Kapttal. 

In  1864  Marx  at  last  found  the  opportunity  of 
realizing  a  plan  he  had  long  contemplated:  that 
of  organizing  the  laborers  of  the  civilized  world 
into  a  great  association.  On  September  28  there 
was  a  great  meeting  in  Saint  Martin's  Hall,  to 
which  Marx  outlined  his  scheme  of  an  "Interna- 
tional Workingmen's  Association"  (q.v.).  Dur- 
ing these  years  Marx  was  also  greatly  interested 
in  the  developments  in  Germany,  and  assisted 
Liebknecht  and  his  associates  in  establishing  the 
Social  Democratic  Labor  Party  in  1869.  In  1867 
appeared  the  first  volume  of  Das  Kapital  (Eng- 
lish translation,  4th  edition,  from  the  3d  German 
edition,  London,  1891).  The  second  volume  was 
completed  by  Engels  and  published  in  1885;  the 
third  in  1895.  The  style  is  heavy,  and  the  analy- 
sis so  detailed  that  it  is  hard  to  follow.  The 
fimdamental  ideas  are,  however,  simple  when 
once  the  terminology  is  mastered.  Marx  seeks 
to  discover  the  economic  law  that  governs  so- 
ciety. Modem  social  development  is  made  pos- 
sible only  by  capital;  it  has  reached  its  highest 
point  and  must  necessarily  be  followed  by  an- 
other system.  Modem  capitalism  exploits  the 
laborer  by  getting  possession  of  the  'surplus 
value'  of  nis  services,  i.e.  the  amount  produced 
by  him  over  and  above  the  amount  of  his  wages, 
which  are  regulated  by  the  iron  law'  and  tend 
therefore  to  a  minimum.  The  basis  of  the  ex- 
change value  of  a  community  »  the  amount  of 
labor  expended  on  it.  In  the  long  run  this  means 
the  average  amount  of  labor  expended  under  aver- 
age conditions.  But  modem  labor  requires  eapitaL 
Marx  traces  the  historic  developmoit  of  capital 
and  shows  the  tendency  for  the  instruments  of 
labor  to  concentrate  in  fewer  and  fewer  hands. 
Thus  arises  the  capitalistic  class.  Meantime  de- 
velops also  a  class  who  have  only  their  labor 
to  sell,  tlie  proletariat.  The  first  is  the  consum- 
ing, the  second  the  producing  claas.  The  growth 
of  capitalism  reduces  the  number  of  capitalists 
and  increases  the  poverty  and  misery  of  the  work- 
ing classes,  but  also  serves  to  bring  them  to  self- 
consciousness.  The  proletariat  will  finally  or- 
ganize and  the  means  of  production  will  be  seized 
and  managed  for  the  good  of  all.  Marx  out- 
lined no  ideal  future  condition.  He  tried  to 
show  what  he  believed  to  be  the  course  of  his- 
torical development  and  sought  to  bring  about 
the  next  step,  the  organization  of  all  laborers  for 
their  common  good.  Marx  died  in  London, 
March  14,  1883.  For  a  convenient  digest  of  Das 
Kapital,  consult  Aveling,  The  Student's  Mara 
(London,  1892).      See  Communibm;  Socialmm; 


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IlTTEBIVATIOlTAIj:     OF     INTERNATIONAL    WOBKING- 

MEN's  Association. 

HA^Y  (Gk.  UfHdfjL,  Mariam,  Map/a,  Maria, 
from  Heb.  Miry  am,  of  uncertain  etymology).  The 
Mother  of  Jesus.  Apart  from  wnat  is  contained 
in  the  narratives  of  Jesus'  birth  and  childhood 
(Matt,  i.-ii.;  Luke  i.-ii.),  very  little  is  told  of 
Mary  in  the  New  Testament.  If  the  genealogy 
in  Luke  iii.  23-38  is  intended  to  be  that  of  Mary 
(which  is  doubtful),  she  was  descended  from 
David.  She  was  also  related  to  the  priestly 
family  to  which  Elisabeth,  mother  of  John  the 
Baptist,  belonged  (see  Luke  i.  5,  36).  After 
her  betrothal  to  Joseph,  a  carpenter  of  Nazareth 
in  Galilee,  but  before  her  marriage,  she  was  in- 
formed in  an  angelic  vision  that  she  would 
through  miraculous  conception  give  birth  to  a  son 
who  should  reign  on  the  Davidic  throne  and  be 
called  the  Son  of  the  Highest  (Luke  i.  26-38). 
The  marriage  to  Joseph  took  place.  Jesus,  her 
firstborn  son,  was  bom  at  Bethlehem,  whither  she 
had  gone  with  Joseph  in  consequence  of  a  census 
decreed  by  Augustus  (Luke  ii.  1-6).  Compelled 
to  flee  into  E|^t  with  the  infant  Jesus,  Joseph 
and  Mary  returned  to  Nazareth  after  the  death  of 
Herod  the  Great  (Matt.  ii.  13-23).  Here  some 
have  believed  that  other  children,  Jesus'  brothers 
and  sisters  (cf.  Mark  vi.  3;  Matt.  xiii.  55),  were 
bom;  though  the  belief  in  her  perpetual  virginity 
has  been  a  part  of  traditional  theology  from  the 
earliest  times.  Soon  after  Jesus  began  His  pub- 
lic ministry  the  family — Joseph  was  apparently 
dead — moved  to  Capemaimi  (John  ii.  12;  ci. 
Matt.  iv.  13,  ix.  1).  To  what  extent  Mary  ac- 
companied Jesus  on  His  journeys  we  do  not 
know.  That  she  did  not  fully  comprehend  the 
mission  of  her  son  is  evident  from  John  ii.  4,  if 
not  from  Mark  iii.  31-35  (cf.  Luke  ii.  48-49).  She 
witnessed  the  crucifixion  and  was  then  intrusted 
by  Jesus  to  the  care  of  John,  the  beloved  disciple, 
who  gave  her  a  place  in  his  home  (John  xix.  25- 
27 ) .  The  last  notice  of  Mary  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  in  Acts  i.  14,  where  she  is  mentioned 
as  one  of  the  company  of  disciples  who  were 
accustomed  to  meet  in  the  upper  room  in  Jeru- 
salem soon  after  the  Resurrection. 

No  more  than  this  is  told  of  her  in  the  New 
Testament;  but  the  tradition  of  the  Christian 
Church  added  considerably  to  it.  There  grew  up 
a  literature,  partly  apocryphal  (see  Apocrypha)  , 
dealing  with  her  infancy  and  childhood,  with  her 
espousal  to  Joseph,  and  with  the  birth  and  in- 
fancy of  Jesus,  and  with  her  death  and  assump- 
tion into  heaven.  The  more  her  position  in  the 
scheme  of  redemption  was  meditated  upon,  the 
more  important  did  she  appear.  The  frequent 
controversies  as  to  the  nature  of  her  Son  bore 
upon  her  own  personality  and  history;  thus  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (431)  really  summed  up  its 
doctrine  against  Nestorius  in  calling  Mary  the 
*mother  of  God'  {BeorSicos),  Festivals  celebrated 
in  her  honor  increased  in  number;  among  the 
older  ones,  some  of  which  date  back  to  the  fifth 
century,  are  the  Purification,  February  2;  An- 
nunciation. March  25;  Assumption,  August  15; 
Nativity,  September  8;  and  Conception,  Decem- 
ber 8.  The  devotion  to  her  not  simply  as  an 
historical  memory,  but  as  a  living  power,  owing 
to  the  prevailing  force  of  her  intercession  with 
her  Son,  became  so  marked  in  course  of  time  that 
it  was  one  of  the  things  against  which  the  re 
formers  of  the  sixteenth  century  strongly  pro- 
tested. It  continued  to  develop,  however,  in  the 
Vou  XHL— 9. 


Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  found  expression, 
among  many  other  ways,  in  the  defimtion  in 
1854  of  her  conception  as  immaculate,  or 
free  from  the  taint  of  original  sin;  and  the 
prayer  in  which  her  intercession  is  invoked  (see 
Ave  Mabia)  became  second  only  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  frequency  of  use.  Many  of  the  shrines 
erected  in  her  honor,  at  places  supposed  to  have 
been  consecrated  by  apparitions  of  her  presence, 
have  become  among  the  most  celebrated  pilgrim- 
age places.  On  this  aspect  of  the  devotion  see 
the  articles  LouRDES;  EiNSiEOELN;  and  consult 
Northcote,  Celebrated  Sanctuaries  of  the  Mor 
donna  (London,  1868) ;  Rudniki,  Die  heriihmtea' 
ten  Wallfahrtsorte  der  Erde  (Paderborn,  1891). 
For  the  subject  in  general,  consult  the  immense 
collection  of  documents  in  Bourass^,  Sumna 
Aurea  de  Laudihu8  Beates  Marice  Virginia  (13 
vols.,  Paris,  1866  et  seq.) ;  Schaff,  Creeds  of 
Christendom  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Kurz,  Mari- 
ologie  (Regensburg,  1881)  ;  Lehner,  Die  Marien- 
verehrung  in  den  ersten  Jahrhunderten  (2d  ed., 
Stuttgart,  1886) ;  Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Ma- 
donna (London,  1852)  ;  Northcote,  Maty  in  the 
Oospels  (ib.,  1885)  ;  Newman,  Development  of 
Christian  Doctrine  (ib.,  1845). 

On  the  narratives  of  the  infancy  of  Jesus  in 
the  (]rospels,  consult  Resch,  "Das  Kindheitsevan- 
gelium,"  in  (xebhardt  and  Hamack,  Teate  und 
Untersuchungen  (Leipzig,  1897)  ;  Ramsay,  Was 
Jesus  Bom  in  Bethlehem?  (London,  1898).    See 

also  ASSUICFTIOIT   OF  THE  ViBGIN;    IMMACULATE 

(Ik>NCEPnoN;  RosABT;  Madonna. 

MABY,  OF  Bethany.  See  Mabtha  and  Mabt, 
OF  Bethany. 

KABY  I.  (1516-58).  Queen  of  England  from 
1563  to  1558.  Mary  was  bom  at  Greenwich, 
February  18,  1516,  and  ultimately  was  the  only 
surviving  child  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Catharine  of 
Araffon.  Her  education  was  carefully  and  se- 
verely planned,  and  she  learned  to  converse 
readily  in  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish,  and  knew 
Italian.  When  two  years  of  age  she  was  betrothed 
to  the  Dauphin  of  France,  afterwards  to  her 
cousin,  Charles  V.,  and  finally  a  treaty  was 
signed  providing  for  her  marriage  to  either  Fran- 
cis I.  or  his  second  son,  Henry.  Numerous  other 
proposals  were  made,  but  they  were  rendered 
futile  by  the  rapid  changes  in  England's  for- 
eign relations,  or  by  Mary's  refusal  of  a  Protest- 
ant, until  in  the  end  her  accession  as  Queen  left 
her  at  liberty  to  choose  her  own  consort.  She 
was  twice  in  danger,  owing  to  her  religious  con- 
victions, during  the  period  of  the  divorce  of  her 
mother  and  during  the  reign  of  her  brother,  Ed- 
ward VI.  (q.v.).  She  was  a  loving  child  and  re- 
fused to  abandon  her  mother's  cause  when  Henry 
VIII.  divorced  Catharine.  In  the  end  she  was  per- 
suaded by  her  friends  with  the  greatest  difficulty 
to  submit  to  Henry's  demands  and  sign  a  renim- 
ciation  of  the  Pope's  authority  and  her  own 
legitimacy.  As  a  result  of  her  compliance  she 
was  received  into  half  favor  and  given  a  place  in 
the  succession  to  the  crown.  During  Edward's 
reign  she  held  uncompromisingly  Sq  the  old 
faith,  at  the  cost  of  much  annoyance  and  the 
danger  of  actual  persecution.  In  1553  she  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown,  her  popularity  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  attempt  of  the  detested  North- 
umberland to  displace  her  with  Lady  Jane  Grey 
(q.v.). 

Mary  began  her  reign  firmly  resolved  to  sweep 


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away  the  religious  innovationB  of  her  father  and 
brother.  She  proceeded  throughout  in  a  legal 
manner  and  never  failed  to  secure  the  consent 
of  Parliament  to  her  acts,  though  during  the 
Tudor  period  Parliament  very  imperfectly  repre- 
sented the  sentiments  of  the  English  people.  The 
mass  was  restored  without  opposition  in  1553, 
and  the  authority  of  the  Pope  reestablished 
somewhat  tardily  and  reluctantly  in  1654.  Mary 
could  not  persuade  the  Parliament  to  restore  the 
Church  lands,  but  she  gave  back  such  property 
as  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  Crown.  This 
was  a  greater  proof  of  her  sincerity  than  of  her 
statesmanship,  for  it  impoverished  her  resources 
and  led  to  subsequent  disasters  which  touched 
English  pride.  Even  more  disastrous  was  her 
marriage  in  1654  with  Philip,  son  of  Charles  V., 
which  was  so  unpopular  that  on  its  proposal  a 
formidable  rebellion  broke  out  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Wyatt  to  depose  Mary  and  put  Elizabeth 
on  the  throne.  Philip,  who  was  eleven  years 
younger  than  Mary,  was  an  uncompromising 
Catholic.  He  was  extremely  unpopular,  and  re- 
paid Mary's  boundless  devotion  with  coldness  and 
neglect.  To  please  him,  the  Queen  joined  in  a 
War  against  France,  with  the  result  that  Calais, 
the  last  remnant  of  the  English  conquests  during 
the  Hundred  Years'  War,  was  lost  in  1558.  It 
was  no  disaster  of  any  consequence  to  England, 
but  to  Mary  and  her  subjects  it  seemed  irrepara- 
ble. In  addition  to  her  husband's  neglect,  the 
loss  of  Calais,  and  her  own  ill  health,  Mary's  last 
days  were  darkened  by  the  religious  persecutions 
which  filled  the  latter  part  of  her  reign,  in  which 
nearly  three  hundred  persons  were  burnt  for  their 
faith  and  for  which  she  received  the  name  of 
'Bloody  Mary.'  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
she  adopted  these  measures  with  reluctance,  as 
a  last  resort,  and  that  her  predecessors  and  suc- 
cessors were  guilty  of  like  practices.  She  died 
without  issue,  November  17,  1568.  Consult: 
Lingard,  History  of  England  (6th  ed.,  London, 
1854-65)  ;  Froude,  History  of  England  (new  ed., 
London,  1893) ;  Strickland,  Lives  of  the  Queens 
of  England  (Boston,  1860). 

MABY  n.  (1662-94).  Queen  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. She  was  bom  at  Saint  James's  Palace, 
April  30,  1662,  the  eldest  daughter  of  James  II. 
and  Anne  Hyde,  who  was  a  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Clarendon.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  she  was  mar- 
ried to  William,  Prince  of  Orange.  She  joined  her 
husband  in  England  early  in  1689  after  the  flight 
of  her  father.  In  the  same  year  Parliament  de- 
clared the  crown  of  England  vacant  by  the  abdi- 
cation of  James,  and  conferred  it  upon  William 
(III.)  and  Mary.  She  died  of  smallpox  Decem- 
ber 28,  1694.  Consult:  Burnet,  Essay  Upon  the 
Life  of  Queen  Mary  (London,  1695)  ;  Doebner 
(ed.).  Memoirs  and  Letters  of  Mary  II, ,  Queen 
of  England  (Leipzig,  1886) .    See  William  III. 

MABY,  Apocalypse  op  the  Vibgin.  See 
Apocbtpha,  section  on  New  Testament. 

MABY,  Nativity  of  the  Vibgin.  See  Apoo- 
BYPHA,  section  on  New  Testament. 

MABYBOBOUGH,  mfl'rl-btir'd.  A  seaport 
municipality  of  March  County,  Queensland,  Aus- 
tralia, at  the  mouth  of  the  Mary  River  on  Hervey 
Bay,  180  miles  north  of  Brisbane,  with  which 
it  has  railroad  and  steam  communication  (Map: 
Queensland,  H  8).  It  is  the  port  of  a  rich  coal, 
gold,  and  copper  mining  and  agricultural  region; 


has  sugar  mills  and  refineries,  iron  foundries, 
breweries,  tanyards,  shipbuilding  industries,  ac- 
tive fisheries,  and  a  considerable  export  trade  in 
timber,  sugar,  and  minerals.  The  river  is  crossed 
at  Maryborough  by  a  concrete  bridge ;  the  commo- 
dious wharves  are  available  to  vessels  of  17  Mi 
feet  draught.  Population,  in  1891,  9700;  in  1901, 
10,159. 

MABYBOBOTJGH.  A  municipality  of  Tal- 
bot County,  Victoria,  Australia,  112  miles  north 
of  Melbourne  by  rail.  It  has  agricultural  and 
important  quartz  and  alluvial  gold  mining  in- 
dustries. Population  of  Marylwrough  district 
15,000. 

MABYLAND,  mfir^-land.  One  of  the  thir- 
teen original  States  of  the  American  Union.  It 
occupies  a  middle  position  on  the  Atlantic  Coast 
between  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  being  in- 
cluded between  the  parallels  of  37"*  53'  and  39** 
43'  26"  north  latitude  and  75*»  4'  and  79'  33' 
west  longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Pennsylvania,  the  boundary  being  Mason  and 
Dixon's  line,  and  by  Delaware;  on  the  east  by 
Delaware  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the  south 
and  west  by  Virginia.  It  is  separated  from  the 
last-named  States  by  the  Potomac  River,  which 
is  the  boundary  from  its  source  in  a  small  moun- 
tain stream,  to  its  mouth  in  a  broad  estuary 
entering  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  outline  of  the 
State  is  extremely  irregular,  as  the  southern 
boundary  is  mainly  a  winding  river  and  the 
western  part  of  the  State  is  a  long  fragment 
lying  between  this  river  and  Mason  and  Dixon's 
line,  while,  in  addition  to  this,  Chesapeake  Bay 
divides  the  region  into  two  parts.  The  extreme 
length  of  the  northern  boundary  is  215  miles, 
with  a  further  extension  of  35  miles  where  the 
State  stretches  eastward  south  of  the  Delaware 
to  the  ocean.  The  extreme  breadth  from  north 
to  south,  near  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Chcsa^ 
peake,  is  128  miles.  The  total  area  is  13,327 
square  miles,  of  which  3386  square  miles  are  water. 

ToPOGBAPHT.  The  surface  of  Maryland  shows 
great  diversity.  It  is  usually  divided,  for  purposes 
of  classification,  into  three  regions:  the  coastal 
plain,  the  Piedmont  plateau,  and  the  Appalachian 
region.  All  are  drained  by  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Chesapeake,  excepting  the  northwest 
comer,  which  drains  toward  the  Ohio,  a  narrow 
strip  draining  directly  into  the  Atlantic,  and  a 
fragment  at  the  extreme  northeast,  draining  into 
Christian  Creek  and  the  Delaware. 

The  coastal  plain  embraces  that  part  of  Mary- 
land lying  to  the  east  of  a  line  passing  from 
Washington  to  Baltimore,  Havre  de  Grace,  and 
Wilmington.  It  includes  more  than  half  the  land 
area  of  the  State,  and  is  divided  by  Chesapeake 
Bay  into  what  is  commonly  called  the  'eastern 
shore*  and  the  'western  shore*  or  Southern 
Maryland.  The  'eastern  shore*  is  low  and  level; 
only  in  the  north  does  it  reach  100  feet,  and  most 
of  it  is  less  than  25  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
'western  shore'  is  higher,  and  rises  to  300  feet 
near  the  District  of  Columbia  and  again  near 
Baltimore.  Chesapeake  Bay  has  many  islands, 
and  the  entire  Atlantic  Coast  is  made  up  of  a 
long,  reef-like,  sandy  island,  inclosing  the  Chin- 
coieague  and  Assateague  bays.  The  eastern  shore 
is  drained  by  the  Pocomoke,  Nanticoke,  Chop- 
tank,  and  Chester  rivers,  and  by  some  insignifi- 
cant streams.    The  western  shore  is  drained  in 


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MABYLAND. 


the  most  part  by  the  Potomac,  the  Pattizent,  the 
Patapsco,  and  the  Gunpowder. 

The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  Atlantic 
Plain  of  Maryland  is  Chesapeake  Bay,  which 
has  about  two-thirds  of  its  200  miles  of  length 
within  the  State.  It  is  from  10  to  40  miles  wide 
and  its  numerous  estuaries  cut  the  plain  in  every 
direction  and  reach  to  the  eastern  edge  of  the 
Piedmont  Plateau.  The  bay  is  navigable  for  the 
largest  ships,  and  its  numerous  arms  furnish  a 
large  number  of  fine  harbors.  The  large  area  of 
sheltered,  shallow,  inland  water  gives  an  excel- 
lent fishing  ground  and  an  opportunity  for  oyster 
gathering  and  oyster  culture  scarcely  equaled 
elsewhere  in  the  world. 

The  Piedmont  Plateau  extends  from  the  edge 
of  the  Atlantic  Plain  to  the  Catoctin  Mountain, 
the  first  range  of  the  Appalachian  system.  This 
region  is  about  65  miles  wide  at  the  north  and 
40  miles  wide  at  the  south.  Most  of  the  surface 
is  broken  and  hilly,  ascending  with  complicated 
drainage  systems  to  Parr's  Ridge  in  Carroll 
Coimty.  Between  Parr's  Ridge  and  the  Catoctin 
Mountain  is  the  comparatively  level  Frederick 
Valley,  drained  by  the  Monocacy  River,  flowing 
southward  into  the  Potomac.  Near  the  mouth  of 
the  Monocacy,  the  Sugar  Loaf  Mountain  (1281 
feet)  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain.  From  the 
Catoctin  Mountain  to  the  western  boundary  of 
the  State,  the  Appalachian  region  spreads  a  sue- 
eession  of  valleys,  separated  by  nearly  parallel 
northeast  and  southwest  mountain  ranges,  and 
all  draining  into  the  Potomac.  The  Blue  Ridge, 
2400  feet  high  at  Quirauk,  near  the  Pennsylvania 
line,  crosses  the  State  to  Weverton  on  the  Poto- 
mac, and  is  the  eastern  limit  of  the  Great  or 
Hagerstown  Valley.  This  valley  is  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  North  Mountain,  between  which 
and  Cumberland  is  the  Alleghany  Ridge,  a  com- 
plex chain  of  long,  narrow,  very  level  mountain 
ridges,  separated  by  narrow  valleys,  beginning 
at  an  elevation  of  about  500  feet  at  the  Potomac. 
Just  west  of  Cumberland  rises  Dan*s  Mountain 
(2882  feet).  To  the  west  of  it  is  the  Alleghany 
Plateau,  giving  the  elevation  of  2000  feet  or 
more  to  all  of  Maryland  to  the  west,  except  the 
immediate  valleys  of  the  Potomac,  Savage,  and 
Youghiogheny  rivers.  Much  of  the  plateau  is 
above  2500  feet,  and  the  highest  mountains,  the 
Savage  and  its  extension,  the  Backbone  Mountain, 
exceed  3000  feet  in  elevation. 

For  Floba  and  Fauna,  see  those  topics  imder 
United  States. 

Climatb  and  Soil.  The  climate  of  Maryland 
is  one  of  transition  in  which  the  northern  frozen 
winter  gives  way  to  the  open  southern  win- 
ter. The  extreme  temperatures  of  more  northern 
locations  are  occasionally  met  with,  but  the 
periods  of  cold  are  of  less  duration  and  the  num- 
ber of  freezing  days  and  the  amount  of  snowfall 
are  less.  An  extreme  winter  temperature  of  26^ 
below  zero  has  been  recorded  at  Sunnyside  in  the 
Alleghany  Plateau  and  a  summer  temperature  of 
109**  F.  near  dhimberland.  Changes  of  tempera- 
ture are  frequent,  and  there  is  a  great  daily 
range.  In  north  central  Maryland  the  average 
temperature  for  January  is  30** ;  that  for  July 
75^.  The  average  annual  temperature  for  the 
State  is  between  63**  and  54**.  The  average  dates 
for  first  and  last  killing  frosts  in  the  plateau  are 
October    1st  and   April    15th;    on   the   Marine 


Islands  the  growing  season  is  a  month  longer, 
extending  from  April  1st  to  October  15th. 

The  average  rainfall  for  the  State  is  43 
inches,  of  which  11.5  to  12  fall  in  spring  and  in 
summer  and  9.5  to  10  in  the  fall  and  in  winter. 
The  effects  of  elevation  and  slope  are  clearly 
shown  in  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall.  The 
western  slope  of  the  Alleghany  Plateau  receives 
53  inches;  the  eastern  slope  of  Parr's  Ridge 
over  45 ;  the  inclosed  valleys  between  Cumberland 
and  Hagerstown  and  small  sections  at  the  ex- 
treme east  and  southwest  of  the  State  receive 
between  30  and  35.  The  Atlantic  Plain  in 
the  main  receives  from  42  to  48  inches.  The 
snowfall  averages  25.4  inches  for  the  State, 
16.6  for  the  southern  and  43.4  for  the  west- 
em  districts.  The  number  of  days  of  precipi- 
tation on  the  coast  is  130,  in  the  mountains  140. 
The  relative  humidity  varies  from  80  in  the  sea 
islands  to  65  at  the  extreme  west.  The  climate 
is  everywhere  suitable  to  tree  growth;  hard 
woods,  especially  oak  and  hickory,  predominate. 
The  warm  moist  climate  and  light  soil  of 
the  eastern  shore  cause  that  district  to  be  the 
home  of  many  southern  plants  not  found  else- 
where in  the  same  latitude. 

Maryland  has  a  variety  of  soils  corresponding 
with  the  geological  formations.  The  more  re- 
cent formations  of  the  Atlantic  Plain  have  light, 
sandy  and  loamy  soils,  unsuited  to  grass,  but 
especially  adapted  to  vegetables,  truck-farming, 
small  fruits,  and  peaches.  The  region  of  meta- 
morphic  rocks  and  the  limestone  and  shale  val- 
leys of  the  west  are  of  heavier,  often  clay,  soils, 
usually  very  fertile  and  adapted  to  wheat,  maize, 
grass,  and  clover.  On  the  western  slope  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  the  Cambrian  (Harper's) 
shale,  crossing  the  State  from  Harper's  Ferry 
northeastward,  produces  a  strip  of  sandy,  shaly 
soil  with  exceptional  adaptation  to  peaches, 
which  are  here  a  highly  specialized  crop.  Sim- 
ilar shaly  soils  are  on  the  flanks  of  all  the  ranges, 
and  the  valley  floors  are  usually  limestone. 

Geologt.  Maryland  presents  a  great  variety 
of  geologic  formations,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  various  outcrops  which  run  in  broad  bands 
parallel  with  the  Atlantic  coast  are  here  so  nar- 
row that  the  whole  series  is  encompassed  by  the 
State,  from  the  coastal  plain  formation  to  the 
western  coal  fields,  while  farther  south  they 
widen  out  so  that  even  the  State  of  North  Caro- 
lina does  not  include  them  all.  The  entire  por- 
tion of  the  State  east  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  a 
strip  from  5  to  20  miles  wide  along  its  west- 
em  shore  are  covered  with  the  recent  unindurated 
coastal  plain  formation,  consisting  of  Tertiary 
sands  and  clays  east  of  the  bay,  and  chiefly  Cre- 
taceous, with  some  Eocene  deposits,  on  the  west- 
ern shore.  West  of  this  follows  the  Archaean 
belt  of  the  Piedmont  Plain.  It  is  here  about  50 
miles  broad,  occupying  the  whole  central  part 
of  the  State,  but  in  early  Mesozoic  time  this 
Archaean  land  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
narrow  arm  of  the  sea  running  southwestward 
from  the  present  mouth  of  the  Hudson,  and 
whose  bed  is  now  filled  with  a  deep  layer  of 
Triassic  red  sandstone  occupying  the  Frederick 
Valley.  The  narrow  western  part  of  the  State 
is  traversed  by  the  various  outcrops  brought  to 
the  surface  by  the  Appalachian  upheaval  and 
subsequent  denudation.  They  are  chiefly  Devo- 
nian and  Silurian  strata,  more  or  less  tilted  and 


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MABYLAND 


126 


KABYLAHD. 


covered  in  the  extreme  west  by  the  carboniferous 
formation.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  intni- 
sions  of  eruptive  rocks  nmning  in  a  chain  of  dikes 
east  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  During  the  Eocene  and 
Pleistocene  periods  the  eastern  part  of  the  State 
was  subjected  to  repeated  changes  of  level, 
whose  net  result  was  the  formation  of  a  system 
of  river  valleys  and  their  partial  submergence  into 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  branching  estuaries. 

Mineral  Resouikces.  The  most  valuable  min- 
eral resource  of  Maryland  is  coal,  which  is  the 
best  quality  of  bituminous  and  occurs  in  three 
areas  known  respectively  as  the  Cumberland, 
Georgia  Creek,  and  Frostburg  *basins.'  One  bed, 
the  *Big  Vein,*  is  U  feet  thick,  with  others  of 
less  value  below  it.  The  area  of  the  fields  ii 
more  than  500  square  miles.  The  output  in  1906 
was  4,950,000  tons,  valued  at  $5,950,000,  giving 
Maryland  the  thirteenth  rank  among  the  States. 
Useful  minerals  are  most  numerous  in  the  crys- 
talline rocks  of  the  Piedmont  region.  Here  are 
many  fine  building  stones,  and  there  are  found 
also,  but  mostly  in  unprofitable  (quantities,  ores 
of  copper,  gold,  chrome,  lead,  zinc,  and  iron, 
besides  flint,  feldspar,  kaolin,  and  mica.  The 
absence  of  large  cities  has  limited  the  quarry 
imdustry  to  the  region  near  the  head  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  Of  building  stone  for  commercial  use 
the  State's  output  was  $1,409,055  in  1905.  Fine 
granite  quarried  near  Port  Deposit  and  Balti- 
more, and  marble  from  the  vicinity  of  Baltimore 
have  been  used  for  the  Government  buildings  at 
Washington  and  for  important  structures  in  New 
York  and  Philadelphia.  Valuable  clays  are 
widely  distributed,  Baltimore  County  alone  pos- 
sessing clays  suitable  for  building-brick,  fire- 
brick, pottery,  stoneware,  terra-cotta,  sewer  pipe, 
and  paint.  Natural  cement  is  an  important 
article  of  manufacture.  The  clay  output  is  small, 
but  the  value  of  clay  products  is  high,  owing  to 
the  pottery  and  other  ciay  manufactures  of  Balti- 
more, and  the  fire-bricks  of  the  coal  region,  which 
are  reported  to  be  the  best  in  the  coumtry.  Pot- 
able waters  of  excellent  quality  abound;  springs 
are  numerous,  and  there  are  some  mineral  springs 
©f  local  repute. 

Fisheries.  This  industry  has  declined  greatly 
since  1891,  the  value  of  the  catch  in  1897  amount- 
ing to  $3,617,306,  as  compared  with  $6,460,759  in 
1891.  The  State  ranked  sixth  in  1904  with  a 
catch  valued  at  $3,336,560.  More  persons  are  en- 
gaged in  the  industry  than  in  any  other  State, 
the  number  in  1904  being  30,337.  The  oyster 
catch  amounted  to  almost  75  per  cent,  of  the  en- 
tire product,  though  both  New  York  and  Virginia 
exceeded  Maryland  in  the  quantity  and  value  of 
the  oyster  catch.  The  rivers  flowing  into  Chesa- 
peake Bay  contribute  largely  to  the  fisheries  prod- 
ucts, particularly  shad.  The  other  more  impor- 
tant varieties  taken  are  crabs,  alewives,  striped 
bass,  and  white  perch. 

AoBicuLTURE.  There  is  81.9  per  cent,  of  the 
land  area  of  the  State  included  in  farms,  and  of 
this  68  per  cent,  is  improved.  The  acreage  of 
farm  land  increased  11.6  per  cent,  during  the 
last  half  of  the  century,  and  there  was  a  still 
greater  increase  in  area  of  improved  land.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period  the  number  of  farms  more 
than  doubled,  while  the  average  size  decreased 
nearly  one-half— the  average  in  1900  being  112.4 
acres.  The  farms  operated  by  owners  amount  to 
66.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  number.    The  propor- 


tion of  rented  farms  is  increasing,  particularly 
the  farms  rented  on  the  share  method,  which 
amounted  to  24.8  per  cent,  of  all  farms  in  1900. 
Only  12.7  per  cent,  of  the  farms  are  operated  by 
colored  farmers,  while  the  proportion  of  renters 
among  these  is  much  larger  than  among  the 
whites,  and  the  average  size  of  the  farms  is  much 
smaller  among  the  former  than  among  the  latter. 

The  area  devoted  to  cereals  in  1906  was  con- 
siderably larger  than  it  was  in  1900,  when  it  was 
larger  than  in  1890.  Com  and  wheat  usually 
have  almost  equal  areas  devoted  to  them,  but  in 
1906  the  wheat  acreage  was  very  much  larger. 
As  compared  with  1850  the  product  of  wheat  was 
about  double  in  amount,  while  the  increase  of 
com  was  only  a  little  less  pronounced.  Frederick 
County,  in  Piedmont  region,  is  the  largest  pro- 
ducer of  these  cereals.  The  area  devoted  to  oats  in 
1906  was  only  32  per  cent,  of  that  in  1890.  Other 
cereals  raised  in  small  amounts  are  rye,  buck- 
wheat, and  barley.  The  acreage  of  rye  in  1906  was 
19,704.  Hay  and  forage  crops  rank  next  to  corn 
and  wheat,  both  in  the  area  devoted  to  them  and 
the  value  of  the  product.  A  much  smaller  acreage 
is  devoted  to  tobacco,  but  its  large  per  acre  value 
makes  it  one  of  the  important  crops  of  the  State. 

The  lighter  soils  throughout  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State  are  largely  devoted  to  the  raising 
of  vegetables  and  fruits.  In  1900  the  value  of  the 
vege&ble  products,  including  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  onions,  amount^  to  15.2  per  cent, 
of  the  gross  farm  income.  Maryland  annually 
cans  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  tomato  pack  of  the 
United  States  and  takes  a  high  rank  in  the  can- 
ning of  sweet  com.  The  region  south  and  east  of 
Baltimore  is  noted  for  its  peach  orchards.  In 
1900  the  peach  trees  numbered  over  4,000,000 
and  constituted  60  per  cent,  of  all  fruit  trees, 
although  there  was  a  large  decrease  as  compared 
with  the  number  in  1890.  There  was  a  large  in- 
crease during  the  decade  1890-1900  in  all  other 
varieties  of  fruit  trees.  In  1900  17,516  acres 
were  devoted  to  small  fruits,  of  which  about 
four-fifths  were  strawberries.  Floriculture  is 
extensively  developed  in  the  vicinity  of  Balti- 
more. Gardening  and  fruit-raising  have  given 
rise  to  the  extensive  use  of  fertilizers.  The  in- 
creasing demands  of  the  growing  centres  of  pop- 
ulation have  given  rise  to  a  large  dairy  indus- 
try, and  the  number  of  dairy  cows  increased 
from  86,856  in  1850  to  147,284  in  1900.  The 
greater  intensiveness  of  cultivation  and  increased 
use  of  machinery  have  necessitated  more  work 
horses,  and  the  number  of  these  nearly  doubled 
in  the  period  mentioned.  The  following  compar- 
ative tables  give  the  more  important  crops  and 
the  number  of  domestic  animals  for  the  years 
1900  and  1906  (figures  for  crops  given  in  acres) : 


0»OFt 

Cora 

Wheat 

OaU 

H«7  and  forafe 

Tobacco 

PototoM  (Iridi) 

DOMMTIO  AinMALS 

Dairy  oowa 

Other  neat  cattle 

Horses 

Mules  and 
Sheep .... 
Bwine .... 


1900 


668,010 
634,446 
44,625 
874,848 
42,911 
26,472 


1906 


628,796 

806,401 

31,884 

280,291 

29,640 

28,751 


1900 


147,284 
145,362 
148,994 
17,580 
111,520 
317,902 


1906 


148.897 
135,319 
156,614 
19,346 
164,873 
296,180 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ICABYLAND. 


127 


ICABYLAKD. 


MANirFACTXTBES.  Manufacturing  is  of  much 
importance,  and  has  played  an  important  part 
from  the  first  settlement  of  the  State.  In  1850 
5.2  per  cent,  of  the  population  were  engaged  as 
wage-earners  in  that  industry.  In  1900  the  per 
cent,  of  the  population  thus  engaged  was  d.l. 
The  census  of  1900  showed  9879  establishments 
with  108,325  Wage-earners  and  products  valued  at 
$242,552,990.  Of  these  establishments  3827,  with 
93,038  wage-earners  and  products  valued  at  $210,- 
795,624,  were  of  the  class  included  in  the  census 
of  1905,  when  their  number  was  3852,  the  num- 
ber of  wage-earners,  94,174,  and  the  value  of  prod- 
ucts, $243,375,996.  The  urban  manufactures  of 
the  State  are  confined  mainly  to  the  city  of  Balti- 
more, the  prominence  of  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry in  tne  State  being  due  largely  to  the  com- 
mercial advantages  of  that  city.  The  industry 
ranking  first  in  value  of  products  is  the  manufac- 
ture of  men's  clothing.  This  industry  and  the 
manufacture  of  shirts  and  men's  furnishing 
goods  is  credited  almost  entirely  to  Baltimore. 
The  largest  and  most  important  group  of  manu- 
factures draws  extensively  from  the  agricultural 
products  of  the  State.  The  canning  and  preserv- 
ing of  fruits  and  vegetables  increased  in  value  of 
products  during  the  decade  1890-1900,  66.7  per 
cent.,  but  decreased  9.3  per  cent,  from  1900  to 
1905.  California  alone  exceeds  Maryland  in  this 
industry.  The  tobacco  manufactures  are  also 
increasing,  the  growth,  however,  being  confined 
to  the  manufacture  of  chewing  and  smoking  to- 
bacco and  snuff.  The  canning  of  oysters  gives 
employment  to  many  hands.  The  slaughtering 
and  meat-packing  industry  made  considerable 
gains  from  1900  to  1905.  The  flour  and  grist 
milling  industry  and  the  manufacture  of  textiles 
are  long  established  industries. 

Another  group  of  industries  is  of  note — iron 
manufactures.  The  iron  ore  was  at  first  secured 
from  the  State  mines,  but  when  the  Lake  Superior 
region  was  developed  the  grade  of  ore  was  so 
much  higher  than  the  Maryland  product  that  it 
rendered  the  latter  unprofitable  and  greatly  re- 
duced the  extent  of  &e  dependent  industries. 
More  recently  ore  has  been  imported  from  Cuba, 
and  the  industry  has  revived.  Fuel  is  secured 
from  the  mines  of  Pennsylvania  and  West  Vir- 
ginia. The  value  of  the  iron  and  steel  product 
mcreased  204.6  per  cent,  from  1890  to  1900,  and 
40  per  cent,  from  1900  to  1905.  There  are  now 
extensive  shipments  of  steel  rails  to  foreign 
markets.  The  production  of  pig-iron  in  1906 
amounted  to  386,709  long  tons,  an  increase  of  45 
per  cent,  over  that  of  1900.  The  revival  of  the 
mdustry  is  reflected  in  foundry  and  machine-shop 
industries.  The  same  is  true  of  shipbuilding. 
During  the  colonial  period  and  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  this  industry  was 
very  prominent.  The  "Baltimore  clippers*'  were 
world  famous  and  were  instrumental  in  greatly 
extending  the  State's  commerce.  When  iron 
and  steel  were  substituted  for  wood  in  ship- 
building, the  industry  declined.  Since  the  recent 
revival  vessels  have  been  constructed  for  the 
United  States  Navy.  A  less  important  group  of 
manufactures  derives  its  raw  materials  from 
the  forest  resources  of  the  State  and  adjoining 
regions.  Almost  all  the  merchantable  timber 
has  been  cut  away  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  and  the  pine  and  much  of  the  hard 
wood  have  been  cut  from  the  western  part  of  the 
State.     The  entire  wooded  area  is  estimated  at 


44  per  cent,  of  the  land  area.  The  most  signifi- 
cant gain  during  the  decade  1890-1900  was  in 
the  production  of  paper  and  wood  pulp.  A  large 
increase  was  also  made  in  the  value  of  the  lum- 
ber and  timber  products,  planing-mill  products, 
and  furniture.  The  values  of  lumber  and  timber 
products,  of  paper  and  wood-pulp,  and  of  furni- 
ture showed  small  increases  from  1900  to  190S, 
but  planing-mill  products  decreased  somewhat. 

The  extensive  cultivation  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables in  Maryland  has  made  a  large  demand 
for  fertilizers,  and  the  manufacture  of  this  prod- 
wet  is  one  of  the  principal  industries.  The  tabte 
on  the  following  page  covers  the  fourteen 
leading  industries  of  the  State  for  the  years 
1900  and  1905. 

Tbanspobtation  and  Commebce.  Maryland  is 
well  supplied  with  transportation  facilities,  both 
natural  and  artificial.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  was  one  of  the  first  lines  operated  in 
the  United  States.  Other  important  lines  are 
the  Northern  Central,  the  Maryland,  Delaware 
and  Virginia,  the  Baltimore,  Chesapeake  and 
Atlantic,  the  Western  Maryland,  the  Maryland 
and  Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore  and  Annapolis 
Short  Line,  and  the  Annapolis,  Washington  and 
Baltimore.  The  total  mileage  on  January  1, 1907, 
was  1415  miles.  The  Delaware  and  Chesapeake 
Canal  connects  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  with 
the  Delaware  River.  Chesapeake  Bay  eives  ex- 
cellent facilities  for  water  transportation,  and 
the  Potomac  River  is  navigable  to  Washington. 
The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  once  a  great 
highway  of  commerce,  still  carries  some  coal. 
Baltimore  is  the  chief  commerical  centre  of  the 
State. 

Banking.  The  first  bank  in  the  State  was  the 
Bank  of  Maryland,  chartered  in  1790.  In  the 
early  thirties  there  were  half  a  dozen  banks  in 
Baltimore  which  suffered  with  all  the  other 
banks  of  the  country  from  the  money  panic  of 
1837.  Six  or  seven  banks  failed,  among  them  the 
Bank  of  Maryland,  seriously  affecting  the  com- 
mercial interests  of  the  State.  In  1850  there 
were  27  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $9,310,407.  In 
1906  there  were  91  national  banks,  with  capital 
of  $17,344,500;  surplus  of  $9,437,445;  cash,  $6,- 
225,000;  loans,  $74,468,350;  and  deposits  of  $66,- 
783,025.  There  were  also  49  State  banks  with 
capital  of  $1,604,000,  surplus  $603,000,  cash  on 
hand  $398,000,  loans  $8,129,000,  and  deposits 
$13,756,000;  and  15  savings  banks,  with  161,458 
depositors  and  deposits  to  the  amount  of  $70,677,- 
000.  There  were  also  5  loan  and  trust  companies 
and  4  private  banks. 

Finances.  The  State  of  Maryland  led  in  the 
movement  for  internal  improvements  beginning 
in  the  early  twenties,  and  the  first  public  debt  of 
the  State  was  created  in  order  to  acquire  5000 
shares  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal.  In 
1836  an  issue  of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $8,000,- 
000  was  authorized  to  be  invested  in  various  im- 
provements, mainly  canals  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad;  and  by  1839  the  public  debt 
amounted  to  more  than  $16,000,000.  A  financial 
collapse  resulted  when  in  1840  the  State  stopped 
payments  of  interest.  Very  heaN-y  taxes  were  im- 
posed in  1841,  which  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
collect;  and  a  repudiation  of  the  State  debts 
was  threatened.  Finally  in  1844  the  arrears  of 
interest  were  funded,  and  on  January  1,  1H48, 
payment  of  interest  on  the  State  debt  was  re- 
siuned.      During  the   Civil   War  a  considerable 


Digitized  by 


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MABYLAKD. 


128 


MABYLAND. 


IMDUtTUlS 


Total  for  adeoted  induitriet  tor  State.. 


InoreaM,  1900  to  1906. 
Per  cent,  of  increase  .. 


Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  manufocturtug  indmtiiee  in  State . 


Canning  and  preaerying 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
companies 

Clothing,  men*a 


railroad] 


Cotton  goods. 

Fertilisers „ 

Floor  and  grist  mill  products 

Foundry  and  machine  shop  pTodocta 

Furniture 

Iron  and  steel 

Liquors,  malt. 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Lumber,  planing  mill  products,  including  sash,  doors,  i 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Printing  and  publishing 

Shipbuilding 

Shirts 


Slaughtering  and  meat  paddng,  wholesale 

Tinware,  and  coppersmithing  and  sheet  iron  working . 
Tobacco,  cigars  and  cigarettes 


Tear 


1906 
1900 


1906 
1900 

1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 


Number  of 

estabUsh- 

ments 


2,668 
2,491 


77    ■ 
3.1 


66.7 
66.1 


276 

21 

19 

121 

139 

12 

14 

88 

40 

202 

196 

103 

113 

61 

42 

9 

9 

21 

16 

208 

188 

67 

62 

16 

21 

302 

297 

86 

38 

86 

48 

29 

31 

72 

69 

340 

381 


Arerage 

number 

wage- 


61,990 
69,685 


2,406 
4.0 

66.8 
64.0 

9,068 
8,707 
4,977 
3,620 
8,671 
9,726 
3,993 
4,727 
1,256 
1»016 
650 
500 
4,206 


2,280 

1,869 

2,002 

2,188 

820 

762 

1,979 

1,609 

1,400 

1,287 

1,008 

937 

2,460 

2,833 

2,772 

2,681 

6,178 

8,611 

612 

412 

2,046 

2,416 

2,844 

2,808 


Value  of  prod« 

nets,  including 

custcHn  work 

and  repairing 


$141,334,660 
121,782,676 


19,661,974 
16.1 

68.1 
67.8 

12,686,711 
18,993,663 
6,761,908 
4,573,229 
19,654,916 
17,327,825 
6,244,743 
6,423,261 
6,631,768 
6,481,906 
7,318,212 
7,237,962 
9,172,084 
8,443,647 
3,445,168 
2,976,494 
12,230,409 
8,739,406 
4,967,063 
4,133.797 
2,750,339 
2,223,160 
3,417,113 
8,563,083 
8,296,348 
2,589,640 
5,493,112 
4,871,289 
4,541,166 
4,115,644 
6,998,249 
3,978,458 
6,332,914 
6,059,374 
6,833,452 
6,942,739 
4,648,003 
2,840,319 


debt  was  incurred  for  defense,  bounties,  etc.,  but 
it  has  been  paid  off,  and  the  debt  now  consists 
almost  entirely  of  bonds  sold  to  defray  the  cost 
of  new  public  buildings. 

The  debt  in  September,  1906,  amounted  to 
$6,167,926,  of  which  $5,329,725  was  secured  bv 
interest-paying  bonds  and  cash  with  sinking  fund, 
leaving  a  net  debt  of  $838,201.  The  receipts  for 
the  fiscal  year  ending  September  30,  1906,  were 
$4,529,460,  mainly  from  licenses,  taxes  on  prop- 
erty, and  taxes  on  -corporations.  The  disburse- 
ments were  $4,516,829,  of  which  25  per  cent,  was 
for  school  purposes. 

Population.  The  popidation  of  the  State  in- 
creased from  319,728  m  1790  to  583,034  in  1850; 
from  780,894  in  1870  to  1,042,390  in  1890;  and 
to  1,188,044  in  1900.  The  rank  of  the  State  has 
decreased  during  every  census  period,  being  6  in 
1790,  15  in  1860,  and  26  in  1900.  The  foreign 
born  population  in  1900  was  only  93,934,  nearly 
half  of  whom  were  Germans.  The  n^ro  popula- 
tion for  the  same  year  was  235,064.  The  increase 
in  the  white  population  during  the  decade  ending 
in  1900  was  15.2  per  cent.,  as  against  an  increase 
of  9  per  cent,  for  the  negro  population.  The 
density  per  square  mile  in  1900  was  120.5.  The 
federal  estimate  of  population  in  1905  was  1,260,- 
869.  In  1900  there  were  five  places  having  a 
population  exceeding  8000,  aggregating  46.9  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population.  These  cities  were 
Baltimore,  508,957;  Cumberland,  17,128;  Hagers- 
to\Mi,   13,591;   Frederick,  9296;   and  .AjmapoUs, 


8525.  Authoritative  estimates  of  their  popula- 
tion in  1905  were:  Baltimore,  646,000;  Cum- 
berland, 23,500;  Hagerstown,  17,000;  Frederick, 
9900;  Annapolis,  9000. 

Relioiobt.  The  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Meth- 
odist churches  far  surpass  all  others  in  number 
of  Church  communicants.  Of  the  other  denomi- 
nations the  strongest  are  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal, Lutheran,  Baptist,  and  Presbyterian. 

Education.  The  per  cent,  of  illiteracy  for 
the  native  whites  (4.1)  is  the  lowest,  and  for  the 
negroes  (35.1)  next  to  the  lowest  of  any  State 
which  has  a  large  negro  population.  The  Gov- 
ernor, ihe  principal  of  the  State  Normal  School, 
the  State  Superintendent  (an  office  established 
in  1900),  and  four  persons  appointed  by  the 
Grovernor,  constitute  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. The  Governor  and  Senate  appoint  a  board 
of  school  commissioners  in  each  county,  who 
serve  six  years.  These  commissioners  appoint 
for  each  district  a  board  of  school  trustees  of 
three  persons.  In  1905-6  the  average  length 
of  the  school  year  for  the  State  was  192  days, 
which  was  exceeded  by  very  few  other  States. 
The  State  law  requires  that  the  term  continue 
ten  months  when  possible.  In  1906  the  number 
of  children  between  five  and  twenty  years  of  age 
was  370,892,  of  whom  227,614  were  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools,  and  142,993  were  in  average 
attendance.  The  total  number  of  colored  pupils 
was  44,691,  of  whom  24,067  were  in  average  at- 
tendance.    In    1906  there  were  907   male   and 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ULLBYIjANT}. 


129 


MABYLAHD. 


4337  female  teachers,  781  of  the  total  numbet 
of  teachers  being  colored.  The  average  yearly 
salary  in  the  counties  was  only  $314,  but  in  Bal- 
timore  city  it  was  more  than  double  that  sum. 
A  law  of  1902  introduced  the  pension  system  for 
soch  teachers  as  have  reached  the  age  of  sixty, 
and  have  devoted  twenty-five  years  to  the  ser- 
vice of  the  State  schools.  Professional  training 
is  given  to  teachers  at  the  State  Normal  Schools 
at  Baltimore  and  Frostburg,  and  at  Washington 
CoUege. 

Johns  Hopkins  University  (q.v.)  at  Balti- 
more, opened  in  1876,  is  distinguished  for  the 
hi^  rank  of  its  graduate  and  medical  schools. 
Its  attendance  is  drai^-n  from  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  it  has  gained  a  wide  reputation 
for  its  original  and  research  work.  There 
are  five  other  regular  medical  schools  and  a 
homceopathic  one  in  the  city,  three  law  schools, 
three  dental  schools,  two  theological  schools,  and 
one  ol  pharmacy.  An  excellent  Woman's  College, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  was  opened  in  Baltimore  in  1886.  Samt 
John's  College  (chartered  1784)  at  Annapolis  is  a* 
non-sectarian  institution  taking  the  place  of 
King  William's  School  ( founded  in  1696).  Wash- 
ington College  at  Chestertown  (chartered  1782)  is 
the  oldest  institution  of  collegiate  character  in 
the  State.  Western  Maryland  College  at  West- 
minister ( founded  1867 )  is  an  important  institu- 
tion under  the  care  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church.  The  Agricultural  College  is  in  Prince 
(jeorge  County.  Prominent  among  Roman  Cath- 
olic institutions  are  Saint  Mary's  Theological 
Seminary,  in  Baltimore  (founded  1791),  Mount 
Saint  Mary's  College  at  Emmitsburg,  and  Loyola 
College  at  Baltimore.  The  Jacob  Tome  Institute, 
one  of  the  most  richly  endowed  secondary  schools 
in  the  world,  is  at  Port  Deposit. 

Chautablb  and  Penal  Institutions.  Ac- 
cording to  a  law  of  1900,  there  is  a  Board  of 
State  Aid  and  Charities,  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor and  Senate.  This  board  receives  all  appli- 
cations for  State  aid  and  recommends  to  the 
l^slature  that  certain  grants  should  be  made, 
and  in  what  amounts.  In  1905-6  about  102 
institutions  and  organizations  applied  for  aid, 
87  of  which  were  favorably  recommended  by  the 
board.  These  included  29  hospitals,  of  which  the 
State  Insane  Asylums  at  Sykesville  and  at  Spring 
Grove  received  the  largest  contributions;  10  re- 
formatories, 3  of  which  were  semi-State  institu- 
tions, located  at  or  near  Baltimore,  and  one,  the 
Home  of  Reformation  for  CJolored  Children,  lo- 
cated near  Cheltenham,  was  a  State  institution; 
7  orphan  asylums  and  18  "homes"  for  the  friend- 
less, infants,  etc.,  including  the  Maryland  Line 
Confederate  Soldiers'  Home  near  Pikesville,  the 
bnildings  of  which  are  owned  by  the  State;  and 
a  number  of  schools,  including  the  State  asylums, 
the  training  school  for  feeble-minded  children 
oear  Owings  Mills,  the  State  School  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Frederick,  and  the  semi- 
State  institutions  at  Baltimore,  namely,  School 
for  the  Blind,  and  School  for  Colored  Blind  and 
Deaf.  The  two  last-named  institutions  do  not 
weeive  aid  from  Baltimore,  but  most  of  the 
State-aided  institutions  are  endowed  and  receive 
local  aid  also.  The  endowed  Johns  Hopkins  Hos- 
pital at  Baltimore  is  probably  the  most  widely 
known  institution  of  the  kind  in  the  United 
^tes.  The  Sheppard  and  Enoch  Pratt  Hospital 
for  Mental  and  Nervous  Diseases,  located  near 


Baltimore,  is  also  worthy  of  note.  The  Staia 
penitentiary  is  in  Baltimore.  The  convicts  are 
generally  employed  under  contract,  the  majority 
of  them  being  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes.  Prisoners  confined  in  jails  do 
not,  as  a  rule,  have  employment.  About  half 
the  prison  population  are  negroes. 

Government.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  September,  1867.  Amendments  must 
be  proposed  by  three-fifths  of  each  House  of  the 
Legislature  and  ratified  by  a  majority  vote  of  the 
people.  Once  in  every  twenty  years  the  people 
must  vote  on  the  question  of  holding  a  conven- 
tion to  revise  the  Constitution.  Voters  must  have 
resided  in  the  State  one  year,  and  in  the  legisla- 
tive districts  of  Baltimore  city  or  in  the  county 
six  months.    The  capital  is  Annapolis  (q.v.). 

Legislative.  The  Legislature^  which  meets 
on  the  first  Wednesday  of  January  of  the  even 
years,  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Dele- 
gates. The  Senators,  27  in  number,  one  from 
each  county,  and  one  from  each  of  the  four  legis- 
lative districts  of  Baltimore,  are  elected  for  four 
years,  one-half  retiring  biennially.  The  Dele- 
gates, 101  in  number,  are  elected  for  two  years 
by  counties,  the  number  of  members  being  de- 
termined by  the  census.  Members  of  the  Legis- 
lature are  paid  $6  per  day  during  the  sessions, 
besides  mileage.  No  minister  or  preacher  of  the 
Gospel  or  of  any  religious  creed  or  denomination 
is  eligible  to  the  Legislature.  Regular  sessions 
are  limited  to  ninety  days,  special  sessions  to 
thirty  days.  A  majority  vote  of  all  the  members 
elected  to  each  House  is  required  to  pass  any  bill. 
The  power  of  impeachment  rests  with  the  House, 
the  trial  of  impeachment  with  the  Senate. 

Executive.  The  Governor  is  elected  for  four 
years,  has  a  salary  of  $4500  per  annum,  and  ap- 
points all  State  officers  with  the  consent  of  the 
Senate.  In  case  of  the  vacancy  of  the  (Governor- 
ship the  Legislature  elects  a  man  to  that  posi- 
tion, or  if  the  Legislature  be  not  in  session  the 
president  of  the  Senate  and  Speaker  of  the  House 
are  respectively  in  the  line  of  succession  to  that 
position.  The  Governor  has  a  veto  over  any  bill 
or  any  item  of  an  appropriation  bill,  but  this 
veto  is  overcome  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  the 
members  elected  to  each  House. 

JuDiciABT.  The  Court  of  Appeals,  composed 
of  the  chief  judges  of  the  first  seven  circuits  and 
a  judge  specially  elected  in  Baltimore,  has  ap- 
pellate iurisdiction  only.  The  State  is  divided 
into  eight  judicial  circuits,  the  city  of  Balti- 
more constituting  the  eighth.  In  each  circuit, 
except  the  eighth,  a  chief  judge  and  two  asso- 
ciate judges  are  elected;  and  in  each  county  a 
Circuit  Court  is  held,  having  original  jurisdic- 
tion, both  civil  and  criminal,  and  appellate  juris- 
diction of  the  judgments  of  justices  of  the  peace. 
In  Baltimore  city  there  are  nine  judges,  wno  as- 
sign themselves  to  the  several  courts,  usually  sit- 
ting separately.  All  the  above  judges  are  elected 
by  the  people  for  a  term  of  fifteen  years.  The 
orphans*  courts  with  probate  jurisdiction  are 
composed  of  three  men  in  each  county,  elected 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  Governor  and  Sen- 
ate appoint  justices  of  the  peace,  and  the  county 
commissioners  appoint  constables  for  a  term  of 
two  years.  Each  county  elects  a  clerk  for  the 
Circuit  Court,  and  a  Register  of  Wills,  and  the 
State  elects  a  clerk  for  the  Court  of  Appeals. 

Local  Govebnhent.    The  General  Assembly 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


ICABYIiAND. 


180 


MABYLAND. 


may  organize  new  counties  or  alter  the  bound- 
aries of  old  ones,  but  not  without  a  majority  con- 
sent of  the  parts  concerned.  County  commis- 
sioners are  elected  as  prescribed  by  law ;  the  term, 
however,  cannot  exceed  six  years.  A  sheriflf  and 
a  surveyor  are  also  elected  for  each  county.  Cor- 
oners, elisors,  and  notaries  public  are  appointed 
for  each  county. 

Other  Constitutional  or  Statutory  Provi- 
sions. General  elections  are  held  biennially,  on 
the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November. 
The  legal  rate  of  interest  is  6  per  cent.  A  married 
woman  may  acquire,  hold,  and  manage  property 
independently  of  her  husband,  and  dispose  of  the 
same  as  if  single.  Her  husband  must  join  her, 
however,  in  the  execution  of  any  deed.  Debtors 
are  protected  in  the  possession  of  property  to  the 
value  of  $500. 

History.  In  1632  Cecilius  Calvert,  second 
Lord  Baltimore,  received  from  Charles  I.  a  char- 
ter conferring  on  him  the  possession  of  the  ter- 
ritory now  forming  the  States  of  Maryland  and 
Delaware.  The  grant  had  been  obtained  by 
George  Calvert,  first  Lord  Baltimore,  the  father 
of  Cecil,  but  he  died  before  the  charter  was  is- 
sued. It  was  the  intention  of  the  lord  proprietor 
to  found  a  feudal  State  in  Maryland  (named  in 
honor  of  Charles's  Queen,  Henrietta  Maria),  and 
to  that  end  he  was  invested  with  sovereign  pow- 
ers, subject  only  to  the  recognition  of  the  King 
as  lord  paramount  by  the  payment  of  a  yearly 
tribute  of  two  Indian  arrows.  One  of  the  chief 
causes  that  led  to  the  settlement  of  Maryland 
was  the  desire  of  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Catholic,  to 
found  a  colony  where  his  fellow-believers  might 
profess  their  religion  openly  without  incurring 
the  penalties  to  which  they  were  subjected  in 
England.  Other  denominations,  however,  in  the 
proprietor's  scheme,  were  to  be  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  the  Catholics,  and  of  the  twenty  gentle- 
men and  two  or  three  hundred  commoners  who 
arrived  at  Point  Comfort,  Va.,  in  February,  1634, 
under  the  leadership  of  Leonard  Calvert,  it  is 
probable  that  more  than  half  were  Protestants. 
On  the  25th  of  March  mass  was  celebrated  on 
Saint  Clement's  Island  in  the  Potomac^  and 
shortly  after  the  site  of  the  city  of  Saint  Mary's 
was  traced  on  land  bought  from  the  Yaocomico 
Indians,  near  the  banks  of  the  river. 

In  his  use  of  the  vast  powers  granted  him  by 
the  King,  Baltimore  was  as  moderate  as  in  the 
expression  of  his  religious  views,  and  he  made 
no  attempt  to  establish  anything  like  an  absolute 
government.  By  the  terms  of  the  charter,  laws 
for  the  province  could  be  made  by  the  Proprietor 
only,  with  the  consent  of  the  freemen  or  their 
deputies,  and  on  January  26,  1635,  the  first  as- 
sembly of  freemen  met  at  Saint  Mary's.  The 
right  of  initiating  laws,  claimed  both  by  the 
Assembly  and  by  the  Proprietor,  was  conceaed  in 
1638  to  the  people,  Baltimore  reserving  to  him- 
self the  mere  veto  power.  The  first  'statutes  of 
the  province*  were  passed  in  1638  and  1639. 
With  the  Indians  friendly  relations  were  estab- 
lished. The  worst  enemy  of  Lord  Baltimore's 
colony  was  William  Claiborne  (q.v.),  a  Vir- 
ginian^ who  had  established  a  trading  post  on 
Kent  Island  in  Chesapeake  Bay  in  1631.  He 
refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  Lord  Balti- 
more, and  in  1638  his  settlement  was  captured  by 
Leonard  Calvert  during  Claiborne's  absence  in 
England.     In  1643  a  company  of  Puritans^  ex- 


cluded from  Virginia  for  non-confonmty,  settled 
at  Providence,  now  Annapolis,  and  put  them- 
selves in  opposition  to  the  Government.  Hie 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  England  enabled 
Baltimore's  enemies  to  carry  their  opposition  to 
a  great  length.  In  1645  Captain  Richard  Ingle> 
acting  ostensibly  in  the  name  of  Parliament,  seized 
Saint  Mary's.  Claiborne  also  returned  from  Eng- 
land, regained  possession  of  Kent  Island,  and 
the  Governor  attempted  in  vain  to  dispossesa 
him.  For  nearly  two  years  Ingle  held  the  prov- 
ince under  his  sway  until  Governor  Leonard  Cal- 
vert returned  from  Virginia  with  a  military 
force  and  recovered  possession.  As  early  as  163S 
the  molestation  of  Protestants  had  been  pun- 
ished. In  1640  an  act  was  passed  at  the  desire 
of  the  Proprietor  guaranteeing  freedom  of  wor- 
ship to  all  followers  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  Puri- 
tans continuing  to  be  turbulent,  their  settlement 
by  way  of  conciliation  was  in  1660  erected  into  a 
separate  county,  named  Anne  Arundel,  and  as 
other  Puritans  arrived  from  England,  Charles 
County  was  shortly  afterwards  organized  for  their 
benefit.  Their  niunbers  increased  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  soon  had  a  majority  in  the  Assembly.  In. 
1652  commissioners  from  England  visited  Mary- 
land, among  whom  were  Claiborne  and  Bennett, 
the  Puritan  leader  of  Anne  Arundel  County.  The 
authority  of  the  English  Commonwealth  was 
completely  established  in  the  colony,  and  Kent 
Island  was  given  up  to  Claiborne.  A  commis- 
sion for  the  government  of  the  colony  was  or- 
ganized with  Captain  William  Fuller  at  its 
head.  The  Puritans  made  use  of  their  ascend- 
ency to  repeal  the  Toleration  Act  of  1649  and  to 
enact  penal  laws  against  the  Catholics.  A  severe 
conflict  ensued.  Providence  was  attacked  March 
25,  1655,  by  the  proprietary  party;  but  the  as- 
sault was  repulsed,  the  whole  invading  force 
being  either  killed  or  taken  prisoners.  In  1654 
Lord  Baltimore  made  a  vain  attempt  to  regain 
possession  of  the  province,  but  succeeded  only  in 
defeating  a  scheme  for  uniting  Maryland  to  Vir- 
ginia. Three  years  later  his  title  was  recognized 
by  the  Protector  and  in  1658  the  proprietary  gov- 
ernment was  restored.  The  period  before  the  Revo- 
lution of  1688  was  marked  by  an  important  treaty 
with  the  Susquehanna  Indians  (1661)  and  some 
difficulties  with  William  Penn  concerning  the 
boundary  line  between  the  two  provinces  in  the 
Delaware  country.  Upon  the  deposition  of  James 
II.,  the  incompetency  of  the  Governor,  the  failure 
to  proclaim  the  new  monarchs,  and  preposterous 
rumors  of  a  Popish  plot  stirred  up  the  people 
and  an  Association  of  the  Protestant  Freemen 
headed  by  Captain  John  Coode  seized  the  prov- 
ince in  the  name  of  William  and  Mary.  The 
Legislature  laid  before  the  King  a  list  of  com- 
plaints against  the  government  of  Lord  Balti- 
more, and  in  August,  1691,  the  Proprietor  was 
deprived  of  his  political  privileges,  though  his 
property  rights  were  left  intact.  In  1715,  how- 
ever, the  province  was  restored  to  the  fifth 
Lord  Baltimore,  a  Protestant.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century  tobacco  was  the 
staple  product.  Commerce  and  manufactures 
were  greatly  restricted  by  the  Navigation  Acts. 
There  were  very  few  towns,  Baltimore  being 
founded  as  late  as  1729,  Frederick  in  1745, 
and  Georgetown  in  1751.  Prosperity  was  wide- 
ly diffused,  and  the  standard  of  living,  owing 
to  the  abundance  of  game  and  fish,  high.     All 


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ICABYLAND. 


181 


ICABYLANB. 


sects  were  tolerated,  except  the  Catholics,  who 
were  denied  the  suffrage  and  forbidden  to  wor- 
ship in  public.  The  Anglican  Church  was  es- 
tablished in  1602.  Four  years  later  a  free  high 
school  was  opened  at  Annapolis.  The  question  of 
the  northern  boundary,  which  after  1730  threat- 
ened to  bring  on  war  with  Pennsylvania,  was 
settled  by  the  drawing  of  the  famous  Mason  and 
Dixon's  line  (1763-67). 

Maryland  took  an  active  part  in  the  wars  re- 
sulting in  the  extinction  of  the  French  domina- 
tion upon  this  continent,  and  in  the  last  and 
most  important  of  these  its  western  border  suf- 
fered severely  from  Indian  attacks  owing  to  the 
obstinacy  of  the  Legislature  in  refusing  to  vote 
means  for  defense.  The  colony  was  also  among 
the  first  to  oppose  the  aggressions  of  the  British 
Government,  which  led  to  the  War  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  Stamp  Act  was  received  with  great  in- 
dignation and  the  imposition  of  duties  on  tea  was 
responded  to  by  the  burning  of  a  tea  ship  ( 1774) . 
In  the  same  year  a  popular  convention  began  to 
direct  the  revolutionary  movement.  It  gradually 
assumed  charge  of  the  government.  A  bill  of 
rights  and  a  constitution  were  adopted  in  No- 
vember, 1776,  and  the  legislature  assembled 
at  Annapolis,  February  6,  1777.  Maryland  took 
a  most  efficient  and  honorable  part  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  though  it  did  not  join  the  Con- 
federation till  1781,  owing  to  her  claim  that  the 
western  lands  should  belong  to  the  Union.  In 
1783  Congress  met  at  Annapolis,  and  here,  on 
December  23d  after  the  conclusion  of  peace, 
Washington  resigned  his  commission  as  general - 
in-chief.  The  Federal  Constitution  was  adopted 
in  the  Maryland  convention  April  28,  1788, 
by  a  vote  of  63  to  11.  Maryland  suffered  con- 
siderably in  the  War  of  1812.  (See  United 
States.)  The  beginning  of  the  war  was  marked 
by  a  fierce  riot  against  a  Federalist  newspaper  of 
Baltimore,  in  which  a  number  of  people  were 
killed.  Havre  de  Grace  and  other  villages  were 
burned  by  the  English  fleet  in  1813,  Baltimore 
was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  a  British  army, 
and  Fort  McHenry  was  bombarded  in  Septem- 
ber, 1814.  An  elaborate  system  of  internal  im- 
provements was  initiated  in  1828,  when  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  were  begun.  In  1844  the  first 
line  of  electric  telegraph  in  the  United  States 
was  run  from  Baltimore  to  Washington.  The 
position  of  Maryland  in  the  Civil  War  was  pe- 
culiar. As  a  slave-holding  State  her  sympathies 
were  naturally  to  a  great  extent  with  the  South ; 
but  her  proximity  to  Pennsylvania  made  her 
truly  a  Border  State.  Many  of  her  people  fa- 
vored secession,  a  large  number  entered  the  Con- 
federate Army,  and  in  the  first  days  of  the  war 
the  passage  of  Union  troops  through  Baltimore 
was  opposed,  several  Massachusetts  soldiers  be- 
ing killed  on  April  19,  1861 ;  but  the  strength  of 
the  Union  party,  added  to  the  efforts  of  the 
(jovemor,  served  to  keep  the  State  from  seceding. 
Later,  bitter  feelings  were  aroused  by  the  policy 
of  the  General  Grovemment  in  establishing  mili- 
tary rule  and  suspending  the  habeas  corpus  in  a 
large  part  of  the  State.  The  adherence  of  Mary- 
land to  the  Union  was  extremely  important  in 
that  it  saved  Washington  from  falling  into  the 
power  of  the  Confederates. 

Railroad  development  was  facilitated  by  a 
lystem  of  State  and  county  aid.    For  many  years 


the  claims  of  the  State  against  the  Baltimort  and 
Ohio  Railroad  for  the  recovery  of  the  subsidy 
granted  the  company  in  1836  were  fought  in  the 
courts  without  definite  result.  The  Qiesapeaka 
and  Ohio  Canal  was  constructed  as  far  as  Cum- 
berland and  was  profitable  for  some  years,  but 
diversion  of  traffic  and  danger  from  storms  made 
it  bankrupt.  In  1865  the  educatioDal  ifystem» 
antiquated  and  inefficient,  was  reformed.  The 
present  system  of  county  boards  was  begun  in 
1868.  The  prevalence  of  corruption  in  city  elec- 
tions led  to  a  revision  of  the  election  laws  in 
1889,  and  the  adoption  of  the  Australian  ballot 
in  1890.  In  1896  the  bi-partisan  system  of  elec- 
tion boards  was  fully  recognized. 

The  Constitution  of  1776  was  often  amended, 
especially  in  1802,  when  the  property  qualifica- 
tion for  the  suffrage  was  abolished,  and  in  1837 
the  election  of  the  Governor  was  given  to  the  peo- 
ple. New  constitutions  were  adopted  in  1»51, 
1864,  and  1867,  the  second  of  which  abolished 
slavery.  Its  electoral  vote  has  been  as  follows: 
1796,  Adams  7,  Jefferson  4;  1800,  Adams  6,  Jef- 
ferson 5;  1804,  Pinckney  2,  Jefferson  9;  1808, 
Pinckney  2,  Madison  9;  1812,  Clinton  5,  Madison 
6;  1816,  Monroe  8;  1820,  Monroe  11;  1824,  Jack- 
son 7,  Adams  3,  Crawford  1;  1828,  Adams  6, 
Jackson  6;  1832,  Clay  6,  Jackson  3.  It  went 
Whig  from  1836  to  1848,  Democratic  in  1852, 
American  Party  (Know-Nothing)  in  1856,  and 
Democratic  in  1860.  In  1864  it  voted  for  Lin- 
coln, but  from  1868  to  1892  was  Democratic.  In 
1896,  1900  and  1904  it  went  Republican.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  Governors  of  the  State : 

PBOPBIKTABT  GOVEBNOBS 

Leonard  Calvert 1634-47 

Thomas  Greene 1647-4© 

WiUlamStone 1649-64 

Oommlseionera.. 1654-6ft 

Josias  Fendall 1668-60 

Philip  Calvert. 1660-61 

Charles  Calvert  (became  Lord  Baltimore  1676) 1661-76 

Ceciliaa  Calvert 1676 

Thomas  Notley 1676-7» 

Charles,  third  Lord  Baltimore 1679-84 

Benedict  Leonard  Calvert  and  Council 1684-88 

William  Joeeph  (President  of  CouncU) 168S-8» 

Proteetant  AModators 1689-90 

Nehemiah  Blakistone  and  Committee 1690-92 

BOTjLL  QOVSBlfOBS 

Sir  Lionel  Copley 169a-«l 

Sir  Edward  Andros 1693-94 

Francis  Nicholson 1694-99 

Nathaniel  Blakistone 1699-1702 

Thomas  Tench  (President  of  Council) 1702-04 

John  Seymour 1704-09 

Edward  Lloyd  (President  of  Council) 1709-14 

John  Hart 1714-15 

PBOPBIETABT  QOVXBNOB8  (BESTOBED) 

John  Hart 1715-20 

Charles  Calvert 1720-27 

Benedict  Leonard  Calvert 1727-31 

Samuel  Orfe 1731-32 

Charles,  flfth  Lord  Baltimore 1732-88 

Samuel  Og:l© 1733-42 

Thomas  Bladen 1742-47 

Samuel  Ogle 1747-62 

BanJamlnTasker. 1762-68 

Horatio  Sharpe 1753-69 

Robert  Eden 1769-7S 

The  Convention  and  Council  of  Safety 1776-77 

8T4TB 

Thomas  Johnson 1777-79 

Thomas  Sim  Lee 1779-82 

William  Paca 1782-86 

William  Smallwood 1786-88 

John  E.Howard 1788-91 

George  Plater 1791-92 

Thomas  Sim  Lee 1792-94 

John  H.  Stone 1794-97 

John  Henry Democratic-Republican 1797-98 

Benjamin  Ogle Federalist 1798-1801 

John  F.  Mercer Democratic-Republican. 1801-OS 


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JCABYLAND. 


182 


ICABY  HAODALENE. 


Bobeit  Bowie Democratic-Bepubllcan 180S-06 

fiobert  Wright. ••  «•  1806-09 

Bdward  Lloyd ••  ••  18U»-U 

Bobert  Bowie ••  «  1811-ia 

lievln  Winder. Federallat. 1812-15 

Charles  Ridgely ••        1816-18 

Charlee  Goldsboroaffh "        1818-19 

Bamuel  Sprigg Democratic-Republican 1819-22 

Samuel  Stevens,  Jr...       *'  "  1822-26 

Joseph  Kent. "  "  1826-28 

Daniel  Martin Anti-Jackson. 1828-29 

Thomas  K.  Carroll Jackson  Democrat. 1829-30 

Daniel  Martin. Anti-Jackson 1890-81 

George  Howard Whig 1831-88 

James  Thomas "     1833-86 

Thomas  W.  Veazej "     1835-88 

William  Grayson Democrat 1838-a 

Francis  Thomas. "        1841-44 

Thomas  G.  Pratt. Whig 1844r^7 

Philip  F.  Thomas Democrat. 1847-60 

EnocD  L.  Lowe «•        1860-63 

Thomas  W.  Llgon "        1853-68 

Thomas  H.  Hicks American 1858-e? 

August  W.  Bradford Unionist 1862-66 

Thomas  Swann Unionist,  later  Democrat 1866-66 

Oden  Bowie Democrat. 1868-72 

William  P.  Whyte ••        1872-74 

James  B.  Qroome "        1874-78 

John  L.  Carroll "        187G-80 

Wmiam  T.  Hamilton "        1880-84 

Bobert  M.  McLane "        1884-86 

Henry  Lloyd ••        1885-88 

Ellhu  E.  Jackson "        1888-92 

Frank  Brown "        1892-96 

Lloyd  Lowndes Republican 1896-1900 

John  W.  Smith Democrat 1900-04 

Edwin  Warfleld "        1904r. 

BiBLioGBAPHY.  Maryland  Geological  Survey 
Reports.  History.  Bozman,  History  of  Mary- 
land,  1633-60  (Baltimore,  1837).  The  most  ex- 
tensive history  is  Scharf,  History  of  Maryland 
from  the  Earliest  Period  (Baltimore,  1870); 
Browne,  Maryland,  the  History  of  a  Palati- 
nate, "American  Commonwealth  Series"  (Boston, 
1884)  ;  Gambrill,  Studies  in  the  Civil,  Social, 
and  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Early  Maryland 
(New  York,  1893) ;  Thomas,  Chronicles  of  Colo- 
nial Maryland  (Baltimore,  1900);  Mereness, 
Maryland  as  a  Proprietary  Province  (New  York, 
1901);  McMahon,  History  of  Maryland  to  1776 
(Baltimore,  1831);  Hall,  Lords  Baltimore  (Bal- 
timore, 1903);  Gambrill,  School  History  of 
Maryland  (Baltimore,  1903)  ;  McSheny,  History 
of  Maryland  (Baltimore,  1904)  ;  Hall,  The  Lords 
Baltimore  and  the  Maryland  Palatinate  (Balti- 
more, 1905 )  ;  Riley,  History  of  the  General  As- 
sembly of  Maryland,  1635  1904  ( Baltimore,  1905 ) . 
The  Johns  Hopkins  Studies  in  Historical  and 
Political  Science  contain  many  useful  mono- 
graphs. The  Colonial  Archives  are  being  pub- 
lished under  the  care  of  the  Maryland  Historical 
Society;  Steiner,  Institutions  and  Civil  Govern- 
ment  of  Maryland  (Boston,  1899). 

MABYLAND     HISTOBICAL     SOdETTt* 

An  association  founded  in  1844  for  the  purpose 
of  collecting  and  arranging  material  relating  to 
the  history  of  Maryland.  It  now  owns  the 
Athenaeum  Building,  on  Saratoga  Street,  Baltl 
more,  in  which  it  has  gathered  a  priceless  collec- 
tion of  manuscripts,  documentary  records,  books, 
and  pamphlets.  There  are  also  three  galleries 
of  historic  curios,  portraits,  and  valuable  paint- 
ings. The  society  has  done  great  service  in 
rescuing,  editing,  and  printing  historical  data. 
Its  series  of  Fund  Publications  (37  in  number) 
contains  many  valuable  reprints  and  monographs. 
KABYLAND  YELLOWTHBOAT.  A  North 
American  warbler  (Geothlypis  trichas),  common 
in  summer  throughout  the  continent.  It  is 
about  5*^  inches  long,  olive-green  above  and 
bright  yellow  below,  with  a  conspicuous  broad 


black  band  or  'mask*  across  the  forehead  (of  the 
male),  which  includes  the  bill,  extends  back  to 
a  point  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  is  bordered 
above  by  a  white  line;  the  female  has  only  a 
dull  white  line  above  the  eye.  These  warblers 
spend  their  time  near  the  ground  and  make  their 


IfABTLAMD  TKLLOWTHBOAT. 

nests  there,  usually  beside  a  stream;  and  they 
utter  a  short,  questioning  song  as  characteristic 
as  it  is  pretty.  Several  closely  allied  species,  as 
the  Kentuckv  warbler  (q.v.),  mourning,  Con- 
necticut, and  McGillivray's  warblers,  belong  to 
this  genus,  and  visit  the  United  States,  while 
several  others  are  found  only  in  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America. 

ICABYLEBONE^  maM-l^bOn',  commonly 
ma'ril-bAn  or  mftr'-i-btin.  A  metropolitan  and 
Parliamentary  borough  of  London,  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  city.  It  is  regularly  laid 
out,  with  many  handsome  streets,  and  here  are 
situated  Regent's  Park,  the  gardens  of  the  Zoolog- 
ical and  Botanic  societies,  the  Clolosseum,  Middle- 
sex and  other  hospitals.  University  College,  and 
the  terminal  stations  of  the  Midland,  Great  West- 
ern, and  Great  Northern  railroads.  Population, 
in  1891,  144,083;  in  1901,  133,329. 

MABY  MAGDALENE,  mftg^dA-lSn,  or  m&g^- 
u&-Ie^n4,  or  Mabt  of  Magdala.  A  woman  men- 
tioned in  the  Gospels  as  a  follower  of  Jesus 
and,  with  others,  a  contributor  to  His  sup- 
port (Luke  viii.  2-3).  Her  home  was  doubt- 
less at  Magdala  (<j.v.).  She  had  been  cured  of 
demoniacal  possession  by  Jesus  and  was  among 
His  most  devoted  friends.  With  the  like-minded 
women  she  was  a  witness  of  the  crucifixion 
(Matt,  xxvii.  55,  56;  Mark  xv.  40-41;  Luke 
xxiii.  48-49)  and  of  the  entombment  of  Jesus 
(Matt,  xxvii.  61  and  parallels).  The  same  com- 
pany came  to  the  tomb  on  the  Sunday  morning 
following  the  crucifixion,  and,  finding  it  open  and 
empty,  ran  back  to  the  city  to  inform  the  disciples 
(Matt,  xxviii.  1-10  and  parallels).  But  Mary 
appears  to  have  soon  returned  alone  to  the  tomb, 
and  to  her  the  risen  Jesus  first  appeared  (John 
XX.  1-18;  Mark  xvi.  9).  Her  joy  on  hearing  and 
seeing  Him  again  was  excessive,  but  Jesus  would 
not  permit  her  to  touch  Him,  to  show  her  that 
the  relation  between  them  was  now  entirely 
different  from  what  it  had  been.  Nothing  more 
is  told  of  her  in  the  New  Testament.  The  very 
common  identification  of  her  with  the  'woman 
who  was  a  sinner'  (Luke  vii.  36-50)  rests  on  no 
sure  foundation.  This  idea,  the  ruling  one  in  art 
and  literature,  with  its  accompany inof  concep- 
tion of  the  word  'Magdalene,*  has  therefore  no 
basis  in  fact.  A  late  legend  represented  her  as 
ending  her  days  in  Southern  France.  Consult 
Mrs.  Jameson,  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,  vol.  ii. 
(London,  1866)  ;  Life  of  St,  Mary  Magdelene, 
trans,  from  the  Italian  (2d  ed.,  Boston,  1906). 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MABY  OF  BUBGXTKDY. 


188 


MABY  STTJABT. 


HABY  OF  BTJB'OTnroY  (1467-82).  Daugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of 
Burgundy  and  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands, 
bom  at  Brussels.  On  the  death  of  Charles  ( 1477 ) , 
Louis  XI.  of  France  advanced  various  claims  to 
the  territories  over  which  that  prince  had  ruled. 
To  defend  herself  Mary  married  Maximilian  of 
Austria,  with  whom  she  lived  happily  for  five 
years,  dying  from  a  fall  from  her  horse.  She 
was  a  woman  of  great  beauty,  intelligence,  and 
amiability.  Through  her  the  Netherlands  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg, 
passing  subsequently  through  her  son  Philip  the 
Fair  to  her  grandson  Charles  V.  (q.v.). 

ICABY  OF  GUISE,  gwSz  (1515-60).  Queen 
of  Scotland.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Claude, 
Duke  of  Guise,  and  Antoinette  de  Bourbon,  and 
is  also  known  as  Mary  of  Lorraine.  At  the  age 
of  nineteen  she  was  married  to  Louis  d'Orl^ans, 
Duke  of  Longueville,  who  died  in  1537.  In  1638 
she  married  James  V.  of  Scotland,  who  died  in 
1542,  soon  after  the  announcement  to  him  of  the 
birth  of  a  daughter,  Mary,  afterwards  Queen  of 
Scots.  !Mary  of  Guise  was  Regent  of  Scotland 
for  a  short  period,  and  showed  herself  an  enemy 
of  the  party  led  by  Arran  and  an  opponent  of 
the  Reformed  religion.  She  caused  her  daughter 
to  be  sent  to  France  and  plighted  to  the  fu- 
ture Francis  II.,  the  marriage  taking  place  in 
1558. 

HABY  OF  THE  IKCABNATION  (1599- 
1672).  A  French  educator  in  Canada,  born  at 
Tours.  Her  name  was  Marie  Guyard,  but  she 
was  married  in  her  eighteenth  year  to  M.  Martin. 
She  was  left  a  widow  with  an  infant  son  before 
she  was  twenty.  She  then  ^ve  herself  almost 
entirely  to  religious  work.  Finally  she  claimed 
to  havcf  entered  into  a  mystical  marriage  with  the 
Christ,  and  entered  the  Ursuline  convent  at 
Tours.  In  1639  she  was  chosen  superior  of  the 
convent  of  Ursulines  established  at  Quebec  by 
Madame  de  la  Peltrie  (q.v.) .  Though  a  mystic  and 
a  dreamer,  she  showed  |preat  executive  abilitv  and 
managed  the  convent  with  success  until  her  death. 
She  was  tall  and  stately,  and  impressed  all  with 
the  strength  of  her  personality.  Many  of  the 
letters  she  wrote  back  to  France  were  collected 
and  published  posthumously  under  the  title 
Lettres  de  la  v6n4rahle  m^e  Marie  de  Vlncama- 
ium  (Paris,  1681).  There  is  also  an  autobiog- 
raphy prepared  by  direction  of  her  superiors. 
Consult  also  Martin  (her  son)  yLaviedela  vSrU- 
Table  mdre  Marie  de  VIncamation  (Paris,  1677) ; 
Charlevoix,  Vie  (Paris,  1724)  ;  and  the  Life  by 
Casgrain,  published  in  his  collected  works,  vol. 
iii.  (Montreal,  1886).  . 

HABYPOBT.  A  seaport  and  bathing  resort 
in  Cumberland,  England,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ellen,  25  miles  southwest  of  Carlisle  (Map: 
England.  C  2).  Shipbuilding  and  its  kindred 
branches  are  carried  on  extensively,  and  there  are 
iron  foundries,  saw-mills,  flour-mills,  tanneries, 
breweries,  etc.  A  large  quantity  of  coal  and  coke 
is  shipped,  especially  to  Ireland.  The  town  owns 
gas  and  water  works,  a  slaughter  house,  and 
markets,  and  maintains  an  isolation  hospital. 
Maryport  was  the  seat  of  a  Roman  camp  and 
ia  rich  in  antiquities.  It  was  called  Ellenfoot 
until  1750,  when  it  received  its  present  name, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
landed  here  in  her  flight  from  Scotland.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1891,  12,400;  in  1901,  11,900. 


KABYSTITABT  (1542-87).  Queen  of  Scot- 
land from  1542  to  1567.  She  was  bom  December 
7,  or  8,  1542,  at  Linlithgow  Palace,  the  daughter 
of  James  V.  of  Scotland  by  Mary  of  Guise.  Her 
father  died  within  a  week  of  her  birth,  and  she 
was  proclaimed  Queen.  The  English  began  nego- 
tiations for  her  betrothal  to  Prince  Edward  (later 
Edward  VI. ) ,  but,  though  they  declared  war  to 
enforce  their  demands,  they  were  unable  to  do  so. 
After  the  Scots  were  defeated  at  Pinkie  Cleugh, 
the  yoimg  Queen  was  sent  for  greater  security  to 
an  island  in  the  Lake  of  Monteith.  Meanwhile 
negotiations  were  opened  with  France  for  her 
marriage  to  the  Dauphin  ( later  Francis  II. ) ,  and 
tnese  were  satisfactorily  concluded  on  July  7, 
1548,  whereupon  Mary  was  sent  to  France.  At 
the  French  Court  Mary  received  a  good  education, 
and  showed  considerable  intelligence.  On  April 
24,  1558,  her  marriage  to  the  Dauphin  took 
place,  and,  contrary  to  the  public  agreements,  she 
bound  herself  secretly,  that,  if  she  died  childless, 
her  Scottish  realm  and  her  right  of  succession  to 
the  English  throne,  as  great-granddaughter  of 
Henry  VII.,  should  pass  to  France.  In  1569 
her  husband  ascended  the  French  throne,  and 
during  his  reign  of  over  a  year  Mary  exerted 
supreme  influence.  But  the  death  of  Francis  II., 
on  December  5,  1560,  destro^red  all  her  plans. 
Catharine  de'  Medici  was  hostile  to  her;  and  bo, 
on  August  15,  1561,  after  considerable  negotia- 
tion with  the  great  Protestant  lords  of  Scot- 
land, she  left  France  forever. 

Her  government  began  auspiciously,  and  even 
the  religious  situation  caused  at  first  little  diffi- 
culty. Protestantism  had  received  the  sanction 
of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  and  Mary  did  not 
oppose  this  settlement,  stipulating  merely  for 
liberty  to  use  her  own  religion.  Moreover,  she 
surrounded  herself  with  Protestant  advisers, 
her  chief  minister  being  her  natural  brother, 
James  Stuart,  an  able  and  ambitious  statesman, 
whom  she  soon  created  Earl  of  Mar,  and  a  little 
later  Earl  of  Murray  (q.v.).  Her  chief  difficulties 
were  to  come  to  an  amicable  agreement  with 
Elizabeth  concerning  the  succession  to  the  Eng- 
lish throne.  The  English  Queen,  however,  was 
suspicious  of  Mary,  and  the  question  of  whom 
the  latter  would  marry  complicated  matters  fur- 
ther, Elizabeth  fearing  that  an  alliance  of  the 
Scottish  Queen  with  a  powerful  foreign  prince, 
like  Don  Carlos  of  Spain,  would  endanger  her 
throne.  Contrary  to  the  advice  of  all,  Mary,  on 
July  29,  1565,  married  her  cousin,  Henry  Stuart, 
Lord  Damley,  who  had  some  claims  to  both  the 
Scottish  and  English  thrones.  The  marriage  was 
not  a  love  match,  but  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that 
Darnley  had  considerable  influence  with  the 
English  Catholics,  who  would  thus  aid  Mary  in 
any  plans  she  might  have  to  obtain  the  English 
throne.  On  the  other  hand,  the  marriage  alien- 
ated the  powerful  Protestant  lords  of  Scotland, 
notably  Murray,  who  rose  in  rebellion,  and  it 
made  Elizabeth  more  suspicious  than  ever.  The 
insurrection  of  the  Protestant  lords  was  sup- 
pressed, but  Mary's  eyes  were  soon  opened  to 
the  mistake  of  her  marriage  with  the  utterly 
worthless  Damley.  She  was  disgusted  by  his 
debauchery  and  alarmed  by  his  arrogance  and 
ambition,  which  went  so  far  as  to  prompt  him 
to  demand  that  the  crown  should  be  secured  to 
him  for  life,  and  that  if  the  Queen  died  without 
issue  it  should  descend  to  his  heir.  Ascribing 
Mary's  reluctance  to  accede  to  these  demands  to 


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KABYSVILLE. 


the  influence  of  her  confidential  adviser,  David 
Rizzio,  an  Italian  of  great  ability,  but  generally 
hated  as  a  foreigner  and  a  Roman  Catholic, 
Damley  conspired  with  the  Protestant  nobles  to 
murder  him  and  seize  the  government.  It  was 
stipulated  that  Protestantism  should  remain  the 
recognized  religion.  On  March  9,  1566,  Rizzio 
was  dragged  from  Mary's  supper-room  and  assas- 
sinated. Mary  dissembled  her  indignation  at  her 
husband's  treachery,  succeeded  in  detaching  him 
from  the  conspirators,  and  persuaded  him  not  only 
to  escape  with  her  from  their  power  by  a  mid- 
night flight  to  Dunbar,  but  also  to  issue  a  procla- 
mation in  which  he  denied  all  complicity  in  their 
designs.  Two  of  the  chief  conspirators,  Ruthven 
and  Morton,  fled  to  England,  while  Murray  and 
the  Queen  became  reconciled.  On  June  19,  1566, 
Mary  gave  birth  to  a  son  (later  James  VI.  of 
Scotland  and  James  I.  of  England)  ;  but  soon 
afterwards  she  quarreled  more  than  ever  with 
Damley,  and  the  latter  thought  of  leaving  the 
country.  Meanwhile  the  Queen  showed  more  and 
more  favor  to  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of  Bothwell, 
a  needy  and  profligate  noble.  About  January  9, 
1567,  Damley  fell  ill.  Mary  brought  him  to 
Edinburgh,  and  he  was  lodged  in  a  small  man- 
sion. Here  on  February  9th  the  Queen  visited 
him,  but  left  him  about  10  o'clock  in  the  even- 
ing. Early  the  next  morning  the  house  in  which 
Damley  slept  was  blown  up,  and  his  lifeless  body 
was  found  in  a  neighboring  garden.  Bothwell 
was  undoubtedly  the  murderer,  and  it  is  a  matter 
of  controversy  whether  or  not  Mary  was  privy  to 
the  deed.  A  mock  trial  was  held,  and  Bothwell 
was  acquitted.  On  April  19th  he  carried  the 
Queen  to  Dunbar,  probably  with  her  full  consent. 
He  divorced  his  young  wife,  Catherine  Gordon, 
whom  he  had  married  little  more  than  a  year 
before,  and  on  May  15,  1567 — only  three  months 
after  her  husband's  murder — ^Mary  became  Both- 
well's  wife. 

This  last  indiscretion  of  Mary  arrayed  all  her 
nobles  in  arms  a^inst  her.  She  was  able  to 
lead  an  armv  against  them,  but  it  melted  away 
without  striking  a  blow  at  Carberry  Hill,  June 
15,  1667.  She  had  to  abandon  Bothwell  and  sur- 
render herself  to  the  confederated  lords,  who  led 
her  to  Edinburgh,  and  from  there  to  Lochleven. 
At  the  latter  place  she  was  compelled  on  July  24, 

1567,  to  sign  an  act  of  abdication  in  favor  of  her 
son.     Escaping  from  her  island  prison  May  2, 

1568,  Mary  found  herself  in  a  few  days  at  the 
head  of  a  small  army,  but  this  was  defeated 
on  May  13th  by  the  Regent  Murray  at  Langside, 
near  Glasgow.  Four  days  afterwards,  in  spite  of 
the  entreaties  of  her  best  friends,  Mary  crossed 
the  Solway,  and  threw  herself  on  the  protection 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  only  to  flnd  herself  a  prisoner 
for  life. 

Mary  was  flrst  taken  to  Carlisle,  but  on  July 
13,  1568,  she  was  removed  to  Bolton.  Elizabeth 
demanded  that  there  should  be  an  inquiry  into 
Darnley's  murder.  Mary  seems  to  have  held  out 
at  this  time  hopes  of  marriage  to  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  there  were  several  attempts  to 
bring  about  a  rising  among  the  Catholics  in 
England  and  Scotland  in  her  favor.  As  a 
result  Norfolk  was  executed,  as  being  implicated, 
on  Tower  Hill,  June  2,  1572.  Undoubtedly 
Elizabeth  would  have  been  glad  to  be  rid  oif 
her  dangerous  prisoner,  but  could  not  on  ac- 
count of  her  relations  with  Spain  and  France  at 
the  time.    Mary  was  moved  from  place  to  place. 


until  in  April,  1585,  she  was  placed  under  the 
care  of  Sir  Amyas  Paulet>  and  here  all  oppor- 
tunity was  given  her  to  become  entangled  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Antony  Babington  (q.v.)  against 
Elizabeth.  For  this  she  was  brought  to  trial, 
and  though  she  denied  all  complicity,  she  was 
found  guilty,  and  beheaded  on  February  8,  1587, 
at  Fotheringay  Castle.  She  met  her  fate  with 
great  composure  and  dignity. 

Mary  was  reputed  to  be  the  most  beautiful 
woman  of  her  time.  Her  whole  life  was  dra- 
matic, and  hence  it  has  never  ceased  to  interest 
poets  and  historians.  She  was  a  woman  of  great 
ability  and  varied  accomplishments.  Her  prose 
writings  have  been  collected  by  Prince  Alexander 
Labanoff,  in  his  Reaieil  dea  lettrea  de  Marie 
Stuart,  Setting  aside  the  twelve  sonnets  which 
she  is  said  to  have  written  to  Bothwell,  and 
which  survive  only  in  a  French  version  of  an 
English  translation,  no  more  than  six  pieces  of 
her  poetry  are  now  known.  The  best  is  the  poem 
of  eleven  stauEas  on  the  death  of  her  flrst  hus- 
band, Francis  II.  The  longest  is  a  Meditation, 
All  are  in  French,  except  one  sonnet,  which  is  in 
Italian. 

The  difi'erent  collections  of  English,  French,  and 
Spanish  State  papers  contain  much  material. 
Consult:  Froude,  History  of  Englnnd  (London, 
1881);  Robertson,  History  of  Scotland  During 
the  Reigns  of  Queen  Mary  and  King  James 
VI .  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1759);  Mignet,  Histoire  de 
Marie  Stuart  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1851) ;  Strickland, 
Life  of  Maryy  Queen  of  Scots  (2  vols.,  London, 
1873);  Bresslau,  "Die  Kassettenbriefe  der 
KOnigin  Maria  Stuart,"  in  Historisches  Taschen- 
buchf  6th  series,  vol.  i.  (Leipzig,  1882)  ;  Hender- 
son, The  Casket  Letters  and  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
(Edinburgh,  1889);  id.,  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots: 
Her  Environment  and  Tragedy  (New  York, 
1905)  ;  Bell,  Life  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots  (2  vols., 
London,  1890)  ;  Cowan,  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  Who  Wrote  the  Casket  Letters?  (ib.,  1901 )  ; 
Lang,  The  Mystery  of  Mary  Stuart  (ib.,  1904)  ; 
MacCunn,  Mary  Stuart  (New  York,  1906). 

MAJtY  SXTMMEB.  The  pseudonym  of  the 
French  author  Marie  Filon  Foucaux  (q.v.). 

MA^YSVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Yuba  County,  Cal.,  62  miles  by  rail  north  of 
Sacramento ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Yuba  and  the 
Feather  rivers;  and  oii  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad  (Map:  California,  D  3).  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  College  of  Notre  Dame  (Roman  Catho- 
lic), and  has  a  public  library  which  occupies  a 
flne  building,  a  handsome  court-house  and  city 
hall;  also  three  parks  and  two  bridges.  The 
city  is  in  an  agricultural  and  mining  region,  and 
is  the  centre  of  large  grain,  fruit,  and  live 
stock  interests.  There  are  flour  and  woolen  mills, 
fruit  drying  and  canning  works,  a  winery,  an 
iron  foundry,  and  olive  oil  and  cigar  factories. 
The  government,  under  a  charter  of  1876,  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a 
unicameral  council,  elected  at  large,  though  repre- 
senting the  citv  wards.  Population,  in  1890, 
3991 ;  in  1900,  3497. 

Marysville,  built  on  the  site  of  a  trading  post 
called  New  Mecklenburg,  was  founded  in  1849 
by  Charles  Covilland,  a  Frencliman,  and  was 
called  Yubaville  until  1850,  when  it  received  its 
present  name.  In  1861  Marvsville  was  chartered 
as  a  city;  in  1852  it  had  4500  inhabitants,  and 
in  1855  8000;  and  in  1860,  when  it  began  to  de- 


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185 


MAflAT. 


dine,  it  had  become  the  third  city  in  size  in  the 
SUte. 

MABYSVUiLI.  A  city  and  the  counj^-seat 
of  Marshall  County,  Kan.,  113  miles  by  rail  west 
of  Saint  Joseph,  Mo. ;  on  the  Bie  Blue  River,  and 
on  the  Saint  Joseph  and  Grand  Island  and  the 
Union  Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Kansas,  F  2). 
It  has  good  water  power,  and  there  are  manufac- 
.  tures  of  flour,  machinery,  cigars,  etc.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  1913;  in  1900,  2006;  in  1905, 
2094. 

MABYSVILLE.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Union  County,  Ohio,  28  miles  northwest 
of  Columbus;  on  Mill  Creek,  and  on  the  Toledo 
and  Ohio  Central,  and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  railroads  (Map:  Ohio, 
D  5 ) .  It  is  surrounded  by  a  farming  country  and 
ffreat  sheep  section,  and  has  considerable  manu- 
factures. There  are  a  public  school  library  and 
a  subscription  library  maintained  by  the  Library 
and  Reading  Room  Association.  Population,  in 
1900,  3048;  in  1906  (local  cen.),  4448. 

MA^YVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Nodaway  County,  Mo.,  46  miles  north  of  Saint 
Joseph;  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
and  the  Wabash  railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  B 
1).  It  has  a  State  Normal  School.  Among  the 
industrial  establishments  are  flour  and  feed 
mills,  a  garment  factory,  brick  and  tile  works,  a 
grain  elevator,  foundry,  carria^  works,  and  lum- 
ber mill.  A  large  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  hogs 
is  carried  on.  Population,  in  1900,  4677 ;  in  1906 
(local  cen.),  5164. 

MABYVILLE.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Blount  County,  Tenn.,  16  miles  south  of 
Knoxville;  on  the  Southern  Railroad  (Map: 
Tennessee,  H.  5).  It  is  surrounded  by  a  farming 
country,  and  has  flour,  woolen,  and  planing 
mills,  stove  foundry,  and  coffin  factory.  The  vil- 
lage possesses  a  fine  court-house,  and  is  the  seat 
of  Maryville  College  (Presbyterian),  which  was 
founded  here  in  1819,  Maryville  having  been  set- 
tled as  early  as  1796.  Population,  in  1890, 
1686;  in  1900,  over  2000;  in  1906  (local  est.), 
2500. 

MABZLAX8,  mftr^zl-alz,  Fr.  pron.  m&r'z^'&r, 
Th^ophile  Julius  Henbt  (1850—).  An  Eng- 
lish poet  and  composer,  born  in  Brussels.  His 
father  was  a  Frenchman;  his  mother,  a  York- 
shire woman.  He  passed  his  boyhood  in  Brussels 
and  in  Switzerland.  In  1870  he  obtained  a  posi- 
tion in  the  musical  department  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  was  subsequently  employed  to  cata- 
logue the  Neo-Hellenic  and  Provencal  books.  In 
1872  he  published  for  private  circulation  a  pas- 
toral called  the  Passionate  D<yu>sahella,  repub- 
lished the  next  year  in  A  Gallery  of  Pigeons,  and 
Other  Poem».  The  volume,  showing  some  pre- 
Raphaelite  influence,  contains  poems  of  striking 
beauty.  Afterwards  he  composed,  with  their 
music,  many  delightful  songs.  His  ballads  in  Old 
English  style  have  been  especially  popular  in 
England  and  elsewhere.  In  1882  appeared  Old 
Bongsi  Arranged  with  Accompaniments, 

XASACCIO,  m&-s}lt'ch6,  properly  Tommaso 
GuiDi  (1401-28).  A  Florentine  painter  of  the 
early  Renaissance.  He  was  bom  at  Castello 
San  Giovanni,  in  the  Val  d'Amo,  on  December 
21,  1401.  His  slovenly  and  disorderly  habits 
gained  for  him  the  nickname  of  Masaccio.  From 
his  youth  he  showed  an  extraordinary  natural 


ability,  which  when  developed  by  continual  study 
and  the  training  of  Donati»llo,  Brunetleechi,  and 
especially  Ghiberti,  made  possible  for  him  an 
excellence  in  style  and  execution  previously  unat- 
tained  by  the  painters  of  Italy.  He  entered  the 
guild  of  the  Speziali  in  1421  and  was  enrolled  in 
the  guild  of  the  Painters  in  1424.  He  worked  in 
Pisa  and  Florence,  and  in  1420  produced  the 
frescoes  in  San  Clemente,  Rome.  The  return  of 
the  Medici  from  exile  in  1420  made  it  profltable 
for  him  to  take  up  his  work  again  in  Florence. 
The  next  eight  years  were  spent  in  painting 
frescoes  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  Florence,  upon 
which  our  knowledge  of  his  art  and  style  is 
based.  Of  the  series  in  the  chapel  Masaccio 
painted  seven,  viz.:  "The  Expulsion  from  Para- 
dise," **The  Tribute  Money,"  "The  ResusciUtion 
of  the  King's  Son"  (flnished  by  Filippino  Lippi), 
"Saint  Peter  *in  Cathedra,* "  "Saint  Peter  Bap- 
tizing," "Peter  Almsgiving,"  and  "Peter  and 
John  Healing  the  Sick." 

The  art  of  Masaccio,  while  showing  the  influence 
of  the  religious  idealist  Angelico,  and  continuing 
the  intellectual  and  humanistic  traditions  of 
Giotto  and  Gaddi,  was  essentially  individual. 
He  was  preeminently  indebted  to  Ghiberti  for  the 
stimuhis  that  really  determined  his  artistic  char- 
acter. Ghiberti  had  successfully  worked  out  in 
pictorial  relief  many  of  the  'problems  toward 
whose  solution  the  fourteenth-century  masters 
had  been  groping.  The  solution  of  these  problems 
in  values,  perspective,  and  movement  Masaccio 
instinctively  transferred  to  painting — a  process, 
unconscious,  perhaps,  that  made  possible  the  art 
of  Leonardo,  Michelangelo,  and  Raphael,  and 
marks  an  era  in  the  history  of  the  world's  paint- 
ing. In  these  paintings  the  master  has  been 
able,  through  the  elimmation  of  irrelevant  de- 
tail and  a  portrayal  of  the  signiflcant,  to  present 
for  the  flrst  time  artistic  reality.  The  chapel 
thus  decorated  formed  a  veritable  school  where 
the  master  naturalists  of  Florence  drew  much 
of  their  inspiration.  Masaccio  painted  a  fresco 
of  the  "Trinity"  in  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Flor- 
ence, and  an  altar-piece  for  the  Church  of  the 
Carmine  in  Pisa,  part  of  which  is  now  in  the 
Berlin  Museum^  which  also  possesses  the  "Con- 
flnement  of  a  Florentine  Lady"  attributed  to 
him.  To  avoid  flnancial  troubles,  it  is  supposed, 
the  painter  left  Florence  for  Rome  in  1427,  where 
he  disappeared.  The  only  record  of  his  end  was 
the  lecend  on  Masaccio's  tax  record  of  1428, 
"Dicesi  h  morto  in  Roma." 

BiBUOORAPHT.  Vasari,  Vite,  ed.  Milanesi 
(Florence,  1878;  Eng.  trans,  by  Blashfleld  and 
Hopkins;  New  York,  1896)  ;  Crowe  and  Caval- 
caselle.  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  (London, 
1866)  ;  Enudtzon,  Masaccio  og  den  florentinske 
malerkonst  (Copenhagen,  1875)  ;  Delaborde,  Les 
omvres  et  la  mani^e  de  Masaccio  (Paris,  1876)  ; 
Woltmann,  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und  KUnstler 
Italiens  (Leipzig,  1877);  Schmarsow,  Masaccio- 
8tudien{Cei8Bely  1895),  the  most  complete  modern 
treatise.  For  reproductions  of  the  Brancacci 
frescoes,  see  the  publications  of  the  Arundel  So- 
ciety, Tdth  text  by  Layard  (London,  1868). 

MASAI,  mH'sI.  A  mixed  Ethiopian-Negro 
people  in  British  East  Africa,  east  of  Lake  Vic- 
toria, belonging  to  the  Niam-Niam  or  Zandeh 
group.  They  are  divided  into  the  nomad  Masai 
or  II  Oikob,  and  the  settled  Masai  or  Wa  Kwafl, 
the  latter  having  been  forced  to  become  agricul- 
turists, both  on   account  of  the   plague  which 


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MASBATE. 


destroyed  their  immense  herds  of  cattle,  and  the 
intertribal  warfare  that  drove  them  into  the  ter- 
ritory of  non-Masai  tribes.  The  II  Oikob,  or 
Treemen,*  are  typical  Masai  and  are  of  magnifi- 
cent physique,  not  one  of  the  warrior  class  being 
under  six  feet  in  height.  Their  complexion  is 
chocolate,  their  hair  frizzly,  and  their  eyes  slight- 
ly oblique.  The  pure  blooded  tribes  have  good 
features,  and,  barring  their  color,  would  pass  for 
Europeans,  while  among  other  tribes  the  coarse 
negro  features  are  observed.  Each  tribe  is  no- 
madic within  certain  well-marked  boundaries 
and  the  subdivisions  are  named  from  their  geo- 
graphical location.  Their  villages,  set  in  a  circle 
in  which  the  cattle  are  herded,  consist  of  huts 
of  bent  boughs  plastered  with  cow  dung,  with 
flat  roofs.  JEncircling  the  village  is  a  strong 
homa  or  thorn  fence.  They  practice  no  arts, 
their  weapons  and  utensils  being  procured  by 
barter  or  from  a  subject  tribe  called  Andorobbo 
living  among  them.  The  country  is  elevated 
and  the  climate  temperate,  so  that  the  Masai 
wear  more  clothing  than  the  tribes  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  Africa.  The  women  adorn  themselves 
with  a  profusion  of  strings  of  beads  and  circlets 
of  iron  and  brass.  They  wear  the  rudiments  of  a 
dress  consisting  of  a  small  apron  in  front  and  a 
larger  at  the  back.  The  men  have  an  upper 
garment  of  tanned  skin,  a  length  of  cloth  fas- 
tened at  the  neck  and  hanging  down  the  back, 
armlets  of  ivory  or  horn,  ornaments  of  slender 
iron  chain,  and  a  waist  cloth.  The  hair  is 
gathered  into  a  sort  of  chignon  which  hangs  be- 
low the  shoulder  blades.  The  ear  lobes  are 
enormously  distended  by  ornament. 

The  Masai  are  divided  into  a  number  of  clans, 
the  symbol  of  which  the  warriors  paint  on  their 
shields.  The  people  are  divided  into  married 
men,  living  in  the  villages,  and  warriors,  living 
in  the  camps.  The  latter  youths  are  set  apart 
by  the  rite  of  circumcision  on  reaching  puberty, 
occupy  separate  quarters,  and  are  attended  by 
the  unmarried  women.  A  diet  of  meat  and  milk 
is  allowed  them,  but  only  one  of  these  must  be 
eaten  at  a  time,  and  between  the  periods  a 
purgative  treatment  is  required.  Before  going  on 
their  raids  they  gorge  themselves  with  blood  and 
meat.  The  warrior's  costume  consists  of  an 
oval  headdress  of  ostrich  feathers  encircling  the 
face,  a  shoulder  cape  of  vulture  feathers,  a  belt 
and  anklets  of  colobus  monkey  skin.  Their 
weapons  are  a  long-bladed  assagai,  a  short  sword 
and  club,  and  an  oval  shield  of  buffalo  hide. 
After  serving  his  time  the  warrior  settles  down 
to  married  life,  and  then  varies  his  flesh  diet  with 
vegetable  food  purchased  from  agricultural 
tribes.  The  Masai  are  dignified,  self-contained, 
and  intellectually  capable.  They  practice  no 
form  of  burial,  the  bodies  of  the  dead  being  cast 
out  to  be  devoured  by  hyenas.  Prayers  and  of- 
ferings of  grass  dipped  in  cream  are  made  to  a 
superior  deity ;  grass  is  also  an  off'ering  to  ward 
off  evil.  They  believe  in  witchcraft  and  maintain 
shamans.  Consult  Thomson,  Through  Masai 
Land  (London,  1885)  ;  Hollis,  The  Masai;  Their 
Language  and  Folklore  (Oxford,  1905). 

BCASAHPO.  A  treaty  port  of  Korea,  on  the 
south  coast,  west  of  Fusan.  It  was  opened  to 
foreign  commerce  on  May  1,  1890.  Population, 
1901,  16,808,  of  whom  317  were  foreigners 
(Japanese,    2G1;    October,    1906,   3354). 

MASANIELLO,  ma'sft-ny6l16,  properly  ToM- 
KASO    Anielio     (c.1623-47).      A    fisherman    of 


Amalfi,  leader  of  the  revolt  which  took  place  in 
Naples  in  1647  against  the  Spanish  Viceroy,  the 
Duke  of  Arcos.  The  people  had  been  exasperated 
by  oppression,  and  great  excitement  had  been  pro- 
duced by  a  new  tnx  laid  upon  fruit,  the  chief 
sustenance  of  the  poor.  Masaniello  himself  was 
indignant  at  the  rude  treatment  which  his  wife 
had  received  when  she  was  detected  in  the  at- 
tempt to  smuggle  a  little  flour.  On  July  7, 
1647,  the  custom-house  officers  were  assaulted 
in  the  market  place  by  the  infuriated  people, 
Masaniello  was  chosen  captain,  and  the  houses 
of  the  tax  farmers  were  sacked.  The  Grovemor 
fled  to  the  castle,  and  Masaniello  became  mas- 
ter of  the  city,  dispensing  justice  and  punishing 
severely  all  attempts  at  brigandage.  On  July 
13th,  in  the  Church  of  the  Carmelites,  the  Vice- 
roy agreed  to  restore  the  ancient  rights  of  the 
Neapolitans  and  to  remove  the  oppressive  taxes. 
The  events  of  the  week  unbalanced  Masaniello's 
mind ;  he  became  savage,  cruel,  and  irresponsible. 
The  people  lost  faith  in  him  because  of  his  com- 
promise with  the  Viceroy;  his  lieutenants  were 
seduced  by  the  Government,  and  he  himself  was 
arrested,  and  on  July  16th  four  hired  assassins 
murdered  the  fisherman  in  prison.  Auber  used 
the  story  of  his  life  in  La  muette  de  Portici. 
Consult  Saavedra,  Insureccidn  de  Napoli  en  16^1 
(Madnd,   1849). 

MASAYA,  m&-sa'y&.  A  town  of  Nicaragua, 
15  miles  southeast  of  Managua,  and  10  miles 
from  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  near 
the  volcano  of  Masaya — a  broad,  low  mountain, 
about  3000  feet  high  (Map:  Central  America, 
D  5) .  The  town  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  fertile 
tobacco-growing  district,  and  is  connected  by 
railway  with  Granada  and  Managua.  Popula- 
tion, 18,000,  largely  native  Indians. 

MASBATE,  mfis-ba'tA.  One  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  forming  with  Burias,  Ticao,  and 
a  few  smaller  neighboring  islands,  a  separate 
province.  It  is  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  archipelago  about  30  miles  south  of  the 
southeastern  end  of  Luzon  (Map:  Philippine 
Islands,  D  4) .  It  is  of  elongated  shape,  measur- 
ing 82  miles  from  northwest  to  southeast,  with 
an  average  width  of  15  miles;  from  the  north- 
western coast  a  triangular  peninsula  extends  24 
miles  southwestward,  at  right  angles  to  the  main 
body,  and  forming  the  large  Bay  or  Bight  of 
Asid.  The  area  of  the  mainland  is  1236  square 
miles,  and  of  the  province  1569  square  miles. 
Of  the  dependent  islands,  two  are  of  considerable 
size,  namely  Burias,  197,  and  Ticao,  121  square 
miles,  both  lying  between  Masbate  and  Luzon. 
Though  apparently  nowhere  rising  over  2000  or 
2500  feet  in  elevation,  the  island  is  very  moun- 
tainous; a  principal  chain  sending  out  a  number 
of  spurs  extends  in  a  semi-circle  from  the  north- 
west to  the  southeastern  end.  Owing  to  the  shape 
of  the  island  and  its  mountain  range,  the  rivers 
are  all  very  short.  There  are  extensive  forests  in 
the  interior.  The  climate  is  subject  to  frequent 
and  sudden  changes. 

The  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
is  lumbering  and  the  extraction  of  forest  prod- 
ucts. Before  the  Spanish- American  War  cattle- 
raising  was  also  very  important,  but  in  the 
last  few  years  great  havoc  has  been  made  by 
the  rinderpest.  Fishery  is  also  carried  on  to  a 
great  extent,  but  agriculture  is  in  a  backward 
state.     The   principal   manufactures   are   sugar 


Digitized  by 


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MASBATE. 


137 


ICASCABT. 


Backs  and  palm  mats,  the  latter  being  noted  for 
their  excellent  workmanship  and  durability  of 
colors.  The  commerce  is  considerable,  as  Masbate 
lies  not  only  opposite  the  Strait  of  San  Bernar- 
dino, one  of  the  two  main  eastern  entrances  to 
the  archipelago,  but  also  in  the  direct  route  from 
Manila  to  Samar  and  Leyte.  There  are  several 
excellent  land-locked  harbors.  The  population  of 
the  whole  Province  of  Masbate  was,  in  1903,  43,- 
675,  of  whom  10,183  live  in  Ticao,  and  1627  in 
Burias.  The  tribe  of  the  Visayans  constitutes 
nearly  93  per  cent,  of  the  population ;  there  are 
also  2205  Blcols  and  583  Tagaloga.  The  capital 
is  Masbate,  situated  on  the  northern  coast;  it  is 
a  port  of  entry  with  a  good  harbor,  a  post-office, 
and  a  population  of  4018. 

Perfect  peace  prevailed  throughout  the  island 
before  the  end  of  the  year  1900,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants showed  great  eagerness  to  have  civil  gov- 
ernment established,  which  was  done  on  March 
18,  1901. 

ICASCAOKI^  mA-skft'ny^  Pietbo  (1863—). 
An  Italian  composer.  He  was  bom  at  Leghorn, 
of  humble  parentage,  and  his  father  (who  was  a 
baker)  planned  for  him  a  career  as  a  lawyer. 
Unknown  to  his  father,  the  boy  began  to  study 
music  with  Soffredini,  and  subsequently  his  uncle 
furnished  him  with  the  means  to  continue  his 
studies.  He  was  an  especially  apt  pupil  in  com- 
position, and  in  1879  wrote  a  symphony  in  C 
minor.  A  cantata.  La  Filanda  ( 1881 ) ,  and  a  set- 
ting to  Schiller's  An  die  Freude  ( 1881 ) ,  both  met 
with  considerable  success.  It  was  an  admirer  of 
La  Filanda^  a  rich  Italian  nobleman,  who  came 
forward  and  furnished  the  composer  with  the 
means  to  continue  his  studies  at  the  Milan  Con- 
servatory, where  he  worked  for  a  little  while, 
under  Ponchielli  and  Saladino,  but  suddenly  broke 
off  his  studies  to  make  a  tour  with  an  operatic 
troupe.  For  a  few  years  he  made  a  preca- 
rious livelihood  by  teaching,  until  one  day  he 
read  of  the  Milan  publisher  Sonzogno*s  announce- 
ment that  he  would  give  three  prizes  for  the 
three  best  one-act  operas  to  be  performed  in 
Rome.  He  immediately  set  to  work,  and  taking 
the  libretto  furnished  by  two  of  his  friends,  Sig- 
nori  Targioni-Tozzetti  and  Menasci,  for  his  text, 
he  submitted  their  joint  effort  in  the  form  of  the 
since  famous  Oavalleria  RuMicana  (1890)',  a 
story  based  on  a  Sicilian  tale  by  Giovanni  Verga. 
Mascagni  was  awarded  first  prize,  and  the  tre- 
mendous success  which  greeted  the  public  presen- 
tation of  his  work  raised  him  from  utter  obscur- 
ity to  the  height  of  fame.  Taking  advantage  of 
his  success,  he  hurriedly  and  prematurely  pre- 
sented L*Amico  Fritz  (1891),  the  text  of  which 
was  based  upon  the  popular  Erckmann-Chatrian 
story;  but,  like  /  Rantzau  (1892),  it  met  with 
indifferent  success.  His  subsequent  works  met 
with  varying  degrees  of  favor,  none  of  them  ap- 
proaching his  first  work,  either  in  popularity  or 
sustained  merit.  His  entire  career  was  so  over- 
shadowed by  the  extraordinary  success  of  his  first 
opera  that  critical  opinion  everywhere  is  divided 
as  to  whether  his  later  works  have  received  their 
just  deserts.  The  libretto  of  Cavalleria  Ruati- 
cana  undoubtedly  contributed  much  to  the  opera's 
success,  but  the  music  also  is  of  a  high  order. 
In  1895-1903  he  was  director  of  the  Rossini 
Conservatory  at  Pesaro.  He  made  several  tours 
in  European  countries,  and  in  1902  was  per- 
suaded to  make  a  tour  of  America;  but  his  ig- 
norance of  conditions  in  the  New  World,  together 


with  the  bad  management  of  the  tour,  consider- 
ably limited  the  success  he  was  justified  in  ex- 
pecting. His  works  are  representative  of  the 
modem  Italian  school.  They  include:  Ouglielmo 
RatcUlf  (1895);  Zanetio  (1896);  Iris  (1898); 
Le  Maschers  (1901);  Arnica  (1904). 

MASCARA,  mAs-ka'rii,  Fr,  pron.  m&s'ki'rA'. 
The  capital  of  an  arrondissement  and  a  fortified 
town  in  the  Province  of  Oran,  Algeria,  45  miles 
southeast  of  Oran,  on  the  slope  of  the  Atlas 
Mountains.  Mascara  stands  on  the  site  of  a 
Roman  colony  and  is  inclosed  by  walls  two 
miles  in  length.  In  1832  it  became  the  residence 
of  Abd-el-Kader,  who  was  born  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. It  was  burned  by  the  French  in  1835, 
afterwards  regained  by  Abd-el-Kader,  and  fin- 
ally taken  by  the  French  in  1841,  since  when 
it  has  developed  into  an  important  trading  centre. 
Population,  in  1901,  20,992. 

MASOABENB  (nOLslcA-r^nO  ISLANDS. 
The  collective  name  given  to  the  islands  of  Re- 
union, Mauritius  (qq.v.),  and  Rodriguez,  situated 
east  of  Madagascar. 

MASCABTTiLE,  m&'sk&'r^F.  A  type  of  valet 
distinguished  for  effrontery,  intrigue,  and  im- 
pudence, immortalized  by  Molidre  in  L*^tourdi, 
Lea  pr^cieuses  ridicules,  and  Le  d^pit  amoureuao. 

MASOAJtON,  m&'skA'rON^  Jules  (1634- 
1703).  A  French  prelate  and  Court  preacher. 
He  was  bom  at  Marseilles.  He  was  intended  for 
the  law,  but  preferred  the  Church,  and  entered 
the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory.  He  began 
preaching  in  1663,  and  soon  attracted  attention, 
and  wherever  he  went  in  the  provincial  towns — 
as  Angers,  Saumur,  Marseilles,  and  Nantes — 
large  audiences,  representing  various  classes,  and 
even  the  learned,  thronged  U>  hear  him.  In  1666 
he  was  called  to  the  Court,  where  his  reputation 
continued  to  increase.  He  gained  and  held 
the  favor  of  King  Louis  XIV.  notwithstanding 
his  unsparing  denunciation  of  fashionable  and 
even  royal  sins.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Tulle 
in  1671,  and  was  transferred  thence  in  1679  to 
Agen;  but  still  continued  to  preach  before  the 
Court.  The  most  famous  of  his  orations  was 
that  on  Marshal  Turenne.  Other  orations  which 
have  been  much  admired  are  those  on  Chancellor 
Siguier,  Queen  Henrietta  of  England,  and  the 
Duke  of  Beaufort.  A  collection  of  his  sermons 
and  orations,  edited  by  Father  Borde,  a  member 
of  his  congregation,  was  published  in  1740.  His 
sermons  may  also  be  found  in  a  collection  of 
funeral  orations  by  Bossuet,  Fl^chier,  and  Mas- 
caron  (Paris,  1734).  CEuvrea  de  Mascaron  ap- 
peared in  Paris  in  1828. 

MASCABT,  mft'skar',  ELEUTHfeRE  Elie  Nico- 
las (1837—).  A  French  physicist,  bom  at  Qua- 
rouble,  Nord.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ecole 
Normale  Sup^rieure.  He  succeeded  Regnault 
at  the  Collie  de  France,  becoming  professor 
in  that  institution  in  1872.  In  1878  he  was 
made  director  of  the  Government  Central  Meteor- 
ological Bureau  and  he  has  also  been  a  member 
of  the  International  Bureau  of  Weights  and 
Measures.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1884,  taking  the  place  of  Jamin, 
and  has  been  honored  with  the  various  decora- 
tions of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  being  made  a  com- 
mander in  1889.  Mascart  has  conducted  a  num- 
ber of  important  investigations  of  the  ultra-violet 
rays  and  of  atmospheric  electricity.  He  is  the 
author  of  EUmenta  de  m^canique  (1866) ;  TraitS 


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MASCABT. 


188 


MASHONALAin). 


d*^lectrioit4  atatique  (1876);  Lecons  aw  ViUo- 
tricitS  et  le  magn4tiame,  in  collaboration  with 
Joubert  (1882) ;  volume  ii.  of  M^thodea  de  me- 
aures  et  applicationa  (1888);  and  Traits  d'op- 
tique  (1889). 

MASOLE,  mfts^'l  (OF.  mascle,  macle,  Fr. 
made,  from  Lat.  macula,  spot) .  A  heraldic  bear- 
ing, in  the  form  of  a  lozenge  pierced  in  tiie  cen- 
tre.   See  Hebaldbt. 

MASCOTTTEN  (from  Maahkodainaug,  little 
prairie  people).  An  Algonquian  people  of  the 
Illinois  Kiver  concerning  whom  there  has  been 
much  controversy.  From  a  misinterpretation  of 
their  Algonquian  name  they  were  known  to  the 
Hurons,  and  hence  to  the  French,  as  the  'Fire 
Nation*  {Nation  du  Feu).  Much  of  the  confu- 
sion in  relation  to  the  name  arises  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  apparently  used  in  a  ^;eneral  as  well 
as  a  specific  sense  and  applied  without  warrant 
to  more  than  one  Algonquian  band  of  the  Illinois 
and  Wabash  prairies.  According  to  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  Ojibwa  and  Ottawa  they  drove  the 
Mascouten  from  the  neighborhood  of  what  is  now 
Mackinaw,  and  forced  them  to  retire  to  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  earliest 
French  missionaries  heard  of  them  as  a  strong 
tribe  living  in  southern  Michigan,  with  whom 
the  Neutrals  and  Ottawa  were  constantly  at  war. 
About  1676  the  French  explorers  found  them  in 
aouthem  Wisconsin  in  close  alliance  with  the 
Miami  and  Kickapoo.  In  1712  they  joined  the 
Foxes  and  Kickapoo  against  the  French,  but  suf- 
iered  terrible  reverses,  losing  150  in  a  single 
encounter.  In  the  same  year  the  Potawatomi 
and  other  Northern  tribes  made  a  concerted  de- 
scent upon  the  Mascouten  and  Foxes  and  killed 
or  took  captive  one  thousand  of  them,  pursuing 
the  survivors  as  far  as  Detroit.  The  power  of 
the  Foxes  was  completely  broken  by  this  war 
with  the  French  and  their  allies,  and  the  Mas- 
couten were  so  far  reduced  that  in  1736  they 
were  said  to  number  but  60  warriors,  living  then 
with  the  Kickapoo  in  southern  Wisconsin.  In 
1765  they  are  again  mentioned  with  the  Kicka- 
poo, this  time  near  the  Wabash  River.  They  are 
last  definitely  mentioned  in  1779,  living  upon 
the  Wabash  River  in  alliance  with  the  Kickapoo 
and  Piankishaw.  The  'Prairie  band'  of  Potawa- 
tomi, now  residing  in  Kansas,  is  known  to  the 
tribe  at  large  under  the  same  name  of  Maah- 
kodainaug, 

MASCOV,  m&8^6f,  Johann  Jakob  (1689- 
1761).  A  German  publicist  and  historian,  bom 
at  Danzig.  He  studied  theology  and  law 
at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  where  he  was 
afterwards  appointed  professor  of  law  and 
history.  Of  his  publications,  the  following 
are  considered  of  great  merit:  Principia  Juria 
Puhlici  Imperii  Romano-Qermanici  (1729;  6th 
ed.  1769),  which  for  a  lonfs  time  remained  a 
model  text-book  in  many  universities;  and  Ge- 
achichte  der  Deutachen  hia  zum  Ah  gang  der  mero- 
vHngiachen  Konige  (1726-37),  a  very  valuable 
volume  for  the  early  history  of  Prussia. 

MAS-D'AZIL,  m&^dA'z^K  An  archseological 
grotto  in  the  Department  of  Ariftge,  France, 
yielding  relics  especially  of  the  latest  Paleolithic 
period.  Regnault  discovered  in  the  grotto  of 
Massat  in  the  same  region  forms  similar  to  those 
found  by  Piette.  Consult  Mortillet,  Le  prdhiato- 
rique  (Paris,  1901). 


MA8EBES,  mA'zftr^,  Fbancis  (1731-1824). 
An  English  mathematician,  born  in  London  of  a 
French  family.  He  was  educated  at  Clare  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  obtained  a  fellowship  and  w^as 
admitted  to  the  bar.  This  led  to  his  being 
appointed  Attorney-General  for  Canada,  and  he 
lived  in  Quebec  until  1773.  He  publishcKl:  Prin- 
ciplea  of  the  Doctrine  of  Life  Annuitiea;  Scrip- 
torea  Logarithmici  (1791-1807)  ;  Scriptorea  Optici 
(1823)  ;  besides  Select  Tracta  on  Civil  Wars  in 
the  Reign  of  Charlea  /.  (1815). 

MASH^AM,  Abigail,  Lady  (1670-1734).  A 
friend  and  confidante  of  Queen  Anne  of  England. 
8lie  was  born  in  London,  the  daughter  of  Francis 
Hill,  a  merchant,  and  his  wife  Mary  Jennings,  an 
aunt  of  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  by  whose 
influence  she  was  appointed  a  lady  of  the  bed- 
chamber to  Princess  Anne.  She  became  the  con- 
fidante of  the  Princess,  and,  after  the  latter  be- 
came Queen,  did  all  she  could  to  destroy  the 
Marlborough  influence  at  Court.  In  1707  she 
was  married  to  Samuel  Masham,  a  gentleman  of 
the  bedchamber  to  Prince  Oeorge  of  Denmark. 
This  marriage  brought  about  an  open  rupture 
with  the  Marlboroughs.  The  intrigues  of  Mrs. 
Masham  finally  resulted  in  the  ovei^row  of  the 
Whigs,  the  elevation  of  Harley  to  power,  and 
the  dismissal  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  Mrs. 
Masham  was  engaged  in  plots  to  bring  back  the 
Stuarts;  and  she  seems  always  to  have  used  her 
position  for  her  pecuniary  advantage.  Her  hus- 
band was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1712.  Lady 
Masham  adhered  to  Bolingbroke  in  the  quarrel 
between  him  and  Oxford.  After  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne  in  1714  she  lived  in  retirement.  See 
Anne. 

MASHONALAND,  mA-8h(/n&-lftnd.  A  pro«r- 
ince  of  Southern  Rhodesia  (see  Rhodesia), 
South  Africa,  between  Matabeleland  and  the 
Zambezi  River  (Map:  Africa,  H  6).  It  con- 
sists mainly  of  a  fertile,  savanna-covered  pla- 
teau, 3000  to  5000  feet  above  the  sea,  intersected 
by  several  affluents  of  the  Zambezi  and  the  Sabi. 
The  climate  is  healthful  to  Europeans.  Gold 
has  been  found  in  considerable  quantities,  and 
settlements  have  arisen  in  several  places.  The 
white  population  in  1904  numbered  4917;  the 
number  of  natives  was  391,736;  foreign  colored 
(including  Asiatics),  592.  A  railroad  from 
Beira  on  the  coast  to  Salisbury,  the  capital  of 
Southern  Rhodesia,  was  completed  in  1899,  and 
another  from  Salisbury  to  Buluwayo  in  Matabe- 
leland, in  1902;  in  April,  1904,  the  trunk  line 
reached  the  Victoria  Falls,  where  it  is  carried 
over  the  Zambezi  by  the  highest  bridge  in  the 
world  (opened  September,  1905).  In  1889  Ma- 
shonalana  was  acquired  by  the  British  South 
Africa  Company,  and  in  1893  the  company's 
possession  was  secured  through  a  successful  war 
with  the  Matabeles. 

The  ruins  of  Southern  Mashonaland,  of  which 
the  best-kIlo^\^l  are  those  of  the  Zimbabwe  group, 
are  numerous.  Along  the  gold-bearing  reefs  are 
thousands  of  excavations  into  the  quartz  veins 
as  well  as  many  hundred  ancient  ruins,  temples, 
fortresses,  and  the  like.  The  early  history  of 
this  region  was  not  known  by  the  Mashonas  who 
were  living  here  at  the  time  of  the  advent  of 
the  Europeans.  The  announcement  of  the  find- 
ing of  the  ruins  by  the  traveler  Carl  Mauch  in 
1871  attracted  much  attention,  and  in  1891  Theo- 
dore Bent  surv'eyed  and  described  the  ruins  of 


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Zimbabwe.  He  found  one  portion  to  be  elliptical 
with  a  round  tower  and  to  cover  a  considerable 
area  of  a  gentle  rise;  below  this  in  the  valley 
lay  a  mass  of  ruins ;  while  another  structure,  ap- 
parently a  fort,  crowned  a  bold,  rocky  hill.  The 
walls  are  constructed  of  small,  squared  blocks  of 
rough-face  granite,  laid  dry,  and  occasionally 
having  ornamental  courses  in  herring-bone  or 
chevron  pattern.  The  walls  are  very  thick,  in 
some  places  standing  over  thirty  feet,  and  the 
coursing  and  broken  joints  show  fair  skill  in 
masonry.  The  elliptical  ruin  has  several  gate- 
ways, the  interior  is  broken  by  walls  into  a 
labyrinth,  and  in  a  central  space  are  an  altar  and 
two  remarkable  round  towers,  the  latter  built 
solid.  Monoliths  of  rou^,  unhewn  blocks  of 
granite,  set  in  the  OTOund,  occur  in  these  ruins, 
and  in  some  cases  tne  monoliths  are  set  upright 
on  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  hill  fort  consists  of 
carving  walls  built  among  gigantic  granite  bould- 
ers, forming  a  maze  above  a  cliff  90  feet  high, 
and  is  flanked  on  the  accessible  side  by  a  wall 
36  feet  high  and  13  feet  thick  at  the  top.  Around 
the  rude  altar  in  the  temple  ruins  were  found 
phallic  emblems^  birds,  and  decorated  bowls 
carved  from  soapstone.  Remains  of  gold  smelt- 
ing furnaces  with  crucibles  and  pottery  blow- 
pipes, and  stone  ingot  molds,  were  discovered,  and 
glass  beads,  celadon  pottery,  Persian  pottery,  and 
Arabic  glass  occurred  in  the  ruins.  Spearheads 
and  arrowheads,  battle-axes,  bells,  chisels,  spades, 
and  other  tools  were  taken  out.  The  ruins  may 
be  ascribed  to  the  pre-Mohammedan  Arabs,  prob- 
ably of  the  Sabseo-Himyaritic  period,  so  that 
there  is  good  reason  for  locating  the  Land  of 
Ophir  in  this  region. 

The  Mashonas  are  a  Bantu  negro  people,  whom 
the  Matabeles  have  driven  to  live  in  hill  forts 
overlooking  their  fields.  They  are  peaceful  agri- 
culturists, raising  com,  sweet  potatoes,  rice,  to- 
bacco, and  Indian  hemp.  They  have  herds  of  cat- 
tle and  goats,  and  a  common  occupation  is  hunt- 
ing for  gold.  The  Mashonas  are  of  chocolate 
brown  color,  above  the  average  height,  slender  in 
build,  and  the  young  women  have  good  figures 
and  are  graceful.  The  men  wear  bracelets  of 
buffalo  hide,  necklaces  of  bone  and  claws  of 
gazelle  hoofs,  and  aprons  of  leather  interwoven 
with  beads  of  iron  and  brass.  Their  headdress 
is  of  feathers  and  their  coiffure  is  elaborate.  The 
two  front  teeth  are  filed  to  a  V-shape.  The  wom- 
en shave  their  heads,  but  young  girls  string  beads 
on  their  hair.  They  wear  aprons,  and  their  bodies 
are  decorated  with  raised  tattooing.  The  warriors 
carry  three  assagais,  a  club,  shield  and  battle-axe. 
The  bow  and  arrow  are  also  used.  They  are  skill- 
ful iron  smelters  and  workers,  using  the  double 
bellows  and  working  out  implements  and  weapons 
with  stone  tools.  They  also  make  pottery,  wooden 
dishes,  and  bark  cloth.  They  smoke  and  snuff 
tobacco  and  use  the  narcotic  hemp  to  excess. 
Travelers  remark  on  their  fondness  for  heat; 
many  are  disfigured  from  scorching  caused  by 
sleeping  too  near  the  great  fires.  Their  musical 
instruments  are  the  AJfrican  harp,  jewsharp,  and 
drum.  Consult:  Bent,  The  Ruined  Cities  of  Ma- 
tkonaland  (l^ndon,  1893);  Knight-Bruce,  Mem- 
ories of  Ma^honaland  (London.  1895);  With 
Rhodes  in  Mashonaland,  translated  by  Dr.  Waal 
(Cape  Town,  1896)  ;  Hall  and  Neal,  The  Ancient 
Ruins  of  Rhodesia  (London,  1902)  ;  Hall,  Great 
Zimbabwe  ( London,  1905 ) .  See  Matabeleland. 
Vol.  XIIL— 10. 


HASINIS'SA  (c.239-148  B.G.).  King  of  thd 
Massylians,  in  Numidia.  He  was  educated  at 
Carthage,  and  in  B.c.  213  induced  his  father  to 
form  a  league  with  the  Carthaginians,  with  whom 
he  fought  against  Syphax,  King  of  the  Massas- 
sylians,  the  ally  of  the  Romans.  He  then  passed 
over  into  Spain  at  the  head  of  a  troop  of  Numid- 
ian  cavalry,  and  displayed  great  zeal  and  valor 
in  the  war  against  Rome.  But  the  victory  of 
the  Romans  at  Silpia  in  B.C.  206,  and  (so  the 
story  goes)  the  action  of  the  Carthaginians  in 
giving  Sophonisba,  the  beautiful  daughter  of 
Hasdrubal  (son  of  Gisco),  who  had  been  prom- 
ised him  in  marriage,  as  wife  to  his  old  rival 
Syphax,  led  Masinissa  to  enter  into  an  alliance 
with  the  Romans.  The  Carthaginians  incited 
Syphax  to  make  war  upon  him.  Defeated  and 
stripped  of  his  sovereignty,  which  he  had  just 
inherited  from  his  father,  he  was  compelled  to 
seek  refuge  on  the  coast  of  Syrtis,  where  he  brave- 
ly defended  himself  until  the  arrival  of  Scipio 
in  B.G.  204,  when  he  identified  his  cause  with  that 
of  the  Romans.  He  defeated  Syphax,  overran  his 
country,  captured  his  capital,  and  took  prisoner 
his  Queen,  Sophonisba,  whom  Masinissa  still 
loved.  Scipio,  who  feared  the  influence  of  the 
Carthaginian  princess,  demanded  her  surrender 
as  a  captive  of  war,  and  Masinissa,  to  spare  her 
the  shame,  gave  her  poison  to  drink.  In  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  Zama,  which  followed  the  arrival 
of  Hannibal  in  Africa  (b.c.  202),  he  made  a 
brilliant  charge  at  the  head  of  his  Numidian 
horse,  drove  the  cavalry  of  Hannibal  from  the 
field,  and  was  the  first  to  turn  the  tide  of  battle 
against  the  Carthaginians.  For  this  service  he 
received  the  kingdom  of  Syphax  in  the  following 
year.  He  now  profited  by  the  leisure  which  peace 
afforded  him,  devoting  his  attention  to  the  or- 
ganization of  his  government  and  to  the  civilizing 
of  his  semi-barbarous  subjects.  But  his  lust 
of  conquest  was  never  satiated.  He  made  con- 
tinuous inroads  into  the  territory  of  Carthage, 
and  his  depredations  finally  drove  the  Cartha- 
ginians to  war  (B.C.  150),  an  event  which  the 
Romans  seized  on  as  a  welcome  pretext  for  in- 
tervening and  utterly  crushing  their  ancient 
rival. 

HASK  (Fr.  masque,  from  Sp.  mdscara,  from 
Ar.  maskharaty  buffoon,  mask,  from  sakhara,  to 
ridicule).  A  disji^uise  or  covering  of  the  face, 
worn  either  to  aid  in  the  simulation  of  some 
character  or  for  other  purposes,  as  in  the  rites  of 
savage  people  for  the  frightening  away  of  demons 
or  even  protecting  the  faces  of  the  dead.  The 
use  of  masks  in  the  drama  originated  perhaps  in 
the  harvest  festivities  of  the  most  ancient  Greek 
peasantry,  appearing  subsequently  to  have  been 
associated  witn  the  representation  of  Satyrs,  Si- 
lenus,  and  Bacchus  in  the  orgies  of  Bacchus.  In 
Greek  tragedy,  which  was  an  outgrowth  from 
these,  masks  were  used  from  the  first,  and  in 
comedy  at  least  at  a  later  day.  Regular  types 
of  masks  were  developed  for  the  different  char- 
acters in  tragedy  and  comedy,  expressive  of  fixed 
emotions.  They  were  often  provided  with  metal- 
lic mouthpieces  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
power  of  the  voice,  as  was  made  necessary  by  the 
great  size  and  openness  of  the  ancient  theatres. 
Their  use  indeed  was  adapted  both  to  the  vastness 
of  the  buildings  and  to  a  formal  style  of  dramntic 
representation  in  which  the  ideal  prevailed  over 
any  reality  of  individual  impersonation.  In  the 
modern  theatre  the  use  of  masks,  coming  down 


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140 


1CA8KIK0NOE. 


through  the  mimes  and  pantomimes  of  the  Ro- 
mans and  the  early  Italian  oommedia  deWarte 
('comedy  of  masks'),  has  been  chiefly  confined 
to  that  class  of  entertainments  in  which  the 
very  names  of  the  characters,  like  Pantaloon 
and  Harlequin  (q.v.)>  have  been  derived  from 
Italy.  The  use  of  masks  at  costume-balls  also 
originated  in  Italy,  when  the  domino,  or  half- 
mask,  worn  by  ladies,  became  especially  popular. 

The  name  death-masks  is  given  to  masks,  usu- 
ally of  plaster,  made  after  death.  In  the  prepara- 
tion of  these  masks  the  face  of  the  dead  body  is 
usually  covered  with  oil,  and  plaster  of  Paris 
is  then  applied.  After  the  plaster  has  hardened 
it  is  removed,  being  prevented  by  the  oil  from 
adhering  too  closely  to  the  skin.  Into  the  mold 
thus  formed  fresh  plaster  is  poured,  and  the  re- 
sulting cast  is  the  death-mask.  Such  masks  are 
of  the  utmost  value  as  exact  resemblances  of  the 
faces  from  which  they  are  taken,  although  the 
change  of  contour  caused  by  death  necessarily 
impairs  to  some  extent  their  value.  Similar 
masks  are  occasionally  made  from  living  men. 
Here,  however,  the  mobile  expression  is  fre- 
quently of  necessity  sacrificed,  so  that  it  is  in 
general  true  that  the  more  expressive  the  living 
face,  the  fainter  is  the  likeness,  while  a  set  and 
determined  face  gives,  as  a  rule,  a  clear  and 
accurate  mask.  The  use  of  death-masks  is  both 
ancient  and  widespread.  The  Romans  made  them 
of  wax,  while  among  the  Egyptians  and  in 
the  ruins  of  Hissarlik  masks  of  thin  gold  plate 
have  been  found,  and  among  the  American 
Indians  occasional  specimens  have  been  discov- 
ered. 

Among  certain  groups  of  savages,  masks  play 
an  important  r6le  in  their  ceremonials.  They 
are  sometimes  constructed  to  imitate  living 
forms,  as  of  animals,  but  more  often  to  portray 
mythological  characters.  As  a  consequence  the 
imagination  of  the  maker  is  allowed  a  certain 
freedom,  and  the  result  is  seen  in  the  grotesque 
productions  which  are  familiar  from  the  ethno- 
logical collections  of  our  museums.  They  are 
most  commonly  employed  in  shamanistic  rites 
and  in  dances  of  a  religious  and  more  or  less 
secret  character.  Their  use  is  perhaps  most 
prominent  in  North  America,  particularly  among 
the  tribes  on  the  North  Pacific  Coast,  and  in  the 
islands  of  the  South  Seas,  notably  in  the  Me- 
lanesian  group.  Consult:  Altmann,  Die  Masken 
dcs  Schauspielers  (3d  ed.,  Berlin,  1896)  ;  Sand, 
Masques  et  houffons  (Paris,  1860)  ;  Ficoroni, 
De  Larvis  8c€nici»  et  Figuris  Comicis  (Rome, 
1754)  ;  id.,  Le  maschere  sceniche  e  le  figure 
comiche  d'antichi  Romani  (Rome,  1736)  ;  Benn- 
dorf,  Antike  Gesichtshelme  und  Sepulcralmasken 
(Vienna,  1878)  ;  Dall,  Masks,  Lahrets,  and  Cer- 
tain Aboriginal  Customs  (Washington,  1885)  ; 
Frobenius,  Die  Masken  und  Oeheimhiinde  Afrikas 
(Halle,  1898)  ;  Hutton,  Portraits  in  Plaster 
(New  York,  1894). 

MASK.  In  architecture  and  decoration,  the 
face  of  a  human  being  or  animal,  convention- 
alized in  character:  sometimes  called  a  mascaron 
(French).  The  Greeks  and  Romans  copied  the 
tragic  and  comic  masks  of  their  actors  in  sculp- 
ture and  painting  for  decorative  purposes,  and 
similar  designs,  but  with  exaggerated  grotesque- 
ness,  were  popular  with  the  late  Renaissance  ar- 
tists, especially  of  the  Baroque  period,  for  the 
keystones  of  doorways  and  other  prominent  posi- 
tions.    See  Gabgoyle;  Antefix. 


TWASK.     A  kind  of  dramatic  entertainments 

See  Masque. 

MASQAT,  m&skllt^  A  town  of  Arabia.  See 
Muscat. 

MASKED  PIG.  An  extraordinanr  breed  of 
domestic  swine,  cultivated  in  Japan.  It  is  blacky 
has  a  short  head,  broad  forehead  and  muzzle^ 
great  ears,  and  deeply  furrowed  skin;  and  thick 
folds  of  skin,  which  are  harder  than  the  other 
parts,  resembling  the  plates  on  the  Indian  rhi- 
noceros, hang  about  the  shoulders  and  rump. 

MAS^KEGON  (Swamp  People).  A  wander- 
ing Algonquian  people,  an  offshoot  of  the  Ojibwa^ 
scattered  over  the  immense  swamp  region  of 
British  America,  stretching  from  Lake  Winning 
to  Hudson  Bay,  including  the  basins  of  the  Nel- 
son and  Severn  rivers.  In  former  times  they 
lived  entirely  by  hunting  and  fishing,  to  which 
those  upon  reservations  now  add  lumbering  and 
a  little  farming.  As  they  are  officially  classed 
with  the  Cree  and  Ojibwa,  no  reliable  estimate 
of  their  population  can  be  given,  but  they  may 
number  from  1500  to  2000. 

MAS^KELL^  William  (c.1814-90).  An  Eng- 
lish theologian,  bom  at  Bath.  From  Universi^ 
College,  Oxford,  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1836,  and 
the  next  year  took  holy  orders.  In  1842  he  be- 
came rector  of  Corscombe  in  Dorsetshire,  where 
he  began  his  researches  in  Church  history,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Anglican  ritual.  He  produced 
at  this  period  the  Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church 
of  England  (1844)  ;  History  of  the  Martin  Mar- 
prelate  Contrgversy  (1845);  and  Monumenta 
Ritualia  EcdesicB  Anglican^  (1846).  These 
works  placed  him  among  the  most  able  exponents 
of  High  Church  doctrines.  Resigning  Corscombe^ 
he  became  Vicar  of  Saint  Mary  Church  near 
Torquay,  and  domestic  chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of 
Exeter  (1847).  His  earlier  investigations  were 
now  followed  by  Holy  Baptism  (1848)  ;  An  En- 
quiry into  the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England 
upon  Absolution  (1849)  ;  and  a  volume  of  doc- 
trinal sermons.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Gorham  controversy  (q.v.)  ;  and  when  Gorham 
won  his  case  in  the  Privy  Council,  Maskell  went 
over  to  the  Church  of  Rome  ( 1850 ) .  To  the  Privy 
Council  he  had  addressed  two  memorable  letters 
on  the  Present  Position  of  the  High  Church  Party 
(1850).  Maskell  never  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  Rome.  His  later  life  was  passed  in 
the  west  of  England,  where  he  resumed  his 
learned  researches,  publishing,  among  several 
works,  Protestant  Ritualists  (1872)  and  Ivories 
Ancient  and  Mediwval  (1875).  He  died  at  Pen- 
zance, April  12,  1890. 

MASKELYNE,  mfts'ke-lln,  Nevil  (1732- 
1811).  An  English  astronomer,  bom  in  London. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster  and  at  Cam- 
bridge ;  carried  out  numerous  investigations  char- 
acterized by  extreme  accuracy  of  work,  and  be- 
came in  1765  royal  astronomer  and  director  of 
the  observatory  at  Greenwich.  He  founded  The 
Nautical  Almanac  in  1767,  and  published  The 
British  Mariner's  Guide  (1763);  Astronomical 
Observations   (1765)  ;  and  other  works. 

MASKINONGE,  or  MXTSKELLTJNGE  (AI- 
gonkin,  great  pickerel,  from  mas,  great  -f  fct- 
nongCj  Chippeway  dialect  kenozha,  kinoje,  pick- 
erel, from  kenose,  long).  The  great  pike  {Lucius 
masquinongy,  or  Esox  nobilior)  of  the  lakes  of 
the  Northern  United  States  and  Western  Canada, 


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from  the  Ohio  River  northward.  This  magnifi- 
cent fish,  the  largest  of  its  family,  and  the  most 
to  be  feared  as  a  predatory  force  in  American 
fresh  waters,  has  the  general  form  of  a  pike  (q.v.), 
a  length  of  from  four  to  eight  feet,  and  often  a 
weight  exceeding  100  pounds.  It  is  swift,  strong, 
and  fierce,  and  a  high  prize  for  the  angler.  Its 
characteristics  are  its  dark  gray  color,  the  sides 
in  the  typical  form  (confined  to  the  Great  Lakes) 
with  blackish  spots  of  varying  size  on  a  grayish 
silvery  ground;  the  fins  are  spotted  with  black; 
and  the  opercle  and  lower  parts  of  the  cheeks 
are  scaleless.  See  Colored  Plate  of  American 
Gaub  Fishes^  accompanying  article  Tbout. 

MASKWELL.  In  Congreve's  Double-Dealer, 
the  cunning  and  hypocritical  scoundrel  from 
whose  character  the  play  is  named. 

ICASOLINO  DA  PANICAIiE^  ma-8d-l3'n6 
dA  pa'nd-kaiti,  properly  Tommaso  di  Cbisto- 
FA>-DO  DI  FiNi  (1383-1447).  A  Florentine  paint- 
er of  the  early  Renaissance.  He  was  born  at 
Panicale  di  Valdese.  As  a  youth  he  became  an 
assistant  to  Lrorenzo  Ghiberti,  who  was  at  that 
time  engaged  in  making  the  first  set  of  bronze 
doors  for  the  Baptistery  of  Florence.  The  actual 
rendering  in  relief  of  the  pictorial  composi- 
tion of  Ghiberti  gave  to  Masolino  a  certain  mas- 
tery of  imagery  and  surety  of  technique  that 
determined  the  character  of  his  art  method. 
Gherardo  da  Stamina,  a  Florentine  painter  of 
whom  little  is  known,  gave  him  his  first  instruc- 
tion in  painting.  It  is  possible  that  Vasari,  in 
his  biography,  may  have  confounded  Masolino 
with  Masaccio  or  Maso  di  Cristoforo  Bracci — the 
names  of  all  of  these  contemporaries  being  cor- 
ruptions of  Tommaso.  The  arguments  are  not 
sufficiently  convincing  to  withdraw  from  Maso- 
lino the  paintings  hitherto  assigned  to  him  in 
the  Brancacci  Chapel,  Florence,  upon  which  his 
fame  is  chiefly  founded.  These  frescoes  were  un- 
dertaken shortly  after  his  admission  into  the 
guild  of  the  Physicians  and  Apothecaries  in 
1423,  and  received  his  continued  attention  until 
his  departure  for  Hungary  in  1426,  where  he 
flourisned  under  the  patronage  of  Filippo  Scolari. 
In  1428  he  was  at  work  in  the  Church  of  Castig- 
lione  di  Olona  representing  incidents  in  the  life 
of  the  Virgin,  Saint  Stephen,  and  Saint  Law- 
rence. The  Nativity  of  the  series  is  especially 
interesting,  bearing  the  inscription,  "Masolinus 
de  Florentia  pinxit."  In  the  baptistery  of  the 
church  he  frescoed  scenes  from  the  life  of  John 
the  Baptist.  In  these  Castiglione  works  there  is 
exhibited  the  same  naturalistic,  almost  human- 
istic tendency  that  characterized  the  Brancacci 
frescoes.  Dr.'  Burckhardt  has  attributed  to  Maso- 
lino the  frescoes  in  one  of  the  chapels  of  the  Church 
of  San  Clemente,  Rome.  Masolino  died  at  Flor- 
ence in  October,  1447.  His  work  at  the  best  was 
that  of  an  experimenter — one  dissatisfied  with  ex- 
isting methods  and  groping  after  a  more  advanced 
technique.  In  his  extreme  eagerness  to  hold  the 
mirror  to  nature  he  emphasized  the  unit  at  the 
expense  of  the  whole — his  excessive  study  of  de- 
tail overshadowed  breadth  and  homogeneity,  ele- 
ments dependent  upon  rational  composition. 

MA^OV.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Ing- 
ham Coimty,  Mich.,  12  miles  south  by  east  of 
Lansing;  on  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad 
(Map:  Michi^n,  E  6).  It  is  in  a  region  en- 
^gea  principally  in  farming,  stock-raising,  dairy- 
mg,  and  fruit-growing,  and  has  flour  mills,  fruit 


evaporator,  a  foundry  and  machine  shop,  buggy 
factory,  etc.  The  court-house  here  ranks  with  the 
finest  county  buildings  in  the  State.  There  are 
municipal  water-works  and  electric-light  plant. 
Mason  was  settled  in  1838,  incorporated  as  a  vil- 
lage in  1865,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1875. 
Pop.,  in  1890,  1875;  in  1900,  1828;  in  1904,  1955. 

MASONy  Alfred  Edward  Woodley  (1865 — ). 
English  novelist  and  politician,  born  at  Dulwich 
and  educated  at  Oxford.  In  January,  1906,  he 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Coventry  as  a 
Liberal.  He  gained  popularity  as  a  novelist 
with  stories  including:  A  Romance  of  Waatdale 
(1895);  The  Courtship  of  Uorrice  Buckler 
(1896);  The  Philanderers  (1897);  Miranda  of 
the  Balcony  (1899);  The  Four  Feathers  (1902); 
The  Truants   (1904);  Running  Water   (1907). 

MASON,  Charles  (1730-87).  An  English 
astronomer.  He  was  long  employed  as  an  assist- 
ant at  the  Greenwich  Observatory  and  was  sent 
with  Jeremiah  Dixon  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  1761  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.  In  1763 
they  were  employed  by  the  proprietors  of  Mary- 
land and  Pennsylvania  to  survey  the  boundary 
line  between  their  respective  possessions.  The 
boundary  fixed  by  them  has  since  been  known  as 
"Mason  and  Dixon's  line"  ( q.v. ) .  They  also  fixed 
"the  precise  measure  of  a  degree  of  latitude  in 
America."  The  particulars  of  this  work  are  re- 
corded in  vol.  Iviii.  of  the  Royal  Society's  Trans- 
actions, Mason  and  Dixon  returned  to  England 
in  the  autumn  of  1768.  In  the  following  year 
Mason  went  to  Cavan,  Ireland,  to  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus,  his  report  of  which  appeared 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1770.  He 
was  also  employed  by  the  Bureau  of  Longitudes 
to  verify  the  lunar  tables  of  Tobias  Mayer;  these 
were  published  after  his  death  under  the  title 
of  Mayer^s  Lunar  Tables  Improved  by  Charles 
Mason  (London,  1787).  His  private  journal, 
field  notes,  etc.,  were  found  among  a  pile  of  waste 
paper  in  the  cellar  of  the  Government  house  at 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1860,  and  an  account  of 
their  contents  was  published  by  Porter  C.  Bliss 
in  the  Historical  Magazine  for  July,  1861. 

MASON,  Ebenezer  Porter  (1819-40).  An 
American  astronomer,  born  in  Washington,  Conn. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1839,  and  in  1840  pub- 
lished Observations  on  Nebulw.  His  Life  and 
Writings  were  published  by  Prof.  Denison  Olm- 
sted in  1842. 

MASON,  Edward  Gay  (1839-98).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  historian,  bom  in  Bridgeport, 
Conn.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1860,  studied 
law  in  Chicago,  and  became  a  member  of  the  firm 
of  Mattocks  and  Mason,  and  later  of  that  of 
Mason  Brothers.  He  published  many  pamphlets, 
which  were  collected  in  two  volumes,  entitled 
Early  Chicago  and  Illinois  ( 1890 ) ,  and  Chapters 
from  Illinois  History  (1901). 

MASON,  Francis  (1799-1874).  An  Ameri- 
can missionary  and  Orientalist.  He  was  born 
at  York,  England,  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1818,  entered  Newton  Theological  Seminary  in 
1827,  and  in  1830  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to 
Burma.  His  labors  were  chiefly  among  the 
Karens.  Into  two  dialects  of  their  language  he 
translated  the  Bible  and  other  religious  books, 
and  a  seminary  for  the  training  of  preachers  and 
teachers  was  conducted  by  him.  He  published, 
in  1852,  Tenasserim,  or  the  Fauna,  Flora,  Min- 
erals, and  Nations  of  British  Burma  and  Pegu, 


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a  second  edition  of  which  appeared  under  the 
title  Burma:  Its  People  and  Natural  Produc- 
tions (1860).  He  also  published  a  grammar, 
chrestomathy,  and  vocabulary  of  Pali,  besides 
translations  from  the  Burman,  Pali,  and  San- 
skrit; Life  of  Ko-Thah'ByUy  the  Karen  Apostle; 
A.  Memoir  of  Mrs,  Helen  M.  Mason  (1847);  a 
Memoir  of  8a\i  Quala  (1850)  ;  The  Story  of  a 
Workingman's  Life,  loith  Sketches  of  Travel 
(1870). 

MASON,  George  (1725-92).  An  American 
political  leader  of  the  Revolutionary  period,  bom 
in  Stafford  (now  Fairfax)  County,  Va.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  and  neighbor  of  Washington, 
was  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Company,  and  as  early 
as  1759  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Assembly. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  opposition  in  Virginia  to 
the  Stamp  Act,  and  in  1769  drafted  the  non-im- 
portation resolutions,  which  were  presented  by 
Washington  and  adopted  by  the  Assembly.  At  a 
popular  meeting  of  the  citizens,  held  July  18, 
1774,  he  offered  twenty-four  resolutions  on  the 
issues  between  Great  Britain  and  the  Clolonies, 
in  which  were  outlined  both  the  non-intercourse 
policy  with  Great  Britain  and  the  scheme  of  a 
general  inter-colonial  Congress.  These  resolu- 
tions were  sanctioned  by  the  Virginia  Convention  in 
August,  and  were  reaffirmed  by  the  Continental 
Congress  in  October  of  the  same  year.  Mason 
served  on  the  Virj?inia  Committee  of  Safety,  and 
occupied  a  seat  in  the  Virginia  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1776.  In  the  latter  capacity  he 
earned  distinction  as  the  author  of  the  well- 
known  Bill  of  Rights  which  constitutes  so  notable 
a  part  of  the  Virginia  Constitution  of  1776,  and 
which  was  probably  the  most  complete  as  well  as 
the  most  advanced  statement  of  the  rights  of  man 
that  had  then  appeared.  In  1777  the  Legislature, 
of  which  he  was  still  a  member,  elected  him  to 
the  Continental  Congress;  but  he  declined  to 
serve  and  remained  an  active  and  inttuential 
member  of  the  Legislature  for  many  years.  In 
1787  he  became  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  at  Philadelphia,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  debates  on  the  Constitution.  He  spoke 
against  the  provision  for  the  continuance  of  the 
slave  trade  and  disapproved  of  the  instrument  as 
a  whole.  He  refused  to  sign  it,  and,  with  Pat- 
rick Henry  in  the  Virginia  Ratification  Conven- 
tion, threw  his  influence  against  ratification  and 
proposed  twenty  alterations,  some  of  which  were 
afterwards  adopted.  He  was  chosen  as  one  of 
the  first  United  States  Senators  from  Virginia, 
but  declined  to  serve.  His  death  occurred  Octo- 
ber 7,  1792,  at  *Gunston  Hall,*  and  his  statue, 
with  those  of  other  distinguished  Virginians, 
stands  in  front  of  the  State  Capitol  at  Richmond. 
Consult  Rowland,  Life  of  Oeorge  Mason  (New 
York,   1892). 

MASON,  George  Hemino  (1818-72).  An 
English  painter,  bom  in  Straffordshire.  Mason 
first  studied  medicine,  but  afterwards  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  earned  a  living  painting  por- 
traits. He  returned  to  England  in  1858.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  between  Straf- 
fordshire and  Ijondon.  Mason*s  pictures  repre- 
sent English  or  Roman  subjects;  the  best  of 
them  are:  "Ploughing  in  the  Campagna"  (1857), 
"Dancing  Girls"  (1868),  and  "Harvest  Moon" 
(1872).    His  color  is  notably  rich  and  pleasing. 

MASON,  James  Murray  (1798-1871).  An 
American  lawyer  and  legislator,  best  known  as 


one  of  the  representatives  of  the  Confederate 
Government  in  Europe  during  the  Civil  War.  He 
was  bom  on  Mason's  Island,  Fairfax  County, 
Va.;  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1818,  and  practiced  law  for  some  time 
at  Winchester,  Va.  He  soon  became  prominent 
in  politics,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia 
House  of  Delegates  from  1826  to  1832,  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Clonstitutional  Convention  of  1829,  of  the  . 
national  House  of  Representatives  from  1837  to 
1839,  and  of  the  United  States  Senate  from  1847 
to  1861,  when  he  resigned  to  take  part  in  the 
secession  movement.  In  Congress  he  was  con- 
spicuous as  an  upholder  of  slavery  and  as  an 
ardent  advocate  of  the  principle  of  'States'  rights,' 
and  in  1850  he  drafted  and  introduced  the  famous 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  which  formed  part  of  the 
comprombe  measures  of  that  year.  For  ten 
years  he  was  chairman  of  the  Senate  (Dommittee 
on  Foreign  Affairs.  Late  in  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed commissioner  of  the  Confederate  Gov- 
ernment to  England,  and  on  October  12  started 
from  Charleston,  S.  C,  with  John  Slidell,  the 
Confederate  commissioner  to  France;  but  after 
touching  at  Havana  he  and  Slidell  were  seized 
on  board  the  British  steamer  Trent,  by  Captain 
Wilkes  of  the  United  States  ship  San  Jacinto, 
and  were  confined  at  Fort  Warren,  Boston,  until 
January  2,  1862,  when  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment, yielding  to  the  demand  of  England, 
ordered  their  release.  Their  seizure  caused 
great  excitement  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic and  threatened  to  bring  on  a  war  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  (See 
IteNT  Affair,  The.)  After  his  release  Mason 
proceeded  to  London,  where  he  endeavored  to  win 
over  the  British  Crovemment,  and  the  British 
people  as  well,  to  the  side  of  the  Confederacy, 
but  he  was  never  received  oflScially  by  the  min- 
isters, and  in  September,  1863,  his  commission 
was  withdrawn.  He,  however,  remained  in  Eu- 
rope, spending  his  time  principally  in  Paris  and 
London  and  vainly  attempting  to  induce  France 
and  England  to  intervene  actively  on  the  side 
of  the  Confederacy.  Immediately  after  the  war 
he  returned  to  America.  Fearing  arrest  at  the 
hands  of  the  Federal  <jk>vemment,  he  lived  in 
Canada  imtil  1868,  when  he  removed  to  Virginia 
and  thereafter  until  his  death  lived  near  Win- 
chester. 

MASON*,  Jeremiah  (1768-1848).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  legislator.  He  was  bom  in 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1788,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1791,  and  began  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession  at  Westmoreland,  N.  H. 
He  removed  to  Walpole,  N.  H.,  in  1794,  and  in 
1797  to  Portsmouth,  which  was  his  home  for  the 
next  thirty-five  years.  He  was  soon  recognized 
as  the  head  of  his  profession,  in  a  State  whose 
bar  was  unequaled  in  this  country,  and  which 
could  number  among  its  members  Ezekiel  and 
Daniel  Webster,  and  Jeremiah  Smith.  He  was 
appointed  Attorney-General  of  the  State  in  1802, 
and  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in 
1813.  He  became  one  of  the  foremost  debaters 
in  that  body,  his  speech  delivered  in  1814,  on 
the  Embargo,  being  especially  powerful;  but  in 
1817  he  resigned  his  seat  to  continue  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession.  He  afterwards  served  for 
a  number  of  terms  in  the  New  Hampshire  Legis- 
lature, where  his  service  had  little  connection 
with  politics,  but  was  given  largely  to  reviainsr 


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and  codifying  the  State  laws.  In  1832  he  re- 
moved to  Boston,  where,  until  his  age  compelled 
him  to  retire,  he  maintained  the  high  reputa- 
tion which  he  had  previously  won. 

MASON,  John  (1586-1635).  The  foimder  of 
New  Hampshire.  He  was  bom  at  Lynn  Regis, 
'Norfolk,  England;  served  in  1610  in  the  navy; 
in  1616  went  to  Newfoundland  as  Governor  of 
the  colony,  and  in  1620  published  a  description 
of  the  coimtry,  to  which  he  added  a  map  in  1626. 
He  explored  the  New  England  coasts  in  1617;  in 
1622  obtained  a  grant  of  a  region  called  Mari- 
ana, now  the  northeastern  part  of  Massachu- 
setts; in  the  same  year,  in  connection  with  Sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges,  procured  a  patent  for  the 
Province  of  Maine;  and  in  1623  sent  a  colony  to 
the  Piscataqua  River.  In  1629  he  obtained  a  pat- 
ent for  the  New  Hampshire  colony,  and  with 
Gorges  took  one  also  for  Laconia,  a  region  inclu- 
ding Lake  Champlain.  He  held  various  honorable 
editions  in  England,  in  1635  being  a  judge  in 
ampshire  and  receiving  in  the  same  year  the 
appointment  of  vice-admiral  of  New  England. 
His  rights  in  New  Hampshire  were  sold  in  1691 
to  Governor  Samuel  Allen.  He  died  in  London  in 
December,  1635,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  Consult  Tuttle,  Memoir  of  Captain  John 
Mason,  the  Founder  of  Vew  Hampshire,  in  an 
illustrated  edition  of  Mason's  tract  on  Newfound- 
land, published  for  the  Prince  Society  (Boston, 
1887). 

MASONy  John  (1600-72).  An  American  co- 
lonial commander.  He  was  bom  in  England; 
served  imder  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  in  the  Nether- 
lands; emigrated  in  1630  to  Dorchester,  Mass.; 
in  1633  obtained  a  military  command  at  Boston, 
and  in  1635  aided  in  founding  Windsor,  Conn. 
In  1637  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  small 
force  of  English  and  Indians  sent  against  the 
Pequots  (q.v.).  After  the  destruction  of  that 
tribe  Mason  removed  to  Saybrook,  at  the  request 
of  the  inhabitants,  for  the  defense  of  the  colony, 
and  in  1659  removed  to  Norwich.  He  was  a 
major  of  the  colonial  forces  for  thirty  years. 
Deputy  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1660-70,  and 
chief  judge  of  the  colonial  court  from  1642  to 
1668.  He  prepared,  at  the  request  of  the  Gen- 
eral Court  of  Connecticut,  a  Brief  History  of  the 
Pequot  War,  which  was  incorporated  by  Increase 
Mather  in  his  Relation  of  Trouble  by  the  India/ns 
(Boston,  1677,  republished  with  introduction  by 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Price,  Boston,  1736).  Consult 
Ellis,  "Life  of  John  Mason  of  Connecticut,"  in 
Sparks,  Library  of  American  Biography,  vol.  xiii. 
(1864). 

MASON,  John  Young  (1799-1869).  An 
American  politician,  bom  at  Greensville,  Sussex 
County,  Va.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  North  Carolina,  and  in  1819  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  After  presiding  over  Federal  and  State 
Courts  and  serving  for  a  number  of  terms  in  the 
Virginia  Assembly,  he  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1831  until  1837,  and  was  judge  of  the 
United  States  District  Court  for  Virginia  from 
1837  until  1844,  when  President  Tyler  made  him 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  He  entered  the  Cabinet 
of  President  Polk  as  Attorney-General,  but  was 
soon  returned  to  the  Navy  Department.  In  1863 
President  Pierce  made  him  Minister  to  France, 
where  he  remained  imtil  his  death.  On  October 
10,  1854,  he  met  Buchanan  and  Soul6,  the  min- 
isters of  the  United  States  to  England  and  Spain, 


respectively,  in  a  conference  at  Ostend,  and  in 
conjunction  with  them  issued  the  famous  Ostend 
Manifesto  (q.v.). 

MASON^  Lowell  (1792-1872).  An  American 
music  teacher,  bom  in  Medfield,  Mass.  When  only 
sixteen  he  directed  a  church  choir  at  Medfield 
and  upon  his  removal  to  Savannah  continued  his 
interest  in  musical  affairs.  In  1827  he  returned 
to  Boston,  where  he  became  president  of  the 
Handel  and  Haydn  Society  and  strongly  advo- 
cated the  Pestalozzi  system  of  teaching.  He 
founded  the  Boston  Academy  of  Music  (1832), 
and  in  1837  went  to  Germany  to  study  musical 
pedagogic  methods.  The  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York  gave  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
music  (1855).  He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his 
numerous  hynm-tunes,  which  are  still  in  general 
use  throughout  the  coimtry,  and  his  collections  of 
songs,  Boston  Handel  arid  Haydn  Collection  of 
Church  Music  ( 1822 )  ;  Juvenile  Psalmist 
(1829)  ;  Lyra  Sacra  (1837)  ;  TJie  Sabbath  Hymn- 
and  Tune-Book  (with  E.  A.  Park  and  Austin 
Phelps,  1859);  The  Psaltery  (1845);  Carmina 
Sacra  (1841) ;  and  New  Carmina  Sacra  (1852). 

MASON*,  Otis  Tufton  (1838—).  An  Ameri- 
can ethnologist,  bom  at  Eastport,  Me.  He  grad- 
uated in  1861  at  the  Columbian  University,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. ;  was  principal  of  the  preparatory 
school  of  the  university  (1862-84)  ;  and  in  1884 
became  curator  of  ethnology  in  the  United  States 
National  Museum.  Mason  founded  the  Anthropo- 
logical Society  of  Washington;  was  anthropo- 
logical editor  of  the  American  yaturaliat  and  of 
the  Standard  Dictionary ;  and  wrote,  Summaries 
of  Progress  in  Anthropology,  contributions  to  a 
history  of  primitive  American  industries,  and 
Indian  Basketry   (2  vols.,   1904). 

MASON,  William  (1724-97).  An  English 
divine  and  poet,  bom  probably  at  Kingston-upon- 
Hull.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in 
1749  became  a  fellow  of  Pembroke  College.  He 
was  ap|)ointed  rector  of  Aston  in  Yorkshire,  and 
chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Holdemess  in  1754.  The 
next  year  he  visited  Germany,  and  in  1757  was 
appointed  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  King.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  for  more  than  thirty  years  pre- 
ceptor and  canon  residentiary  of  the  cathedral  at 
York.  Among  his  writings  are  Muswus  (1747), 
a  monody  to  the  memory  of  Pope;  Isis  (1748), 
a  monologue  denouncing  the  Jacobitism  of  Ox- 
ford; and  the  dramatic  poems  Elfrida  (1752) 
and  Caractacus  ( 1759) .  He  also  wrote  a  number 
of  odes  in  imitation  of  his  friend  Gray,  of  whom 
he  published  a  Life  in  1774.  The*^  first  book 
of  The  English  Garden  appeared  in  1772,  and 
in  1782  he  published  a  Critical  and  Historical 
Essay  on  Cathedral  Music.  His  collected  works 
were  issued  in  1811.  A  tablet  to  his  memory 
was  erected  in  the  Poets*  Comer  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  Consult  Chalmers,  English  Poets,  xviii. 
(London,    1810). 

MASON*,  William  (1829—).  An  American 
musician,  born  in  Boston.  After  having  studied 
music  in  Europe  with  Hauptmann,  Moscheles, 
Richter,  Dreyscnock,  and  Ldszt,  he  appeared  as 
a  pianist  in  Prague,  Frankfort,  Weimar,  and 
I^ndon,  and  upon  his  return  to  the  United 
States  made  several  successful  tours.  In  1855 
he  settled  in  New  York,  and  founded  there  the 
Mason  and  Thomas  recitals  of  chamber  music, 
which  were  continued  until  1868.  After  1855 
he  devoted  himself  almost  entirely  to  teaching 


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and  composing.  His  works  include  numerous 
compositions,  mostly  for  the  pianoforte,  but  he 
is  best  known  for  his  text-books:  A  Method  for 
the  Pianoforte  (1867),  System  for  Beginner  a 
(1871),  both  in  collaboration  with  £.  S.  Hoad- 
ley;  Touch  and  Technic  (1878)  ;  and  his  interest- 
ing Memories  of  a  Musical  Life  (1901). 

MASON,  William  Pitt  ( 1853— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can chemist,  bom  in  New  York  City.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute 
(1874  and  1877);  and  returned  there  as  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  after  studying  medicine  at 
Union  University  and  bacteriology  at  the  Pasteur 
Institute  in  Pans.  His  works  include:  Examina- 
tion of  Potable  Water  (1890);  Water  Supply 
(1896)  ;  Notes  on  Qualitative  Analysis  (1896) ; 
and  Examination  of  Water  (1899). 

MASON  AND  DIXON'S  LINE.  The  boun- 
dary line  between  the  States  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania,  as  run  by  two  distinguished  Eng- 
lish surveyors,  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah 
Dixon,  during  the  years  1763-67,  and  popu- 
larly accepted  prior  to  the  Civil  War  a^  the 
dividing  line  between  the  free  States  and  the 
slave  States.  Tlie  line  was  the  result  of  a  dis- 
pute between  the  States  of  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania over  tlieir  respective  boundaries  as  de- 
scribed in  their  charters.  The  chief  contro- 
versy turned  upon  the  meaning  of  the  phrases 
^he  beginning  of  the  40°'  and  'the  beginning  of 
the  43°  of  N.  Lat.*  employed  in  the  description 
of  the  Pennsylvania  boimdary.  The  quarrel,  in 
which  Lord  Baltimore  and  Penn  soon  engaged, 
continued  for  more  than  eighty  years;  was  the 
cause  of  endless  trouble  between  individuals,  and 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  proprietors  of  both 
provinces,  the  Lords  of  Trade  and  Plantations, 
the  High  Court  of  Chancery,  and  the  Frivy 
Councils  of  three  kings.  No  compromise  was 
reached  during  the  life  of  Penn,  but,  after  his 
death,  his  sons  succeeded  in  obtaining  from 
Charles,  Lord  Baltimore,  in  1732,  an  agree- 
ment by  which  the  boundary  line  was  to  be 
drawn  by  commissioners  representing  both  par- 
ties to  the  controversy.  Baltimore  at  once  came 
over  with  his  commissioners,  but  was  unable  to 
get  the  Pennsylvania  proprietors  to  take  action. 
The  unsettled  condition  of  the  boundary,  there- 
fore, continued  and  with  it  increasing  disturb- 
ances in  the  disputed  territory.  The  Governor 
of  Maryland  then  laid  the  matter  before  the  Pro- 
prietai^r  and  the  King,  and  invoked  their  inter- 
vention for  the  settlement  of  the  dispute.  By  an 
order  in  Council  the  King  commanded  both  sides 
to  keep  the  peace  and  instructed  the  Proprie- 
taries to  grant  no  lands  in  the  disputed  territory 
until  the  boundary  could  be  adjusted.  Pending 
a  decision  of  the  question  by  the  English  Court 
of  Chancery,  to  which  the  matter  was  submitted 
in  1735,  both  parties  agreed  upon  a  provisional 
boundary.  A  decision  was  finally  reached  in 
1750  by  the  Chancellor,  Lord  Hardwicke,  which, 
with  the  agreement  of  1732,  served  as  the  basis 
of  a  compromise  between  the  proprietors  in  1760. 
Commissioners  representing  both  sides  were  ap- 
pointed, and  the  eastern  boundary  was  deter- 
mined. To  run  the  east  and  west  line,  as  well 
aa  other  parts  unsettled.  Mason  and  Dixon  were 
appointed  in  1763,  and  at  once  entered  upon 
their  task.  By  the  year  1767  they  had  carried 
the  line  over  the  mountains  to  a  point  244  miles 
from  the  Delaware  River.    Farther  advance  was 


stopped  by  the  Indians,  but  the  line  was  subse- 
quently completed  by  others.  The  boundary  waa 
marked  by  mile-stones,  every  fifth  one  having 
tne  arms  of  Baltimore  engraved  on  one  side  and 
those  of  Penn  on  the  other.  Its  exact  latitude  is 
39°  43'  26.3"  North.  A  resurvey  of  the  line  was 
made  in  1849,  and  in  1900  another  resurvey  was 
authorized  by  the  States  of  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland,  the  work  being  placed  imder  the  direc- 
tion of  the  commission  consisting  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey,  the  Secretary  of  Internal  Affairs  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Director  of  the  Greological 
Survey  of  Maryland.  Consult:  Browne,  Mary- 
land, the  History  of  a  Palatinate  (Boston, 
1884)  ;  Donaldson,  The  Public  Domain  (3d  ed., 
Washington,  1884)  ;  and  Hinsdale,  The  Old 
Nonhu)est  (Boston,  1899). 

MASON  BEE.  A  bee  of  the  sub-family 
Osmiinffi  of  the  family  Megachilidse ;  especially  in 
the  United  States  one  of  the  genus  Osmia,  and  in 
Europe  one  of  the  genus  Chalicodoma.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  manner  in  which  these  bees 
construct  small  earthen  cells,  sometimes  mixed 
with  sand,  pebbles,  and  wood-scrapings,  glued 
together  so  firmly  that  they  are  smooth  inside. 
Ten  to  twenty  of  the  cells  are  usually  found  to- 
gether, and  each  one  contains  a  store  of  honey 
and  pollen  for  the  larvs,  only  one  of  which  is 
found  in  each  of  the  cells.  These  bees  show  a 
high  order  of  intelligence  in  the  manner  in  which 
they  adapt  themselves  to  circumstances,  and  this 
accounts  for  the  very  great  diversity  seen  in 
the  situations  in  which  the  cells  are  placed. 
Ceratosmia  lignivora  is  a  true  wood-borer.  Cer- 
tain species  excavate  the  pith  of  brambles, 
alternately  widening  and  contracting  the  bur- 
row to  correspond  with  the  proposed  cells  and 
the  intervals  between  them.  Others  use  the  hol- 
lows of  reeds  and  straws;  two  European  species 
utilize  the  eupty  shells  of  several  species  of 
Helix,  compactly  filling  each  shell  with  their 
cells,  which  are  placed  in  different  relative  posi- 
tions according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  case,  and 
then  carefully  closing  the  entrance  with  |>ellets 
of  clay,  sticks,  and  pebbles;  others  again  plaster 
their  cells  thickly  upon  the  under  side  of  a  flat 
stone  which  is  slightlv  raised  from  the  ground; 
and  still  another  species  places  its  cells  in  com- 
paratively unprotected  situations  at  the  roots  of 
grass.  The  Clhalicodomas  make  very  perfect 
mason  work  in  the  walls  of  their  cells. 

The  food  stored  up  in  the  cells  is  com]>osed  of 
a  mixture  of  honey  and  pollen.  Reaumur  and 
Fabre  experimented  with  the  young  bees  to  find 
whether  they  were  able  to  oveTcome  additional 
difficulties  in  making  their  way  out  of  the  cell. 
When  the  mouth  of  the  cell  is  covered  with  earth 
and  pith  or  brown  paper  put  in  contact  with  the 
covering  of  the  cells,  the  bees  make  their  way 
out  without  any  great  apparent  difficulty,  but 
when  some  space  intervenes  between  the  mouth 
of  the  cell  and  the  new  barrier,  the  bees  are 
unable  to  gain  their  freedom.  The  Osmiinte  are 
of  comparatively  small  size,  and  are  usually  of 
dark  metallic  colors.  The  eggs  are  white,  oblong, 
and  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  caraway  seed. 
They  hatch  in  about  eight  days.  Development  of 
the  larvse  is  rapid;  they  spin  delicate  coooonA 
and  winter  as  pupse. 

Consult:  Fabre,  Insect  LifCy  translated  from 
the  French   (London,  1901) ;  Howard,  Standard 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MASON  BEE. 


145 


MASONBY. 


^a/t*raZ  History,  vol.  ii.  (Boston,  1884)  ;  How- 
ard, The  Insect  Book  (New  York,  1901).  See 
Plate  of  Wild  Bees. 

MASON  CITY.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Cerro  Gordo  County,  Iowa,  72  miles  northeast 
of  Fort  Dodge,  on  the  Chicago  Great  Western, 
the  Iowa  Central,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
Saint  Paul,  the  Northwestern  Line,  and  other 
railroads  (Map:  Iowa,  D  1).  The  city  has  a 
public  library,  a  fine  court-house,  and  a  city  park, 
and  is  the  seat  of  the  National  Memorial  Uni- 
Yersity,  and  of  an  Odd  Fellows'  Orphans*  Home. 
Its  population  is  increasing  rapidly,  and  it  enjoys 
considerable  industrial  and  commercial  activity. 
There  are  important  agricultural,  grain,  and  live- 
stock interests,  and  a  wholesale  trade  in  gro- 
ceries, fruits,  etc.;  also  sandstone  quarries,  ce- 
ment, brick,  and  tile  works,  flour  mills,  lime  works, 
sash  and  door  factories,  and  foundries.  Mason 
City,  settled  about  1855,  is  governed  under  a 
charter  of  1870,  which  provides  for  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil. The  city  owns  and  operates  the  water-works. 
Population,  1900,  6746;  1905,  8357. 

MA^ONBY.  The  art  of  construction  in 
stone.  The  earliest  existing  examples  are  among 
the  most  magnificent  specimens  of  the  art.  No 
nation  has  excelled  the  ancient  Egyptians  in 
stonework,  whether  we  consider  the  size  of  the 
materials,  or  the  unequaled  exactness  with  which 
they  are  fitted  together.  The  Egyptians  did  not 
use  mortar  in  their  important  structures,  such 
as  the  Pyramids,  the  joints  being  all  carefully 
polished  and  fitted.  CJycIopean  or  polygonal  ma- 
sonry, of  which  remains  exist  in  many  parts  of 
Greece  and  Italy,  as  well  as  Asia  Minor,  also  ex- 
hibits stones  of  great  size  and  with  carefully  ad- 
justed joints.  The  walls  of  Mycenae  are  among 
the  earliest  examples.  These  are  built  with  huge 
irregular  blocks,  the  spaces  between  being  filled 
up  with  smaller  stones.  The  Italian  specimens 
are  usually  more  carefully  executed;  the  stones 
are  not  squared,  but  they  are  all  carefully  fitted 
together.  In  some  cases,  the  beds  or  horizontal 
joints  are  made  level,  and  the  upright  joints  left 
unsquared.  No  mortar  is  used  in  cyclopean  ma- 
Boniy. 

The  masonry  of  the  Greeks  and  Komans  very 
closely  resembled  that  of  the  present  day: 
Ruhhie-tcork  {opus  incertum),  in  which  the 
stones  are  not  regularly  coursed;  coursed  work, 
where  the  joints  are  all  level,  and  the  stones  of 
equal  height;  ashlar,  resembling  the  latter,  but 
built  with  larger  stones  all  carefully  dressed  on 
the  joints.  Many  of  the  Roman  buildings  in  the 
East  were  constructed  with  blocks  of  enormous 
size,  as  at  Baalbek  (q.v.),  where  some  of  the 
stones  are  60  feet  in  length. 

Modem  stone  masonry  is  classified  according 
to  ( 1 )  the  degree  of  finish  of  the  face  of  the 
stones,  into  quarry  faced,  pitch  faced,  and 
dressed;  according  to  (2)  whether  the  horizontal 
courses  or  layers  are  of  the  same  thickness  at 
similar  heights,  into  range,  broken  range,  and 
random  masonry;  according  to  (3)  the  care  exer- 
cised in  dressing  the  beds,  into  ashlar,  squared 
stone,  and  rubble  masonry.  (1)  Quarry  faced 
masonry  is  that  in  which  the  faces  of  the  stones 
are  left  as  they  come  from  the  quarry ;  it  is  used 
ehiefly  for  massive  structures  such  as  bridge 
piers,"  retaining  walls,  dams,  and  arch  bridges. 
Pitch  faced  masonry  is  that  in  which  the  face  of 


the  stones  is  roughly  dressed  so  as  to  make  the 
front  of  the  horizontal  joint  a  straight  line;  it 
is  used  for  work  where  a  rugged  appearance  is 
desired  without  the  extreme  roughness  of  quarry 
faced  masonry.  Dressed  masonry,  as  the  name 
indicates,  is  that  in  which  the  face  of  the  stones 
is  dressed  to  a  more  or  less  smooth  plane  surface ; 
it  is  employed  chiefly  in  building  construction 
and  for  the  finishing  courses  of  engineering 
works.  Range  masonry  is  that  in  which  the  hori- 
zontal joints  are  continuous  throughout,  or, 
stated  in  other  words,  in  which  each  course  is 
of  the  same  thickness  throughout.  Broken  range 
masonry  is  that  in  which  the  horizontal  joints 
are  not  continuous  throughout,  but  in  which  the 
masonry  is  not  laid  in  courses  at  all.  Ashlar 
masonry  is  cut  stone  masonry  in  which  the  joint 
faces  are  so  truly  cut  that  the  distance  between 
the  general  planes  of  the  contiguous  surface  of 
the  stones  is  %  inch  or  less.  Ashlar  masonry 
may  be  subdivided  into  range  ashlar,  broken 
range  ashlar,  random  ashlar,  quarry  faced  ashlar, 
pitch  faced  ashlar  or  dressed  ashlar,  and  also 
into  combinations  of  these  sub-classes,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, quarry  faced  range  ashlar.  Squared  stone 
masonry  is  that  in  which  the  stones  are  roughly 
dressed  and  roughly  squared  on  their  joint  faces ; 
when  the  distance  between  the  general  planes  of 
the  contiguous  surfaces  of  the  stones  is  ^  inch 


▲SHULB  MA80NBY. 


or  more,  the  masonry  belongs  to  this  class.  In 
practice  the  distinction  between  ashlar  masonry 
and  squared  stone  masonry  is  not  well  defined. 
Rubble  masonry  is  that  composed  of  unsquared 
stone,  and  may  be  laid  with  or  without  an  at- 
tempt to  approximate  regular  courses.  Several 
of  the  above  types  are  illustrated  in  the  article 

BinLDING. 

Some  of  the  other  current  definitions  of  stone 
masonry  work  are  as  follows:  Face,  the  front 
surface  of  a  wall;  back,  the  inside  surface; 
facing,  the  stones  which  form  the  face  of  a  wall; 
backing,  the  stones  which  form  the  back  of  a 
wall;  batter,  the  slope  of  the  surface  of  a  wall; 
course,  a  horizontal  layer  of  stone  in  a  wall; 
joints,  the  mortar  lying  between  the  stones  (usu- 
ally the  horizontal  joints  are  called  beds  or 
bed  joints,  while  the  vertical  joints  are  called 
builds  or  simply  joints)  ;  coping,  a  course  of  stone 
on  the  top  of  the  wall  to  protect  it;  pointing,  a 
better  quality  of  mortar  put  in  the  face  of  the 
joints  to  help  them  to  resist  weathering;  bond, 
the  arrangement  of  stone  in  adjacent  courses; 
stretcher,  a  stone  whose  erreatest  dimension  lies 
parallel  to  the  wall ;  header,  a  stone  whose  great- 
est dimension  lies  perpendicular  to  the  wall; 
quoin,  a  comer  stone:  doxcels,  straight  bars  of 
iron  which  enter  a  hole  in  the  upper  side  of  one 
stone  and  also  a  hole  in  the  lower  side  of  the 
stone  above ;  cramps,  bars  of  iron  having  the  ends 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MASONBY. 


146 


MASONa 


bent  to  right  angles  with  the  body,  the  bent  ends 
of  which  enter  holes  in  the  upper  surfaces  of 
adjacent  stones. 

Ashlar  masonry  is  used  for  works  in  which 
great  strength  and  stability  are  required.  The 
stones  for  ashlar  masonry  usually  have  a  length 
of  from  three  to  five  times  the  depth,  and  a 
breadth  of  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  times 
the  depth.  The  thickness  of  the  mortar  joints 
in  the  very  best  class  of  ashlar  masonry  for 
building  purposes  is  about  %  inch;  for  railway 
and  bridge  masonry  about  ^  inch  to  Va  inch. 
The  stones  are  laid  so  that  the  vertical  joints  of 
one  course  come  approximately  over  the  middle 
of  the  stones  below,  or,  technically,  the  stones 
*break  joints.*  The  arrangement  of  headers  and 
stretchers  varies;  the  strongest  arrangement  is 
where  a  header  and  a  stretcher  are  used  alter- 
nately. Dowels  and  cramps  are  used  where  ex- 
ceptional strength  is  required.  Pointing  is  done 
by  scraping  out  the  mortar  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
%  inch  from  the  face  of  each  joint  and  filling  the 
void  with  a  high-quality  mortar  thoroughly 
rammed,  and  sometimes  finishing  the  exposed* 
edge  with  a  bead.  Ashlar  masonry  is  usually 
backed  with  rubble  masonry,  the  backing  being 
built  simultaneously  with  the  facing.  Squared 
stone  masonry  is  built  like  ashlar  masonry  ex- 
cept that  dressed  stones  are  not  used  and  range 
work  is  seldom  employed ;  the  backing  and  point- 
ing are  the  same  as  for  ashlar  masonry. 

Rubble  masonry  is  employed  for  backing  ash- 
lar, and  squared  stone  masonry  is  used  for  small- 
sized  abutments,  culverts,  small  building  founda- 
tion walls,  etc.  The  stones  are  prepared  for  laying 
by  simply  knocking  off  the  wealc  corners  and  loose 
pieces.  All  interstices  are  filled  with  s^lall 
pieces  of  stone  and  mortar,  and  the  mortar  joints 
are  made  thick  enough  to  prevent  adjacent  stones 
from  touching.  Very  often  rubble  masonry  is 
laid  without  mortar,  and  is  then  called  dry  rubble 
masonry.  The  strength  of  stone  masonry  varies 
with  the  strength  of  the  stone,  the  size  of  the 
blocks,  the  accuracy  of  the  dressing  of  the  joint 
faces,  the  proportion  of  headers  to  stretchers,  and 
the  kind  and  quality  of  the  mortar  used.  Prof. 
I.  O.  Baker,  in  A  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construc- 
tion (New  York,  1900),  gives  the  following  as  a 
safe  load  per  square  foot  on  different  kinds 
of  stone  masonry:  Rubble,  10  to  15  tons; 
squared  stone,  15  to  20  tons;  limestone  ashlar, 
20  to  25  tons;  granite  ashlar,  30  tons.  In  cer- 
tain classes  of  stone  masonry,  such  as  arch 
bridges  and  lighthouses,  the  stones  are  cut  to 
exact  dimensions  and  to  special  forms.  In  light- 
house construction  these  special  forms  are  some- 
times quite  intricate.  (See  Lighthouse.)  In 
building  masonry  arches  a  framework  of  timber 
whose  top  surface  is  floored  over  on  a  curve  cor- 
responding exactly  to  the  curve  of  the  arch  is 
used  on  which  to  set  the  wedge-shaped  stones  of 
the  arch  ring.  See  Centring,  and  illustrations 
in  article  Building. 

Bbick  Masonby.  With  due  allowance  made 
for  the  difference  of  the  material  and  the  dif- 
ference in  the  dimensions  of  the  blocks  used, 
brick  masonry  corresponds  very  closely  to  dressed 
dimension  stone  range  ashlar  masonry.  The 
bond  used  is  varied  considerably,  but  is  usually 
either  the  English  bond  or  the  Flemish  bond.  In 
the  English  b^d  the  courses  are  alternately  head- 
ers and  stretchers,  and  in  the  Flemish  bond  the 
brick  in  each  course  are  alternately  headers  and 


stretchers.  (For  further  description  and  illuB- 
trations  of  brick  masonry,  see  Building.)  The 
mortar  used  in  brickwork  may  be  either  lime 
mortar  or  cement  mortar,  the  former  being  most 
used  in  ordinary  building  work.  Practice  varies 
in  the  amount  of  pressure  allowed  upon  brick 
masonry,  but  it  should  carry  safely  a  load  of  20 
tons  per  square  foot  when  laid  in  lime  mortar. 
Brick  masonry  is  chiefly  used  in  building  con- 
struction and  in  lining  tunnels  and  constructing^ 
sewers.  Compared  with  stone  masonrj',  brick 
masonry  is  not  so  strong  as  ashlar  mason r>',  but 
it  costs  less,  while  it  is  stronger  than  rubble 
masonry,  but  costs  more;*  it  resists  fire  better 
and  is  at  least  eaually  as  durable  against  ordi- 
nary weathering  as  best  stone  masonry. 

CoNCBETE  Masonry.  Concrete  masonry  may 
consist  of  molded  blocks  of  concrete  laid  like 
ashlar  or  squared  stone  masonrj'  or  of  monolithic 
masses  of  concrete  deposited  or  constructed  m 
situ.  In  the  first  class  of  work  the  plastic  con- 
crete (see  Concrete)  is  rammed  into  suitable 
molds  and  allowed  to  harden,  and  then  the  hard- 
ened blocks  are  laid  in  the  structure  just  aa 
similar  blocks  of  natural  stone  would  be  laid. 
In  the  second  class  of  work  the  plastic  concrete 
is  deposited  directly  in  the  position  it  is  to  oc- 
cupy in  the  finished  structure,  molds  being  used 
to  confine  the  material  to  particular  forms  and 
positions  when  necessary.  Concrete  masonry  is 
extensively  used  for  nearly  all  the  purposes  for 
which  brick  and  stone  are  now  employed.  For 
a  comprehensive  treatise  on  masonry  work,  con- 
sult: Baker,  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction 
(New  York,  1900)  ;  Patton,  A  Practical  Treatise 
on  Foundations  (New  York,  1900).  See  Build- 
ing; Buildino-Stone ;  Brick;  Cement;  Con- 
crete; Mortar;  Quarry;  Stone  Cutting  and 
Dressing;  and  Stone,  Artificial. 

MASONS,  Free.  A  secret  fraternal  organiza- 
tion of  worldwide  celebrity,  and  one  credited  by 
enthusiastic  writers  with  great  antiquity.  The 
Order,  however,  is  now  conceded  to  have  been 
instituted  about  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century — the  pretenbions  put  forth  to  a  date 
coeval  with  the  building  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem, with  King  Solomon  as  the  first  grand 
master,  being  considered  by  those  who  have  thor- 
oughly investigated  the  subject  as  not  worthy  of 
credit.  The  attempt  also  made  to  establish  a 
connection  between  the  fraternity  and  many  of 
the  secret  cults  and  organizations,  such  nf>  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  the  Pythagoreans,  the  Rosi- 
crucians  and  others,  in  the  early  stages  of 
its  existence,  has  also  failed,  the  utmost  ac- 
complished in  that  direction  being  the  detec- 
tion of  a  certain  similarity  between  the  symbols 
and  ceremonies  of  these  older  institutions  and 
the  system  of  ritual  and  rule  observed  by 
the  Masonic  Order — circumambulation,  the  use 
of  aprons,  the  forty-seventh  problem  of  Eu- 
clid, etc.  Another  consideration  which  tends 
to  discredit  any  connection  between  these  older 
associations  and  the  Freemasons  is  the  fact  that 
the  conception  of  Masonry  implies  a  cosmopol- 
itan brotherhood,  which  would  have  been  impos- 
sible of  realization  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the 
world's  history.  The  more  rational  and  the  gen- 
erally accepted  theory  regarding  the  origin  of  the 
society  of  Freemasons  is,  that  it  is  the  successor 
of  the  buflding  associations  of  the  Middle  Ages 
of  which  the  Steinmetzen  or  stonemasons  of  Ger- 
many were  a   representative.     The  term  Free- 


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mason  has  also  been  a  puzzle  to  philologists,  some 
claiming  that  it  is  Norman  French — Fr^e  Magon 
(brother  mason) — while  others  maintain  the 
second  part  of  the  title  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  German  word  Metzen,  having  the  same  sig- 
nification. These  early  building  societies,  the 
precursors  of  the  Masons,  are  fo\md  to  have 
been  grouped  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies for  the  most  part  around  the  Benedictine 
monasteries,  the  abbots  being  the  architects  who 
employed  the  masons  on  ecclesiastical  buildings 
and  repairs.  The  development  of  architectural 
taste  and  the  acquisition  of  greater  wealth  by  tbe 
Church  led  to  the  erection  of  buildings  on  a 
larger  and  more  imposing  scale,  requiring  the 
association  of  craftsmen  in  the  various  branches 
of  construction  for  longer  periods  together.  This 
led  to  the  formation  of  societies  known  as  the 
Bauhutien,  so  called  from  the  wooden  booths, 
where,  during  the  continuance  of  the  work  on  any 
particular  building,  the  craftsmen  kept  their 
tools,  took  their  meals,  and  held  their  meetings. 
By  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  these 
societies  had  increased  so  in  number  that  a  gen- 
eral association  of  the  BauhUtien  was  formed  in 
Germany,  governed  by  one  code  of  craft  laws, 
acknowledging  one  set  of  secret  signs  and  cere- 
monies, and  working  imder  one  central  authority, 
the  Haupthutte  of  Strassburg.  That  there  is  a 
certain  connection  admitted  tetween  this  organi- 
zation and  the  Masonic  fraternity  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  the  trade  customs  and 
symbolic  forms  of  the  Bauhiitten  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Masonic  writers  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. ( See  Fort,  Early  History  and  Antiquities  of 
Freemasonry y  Philadelphia,  1887).  The  require- 
ment most  rigidly  enforced  from  the  earliest 
period  was  secrecy,  which  was  enjoined  in  the 
most  solemn  manner,  both  journeymen  and  ap- 

Srentices  being  sworn,  before  initiation,  on  the 
»ible.  Square  and  Compasses,  to  preserve  invio- 
late the  secrets  of  the  brotherhood.  Membership 
was  at  this  early  period  confined  strictly  to  the 
operative  class,  who  were  supposed  to  preserve  the 
old  secrets  of  Gothic  Masonry,  but  later,  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  it  no  longer  was  deemed 
necessary  to  restrict  membership  to  craftsmen 
alone,  and,  the  bars  being  lowered,  gentlemen  be- 
came eligible.  The  Haupthutte  went  out  of 
existence  in  1731. 

From  the  Continent  of  Europe  England  derived 
much  of  her  lodge  organization.  The  earlier 
English  associations  of  operative  builders  were 
first  called  Freemasons  in  the  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries,  because  of  the  freedom  granted 
them  to  carry  on  their  occupation.  From  1607 
to  1618  Inigo  Jones,  under  the  patronage  of  Lord 
Pembroke,  was  actively  engaged  in  Masonic  work, 
but  the  civil  wars  and  the  agitation  caused  by 
the  Reformation  so  materially  broke  up  the 
Masonic  connection  that  it  was  not  until  1663 
that  definite  steps  were  taken  to  put  the 
fraternity  on  a  permanent  basis.  A  general  as- 
sembly of  Masons  was  held  in  London  in  that 
year,  new  rules  were  formulated  and  statutes 
enacted,  and  a  formal  resolution  was  passed  that 
Masonic  privileges  should  be  no  longer  confined  to 
the  operative  Masons.  Professional  and  literary 
men,  those  learned  in  astrology,  or  alchemy,  as 
well  RS  theoretic  geometricians  and  architects, 
now  identified  themselves  with  the  fraternity. 
This  class  of  membership  at  first  was  honorary, 
whence  the  term  Free  and  'Accepted'  Masons. 


The  historic  period  of  Freemasonry  begins  with 
the  formation  of  what  is  known  as  the  premier 
Masonic  Grand  Lodge  of  the  world  in  London, 
England,  in  1717.  This  is  generally  styled  the 
'revival'  of  Freemasonry.  Prior  to  that  time  a 
Masonic  lodge  was  composed  of  "any  number  of 
brethren  assembled  at  any  place  for  the  perform- 
ance of  work,  and,  when  so  assembled,  were  au- 
thorized to  receive  into  the  Order  brothers  and 
fellows,  and  to  practice  the  rites  of  Masonry. 
The  Ancient  Charges  were  the  only  standard  for 
the  regulation  of  their  conduct.  The  master  of 
the  lodge  was  elected  pro  tempore y  and  his  au- 
thority terminated  with  the  dissolution  of  the 
meeting  over  which  he  had  presided,  imless  the 
lodge  was  permanently  established  at  any  par- 
ticular place."  Such  lodges  are  known  in  Ma- 
sonic history  as  time  immemorial  lodges.  On 
June  24,  1717,  four  of  the  old  lodges  then  ex- 
isting in  London  constituted  themselves  into  a 
Grand  Lodge,  the  first  Masonic  Grand  Lodge  ever 
organized,  and  elected  Anthony  Sayer  their  first 
grand  master.  George  Payne  succeeded  Sayer 
as  grand  master  in  1718,  and  Dr.  John  Tlie- 
ophilus  Desaguliers  followed  in  1719.  In  1720 
George  Pa3rne  was  again  grand  master,  and 
in  that  year  compiled  for  tJe  first  time  a  set 
of  'General  Regulations,'  which  were  subsequently 
revised  by  Dr.  Desaguliers  and  Rev.  James  An- 
derson, a  Scotch  Presbyterian  minister,  and  were 
first  published  in  1723,  under  the  title  of  "The 
Charges  of  a  Freemason,  extracted  from  the 
ancient  records  of  lodges  beyond  the  sea  and  of 
those  in  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  for  the 
use  of  lodges  in  London."  After  1717  new  lodges 
could  be  created  only  under  a  warrant  from  the 
Grand  Lodge.  In  1724  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Eng- 
land came  into  conflict  with  a  time  immemorial 
lodge  at  York,  claiming  to  have  originated  at  an 
assembly  of  Masons  in  926.  This  led  to  the 
formation  in  1725,  by  the  old  Lodge  of  York,  of 
the  'Grand  Lodge  of  All  England.'  The  Grand 
Lodge  of  all  England,  however,  appears  to  have 
maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  London 
Grand  Lodge.  In  1751  nine  lodges  owing  alle- 
giance to  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England  seceded 
from  that  body  on  the  ground  that  the  Grand 
Lodge  suffered  subordinate  lodges  of  its  jurisdic- 
tion to  depart  from  the  ancient  landmarks  of 
Freemasonry,  and  organized  a  'Grand  Lodge  of 
England,  according  fi>  old  Institutions.'  They 
styled  themselves  'Ancients,'  and  called  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England  *Modem8.' 
In  1756  Laurence  Dermott,  the  leader  of  the 
seceders,  published  the  "Ahiman  Rezon,"  or  Book 
of  Constitutions,  which  he  copied  from  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  original  or  'Modern*  Grand 
Lodge,  and  addressed  it  to  'The  Ancient  York 
Masons  in  England.'  The  Grand  Lodge  of  All 
England,  at  York,  died  in  1792.  There  then  ex- 
isted in  England  but  two  Grand  Lodges,  the 
'Ancients'  and  the  'Modems.*  After  neffotiations 
extending  over  a  number  of  years,  finally,  in 
1813,  through  the  efforts  of  the  Duke  of  Sussex, 
grand  master  of  the  'Moderns,'  and  his  distin- 
guished brother,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  grand  master 
of  the  'Ancients,'  a  permanent  union  was  estab- 
lished under  the  title  of  the  'United  Grand  Lodge 
of  Ancient  Freemasons  of  England,'  by  which  the 
fraternity  has  since  been  known.  Freemasonry 
has  always  been  favorably  considered  in  England. 
In  1799,  when  an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed 
directed  against  seditious  societies,  an  exception 


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148 


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was  made  in  favor  of  Masonic  lodges,  which  were 
credited  with  meeting  solely  for  benevolent  pur- 
poses. Jews  were  admitted  to  membership  on 
the  same  footing  as  other  religious  denomina- 
tions. The  growth  and  progress  of  the  fraternity 
has  been  so  marked  that  there  are  now  in  tho 
Grand  Lodge  of  England  more  than  2000  lodges, 
a  Grand  Lodge,  sixty  provincial  Grand  Lodges, 
a  Grand  Lodge  of  Mark  Masters,  a  Supreme 
Grand  Chapter  of  Royal  Arch  Masons,  a  Great 
Priory  of  Knights  Templars,  and  a  Supreme 
Council  of  the  Ancient  Accepted  Scottish  Rite. 
A  few  years  after  the  revival  a  Committee  on 
Charity  was  formed  and  since  then  Masonic 
schools  have  been  foimded  for  boys  and  girls  and 
institutions  for  the  aged  and  infirm. 

In  Scotland  the  early  history  of  the  Masons 
differed  in  no  essential  respect  from  that  of 
other  trade  crafts.  In  1698-99  the  statutes  and 
ordinances  of  the  Order  to  be  observed  "by  all 
Master  Masons  as  set  down  by  William  Shaw, 
Master  of  Work  to  His  Majesty,  and  general  war- 
dent  of  the  craft"  (see  Lyon,  History  of  Free- 
masonry  in  Scotland),  were  published.  These 
ordinances,  however,  are  largely  concerned  with 
trade  relations.  The  system  of  degrees  was  not 
developed,  but  a  *pass-word'  was  adopted.  In 
1736  a  final  effort,  set  on  foot  fifteen  years  be- 
fore by  Desaguliers,  the  organizer  of  the  English 
Masonic  movement,  to  consolidate  the  various 
lodges  into  a  representative  body,  was  successful, 
and  on  November  30,  1736,  the  first  general  as- 
sembly of  symbolical  Masons  was  held  and  a 
Grand  Lodge  for  Scotland  formed.  The  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  of  Saint  Clair,  which  was 
patron  of  the  Masonic  Lodge,  was  elected  first 
grand  master;  provincial  grand  masters  were 
appointed,  a  general  adhesion  of  Scotch  lodges 
to  the  new  organization  was  effected,  and  Saint 
Andrew's  Day  was  substituted  for  the  day  of 
Saint  John  the  Baptist,  the  f^te  day  in  England. 
Freemasonrj'  was  introduced  into  Ireland  in  1730, 
when  the  first  lodge  was  opened  at  Dublin.  The 
English  system  and  ritual  were  adopted,  but, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  religion  of  the  country 
is  so  largely  Roman  Catholic,  Masonry  has 
not  made  a  very  marked  progress.  At  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century  its  representation  con- 
sisted of  one  Grand  Lodge  and  about  350  lodges. 

The  first  Masonic  lodge  in  France,  according 
to  Clavel  and  other  well-authenticated  authori- 
ties, was  established  at  Dunkirk  on  October  13, 
1721,  and  was  styled  *L'Amiti6  et  Fraternity.' 
The  second  was  organized  by  Lord  Derwentwater 
in  Paris  in  1725.  It  was  at  first  largely  patron- 
ized by  the  nobility,  but  its  purpose  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  of  an  elevated  character,  and  this, 
supplemented  by  the  vigorous  opposition  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  tended  to  invest  the  institution 
of  Masonry  with  a  very  unstable  character.  In 
1736  a  Grand  Lodge  was  formed,  and  in  1766 
a  now  Grnnde-Loge  Rationale  of  France  was  cre- 
ated (subsequently  altered  in  title  to  the  Grand 
Orient ) ,  and  a  representative  system  adopted  un- 
der which  the  various  lodges  were  brought  into  a 
degree  of  subordination  to  the  central  and  au- 
thoritative body.  Considerable  hostility,  how- 
ever, was  manifested  toward  the  new  organiza- 
tion by  the  original  Grand  Lodge,  and  there  was, 
besides,  a  conflict  between  the  rituals  in  use.  the 
Grand  Orient  following  the  Scottish  rite,  while 
the  original  Grand  Lodge  had  adopted  a  wildly 
superstitious    form,    fathered    by    the    impostor 


Cagliostro.  The  Revolution  practically  suspended 
both  organizations,  which  subsequently  were  re- 
vived and  in  1799  became  united  in  one  national 
organization.  Hardly  had  this  union  been  effect- 
ed when  another  entering  wedge  was  inserted  by 
the  introduction  of  two  new  systems  of  ritual, 
one  the  Scottish  Philosophical  Rite,  including 
the  luminous  ring  and  the  white  and  black  eagle, 
and  the  other  the  Ancient  and  Accepted  Scottish 
Rite  of  thirty-three  degrees.  Finally,  in  1804,  a 
union  was  again  effected  between  the  Grand 
Orient  and  the  Supreme  Council,  but  since  that 
period  the  cause  of  Freemasonry  in  France  has 
not  been  as  progressive  as  in  other  European 
countries.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  number  of  lodges  in  existence  was  only 
about  350.  The  Grand  Orient  has  ceased  to  re- 
quire belief  in  a  personal  God  as  a  test  of  mem- 
bership. The  introduction  of  Freemasonry  into 
other  European  countries,  notably  Spain,  Hol- 
land, Italy,  Austria,  Germany,  and  Russia,  took 
place  between  1725  and  1750,  but  with  varying 
results.  In  Russia  the  Masonic  lodges  have  been 
suppressed,  while  in  Austria-Hungary  they  mere- 
ly preserve  an  existence,  owing  to  the  ban  of 
the  Church  being  placed  on  them. 

The  introduction  of  Masonry  into  America  was 
under  the  deputation  to  Daniel  Coxe  of  New- 
Jersey,  from  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England,  dated 
June  5,  1730,  which  appointed  him  provincial 
grand  master  for  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and 
New  Jersey,  *for  the  space  of  two  years.'  While 
(Soxe  does  not  seem  to  have  been  active  in  estab- 
lishing lodges  in  his  territory,  reliable  evidence 
that  Saint  John's  Lodge  was  founded  in  Phila- 
delphia in  the  latter  part  of  1730  or  early  in 
1731  is  foimd  in  a  letter  written  by  Henry 
Bell,  dated  November  17,  1764,  in  which  he 
speaks  of  a  charter  being  granted  bv  Daniel 
Coxe  to  a  number  of  Philadelphians.  The  exist- 
ence of  the  lodge  in  1731  is  further  proved  by  the 
account  books  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  sold 
stationeiT  to  and  did  printing  for  Saint  John's 
Lodge.  The  entries  bear  dates  in  1731.  Another 
corroborative  proof  is  found  in  a  ledger  of  the 
lodge  discovered  in  1884,  which  is  called  *Liber 
B.'  Its  entries  begin  with  June  24,  1731,  and 
consist  of  amounts  paid  into  the  lodge  by  mem- 
bers. Franklin  was  made  a  Mason  in  January, 
1731.  In  1733  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England 
granted  a  deputation  to  Major  Henry  Price  of 
Boston,  as  'Provincial  Grand  Master  of  Free 
and  Accepted  Masons  in  New  England.'  On 
July  30,  1733,  a  warrant  was  granted  to  form 
Saint  John's  Lodge  in  Boston,  Mass.  From  this 
beginning,  Freemasonry  spread  throughout  the 
colonies.  There  also  existed  a  large  number  of 
military  and  traveling  lodges,  usually  attached 
to  regiments  or  battalions  of  the  British  Army, 
and  formed  under  warrants  from  the  Grand 
Lodges  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 

When  the  War  of  the  Revolution  came  to  a 
successful  close  the  American  lodges  so  created 
withdrew  their  allegiance  to  the  parent  lodges 
in  England  and  Scotland  and  created  Grand 
Lodges  in  several  of  the  States,  and  the  Order 
thus  became  deeply  rooted  in  American  soil, 
where  it  has  continued  to  grow  without  inter- 
ruption other  than  what  is  known  as  the  great 
anti-Masonic  movement,  which  began  in  1826  and 
continued  for  about  ten  years,  during  which 
period  the  membership  was  reduced  to  a  very 
small    number.      (See   Anti-Masons;    Mobgan, 


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William.)  The  Order  is  also  prospering  in 
British  America,  while  in  the  republics  of  ^uth 
America,  where  the  Catholic  religion  is  in  the 
Bscendeot,  the  same  influences  operate  to  its 
hindrance  as  in  the  European  countries  where 
Church  influence  is  powerfuL 

A  system  of  what  is  known  as  Freemasonry 
exists  among  the  colored  people  in  America, 
which,  while  admitted  to  be  regular,  is  not  recog- 
nized by  white  members  of  the  Order,  or  their 
grand  and  subordinate  lodges  in  this  country, 
although  receiving  full  reco^ition  as  to  the 
regularity  of  their  organization  from  some  of 
the  foreign  Grand  Lodges.  The  parent  lodge  was 
opened  in  Boston,  March  6,  1776,  through  the 
exertions  of  Prince  Hall,  known  in  the  archives 
of  the  Order  as  the  father  of  Freemasonry  among 
colored  men.  There  were  fifteen  charter  mem- 
bers and  the  lodge  was  known  as  African  Lodge. 
It  received  a  warrant  from  the  Grand  Lodge  of 
England  in  1784  and  was  organized  as  African 
Lodge  No.  429  in  1787,  with  the  rank  of  a 
Provincial  Grand  Lodge  and  Prince  Hall  as  pro- 
vincial grand  master.  This  lodge  became  dor- 
mant after  the  death  of  the  charter  members, 
was  subsequently  revived,  but  failed  to  receive 
recognition  from  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England. 
The  African  Grand  Lodge  of  Boston,  now  Ibiown 
as  Prince  Hall  Grand  Lodge  of  Massachusetts, 
was  organized  in  1808,  and  there  are  at  the 
present  time  in  the  United  States  twenty-eight 
colored  Grand  Lodges,  and  one  in  Ontario,  Can- 
ada. These  are  distributed  as  follows:  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas,  California,  Colorado,  Con- 
necticut, Delaware,  District  of  Columbia,  Flor- 
ida, Georgia,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  North 
Carolina,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Pennsylvania, 
Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Texas,  and  West 
Virginia.  There  also  exist  among  the  negroes 
bodies  of  the  higher  degrees  of  Masonry,  viz. 
Chapters  of  the  Royal  Arch,  Councils  of  Royal 
and  Select  Masters^  Commanderies  of  Knights 
Templars,  subordinate  bodies  of  the  Ancient  Ac- 
cepted Scottish  Rite,  and  others.  The  total  num- 
ber of  colored  Free  Masons  in  the  United  States 
in  1907  was  about  160,000. 

Concerning  the  rites,  ceremonies,  and  princi- 
ples of  Freemasonry  it  should  be  said  that  the 
underlying  principle  is  a  belief  in  a  Supreme 
Being  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Next  to 
that  is  the  recognition  of  fraternal  obligations 
among  members  of  the  Order.  The  duties  of  a 
Mason  are  always  to  be  held  subordinate  to 
his  duty  to  his  God,  to  his  country,  and  to  his 
fellowmen,  a  faet  not  generally  credited  outside 
the  fraternity,  and  ignorance  of  which  has  led 
to  much  of  the  opposition  it  has  encountered, 
on  account  of  its  being  a  secret  institution.  It 
differs  from  other  secret  and  beneficial  societies 
in  the  matter  of  its  beneficiary  features,  for  there 
is  no  obligation  expressed  in  the  order  of  pro- 
cedure set  forth  as  part  of  its  fixed  policy*  The 
measure  of  relief  to  be  extended  to  fellow 
members  in  distress  and  the  participation  in  any 
work  of  chariW  are  matters  implied  rather  than 
commanded.  Some  of  the  lodges  voluntarily  cre- 
ate funds  for  charitable  purposes,  but  this  is  a 
matter  which  rests  with  the  particular  lodge, 
which  is  independent  in  any  line  of  action  it 
adopts  not  antagonistic  to  the  objects  or  prin- 
ciples of  the  Order.    As  a  rule,  the  dispensing  of 


relief  is  entirely  governed  by  circumstances,  and 
is  not  circumscribed  by  conditions  of  membership 
in  any  particular  lodge.  A  sojourning  or  visit- 
ing Mason,  in  any  locality  where  he  may  be  tem- 
porarily staying,  if  in  distress,  has  a  claim  on 
his  brother  Masons,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit 
and  teaching  of  the  Masonic  fraternity.  A  system 
of  benevolence  has  been  adopted  in  many  of  the 
American  jurisdictions  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  fraternity.  It  is  the  establishment  in  diflfer- 
ent  jurisdictions  of  Masonic  homes  and  infirma- 
ries for  the  needy  and  distressed  of  the  Order. 
The  first  of  these  homes  was  established  in  1867 
at  Louisville,  Ky.,  as  the  *Masonic  Widows  and 
Orphans  Home  and  Infirmary.'  Other  institu- 
tions have  been  founded  in  Philadelphia,  Chicago, 
Saint  Louis,  Nashville,  Springfield,  Ohio,  Wich- 
ita, Kan.,  Waterford,  Conn.,  Burlington,  N.  J., 
Richmond,  Va.,  and  in  Michigan,  Texas,  and 
California.  Funds  have  been  es^blished  in  many 
other  jurisdictions  either  to  found  homes  or  to 
provide  a  systematic  administration  of  charity. 
The  homes  are,  like  the  English  institutions, 
largely  supported  by  voluntary  contributions,  but 
in  some  States  a  per  capita  tax  is  levied  upon 
each  Master  Mason  within  the  jurisdiction. 

The  teachings  of  Freemasonry  are  symbolical, 
ceremonial,  and  allegorical.  Rites,  almost  with- 
out number,  were  formed  by  degree-makers  dur- 
ing the  past  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  but 
most  of  them  had  but  a  short  existence.  There 
are  now  ten  Masonic  rites  or  systems  in  use 
throughout  the  world,  all  having  as  their  founda- 
tion the  three  symbolic  degrees  of  Entered  Ap- 
prentice, Fellowcraft,  and  Master  Mason.  The 
two  rites  that  are  ranked  as  universal  are  the 
York  or  English  rite,  and  the  Ancient  Accepted 
Scottish  rite  of  thirty-three  degrees.  The  Eng- 
lish rite  comprises  the  three  fundamental  sym- 
bolic degrees,  and  the  Royal  Arch  degree,  ap- 
pended in  1813.  The  English  rite  has  been  en- 
larged and  changed  in  this  country  and  Canada 
and  is  known  as  the  American  rite.  It  consists 
of  thirteen  degrees,  grouped  as  follows:  Entered 
Apprentice,  Fellowcraft,  and  Master  Mason,  con- 
ferred in  symbolic  lodges;  Mark  Master,  Past 
Master,  Most  Excellent  Master,  and  Royal  Arch, 
conferred  in  chapters  of  Royal  Arch  Masons; 
Royal  Master,  Select  Master,  and  Super-Excellent 
Master,  conferred  in  councils  of  Royal  and  Select 
Masters;  and  Orders  of  the  Red  Cross,  Knight 
Templar,  and  Knight  of  Malta,  conferred  in 
commanderies  of  Knights  Templars.  Of  the 
thirty-three  degrees  of  the  Ancient  Accepted  Scot- 
tish rite  the  first  three  or  symbolic  degrees  are 
never  conferred,  all  control  of  them  and  right 
to  use  them  having  been  relinquished  by  the 
Supreme  Councils  of  the  Scottish  Rite  to  the 
Grand  Lodges  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  degrees  from  the  fourth  to  the  fourteenth 
are  conferred  in  the  Lodge  of  Perfection;  these 
are  Secret  Master,  Perfect  Master,  Inti- 
mate, Secretary,  Provost  and  Judge,  In- 
tendant  of  the  Building,  Knight  Elect  of  Nine, 
Knight  Elect  of  Fifteen,  Sublime  Knight 
Elect,  Grand  Master  Architect,  Knight  of 
the  Ninth  Arch,  and  Perfect  and  Sublime  Mason. 
The  degrees  Knight  of  the  East  or  Sword  and 
Prince  of  Jerusalem  are  conferred  in  councils  of 
Princes  of  Jerusalem.  The  degrees  of  Knight  of 
the  East  and  West  and  Knight  of  Rose  Croix  are 
conferred  in  chapters  of  Rose  Croix.  In  con- 
sistories of  Sublime  Princes  of  the  Royal  Secret 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MASONa 


150 


MASONS. 


are  conferred  the  following  degrees :  Grand  Pon- 
tiff, Master  ad  vitam  or  Master  of  All  Symbolic 
Lodges,  Noachite  or  Prussian  Knight,  Knight  of 
the  Royal  Axe  or  Prince  of  Libanus,  Chief  of  the 
Tabernacle,  Prince  of  the  Tabernacle,  Knight  of 
the  Brazen  Serpent,  Prince  of  Mercy,  Knight 
Commander  of  the  Temple,  Knight  of  the  Sun  or 
Prince  Adept,  Knight  of  Saint  Andrew,  Knight 
Kadosh,  Inspector  Inquisition  Commander,  and 
Sublime  Prince  of  the  Royal  Secret.  The  thirty- 
third  and  last  degree,  that  of  Sovereign  Grand 
Inspector-General,  is  conferred  in  the  Supreme 
Council  upon  Masons  who  have  rendered  distin- 
guished services  to  the  craft.  The  English  and 
the  Scottish  rites  are  the  only  two  that  are  prac- 
ticed in  the  United  States  and  are  recognized  by 
Masons  generally.  The  Scottish  rite  in  the  United 
States  is  controlled  by  two  bodies,  the  Supreme 
Councils  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  Masonic 
jurisdictions.  They  are  in  fraternal  communion 
with  each  other  and  with  the  Supreme  Coimcil 
of  France  as  well  as  those  of  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
Paraguay,  Peru,  Portugal,  Italy,  Mexico,  Colom* 
bia,  Chile,  Central  America,  Greece,  Canada, 
Cuba,  Switzerland,  Egypt,  Tunis,  and  Spain.  The 
niunber  of  subordinate  bodies  in  these  iurisdic* 
tions  July,  1906,  was:  Northern  Jurisdiction,  253, 
with  a  membership  of  180,536,  Southern  Juris- 
diction, 304,  with  a  membership  of  106,055.  There 
are  in  addition  to  the  foregoing  a  number  of  so- 
cieties in  the  United  States,  which,  though  not  in 
any  sense  Masonic  in  character,  yet  require  as  a 
nrerequisite  to  uniting  with  them  membership  in 
Masonic  bodies.  The  largest  and  most  popular 
is  the  Ancient  Arabic  Order  of  Nobles  of  the 
Mystic  Shrine.  (See  Mystic  Shbine,  Ancient 
Arabic  Ordeb  of  Nobles  of  the.)  Minor  or- 
ganizations are  the  Mystic  Order  of  Veiled 
Prophets  of  the  Enchanted  Realm,  with  head- 
quarters at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  and  the  Independent 
International  Order  of  Owls,  with  headquarters 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.  These  societies  are  purely 
social  organizations,  founded  for  amusement  and 
recreation. 

The  only  society  allied  to  Masonry  that  re- 
ceives women  into  membership  is  the  Order  of 
the  Eastern  Star.  It  is  not  a  Masonic  body,  nor 
has  it  ever  been  recognized  by  the  Masonic  fra- 
ternity, but  its  members  are  composed  of  Master 
Masons  in  good  standing,  their  wives,  daughters, 
mothers,  and  sisters,  together  with  the  widows  of 
such  Master  Masons.  The  system  which  ad- 
mitted women  to  membership  in  bodies  allied  to 
Freemasonry  originated  in  France  about  1730. 
The  bodies  were  called  'Lodges  of  Adoption,'  be- 
cause each  organization  was  required  to  be 
adopted  by  a  Masonic  lodge  and  was  under  its 
control.  Lodges  of  adoption  are  said  to  have 
been  introduced  into  this  country  about  1778,  but 
they  never  flourished  to  any  extent.  As  early  as 
1793  there  was  an  'Order  of  the  Eastern  Star*  in 
existence  in  this  country.  This  organization  dis- 
appeared early  in  the  last  century.  The  system 
at  present  prevailing  in  the  United  States  was 
founded  in  1868  by  Robert  Macoy  of  New  York, 
upon  the  basis  of  a  ritual  developed  by  Robert 
Morris,  an  eminent  Masonic  writer.  There  are 
now  (1906)  in  the  United  States  forty-five  Grand 
Chapters  and  over  305,000  members. 

The  Sovereign  College  of  Allied  Masonic  and 
Christian  Degrees  of  America  is  a  body  of 
Masons  clothed  with  power  to  confer  academic  as 


well  as  ritualistic  degrees,  the  former  being  given 
for  honorable  cause.  The  highest  academic  de- 
gree conferred  is  that  of  Doctor  of  Universal 
Masonry,  which  has  been  conferred  on  only  five 
distinguished  members  of  the  Order.  The  ritual 
of  the  college  comprises  the  degree  of  Ark  Mar- 
iner, Secret  Monitor,  Tylers  of  Solomon,  Saint 
Lawrence  the  Martyr,  Knight  of  Constantinople, 
Holy  and  Blessed  Order  of  Wisdom,  Trinitarian 
Knight  of  Saint  John  of  Patmos.  The  Order  is 
in  fraternal  communication  with  the  Grand 
Council  of  the  Allied  Degrees,  and  the  Grand 
Ark  Mariners  Council,  both  of  England, 

The  following  table  gives  the  Grand  Lodges  in 
the  United  States  and  British  America,  with 
their  respective  and  total  membership: 

MAiono  Okakd  Lodom  nr  trb  UirmD  Btatbs  ahd  BmiruH 

AmSIOA,  WITH  THBIB  RSSPBCTITB  MSMBBftSBir  AT  TBI 

Clou  ov  1906 


Alftbuna 16,393 

Arliona 1,123 

ArkMUM 12,416 

Brittoh  OolumbU 2,024 

CaUfornla 29,468 

Oolonido 10,997 

Oonnectioat 19,047 

DeUware  2,602 

District  of  OolumbU. ...     7 ,064 

Florida 6,423 

Georgia 24,120 

Idaho 2,060 

lUinola 74,741 

Indiaaa.. 46,069 

Indian  Territory 6,363 

Iowa 36,729 

Kansas 27,167 

Kentucky 26,992 

Louisiana 7,898 

Maine 24,611 

Manitoba 4,274 

Maryland 10,293 

Massachusetta 45,370 

Michigan 63,796 

Minnesota 21,066 

Ifiarissippi 11,467 

Missouri 40,983 

Montana 4,227 

Nebraska 14,719 

•1902 


Nevada. 

New  Brunswick 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York     

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota. 

Nova  Scotia. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Ontario 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Prince  Bdwaid   Island 

Quebec.  

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

8o\ithDakoU 


Texas  

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  VfrginU. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


985 
2,064 
9,572 

22,102 

1,484 

126,177 

13,361 
6,163 
4,417 

61,636 

5,219 

26,939* 

7.322 

64,997 
604 
4,433 
6,091 
7,251 
6,957 

18,665 

36,436 
1,170 

11,288 

16,001 
7,961 

10,121 

21,151 
1,809 


Total  membership. . .  1,089,364 


The  above  American  and  British  American 
Grand  Lodges  maintain  fraternal  relations  with  the 
Grand  Lodges  of  Belgium,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  Den- 
mark, Eclectic  Union  (Frankfort-on-the-Main), 
England,  Germany,  Hungary,  Ireland,  New  South 
Wales,  New  Zealand,  Norway,  Peru,  Porto  Rico, 
Royal  York  (Berlin),  Saxony,  Scotland,  South 
Australia,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Tasmania,  Three 
Globes  (Berlin),  Victoria  (Australia),  Zur  Ein- 
tracht  (Darmstadt),  and  Zur  Sonne  (Bayreuth). 

Besides  what  may  be  called  orthodox  Masonry 
there  are  two  other  bodies  operating  in  the 
United  States  known  as  those  of  the  Omeau  rite 
and  the  Ancient  and  Primitive  Rite  of  Memphis, 
which  differ  in  ritual  from  the  older  Orders.  The 
Cemeau  Masons,  or  Sovereign  Grand  Consistory, 
founded  in  1807  by  Joseph  Cerneau  in  aflSliation 
with  the  Grand  Orient  of  France  and  enrolled 
under  the  Scottish  rite,  has  two  consistories  in 
New  York  City,  and  a  'Supreme  Council  of  Sov- 
ereign  Grand  Inspectors-General  of  the  Thirty- 
third  and  Last  Degree.'  It  is  not  in  affiliation 
with  Masonic  bodies  generally  in  America  and 
Canada,  owing  to  its  connection  with  the  Grand 
Orient  of  France,  which  does  not  require  for  ad- 
mission to  membership  the  necessity  of  a  be- 
lief in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being.  It 
has  jurisdiction  over  seventy  subordinate  con- 
sistories of  Sublime  Princes  of  the  Royal  Secret, 
which  are  subdivided  into  Lodges  of  Perfection, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MASONa 


151 


MASFEBO. 


Councils  of  Princes  of  Jerusalem,  Chapters  of 
Rose  Croix,  and  Consistories.  The  Ancient  and 
Primitive  Rite  of  Memphis  was  established  in 
Montauban,  France,  in  1814,  by  Jacques  Etienne 
3!larconis  and  others.  On  November  9,  1856,  the 
first  organization  of  the  Ancient  and  Primitive 
Rite  in  America  was  created  in  New  York  under 
the  title  of  'A  Supreme  Council  Sublime  Masters 
of  the  Great  Work  Ninetieth  Degree'  by  Jacques 
Etienne  Marconis.  On  March  1,  1857,  ne  organ- 
ized a  'Sovereign  Grand  Council-General  Ninety- 
fourth  D^ree'  and  granted  a  charter  with  full 
authority  for  the  administration  and  government 
of  the  Order,  and  on  June  21,  1862,  a  'Sovereign 
Sanctuary  Ninety-flfth  Degree'  was  created  in 
and  for  the  continent  of  America  in  affiliation 
with  the  Grand  Orient  of  France.  The  *Mystic 
Temple  Grand  Council-General  Ninety-fourth  De- 
gree^ has  charge  of  the  State  of  New  York.  There 
are  branches  in  existence  for  the  government  of 
other  countries  imder  titles  of  Sovereign  Sanctu- 
aries, viz.  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Egypt, 
Rumania,  Naples,  Palermo,  and  India. 

MASOOIA,  MASSOBAH,  MASSOBETH 
(Heb.  tradition,  from  mOsar,  to  hand  over).  A 
particular  collection  of  critical  notes  on  the  text 
of  the  Old  Testament,  its  divisions,  accents, 
vowels,  grammatical  forms,  letters,  etc.  Accord- 
ing to  the  early  mode  of  Semitic  writing,  only 
the  consonants  were  indicated;  hence  in  the 
course  of  time  there  inevitably  arose  a  vast  num- 
ber of  variants  in  the  Old  Testament  text,  or 
rather  different  ways  of  reading  and  interpreting 
the  same  letters  by  dividing  them  into  different 
words  with  different  vowels  and  accents.  Some 
measures  for  the  more  accurate  preservation  of 
the  documents  became  indispensable,  and  the 
desideratum  was  supplied  bv  the  Masora,  which, 
by  fixing  an  immutable  reading  upon  each  verse, 
word,  and  letter,  put  an  end  to  the  confusion  and 
left  the  individual  fancy  free  to  take  its  own 
views  for  homiletical  purposes  only.  The  origin 
ef  the  Masora  is  shrouded  in  mystery,  though 
tradition  carries  it  back  to  the  days  of  Ezra.  The 
first  certain  traces  of  it  are  found  in 
certain  Halachistic  works  treating  of  the  syna- 
gogue rolls  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  mode  of 
writing  them.,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  practical  necessities  called  forth  by  the  in- 
stitution of  readings  from  the  Pentateuch  and 
Prophets  as  a  regular  feature  of  religious  ser- 
vices led  to  accurate  determination  of  the  text 
of  each  verse,  the  number  of  letters,  and  the 
pronunciation  of  each  word,  including  the  proper 
intonation.  A  late  Talmudic  treatise,  Masse- 
eheth  Sopherinty  treats  of  these  matters.  Some 
of  the  earliest  works  on  the  subject  have  survived 
in  their  titles  only,  such  as  The  Book  of  the 
Crotms,  The  Book  of  the  Sounds,  etc.  There  can 
hardly  be  a  doubt  that  the  Masora,  like  the 
Halacha  and  Haggada,  was  the  work,  not  of  one 
age  or  century,  but  of  many  ages  and  centuries, 
as,  indeed,  we  find  in  ancient  authorities  mention 
of  different  systems  of  accentuation  used  in 
Tiberias,  Babylon  (Assyria),  and  Palestine.  In 
the  period  of  Hadrian  we  learn  of  two  scholars, 
Nakkai  and  Hammum,  who  are  said  to  have 
counted  the  number  of  verses  in  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  but  the  systematic  work  of  the 
Masoretes  belongs  to  a  much  later  period.  The 
vowel  system  at  present  employed,  which  is  their 
work,  cannot  be  traced  further  back  than  the 
seventh  century,  and  appears  to  be  based  on  the 


example  furnished  by  Syrian  grammarians;  but 
before  this  was  perfected  at  Tiberias  in  Pales- 
tine, another  system,  chiefly  superlinear  in  char- 
acter and  much  more  complicated,  was  evolved 
and  adopted  in  Babylonia.  These  two  systems 
are  distinguished  as  the  Tiberian  and  the  Baby- 
lonian respectively.  It  was  in  Tiberias  that  the 
^lasora  was  first  committed  to  writing,  between 
the  sixth  and  ninth  centuries  a.d.  Monographs, 
memorial  verses,  finally  glosses  on  the  margins 
of  the  text,  seem  to  have  been  the  earliest  forms 
of  the  written  Masora,  which  gradually  expanded 
into  one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  minute  sys- 
tems, laid  down  in  the  'Great  Masora,'  made  up 
of  longer  notes  placed  upon  the  upper  and  lower 
margins  (about  the  eleventh  century).  Besides 
this  there  was  compiled  the  'Small  Masora,*  notes 
placed  between  the  columns  of  the  texts.  A 
further  distinction  is  made  between  Masora 
textualis  and  finalis,  the  former  containing  all 
the  marginal  notes;  the  latter,  larger  annota- 
tions, which,  for  want  of  space,  had  to  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  paragraph.  Of  independent 
Masoretic  works,  the  most  important  is  the  one 
known  as  Ochlah  tceochlah.  The  final  arrange- 
ment of  the  Masora,  which  was  first  printed  in 
Bomberg's  Rabbinical  Bible  (Venice,  1524-25),  is 
due  to  Jacob  ben  Chayim  ben  Adonijah,  and  to 
Felix  Pratensis.  The  langu^e  of  the  Masora  is 
Aramaic,  and  besides  the  difficulty  of  this  idiom, 
the  obscure  abbreviations,  contractions,  sym- 
bolical signs,  etc.,  with  which  the  work  aboimds, 
render  its  study  exceedingly  difficult.  An  ex- 
planation of  the  Masora  is  found  in  Elias  Le- 
vita's  Masoreth  Hammesoreth  (trans,  into  Ger- 
man by  Semler,  Halle,  1772),  and  Buxtorf's 
Tiberias  (Basel,  1620).  Consult  also:  Ginsburg, 
The  Massorah  (London,  1880-85)  ;  id..  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Hebrew  Bible  (London,  1899) ;  Har- 
ris, "Rise  and  Development  of  the  Massorah,"  in 
the  Jewish  Quarterly  Review^  vol.  i.  ( 1888 ) ; 
K5nig,  Einleitung  in  das  Alte  Testament  (Leip- 
zig, 1893). 

MASFEBO,  m&'spe-ry,  Gaston  Camtllb 
Chabi^s  (1846—).  A  distinguished  French 
Egyptologist.  He  was  bom  at  Paris,  June  23, 
1846,  and  received  his  early  education  at  the 
Lyc6e  Louis  le  Grand.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
years  he  studied  the  Egyptian  language  privately, 
and  in  1866,  when  he  entered  the  Ecole  Normale, 
he  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  proficiency  in  the 
interpretation  of  hieroglyphic  texts.  Two  years 
later  he  published,  with  the  approval  of  Mariette, 
his  Essai  sur  Vinscription  dedicatoire  du  temple 
d'Abydos  et  la  jeunesse  de  S^sostris,  In  1867  he 
went  to  Montevideo  to  co5perate  with  Vicente 
Fidel  Lopez  in  his  studies  on  the  Indian  dialects 
of  Peru,  translating  into  French  and  editing 
Lopez's  work,  Les  races  aryennes  de  P^rou.  On 
his  return  to  Paris,  a  year  later,  he  resumed  his 
Egyptological  studies,  and  in  1869  he  read  before 
the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  a  memoir  on  the 
Abbott  Papyrus,  containing  an  official  report  in 
regard  to  the  tomb  robberies  in  the  Theban  necrop- 
olis under  Rameses  IX.  This  memoir,  under  the 
title  Une  enquHe  judiciaire  d  Thebes  au  temps  de 
la  XX&me  dt/nastie,  was  published  at  Paris  in 
1871.  In  1869  Maspero  became  rAp^titeur  in  the 
department  of  Egyptology  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes 
Etudes,  and  three  years  later  he  pa&sed  the  ex- 
amination for  the  degree  of  doctor,  presenting  two 
theses:  De  Oarchemidis  Oppidi  Situ  et  Historia 
Antiquissima  and  Du  genre  ipistolaire  chez  lea 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MASPESO. 


152 


ILUSQUEBADB. 


Egyptiens  de  Vipoque  pharaonique.  In  1874  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Egyptology  in  the  Col- 
lege de  France  as  the  successor  of  E.  de  Roug6. 
In  1875  was  published  his  UEistoire  ancienne  dea 
peuples  de  VOrient,  which  was  the  first  attempt 
to  present,  from  monumental  sources,  the  histoiy 
of  the  ancient  East  as  a  whole,  and  to  exhibit 
the  relations  existing  in  antiquity  between  the 
peoples  of  Western  Asia  and  the  Nile  Valley, 
in  the  course  of  the  next  five  years  Maspero 
wrote  a  number  of  valuable  memoirs  on  Egyptian 
philology,  history,  and  archaeology,  the  most  im- 
portant being:  "De  quelques  navigations  des 
Egyptiens  sur  la  mer  Erythr^e"  {Revue  His- 
torique,  1878)  ;  "La  grande  inscription  de  Beni- 
Hassan"  {Recueil  de  Travaux,  1878)  ;  "R6cit  de 
la  campagne  de  Mageddo  sous  Thoutmfes  III." 
{Reoueil  de  Travaux,  1879-80).  He  received  the 
decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1879,  and 
in  1882  was  made  an  oflBcer  of  the  Legion.  In 
1880  he  was  sent  by  the  French  Government  to 
Egypt  at  the  head  of  the  Mission  Arch6ologique, 
which,  under  his  skillful  management,  developed 
into  a  school  for  the  prosecution  of  advanced 
studies  in  Egyptology  and  kindred  subjects.  On 
the  death  of  Mariette  in  1881,  Maspero  was  ap- 
pointed his  successor  as  director  of  the  excava- 
tions and  antiquities  of  Egypt.  His  excavations, 
though  less  extensive  than  those  of  his  prede- 
cessor, were  more  methodical,  and  he  is  entitled 
to  special  credit  for  his  successful  efforts  for  the 
preservation  and  protection  of  the  monuments  of 
Egypt.  In  1883  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres.  In 
June,  1886,  leaving  Gr6baut  as  his  successor  in 
Egypt,  he  returned  to  Paris  and  resumed  his 
chair  at  the  College  de  France,  assuming  at  the 
same  time  the  direction  of  Egyptological  studies 
in  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  In  1899  he  re- 
turned to  Egypt  to  resume  the  position  which 
he  had  resigned  in  1886.  Maspero's  works  are 
very  numerous.  In  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  some  of  the  most  important  are: 
Hymne  au  Nil  (1868)  ;  Etudes  ^gyptiennea  (1879- 
91 )  ;  Lea  oontea  populairea  de  VEgypte  ancienne 
(1882,  2d  ed.  1890);  M4moire  aur  quelquea 
papyrua  du  Louvre  (1883)  ;  L*arch4ologie  ^gyp- 
tienne  ( 1887 ;  Eng.  trans,  by  Amelia  B.  Edwards, 
New  York,  1887)  ;  Lea  momiea  royalea  de  Delr- 
el-Bahari  (Paris,  1889)  ;  Lecturea  hiaioriquea: 
Egypte  et  Asayrie  (1890)  ;  Etudea  de  mythotogie 
et  d'arch^ologie  igyptien/nea  ( 1892-98 ) .  Maspero's 
Hiatoire  ancienne  dea  peuplea  de  VOrient  has 
been  frequently  reSdited.  In  the  edition  of  1894- 
99  the  author  treats  the  whole  range  of  ancient 
Oriental  history  in  three  profusely  illustrated 
volumes.  English  translations,  edited  by  Sayce, 
are  entitled:  The  Daum  of  Civilization:  Egypt 
and  Chaldma  (2d  ed.  London,  1896)  ;  The  Strug- 
gle of  the  Nationa:  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Assyria 
(New  York,  1897) ;  and  The  Passing  of  the  Em- 
pirea  850-330  B.C.  (New  York,  1900).  Complete 
History  of  Egypt  in  12  vols,  appeared  in  1904. 
Maspero  edited  several  posthumous  works  of 
Mariette,  as  also  the  valuable  M4moirea  de  la 
tniaaion  francaise  au  Caire  (Paris,  1884  et  seq.), 
and  in  1879  assumed  the  editorial  direction  of 
the  Recueil  de  travaux  relatifa  d  la  philologie  et 
Varch6ologie  4gyptiennes  et  assyriennes  (Paris, 
1870  et  seq.).  It  was  in  this  journal  (vols,  i.- 
xiv.)  that  he  published  the  text  and  trans- 
lation of  the  inscriptions  engraved  upon  the 
walls  of  the   pyramids  of   the  fifth   and  sixth 


dynasties  at  Saqqara  (q.v.).    See  also  the  article 
Egyptology. 

MASQUE  (Fr.,  mask),  or  MASK.  A  species 
of  dramatic  entertainment  much  in  vogue  in 
England  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, so  named  from  the  masks  (q.v.)  which 
were  originally  worn  in  it.  It  was  introduced 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  in  imitation  of 
some  of  the  Italian  allegorical  pageants  of  the 
period,  and  was  at  the  same  time  a  development 
of  the  festive  processions  of  the  city  of  London 
and  of  the  royal  progresses.  Around  the  acted 
pageantry  of  the  mythological  and  allegorical 
personages  in  these  there  grew  up  regular  dra- 
matic performances  in  which  music  and  dancing 
were  prominent  and  which  were  comparable  to 
the  ballets  of  the  French  Court.  (See  Ballet.) 
Masques  were  in  their  time  the  favorite  form  of 
private  theatricals,  though  the  elaborate  and 
expensive  style  in  which  they  were  usually  given 
limited  them  for  the  most  part  to  the  homes  of 
the  nobility  and  the  Court.  They  were  at  their 
best  in  James  I.'s  day.  Ben  Jonson,  above  all, 
made  the  masque  a  thing  of  literary  beauty,  in 
which  his  classic  learning  and  graceful  fancy 
united  to  furnish  royal  amusement.  As  spec- 
tacles, masques  were  largely  an  affair  of  costume 
and  of  scenic  design,  to  which  the  architect  Inigo 
Jones  lent  his  aid.  The  taste  for  this  style  of 
entertainment  died  away  under  Charles  I. ;  yet  to 
his  time  belongs  Milton's  Comus.  In  this,  how- 
ever, though  it  was  made  to  be  acted,  the  masque 
has  become  a  literary  form  practically  inde- 
pendent of  actual  presentation,  and  as  such  it 
has  survived  to  our  day.  Consult:  Evans,  Eng- 
lish Masques  (London,  1897)  ;  Greg,  A  List  of 
Masques,  Pageants,  etc.,  supplementary  to  a  list 
of  English  Plays  (London,  1902)  ;  Soergel,  Die 
englischen  Maskenspiele  (Halle,  1882)  ;  Brotanek, 
Die  englischen  Masken«piele  (Vienna  and  Leip- 
zig, 1902) ;  Symonds,  Shakspere's  Predecessors  in 
the  English  Drama  (London,  1884)  ;  Ward,  Eng- 
lish Dramatic  Literature  (London,  1875). 

MASQUERADE  (Fr.,  from  Sp.,  Port,  mas- 
carada,  masquerade,  from  mascara,  mask).  The 
disguise  effected  by  wearing  a  mask  or  strange 
apparel,  or  the  assembly  itself  of  persons  masked 
and  disguised  with  fantastic  dress.  In  early 
times  the  masquerade  often  accompanied  religious 
observances;  it  was  a  feature  of  the  Greek  Bac- 
chanalia and  the  Koman  Saturnalia,  and  fan- 
tastic costume,  at  least,  is  known  to  have  been 
worn  at  the  Jewish  feast  of  Purim.  The  Druids 
when  proclaiming  the  New  Year  (q.v.)  masked 
and  disguised  in  women's  robes,  the  skins  of 
beasts,  etc.  During  the  Middle  Ages  masquerades 
characterized  by  great  frivolity  and  extrava- 
gance were  held  in  the  churches  in  spite  of  the 
attempts  of  the  Fathers  to  do  away  with  them. 
Even  the  priests  took  part  in  them.  Of  this 
nature  were  the  feast  of  fools  (q.v.)  and  other 
burlesquing  festivals,  recalling  the  heathen  Sa- 
turnalia. They  bore  different  names  in  <liffer- 
ent  coimtries  and  were  continued  until  the  six- 
teenth century.  Such  was  probably  the  origin 
of  the  masked  ball,  an  exclusive  form  of  masquer- 
ade which  was  introduced  into  the  French  Court 
by  Catharine  de'  Medici.  It  found  its  way  to 
Enprland  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  but  did  not 
reach  any  of  the  courts  of  (3ermany  till  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  hal  costume  is 
a  very  modified  and  much  less  objectionable  form 


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158 


MASS. 


of  the  masquerade.  During  the  carnival,  public 
masquerades  are  held  in  all  the  theatres  and 
dancing  saloons  of  Paris,  and  processions  of 
maskers  pass  through  the  streets  playing  mad 
pranks.    See  Cabnival;  Greek  Festivals. 

MASS.  The  name  given  among  Catholics  to 
the  Eucharist  or  Lord's  Supper  (q.v.),  considered 
as  the  highest  form  of  Christian  worship,  as  a 
sacrifice,  and  the  offering  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ  imder  the  forms  of  bread  and 
wine.  The  proofs  adduced  to  show  its  institution 
under  this  aspect  at  the  Last  Supper  are  the 
words  employed  on  that  occasion;  the  teaching 
of  Saint  Paul  and  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church ; 
the  practice  of  the  Apostles ;  the  unbroken  tradi- 
tion of  all  Christendom  for  sixteen  centuries ;  and 
its  retention  as  a  sacrifice  in  the  Eastern 
churches  which  separated  from  Catholic  imity. 
The  prophecy  of  Malachi  (i.  11)  is  likewise  re- 
garded as  foretelling  it.  The  teaching  of  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  is  that  in  the  Eucharist 
Christ  is  *as  it  were  slain.*  It  is  a  quasi-anni- 
hilation.  He  is  not  merely  present,  but  is  in  a 
state  which  is  a  kind  of  death.  He  is  there  with 
all  the  perfections  of  His  Godhead,  and  all  the 
complete  nature,  functions,  and  glory  of  His 
manhood;  all,  in  fact,  that  He  is  in  heaven;  but 
He  does  not  manifest  it ;  nor  does  He  exercise  His 
powers  in  the  Sacrament  as  He  does  in  heaven. 
How  much  or  how  little  His  human  senses  are 
exerted  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion  among 
theologians.  This  quasi-annihilation  of  Christ  is 
evidently  the  greatest  conceivable  way  of  ex- 
pressing subjection  to  Grod's  dominion,  of  im- 
petrating,  atoning,  and  rendering  thanks,  the  four 
objects  whidi  are  considered  to  be  the  purposes  of 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Necessarily  it  sup- 
poses transubstantiation  (q.v.)  and  Ihe  priestly 
power.  Accordingly  it  can  only  be  offered  by  one 
who  is  in  priest's  orders.  By  the  law  of  the 
Church  he  must  be  fasting,  absolutely,  from  the 
midnight  previous  to  the  celebration  of  the  mass. 
It  is  offered  in  the  morning,  though  this  time 
may  be  extended,  for  reasons  legislated  upon,  to 
a  limited  time  after  midday.  Each  priest  is  per- 
mitted to  offer  it  once  a  day;  though  on  Christ- 
mas Day  he  may  offer  three  masses,  and  in 
some  countries  two  on  All  Souls'  Day.  In  some 
countries  where  there  is  a  lack  of  priests  it  is 
permitted  to  celebrate  mass  twice  on  Sundays; 
otherwise  the  people  would  not  be  able  to  fulfill 
the  obligation  which  is  incumbent  upon  them  of 
assisting  at  mass  on  Simdays  and  certain  great 
festivals.  ( See  Commandments  of  the  Church.  ) 
Absence  from  this  public  worship  without  suflB- 
cient  reason  is  held  to  be  a  grievous  sin. 

The  priest  who  celebrates  always  communi- 
cates. This  is  for  the  integrity  of  the  sacrifice; 
but  the  essence  of  the  sacrifice  is  commonly 
taught  to  be  in  the  consecration.  Whether  some 
or  none  of  the  congregation  communicate  does 
not  affect  the  sacrifice ;  the  rule  is,  however,  that 
some  one  must  be  present  to  make  the  responses. 
(For  the  teaching  and  details  as  to  communion, 
see  Sacrament;  Communion  in  Both  Kinds). 
The  bread  must  be  wheaten  bread ;  the  wine,  wine 
of  the  ^ape.  In  the  Eastern  Church  leavened, 
in  the  Western  unleavened  bread  is  used.  The 
time  of  the  introduction  of  unleavened  bread  in 
the  West  is  not  certain. 

Private  masses  are  said  in  a  low  tone,  and 
hence  called  low  masses.  Those  which  are  sung 
are  called  high  masses,  and  if  the  celebrant  la 


assisted  by  other  ministers,  the  mass  is  said  to  be 
solemn;  if  the  celebrant  is  a  bishop  it  is  pon- 
tifical. Those  celebrated  for  the  dead  are  cfQled 
from  the  first  word  of  the  introit,  requiems;  and 
the  mass  at  the  celebration  of  marriage  is  called 
a  nuptial  mass.  As  saints  are  honored  on  almost 
every  day  of  the  liturgical  year,  prayers  in  which 
their  intercession  is  invoked  are  introduced  at 
the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  service,  and 
also  in  the  part  which  the  priest  recites  in  a  tone 
audible  only  to  himself,  and  hence  called  the 
Secret. 

There  are  certain  days  not  devoted  to  the 
commemoration  of  any  mystery  or  saint,  and  the 
priest  is  permitted  to  choose  one  in  whose  honor 
he  may  celebrate  according  to  his  devotion ;  these 
are  termed  votive  masses.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  dry  mass;  the  expression  is  used  to  de- 
note the  going  through,  by  one  who  is  preparing 
for  the  priesthood,  of  the  various  prayers  and 
ceremonies  in  order  to  familiarize  himself  with 
them.  The  'mass  of  the  presanctified,'  used  on 
Good  Friday  ( see  Holy  Week  ) ,  is  not  a  complete 
mass,  lacking  the  consecration. 

The  use  of  an  imchanging  language  like  Latin 
and  some  Oriental  languages  is  intended  to  be  a 
safeguard  against  new  meanings  that  grow  into 
words  in  the  use  of  living  tongues.  It  is  not 
necessary,  on  the  theory  here  explained,  that  the 
words  should  be  understood  or  even  heard  in  de- 
tail by  the  congregation  any  more  than  it  was 
necessary  for  the  Jews  to  enter  the  sanctuary 
where  the  sacrifice  was  being  offered.  They  un- 
derstand that  they  are  taking  part  in  the  supreme 
act  of  worship  though  even  the  assistant  at  the 
priest's  side  may  not  be  able  to  hear  the  words 
of  consecration. 

For  the  vestments  used  in  tne  mass,  see  Cos- 
tume, Ecclesiastical;  and  for  the  early  devel- 
opment of  liturgical  structure,  see  Liturqy.  The 
mass  is  divided  into  two  main  parts,  known  from 
ancient  analogy  as  miaaa  oatechumenorum  and 
missa  fideliufn,  the  latter  or  more  sacred  part 
having  been  originally  that  from  which  the  un- 
baptized  were  excluded.  ( See  Disciplina  Arcani.  ) 
A  similar  distinction,  though  not  identical,  is 
made  between  the  Pro-Anaphora  and  Anaphora 
of  the  Greek  liturgies.  The  first  consists  of  the 
celebrant's  preparation  at  the  foot  of  the  altar, 
introit,  Kyrie  eleison,  OloricL,  collect,  epistle  and 
gospel,  and  creed.  The  second  begins  with  the 
offertory  or  oblation  of  the  elements ;  the  preface 
leads  up  to  the  Sanctus,  and  then  follow  the 
canon  or  practically  imvarying  central  portion 
of  the  mass  (including  the  consecration)  and  its 
accompanying  prayers,  the  communion,  and  the 
post-communion;  the  congregation  is  dismissed 
with  the  ancient  formula  Ite  miasa  est,  from 
which  the  mass  derives  its  name  (Lat.  missa). 
See  the  articles  on  all  the  more  important  parts 
of  the  service  named  above. 

The  musical  history  connected  with  the  mass 
is  of  considerable  importance,  as  the  early  devel- 
opment of  polyphonic  music  was  almost  exclusive- 
ly along  the  lines  of  sacred  use.  Originally  the 
whole  service,  when  sung,  was  set  to  plain  chant 
(q.v.)  ;  but  later  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  Sane- 
tu8,  and  Affnus  Dei  were  detached  and  set  to 
new  music,  these  numbers  constituting  what  is 
called  a  mass  in  the  musical  sense.  The  masses 
of  the  composers  of  the  Gallo-Belgic  school  of 
the  fifteenth  century  had  become  so  complicated 
and  overloaded  with  contrapuntal  tricks  that  a 


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154 


MASSACHUSETXa 


desire  for  a  simple  and  more  dignified  style  was 
created.  Palestrina  inaugurated  the  new  epoch, 
in  writing  distinguished  by  grandeur  and  maj- 
esty; his  compositions  were  usually  for  four  to 
eight  voices.  The  great  masters  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  wrote  masses  for 
eight,  twelve,  sixteen,  twenty-four,  and  sometimes 
even  more  voices.  All  these  works  were  written 
a  cappelloy  without  instrumental  accompaniment. 
The  development  of  instrumental  music  suggested 
new  combinations,  and  the  missa  solemnia  of 
Bach  and  Beethoven  thus  grew  up.  Gounod, 
Silas,  and  Widor  have  given  notable  examples  of 
this  style  in  more  recent  times.  See  Sacbed 
Music. 

Consult:  Gihr,  Das  heilige  Meaaopfer  dogmor 
tischy  liturgisch  und  aacetisch  erkldrt  (5th  ed., 
Freiburg.  1892;  Eng.  trans..  Saint  Louis,  1902)  ; 
and  many  of  the  books  referred  to  under  Lord's 

SUPPEB. 

MASS.     See  I^Utteb. 

MASS  A,  mas'sA.  A  city,  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Massa  e  Carrara,  Italy,  on  a  hill  rising 
from  the  banks  of  the  Frigido,  3  miles  from  its 
outlet  in  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  26  miles  north 
of  Pisa  (Map:  Italy,  E  3).  Its  chief  buildings 
are  the  ducal  palace,  now  the  prefecture  building, 
a  former  summer  residence  of  Elisa  Bacciocchi, 
Napoleon's  sister.  Massa  has  fine  marble  quar- 
ries, which  are  extensively  worked,  and  impor- 
tant manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  and  olive  oil.  It 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  principality  and 
later  of  the  Duchy  of  Massa-Carrara,  which  was 
united  with  Modena  in  1829.  Population,  in 
1901   (commune),  26,413. 

MAS'SACHTT^ET  (At  the  great  hills,  i.e. 
the  Blue  hills  of  Milton).  An  important  Algon- 
quian  confederacy  formerly  occupying  the  terri- 
tory about  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  extending 
along  the  coast  from  Plymouth  northward  to 
about  Salem,  including  the  basins  of  the  Nepon- 
set  and  Charles  Rivers.  Their  principal  village, 
from  which  they  took  their  name,  was  on  the  site 
of  Quincy.  in  Norfolk  County.  Before  the  com- 
ing of  the  whites  they  seem  to  have  held  the  lead- 
ing place  among  the  tribes  of  southern  New  Eng- 
land, and  are  said  on  good  authority  to  have  had 
over  twenty  villages  in  1614.  They  suflTered  more 
than  any  other  tribe  from  the  great  pestilence  of 
1617,  and  when  the  English  arrived  a  few  years 
later  they  found  the  Massachusets  reduced  to  a 
mere  handful  and  most  of  the  villages  depopu- 
lated. In  1631  they  numbered  only  about  500, 
and  two  years  later  were  still  further  reduced 
by  smallpox,  which  carried  off  their  chief,  Chicka- 
tabot.  In  1646  they  were  gathered,  with  other 
converts,  into  the  mission  villages  of  Natick, 
Nonantimi,  and  Ponkapog,  and  ceased  to  have 
a  separate  tribal  existence. 

MAS'SACHU^ETTS.  A  North  Atlantic 
State  of  the  American  Union,  belonging  to  the 
New  England  group.  Except  the  eastern  part, 
which  expands  along  the  ocean  front,  Massachu- 
setts resembles  crenerally  a  parallelogram  and  lies 
approximately  between  latitudes  42°  and  42°  43' 
N.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  States  of 
Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  on  the  west  by 
New  York,  on  the  south  by  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  Atlantic.  Its  greatest  length  is  184  miles; 
the  distance  from  Cape  Ann  due  west  to  the  New 
York  State  line,  138  miles;  the  extreme  width  is 


113%  miles,  and  the  average  width  in  the  west 
47%  miles.  The  total  area  is  8266  square  miles, 
of  which  the  water  surface  amounts  to  227 
square  miles.  The  irregular  coast  line  gives  an 
ocean  frontage  of  nearly  300  miles,  excluding  the 
shore  lines  of  the  islands  and  lesser  inlets.  There 
are  three  great  bays:  Cape  Cod  Bay,  Massachu- 
setts Bay,  and  Buzzard's  Bay. 

Topography.  The  western  half  of  the  State  has 
as  its  distinguishing  features  the  mountain  ranges 
which  traverse  its  western  section,  the  minor 
valleys  between,  the  general  slope  eastward  to  the 
Connecticut  River,  and  the  corresponding  west- 
ward slope  from  the  opposite  side.  The  eastern 
section  is  a  rolling  and  hilly  coimtry  with  a  gentle 
slope  to  the  ocean.  From  Vermont,  the  Green 
^lountains,  as  a  part  of  the  Appalachians,  con- 
tinue southward  into  Massachusetts,  where  they 
lie  in  two  distinct  ranges.  These  stretch  south- 
ward across  the  whole  width  of  the  State,  cover- 
ing Berkshire  County  (whence  the  name  Berk- 
shire Hills).  The  Taconic  range  follows  the 
western  border  on  the  boundary  line,  and  east  of 
this  range  and  parallel  with  it  extend  the 
Hoosac  Mountains.  The  Taconic  range"  attains 
an  extreme  elevation  of  3535  feet  in  Greylock  or 
Saddle  Mountain,  near  the  northern  boun- 
dary— the  highest  elevation  in  Massachusetts. 
The  altitude  falls  away  slightly  to  the  south, 
where  Mount  Washington  or  Everett,  in  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  State,  rises  to  a  height  of 
2624  feet.  The  Hoosac  range  has  a  somewhat 
regular  altitude  of  1200  to  1600  feet,  reaching  its 
maximum  in  Spruce  Hill — 2588  feet.  The  Hou- 
satonic  Valley  has  an  elevation  of  1 100  feet  at  its 
northern  end  and  falls  to  800  in  the  south.  East 
of  these  ranges  to  the  Connecticut  the  slope  is 
southeast,  and  is  deeply  cut  by  rivers.  In  the 
Connecticut  Valley  the  trap  ridges,  so  conspicu- 
ous in  the  State  of  Connecticut  from  Long  Island 
Sound  up,  are  represented  in  the  centre  of  the 
State  by  Mount  Tom,  with  an  altitude  of  1214 
feet,  and  Mount  Holyoke,  955  feet,  which  rise  as 
isolated  peaks  above  the  surrounding  low  coun- 
try. The  country  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Connecticut  River  is  a  dissected  plateau,  with 
an  elevation  of  about  1100  feet  at  the  middle 
of  the  State,  the  surface  sloping  gradually 
eastward.  Upon  the  old  Cretaceous  base 
level,  which  forms  the  top  of  most  of  the 
hills,  some  older  hills  stand  out  as  monad- 
nocks,!  the  most  conspicuous  of  which  is  Wa- 
chusett  Mountain,  2108  feet  in  height.  In  the 
eastern  section  the  country  is  generally  level 
or  undulating.  This  low,  sandy  land  continues 
southeastward  into  the  Cape  Cod  peninsula,  ex- 
tending in  the  form  of  an  arm  bent  at  the  elbow 
for  a  distance  of  Q5  miles,  35  miles  eastward 
and  a  nearly  equal  distance  northward,  curv- 
ing slightly  westward  at  the  extremitv.  Near 
this  southern  projection  of  the  State  lie  many 
islands  similar  in  character  to  the  Cape  Cod 
peninsula :  Martha's  Vineyard,  the  sixteen  Eliza- 
beth Islands,  and  Nantucket  Island. 

Hydrography.  The  rivers  of  Massachusetts 
are  numerous,  but  unimportant  for  purposes  of 
navigation.  The  Connecticut  traverses  the  State 
from  north  to  south.  It  varies  in  width  from  450 
feet  to  1000  feet,  but  its  flow  is  broken  by  falls  at 
various  points.  On  its  western  side  it  receives 
the  Deerfield  and  Westfield,  and  from  the  east. 
Miller's  River  and  the  Chicopee.  Though  navi- 
gable for  small  craft,  it  is  chiefly  important  for 


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HAB8ACSU8BTT8. 


its  water  power.  Between  the  'EBoenic  and  the . 
Hoaeac  wwuirtieinB  flow  sorth  ami  south,  respect- 
me\j,  the  Hooulc  and  iiotuatonic  idvers,  the  for- 
mer discharging  into  the  Hudson,  the  latter 
jBlo  Long  Island  SouBd.  The  valleys  of  .the  Oon- 
■ectiout  and  its  branches  and  the  tiJeuaatonie 
are  aoted  ior  their  jnotmBsqiie  soenery.  De- 
seending  tfrom  New  Jdampehire,  the  Merrimac 
flows  for  thirty -^cve  miles  through  the  northeast- 
em  eomer  of  the  ^tate,  diaohar^ing  into  the  At- 
katic  It  is  aayigabie  ior  small  craft  as  far  aa 
HaveriiiU,  15  males  iaom  its  month,  but  is  val- 
itshle  eeptciallj  ior  its  water  power.  Other  rirers 
impartant  also  obieffy  lor  their  water  power  are 
the  Concord,  emftyiBf  into  the  Merrimac  at 
Lowell ;  the  Ohartes,  discharging  into  MassAeha- 
aetts  £ay  at  BoBton;  and  the  Blackatone  aad  the 
Taunton,  flawing  aaiith  into  Narragansett  Bay. 
The  ocairsas  of  the  rivers  are  marked  b^^  bread 
reaobes  and  sudden  deoUnea,  tnatead  of  uniform 
gradients.  Numerous  vmall  glacial  lakes  are  acat- 
tered  e^rer  the  State,  especially  near  Cape  Cod. 
Exeellent  harhors  occur  at  Boston,  Lynn,  Marble- 
head,  Salam,  and  Oloneester,  and  at  the  month  of 
the  Merriaiac.  Boston  Uai^or  is  the  most  impor- 
tant harbor  in  the  State.  It  lias  been  protected 
against  sanding  up  by  drumltne  and  pocket 
beaches,  tformed  outsit  the  iiarbor,  ^viiich  act  as 
guards  to  its  entrance.  South  of  Boston  the  in- 
lets are  all  of  the  ^liook  spit'  type,  a  prominent 
feature  along  this  part  of  the  coast;  font  only 
the  harbor  of  Provinoettown  is  deep  enough  to 
aecfmmiodate  the  largest  ocean  ships.  Bifflxard's 
Bay,  the  third  largest  indeactation  of  the  State, 
extends  thirty  miles  inland  to  the  west  of  Cape 
Cod,  and  contains  New  Bedford  and  Wareham 
harbors.  The  former  is  ame  of  the  most  important 
havens  in  the  State. 

CuMATE  A3n>  SoiLm  Massachusetts  lies  in  the 
middle  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  yet,  because 
of  tts  proximity  to  1^  paths  of  the  cyclonic  and 
anticyclonic  distuHMinoos,  it  is  strongly  influenced 
by  the  north  winds  of  winter  and  by  the  west  and 
sou^weet  winds  of  eummea*,  bringing  the  hot 
continental  air  to  the  coast.  The  average  tem- 
perature for  January  is  between  25°  and  30**, 
and  for  July  about  70".  In  summer  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  may  rise  in  places  above  100** ; 
in  winter  the  mercury  sometimes  falls  to  10**  be- 
low aero.  The  average  growing  season  lasts  about 
six  and  one-half  months.  There  is  an  average  an- 
nual rainfall  of  40  inches  and  over,  very  evenly 
distributed  through  the  year.  The  snowfall  is 
rather  heavy,  ranging  from  30  inches  at  the 
iouthem  coast  to  60  inches  hi  the  northwestern 
counties.  The  average  annual  relative  hunridity 
ranges  from  80  per  cent,  on  the  islands  at  the 
southeast  'to  less  than  70  per  oenrt.  in  the  north- 
western counties.  The  islands  of  Martha's  Vine- 
yard and  Nantucket  Imve  an  average  wind  velo- 
city for  the  year  of  14  miles  per  hour,  the  high- 
est average  recorded  in  the  United  States.  The 
normal  wind  direction  for  January  is  northwest, 
and  for  July  is  southwest. 

The  son  of  Massachusetts  is  largely  the  result 
of  glacial  erosion  and  deposition.  The  harder 
ridges,  overridden  by  the  ice,  vrere  denuded  of 
all  aojl;  the  debris  of  the  granitic  hills  is  too 
coarse  and  too  new  to  invite  cultivation.  The 
Triassic  valley  of  the  Connecticut  River  gives 
flat  lands  of  exceeding  fertility,  while  river  and 
lake  deposits  of  worked-over  glacial  till  furnish 
«aany  alhivial  plains  of  very  rich  land,  but  of 
Vol.  XIII.— 11 


limited  area.  Many  glacial  lakes  are  partly 
filled,  and  ase  utilised  as  cranberry  marshes. 

For  F1.0BA  am&  Fauwa,  see  theee  sections  uiider 
Ukitbd  SxAiaa. 

GEoiLoaT.  Massadrasetts  has  a  very  complex 
geological  history.  At  the  beginning  of  Cambrian 
time  three  mountain  masses  of  granitic  rock  ex- 
tended across  the  State  to  the  northeast,  alter- 
nating with  arms  of  the  sea.  Cambrian  and  Ordovi- 
oian  strata  were  deposited  on  the  sihore  of  the 
Obamplain  channel,  west  of  Hoosac  Mountain; 
in  a  narrow  gulf,  which  extended  from  Gasp6 
Point  to  Worcester;  and  in  a  trough  -extending 
from  western  Rhode  Island  via  Portsmouth  to 
Fnndy  Bay.  The  Hoosac  Mountain  and  Ito  eon- 
timiation  in  the  Green  Mountains  represent  the 
axis  of  the  Af^alachian  mountain^making  in 
New  England,  and  the  older  Paleoooic  elastics  to 
tbe  west  were  very  strongly  metamorpfhosed — 
the  limestones  into  marbles,  the  muds  and  gra-' 
veis  into  slates  and  schists^  and  some  of  the 
sandstones  into  quartzites.  In  Carboniferous 
time  the  whole  State  had  been  worn  down  to  base 
level,  and  coal  measures  were  deposited  in  the 
Rhode  Island-Nova  Scotia  basin,  and  in  the 
Oasp^- Worcester  trough.  In  Triassic  time  there 
was  an  estuary  in  the  Connecticut  River  Valley 
extending  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State, 
with  an  average  of  twenty  miles  in  width.  This 
estuary  was  gradually  filled  with  sandstones; 
and  during  their  formation  there  were  great  out- 
flows of  trap  rock,  in  the  later  Cretaceous  all 
New  England  was  reduced  to  base  level,  the  south- 
eaetem  margin  of  Massachusetts  being  under 
a  shallow  sea,  receiving  deposits  of  clays,  as  at 
Gay's  Head,  in  Martha's  Vineyard.  The  State 
was  involved  in  the  uplift  of  the  Appalachian 
region  at  the  close  of  the  Cretaoeous,  and  yras 
raised  into  a  plateau  of  moderate  elevation. 
Massachusetts  shared  with  the  whole  of  New 
England  in  the  denudation  and  erosion  of  the 
Pleistocene  glaoiation.  The  ioe  moved  south- 
ward and  southeastward  across  the  State,  dis- 
charging into  the  eea  beyond  Nantucket  and  Long 
Island.  It  strongly  accentuated  the  southward 
trending  valleys,  while  the  higher  ridges  were 
denuded  of  soil,  and  the  ice,  on  receding  to  the 
north,  left  the  State  strewn  with  a  mantle  of 
drift, 

MliflERAL  Rbsotjbccs  AND  MINING.  Massachu- 
setts was  for  many  years  the  largest  produoer  of 
granite  in  the  United  States,  but  was  surpassed 
by  Maine  in  1905.  In  1905  the  output  was 
valued  at  $2,663,329,  which  was  over  13  per  cent, 
of  the  total  granite  production  of  the  country. 
Limestone  is  quarried,  most  of  the  product  being 
burned  into  lime;  the  value  of  the  output  in 
1905,  $65,908,  was  quite  a  decided  decrease  over 
preceding  years.  Some  marbles  are  found  in  the 
metamorphosed  Paleozoic  strata,  and  small  but 
increasing  quantities  are  quarried.  The  dikes 
and  sills  of  trap  found  in  the  Connecticut  Valley 
are  the  very  finest  road  metal,  and  are  used  as 
such  in  considerable  quantities.  The  sandstones 
are  almost  wholly  the  brown-stones  of  Triassic 
ixfre  in  the  C'oone<*ti<'iit  Valley  beds.  The  value 
of  the  product-ion  diHTenned  continuously  from 
$649,000  in  1890  to  about  one-fifth  that  amount 
in  1899,  but  the  six  following  years  showed  a 
revival  of  the  industry,  the  value  in  1905  being 
367,461.  Glacial  chiyn  are  widely  distributed. 
Fire  clays  are  found  in  the  coal  measures, 
rich  clay  beds  in  the  Cretaceous,  and  later  de- 


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MASSACHUSETTS.  156 

posits  on  the  southeastern  coast  or  islands.  The 
clays  are  largely  manufactured  into  brick,  the 
product  in  1905  being  valued  at  $2,050,457.  Many 
minerals  are  found  in  the  State,  some  of  which 
figure  largely  in  a  commercial  way.  Iron  pyrite, 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  is 
extensively  produced.  The  State  is  the  source  of 
a  large  part  of  the  native  supply  of  emery, 
graphite,  and  asbestos.  Slate  is  found,  and 
is  put  on  the  market  occasionally;  tripoli  is 
produced  in  a  small  way  at  Framingham, 
and  small  quantities  of  fuller's  earth,  iron, 
magnesite,  and  talc  are  also  met  with  in  various 
localities. 

FiSHEBlES.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony 
early  recognized  the  fisheries  as  one  of  the  lead- 
ing industries,  in  fact,  second  only  to  farming. 
Special  legislation  was  adopted  whereby  they 
were  exempted  from  taxation,  and  ship  carpen- 
ters and  fishermen  from  military  duty.  Boston 
began  to  export  fish  in  1633,  and  soon  fishing 
villages  sprang  up  all  along  the  coast  for  the 
shore  fisheries,  and  Gloucester  became,  as  it  still 
continues  to  be,  the  most  prominent  port  in  the 
world  in  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries  off  New- 
foundland and  Labrador.  Whales  were  first 
caught  off  Nantucket  in  1690,  and  New  Bedford 
became  famous  in  the  whale  fisheries,  its  whal- 
ing vessels  frequenting  the  remotest  seas.  This 
industry,  however,  has  been  declining  steadily 
for  several  years.  The  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission has  extensive  hatcheries,  laboratory,  and 
school  at  Woods  Hole,  and  the  State  has  hatch- 
eries at  Wilkinsonville  and  Winchester.  In  the 
items  of  investment  and  value  of  products  the 
fishing  industry  of  Massachusetts  exceeds  that 
of  all  the  other  Atlantic  coast  States.  It  has  over 
one-half  of  the  investment  in,  more  than  half 
of  the  quantity  of,  and  fully  half  of  the  value  of 
the  products  of  the  coast  fisheries  of  New  Eng- 
land. The  products  of  the  fisheries  are  derived 
chiefly  from  the  numerous  off-shore  fishing  banks 
extending  along  the  coast  from  Nantucket  Shoals, 
Mass.,  to  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland. 
Only  about  20  per  cent. — viz.  that  taken  by 
boats  and  small  vessels  in  the  shore  fisheries — 
is  secured  from  Massachusetts  waters.  There 
were  7578  men  engaged  in  1902  in  vessel  fishing, 
3809  in  the  in-shore  or  boat  fisheries,  and  2913 
shoremen.  The  capital  in  1902  was  estimated  at 
$10,811,591~a  little  less  than  in  1898.  The 
value  of  the  product  for  the  same  year  was 
$6,482,427,  an  increase  of  two  millions  since  1898. 
This  was  due  to  the  rise  in  price,  as  the  amount 
of  the  catch  increased  little  during  the  same 
period.  The  total  value  of  fishery  products 
landed  at  Boston  and  Gloucester  in  1905  was 
$4,952,124,  almost  equally  divided  between  the 
two  places. 

Agriculture.  Only  a  small  per  cent,  of  the 
population  of  Massachusetts  is  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, and  but  61.2  per  cent,  of  the  land  area  is 
included  in  farms.  During  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  total  acreage  of  farms 
diminished  6.2  per  cent.  For  the  same  period  the 
improved  acreage  decreased  39.4  per  cent.,  and 
in  1900  only  41.1  per  cent,  of  the  farm  land  was 
improved.  The  average  size  of  farms  has  de- 
creased from  103  acres  in  1870  to  83.4  acres  in 
1900.  There  is  an  unusually  small  number  of 
rented  farms,  constituting  less  than  one-tenth  of 
the  total  number.  A  considerable  portion  of  the 
State  is  not  well  adapted  to  agricultural  pur- 
suits.   The  most  extensive  arable  districts  are  in 


MASSACHUSETTS. 

the  central  and  northeastern  parts  of  the  State. 
The  value  of  farm  property  and  products,  how- 
ever, has  greatly  increased.  This  is  the  result 
of  a  very  decided  change  in  the  nature  of  the 
industry.  Under  the  competition  brought  about 
by  the  development  of  the  more  fertile  lands  of 
the  West  and  the  increase  of  transportation  fa- 
cilities, the  raising  of  cereals  has  been  rendered 
unprofitable.  At  the  same  time  the  growth  of 
a  large  city  population  has  created  a  market  for 
fruits  and  garden  and  dairy  products.  The  pro- 
duction of  these  has  therefore  largely  taken  the 
place  of  the  crops  formerly  raised.  From  1880 
to  1906  the  area  devoted  to  cereals  diminished 
from  104,631  to  55,084  acres.  Of  the  latter  area 
44,799  acres  were  in  corn.  The  western  counties 
are  best  suited  to  cereals,  and  the  decrease  has 
been  least  in  this  section.  The  acreage  devoted  to 
hay  and  forage  in  1906  was  582,832,  and  the 
value  of  the  crop  was  estimated  at  $12,979,670. 
There  were  29,149  acres  devoted  to  the  cultivation 
of  Irish  potatoes,  which  yielded  a  per  acre  value 
of  $74.10.  Miscellaneous  vegetables,  including 
onions,  are  grown  in  considerable  quantities, 
market  gardening  being  quite  important.  A 
much  less  acreage  is  devoted  to  small  fruits,  but 
the  greater  per  acre  value  of  the  product  (about 
$175)  gives  them  an  important  position  among 
the  crops  of  the  State.  Cranberries  are  the  most 
important  of  the  small  fruits,  the  marshy  lands 
of  Barnstable  and  Plymouth  counties  being  well 
adapted  to  the  production  of  this  fruit.  Of  the 
orchard  fruits  the  apple  is  the  most  important, 
the  apple  trees  in  1900  numbering  1,852,046,  or 
78.2  per  cent,  of  all  fruit  trees.  From  the  earli- 
est colonial  days,  tobacco  has  been  raised  in  the 
valley  of  the  Connecticut  River.  From  1890  to 
1906  the  acreage  of  this  crop  more  than  doubled, 
being  only  2012  in  the  former  and  4712  in  the 
latter  year.  But  few  States  equal  Massachusetts 
in  the  importance  of  its  fioricultural  interests. 
In  1900  there  were  734  establishments,  the  prod- 
ucts amounting  to  $1,639,760.  The  following* 
figures  show  in  acres  the  relative  importance  of 
the  leading  crops: 


Corn 

Oata..... 

Rye 

Hay 

Potatoes 

Tobacco. 


44,799 
C,308 
3,977 
682,632 
29,149 
4,712 


Stock-raising  also  has  suffered  from  the  eflfects 
of  Western  competition.  There  was  a  loss  in  the 
number  of  sheep  during  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  However,  the  development  of 
intensive  farming  has  necessitated  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  horses,  and  the  growth  of  the 
dairy  industry  has  naturally  resulted  in  a  gain 
in  the  number  of  dairy  cows.  Nearly  40  per 
cent,  of  all  farms  derive  their  principal  income 
from  the  dairy.  In  1900  the  total  value  of  the 
dairy  products  was  $12,885,744,  of  which  amount 
89  per  cent,  was  realized  from  sales.  The  pro- 
duction of  milk  increased  27.9  per  cent,  during 
the  decade  1890-1900,  and  the  sales  of  this 
product  in  the  latter  year  amounted  to  $9,711,- 
380.  In  the  same  year  the  products  of  the  poultrv 
industry  amounted  to  $3,979,022. 

The  following  figures  show  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  leading  varieties  of  farm  stock  for 
the  years  indicated: 


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MASSACHUSETTS. 


167 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


1900 

1906 

Dairy  oowB  

184,662 
101,382 
75,034 
349 
33,869 
78,925 

196,346 

(mtfr  futtltt..             

93,371 

Honet.       

107.364 

Mnlf4 mwl  anioi 

•l96 

ghaeo  .                     

42,859 

sSi.::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

73,368 

Forests.  According  to  the  Federal  census  the 
forest  area  in  1900  was  4200  square  miles,  which 
area,  though  considerably  greater  than  that  in 
1885,  was  estimated  at  a  lower  value,  indica- 
tive of  a  depreciating  grade  of  timber.  Prac- 
tically all  the  primeval  growth  of  commercial 
value  has  been  removed.  Forest  fires  are  still 
frequent.  Returns  from  59  cities  and  towns  in 
1900  showed  that  there  had  been  229  fires,  ex- 
tending over  61,808  acres  of  forest  area. 

Manufactures.  Manufacturing  has  been  of 
great  importance  in  Massachusetts  almost  from 
the  beginning  of  its  history.  Only  three  other 
States  (New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Illinois) 
exceed  it  in  the  valde  of  this  output.  During  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  value 
of  manufactured  products  increased  more  than 
sixfold,  being  estimated  in  1900  at  $1,035,198,989. 
The  development  from  1900  to  1905  is  shown  by 
the  industrial  establishments  classed  as  factories. 
These  employed  in  1900  438,234  wage-earners,  and 
manufactured  products  valued  at  $907,626,439, 
while  in  1905  their  wage-earners  numbered  488^- 
399  and  the  value  of  their  products  was  $1,124,- 
092,051.  Of  the  wage-earners  employed  in  1905 
in  factories,  147,044  were  women  and  14,769  were 
children  under  16  years  of  age.  From  1900  to 
1905  the  number  of  wage-earners  increased  60 
per  cent,  faster,  the  total  amount  of  wages  170 
per  cent,  faster,  and  the  total  value  of  products 
235  per  cent,  faster  than  the  total  population. 

The  great  growth  which  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry has  attained  is  the  more  remarkable  be- 
cause of  the  dependence  on  outside  sources  for 
raw  materials,  and  because  the  local  markets 
consume  but  a  small  part  of  the  product.  The 
State  is  not  without  natural  advantages,  how- 
ever, the  chief  of  these  being  the  abundance  of 
water-power.  The  interests  of  the  industry  are 
also  greatly  facilitated  by  the  excellent  advan- 
tages of  transportation  afforded  both  by  rail  and 
by  the  ocean. 

Clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  and  their  materials, 
represent  the  most  important  g^oup  of  manufac- 
tures. Massachusetts  has  long  ranked  first  in 
the  manufacture  of  textiles.  In  1905  nearly  a 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  wage-earners  were 
engaged  in  the  industry,  or  32.5  per  cent,  of  the 
wage-earners  employed  in  the  State.  During  the 
period  1900-5  the  value  of  the  product  in- 
creased 25.6  per  cent.  Nearly  half  of  the  total 
product  is  accredited  to  cotton  goods.  The  State 
has  ranked  first  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods  from  the  beginning  of  the  industry  in  the 
colonics.  The  first  cotton  mills  in  the  United 
States  were  established  at  Beverly  in  1788.  Ow- 
ing to  the  secrecy  surrounding  the  English  inven- 
tion oif  power-looms,  these  were  not  introduced 
until  1814.  In  1905  there  were  8,411,249  spin- 
dles in  the  State.  The  increase  of  spindles  during 
the  de«ade  1890-1900  was  33.7  per  cent.,  and  from 
1900  to  1905  the  increase  was  8.7  per  cent.,  but 
the  proportion  of  spindles  to  the  total  number  in 
the  United  States  fell  from  40.8  per  cent,  in  1900 
to  36.7  per  cent,  in  1905.    The  cotton  products 


were  equal  to  32.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the 
United  States  in  1900,  and  28.7  per  cent,  in  1905. 
The  increase  in  recent  years  has  been  greatest  for 
the  finer  kinds  of  goods.  After  cotton  goods  the 
most  important  are  worsteds  and  woolens.  Wool- 
ens had  led  until  1900,  when  they  were  surpassed 
in  value  by  worsteds.  The  manufacture  of  wool- 
ens is  one  of  the  earliest  industries  established  in 
the  State,  dating  from  1643.  The  spiiming  jenny, 
operated  by  water-power,  was  introduced  about 
1815,  and  the  power-loom  for  broadcloth  in  1826. 
The  industry  declined  from  1890  to  1900,  but  the 
value  of  product  increased  44.6  per  cent,  from 
1900  to  1905.  Worsteds  increased  84.9  per  cent 
from  1890  to  1900  and  28.2  per  cent,  from  1900 
to  1905.  The  Stete  had  in  1905  21.8  per  cent,  of 
all  spindles  and  31.3  per  cent,  of  the  product  of 
the  combined  woolen  and  worsted  industries  in 
the  United  States.  Of  the  other  varieties  of  tex- 
tiles produced  the  most  importent  are  carpets 
and  rugs,  hosiery  and  knit  goods,  and  silk  and 
silk  goods.  In  all  textiles  combined  the  State 
had  in  1905  31.7  per  cent,  of  all  spindles  in  the 
United  SteteH.  The  manufactures  of  men's  and 
women's  clothing  and  of  cordage  and  twine  have 
attained  great  importence. 

In  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes — both 
leather  and  rubber — Massachusetts  holds  first 
rank.  In  1905  it  produced  45.1  per  cent,  of  the 
total  amount  of  leather  boote  and  shoes  for  the 
United  States.  The  industry  was  begun  in  1635. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  the  custom  for  each  work- 
man to  make  the  entire  shoe.  Not  infrequently 
the  industry  furnished  the  farmers  with  winter 
occupation.  Most  of  the  machinery  which  now 
takes  the  place  of  hand  labor  in  this  line  is  the 
invention  of  Massachusette  men.  From  1900  to 
1905  the  production  of  leather  boote  and  shoes 
increased  23.2  per  cent.,  while  the  value  of  boote 
and  shoes  made  from  rubber  increased  136.7  per 
cent.  Closely  related  to  this  industry  are  the 
tenning,  currying,  and  finishing  of  leather,  and 
the  manufacture  of  rubber  and  elastic  goods. 
With  the  increase  of  the  tenning  industry  in  the 
West,  the  industry  is  declining,  but  the  produc- 
tion of  rubber  and  elastic  goods  increased  63  per 
cent,  in  value  from  1890  to  1900,  and  1.5  per  cent, 
from  1900  to  1905.  The  first  production  of  india- 
rubber  goods  in  the  United  Stetes  was  at  Rox- 
bury  in  1833.  Massachusette  has  continued  to 
hold  first  place  in  this  industry. 

The  next  most  prominent  group  of  manufac- 
tures includes  foundry  and  machine-shop  prod- 
ucts and  other  specially  related  products,  such  as 
iron  and  steel,  and  electrical  apparatus  and  sup- 
plies. The  manufacture  of  machinery  dates  from 
the  early  days  of  the  colonial  period,  and  haa 
from  the  first  included  a  great  variety  of  prod- 
ucts. From  1890  to  1900  there  was  a  gain  in 
them  of  44.7  per  cent.,  but  from  1900  to  1905  the 
gain  was  only  4.7  per  cent.  The  manufacture  of 
iron  waa  of  greater  relative  importence  in  the 
colonial  period  than  in  recent  times.  The  indus- 
try was  formerly  supplied  from  local  ore  deposits, 
but  is  now  dependent  on  more  remote  sources ;  it 
showed  a  decline  in  value  of  product  from  1900 
to  1905.  The  manufactures  of  electrical  appar- 
atus have  almost  trebled  since  1890.  The  making 
of  jewelry  is  a  long-esteblished  industry.  In  its 
manufacture  the  Stete  ranked  second  in  1900  and 
third  in  1905. 

Massachusetts  long  ranked  first  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  and  wood-pulp,  but  since  1900 


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KAMACHUXBTn. 


has  ranked  aaoond.  It  produced  67.8  per  cent,  of 
the  value  of  ail  the  fine  writiqg  paper  made  im  the 
United  States  in  1905.  In  book  paper  it  is  also 
first.  Four-fifthe  of  all  the  iolt-dried  paper  maoi- 
ufactujed  in  the  United  States  from  1660  ta  1897 
was  made  within  fifteen  miles  ol  Spcingfield.  As 
early  as  1728  a  Colonial  grant  was  made  for  the 
enooumeement  of  the  industry.  In  Cambridge 
was  done  the  first  printing  in  the  Cokmies,  and 
all  the  printing  in  t)ie  Cc^mee  lor  nearly  forty 
yesLTB  WBS  done  at  Cambridge  and  Bosifcon.  The 
manufaetare  of  lumber  and  its  products,  espe- 
<ually  furniture,  is  important;  tdte  latter  showed 
a  slight  decreaae  in  output  h'om  1900  to  1905. 
The  alaughtering  and  maat-paokii^  onduatry  is 
important,  as  are  .also  the  refining  of  sugar  and 
molasaes  and  the  production  of  m&It  liquors. 

HaMBdrasetts  has  an  uonwual  number  of  im- 
portant nmnufaoturing  centres.  Boston  ranks 
first  distanotly,  with  a  maatifactured  product 
of  16.4  per  cent,  nf  the  State  total.  Its  superior- 
ity 18  due  lawly  to  the  excellence  of  its  trans- 
portation -facilities.  From  1900  to  1905  there 
was  an  increase  of  18.3  per  cent,  in  its  total  prod- 
uct, and  much  larger  gains  in  some  of  the  sub- 
urban towns.  The  location  of  a  number  of  the 
other  large  centres  has  been  determined  by  their 
accessibility  to  water-power — (for  instance,  Lowell 
and  Lawrence  on  the  Merrimac,  and  Fall  Rrver, 
supplied  with  water-power  from  Watuppa  Pond, 
eacli  of  these  being  on  important  cotton  manufac- 
turing centre.  Lawrence  is  also  a  very  large  pro- 
ducer of  worstedB.  Holyoke,  the  largest  producer 
of  paper  and  wood  pulp,  derives  its  power  from 
the  Connecticut  itiver.  New  Bedford,  another 
important  cotton  manufacturing  centre;  Lynn, 
a  great  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing  town;  and 
Gloucester,  a  fish  canning  and  preserving  centre, 
all  have  advantages  of  coast  navigation,  while 
Haverhill,  another  leading  boot  and  shoe  manu- 
facturing town,  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  of 
the  Merrimac  River.  Among  important  centres 
not  on  the  ooant  or  on  rivers  are  Worcestec,  Avhose 
largest  establishments  are  fouBdries  and  machine 
shops,  and  Brockton,  another  large  produeer  of 
V)ots  and  -shoes.  Some  otf  the  mere  important 
centres  showed  the  following  gains  in  the  value 
of  products  from  1900  to  1905:  Brockton,  52  per 
cent. ;  Cambridge,  45.8  per  cent. ;  Springfield,  42.4 
per  cent. ;  LjTm,  39.8  per  cent.;  Holyoke,  27. -6  per 
cent. ;  and  New  Bedford,  26  per  cent. 

The  table  on  following  page  shows  the  develop- 
ment for  the  twentv-one  leading  industries  from 
1900  to  1905.  It  will  be  seen  that  while  the  toUl 
product  for  these  industries  increased  greatly, 
there  was  an  actual  decrease  in  the  number  of  es- 
tablishments, the  tendency  toward  oentralization 
being  most  marked  in  the  boot  and  shoe  industry. 

Tbajnspobtatto??  akd  Commbboe.  a  majority 
of  the  many  railway  lines  centre  in  Boston,  and 
the  mileage  for  the  eastern  -end  of  the  State  is 
greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  the  other  parts.  The 
first  railroad  in  the  United  States  was  the  Quincy 
Bailroad,  three  miles  long,  constructed  fn  1820- 
27  to  convey  granite  from,  the  Quincy  quarries 
for  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, operated  by  steam.  The  Boston  and  T^well 
Bteam  railroad  was  opened  in  1835.  About  the 
same  time  roads  were  built  to  Providence  and  to 
Worcester,  and  by  1842  the  latter  line  had  been 
extended  to  Albany.  In  1860  the  total  mileage 
for  main  and  branch  lines  amounted  to  1264 
miles;   in  1880,   1915;   in   1800,  2096;    in   1900, 


2108;  and  in  1906,  2116.  This  was  equrvalest  to 
25.6  miles  for  every  100  square  miles  of  the 
State's  area,  a  rate  higher  than  that  of  any  other 
Stirte  except  New  Jersey.  In  1905  forty  railroad 
cornorations  had  lines  located  wholly  or  in  part 
witnin  the  limits  of  Massachusetts.  However, 
only  eight  of  these  were  engaged  in  actual  rail- 
road operations,  the  roads  of  the  other  thirty- 
two  being  operated  by  certain  of  the  eight  oom- 
panies.  Three  of  these  eight  covpaniea — the  Boa- 
ton  and  Albany;  Boston  tatd  Jdaine;  and  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartlord  onilroadfl — oper- 
ated over  97  per  cent.  'Of  the  total  milioad  mile- 
age. The  average  passenger  fare  per  mile  de- 
creased from  2.61  cents  in  1871  to  1.75  oenta  in 
1900,  and  the  average  freight  «ate  per  ton  mile 
was  reduced  from  3.11  to  1.71  eents.  The  strik- 
ing feature  in  the  tranapertation  af  to-day,  how- 
•ctver,  is  the  great  rapidity  with  which  electric 
•oar  lines  mat  hieing  constructed.  The  electric  rail- 
mmy  tmek  tnilaage  in  1905  aggregated  £776  miles. 

Masaachnaetts  has  ioUowed  tiie  enample  of 
New  Jersey  in  providing  State  aid  in  the  con- 
struction of  public  hi^ways,  and  the  po&icy  has 
resulted  in  a  superior  quality  of  roads. 

Maritime  oommeree  dates  from  the  "firat  days 
of  the  colony.  As  early  as  1631  Governor  Win- 
throp  launched,  for  eoaat  trade,  a  bark  called  the 
Blessing  of  the  Boy,  and  a  few  years  later  -ves- 
sels were  plying  regularly  between  the  various 
ports.  Early  in  tbe  eighteenth  century  there 
waa  a  large  West  India  trade.  Many  ships  were 
also  buiH  for  the  French  and  -Bpaniards,  who 
paid  for  them  largely  in  rum  and  molasses. 
After  the  Revolution  an  immense  trade  with  the 
East  Indies  and  with  the  African  Coast  was  de- 
Teloped.  In  fact,  the  commercial  interests  of 
Massachusetts  and  other  New  England  States 
played  an  important  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  United  States  Constitution  and  in  the  sub- 
sequent political  life  of  the  States,  being  espe- 
cially prominent  during  the  period  of  the  War  of 
1812.  (See  History.)  StUl  later,  notably  be- 
tween the  years  1840  and  1880,  the  clippers*  built 
at  East  Boston  and  Newburyport  were  the  fastest 
ships  then  known,  and  carried  on  no  small  share 
of  the  world's  freighting.  Forty-four  of  them 
were  built  in  1855  alone,  and  the*  tonnage  owned 
in  Boston  in  that  year  was  over  five  hundred 
thousand  tons.  But  the  outbreak  of  tiie  Civil  War 
nearly  paralyzed  the  commerce  of  American  ship- 
owners, and  it  has  never  been  fully  revived. 
Boston  {(\.y.)  is  second  only  to  New  York  in  its 
shipping  interests.  Steamships  and  sailing  ves- 
sels connect  it  with  the  principal  .ports  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Tne  customs  districts  in 
the  State  are  Barnstable,  Boston  and  Charles- 
town,  Fall  River,  (Gloucester,  Alarblehaad,  New 
Bedford,  Salem  and  Beverly,  Newburyport,  Ply- 
mouth, and  Edgartown.  (See  Topography  above 
for  an  account  of  the  harbors  in  the  State. ) 

Baitks.  Hie  first  commercial  bank  in  the 
Colonies  is  said  to  have  been  established  in  Bos- 
ton in  1686.  The  Massachusetts  Land  Bank  was 
started  in  1739,  but  all  colonial  banks  were  pro- 
hibited in  1740.  The  Massachusetts  Bank,  or- 
ganised in  Boston  in  February,  1784,  was  the 
first  local  hank  in  the  State  and  the  second  in 
the  Union.  The  T^nion  Bank  of  Boston  was  char- 
tered in  1792.  By  the  befrinning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  five  hanks  had  been  incorporated  in  the 
State.    Massachusetts  was  the  first  State  to  re- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


Tir/iS«AiHiiU««BTg> 


150 


Ber  omt.  of  \ 


.of  total  of  aUi 


r  iadiutrieB  in  State . 


lb*taaddlo«aiitilMlfe 

OotUng:    totel 

OteAetioMTy. 

Oordi^MMl  twin*. 

M-trical  BBMwMiwnv  ■»?■»•>"■ —^"PPU"*  < 
fbDiHini  aod  naachin^ahop  produet* 


Iroa  smT stMl,  atMrworka  and  roUing  min^  . 
Jiwalry. • 


total 


Yftpir  and  wood  ptd^ » 

Vriatias  Md.  pabliBhiBg;    tatal 


BabboK  and  vlMtio 


total     

Otepato  ud  rafik.  otter  thai  ra«;  . 

Cotton  gpodab 

Dyeing  and  a<«{«h*itg  tastUn  . .  .  . 

Hbatery  and  knit  goods 

HUcawlrillBgooda- 

Woolen  goods 

Womadffoad* 

Tbbacco,  cigars  and  oigarattea 


Tear 


1906 


I90R 
IflOO 

1905 

1900 
1906 
1900 
1909 
1060 
1006 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1906 
UM 
1906 
1900 
1906 
19M 
1006 
1900 
1996 
1000 
1905 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1005 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1905 
1%0 


•Dacreasa 


If  umber 

0f( 


6,616 


82 
•1.2 


n.o 

60.6 


662 

ew 

230 
270 

sot 

816 

98 

71 

16 

19 

72 

64 

698 

828 

126 

120 

6 

7 

131 

I8S 

132 

119 

37 

40 

498 

609 

66 

61 

8f 

08 

1,021 

860 

7 

6 

47 

70 

4ft 

22 

620 

519 

10 

8 

142 

103 

46 

37 

68 

64 

18 

20 

131 

131 

49 

46 

348 

331 


A.Teraga 
nuaber  of 


380,497 
351,286 


29,212 
8.3 

77.9 
80.2 


62,633 

68,646 

4,408 

4.390 

8,656 

6,776 

4,167 

2,572 

2,406 

3,303 

8,798 

6,*202 

S2,9n 

3^,104 

6,537 

6,(l»e 

4,544 

6,099 

5,626 

6,691 

9,074 

7,010 

1,625 

1,051 

4,922 

6,982 

4,171 

3,176 

11,705 

9,061 

n,548 

rT,019 

.7,674 

6,250 

6,068 

6,94« 

2,871 

2,748 

168,778 

160,028 

6,179 

4,480 

88,088 

92,086 

7,508 

4,678 

8,110 

0,667 

3,261 

3,110 

31,909 

17,717 

21.182 

18,867 

3,576 

2,752 


Vahia  of  |nt}dnct% 

incltiding  cualan 

woakand  re^ptiiing 


•,871,788 
8,420,045 


tl71.461,ll3 
24.6 

77.4 
77.0 


144^291 ,4ef 

117,116,243 

21,667,092 

18,238,922 

21,724,086 

15,032,604 

9,317,996 

6,794,801 

11,173,521 

9,635,571 

15,882,21^ 

I0,40»,361 

58,508,798 

65,894,278 

11,092,581 

11,244,603- 

11,947,731 

13,412,379 

10,073,596 

10,299,844 

38,352,968 

28,067,714 

11,080,944 

11,256,613 

12,636,329 

12,570,010 

8,278,»ffi8 

6,171,551 

82,012,247 

22,141,461 

38^960,748 

28,372,314 

39,034,540 

16,490,016 

14,096,471 

18,886,068 

87,098,502 

31,633,483 

271,369.816 

216,128,941 

9,713,978 

6,966,1^ 

129,m,44»' 

110,478,327 

11,048,512 

8,868,290' 

10/)81,858( 

6,620,257 

7,012,0t;2 

5,967,532 

44,053,940' 

30,88S,104 

61,973,944 

40,667,363 

6,577,810 

5,21»e.390 


qniie  (1803)  semi^ annual  bank  reports  to  be 
ewom  to  by  the  directors.  Thus  its  banks  were 
put  on  a  firmer  basis  and  passed  through  the 
panic  of  1808-9  in  better  shape  than  the  other 
New  England  banks  as  a  rule.  In  1814  again  the 
Massachusetta  banks  showed  their  superior 
stiength.  A  comprehensive  banking  law  was 
enacted  in  1829,  with  stringent  provisions  as  to 
capitaliaation.  and  limits  of  circulation.  Yet 
theae  were  evaded  during  the  speculative  regime 
of  1830*^36;  as  a  consequence  in  the  financial  de- 
preaaion  1837-44,  32  banks  failed.  In  1838,  how- 
ever, a  system  of  official  examination  of  banks 
by  a  board  of  bank  commissioners  was  adopted. 
The  banking  law  of  !857  provided  for  o^e  com- 
misaioiisr.  Under  this  improved  '^v^t^^m  t^v-p 
was  only  one  bank  failure  in  the  panic  of  1857. 
The  banking  capital  of  the  State  banks  reached 


itsmaximiun  in  1862,  when  there  were  138  banks,, 
with  a  capital  of  $67,544,200.  When  the  system 
of  national  banks  was  introduced,  State  banks  of 
discount  were  proliibitetl  and  do  not  exist  at 
present  The  necessity  for  loans  on  real  estate 
(which  the  national  banks  are  prohibited  from 
making)  led  to  the  development  of  trust  com- 
panies. Savings  banks  are  numerous  and  popu- 
lar, and  their  investment  and  general  manage- 
ment are  strictly  regulated  by  law.  In  1906 
there  were  205  national  banks,  with  capital  $60,- 
238,000,  surplus  $30,710,000,  cash,  etc.,  $28,456,- 
000,  loans  $279,(148,000,  and  deposits  $243,401,- 
000;  45  trust  companies,  with  an  aggregate  cap- 
ital of  $17,720,000.  surplus  of  $19,960,000,  cash 
«5Q.790.7OO,  loans  of  $148,130,000,  and  deposits 
SI 77.787,000;  189  savings  banks,  with  1,829,487 
depositors  and  deposits  of  $662,808,000. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


XASSACHUSETTS. 


160 


XASSACHUSETT& 


Government.  The  Constitution  is  that  of 
1780  with  amendments  adopted  at  different 
periods  since.  A  proposed  amendment  must  re- 
ceive a  majority  vote  of  the  Senators  and  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  the  House  at  two  consecutive  ses- 
sions, and  afterwards  be  approved  by  a  majority 
vote  of  the  people.  In  order  to  vote,  one  must 
have  lived  in  the  State  one  year  and  in  the  town 
or  district  six  months,  and  registration  is  re- 
quired. Suffrage  is  further  conditioned  upon  the 
payment  of  taxes  by  the  voter  and  his  ability  to 
read  English  and  to  write  his  name. 

Legislative.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  General  Court,  composed  of  a  Senate  of  40 
members  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  240 
members,  elected  respectively  from  Senatorial  and 
Representative  districts,  composed  of  contiguous 
undivided  towns  or  wards,  and  upon  the  basis 
of  population.  The  election  occurs  annually,  on 
the  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in  No- 
vember. The  General  Court  or  Legislature  meets 
on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January  and  such  other 
times  as  the  members  judge  necessary,  or  when 
called  by  the  Grovemor.  Money  bills  must  origi- 
nate in  the  Lower  House.  The  power  of  impeacn- 
ment  rests  with  the  House,  the  trial  of  impeach- 
ment with  the  Senate.  A  two-thirds  vote  of  each 
House  overrides  the  Governor's  veto.  The  capital 
of  the  State  is  Boston. 

Executive.  The  Governor  and  other  principal 
executive  officers  are  elected  annually  by  the 
people.  A  council  composed  of  eight  members, 
■elected  annually  by  districts,  gives  the  Governor 
advice  upon  matters  of  official  duty.  The  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor succeeds  to  the  Governorship  in 
case  of  its  vacancy,  and  if  the  office  again  be- 
comes vacant  the  council  performs  the  executive 
functions.  The  Governor  and  council  grant  par- 
dons for  offenses. 

Judiciary.  The  supreme  judicial  court  con- 
sists of  a  Chief  Justice  and  six  associate  justices. 
The  superior  court  consists  of  a  Chief  Justice  and 
15  associate  justices.  All  judges  in  the  State 
are  appointed  by  the  Governor  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  council,  and  they  hold  office 
during  good  behavior.  Each  county  has  a  pro- 
bate court  and  court  of  insolvency,  distinct  in 
their  jurisdiction,  powers,  etc.,  but  having  the 
same  judge  and  register.  These  courts  are  held 
by  the  judge  of  probate  and  insolvency  appointed 
for  the  county;  but  the  judges  of  the  several 
counties  may,  in  case  of  necessity  or  convenience, 
interchange  services. 

Local  Government.  The  General  Court  estab- 
lishes municipal  governments  in  towns  exceeding 
12,000  population,  with  the  consent  and  upon 
the  application  of  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 
All  by-laws  of  such  city  governments,  however, 
are  at  all  times  subject  to  annulment  by  the  Gen- 
eral Court.  Sheriffs,  registers  of  probate,  and 
clerks  of  the  courts  are  elected  by  the  people  of 
the  several  counties.  District  attorneys  are 
chosen  by  the  people  of  the  districts. 

Statutory  Provisions.  The  legal  rate  of  in- 
terest is  6  per  cent.  Willful  desertion  for  three 
years,  failure  to  provide  for  that  period,  and 
habitual  drunkenness  are  among  causes  for  which 
divorce  is  granted.  Under  the  local  option  law 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  cities  and  towns 
prohibit  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors. 

The  State  has  14  Representatives  in  the  Lower 
House  of  the  National  Congress. 


Finance.  Massachusetts  has  always  been  one 
of  the  leading  States  in  matters  of  finance  and 
taxation,  and  its  methods  have  been  often  fol- 
lowed by  other  States.  In  1646  the  Colony  intro- 
duced a  system  of  direct  taxation  and  a  poll  tax, 
and  soon  after  a  'faculties'  tax,  which  had  income 
as  a  basis.  The  first  treasurer's  report,  though 
crude,  was  published  in  1655.  When  in  1690 
Massachusetts  was  reorganized  under  a  provincial 
charter,  direct  taxation  upon  property  and  a  poll 
tax  were  again  made  the  main  foundation  of  the 
revenue  system.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  lotteries  were  established  for  many  ex- 
traordinary and  even  normal  needs  of  the  treas- 
ury. The  system  was  abandoned  in  1765  only  to 
be  reestablished  at  the  advent  of  the  Revolution. 
In  1786  the  direct  debt  of  the  State  was  $5,000,- 
000  and  as  much  more  was  the  State's  share  of 
the  national  debt.  The  immediate  current  liabili- 
ties were  $1,500,000.  In  1790,  however,  a  large 
part  of  this  debt  was  assumed  by  the  Federal 
Government.  By  1794  the  State  debt  was  almost 
canceled.  A  well  regulated  system  of  taxation 
of  corporations  grew  up  in  Massachusetts  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Banks  were 
taxed  after  1812,  and  insurance  companies  after 
1832.  The  public  debt  grew  during  the  Civil 
War.  It  amounted  at  one  time  to  more  than 
$32,000,000.  By  1871,  however,  it  had  been  re- 
duced to  $16,573,000,  for  the  payment  of  which 
there  was  created  a  sinking  fund  of  $8,261,000. 
The  public  debt  grew  again  rapidly  in  the  seven- 
ties because  of  many  railroad  loans  and  other 
public  improvements,  but  it  was  always  well  pro- 
tected with  a  sinking  fund.  On  December  1, 1906, 
the  funded  debt  for  which  the  State  was  directly 
responsible  was  $32,569,750.  The  contingent  debt 
for  which  the  State  loaned  its  credit  to  various 
cities  was  $68,968,412.  The  total  cash  in  the 
treasury  was  $5,060,126;  the  securities  were  val- 
ued at  $33,487,152.  The  general  revenues  for 
the  eleven  months  ending  November  30,  1906, 
were  $34,587,338  (20  per  cent,  from  loans,  25 
per  cent,  from  corporation  taxes,  and  16  per  cent, 
from  taxes  on  banks  and  insurance  companies. 
The  expenditures  for  the  eleven  months  were 
$34,209,498.  The  total  assessed  valuation  of  tax- 
able property  in  Massachusetts  in  1906  was 
$4,370,962,467. 

Militia.  According  to  the  census  of  1900  there 
were  632,369  men  of  militia  age  in  the  State. 
The  militia  in  1906  numbered  5568. 

Population.  The  population  by  decades  has 
been  as  follows:  1790,  378,000;  1800,  422,000; 
1810,  472,000;  1820,  523,000;  1830,  610,000; 
1840,  737,000;  1850,  994,000;  1860,  1,231,000; 
1870,  1,457,000;  1880,  1,783,000;  1890,  2,238,000; 
1900,  2,805.000;  1905,  3,003,680.  In  1790  Massa- 
chusetts ranked  fourth  in  population,  then  gradu- 
ally fell  to  the  eighth  place  in  1840,  since  which 
period  its  rank  has  been  sixth  or  seventh.  In 
density  it  stood  (1900)  second,  with  a  population 
of  348  to  the  square  mile.  The  percentage  of  in- 
crease in  the  decade  1890-1900  was  25.3,  being  ex- 
ceeded by  that  of  only  four  other  States  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  The  increase  in  the  class 
of  native  born  of  native  parents  was  small 
(about  76,000),  and  of  the  foreign  born, 
large.  The  increase  of  the  native  bom  of 
foreign  parents  was  equal  to  the  other  two 
classes  combined.  Until  near  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  the  people  of  Massachusetts 
were  almost  wholly  of  English  descent.     Two 


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movements,  however,  have  wrought  a  vast 
change  with  respect  to  race.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  migration  westward  of  the  native  popu- 
lation. The  other  was  the  great  influx  of  foreign- 
ers, largely  from  Ireland  and  Canada,  those  from 
the  latter  country  being  mainly  of  French  descent. 
The  foreign  bom  in  1900  numbered  840,000,  or  30 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  while  897,000 
were  native  bom  children  of  foreign  parents,  thus 
making  the  present  population  of  tne  State  pre- 
dominantly of  a  non-English  type.  The  influence 
of  the  westward  emigration  from  the  State  and 
the  increased  opportunity  for  females  to  find  em- 
ployment in  the  mills  and  at  domestic  service  has 
resulted  in  a  preponderance  of  this  sex,  the  per- 
centage of  females  being  61.3 — greater  than  in 
any  other  State.  The  decided  growth  of  the 
manufacturing  industry  has  resulted  furthermore 
in  placing  the  State  second  in  the  percentage  of 
its  urban  population.  There  are  69  towns  hav- 
ing over  8000  inhabitants,  which  is  a  larger  num- 
ber than  in  any  other  State.  In  1906  the  popula- 
tion of  Boston  was  602,278;  Worcester,  130,078; 
Fall  River,  105,942;  Lowell,  95,173;  Cambridge, 
98,544;  Lynn,  78,748;  Lawrence,  71,548;  New 
Bedford,  76,746;  Springfield,  75,836;  Somerville, 
70,798;  Holyoke,  50,778;  Brockton.  49,340; 
Haverhill,  37,961;  Salem,  37,961;  Chelsea,  37,- 
932;  Maiden,  38,912;  Newton,  37,475;  Fitohburjj, 
33,319;  Taunton,  30,953;  Gloucester,  25,989. 

Religion.  In  the  colonial  period  the  population 
belonged  mainly  to  the  Congregational  Church. 
Before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
Baptists  and  Methodists  had  become  prominent 
and  are  now  leading  denominations.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  Massachusetts  be- 
came the  centre  of  Unitarianism  in  the  United 
States.  The  Episcopalians  have  a  considerable 
following.  With  the  coming  of  large  numbers  of 
Irish  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  Catholic  Church  for  the  first  time  became 
prominent,  and  it  is  now  much  stronger  than 
any  one  of  the  Protestant  denominations. 

Education.  The  establishment  of  public 
schools  was  regarded  as  an  important  matter 
from  the  first  settlement.  The  first  free  school 
was  oivaiiized  in  1635,  and  Harvard  College  was 
founded  in  1636.  In  1647  a  statute  was  enacted 
that  each  town  having  50  families  should  maintain 
a  school  to  teach  the  children  to  read  and  write, 
and  each  town  having  100  families  a  grammar 
school  to  fit  youths  for  college.  This  statute  was 
amplified  and  amended,  until  the  system  has  be- 
come one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  The  State 
Board  of  Education  was  created  in  1837.  Horace 
Mann  was  its  first  secretary,  and  his  reports  and 
labors  gave  impulse  and  vigor  to  the  schools  of 
the  entire  Union.  The  educational  system  of  the 
State  holds  its  high  rank  by  virtue  of  its  superior 
organization  and  supervision,  its  adequate  finan- 
cial support,  and  its  admirable  adaptability  to 
the  needs  of  all.  The  local  unit  of  organization 
is  the  town  (township),  each  town  having  a 
school  committee  appointed  by  the  people  and  a 
skilled  superintendent  appointed  by  the  commit- 
tee. The  State  Board  is  the  central  coordinating 
and  supervisory  body  and  between  it  and  the 
local  organizations  stsind  the  agents  of  the  State 
Board,  each  of  whom  has  his  particular  district 
or  his  special  phase  of  educational  work  to  over- 
see. Thus  uniformity  and  eflSciency  in  super- 
vision are  secured.  Financial  support  is  secured 
by  taxation  and  by  the  income  irom  the  State 


school  fund.  This  fund  was  established  in  1834 
from  proceeds  derived  from  the  sale  of  lands  in 
the  State  of  Maine,  and  from  the  claims  of  Mas- 
sachusetts upon  the  United  States  for  military 
services,  and  it  has  been  greatly  augmented  from 
numerous  sources,  the  total  on  Becember  31, 
1906,  amounting  to  $4,980,111.  The  fund  has  de- 
rived its  great  efficiency  from  the  admirable  man- 
ner in  which  its  income  has  been  distributed, 
having  been  used  from  the  beginning  so  as  to 
stimulate  the  towns  to  greater  exertion  for  edu- 
cational purposes.  It  has  lifted  the  standard 
in  the  poorer  localities  by  increasing  their  allow- 
ances at  the  expense  of  the  more  wealthy  munic- 
ipalities. At  present  towns  with  a  taxable  valu- 
ation of  over  $3,000,000  derive  no  benefits  from 
the  fund,  while  the  poorer  localities,  in  addition 
to  lump  sum  allotments,  which  vary  inversely  to 
the  property  valuation,  receive  also  assistance  for 
superintendents'  and  teachers'  salaries  and  cer- 
tain other  purposes.  With  this  financial  back- 
ing, every  town  is  enabled  to  maintain  a  long 
school  term.  The  minimum  established  by  law  is 
eight  months.  In  1906  no  town  or  city  fell  under 
this  limit,  while  the  average  for  all  was  9.7 
months  and  has  exceeded  9  months  since  1890. 
The  system  also  enables  fair  wages  to  be  paid  the 
teachers,  the  men  (constituting  one-tenth  of  the 
total  number)  receiving  an  average  of  $149  per 
month,  and  the  women  an  average  of  $57  per 
month.  The  scope  and  completeness  of  the 
school  system  of  Massachusetts  are  realized  when 
it  is  seen  that,  in  addition  to  the  grammar 
schools,  there  are  ( 1906 )  263  high  schools,  every 
child  having  the  advantage  of  free  high-school 
tuition ;  that  56  towns  and  cities  maintain  night 
schools;  that  39  towns  and  cities  maintain  a 
kindergarten  system ;  that  every  town  with  a  pop- 
ulation above  20,000  affords  manual  training  m 
its  high  schools;  and  that  the  training  of  teach- 
ers is  provided  for  by  the  maintenance  of  ten 
normal  schools.  All  this  is  supplemented  by  pri- 
vate schools,  having  in  1906  a  total  endowment 
of  $1 1,695,897.  While  there  was  a  reduction  after 
1890  in  the  number  attending  private  schools  of 
academic  rank,  there  was  a  decided  increase  in 
the  number  attending  other  private  schools;  the 
total  enrollment  in  private  schools  in  1906  was 
91,363,  only  5363  of  whom  were  in  academies.  If 
one  applies  the  test  of  enrollment  and  attendance 
he  finds  that  out  of  a  total  of  522,313  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  fifteen  in  1906  450,258 
were  enrolled  in  the  public  schools;  the  total  en- 
rollment in  public  day  schools  was  508,816,  and 
the  average  daily  attendance  was  415,508.  The 
average  taxation  cost  for  all  school  purposes  per 
child  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  was  $32.82  in 
1906. 

While  the  State  system  of  education  does  not 
include  higher  institutions  of  learning  excepting 
normal  colleges,  these  have  been  amply  pro- 
vided by  private  enterprise.  Detailed  informa- 
tion concerning  these  institutions  will  be  found 
under  their  separate  headings.  The  oldest  col- 
legiate institution  is  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge (non-sectarian).  The  others  (exclusive  of 
those  for  women ) .  in  the  order  of  their  founding, 
are:  Williams  College  (Congregational),  Wil- 
liamstown;  Amherst  College  (Congregational), 
Amherst;  College  of  the  Holy  Cross  (Roman 
Catholic),  Worcester;  Tufts  College  (Univer- 
salist).  Tufts  College  Station;  Boston  College 
(Roman  Catholic)  ;   Boston  University    (Metho- 


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difit  Epifloopal)  ;  and  Clark  University  ( non- 
sectarian ),  Woroflstei!.  Tb«  colleges  for  woman 
are,  ia  simiAaE  order:  !Mmint  Holjoka  Colkip, 
South  Hadley;  Welltolby  €olkge,  Wellesle^K; 
Smith  CoUc^,  Nortluunpton ;  and  Radclifi^  Col- 
lege,  Ceaabmdgii  all  non^sectarian.  The  thoe- 
logical  infltitution»  are:  Andover  Theologixsal 
Seminaiy  (CoD|3pKgational),  Andover;  Newtion 
Theofogical  institution  (Baptist),  Newtott;  Har- 
▼aid  Divinity  School  ( non-sectariao )  ;  New 
Chureh  Theological  School,  Cambridge;  Boston 
UniireiTaity  School*  of  Theology  (non-seatarian 
under  Metiiodfcist  auspices)  ;  Protestant  Bpiacopal 
Theological  School,  Carnbridge;  Tuft»  College 
Divinity  School  (Universalist),  Tufts-  Colkge 
Stajtion*  There  are  two  law  schools,  that  of  Har- 
vard and  that  of  the  Boston  University.  The 
schools  of  medicine  are :  Harvard  Medical  School, 
the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeona,  Boston, 
Tufts  College  Medical  School,  and  Boston  Uni- 
versity School  (homcBOpathic).  There  are  also 
Boston  Dental  College,  Harvard  Dental  School, 
and  Massachusetts  College  of  Pharmac5\  The 
schools  of  science  are  six  in  number,  viz. :  Massa- 
chusetts A^icultural  College  at  Amherst;  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technology  in  Bioston; 
Lawrence  Scientific  School,  Cambridge;  Claidc 
University,  WoRjester;  Worcester  Polytechnic 
Institute.  The  New  England  Conservatory  of 
MJusic  at  Boston  and  the  Boston  University  Col- 
lege of  Mtimo  have  high  standards  of  require- 
ment. 

Chaiutable,  Penal,  and  Refohmatohy  Insti- 
TUTI0N9.  The  StSEtte  schools  for  the  deaf  are  Hie 
Amerioan-  School  at  Hkirtford,  the  Clarke  Sehool 
at  Northampton,  the  New  England  Industrial 
Schoc^  at  Beverly,  the  Horace  Mann  Schoel-  at 
Boston,  the  Boston  School  for  the  Deaf,  and  the 
Sarah  Fuller  Home  at  Medford.  The  blind  are 
educated  at  the  Perkins  Institution  and  Massa- 
chusetts School  for  the  Blind.  The  feeblte-minded 
are  provided  for  at  the  Massachusetts  School  for 
the  Feeblfe-Minded,  located  at  Waltham.  Other 
charitable  institutions  are  the  State  Hospital 
(almshouse)  at  Tewksbury;  State  Sanatorium 
for  Tuberculosis  at  Rutland;  State  Primary 
School  at  Monson ;  Lyman  School  for .  Bays  at 
VVestborough ;  State  Industrial  School  for  Girls 
at  Lancaster;  School  and  Home  for  Crippled  and 
Deformed  Children  at  Canton  (to  be  opened  Sep- 
tember, 1907)  ;  State  Fann  at  Bridgewater;  in- 
sane hospitals  at  Taunton,  Northampton,  Dan- 
vers,  Westborough,  and  Worcester;  Hospital  for 
Inebriates  at  Eoxborough ;  and  Hospital  for  Efd- 
lepties  at  Monson.  TJie  total  number  of  inmates 
in  the  fifteen  foregoing  institutions  on  November 
30,  1906,  was  10,239,  of  whom  4978  were  in  the 
asylums  for  insane.  Besides  the  above  there  are 
many  city  and  town  almshouses,  and  over  500 
voluntary  charitable  homes  and  asylums.  The 
number  of  inmates  of  town  and  city  almshouses 
in  1906  was  4720.  The  net  cost  of  all  paupers  in 
Massachusetts — State  and  town — increased  from 
$2,442,000  in  1890  to  $5,091,489  in  1906.  The 
cost  per  each  inhabitant  of  Massachusetts  in- 
creased during  the  same  period  from  $1.06  to 
$1.60.  On  January  1,  1904,  the  State  assumed 
the  support  of  all  dependent  insane,  many  of 
whom  were  previously  supported  by  towns.  The 
number  supported  by  tlie  State  increased  from 
1737  in  1903  to  7703  in  1908.  The  State  main- 
tains a  reformatory  for  men  at  Concord,  and  a 
reformatory  for  women  at  Sherborn.    Convicts  in 


tbe  State  prison,  reftimatories,  jails,  and  hooses 
of  correetion  work  oiriy  under  ttie  pu51ic  iMcount 
sj^stem,  except  in-  case  of  the  indnatries  of  eane- 
sea«ing-  and'  making  nmbrellaB.  Both  in  the  StAte 
and  county  inetitutions  the  labop  of  priBonere  i» 
undev  t^  saperrieion  of  the  General  Superintend- 
ent of  Priaoas..  The  Stole  Board  of  Charities, 
oonsiating  of  nine  megn^rs^  ie  vested  with  greaiter 
p»w«r  than  i»  comanonly  exercieed  hv  similar 
baarda  in  other  States.  They  have  made  decided 
improvements  in  t&e  adminiatmtion  of  ahmat- 
able  mShiins  smh  a*  tile  curtailment  of  uoaeees- 
snry  aid  which- onaatei  rather  than  lessens  pauper- 
ism; or,  agaitty  the  mom  judloious  treatment  of 
diildren  who  may  re^re  the  attention  of  State 
authoritiesi  The  tMidency  in  the  latter  kind  of 
aase»  is  to  find  homes  for,  or  board  children  in, 
private  families  rather  than  in  institutions,  great 
eace  being*  taken  to  find  proper  homes  and  to  keep 
in  close  toneh  wit^  the  childmif  placed  therein. 
A»  a  oonsequente,  although  the  number  of  ehil- 
d*»en  in  State  care  and  austody  has  increased  froin 
2065  in  lH<ia  to  3806  in  1906,  the  number  in  in- 
stitutions has  decreased  during^  that  time  from 
70  per  cent,  to  5  per  cent,  of  the  totaL  There 
were  aleo  647  ekilc&reiL  in  county  truant  sohools. 

HiSTOBT.  In  1602  Bartholomew  Qosnold  (q.v.) 
eff'ected  a  settlement  on  Guttyihink  ftland,  be- 
tween Buzzard's  Bay  and  Vineyard  Sound,  but 
the  colony  was  abandbned  after  three  weeks.  The 
first  snceessful  attempt  at  colonization  was  made 
by  a  band  of  Pilgrims,  r02  in  mtraber,  -who  came 
from  Ley  den  in:  Holland;  They  were  a  Puritan 
sect,  known  as  Separatists  or  Brownists.  who 
had  fled  from.  England  to  Holland  in  160»  to 
escape  persecution,  and,  weary  of  living  in  a  for- 
eign land,  had  determined  ttt  found  a  place  of 
refuge  in  America.  Through  a  company  of  mer- 
chant adVentuners,  a  raatent.  was  obtained  from 
the  Council  ftrr  New  England  fbr  a  settlement 
within  the  limits  of  'Virginia.'  They  set  sail 
from  Delft  Haven,  July  22^  1620.  and  from 
Plymouth  in  England  on  the  sixth  of  September. 
It  was  their  intention  to  settle  south  of  the 
Hudson  River,  but  storms  drove  the  Mapflbtocr 
to  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Cod,  and  on  Decem- 
ber 11th  (new  style  December  21st,  the  anniver- 
sary of  Forefathers'^  Day  being  celebrated  on  De- 
cember 22d)  the  emigrants  landed  at  Plymouth 
Rock. 

Before  landing  they  drew  up  and  subscribed 
to  a  compact  or  frame  of  government  for  the  new 
settlement,  and  elected  John  Carver  Governor  for 
one  year.  Shortly  after  landing  they  entered  into 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Indian,  chief  Massa- 
soit  and  his  tribe,  which  remained  unbroken  for 
a  long  time.  Within  four  months  forty-four  of 
the  colonists  died  from  exposure  to  the  cold  and 
the  lack  of  wholesome  food,  and  for  two  years 
they  suffered  many  privations,  but  in  1623  they 
were  relieved  by  a  bountiful  harvest.  Others 
from  the  Leyde'n  Church  joined  them,  and  by 
1631  six  hundred  persons — nearly  the  whole  of 
that  body — had  emigrated.  In  1624  the  property 
of  the  Colony,  which  had  been  held  as  common, 
was  divided  among  the  settlers;  in  1627  the 
rights  of  the  trading  company  were  bought  out, 
and  two  years  later  a  patent  confirminsr  the  colo- 
nists' right  to  the  territory  they  had  occupied 
was  issued  to  (Jovemor  Bradford  and  others.  The 
Colony  grew  up  in  practical  independence,  and, 
organized  as  a  perfect  democracy,  it  carried  on 
its  government  without  any  royal  sanction.     By 


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1640  there  vem  eight  towns  witii  2500  inhabi- 
tants in  the  Plymouth  Colony  Outside  the  lim- 
its of  the  Colony  several  scattered,  settlements 
were  mads  in.  Bostom  Haribos  between  1623  and 
1628. 

la  1629  an  expeditioB/  oriraBiflsd-  by  an  English 
company  aad  commanded  by  John  Endicott  land- 
ed at  SaleoL    The  oompany  had  obtained  a  gfoat 
of  the  territory  lying  between  the  Atlantio  and 
Pacific  and  extending  to  a  point  thnse  miles  south 
of  the  river  Charles  and  three  miles  north  of 
the  river  Meiariraiia.     iifter  persistent  efforts  a 
royal  patent  was  obtained  for  the  Governor  and 
company'    of  the   ]Vfeis3achssett»  Bay,    and   the 
associates  were  constituted  a  body  politic,  with 
a  GoTcmoc,  deputy,  and  eighteen  assistants  to 
be  annually  elected,  and  a  general  assembly  of 
the  freemen,,  with  legislative  powers  to  meet  four 
times  in  a.  year,  or  oftener  if  necessary.     Meas- 
ures contzary  to  English  laws  and  statutes  wese 
forbidden  by  the  charter,  but  religious  liberty 
was  not  named  in  the  document,  though  this  was 
the  Hltimate  aim  of  the  enugractB.    la.  1629  the 
colony  was  zeSnfereed  and  the  government  and 
patent  of  the   company  were  transferred   from 
London  to  New  England.     The  old.  oSlceis   r- 
signed,  giving  plaoe  to  others  chosen  from  among 
those  who  were  about  to  emigrate,  John  Win- 
throp  being  elected  Govemoc    The  Colony  grew 
rapidly.     The  conflict  betwscn  tha  Puritans  and 
Charles  L  brought  about  a  large  emigration  to 
Massachusetts^  and  between  1630  and  1640  about 
20.000  persons  arrived  in  tfa«  Colony.     Charles- 
town,  Boston,  Watertown>  Dorehester,  RoxbuTV, 
Mystie,  Saugus  (Lynn) ,  and  other  placea  were  set- 
tled at  this  period.  The  settlers  of  Massaohusetts 
Bay,  as  distinguished  from  the  Plymouth  pilgrims, 
were  wealthy,  and  as  a  role  of  a  hij^r  social 
class.  They  came  iti  congregations  under  the  lead 
of  their  ministersy  who-  were  graduates  of  the  Eng- 
lish universities.    Fraternal  relations  were  quick- 
ly established  between  the  two  colonies*  however. 
Education  was  fostered  from  the  begnmin^.  Har- 
vard College  was  founded  in  1636^  and  in  16^ 
a  system  of  public  schools  was  organized.  Having 
no  charter  to  occasion  diisputes,  Plymouth  Col- 
ony prospered  peacefully  and  monotonously,  and 
its  history  is  unmarred  by  records  of  religious 
narrowness;  but  Massaehusetts  Bay  was  in  txur- 
moil  from  the  first,  owing  to  its  theocratic  gov- 
ernment and  the  stem  and  arbitrary  conduct  of 
the  magistrates.     It  was  the  desire  to  escape 
from  the  yoke  of  the  Massachusetts  theocracy 
that  led  to  the  settlement  of  Rhode  Island  ai^ 
Comiecticut.     Prejudiced  by  the  dissensions  be- 
tween magistrates  and  people,  and  by  the  fear 
that  the  Colony  would  become  independent,  the 
Crown  demanded  back  ths  charter  in  1634;  but 
the  colonists  evaded  the  order,  made  preparations 
to  resist,  and  were  fortunate  in  having  attention 
diverted  from  them  by  the  political  troubles  in 
England.    To  strengthen  itself,  the  Bay  Govemr 
ment  exacted  an  oath  of  allegiance  in   1633-34^ 
and  that  he  had  opposed  this  oath  as  well  as  the 
patent  was  the  main  reason  for  the  banishment 
of  Roger  Williams    (q.v.).     The  banishment  of 
Anne   Hutchinson     (q.v.)     and    the    hanging   of 
Quakers  were  excused  by  the  authorities  on  the 
RTound  that  their  teachings  endangered  the  sta- 
bility of  the  govermment:   and  the  same  spirit 
was  at  the  basis  of  the  aet  which  made  church 
membership  a  qualification  for  the  franchise,  and 
finally  made  the  Congrregational  the  established 


Church  of  the  Colony  (I«61).  In  1643  MasM- 
diusette  Bay  united  withi  Plymouth^  Conneetieut, 
and  New  Hav«n  ia  form  the  New  England  Cob- 
fedevaey,  for  pav)tee[tion  a^painst.  the  Indians  and 
the  Dutch. 

The  rastoration  9t  tbcr  ataarta  vma  followed  by 
finesh  dispvAsB  with  the^  Grovm,  but  in  1662  the 
Kin|^  confltmed  the  MbBsaafausetts  <diarter,  and 
made  a  conditional  pramiie  ot  amnesty  for  past 
political  offenses.  He  insisted^  however,  upon  his 
right  to  interfere  in  the  affatBs  ol  the  Colony,  it- 
qjiired  the  complete  toleration  of  the  Cfauffch  of 
England,  the  taking  of  an  oath  of  allegiance,  and 
the  administration  of  jnstiee  ia  his  name.  Com- 
missioners were  sent  over  from  En^and  to  inves- 
tigats  the  afiGairs  of  the  Colony,  but  they  met  with 
defiance  from  the  magistrates  and  eonld  accom- 
plish nothing.  The  contest  with  the  Crown  con- 
tinued in  spite  of  the  pressure  of  the-  Indian  War 
(L675-76),  in  whioh  the  New  England  colonies 
were  plunged.  (Sea  Philip,  Kmo.)  Charles  H. 
was  iaocnsed  at  tha  independent  eanrse  of  the 
Colony  in  assuming  certain  sovereign  powers,  as 
it  had  done  ia>  coining  mon^,  or  taking*  poaaea- 
^on  ol  the  Maine  flsttTements.  The  English  merr- 
chants  were  irritated  by  the  actrm  tnadcr  that 
was  oarried  on  iUef^y  with  the  West  Indies 
and  Europe.  Edmuad  Sandolph  iqiv.)  urged  on 
the  Enfflish  GovemzBeai  against  the  Colony,  and 
Maaeaohusetts,  under  its  thsocraey,  en  its  sidfe, 
would  maka  no  eonnflsion.  In  1664  the-  charter 
of  the  Cblooy  was-  declared  forfeited,  the  General 
Court  was  dissolved,  and  a  loyal  camn»SMbn 
au^rseded  the  ofaarteor  government.  In  1^6  Sir 
Bdmnnd  Andros  was  made  €rovevnoF,  and  ruled 
without  restraint  and  without  sense.  When  news 
of  the-  landuDg  o£  WilUam  o£  Osange  in  England 
arrived^  the  people  of  Boston  threw  Andrea  into 
prison,.retfstaibed  the  old  magistrates,  and  revived 
the  General  Court.  In  1692  a  new  charter  was 
granted  uniting  Massaehusttts  Bay  aad  Plym- 
outh.. Ifts  terms,  howevira*,  were  less  favorable 
than  the  old  charter,  in  that  the  Governor,  Dep- 
uty Gowmor,  and  Secretary  weire  to  be  appointed 
by  tilt  King,  and  the  members  of  the  Assembly 
were  to  be  elected  by  ^meholdeKs  instead  of 
church  members.  In  1692-99  the  witchcraft  delu- 
sion broke  out  in  Salem  and  vicinity,  but  the  ex- 
citement was  short-lived,  aitd  was  confined  to  a 
limited  area.  (See  Witchcraft.)  In  1703-04  and 
1722-25  there  were  waars  with  the  Indiana.  The 
Colony  aided  En^and  zealously  in  her  contest 
with  France,  notably  in  the  capture  of  Port 
Hoyal  (1600),  and  of  Louisburg  (1746).  (See 
Peppbrrbll,  WmjAM. )  In  the  early  French  and 
Indian  wars  the  settlers  of  western  Massachu- 
setts sufi'ered  greatly  at  the  hands  of  the  Indiana ; 
towns  like  Haverhill  and  Deerfield  were  sub- 
jected to  pillage,  many  of  the  inhabitants  were 
massacred,  and  the  survivors  led  away  into  cap- 
tivity. In  1765  the  popuiation  of  Massachusetts 
was  about  240,6001  falling  into  well  defined 
classes,  but  all  equal  ia  political  power,  and  held 
firmly  together  by  the  conseiousness  of  a  cominon 
origin  and  the  possession  of  a  common  creed. 
The  austerity  of  seventeenth-century  Puritanism 
had  passed  away  in  great  measure,  but  Church 
and  State  were  still  connected,  and  thp  Great 
Revival  of  1740  showed  how  deeply  faith  lay 
rooted  in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  The  first 
printing  press  had  been  brought  over  in  1639j  and 
a  newspaper,  the  Boston  yews  Letter^  was 
issued  in   1704.     Educational   institutions  were 


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XASSACHXJSETT& 


tieing  constantly   founded.     Property   was   well 
•diffused,  though  for  half  a  century  after  1690  the 
<jolony  suffer^  from  a  reckless  financial  policy, 
^whieh  flooded  the  country  with  paper  money.    In 
resistance  to  the  arbitrary  acts  of  the  British 
Parliament,  Massachusetts  was  the  pioneer.    The 
struggle  against  the  writs  of  assistance  and  the 
famous  speech  of  James  Otis  (May,  1761 )  marked 
the  opening  of  the  contest  which  ended  in  inde- 
pendence.     The    opposition   to   the    Stamp   Act, 
the  Boston  massacre,  the  destruction  of  tne  tea 
in  Boston  Harbor,  the  closing  of  the  port  of  Bos- 
ton, and  the  virtual  annulment  of  the  charter,  fol- 
lowed in  rapid  succession.     In  October,  1774,  the 
Cieneral  Court  resolved  itself  into  a  Provincial 
-Congress  and  proceeded  to  erect  an  independent 
iJtate  government.    The  organization  of  a  militia 
amd  the  storing  of  supplies  led  to  Lexington  and 
O>neord.      (For  military  operations  during  the 
Jtevolution,  see  United  States.)      In  the  war 
Massachusetts    took    the    leading    part,    though 
her    population    was    by    no    means    united    m 
^he     cause     of     the     Revolution.      Among    the 
lx>yalists    who    were    banished    or    who    volun- 
tarily   abandoned    their    homes    were    many    of 
the  most  prominent  and  wealthy  families.     In 
1780  a  constitution  was  adopted,  and  by  the  Bill 
of  Rights,  prefixed  to  it,  slavery,  as  was  subse- 
^juently  decided  by  the  courts,  was  abolished.    In 
1786  the  rising  known  as  Shays's  Rebellion,  oc- 
casioned by  heavy  taxes  and  the  poverty  of  the 
people,    occurred    in    the    western    part    of    the 
State.    The  Anti-Federalist  element  in  the  State 
vas  powerful  till    1797,  and   the  United  States 
Constitution  was  ratified  in  January,   1788.  by 
tiie  close  vote  of  187  to  168.    After  1797  the  Fed- 
eralist Party  became  predominant,  the  opposition 
to  the  War  of   1812  was  bitter,  and   delegates 
from  Massachusetts  participated  in  the  Hartford 
Cbnvention    (q.v.).      The    State    remained    stub- 
bornly Federalist  long  after  the  party  had  dis- 
aippeared  everywhere  else,  and  as  a  result  it  took 
little  interest  in  national  afl'airs.   With  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Federalist   Party  greater  liberty  of 
t^hought  came  into  the  fields  of  politics  and  re- 
ligion.    In  1815  'dissenters*  were  released  from 
paying  taxes  to  support  Congregational   minis- 
ters, and  in  1833  the  Congregational  Church  was 
■disestablished.     Educational  development  contin- 
ued under  all  r^imes.    In  1793  WMUiams  College 
and  in  1821  Amherst  College  were  founded,  and 
in  1837  a  State  board  of  education  was  created. 
The    anti-slavery    movement    had    its    birth    in 
Massachusetts,    and    at    Boston    William    Lloyd 
-Garrison    (q.v.)    began    the   publication    of   the 
Liberator  on  January  1,  1831.  Abolitionism  grew 
rapidly  after  1840,  and  was  favored  in  its  growth 
by  such  episodes  as  the  capture  of  the  runaway 
slave  Shadrach  in  the  streets  of  Boston  in  1851, 
and  of  Anthony   Burns  in    1854.     In  the  Civil 
War,  under  the  administration  of  the  patriotic 
Crovernor,  John  A.  Andrew,  the  State  contributed 
nearly  160,000  men  to  the  Union  armies. 

One  of  the  most  important  public  works  ever 
undertaken  by  the  State  was  the  construction  of 
the  Hoosac  Tunnel^  which  was  completed  in  1873. 
legislation  since  the  Civil  War  has  dealt  largely 
i¥ith  the  questions  of  the  liquor  trade,  the  regu- 
lation of  corporations,  municipal  government,  the 
«ivil  service,  and  labor.  As  early  as  1853  a  law 
reducing  the  working  day  from  twelve  hours  to 
ten  was  passed.  Since  then  the  State  has  been 
active  in  caring  for  the  industrial  classes,  to  such 


an  extent,  indeed,  that  after  1895  the  depressed 
condition  of  the  textile  trades  was  attributed  by 
some  to  the  fact  that  employers  were  unduly 
hampered  by  oppressive  State  regulations  passed 
to  protect  labor,  and  could  not  meet  the  competi- 
tion of  the  rising  manufactures  of  the  South. 
In  1898  and  subsequent  years  a  succession  of 
strikes  among  the  mill  operatives  caused  great 
distress  among  the  working  classes.  The  period 
after  the  Civil  War  witnessed  the  rise  of  many 
political  movements.  The  temperance  question 
came  into  prominence  in  1867;  the  question  of 
the  admission  of  women  to  the  suffrage  was  agi- 
tated up  to  1880;  the  National  Labor  Party  ex- 
erted great  influence  in  1878.  From  1858  to  ^1874 
the  State  government  was  Republican.  In  1874 
the  Democrats  elected  their  candidate  for  Gover- 
nor on  an  anti-prohibition  platform;  in  1882 
they  were  victorious  with  Benjamin  F.  Butler  as 
their  candidate.  In  1890  the  revelation  of  cor- 
ruption in  the  Legislature  brought  about  the 
choice  of  a  Democratic  Governor  in  the  person 
of  William  E.  Russell,  whose  great  popularity 
caused  him  to  be  reelected  in  1891  and  1892. 
Since  then  the  State  has  been  Republican  by 
heavy  majorities.  In  national  elections  Massa- 
chusetts has  been  Federalist,  Whig,  and  Republi- 
can, with  the  exception  of  the  years  1804  ( Jefl"er- 
son),  1820  (Monroe),  1824  and  1828  (John 
Quincy  Adams).  The  list  of  colonial  and  State 
Governors  of  Massachusetts  is  as  follows: 

PLTIIOUTH  OOLONT 

John  Carver 1690-21 

WUlIam  Bradford 1621-33 

Edward  Wlnslow 1638-34 

Thomas  Prence 1634-35 

William  Bradford 1635-36 

Edward  Wlnslow 1636-37 

William  Bradford 1637-38 

Thomas  Prence 163B-39 

William  Bradford 1639-44 

Edward  Wlnslow 1644-46 

William  Bradford 1645-67 

Thomas  Prence 1657-73 

Joslah  Wlnslow 1673-81 

Thomas  Hinckley 1681-86 

Sir  Edward  Andros  (Governor-General) 1686-89 

Thomas  Hinckley 1689-93 

Plymouth  Colony  absorbed  by  Massachusetts  Bay. 

MA88ACH178ITTB  BAT  COLOinr 

John  Endlcott 1629-30 

John  Winthrop 1630^4 

Thomas  Dudley 1634-35 

John  Haynes 1635-36 

Henry  Vane 1636-37 

John  Winthrop 1637-40 

Thomas  Dudley 1640-41 

Richard  Belllngham 1641-42 

John  Winthrop 1642-44 

JohnEndlcutt 1644-46 

Thomas  Dudley 1645-46 

John  Winthrop 1646-49 

John  Endlcott 1649-60 

Thomas  Dudley 1650-61 

John  Endicott 1651-54 

Richard  Belllngham 1654-66 

John  Endicott 1655-66 

Richard  Belllngham 1665-73 

John  I^everett 1673-79 

Simon  Bradstreet 1679-84 

Joseph  Dudley  (President  or  Council) 1684-86 

Sir  £dmuQd  Andros  (Oovernor-Qeneral) 1686-88 

Simon  Bradstreet 1688-92 

William  Phlps 1692-94 

William  Stoughton 1694-99 

Richard  Coote,  Earl  of  Bellomont 1699-1700 

William  Stoughton  (acting) 170001 

The  Council 1701-02 

Joseph  Dudley 1702-16 

The  Council 1716 

Joseph  Dudley 1715 

William  Taller  (acting) 1716-16 

Samuel  Shute 1716-28 

William  Dummer  (acting) 1723-28 

William  Burnett 1728-29 


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165     MASa  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY: 


William  Dummer  (acting) 1739^ 

Wimam  Tailer  (acting) , 1780 

Jonathan  Belcher 1730-41 

William  Shirley 1741-49 

Spencer  Phipps  (acting) 174WJ3 

William  Shirley 1763-66 

Spencer  Phipps  (acting) 1766-67 

The  Council 1767 

Thomas  Pownall 1767-60 

Tbomae  Hutchinson  (acting) 1760 

Sir  Francifl  Bernard 1760-69 

Thomas  Hutchinson 1769-74 

Thomas  Gage 1774 

The  Council 1774-80 

STATE 

John  Hancock 1780-86 

Jamee  Bowdoin 1786-87 

John  Hancock 1787-93 

Samuel  Adams 1793-97 

Increase  Sumner Federalist 1797-99 

Moees  GIU  (acting) ••         1799-1800 

Caleb  Strong ••         1800-07 

J&mee  Solliyan Democratic-Republican 1807-08 

Levi  Lincoln  (acting)  **  "         1808-09 

Christopher  Gore Federalist 1809-10 

Elbridge  Gerrj' Democratic- Republican 1810-12 

Caleb  Strong Federalist 1812-16 

John  Brooks "         1816-23 

WllUam  Eustls Democratic-Republican 1823-26 

Marcns  Morton  (acting)         "  "         1825 

Levi  Lincoln Democrat  and  Federalist 1825-34 

John  Davis Whig ..1834-36 

Samuel  T.  Armstrong  (acting)     *•     1835-36 

Edward  Everett "     1836-40 

Marcus  Morton Democrat 1840-41 

John  Davis Whig 1841-43 

Marcus  Morton Democrat 1843-44 

George  N.  Briggs Whig 1844-61 

George  S.  Boutweli Democrat  and  Free  Soil 1851-63 

John  H.  Clifford Whig 1863-64 

Emory  Washburn •*    1864-55 

Heniy  J.  Gardiner American 1856-58 

Nathaniel  P.  Banks Republican 1858-61 

John  A.  Andrew ••  1861-66 

Alexander  H.  Bullock "  1866-69 

WiUiam  H.  aaflin "  1869-72 

WUliam  B.  Washburn "  1872-74 

Thomas  Talbot  (acting) •*  1874 

William  Gaston Democratic 1876-76 

Alexander  H.  Rice Republican 1876-79 

Thomas  Talbot *•  1879-80 

John  D.Long. "  1880-83 

Benjamin  F.  Butler.. .Democrat  and  Independent 1883-84 

George  D.  Robinson Republican 1884-87 

Oliver  Ames ••  1887-90 

J.  Q.  A.  Brackett "  1890-91 

Wmiam  E.  Russell Democrat 1891-94 

Frederick  T.  Greenhalge Republican 1894-96 

Roger  Wolcott ••  1896-1900 

Wintbrop  Murray  Crane ••         1900-08 

JohnIi.BatM «*  19034)0 

William  L.  Douglas Democrat 1905-06 

Curtis  QiiUd,Jr Republican 1906— 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Hitchcock,  "Report  on  Geology, 
Minerals,  Botany,  and  Zoology  of  Massachu- 
setts," in  Massachusetts  Geological  Survey 
(Boston,  1833);  Massachusetts  Zodlogical  and 
Botanical  Survey  Reports  (Boston,  1839  et  seq.)  ; 
Crosby,  Geology  of  Eastern  Massachusetts  ( Bos- 
ton, 1880) ;  Douglas,  Financial  History  of  Mas- 
sachusetts (New  York,  1892) ;  Weeden,  Economic 
and  Social  History  of  New  England,  16201789 
(Boston,  1890) ;  Martin,  Evolution  of  the  Massa^ 
chusetts  Public  School  System  (New  York,  1894) ; 
Howe,  Birds  of  Massachusetts  ( Cambridge,  1901 ) ; 
Hutchinson,  History  of  the  Province  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  (London,  1828) ;  Bradford,  History 
of  Massachusetts  for  Ttco  Hundred  Years  (Bos- 
ton, 1835)  ;  Young,  Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  (Boston,  1841);  Holland,  History  of 
Western  Massachusetts  (Springfield,  1855)  ; 
Barry,  History  of  Massachusetts  (Boston,  1855- 
57)  ;  Oliver,  The  Puritan  Commonwealth  (Bos- 
ton, 1856)  ;  Palfrey,  History  of  New  England 
(Boston.  1858-64)  ;  Schouler,  History  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  the  Civil  War  (Boston,  1868-71); 
Austin,     History     of     Massachusetts     (Boston, 


1876)  ;  Goodwin,  The  Pilgrim  Republic  (Boston^ 
1888)  ;  Fiske,  The  Beginnings  of  New  England 
(Boston,  1889);  Hale,  Story  of  Massachusetts 
(Boston,  1892) ;  Adams,  Three  Episodes  of  Mas- 
sa^ihusetts  History  (Boston,  1892);  id.,  Massa- 
chusetts: Its  Historians  and  Its  History  (Boston, 
1893)  ;  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Col- 
lections (Boston,  1806  et  seq.);  Massachusetta 
Historical  Society  Proceedings  (Boston,  1855 
et  seq.). 

MASSACHUSETTS  AGBICTTLTXJBAI. 

COLLEGE.  A  co-educational  State  institution 
at  Amherst,  Mass.,  chartered  in  1863  and  opened 
in  1867.  The  college  buildings  are  situated  on  a 
farm  of  400  acres,  216  acres  of  which  are  devoted 
to  experimental  farming  and  100  to  horticulture. 
Winter  courses  are  offered  for  those  unable  to 
take  the  regular  four  years*  course.  The  de- 
crees conferred  in  the  regular  order  are  B.S., 
M.S.,  and  Ph.D.  The  attendance  in  1906-7  was 
275;  the  number  of  instructors  was  29.  The 
buildings  and  lands  in  1906  were  valued  at  about 
$350,000,  and  the  equipment  at  $170,000.  The 
library  had  at  the  same  time  27,000  volumes. 
The  president  is  Dr.  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield. 

MASSACHXTSETTS  BAT.  A  wide,  triangu- 
lar indentation  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Massa- 
chusetts, extending  from  Cape  Ann  to  Plymouth 
Harbor,  a  distance  of  42  miles,  while  its  depth 
inland  from  the  middle  of  this  base  line  to  Bos- 
ton is  about  22. miles  (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  3). 
Its  northern  shore  is  rocky,  the  southern  marshy 
and  sandy,  and  both  are  irregular  and  indented 
by  numerous  large  and  small  bays,  forming  the 
harbors  of  Gloucester,  Salem,  Marblehead,  Lynn, 
and  Boston.  The  bay  contains  a  number  of 
islands  along  the  shores,  especially  in  the  en- 
trance to  Boston  Harbor.  The  name  Massachu- 
setts Bay  is  sometimes  made  to  include  Cape 
Cod  Bay. 

MASSACHXTSETTS  HISTOBICAL  SO- 
CIETY. A  learned  association  with  headquar- 
ters in  Boston,  the  oldest  historical  society  in 
the  country,  having  been  organized  in  1791  and 
incorporated  in  1794.  Its  objects  are  the  col- 
lection, preservation,  and  diffusion  of  the  mate- 
rials for  American  history.  The  first  volume  of 
"Collections"  was  printed  in  1792,  and  this  has 
been  followed  by  sixty-five  more,  together  with 
forty  volumes  of  "Proceedings."  The  society  has 
a  museum  of  relics  and  antiquities,  and  a  fine 
library  of  50,000  books,  110,000  pamphlets,  and 
many  rare  manuscripts,  including  the  Parkman 
collection  of  one  hundred  volumes  of  manuscripts 
relating  to  the  history  of  the  French  in  Canada. 

MASSACHTTSETTS  INSTITUTE  OV 
TECHNOLOGY.  A  school  of  industrial  science 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  established  in  1861  through  the 
efforts  of  W.  B.  Rogers  and  others,  "for  the  pur- 
pose of  instituting  and  maintaining  a  society  of 
arts,  a  museum  of  arts,  and  a  school  of  indus- 
trial science,  and  aiding  generally  by  suitable 
means  the  advancement,  development,  and  prac- 
tical application  of  science  in  connection  with 
arts,  agriculture,  manufacture,  and  commerce." 
The  society  of  arts  was  the  first  section  of  the 
institute  to  be  established,  holding  its  first  meet- 
ing in  1862,  and  has  done  much  valuable  work. 
The  museum  of  arts  has  not  yet  been  established, 
mainly  owing  to  the  extraordinary  growth  of  the 
school    of    industrial    science,    which    has    over- 


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MASBi.  XBIASlTU'Ui  QW  TZCXHOIiOQT.      IGG 


■JMwiowed  the  othei  depcvtBWBtSw  Owiag  t»  tke 
disturbed  state  of  tk»  twmmirj  during  the  Ctril 
Wai;  the  legular  oo«racs  o£  mstirstioii  wett  not 
«fened  imtii  ld€6.  The  deveilepnient  has  recently 
heeA  so  rapid  that  more  than  hali  of  the  total  of 
al»oui  300a  graduates  el  the  school  hek>ng  in  the 
iMt  nine  elasses^  The  institiite  was  a  pioneer  in 
the  introdaetiott  of  labCTatory  methods^  which  are 
&  distinguishing  charaeteristie  of  its  work.  In 
addition  to  instruction  in  the  sciences  and  their 
application  to  the  arts,  general  studies  easeatial 
fbir  a  liberal  education  are  required.  Thirteen 
distinct  courses  are  offered,  each  of  four  years' 
duration:  Civil  enginertu^  meehanicskl  engineer- 
mg,  mining  engineering  and  metallurgy,  archi- 
teS:ure,  chemistry,  electrical  engineering,  biology, 
physics,  general  studies,  chemical  engineering; 
sanitary  engineering,  geology,  and  naval  aschi^ 
tecture.  Each  of  these  courses  leads  to  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Science.  Within  most  of  the 
regular  courses  a  considerable  latitude  is  per- 
mitted in  the  selectioui  of  bjiaucfaes^  a  partial 
choice  of  professional  course  being  made  at  the 
middle  of  the  first  year,,  while  in  the  fourth  year 
nearly  the  entire  time  is  devoted  to  profession- 
al subjects.  The  school  in  1906-7  had  207  in- 
structors and  a  total  attendance  of  14M  stu- 
dsDtsw  The  library  eontaincd  71,304  volunes  and 
9i^458  pamphlets.  The  institute  pnhliriies  the 
TwKnolog^  Quarter^  and  Proewdingt  ef  the  Ho- 
oiety  of  Arts,  and  a  gradlBBite  magazine,  the 
Technology  Bevimc,  It  occupies  nine  bmldings 
in  the  Baok  Bay  district  of  Boston,  comprising 
the  Sogers^  Walker,  and  Pierce  buildingB,  engi- 
neering buildingBy  medianieal  laboratories,  boiler 
and  power  house,,  and  gyranaMum,  valued  with 
the  grounds  at  $1,571,822.  The  endowment  is 
relatively  small,  $1,1 56,^7 3«  The  ineome  in 
1906  was  $471,847.  Of  this  amount,  more  than 
half  is  derived  from  students'  fees,  the  remainder 
largely  from  interest  on  various  funds  and  gifts 
from  the  State  of  Massachusetts  and  the  United 
States.  The  presidents  have  been:  William  B. 
Ropers  (1862-70,  1878-81),  John  D.  Runkle 
(1870-78),  Francis  A.  Walke*  (1881-97),  James 
M.  Crafts  (1807-1900),  Henry  S.  Pritchett 
(1900-6).  Mr.  Pritchett  resigned  in  the  hitter 
year  and  became  the  administrative  head  of  the 
Carnegie  pension  fund. 

MASSAGHTJSXTTS  MXBICAL  SOCIETT. 

An  association  with  headquarters  in  Boston,  es- 
tablished in  November,  1771,  and  incorporated 
November  1,  1781,  making  it  the  oldest  State 
organization  of  the  kind  that  has  met  regularly 
from  the  date  of  foimding.  Its  charter  was 
signed  by  Samuel  Adams  as  preRidcnt  of  the 
Senate,  and  John  Hancock  as  Governor  of  the 
Commonwealth.  Its  fellows  nuiy  include  all 
respectable  physicians  and  surgeons  of  the  State, 
and  in  1884  the  motion  was  carried  to  admit 
women  to  membership.  Its  charter  gave  it  au- 
thority to  examine  all  candidates  for  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  and  surgery.  The  society  has 
issued  a  number  of  valuable  publications,  includ- 
ing The  Medical  Communications,  and  The  Pub- 
lications of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society, 
a  PhamiacopoHa,  and  many  reports  and  essays. 

ICASSAFBAy  mAs-sa^frft.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Lecce,  Italy,  12  miles  by  rail  from 
Taranto  (Map:  Italy,  M  7).  The  principal  arti- 
cles of  commerce  are  wine,  cotton,  and  fruits. 
Population,  in  1901   (commune),  11,026. 


KA£SAO£  (Fr.  masaage,  from  master,  6k. 
Itdaimp,  ttKUsein,  to  knead).  A  means  of  reme- 
dial treatment  consisting  in  the  manipulation  of  a 
part  or  the  whole  of  the  body  by  fnction,  strok- 
ing pressing,  kneading,  peienasion,  and  like 
movements.  When  theae  applications  axe  comr 
bined  with  active  or  passive  movements,  the 
process  is  called  the  Swedish  fivot^emerU  cwre. 

The  practice  of  rubbing  and  anointisg'  is  prob- 
ably as  old  as  the  race.  Homer  alhides  fre- 
quently to  it.  The  Egyptians  used  it.  Massage 
in  one  form  or  another  was  one  of  the  luxuries  of 
the-  baths  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Socrates  spoke  of  the  curative  properties  of  oKve 
oil  with  friction ;  Hippocrates  laid  stress  on  mb^ 
bing  and  unguents;  Aselepiadee  held  thai  disease 
was  the  result  of  an  abnormal  arrangement  of 
the  atoms  which  form  the  human  body,  and 
consequently  friction,  bathing,  and  exercise  would 
necessarily  open  the  pores  and  allow  the  escape 
of  all  useless  and  worn-out  atoms,  aad  restore 
equilibrium;  Herophilus,  Athenasus,  Celsns,  and 
Galen  gave  written  rules  for  such  treatment.  The 
Chinese  are  said  to  use  massage,  in  place  of  bleed- 
ing, on  the  theory  of  producing  better  circulation* 
Both  the  Turks  and  the  Russians  combine  it  with 
their  baths,  and  their  excellent  practice  has 
taken  its  place  in  our  Western  civilization. 
Travelers  report  that  massage  in  one  ferm  or 
another  is  in  vogue  among  the  peoples  they  have 
visited.  In  Sweden,  and  later  in  the  United 
States,  massage  baa  received  scientific  consid- 
eration. 

Among  the  procedures  of  scientific  massage  are 
friction  by  rubbing,  rolling  under  the  fingers^ 
and  gently  pinching  the  skni,  and  rubbing,  tap- 
ping, kneading,  and  exercising  the  muscles  and 
joints.  Beginning  at  an  extremity,  the  foot  for 
example,  the  skin  is  taken  up  between  the  thiunb 
and  fingers  and  rolled  and  pressed;  then  the 
musculu*  masses  are  well  grasped^  rolled,  and 
pressed  and  kneaded,  and  rapidly  tapped;  and 
then  each  articulation  is  in  turn  put  through  all 
its  motions.  Even  the  muscled  of  the  neck  and 
face  may  be  subjected  to  the  same  treatment. 
Massage  by  percussion  alone  consists  in  applying 
to  various  parts  of  the  body  a  very  rapid  suc- 
cession of  short  blows,  not  forcible  enough  to 
cause  pain. 

The  effects  of  massage  are  local  and  systemic 
The  local  effects  are  the  result  of  the  masseur 
or  rubber  putting  forth  more  or  less  muscular 
power,  which  at  the  points  of  contact  or  friction 
develops  or  is  transformed  into  another  mode  of 
motion — heat.  The  action  thus  induced  in  the 
constituent  tissues  of  the  parts  operated  «el  also 
serves  to  elevate  the  temperature.  The  blood- 
vessels dilate  and  an  increased  quantity  of  blood 
enters  them,  and  the  motion  of  the  blood-current 
is  accelerated.  The  immediate  effect  of  these 
changes  is  to  promote  the  nutritive  energy  of  the 
tissues  subjected  to  friction.  This  result  is  seen 
in  the  improved  color,  warmth,  and  volume  of  the 
parts.  Among  the  systemic  effects  of  massage 
are  a  uniform  slight  rise  of  temperature  and 
increase  in  bodily  weight.  All  the  organic  func- 
tions are  performed  with  more  energy,  and 
power  is  gained  in  every  way.  The  effects  u^n 
the  nervous  system  are,  in  general,  excellent. 
For  instance,  if  an  inflamed  joint  is  rubbed  with 
extreme  gentleness,  the  sensibility,  at  first  so 
acute  that  the  slightest  touch  would  give  pain, 
rapidly  subsides,  imtil,  after  an  hour  of  friction. 


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it  nay  be  handled  with  Bome  roughaesB,  without 
cvokisg  painfai  sessatioiifi.  The  aontest  anfieriag 
16  •oftflA  alleviated  hj  peraistcat  friotion  d  a 
gcBitie  kiad.  The  state  <si  spasm  ef  a  miiaole  is 
relieiped  and  relaxatsoB  indnoed  by  pcrsereriog 
nihhiiig  of  the  afiected  muscle.  Theae  resmka  are 
no  dombt  due  to  the  fact  that  the  gentle  titiUation 
of  the  cataaeous  branches  of  the  nemes  (ead- 
of^aaa )  has  bo  far  lowered  their  irritability  that 
they  cease  to  reeeive  and  traasaut  |iainfitl  im- 
fvcsaionfl.  Aiaoaf  the  j^Feeticms  which  may  he 
cither  cured  «r  temporarily  relie^red  hy  massage 
ave  wmkefuhwss  and  aoctuntal  resUesflaeBs,  sim- 
ple headariie,  or  even  eeveve  paroxysms  of  nea- 
ralgia,  tic  domloureum^  hemicrania,  migraaBe, 
spinal  pain,  infantile  paralysis,  progreaetve  mas- 
cular  atroj^iy,  chronic  joint  affections,  synovitis, 
contractions,  and  deformities^  and  thickening 
from  inflammatory  deposits  in  joints  and  other 
tissues.     See  Movekent  Cure. 

Consalt:  Orabam,  A  Treatise  on  Massage 
(New  York,  1W6)  ;  id.,  Recent  Dev^opments  in 
Massage  (Detroit,  1S93);  Ostrom,  Massage  and 
the  Original  Stcedish  Movements  ( Philadielphia, 
1895)  ;  Post,  Massage,  a  Primer  for  Xurses 
(New  Yoik,  1890). 

•MLAS'QAOiE^M  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ma<rm>^ai). 
A  nomadic  people  who  anciently  inhabited  the 
bread  steppes  to  the  east  of  the  Oasptan  Bea. 
Herodotns  says  that  they  practiced  group-mar- 
riage; that  they  sacri-fieed  and  devoured  their 
r^  people;  that  they  worshiped  the  sun,  and 
o.tered  horses  to  him ;  that  they  lived  on  the  milk 
and  -flesh  of  their  herds  and  on  "fish;  and  that 
they  fought  on  horseback  and  on  foot  with  lance, 
bow,  and  double-edged  axe.  Cjtus  the  Oeat  is 
said  to  have  lost  his  life  in  fighting  against  their 
Qaeen,  Tomyris,  in  B.C.  529. 

XASSAIiIAlSS,  <n-  XESSAIiIAKS  (6k. 
Maffau)k»dsfiHy  Massalianoi,  from  Syr.  ifa#Zin,  they 
who  pray,  frcmi  ^i,  to  how).  A  party  of  wan- 
dering f  anatioB,  of  both  sexes,  who  without  well- 
reoogniaed  leaders  came  from  Mesopotamia  in  the 
iouHh  and  fifth  centuries  into  Armenia,  Asia 
llincr,  aad  Syria,  and  caused  great  scandal  by 
bagging  aDd  their  idle  mode  oi  life.  They  re- 
nounced marriage  and  seem  to  have  believed 
that  by  aMans  of  long  eoatinued  prayer  such 
spiritual  exaltation  ooiUd  be  obtained  that  they 
came  into  some  sort  of  contact  with  the  Trinity. 
Beaoe  the  name  given  to  them,  meaning  the 
praying  people.  They  do  not  seem  to  haw  been 
heretical.     The  Greeks  called  them  Euchitea. 

MAS'BAMAJJ^QA  (North  American  Indian 
name).  The  small  ground  rattlesnake  of  the 
Central  United  States.    See  Rattubsna^e. 

MASVASOIT  (158eMf61).  A  oekbrated 
mehem  of  the  Wampanoag  or  Pokanoket  Indians, 
whose  territory  embraced  nearly  all  the  southern 
part  of  the  present  Massachusetts,  from  Oape 
Cod  to  Karragansett  Bay.  His  tribe  was  said 
lo  have  been  very  large  at  one  time,  but  to  have 
fwen  almost  exterminated  by  disease,  so  that, 
on  the  coming  of  the  whites,  it  nnmbered  only 
about  300.  Gn  March  22,  1621,  he  visited  Plym*- 
outh  with  sixty  warriors,  and  on  behalf  of  the 
Wampanoags  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
mutual  protection  with  (jovemor  Carver.  This 
was  sacredly  kept  by  both  sides  for  more  than 
fifty  years,  and  Massasoit  himself  remained  the 
steadifast  friend  of  the  colonists  until  his  death 
in  1661.    He  lived  at  Pc^canoket,  within  the  pres- 


eot  town  of  Bristol,  &.  I.,  wh^n  eommissioiMn 
tnm  the  adjaeeat  settlemeate  oftem  Tinted  him. 

MASSJ&,  mk*8&%  Ftux  Mabis^  called  Victob 
(1822-84).  A  French  dramatic  composer,  bom 
at  Lorient  (Morhihan).  He  studied  under  Ha- 
l&vy  and  Zimmermann  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
tory, and  won  the  Prix  de  Borne  in  1844,  his  com- 
position in  the  competitive  examination  beii^ 
Le  r^nigat.  In  18#0  he  was  appointed  chorus- 
master  at  the  opera,  and  six  years  later  became 
professor  of  composition  at  the  Conservatory. 
By  this  time  he  had  become  one  of  the  command- 
ing personalities  of  French  musical  life,  and  in 
1872  became  a  member  of  the  Institute.  He  died 
in  Paris,  July  5,  1884.  A  statue  of  him  was  erect- 
ed in  his  native  town  in  1887.  Mass6's  music 
is  distinguished  for  its  grace  and  gayety  and  its 
attractive  poetic  quality.  His  best  operas  are: 
Les  noees  de  Jeanette  (1853)  ;  OalatSe  (1854) ; 
La  fiancee  du  dialle  (1854) ;  Les  saiswis  (1856) ; 
and   Paul   et   Virffinie    (1876). 

Ti'Algr.yA,  mfts-sfe^BA.  A  village  in  the  toati 
ol  the  same  name,  in  Saimt  Lawrenoe  County,  N. 
Y^  38  miles  by  rail  aortheast.of  Ogdensburg;  en 
the  Orasse  River,  and  on  the  New  York  C'Catrail 
and  Hudson  River  and  the  Grand  Trunk  rail- 
roads (Map:  New  York,  F  1).  The  town  ia- 
edudes  aJso  Massena  Ontre  and  Masseaa 
Springs,  the  latter  a  popular  watering  place. 
Massena  has  a  public  hbrary,  and  Among  other 
features  of  interest  are  the  Saint  Lawrenoe 
Power  ComiMLay's  huge  concrete  power-house  and 
high-way  bridge  ( 412  feet  span  aad  €5  feet  alxwe 
water).  The  power  plant  of  this  concern  in  1901 
was  equipped  to  generate  electrical  eneigy  equiva- 
lent to  35,000  horse  power,  and  the  scheme  as 
projected  admits  of  a  very  considerable  expansion 
in  the  event  of  an  increased  demand,  the  water- 
power  development  possible  here  being,  next  to 
that  of  Niagara,  tne  greatest  in  the  United 
States.  The  water  power  is  obtained  by  means 
of  a  canal  3  miles  long,  200  feet  wide,  and  18 
leet  -deep,  starting  at  the  head  of  the  Ixmg  Sault 
Rapids  OB  the  Saant  Lawrence  and  emptying  ints 
the  Grasse  River.  Settled  about  1792,  the  town  of 
Massena  was  organized  in  1803.  Population,  in 
1690,  1049;  in  1900,  2032;  in  1905,  2547. 

IKASK^JL,  m&'sft'nT,  AToni:,  Duke  of  RivoK, 
Prince  of  Eseling  (1758-1817).  A  marshal  o* 
France,  bom  at  Nice,  May  6,  1758.  In  his  youth 
he  was  a  ship-boy  in  a  small  vessel  and  after- 
wards for  fourteen  years  served  in  an  Italian 
regiment  in  the  pay  of  France,  but  left  the 
service  in  1789  because  his  birth  precluded  him 
from  promotion.  He  was  married  and  settled  at 
Nice  when  the  French  Revolutionary  wars  began, 
but  he  at  once  volunteered  and  soon  rose  to  be 
chief  of  battalion.  In  December,  1793,  he  was 
made  a  general  of  division.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Italian  campaigns  of  1794-95, 
particularly  at  Loano  (November  23,  1795),  and 
in  1796  was  put  in  command  of  the  advance  guard 
of  the  Army  of  Italy.  He  won  renown  at  Arcole 
(November  15-17,  1796)  and  Rivoli  (January 
14,  1797).  Bonaparte  called  him  *the  favorite 
child  of  victory.*  Massena  resigned  his  command 
on  account  of  charges  of  rapacity,  but  at  the  close 
of  1708  he  was  put  in  command  of  the  army  in 
Switzerland  which  operated  against  the  allied 
Austrian  and  Russian  forces.  He  defeated  the 
RuBsians  under  Korsakoflf  at  Zurich,  September 
25-26,  1799.     In  1800  he  was  charged  with  the. 


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defense  of  Genoa,  but  after  an  heroic  resistance 
of  nearly  two  months  was  compelled  to  surrender 
the  city  to  the  Austrians  in  June.  After  the 
battle  of  Marengo  Bonaparte  gave  him  the  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  Italy.  In  1804  he  was  made 
a  marshal  of  the  Empire.  In  1805  he  again  com- 
manded in  Italy,  ably  mancBuvring  against  Arch- 
duke Charles.  In  1806  he  compelled  the  surren- 
der of  Gaeta,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in 
placing  Joseph  Bonaparte  on  the  throne  of 
Naples.  After  the  battle  of  Eylau  (February  7-8, 
1807 )  Massena  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the 
French  army,  and  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  (q.v.) 
he  was  made  Duke  of  Rivoli.  He  subsequently 
distin^ished  himself  in  the  sanguinarv'  battle 
of  Aspem  (Essling),  in  1809,  and  at  vVapram 
(q.v.)  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  French 
army.  For  these  services  he  was  created  Prince 
of  Essling.  In  1810  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
chief  command  in  Portugal,  and  compelled  the 
British  and  their  allies  to  fall  back  to  Lisbon; 
but  being  unable  to  make  any  impression  on  Wel- 
lington's strong  position  at  Torres  Vedras,  he 
resigned  his  command  and  retired  in  semi-dis- 
grace. His  failure  he  attributed  to  the  disobe- 
dience of  his  lieutenants  Ney,  Regnier,  and  Junot. 
During  the  Restoration  he  gave  his  adhesion  to 
the  Bourbons.  He  died  April  4,  1817.  His  Md- 
fiMtres  (Paris,  1849-50),  edited  by  General  Koch, 
contain  historical  matter  of  interest  and  value. 
Consult  also  Toselli,  Notice  hiographique  sur 
Masa^na  (Nice,  1869). 

MASSENETy  m&s'nA^  Jules  Emile  Fr^d^rig 
(1842— ) .  A  French  composer,  bom  at  Montaud, 
in  the  Department  of  the  Loire.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Paris  Conservatory,  where  he  won 
prizes  for  his  pianoforte  playing  and  for  fugue- 
writing.  Subsequently  he  studied  under  Am- 
broise  Thomas  and  in  1863  won  the  Grand  Prix 
de  Rome.  In  1878  he  was  made  professor  of  ad- 
vanced composition  at  the  Conservatory,  which 
post  he  held  until  1896,  and  in  1878  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academic  des  Beaux- Arts.  In  the 
latter  year  he  made  a  successful  tour  of  Great 
Britain.  His  instrumentation  is  especially  fine, 
and  he  is  a  master  of  dainty,  bizarre  effects.  His 
works  include  the  following  operas :  Don  C^sar  de 
Bazan  (1872)  ;  Les  Erinnyes  (1873)  ;  Le  roi  de 
Lah(yreilS77)  ;  H^odiade (ISSl)  ;  Manon{\SS4)  ; 
Le  Cid  (1885)  ;  Esclairmoiide  (1889)  ;  Le  Mage 
(1891;  Werther  (1892)  ;  Thais  (1894)  ;  La  Na- 
varraise  (1894);  Sapho  (1897);  Cendrillon 
(1899);  Le  Jongleur  de  Notre-Dame  (1902); 
Ariane  (1906):  the  cantatas  Marie  Madeleine 
(1873);  Eve  (1875);  La  Vierge  and  Narcisae 
(1878);  orchestral  suites,  ScMes  hongroises^ 
Scenes  pittoreaqueHj  and  Sc^es  dramatiques 
after  Shakespeare,  and  several  orchestral  over- 
tares,  notably  to  Ilacine's  PhMre.  His  many  col- 
lections of  songs  are  world  famous.  Consult 
Hervey,  Masters  of  French  Music  (London,  1894). 

MAS'SEY,  Gebald  (1828- ).  An  English 
poet,  bom  at  Gamble  Wharf,  near  Tring,  Here- 
fordshire, of  poor  parents  who  gave  him  little 
education.  When  eight  years  old  he  was  placed 
In  a  silk  mill  where  he  worked  twelve  hours  a 
day.  At  fifteen  he  found  emplojTuent  in  London 
as  an  errand  boy,  and  soon  began  writing  verse. 
Stirred  by  the  Chartist  movement  and  the  Revo- 
lution of  1848,  he  started  a  weekly  paper  called 
the  Spirit  of  Freedom,  which  was  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  workingmen;  joined  the  Thristian 
Socialists,*  and  was  encouraged  in  his  undertak- 


ing by  Kingsley  and  Maurice.  He  afterwards 
lectured  on  spiritualism  in  England,  the  United 
States,  and  Australia.  Among  his  poems  are: 
Voices  of  Freedom  and  Lyrics  of  Love  (1860)  ; 
The  Ballad  of  Babe  Christahel,  and  Other  Poems 
(1854);  Havelock*s  March,  and  Other  Poems 
(1860);  A  Tale  of  Eternity,  and  Other  Po- 
ems (1869)  ;  My  Lyrical  Life  (collected  poems, 
1889).  W^e  may  mention,  also,  many  contribu- 
tions to  the  periodicals,  and  several  volumes  of 
prose;  as,  ShaJcespeare's  Sonnets  Never  Before 
Interpreted  (1866)  ;  The  Secret  Drama  of  Shake- 
speare*s  SonnetSi  (1888)  ;  and  Concerning  Spiritu- 
alism (1872).  Massey's  social  verse  now  ap- 
pears bombastic;  his  dramatic  songs  and  lyrics 
are  often  sweet  and  beautiful. 

MASSI,  mUs^s^,  Gentile.  An  Italian  painter. 
See  Gentile  da  Fabbiano. 

MASSICOT  (Fr.  massicot,  from  masse,  Lat. 
massa,  mass,  lilmp,  from  Gk.  fUi^i,  maza,  barley 
cake,  from  ftd^ffetv,  massein,  to  knead) .  A  mineral 
yellow  lead  oxide.  It  is  found  massive,  usually 
with  a  crystalline  and  shining  surface,  which, 
when  broken,  shows  a  scaly  texture.  Artificial 
crystals  of  massicot  have  been  obtained  anion«» 
furnace  products,  and  by  direct  chemical 
methods. 

MAS^rLLON.  A  citv  in  Stark  County,  Ohio, 
by  rail  69  miles  south  of  Cleveland,  and  9  miles 
west  of  Canton,  the  county-seat ;  on  the  Tuscara- 
was River,  the  Ohio  Canal,  and  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  G  4).  It  is  the 
centre  of  the  noted  Tuscarawas  Valley  coal  field, 
and  in  its  vicinity  are  several  quarries  of  valu- 
able white  sandstone.  The  industrial  plants 
produce  extensively  farming  implements  and 
machinery,  stationary  and  portable  engines,  iron 
bridges,  bar  iron,  glass  bottles,  stoves  and  heat- 
ing furnaces,  and  steel  tubing  and  pipe.  In 
Massillon  is  the  new  State  Hospital  and  Asylum 
for  the  Insane.  Massillon  was  founded  in  1825, 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1853,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1868.  The  government  is 
administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  a 
unicameral  council,  a  board  of  public  service 
elected  by  the  people,  and  a  board  of  public  safety, 
appointed  by  the  mayor  and  confirmed  bv  the 
council.  The  board  of' education  is  independently 
elected  by  popular  vote.  Population,  in  1890, 
10,092;  in  1900,  11,944;  in  1906  (local  est.), 
14,000. 

HASSIIXON,  m&'s^•yON^  Jean  Baptists 
( 1663-1742) .  A  distinguished  French  pulpit  ora- 
tor, born  at  Hy^res,  June  24.  1663.  He  en- 
tered the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  1681, 
and  while  engaged  in  teaching  theology  in  the 
diocese  of  Meaux,  he  delivered  an  eloquent 
funeral  oration  on  the  Archbishop  of  Vienne. 
which  led  to  his  being  called  to  Paris  and  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  Seminary  of  Saint  Magloire. 
There  a  course  of  conferences,  delivered  in  the 
seminary,  established  his  reputation.  More  than 
any  of  his  contemporaries,  he  was  able  to  lay 
bare  the  secret  springs  of  human  action.  He  was 
twice  called  to  preach  in  the  presence  of  Ix)uiA 
XIV.  at  Versailles.  His  funeral  oration  on  the 
Prince  of  Conti.  in  1700,  was  one  of  his  greatest 
triumphs.  In  1710  he  pronounced  a  funeral  ora- 
tion over  the  Dauphin,  and  in  1715  one  on  Louis 
XIV.  In  1717  Massillon  was  named  Bishop  of  Cler- 
mont, and  was  appointed  to  preach  before  the 


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169 


MASSON. 


young  King  Louis  XV.,  for  which  occasion  he  com- 
posed his  celebrated  petit  carbine — a  series  of  ten 
sermons  preached  in  1718.  It  was  not  until  1719 
that  he  was  consecrated  bishop,  in  which  year 
also  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy.  In  1723  he  preached  the  funeral 
oration  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans,  his  last  public 
discourse  in  Paris.  From  this  time  he  lived 
almost  entirely  for  his  diocese  of  Clermont, 
where  his  charity,  gentleness,  and  amiable  dis- 
position gained  him  the  affections  of  all.  He 
died  of  apoplexy  at  Clermont,  September  28, 
1742.  His  works,  consisting  mainly  of  sermons 
and  other  similar  compositions,  were  collected 
in  fifteen  volumes,  by  his  nephew,  and  published 
in  1745-46;  later  editions  have  appeared  in  great 
numbers,  the  best  being  that  of  the  Abb6  Guillon 
(Paris,  1828),  and  that  of  Blampiguan  (ib., 
1886).  The  latter  has  also  published  a  biography 
of  the  great  preacher,  Massillon  d*aprds  des 
documents  in^dit 8  (ib.,  1879). 

KASSINA,  m&s-s§'n&.  A  State  of  the  French 
Sudan,  situated  on  the  Upper  Niger  south  of 
Timbuktu.  Its  area,  boundaries,  and  population 
are  all  uncertain.  It  belonged  originally  to  the 
empire  of  the  Mandingoes,  but  in  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  overrun  by  the 
Fulb?,  who  founded  a  kingdom  with  the  capital 
at  Banjagara,  and  were  the  ruling  class  until  the 
French  occupation  in  1893. 

KAS^INOBEBD^  Fbancis  Charles  (1800- 
72).  Chancellor  of  Lincoln.  He  was  bom  in 
Lincolnshire;  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  after  graduation 
with  high  honors,  entered  the  Church  and  became 
rector  in  1825  of  South  Ormsby  in  his  native 
county.  He  was  made  a  prebendary  in  Lincoln 
Cathedral  in  1847,  and  chancellor  in  1862.  As 
chancellor  he  strove  to  improve  the  practical 
efficiency  of  the  cathedral.  He  was  early  and 
prominent  in  the  movement  for  the  restoration 
of  the  deliberative  functions  of  convocation,  with 
reference  to  which  he  published  in  1833  Reasons 
for  a  Session  of  Convocation,  In  addition  to 
many  papers  and  discussions  on  ecclesiastical 
subjects,  ne  was  the  author  of:  Church  Reform 
(1837)  ;  The  Educational  and  Missionary  Work 
of  the  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1867)  ; 
History  of  the  Leaders  of  the  English  Reforma- 
tion (1842)  ;  The  Law  of  the  Church  and  the 
Law  of  the  State  ( 1859)  ;  Lectures  on  the  Prayer- 
Book  (1864)  ;  and  a  Sermon  on  Unity,  icith  an 
Essays  on  Religious  Societies  (1868). 

KASSIKOEB,  mfts^sIn-jSr,  Phiup  (1583- 
1640).  An  English  dramatist,  son  of  Arthur 
Massinger,  a  retainer  of  Henry  Herbert,  second 
Earl  of  Pembroke.  The  elder  Massinger  was  edu- 
cated at  Saint  Alban  Hall,  Oxford;  was  after- 
wards a  fellow  of  Merton  College,  and  member  of 
Parliament.  Philip  entered  Saint  Alban  Hall  in 
1602,  but  he  left  without  a  degree  in  1606, 
the  year  in  which  his  father  probably  died.  Mas- 
linger  went  to  London,  probably  not  before 
1610,  and  began  writing  for  the  stage.  The  ex- 
tent of  his  work  has  not  yet  been  definitely  de- 
termined, for  he  collaborated  on  a  large  scale. 
He  seems  to  have  written  single-handed  about 
fifteen  plays,  and  in  conjunction  with  others  fully 
twenty-five.  His  most  common  collaborator  was 
Fletcher;  and  many  of  the  plays  they  wrote  to- 
gether must  be  sifted  from  those  that  have  long  • 
passed  under  the  name  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 


Massinger  studied  his  art  well,  and  thus  a^ 
justed  his  plays  to  the  stage  perhaps  better  Xhmm 
any  of  his  contemporaries.  His  best-knowm 
comedy,  A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts  ( fiist  per- 
formed between  1622  and  1626),  kept  the  stage 
well  on  into  the  nineteenth  century.  Sir  Gikft 
Overreach,  the  leading  character  in  the  play,  Ib. 
without  much  doubt  a  portrait  of  a  notoriooft 
extortioner  of  the  time  named  Sir  Giles  Mompe»- 
son.  Indeed,  political  satire  is  one  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  Massinger^s  plays,  particularly  of 
Believe  as  You  Listj  The  Emperor  of  the  Easi^ 
The  Maid  of  Honour,  and  The  Bondman,  In  the- 
last  play  (performed  late  in  1623  or  early  in 
1624),  the  object  of  attack  is  Buckingham.  GooA 
examples  of  Massinger's  power  are  The  Virgm 
Martyr  (partly  Dekker's)  and  Bamavelt  (partly 
Fletcher's).  Through  his  life  he  kept  up  friend- 
ly relations  with  the  Herberts.  From  Philip,  the 
fourth  Earl  of  Pembroke,  he  received,  it  is  said* 
a  pension  of  £30  or  more.  He  died  at  Southwark* 
in  March,  1640,  and  was  buried  in  the  Churdi- 
yard  of  Saint  Saviour's.  There  is  no  satisfae- 
tory  edition  of  Massinger.  The  best  is  by  Wil- 
liam Gifford  (4  vols.,  1805;  second  ed.  1816;  re- 
printed by  Cunningham,  1867).  Consult  alsor 
Dramatic  Works  of  Massinger  and  Ford,  ed.  by^ 
H.  Coleridge  (London,  1840;  revised  1883); 
Selected  Plays,  ed.  by  Symons,  for  "Mermaid 
Series"  (London,  1887-89)  ;  and  for  Massinger*a. 
share  in  plays  ascribed  to  Beaumont  and  Fletch- 
er, Transactions  of  Neto  Shakespeare  Society 
(London,  1880-86)  ;  also  Fleay  in  the  last-named 
publication   (ib.,  1874). 

MASSMANN,  m&s'mftn,  Hans  Febdinahi^- 
(1797-1874).  A  German  philologist,  well  known 
for  his  studies  in  Old  German  language  and  lit- 
erature. Bom  in  Berlin,  he  studied  there,  and, 
after  serving  in  the  War  of  Liberation,  in  Jena^ 
where  his  radical  ideas  and  'demagogic'  sym- 
pathies brought  him  into  difficulties  with  the  au- 
thorities. In  1826  he  became  a  teacher  at  the- 
Royal  Gymnastic  Institute  at  Mimich,  and  aftei^ 
wards  was  chosen  professor  of  Old  Grerman  at. 
the  university.  At  Berlin,  whither  he  had  gone- 
in  1842  to  introduce  gymnastics  in  the  Prussiam 
service,  he  received  another  chair  in  Teutonic- 
philology.  Massmann's  writings  include  editions, 
of  Deutsche  Qedichte  des  12.  Jahrhunderts  ( 1837- 
42)  ;  Kaiserchronik  (1849-53)  ;  of  the  works  oT 
the  Gothic  Bishop  Ulfilas  ( 1855-56) ,  and  of  Taci- 
tus'ft  Oermania  (1847)  ;  and  Qesohichte  des  mit- 
tclalterlichen  Schachspiels  (1839)  and  Littera- 
tur  der  Totentanze  (1840). 

HASSON,  m&'sON',  Antoine  (1636-1700).  A 
French  engraver,  born  at  Loury,  near  Orleans.. 
He  learned  designing  as  an  armorer's  apprentice, 
and  had  no  other  teaching.  Afterwards  he  en- 
tered the  Academy,  and  was  the  master  of  Pierre 
Drevet.  His  most  celebrated  portraits  are  those 
of  the  **Cadet  a  la  Perle,"  Gaspard  Charrier,  andl 
Dupuis.  "The  Pilgrims  of  Emmaus"  after  Ti- 
tian, known  as  "The  Tablecloth"  from  the  ex- 
treme care  with  which  he  has  rendered  the  tex- 
ture of  linen,  is  his  most  famous  subject. 

MAS'SON,  David  (1822-).  A  Scottish  ait- 
thor,  born  at  Aberdeen,  December  2,  1822.  He 
was  educated  at  Marisehal  College,  Aberdee»^ 
and  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  At  nine- 
teen he  became  editor  of  a  Scotch  provincial 
paper.  In  1847  he  settled  in  London.  He  wa.^ 
editor   of    Macmillan^s   Magazine   from    1858   t<K 


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ICAgT. 


1B65.  In  1652  he  succeeded  Clougb  in  the  ^shair 
0$  En^itfh  literatme  at  Uodversity  OoUege.;  .mnd 
in  1^66  mtind  to  Mcapt  the  .profesBorship  of 
rfafltoric  and  flnglith  Hleratuve  in  ifae  UnirBraity 
of  Edinburgh.  in  1803  he  iMoame  Histo- 
riogmpher  RqiytA  for  Scotland.  Maaion  is  wifte- 
fy  known  for  his  atudies  in  Jidiltmi,  campriaiag 
an  exhanstave  aoeount  of  the  life  and  tinae  cS 
the  poet  (6  vols.,  1859*60 ;  lat  vol.  enlarged  1861 ; 
index,  1694)  ;  and  act  least  icuv  editions  of  .his 
poems:  the 'Cambrid^  edition  (3  vok.,  1674), re- 
vised as  the  Oabinet  edition  (1890)  ;  ihe  Qolden 
Treasury  adttion  (2  vols.,  1874),  the  (Hobe  edi- 
tion (1  vcL,  1877),  an  linteroiediate  between  the 
Cambridge  and  Ihe  OoLden  Treasury  iZ  vcds., 
Ii882).  The  aame  careful  aoholard^ip  is  dis- 
played in  Ims  of  Drummond  of  Hawthomden 
(1673)  and  De  QuiiMiey  (1876),  Mid  in  oneditum 
of  De  Quincey*fi  works  ( 14  toIs.,  1889-91 ) .  Among 
Maason's  oti^BT  writings  are:  EeaaySy  Biography* 
cal  and  OritiocH  (1856;  reprint,  with  additions, 
1874n7«)  ;  British  Novelists  (1859)  ;  Reaent  Brtt- 
i9h  Philosophy  (1865)  ;  Edinburgh  Sketches  and 
Memories  (1892). 

KABBON,    mlt'sON^,    Lours    Francois    Rod- 

BIOUE  ( 1833-1903) .  A  Canadian  statesman,  bom 
in  Terrebonne,  Quebec.  In  1859  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  he  sat  in  the  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment for  Terrebonne  from  J867  to  1882.  From 
1878  to  1880  lie  was  Minister  of  Militia  and 
Defense,  in  1880  was  president  of  the  council,  and 
from  1884  to  1887  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
Quebec  Province.  In  1882  and  again  in  18^2  he 
was  summoned  to  the  Senate.  He  was  mayor 
of  Terrebonne,  and  published  Les  bourgeois  de  la 
compagnie  du  'Nord*Ouest   (1889). 

MASSO'SJLfi.     See  Mabosa. 

1CAS80WAH,  mlis-sou^a,  or  HASSAWA. 
The  chief  town  and  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
ItaHan  colony  of  Eritrea  (q.v.).  It  is  situated 
partly  on  the  mainland,  partly  on  two  small  isl- 
ands on  the  west  shore  of  the  Hed  Sea,  350  miles 
northwest  of  the  Strait  of  Bab-^-Mandeb  (Map: 
Africa,  J  3).  it  is  a  fortified  military  station, 
and  its  commercial  importance  is  very  consider- 
able owing  to  its  being  the  natural  port  for  the 
northern  part  of  Abyssinia.  The  climate  is  ex- 
cessively hot.  The  commerce  is  chiefly  with 
Arabia,  Bomb^,  and  the  interior  of  Abyssinia, 
the  chief  exports  being  ivory,  cofie%,  tobacco,  wax, 
and  ostrich  feathers.  Massowah  has  steamship 
connection  with  Egypt,  Italy,  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary, and  is  the  terminus  of  a  military  railway 
into  the  interior.  The  population  was  (1905) 
2625  (975  Europeans)  ;  with  neighboring  settle- 
ments, 7463  (1098  Europeans),  the  natives  be- 
ing Mohammedans  of  various  African  and  Asiatic 
races.  Maasowah  farmerly  belonged  to  Egypt 
and  was  taken  by  Italy  in  1885. 

MASSYtSy  m&-sls',  KATSYS,  m&t-sis',  HCES- 
«T35,  ra?8-sls',  or  JCCETSTS,  m6t-sls',  Quintbn 
(c.  1460- 1530).  A  biblical,  genre,  and  portrait 
painter  of  the  Flemish  school.  His  birthplace 
IS  disputed,  being  variously  ascribed  to  Antwerp 
and  Louvaiii;  he  died  at  the  former  place  in 
16S0.  According  to  tradition  he  was  a  locksmith 
by  trade,  but  upon  his  marrinije  in  1480  to  a  paint- 
er's daughter,  be  changed  his  vocation.  He  stud- 
ied under  a  local  master,  and  in  1491  was  en- 
fonea  in  the  Guild  of  Saint  Luke  at  Antwerp. 
Massys  is  important  as  being  the  earliest*  repre- 
sentative of  the  new  era,  in  which  the  human 


figuse  first  conefi  into  marked  prominenoe  in 

Sainting.  Heretofore  the  human  figure  had  only 
eld  a  plaoe  equal  in  importanae  to  landscape 
and  aorohitecture,  but  Maaays  flutx>rdinatas  these 
and  ^ives  his  actosB  pvegminenee,  endowing  them 
witfa  indtviduaUty^  chaimcter,  and  dramatic  ex- 
prraaion.  Hia  fignxca  are  well  aaadeiad,  although 
tfaay  are  Hmettnies  Loan  and  aagular,  and  his 
cmnposition  is  net^i^a^  hscmomoiui. 

One  of  his  greatest  auiwiving  works  is  the 
altar-piece  for  the  XJlhnrdi  of  Saint  Peter  at 
I^uvftin,  :now  in  tiie  Brussete  MnaMim,  completed 
in  1509.  The  avbjeet  of  the  centre  panel  is  the 
Holy  Family;  the  %ure0  are  aMbly  and  aolidly 
rafKNitented*  but  without  tbramaiic  expression. 
0n  the  othar  kaad«  tlie  aeanas  from  the  "Life  of 
the  Win^oi"  on  the  wings  of  the  mltar  are  strong- 
\y  dramatic.  His  maater piece  is  the  great 
tciptych  in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  representing 
the  **BuEial  of  Christ,"  flankad  by  the  "Martyr- 
dom of  the  Two  Joims."  The  action  of  this 
work  is  intense,  and  the  color,  thou^  gor- 
geous, is  well  harmoniced.  His  otiier  works  in- 
clude an  "Enthroned  Virgin,"  Berlin  Gallery; 
"The  Virgin  in  Glory,"  .Hermitage,  Saint  Peters- 
burg; and  two  half-length  devotional  figiires  of 
"Christ"  and  the  "Virgin"  at  Antwerp,  of  which 
there  are  copies  in  the  National  Galler}-. 

Massys  is  also  well  known  as  the  originator 
of  a  class  of  genre  pietures — character  studies 
of  burghers  of  Antwerp,  representing  money- 
changers or  misers,  in  couples  or  groups,  seated 
at  tables.  An  important  example  is  in  the 
Louvre,  dated  1514.  His  few  surviving  portraits 
are  strong  and  realistie,  and  show  a  skillful  ren- 
dition of  character.  Genuine  examples  are  those 
of  ^gidius  at  Longford  Castle;  of  Jean  C^ron- 
delet  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich ;  and  a  mutilated 
portrait  of  a  young  man  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

IIABT  (AS.  fMBSt,  OHG.  mast,  Ger.  Mast; 
probably  connected  ultimately  with  Lat.  mains, 
pole).  The  upright  spar  on  which  sail  is  set. 
In  large  ships  masts  are  in  several  lengths.  In 
fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels  the  mast  is  commonly 
in  two  parts  called  the  lower  mast  and  the  top- 
mast ;  in  large  square-rigged  vessels  the  tnasts  are 
in  three  sections,  the  lower  mast,  topmast,  and 
topgallantmast.  That  part  of  the  topgallant- 
mast  above  the  ^es  of  the  topgallant  rigging  and 
below  the  royal  rigging  is  called  the  royalmast; 
if  skysails  are  carried  the  part  of  the  topgallant- 
mast  above  the  eyes  of  the  royal  rigging  is  called 
the  skj'saihnast  or  sky  sail  pole. 

Large  lower  masts  are  either  of  iron  or  steel 
or  built  lip  of  many  timbers  whose  edges  meet 
in  radial  planes.  These  timbers  are  bolted  to- 
gether and  further  held  by  circular  bands  of 
iron  or  steel.  They  are  joined  to  the  timbers 
above  and  below  by  scarfs  and  the  scarfs  *break 
joints'  (i.e.  no  two  aoarfs  are  abreast  each  other 
horizontally). 

The  parts  of  a  mast  are  the  head,  hounds, 
body,  partners,  and  heel.  The  head  is  the  upper 
port;  the  hounds  are  the  enlarged  parts  just  be- 
low the  eyes  of  the  rigging;  the  body  is  the  part 
between  the  hounds  and  tlie  deck;  the  partners 
the  portion  which  posses  through  a  deck;  and 
the  heel  is  the  lower  end.  Lower  masts  alone 
have  partners  (since  the  upper  masts  do  not 
pass  through  decks)  and  they  have  tenons  at 
the  heel  which  fit  in  the  mast  step  on  the  keelson. 
Tliey  are  held  in  position  by  wedges  at  the  part- 
ners  and   by   the   rigging.*    Of   the   latter,    the 


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171 


MASTEB  AKD  SBBVANT. 


shrouds  lead  from  the  masthead  just  above  the 
hounds  to  each  side  of  the  ship,  where  they  spread 
out  fanwise  and  sustain  the  mast  against  thwart- 
ship  pressure;  the  stays  lead  from  the  masthead 
forward  along  the  centre  line  of  the  ship,  fur- 
nishing strength  in  that  direction;  while  the 
backstays,  also  descending  from  the  masthead, 
extend  to  the  sides  of  the  ship  abaft  the  shrouds 
to  resist  the  forward  pull  of  the  sails.  Upper 
masts  have  similar  rigging,  but  the  lower  ends 
are  secured  differently.  The  heel  passes  through 
a  hole  in  a  heavy  iron-bound  wooden  block 
called  a  cap,  which  is  secured  to  the  head  of 
the  lower  mast,  and  extends  downward  to  ther 
trestletrees,  between  which  it  passes  and  to  which 
it  is  secured  by  a  heavy  piece  of  wood  or  iron 
called  a  fid  passing  through  the  mast  and  trestle- 
trees  or  simply  resting  on  the  latter,  the  heel 
extending  beyond  the  fid  hole  far  enough  to  be 
held  from  horizontal  movement  bv  a  framed  hole 
between  the  trestletrees.  On  the  head  of  the 
uppermost  mast  there  is  usually  placed  a  small 
disk  of  wood  called  the  truck,  which  has  sheaves 
or  holes  for  signal  halliards. 

Upper  masts  and  the  lower  masts  of  schooners 
and  of  other  fore-and-aft  rigged  craft  are  (when 
the  masts  of  the  latter  are  not  of  iron)  almost 
invariably  of  one  stick,  the  sliding  of  yards  and 
of  the  hoops  of  fore-and-aft  sails  l^ing  interfered 
with  if  bands  are  used.  When  masU  are  large 
and  made  of  a  single  stick  they  form  no  incon- 
siderable item  in  the  equipment  of  a  ship,  for 
they  must  be  straight,  free  from  blemishes, 
cracks,  deep-seated  knots,  etc.  They  are  usually 
of  pine,  spruce,  or  fir,  which  woods  combine  light- 
ness with  strength  in  addition  to  other  desirable 
qualities. 

As  regards  position  in  a  ship  masts  are  vari- 
ously named.  In  two-masted  vessels  the  forward 
is  called  the  foremast,  the  after  one  the  main- 
mast. In  three-masted  ships  the  forward  one  is 
the  foremast,  the  middle  one  the  mainmast,  the 
after  one  the  mizzen  or  mizzenmast.  When  there 
are  four  masts,  all  large,  they  are  called  the 
foremast,  forward  mainmast,  after  mainmast,  and 
mizzen;  if  the  after  mast  is  small,  they  are 
called  the  foremast,  mainmast,  mizzen,  and  jig- 
ger. When  the  masts  exceed  four  in  number 
there  is  no  fixed  rule  for  naming.  See  Ship; 
Shipbuilding,  etc. 

XAS^ABA.  An  Arabic  word  of  uncertain 
derivation,  meaning  a  bench,  applied  by  Mariette 
to  Egyptian  tombs  of  a  type  which  prevailed 
under  the  Memphite  dynasties  of  the  ancient 
Empire.  Many  hundreds  of  these  tombs  ex- 
ist in  the  great  necropolis  between  Abu  Roash 
and  Dashur,  especially  at  Gizeh  and  Saqqara. 
They  are  oblong,  bench-like  structures  with  flat 
roofs  of  stone  and  walls  of  sun-dried  brick  or  of 
stone,  having  a  slight  inclination  or  batter  in- 
ward. They  vary  in  size  from  19  by  26  feet  to 
84  bv  172  feet,  and  are  carefully  oriented,  with 
the  long  axis  set  north  and  south.  Upon  this 
axis  an  opening  in  the  roof  marks  the  mouth  of 
the  burial  shaft,  which  leads  to  the  mummy 
chamber,  cut  in  the  rock  at  a  depth  of  some  40 
feet  The  mastaba  itself  is  sometimes  solid, 
sometimes  chambered.  The  solid  mastaba  has 
ttpon  its  eastern  face  a  rectangular  recess,  con- 
taining an  inscribed  stele.  In  the  chambered 
mastaba  a  doorway  set  in  a  recess,  which  in  the 
more  important  examples  forms  a  spacious  vesti- 
bule or  porch  fronted  by  twin  piers,  gives  access 
Vol.  XIII.— 12. 


to  the  chamber  or  'chapel.'  This  is  often  richly 
adorned  with  mural  paintings,  designed  for  the 
delectation  of  the  ka,  or  disembodied  'double'  of 
the  deceased,  and  invariably  possesses  on  its 
western  wall  an  inscribed  stele  and  a  sculptured 
door,  through  which  the  ka  might  eventually 
pass  to  the  land  of  the  Sun  of  Night.  From  this 
chamber  also  small  openings  lead  to  the  aerdaha 
or  secret  chambers  containing  the  ka-statues, 
by  means  of  which  the  ka  was  supposed  to  re- 
tain his  or  her  identity  while  confined  in  the 
limbo  of  the  tomb.  Sometimes  these  openings 
are  wanting,  the  aerdaha  being  hermetically 
sealed.  The  chapel  was  open  to  any  one  to  enter. 
Consult:  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Hiatoire  de  I'art 
dana  Vantiquit4,  vol.  i.  (Paris,  1882)  ;  Mariette, 
Lea  maatahaa  de  Va/itcien  empire  (Paris,  1881- 
87) ;  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  (London, 
1894). 

MASTEB  (OF.  maiatre,  Fr.  nuUtre,  from  Lat. 
magiater,  leader;  connected  with  magntta,  Gk. 
fUyatf  megaa,  great).  The  proper  designation 
of  the  commander  of  a  merchant  vessel.  The 
courtesy  title  of  captain  which  is  generally  ac- 
corded him  is  a  military  designation  properlv 
belonging  to  the  naval  service  only.  The  rank 
of  master  existed  in  the  navy  and  was  the  title 
of  an  officer  next  junior  to  lieutenant.  It  was 
the  survival  of  the  term  sailing-master,  which 
in  turn  was  a  relic  of  the  days  when  ships  were 
commanded  and  fought  by  soldiers  but  navigated 
and  manoeuvred  by  the  sailing-master  and  his 
crew  of  seamen.  The  act  of  Congress  of  August, 
1882,  changed  the  title  of  master  to  that  of 
lieutenant   (jimior  grade). 

MASTEB  AND  SEBVANT.  In  its  broadest 
sense,  persons  in  such  a  relation  that  one  is  em- 

Sloyed  to  work  for  and  represent  the  other, 
fodem  law,  however,  distinguishes  the  employee 
who  is  engaged  to  represent  his  emplover  in  busi- 
ness transactions  involving  the  making  of  con- 
tracts on  the  employer's  behalf  from  others,  and 
designates  him  as  agent  (q.v.).  This  article  will 
be  confined  to  the  law  of  master  and  servant  in 
its  narrow  sense — ^to  the  rules  governing  the 
relation  of  persons  where  one  is  employed  to 
render  service  for  the  other  but  not  to  bind  him 
by  contract. 

Formerly  servants  were  classified  as  voluntary 
and  involimtary,  the  latter  class  including  slaves 
and  apprentices  (q.v.).  Only  voluntary  ser- 
vants will  be  here  considered.  Fminent  le^al 
writers  hold  that  some  of  the  rules  governing 
master  and  servant  to-day  "can  only  be  ex- 
plained by  going  back  to  the  time  when  servants 
were  slaves."  For  example,  it  is  said  the  genesis 
of  the  master's  extraordinary  liability  for  acts 
of  his  servant  which  he  has  neither  commanded 
nor  approved  is  found  in  the  right  of  the  ancient 
master  to  surrender  the  slave  who  has  injured 
another.  This  and  similar  views,  however,  have 
not  been  sufficiently  established. 

The  modem  servant  becomes  such  as  the  result 
of  an  agreement  with  the  master  which  either 
party  may  break  at  will,  subject  only  to  the  usual 
consequence  that  the  party  in  the  wrong  is  liable 
to  pay  damage  for  the  breach.  If  the  contract 
is  not  to  be  performed  within  a  year  after  it  is 
made,  it  is  required  by  the  Statute  of  Frauds 
(q.v.)  to  be  in  writing.  If,  however,  it  be  for 
an  indefinite  period,  which  may  end  within  a 
year  after  the  agreement  is  entered  into,  no  writ- 


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172 


MASTEB  AND  SEBVANT. 


ing  is  necessary.  Thus  a  contract  of  service,  to 
continue  during  the  life  of  either  party  thereto, 
may  be  made  orally,  since  it  may  terminate  with- 
in a  year  after  it  is  made.  And  even  when  an 
oral  agreement  is  made  for  a  term  longer  than 
a  year,  if  the  master  receive  and  accept  services 
rendered  by  the  servant  and  then  refuse  to  go  on 
and  complete  the  contract,  the  latter  may  re- 
cover, in  an  action  upon  an  implied  contract, 
technically  called  a  quantum  meruit,  the  value 
of  the  labor  he  has  thus  performed.  When  the 
services  continue  for  a  year,  and  after  its  expira- 
tion the  servant  remains  in  the  same  employment 
without  any  further  expressed  agreement,  a  re- 
newal of  the  contract  for  another  year  and  upon 
the  same  terms  is  presumed  by  law.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  special  contract  as  to  the  time  of  service, 
it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  the 
hiring  is  for  a  year  or  for  a  shorter  period,  such 
as  a  months  week,  etc.  The  common  instance  of 
the  hiring  of  farm  hands,  in  which  each  of  the 
interested  parties  had  a  right,  in  the  absence  of 
any  contract  stipulations,  to  assume  that  the 
services  would  continue  through  the  four  sea- 
sons, gave  rise  to  the  presumption,  which  came 
to  be  applied  to  most  contracts  of  hiring  in  Eng- 
land, that  if  no  time  were  specified  an  agreement 
was  meant  to  last  for  one  year.  But  this  pre- 
Eumption  is  easily  overcome  by  slight  evidence 
of  facts  and  circumstances  which  indicate  a  con- 
trary intention.  Thus  the  period  for  which  the 
wages  are  to  be  paid,  as  by  the  quarter,  month, 
week,  etc.,  will  frequently  be  decisive  in  proving 
the  hiring  to  be  for  a  year,  a  month,  a  week,  etc. 
And  it  may  be  laid  down  as  the  general  rule 
in  the  United  States  that  where  the  contract  is 
silent  as  to  the  term  of  service  and  there  is  no 
well-defined  usage  in  the  particular  community 
on  the  subject,  the  hiring  is  terminable  by  the 
will  of  either  party. 

After  the  relation  has  been  duly  constituted, 
we  have  to  consider  (1)  the  mutual  duties  and 
liabilities  of  the  parties,  and  (2)  their  liabilities 
to  third  parties  and  rights  against  them. 

(1)  Mutual  Duties  and  Liabilities.  The 
servant  is  bound  to  have  competent  skill  for  the 
service  which  he  undertakes,  to  exercise  due 
diligence  in  his  work,  to  obey  all  lawful  orders 
of  his  master  concerning  the  labor  for  which  he 
was  engaged,  to  conduct  himself  respectfully,  and 
not  to  leave  his  employment  during  the  time  for 
which  the  contract  was  made.  If  he  leave  the 
master  without  just  cause  during  the  stipulated 
time,  he  cannot  recover  unpaid  wages  for  the 
services  already  rendered.  And  if  he  be  right- 
fully discharged  he  forfeits  his  wages  for  the 
period  during  which  he  has  served  without  pay- 
ment. But  if  he  be  prevented  by  sickness  from 
completing  his  part  of  the  contract,  he  may  re- 
cover for  the  value  of  the  services  which  he  has 
rendered.  If  his  unjustifiable  breach  of  contract 
results  in  damage  to  his  employer  he  is  liable 
therefor.  In  some  cases  servants  may  be  en- 
joined by  the  courts  from  breaking  their  con- 
tracts of  service.  ( See  Conspiracy  and  Strike.  ) 
Some  of  the  grounds  on  which  a  servant  may  be 
lawfully  discharged  before  the  expiration  of  his 
term  are  gross  immorality,  willful  disobedience 
of  orders,  habitual  negligence,  and  glaring  in- 
competence to  perform  his  duties.  If  during  his 
term  he  be  discharged  unjustly  and  without  any 
such  cause,  he  may  either  treat  the  contract  as 
rescinded,  and  sue  for  the  value  of  the  services 


already  rendered;  or  he  may  sue  for  the  breach 
of  the  contract  and  in  that  action  recover  both 
the  value  of  the  services  already  rendered  and 
the  compensation  for  the  damages  sustained  by 
him  because  of  his  wrongful  discharge.  But  it 
is  always  his  duty,  during  the  residue  of  the 
term  for  which  he  was  employed,  to  seek  for 
other  employment  of  a  similar  character  in  the 
same  locality,  in  order  to  reduce  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  damages  recoverable  against  his  master. 
If  he  do  not  thus  seek  and  accept  such  similar 
employment  as  he  may  be  able  to  obtain,  the 
master  may  show  that  fact,  in  mitigation  of 
damages,  in  the  action  brought  by  the  servant  for 
the  breach  of  the  contract.  If,  after  the  con- 
tract is  made,  the  master  neglect  or  refuse  to 
furnish  work  pursuant  thereto,  the  servant  may 
recover  as  damages  the  entire  amount  of  the 
stipulated  wages,  if  he  have  duly  held  himself 
in  readiness  to  perform  and  been  unable  by  rea- 
sonable eflfort  to  obtain  other  employment  of  a 
similar  character.  If  he  sue,  however,  before  the 
expiration  of  the  stipulated  time  and  recover 
damages  up  to  the  time  of  trial,  he  will  be  there- 
by barred  or  precluded  from  maintaining  any 
further  action  for  subsequently  securing  dam- 
ages. This  results  from  the  principle  that  a 
contract  for  work  and  services  is  entire,  and  its 
breach  gives  only  one  right  of  action.  When  a 
servant  becomes  sick,  the  master  is  generally 
under  no  obligation  to  supply  him  with  medical 
attendance;  but  an  implied  contract  to  pay  for 
the  services  of  a  physician  who  is  called  in  is 
frequently  fastened  upon  the  master  from  the 
fact  that  he  has  the  physician  called  and  other- 
wise acts  as  if  he  were  assuming  the  obligation. 
If  a  master  furnishes  medical  attendance  gra- 
tuitously, he  is  not  liable  to  the  servant  for  the 
physician's  negligence,  provided  he  used  reason- 
able care  in  selecting  him. 

While,  as  a  rule,  the  servant  takes  upoh  him- 
self all  the  ordinary  risks  incident  to  the  employ- 
ment, still  the  master  is  under  a  legal  obligation 
to  use  reasonable  and  ordinary  care  to  supply  the 
servant  with  safe  machinery  and  appliances  with 
which  to  work;  and  if,  because  of  the  master's 
failure  to  perform  the  duty  properly,  the  servant 
be  injured,  without  any  contributory  negligence 
on  his  own  part,  he  may  recover,  in  an  action 
against  his  master,  compensation  for  the  dam- 
ages thus  sustained.  If  the  servant  be  employed 
upon  work  involving  special  risks,  of  which  he 
cannot  be  presumed  to  be  cognizant,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  master  to  inform  him  of  such  risks,  or  the 
master  will  be  chargeable  with  negligence.  WTiere 
the  labor  is  in  connection  with  specially  danger- 
ous machinery — such,  for  example,  as  that  used 
by  railroad  companies — the  courts  require  the 
master  to  have  the  same  very  carefully  inspected, 
to  see,  as  far  as  is  reasonably  possible,  that  it 
is  safe;  but  even  in  such  cases  they  do  not  go 
to  the  extent  of  making  the  master  an  insurer 
of  the  servant's  safety  in  the  use  of  such  ma- 
chinery. If  a  servant  be  aware  of  the  dangerous 
character  of  the  place  in  which,  or  machinery  or 
tools  with  which,  he  is  requested  by  the  master 
to  work,  and  continue  in  his  employment  without 
objection  on  that  ground,  he  cannot  recover  dam- 
ages from  the  master  for  an  injury  which  results 
from  any  such  cause.  But  it  sometimes  happens 
that  when  the  servant  complains  of  the  defects 
in  the  implements  with  which  he  is  required  to 
labor,  he  is  induced  to  continue  at  his  work  by 


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MA8TEB  AND  SEBVANT. 


178 


MASTEB  IN  GHAKCEB7. 


promises  from  the  master  that  such  defects  will 
be  speedily  remedied.  If  while  continuing  to 
work  for  a  reasonably  short  time  in  reliance 
upon  such  a  promise,  he  be  injured  because  of 
Buch  defect,  without  any  negligence  on  his  part, 
he  can  still  recover  from  the  master  compensa- 
tion for  the  resulting  damages.  But  when  he 
allows  an  imreasonably  long  time  to  elapse  after 
receiving  such  promise,  during  which  he  Con- 
tinues to  labor  with  the  defective  appliances,  he 
cannot  recover  for  injuries  resulting  from  the 
unremedied  defects  after  such  a  lapse  of  time, 
unless  a  statute  gives  him  a  right  of  recovery. 
If  the  master  willfully  injure  the  servant,  or  by 
his  personal  neglect  or  wrongful  act  cause  him 
injiuy  in  other  ways  than  through  defective 
machinery,  place  of  labor,  or  implements  of  toil, 
he  is  liable  to  such  servant  in  damages.  In 
entering  upon  his  employment  the  servant  also 
voluntarily  takes  the  risk  of  injury  which  may 
result  from  the  negligence  or  wrongful  acts  of  his 
fellow  servants  (q.v.),  except  in  cases  coming 
within  the  provisions  of  modern  statutes  relating 
to  employers'  liability  (q.v.). 

Although  it  is  customary  for  the  master  to 
give  a  testimonial  of  character  to  an  honest  ser- 
vant at  the  termination  of  his  employment,  he  is 
not  legally  bound  to  do  this,  in  the  absence  of  a 
contract  or  a  well-defined  usage  therefor. 

(2)  Theib  Rights  Against  Third  Pabties 
AND  Llabiltties  TO  Them.  The  master  is  en- 
titled to  the  services  of  his  servant,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  contract  of  hiring.  He  may,  there- 
fore, justify  an  assault  necessarily  made  in  de- 
fense of  his  servant  and  may  have  an  action  for 
damages  against  any  one  who  wrongfully  beats 
or  injures  the  servant  so  that  his  services  are 
lost  or  impaired.  So  if  any  one  entice  away  the 
servant  and  thereby  cause  loss  to  the  master,  the 
latter  may  recover  in  an  action  the  damages  for 
the  injury  thus  sustained.  If  a  female  servant 
be  seduced,  her  master  may  sue  for  consequent 
loss  of  services. 

For  his  acts  of  negligence  or  positive  wrong 
which  result  in  injury  to  others,  a  servant  is, 
of  course,  personally  liable.  But  since  he  is  so 
often  pecuniarily  irresponsible,  the  question  most 
frequently  litigated  is  that  of  the  extent  of  his 
master's  liability  for  such  acts.  The  general 
statement  of  the  rule  is  that  the  master  is  liable 
for  the  wrongful  acts  or  torts  of  his  servant 
which  are  within  the  scope  of  his  employment 
and  which  cause  injury  to  third  persons.  Even 
though  the  act  of  the  servant  be  a  willful  wrong, 
yet  when  it  is  done  in  connection  with  the  mas- 
ter's business  or  in  furtherance  thereof,  it  may 
make  the  latter  liable  for  injury  thereby  occa- 
sioned to  third  parties.  But  when  the  servant 
leaves  and  loses  sight  of  his  master's  business, 
and  wantonly  does  a  wnrongful  act,  he  alone  is 
liable  for  consequent  injury  to  others.  When  a 
servant  creates  a  nuisance  upon  his  master's 
premises,  whereby  injury  is  caused  to  adjoining 
property,  and  when  a  servant  prevents  his  mas- 
ter from  performing  a  contract  by  which  the  lat- 
ter is  bound,  the  master  is  liable,  even  though  the 
act  of  the  servant  were  willful  and  malicious.  So 
a  carrier  of  passengers  is  bound  to  protect  them 
from  injury  resulting  from  the  violence  or  in- 
sults of  his  own  servants,  and  will  be  liable  if 
while  passengers  they  be  thus  injured. 

In  some  cases  it  is  difiicult  to  determine  who 
is  the  responsible  master  for  a  particular  ser- 


vant. For  example,  A  is  injured  by  the  mis- 
conduct of  a  servant  who  is  selected  and  paid  by 
B,  but  who  at  the  time  of  doing  the  injury  is 
engaged  about  the  business  of  C.  Is  B  or  0 
answerable  for  his  misconduct?  According  to 
the  weight  of  authority,  the  answer  depends  upon 
who  had  the  right  to  control  the  servant  while 
doing  the  act  complained  of.  If  C  had  that 
right,  he  is  the  master  who  is  responsible  to  A; 
otherwise  B  is  answerable. 

For  important  statutory  changes  in  the  law 
of  master  and  servant,  see  Combination;  Con- 
spibacy;  Emplotebs'  Liability;  Fellow  Ser- 
vants; Labob  Legislation;  and  Stbikes. 
Others  have  for  their  objects  the  prevention 
of  the  employment  of  young  children  in  certain 
lines  of  work ;  securing  the  payment  of  wages  in 
money;  limiting  the  hours  of  labor  which  mas- 
ters may  require  of  their  servants;  and  the  like. 
Consult:  Holmes,  The  Common  Law  (Boston, 
1881 ) ;  Kent,  Commentaries  on  American  Law 
,  (Boston,  1896) ;  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History 
of  English  Law  ( Cambridge,  England,  and  Boston, 
1899);  Harvard  Law  Review,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  316, 
383,  441,  (Cambridge,  1894);  Huflfcut,  Agency, 
Including  the  Law  of  Master  and  Servant  (Bos- 
ton, 1901 ) ;  Reinhard,  Agency,  Including  Master 
and  Servant  (Indianapolis,  1902) ;  Dresser,  Em- 
ployers' Liability  (Saint  Paul,  1902) ;  Smith,  A 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Master  and  Servant  (Lon- 
don, 1902 ) ;  Labatt,  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of 
Master  and  Servant   (Rochester,  1904). 

MASTEB- AT- ABHS.  A  petty  officer  in  the 
navy  who  forms  one  of  the  police  of  a  ship.  In 
the  United  States  Navy  there  are  four  grades  of 
masters-at-arms — chief  master-at-arms,  and  mas- 
ters-at-arms of  the  first,  second,  and  third  class. 
Large  ships  have  one  chief  and  several  of  the 
lower  ratings.  In  small  ships  a  first  or  second 
class  master-at-arms  is  the  chief  of  the  ship's 
police. 

MASTEB  BTTIXDEB^  The.  A  drama  by 
Ibsen  (1893).  The  original  title  is  Master- 
Builder  Solness,  who  maJces  his  way  up  from 
poverty.  But  the  price  of  his  success  is  the  ruin 
of  others  and  dreary  disappointment  for  him- 
self, culminating  in  his  fall  from  a  tower  of  his 
own  building. 

MASTEB  HUMPHBEY'S  CLOCK.  Tales 
by  Charles  Dickens  which  appeared  in  a  weekly 
of  this  name.  "  Old  Curiositv  Shop"  and  "Bar- 
naby  Rudge,"  purporting  to  have  been  narrated 
by  Master  Humphrey,  were  the  stories.  They 
were  subsequently  published  separately. 

MASTEB  IN  CHANCEBY.  An  officer  of  a 
chancery  or  equity  court,  appointed  to  assist  the 
chancellor  or  judge.  It  is  a  common  practice  to 
refer  causes  to  a  master  for  hearing,  particularly 
causes  involving  intricate  accounts  and  requiring 
computations.  A  master  is  often  appointed  to 
examine  witnesses,  to  take  depositions,  to  inquire 
into  and  report  the  facts  of  a  case  to  a  chancellor 
or  judge  of  the  court,  to  make  settlements  imder 
deeds,  to  discharge  special  acts  under  the  direc- 
tion and  in  behalf  of  the  court,  etc.  Masters  in 
chancery  were  formerly  clerks  in  chancery,  twelve 
in  number,  with  the  master  of  the  rolls  at  their 
head.  They  were  at  first  called  preceptores,  and 
were  not  called  masters  till  the  time  of  Edward 
III.  The  office  has  been  abolished  in  England, 
where  the  duties  formerly  belonging  to  masters 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MASTEB  IN  GHAKCEBY. 


174 


MASTEBS. 


are  discharged  by  judges  or  registrars.  In  most 
of  the  United  States  the  office  still  exists,  the 
officer  being  sometimes  called  a  master  and  some- 
times commissioner  (q.v.). 

MASTEBMANy  Charles  Fbedebick  Gurnet 
(1873 — ).  An  English  author  and  politician 
bom  in  Sussex.  He  became  known  as  a  con- 
tributor to  the  London  weeklies  and  magazines 
and  as  literary  editor  of  the  Daily  News.  He 
was  connected  with  London  Poor-Work  Admin- 
istration and  acted  as  lecturer  for  the  Cam- 
bridge and  London  University  Extension  socie- 
ties. In  January,  1906,  he  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment from  Westham  as  a  Liberal.  He  wrote: 
Tennyson  as  a  Religious  Leader  ( 1899 )  ;  The 
Heart  of  the  Empire  (1901);  From  the  Abyss 
(1902) ;  In  PeHl  of  Change  (1905). 

MASTEB  OF  ABTS.  A  degree  conferred  by 
colleges  and  universities.  In  those  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  this  title  follows  that 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  In  the  United  States  a  cor- 
responding master's  degree  follows  a  bachelor's 
degree  in  science,  philosophy,  or  other  baccalaure- 
ate designations,  and  indicates  a  year's  study 
beyond  the  baccalaureate  course.  The  master's 
degree  is  the  highest  in  the  faculty  of  arts,  but 
inferior  to  that  of  bachelors  of  divinity  and  the 
doctorate  of  philosophy.  In  the  early  universi- 
ties the  mastership  or  licentiate,  as  it  was  then 
called,  was  the  one  degree  conferred,  the  bacca- 
laureate then  being  a  mere  preliminary  degree, 
and  the  doctorate  being  either  a  synonymous 
term  or  one  used  to  indicate  the  ceremonial  and 
official  aspect  of  the  licentiate.  In  the  universi- 
ties of  Germany  the  terras  mastership  and  doctor- 
ate are  yet  sometimes  used  as  synonymous.  In 
the  British  universities  the  degree  of  Master  of 
Arts  is  the  highest  degree  commonly  conferred. 
A  master  tliere  becomes  a  regent  soon  after 
obtaining  his  degree,  and  thereby  obtains  the 
privilege  of  voting  in  Congregation  or  Convoca- 
tion at  Oxford  and  in  the  Senate  at  Cambridge. 
See  Bachelor's  Degree;   Degree;   University. 

MASTEB  OF  GOXXBT.  The  title  given  in 
England  to  the  chief  officers  of  the  courts  imder 
the  judges,  their  duty  being  to  attend  the  sit- 
tings of  the  courts  during  term  and  make  minutes 
of  tlieir  proceedings.  They  also  tax  all  the  bills 
of  costs  of  the  parties  arising  out  of  the  suits 
and  matters  before  the  courts. 

MASTEB  OF  THE  BUCKHOUNDS.  In 
Great  Britain,  an  officer  in  the  Master  of  the 
Horse's  department  of  the  royal  household,  who, 
with  the  hereditary  lord  falconer,  has  the  control 
of  all  matters  relating  to  the  royal  hunts.  A 
salary  of  £1500  is  attached  to  the  office,  which  is 
regarded  as  one  of  considerable  political  impor- 
tance. The  Master  of  the  Buckhounds  goes  out 
of  .office  on  a  change  of  Ministry. 

MASTEB  OF  THE  HOBSE.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain, an  officer  of  the  Court  who  ^has  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  royal  stables,  and  of  all  horses 
and  breeds  of  horses  belonging  to  the  sovereign. 
He  has  the  privilege  of  making  use  of  the  royal 
horses,  pages,  and  servants,  and  rides  next  to  the 
sovereign  on  all  state  occasions.  The  Master  of 
the  Horse  is  appointed  during  pleasure,  by  letters 
patent;  but  his  tenure  of  office  depends  on  the 
existence  of  the  political  party  in  power.  The 
office  was  an  important  post  under  the  Byzantine 
emperors,  where  the  count  of  the  royal  stables, 
the   comes   stdbuli   or   Constable,    exercised    far 


greater  powers  than  are  conveyed  by  the  mere 
title.  In  ancient  Rome,  when,  in  times  of  crisis, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  creation  of  a  dictator,  the 
latter  appointed  a  master  of  the  horse  as  his 
chief  lieutenant,  corresponding  to  the  modem 
chief  of  staff. 

MASTEB  OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD.  In 
Great  Britain^  an  officer  in  the  Lord  Steward's 
department  of  the  royal  household,  whose  specific 
duties  consist  in  superintending  the  selection, 
qualification,  and  conduct  of  the  household  ser- 
vants. He  is  imder  the  treasurer,  and  with  the 
controller  examines  the  accoimts  of  the  depart- 
ment. The  appointment  is  during  pleasure  of 
the  sovereign,  and  is  not  dependent  upon  any 
political  party. 

MASTEB  OF  THE  BEVELS.  An  official  of 
the  English  Court  ( Magister  jocorum  revellorutn 
et  m^isoorum),  who  had  charge  of  the  royal  fes- 
tivities. The  office  came  into  prominence  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.,  though  established  at  an 
earlier  date. 

MASTEB  OF  THE  BOLLS.  The  president 
of  the  chancery  division  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  in  England,  and  in  rank  next  to  the  Lord 
Chief  Justice  of  England  and  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. He  is  the  keeper  of  the  rolls  of  all  pat- 
ents and  grants  that  pass  under  the  Great  Seal, 
and  of  all  records  of  the  Court  of  Chancery.  He 
was  originally  an  officer  of  the  Court,  and  was 
formerly  the  chief  of  the  masters  in  chancery.  He 
is  the  only  superior  judge  in  England  who  can 
now  be  elected  to  represent  a  constituency  in  the 
House  of  Conunons.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls  had 
originally  the  custody  of  the  rolls  or  records; 
in  the  course  of  time  this  charge  became  merely 
nominal,  the  custody  having  vested  in  officers 
not  in  his  appointment  or  control,  an  anomaly 
which  was  remedied  by  1  and  2  Vict.,  c.  94, 
which  restored  the  custody  to  him  with  extensive 
powers. 

MASTEB  PLUMBEBSy  National  Associa- 
tion OF.  An  organization  of  the  leading  master 
plumbers  of  the  United  States,  founded  in  New 
York  in  1883  and  having  for  its  object  the  pro- 
motion and  enforcement  of  sanitary  legislation, 
both  municipal  and  State,  and  the  education 
of  the  community  to  a  realization  of  the  benefits 
of  hygienic  conditions  in  the  home.  It  is  also 
the  exponent  of  trade  protection  in  the  sale  of 
sanitary  requirements.  An  annual  convention 
of  delegates  from  the  local  associations  is  held 
each  year  in  some  important  city,  at  which 
papers  tending  to  inculcate  the  necessitv  of  the 
adoption  of  sanitary  measures,  and  their  en- 
forcement, when  necessary,  by  means  of  munici- 
pal ordinances,  are  presented  and  discussed.  At 
the  second  convention,  held  in  Baltimore  in  1884, 
a  code  of  trade  requirements,  known  as  the 
Baltimore  Resolutions,  was  passed,  which  has 
become  the  basis  of  fixed  trade  relations  between 
the  manufacturing  and  operating  branches  of 
the  plumbing  trade.  The  headquarters  of  the 
association  is  located  each  year  in  the  particular 
city  in  which  the  business  of  the  newly  elected 
president,  who  must  be  a  master  plumber,  is  car- 
ried on.  The  membership  is  about  6000,  dis- 
tributed among  the  leading  cities  of  the  Union. 

MASTEBS,  Maxwell  Ttlden  (1833—).  An 
English  botanist,  bom  at  Canterbury,  England. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  Cbllege,  London,  and 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MASTEBS. 


175 


MASTODON. 


from  1865  to  1868  was  lecturer  on  botany  at 
Saint  George's  Hospital.  In  1865  he  became  the 
principal  ^itor  of  the  Gardener's  Chronicle. 
Among  his  publications  are  Vegetable  Teratology 
(1869),  Plant  Life,  and  Botany  for  Beginners, 
all  of  which  have  been  translated  into  foreign 
languages. 

MASTEB-SINOEBS.    See  Meistebsinqeb. 

MASTEBrWOBT  (translation  of  Neo-Lat. 
Imperatoria,  fem.  sg.  of  Lat.  imperatorius,  im- 
perial), Pettcedanum  Ostruthium.  A  perennial 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Umbellifene,  from 
one  foot  to  two  feet  high,  with  broad  bi-temate 
leaves,  large  flat  umbels  of  whitish  flowers,  and 
flat,  orbicular,  broadly  margined  fruit.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  north  of  Europe  and  has  probably 
been  introduced  in  a  few  localities  in  America. 
It  was  formerly  much  cultivated  as  a  pot-herb, 
and  was  held  in  great  repute  as  a  stomachic, 
sudorific,  diuretic,  etc.;  its  virtues  being  reck- 
oned so  many  and  great  that  it  was  called  dm- 
num  remedium.  It  still  retains  a  place  in  the 
medical  practice  of  some  countries  of  Europe, 
although  probably  it  is  nothing  more  than  an 
aromatic  stimulant.  The  root  has  a  pungent 
taste,  causes  a  flow  of  saliva  and  a  sensation  of 
warmth  in  the  mouth,  and  is  said  to  afford  relief 
to  toothache.  Some  recent  monographers  have 
separated  this  and  its  related  species  from  Peu- 
cedanum,  grouping  them  in  the  genus  Impera- 
toria. 

MASTIC  (Fr.  mastic,  from  Lat.  tnastiche, 
from  Gk.  fUKrrlxVf  mastichS,  mastic,  from  fUKrrli^iM, 
mastizein,  to  chew ;  so  called  because  used  as  chew- 
ing-gum in  the  East).  A  species  of  gum  resin 
yielded  by  the  mastic  or  lentick  tree  {Pistacia 
Lentiscus,  Pistacia  Atlantica) ,  and  other  species 
of  the  natural  order  Anacardiaeese.  It  oozes  from 
cuts  made  in  the  bark,  and  hardens  on  the  stem  in 
small,  round,  tear-like  straw-colored  lumps,  or,  if 
not  collected  in  time,  it  falls  to  the  ground; 
in  the  latter  state  it  acquires  some  impurities, 
and  is  consequently  less  valuable.  Its  chief  use 
is  in  making  the  almost  colorless  varnish  for 
varnishing  prints,  maps,  drawings,  etc.  It  is 
also  used  by  dentists  for  stopping  hollow  teeth, 
and  was  formerly  employed  in  medicine  as  a  mild 
stimulant.  Small  quantities  are  exported  chiefly 
from  the  Morocco  coast,  but  some  is  occasionally 
shipped  from  the  south  of  Europe.  The  name 
mastic  is  also  given  to  oleaginous  cements,  com- 
posed of  about  seven  parts  of  litharge  and  ninety- 
three  of  burned  clay,  reduced  to  flne  powder, 
made  into  a  paste  with  linseed  oil.     See  Sideb- 

OXTLONV. 

MASTIFF  (OP.  mestif,  Fr.  m4tif,  of  mixed 
breed,  mongrel,  from  Lat.  mixtuSf  p.p.  of  tniscere, 
Gk.  lileyuv,  misgein,  /uyrOnu,  mignynai,  to  mix, 
Skt.  fiiiira,  mixed,  OChurch  Slav,  mesiti,  Welsh 
mysgu,  Gael,  measy,  OHG.  miskan,  Ger.  mischen, 
AS.  miscian,  Eng.  mix),  A  large  dog  of  the 
hound  group,  kept  since  ancient  times  to  guard 
property,  and  more  recently  as  a  pet.  See  Hound. 

MASTIFF  BAT.  One  of  a  group  of  tropical 
American  bats  (genus  Molossus),  characterized 
by  mastiff-like  faces,  general  muscularity,  and 
long,  thick  tails  free  from  the  membrane.  They 
are  better  able  than  most  other  bats  to  scramble 
about  on  their  feet.  They  assemble  in  large  com- 
panies in  hollow  trees,  caverns,  and  old  houses, 
and  sometimes  constitute  a  nuisance  by  taking 


possession  of  roofs  and  garrets.  One  species 
{Molossus  periotis)  measures  two  feet  across  the 
outstretched  wings.  Consult:  Gosse,  A  Natural- 
ist's Sojourn  in  Ja/maica  (London,  1851) ;  Bates, 
The  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon  (ib.,  1892). 

MAS'TIQOPH'OBA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  nl.,  from 
Gk.  /uumyoipSpos,  mastigophoros,  whip-bearing, 
from  /idpTi^j  mastiw,  whip  -j-  0^peiy,  pherein,  to 
bear).  A  class  of  Protozoa  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  one  or  more  flagella,  or  lash-like  ap- 
pendages. Some  (Euglena)  approach  the  plants, 
and  were  formerly  placed  with  them;  others 
closely  resemble  Rhizopoda.  The  group  is  di- 
vided into  four  orders:  (1)  Flagellata  (q.v.)  ; 
(2)  Choanofiagellata ;  (3)  Dinoflagellata ;  (4) 
Cystoflagellata.     Compare  Noctiluca. 


^.i. 


OHOANOFLAGKLIiATA  MABTIOOPHOBA. 

1,  Monosl^ra:  2,  SaIplngo6ca:  8.  PoIjSca;  4,  Proterospon- 
Sla;  3  b,  illustrates  longitudinal  fission;  2  c,  the  production 
of  germs  (flagellulffi);  c,  collar;  c.  vac,  contractile  Tucuole; 
17,  fiagellum;  i,  lorica;  nu»  nucleus.    (After  Kent.) 

The  Choanoflagellata,  or  collared  monads,  are 
mostly  fixed  and  remarkable  for  their  'collar,* 
a  vase-like  prolongation  of  the  protoplasm  of  the 
body.  In  this  respect  they  resemble  the  collared 
digestive  cells  lining  the  digestive  sacs  (am- 
pullae) of  sponges.  These  forms  are  fixed  or 
stalked,  and  tend  to  grow  in  colonies,  so  as  to 
suggest  the  derivation  of  the  sponges  from  some 
such  forms.  They  have  but  a  single  fiagellum, 
but  no  trace  of  a  mouth  or  gullet.  They  multiply 
by  longitudinal  fission,  or  produce  numerous 
young  (flagellulfle). 

The  third  order,  Dinoflagellata,  move  by  means 
of  two  flagella,  and  are  remarkable  for  having 
the  body  often  protected  by  a  very  beautiful  and 
elaborate  shell  formed  of  cellulose  in  plates, 
which  is  provided  with  three  long  processes  or 
horns.  They  are  mostly  marine.  Some  are 
phosphorescent,  while  certain  species  occasionally 
aboiwd  in  such  enormous  numbers  as  to  color 
the  sea-water  deep  brown  or  red.  See  article 
Red  Water. 

Of  the  Cystoflagellata,  which  have  two  flagella, 
one  is  modified  into  a  large  long  tentacle,  the 
other  minute  and  situated  withm  the  gullet. 
Noctiluca  (q.v.)  is  the  type. 

MASTODON  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ftaarit, 
mastos,  breast  +  680^^  odous,  tooth ) .  The  name 
for  a  genus  of  extinct  elephants.  This  genus  is 
that  most  remote  from  the  family  type  (Elephas) 
and  nearest  the  Dinotherium  type,  by  reason 
mainly  of  the  structure  of  its  molar  teeth,  which 
are  provided  with  but  few  transverse  ridges — not 
more  than  five — that  have  a  /\-form  in  cross- 
section  (occasionally  broken  into  isolated  conical 
tubercles),  and  are  separated  by  little  or  no 
cement.  (Compare  Mammoth.)  Another  dental 
difl'erence  of  the  mastodon  from  nearly  all  other 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MASTODON. 


176 


1CASULIPATA1C 


Elephantidse  is  its  possession  of  milk  molars, 
which  in  some  instances  persist  through  life,  the 
permanent  dentition  in  such  cases  being  a  mix- 
ture of  milk  and  permanent  teeth.  Tu^ks  (in- 
cisors) sometimes  occur  in  both  jaws. 

Mastodons  began  to  exist  in  the  Miocene  Age 
and  became  extinct  in  the  Pleistocene.  They 
were  scattered  all  over  the  globe,  and  more  than 
thirty  species  have  been  distinguished  by  paleon- 
tologists, the  latest  described  (1901)  being  a 
small  and  primitive  type  discovered  in  Egypt. 
This  seems  to  confirm  tne  prevailing  opinion  that 
the  group  originated  in  the  Old  World  and  spread 
to  America  by  wliy  of  Siberia.  Two  or  more 
species  belong  to  South  America  (Patagonia), 
where  no  other  elephant  has  thus  far  been  found. 
It  is  probable  that  several  species  lived  in  North 
America,  but  the  one  best  known  and  commonly 
in  mind  when  the  term  is  used  is  Mastodon 
Americanus,  This  species  seems  to  have  ranged 
over  all  the  United  States  and  Southern  Canada, 
and  to  have  been  numerous,  for  its  teeth  and 
bones,  in  a  more  or  less  perfect  condition,  are 
repeatedly  found.  A  dozen  or  more  mounted 
skeletons  are  on  exhibition  in  museums  in  New 

York,  Chicago, 
Pittsburg,  C  a  m  - 
bridge,  Mass.,  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  and 
elsewhere.  Careful 
comparison  and 
study  of  these  and 
other  specimens 
show  that  this 
mastodon  at  least 
must  have  had  the 
general  form  and 
appearance  of  a 
modem  elephant, 
with  a  somewhat 
heavier  body  and 
flatter  forehead 
than    that    of    the 


TEETH  OF  ELEPHANTS. 


CompariBon  of  tooth-stnictare 
of  proboscideans,  ehown  by  ver- 
tical cross-sections  of  molars;  a, 
mastodon;  b,  Elephaa  insfgnls,  a 
fossil  species  intermediate  be-  mammoth  or  Indian 
tween  mastodons  and  true  ele-  «i«,^i.„„4..  ,,^-  a:a 
phant8:c.  African  elephant;  d,  elephant;  nor  did 
mammoth.  This  series  exhibits  its  height  exceed 
progress  from  simplicity  to  com-  theirs  on  the  aver- 
P*®""**^-  age— if  anything  it 

was  less.  The  tusks,  too,  were  of  similar  length 
(nine  feet,  measured  along  the  outer  curve,  indi- 
cating an  old  and  large  male),  and  they  had  a 
characteristic  tendency  to  curl  upward,  sometimes 
almost  completing  a  circle.  It  is  probable  that  the 
animal,  at  any  rate  in  the  more  northerly  parts  of 
its  range,  was  warmly  clothed,  like  the  mammoth, 
although  there  is  not  much  direct  evidence  of  it 
beyond  the  discovery,  many  years  ago,  of  a  large 
mass  of  woolly  brown  hair  buried  in  a  bog  in  Ul- 
ster County,  N.  Y.,  in  apparent  connection  with 
mastodon  remains.  Several  of  the  most  com- 
plete skeletons  known  have  been  obtained  from 
that  region,  where  animals  had  become  mired  in 
swampy  valleys.  The  disappearance  of  this  nu- 
merous and  widespread  species  is  as  incompre- 
hensible as  in  the  case  of  the  mammoth  and  the 
South  American  horse.  That  it  existed  until 
recent  conditions  were  established  is  plain.  The 
food-remains  in  its  stomach  have  been  repeatedly 
analyzed,  and  found  to  consist  of  herbage,  bark, 
and  leaves  of  the  same  kinds  as  now  grow  in 
the  place  where  its  bones  lay.  Workmen  who 
came  upon  and  broke  mastodon  bones  in  an  Illi- 
nois peat  bog  ( see  American  Naturalist,  January, 


1882)  greased  their  boots  with  the  marrow  fat. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  competent  judges  that  rem- 
nants of  the  herds  survived  the  advent  of  man- 
kind into  North  America;  but  the  evidence  is 
not  indubitable,  in  spite  of  many  positive  state- 
ments on  record  as  to  arrowheads  lying  among 
mastodon  bones.  Nevertheless,  American  geolo- 
gists think  it  highly  probable  that  the  mastodon 
and  man  were  briefly  contemporary  in  North 
America. 

BiBUOG&APHT.  Warren,  The  Mastodon  Gigan- 
tens  of  North  America  (Boston,  1865) ;  Mac- 
Lean,  Mastodon,  Mammoth,  and  Man — ^to  be  read 
with  caution  (Cincinnati,  1878)  ;  Scott,  "Ameri- 
can Elephant  Myths,"  Scribner's  Magazine  (New 
York,  1877) ;  Lucas,  Animals  of  the  Past  (New 
York,  1901). 

MASTODONSAU^US  (Neo-Lat.,  from  mas- 
todon, mastodon  -f  Gk.  ffavpos,  sauros,  lizard). 
The  largest  known  labyrinthodont  batrachian, 
found  fossil  in  Triassic  rocks  of  Wttrttemberg, 
England,  and  India.  The  body  attained  a  length 
of  nearly  10  feet,  and  the  skull  alone  had  a  length 
of  about  four  feet.    See  Stegoceph  alt  a  . 

MASU.    A  Japanese  salmon. 

MASUDIy  m&-s<5^d6  (Ar.  Abu  al-Hasan 
'All  al-Mas*ud!  ( ?-c.966) .  One  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Arabian  geographers  and  historians.  He 
was  bom  in  Bagdad,  descended  from  a  distin- 
guished family,  one  of  whose  members,  Masod, 
was  a  companion  of  Mohammed  on  his  flight  to 
Medina.  Masudi  early  devoted  himself  to  pro- 
found studies,  to  which  he  added  by  prolonged 
travels  in  Spain,  Russia,  and  throughout  the 
East.  After  traveling  through  Persia  and  Kir- 
man  he  came  in  904  S)  India.  He  next  traveled 
to  Multan  and  Mansura,  thence  to  Ceylon,  and 
proceeded  east  as  far  as  China.  To  the  north 
he  went  to  the  Caspian  district,  and  in  926  we 
find  him  in  Palestine.  In  943  he  was  at  Antioch 
and  two  years  later  in  Damascus.  The  rest  of 
his  life  he  spent  in  Syria  and  Egypt,  dying  at 
Fostat  about  956.  He  was  a  geographer,  philos- 
opher, student  of  religions,  familiar  with  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity,  and  a  historian  acquainted 
with  the  ancient  and  modem  history  of  the 
East  and  West.  His  Kitdh  Akhar  ahZam^n 
contained  a  universal  history  in  30  volumes; 
his  KitOrh  al-Au^at,  a  short  chronological  ac- 
coimt  of  the  world's  history.  Masudi  com- 
bined these  two  in  a  more  popular  work 
called  MurUj  al-Dhahah  (Meadows  of  Gold), 
in  which  he  gives  a  general  view  of  the 
political,  religious,  and  social  history  of  the 
most  important  Asiatic  and  European  countries, 
as  well  as  of  their  geography  (ed.  Bulak,  1866, 
Cairo,  1886;  with  French  trans,  by  De  Meynard 
and  De  Courteille,  9  vols.,  Paris,  1861-77;  vol.  1. 
in  English  by  A.  Sprenger,  London,  1841).  A 
still  more  general  work  on  history  and  geography 
was  his  Kitah  al-Tanhih  (ed.  De  Goeje,  Leyden, 
1894;  partially  trans,  by  De  Sacy  in  Notices  et 
ExtraitSy  vol.  viii.  and  in  vol.  ix.  of  the  French 
trans,  of  the  Meadows).  Another  work,  also 
called  Akhh&r  al-ZamJhi,  is  falsely  ascribed  to 
him.  Consult :  Carra  de  Vaux,  L*dbr^ge  des  mer- 
veilles  (Paris,  1898)  ;  Brockelmann,  Oeschichte 
der  arahischen  Litteratur,  i.  (Weimar,  1899). 

MASXTIilPATAM,  m&-so5'U-pft-tam'.  The 
capital  of  the  District  of  Kistna,  Madras,  British 
India,  215  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Madras,  on 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  (Map:  India,^D  5).    Its  for- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MASUIiTPATAlC 


177 


MATAOALPA. 


mer  brisk  export  trade  in  cotton  manufactures  is 
in  a  state  of  decline  and  at  present  the  city  is  of 
little  industrial  importance.  Masulipatam  was 
visited  by  a  very  severe  storm  in  1864,  during 
which  it  is  estimated  nearly  30,000  persons  were 
killed.  Population,  in  1891,  38,800;  in  1900, 
39,507. 

]£A'T  (Egyptian  Ma'et,  truth).  An  Egvp- 
tian  deity,  the  goddess  of  truth  and  justice.  She 
is  usually  represented  as  a  woman  wearing  upon 
her  head  an  ostrich  feather,  and  occasionally  her 
eyes  are  bandaged  to  indicate  that  she  judges 
without  respect  of  persons.  She  is  always  pres- 
ent at  the  judgment  of  the  dead  ( q.v. ) ,  and  it  is 
her  symbol,  the  feather,  against  which  the  heart 
of  the  deceased  is  weighed.  At  all  periods  the 
kings  of  Egypt  professed  themselves  zealous  wor- 
shipers of  the  goddess;  judges  especially  were 
her  priests  and  wore  her  image  when  on  the 
bench.  !Ma't  was  the  daughter  of  the  sun-god 
R6;  by  the  Greeks  she  was  identified  with 
Themis.  Consult  Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians  (New  York,  1897). 

MAT ABELETi A ND,  m&t'&b^'l^-I&nd.  A  dis- 
trict in  British  South  Africa,  extending  about 
200  miles  north  of  the  Limpopo  River,  which 
separates  it  from  the  Transvaal  Colony  (Map: 
Africa,  G  6).  It  now  constitutes  the  southern 
province  of  Southern  Rhodesia  (see  Rhodesia). 
In  1888  the  Matabele  came  within  the  British 
sphere  of  influence  by  a  treaty  signed  by  their 
chief,  Lobengula.  The  following  year  they  were 
brought  under  the  administration  of  the  British 
South  Africa  Company  (see  Rhodesia),  against 
whom  they  declared  war  in  1893.  They  were 
subdued  after  a  spirited  campaign,  during  which 
Lobengula  died.  In  1896  there  was  another  re- 
volt, after  which  the  natives  were  allowed  a  share 
in  the  government,  the  country  being  divided  into 
districts,  each  with  a  native  commissioner,  who 
was  responsible  for  the  good  conduct  of  his  people 
and  subject  to  the  general  commissioner  residing 
at  the  capital,  Buluwayo  (q.v.).  The  population 
of  Matabeleland  was  208,520  in  1904,  of  whom 
7706  were  Europeans.  Buluwayo  is  connected  by 
rail  with  Cape  Town,  as  well  as  Salisbury  in 
Mashonaland^  a  distance  of  301  miles. 

The  Matabele,  or  Matabili,  are  a  Zulu  people 
of  Bantu  stock  driven  out  of  the  Transvaal  by 
the  Boers  into  South  Zambezia,  thenceforth 
known  as  Matabeleland.  The  celebrated  chief 
Umsilikatzi  in  1838  led  the  exodus  and  after 
crossing  the  Limpopo  established  his  seat  of 
government  at  Buluwayo.  His  successor  (1870) 
was  the  chief  Lobeni?ula.  The  Zulu  military 
organization  copied  from  Europeans  enabled  the 
Matabele,  previous  to  British  domination,  to 
harass  and  almost  destroy  the  surrounding  Ma- 
flhonas  and  other  peoples  and  rendered  much  of 
the  territory  beyond  the  Limpopo  a  wilderness. 

The  Matabele  are  herdsmen  aiii  to  their  cattle 
they  attach  the  highest  importance,  but  they 
also  raise  great  crops  of  maize,  tobacco,  and 
other  agricultural  products.  Their  houses  are 
thatched,  circular  in  plan,  and  have  conical  roofs. 
The  villages  have  no  particular  arrangement. 
The  women  brew  beer  and  grind  maize  as  their 
principal  duties.  The  men  are  brave  hunters  and 
are  accustomed  to  attack  the  lion  with  their  as- 
sagais. They  smelt  iron  and  work  it  into  spears, 
battle-axes,  noes,  etc.  Rude  pottery  is  made  and 
cloth  from  bark.    They  are  polygamists.    Ances- 


tor worship  is  the  most  prominent  feature  of  their 
religion.  Consult:  Montague,  The  Interior  of 
Central  Africa  (London,  1886);  Wills  and  Col- 
lingridge,  The  Dotonfall  of  Lobengula  (London, 
1894);  Norris,  Matabeleland  (London,  1895); 
Baden-Powell,  The  Matabele  Campaign  (2d  ed., 
London,  1901). 

MATAGHINES,  m&'t&-che^n&s  (from  Sp. 
matachin,  clown  performer,  masked  dancer).  An 
itinerant  Mexican  dance  society,  popular  along 
the  Rio  Grande,  which  goes  about  from  town  to 
town  toward  the  close  of  the  Lenten  season  giv- 
ing a  crude  dramatic  performance  founded  on  the 
story  of  Montezuma,  the  Aztec  Emperor.  The 
performers,  male  and  female,  are  in  pseudo- 
Indian  costume,  with  especially  resplendent  head- 
dresses, and  carry  Indian  rattles  with  which 
they  keep  time  to  the  songs.  The  principal  char- 
acters are  El  Monarca,  'the  monarch*  (i.e.  Monte- 
zuma) ;  Malinche,  the  Aztec  girl  who  became  the 
interpreter  and  mistress  of  CJortez;  El  Toro,  *the 
bull,'  a  clown  and  general  disturber,  enveloped 
in  a  shaggy  buffalo  skin  with  the  horns  above 
his  head;  Aguelo,  *the  grandfather*;  Aguela, 
'the  grandmother*;  and  the  chorus  dancers  and 
musicians. 

The  presentation  is  based  on  the  Aztec  tradi- 
tion which  represents  Montezuma,  *the  sorrowful 
lord,*  as  of  a  gloomy  and  sullen  disposition,  quick 
to  offense  and  slow  to  appeasement.  In  a  fit  of 
anger  he  has  left  his  people,  who  seek  him  long 
in  sorrow.  They  find  him  at  last,  but  he  refuses 
to  be  conciliated,  not  even  raising  his  head  to 
notice  the  messengers  who  urge  him  to  return  to 
his  throne.  After  several  rebuffs  of  this  kind, 
Malinche  is  sent  for,  and  by  her  winning  address 
and  graceful  dancing  provokes  first  his  notice  and 
then  his  smile,  with  the  result  that  the  monarch 
finally  rises  from  his  place,  and,  taking  her  hand, 
escorts  her  to  the  throne  between  the  files  of 
dancers,  who  cross  wands  above  their  heads  as 
the  two  pass  and  then  fall  in  behind  in  procession 
to  the  music  of  an  Aztec  song  and  accompani- 
ment. In  the  last  act  El  Toro,  who  is  held  re- 
sponsible for  most  of  the  trouble,  is  slain  amid 
general  rejoicing,  when  the  floor  is  cleared  for 
a  dance  in  which  all  the  audience  take  part. 
Somewhat  similar  Indian-Spanish  dramas  are 
found  in  Central  and  Southern  Mexico  and  (Cen- 
tral America. 

MATAOOy  mii-Wkt.  A  group  of  tribes  con- 
stituting a  distinct  stocky  ranging  along  the 
Vermejo  River  in  the  Chaco  region  of  Northern 
Argentina.  They  are  pastoral  hunters,  subsist- 
ing entirely  by  hunting  and  fishingand  the  prod- 
uct of  their  horses  and  cattle.  They  fish  with 
nets  and  arrows.  They  dress  in  skins,  and  live 
in  small  brush  huts,  but  are  apt  in  the  use  of 
tools.  They  are  rather  imder  medium  size,  with 
hair  frequently  wavy.  They  are  sometimes 
called  Mataguayo,  a  name  properly  belonging  to 
another  trife  of  Guaycuran  stock  living  some- 
what farther  to  the  north. 

MAT'ADOB,  Bp.  pron.  nA'tA-Dor'.  See  Bull- 
Fight. 

HATAGALPA,  mH'tk-^Ypk.  A  town  of 
Nicaragua,  capital  of  the  Department  of  Mata- 
galpa.  It  is  situated  on  a  plateau  in  the  north 
central  part  of  the  country,  and  is  the  centre 
of  a  rich  agricultural  district  producing  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  coffee  (Map:  Central  America,  E  4). 
A  railroad  is  projected  which  will  connect  it 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MATAGALPA. 


178 


MATAB6. 


with  Managua,  the  former  capital  of  the  Republic, 
and  with  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
United  States  consular  agent.  Population,  about 
10,000,  largely  native  Indians. 

MATAOUAYO,  ma'tA-gwa'y6.  An  Indian 
stock  of  South  America,    ^e  Mataoo. 

MATAJA.  mk-Wjk,  Victob  (1867—).  An 
Austrian  political  economist,  bom  in  Vienna. 
He  studiea  at  the  university  of  his  native  city, 
where  he  lectured  from  1884  to  1890  on  political 
economy.  In  1892  he  held  a  similar  post  at  the 
University  of  Innsbruck,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
became  councilor  in  the  Ministry  and  head  of  the 
Department  of  Statistics  at  Vienna.  Since  1897 
he  has  been  professor  in  the  University  of  Vienna. 
He  published:  Der  XJntemehmergewinn  (1884) 
and  Das  Recht  des  Schadenersatzes  vom  Sta/nd- 
punkt  der  Nationalokonomie  ( 1888) . 

MATAMATA,  mH'tk-rnk'tk  (South  American 
name).  A  large  and  singular  turtle  {Chelya 
fimhriata)  of  Guiana  and  Northern  Brazil,  typi- 
cal of  the  family  Chelididse.  (See  Tubtle.)  In 
old  age  it  is  35  to  40  inches  long  when  the  neck 
is  outstretched;  its  rather  flat  shell  is  covered 
with  large  roughly  conical  shield-plates  in  three 
fore-and-aft  rows,  with  a  margin  of  small  rough 
plates.  The  plastron  is  weak  and  narrow.  The 
neck  is  very  long;  the  head  is  small  and  pointed, 
with  the  eyes  small  and  close  together;  the  ear 
flaps  large;  and  the  nose  produced  into  a  long 
soft  tube  at  the  end  of  which  open  minute  nos- 
trils. The  jaws  are  very  weak,  and  partly  cov- 
ered with  smooth  skin,  so  that  prey  (frogs, 
fishes,  and  the  like)  probably  are  sucked  into  the 
widely  distensible  throat,  ^rather  than  seized. 
The  most  remarkable  thing  about  the  creature, 
however,  is  the  fact  that  its  head  and  throat  are 
covered  with  fringes  of  outgrowths  of  skin,  in 
rows  from  its  face  to  its  shoulders.  These  float 
about  like  weeds  as  it  lies  quietly  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  conceal  its  true  character 
so  well  that  the  small  animals  come  within  reach 
unsuspectingly.  Not  much  is  known  of  its  life- 
history  or  habits.    See  Turtle. 

MATAMOBOS,  mrt&-m(/r6s.  A  town  of 
Mexico  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Rio  Giande, 
23  miles  from  its  mouth  and  opposite  Browns- 
ville, Texas  (Map:  Mexico,  K  6).  Its  port 
is  Bagdad  (q.v.),  and  it  is  the  seat  of  a 
United  States  consul.  It  carries  on  a  large 
trade  with  the  United  States,  being  situated  on 
the  frontier.  Population,  1900,  8347.  The  chief 
exports  are  specie,  hides,  wool,  and  horses;  the 
chief  imports,  manufactured  goods  from  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Mex- 
ico, the  Mexican  forces  were  for  some  time  con- 
centrated here,  but  after  the  battle  of  Resaca  de 
la  Palma  (q.v.)  the  "city  was  evacuated,  and  on 
May  18,  1846,  the  Americans  under  General  Tay- 
lor took  possession. 

MATAMOBOS,  Mariano  (c.1770-1814).  A 
Mexican  patriot.  Very  little  is  known  of  his 
early  life  or  education.  He  was  first  heard  of  as 
a  priest  at  a  small  village  called  Jantelolco,  in 
the  District  of  Cuemavaca,  but  in  1811,  aroused 
by  the  constant  insults  and  atrocities  of  the 
Spanish  troops,  he  joined  the  army  of  insurgents 
under  command  of  the  patriot  Morelos.  By  him 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  took  a 
most  important  part  in  the  battles  of  Cuautla 
(1812)  and  Oajaca  (1812),  and  most  notably  at 


the  victory  of  San  Agustin  del  Palmar  (1813), 
which  was  due  almost  entirely  to  his  military 
^nius.  Had  his  nominal  superiors  relied  implic- 
itly on  Matamoros's  judgment,  the  issue  of  the 
revolution  might  have  been  reversed;  but  in  the 
rash  attack  on  Valladolid  the  Mexican  forces 
were  routed  and  Matamoros  was  captured  and 
shot.  His  name  has  been  bestowed  on  the  im- 
portant town  of  Matamoros,  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  upon  many  smaller  towns  and  districts  of 
the  country.  By  the  historians  of  the  time  he  is 
considered  one  of  the  most  skillful  of  the  revolu- 
tionary leaders. 

MATAN^ZAS.  A  province  of  Cuba,  occupy- 
ing the  west-central  part  of  the  island,  and 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Florida  Strait,  on 
the  east  and  south  by  the  Province  of  Santa 
Clara,  and  on  the  west  by  a  short  coastline  on 
the  Ensenada  de  la  Broa  and  the  Province  of  La 
Habana  (Map:  Cuba,  D  4).  Its  area  is  3700 
square  miles.  A  line  of  highlands  reaching  a 
height  of  1300  feet  runs  along  the  north  coast, 
but  the  province  as  a  whole  is  low,  merging 
toward  tne  south  into  the  large  swamps  of 
Zapata.  Matanzas  is  the  best  sugar-producing 
province  of  the  Republic,  and  the  development 
of  its  resources  is  facilitated  by  a  considerable 
network  of  railroads.  But  little  tobacco  is  raised 
in  this  province.  Commerce  is  extensive,  and  the 
capital,  Matanzas  (q.v.),  is  the  second  commer- 
cial city  of  the  island.  The  population  of  the 
province  in  1887  was  259,578,  and  in  1899,  202,- 
214. 

MATANZAS.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Matanzas,  Cuba,  and  the  third  city  in  size  in  the 
island  (Map:  Cuba,  D  3).  It  is  situated  at  the 
head  of  a  small  inlet  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
island,  44  miles  east  of  Havana,  llie  city  is 
divided  into  three  parts  by  the  little  rivers  San 
Juan  and  Yumuri,  and  the  most  thickly  popu- 
lated district  is  built  on  the  low  and  marshy 
ground  between  the  rivers;  the  northern  part, 
called  Versalles,  however,  stands  in  a  high  and 
healthful  locality  toward  the  open  sea.  The 
streets  are  all  straight  and  regular,  and  there 
are  several  handsome  pascos  and  plazas.  The 
most  notable  buildings  are  the  Est^ban  Theatre, 
the  lyceum,  the  Spanish  casino,  and  the  Govern- 
ment building.  Many  of  the  streets  are  unpaved, 
and  the  city  has  a  defective  water  supply  and 
sewer  system;  its  sanitary  condition,  however, 
has  improved  considerably  since  the  war  of  1898. 
The  harbor  is  large  and  well  sheltered,  but  diffi- 
cult to  enter  owing  to  shallows.  Next  to  Havana 
Matanzas  is  the  principal  commercial  and  rail- 
road centre  of  the  Republic,  the  chief  exports 
being  sugar,  rum,  and  cigars.  The  principal  in- 
dustrial establishments  are  sugar  refineries,  rum 
distilleries,  and  car  and  machine  shops.  The  city 
of  Matanzas  is  surrounded  on  the  land  side  by 
rocky  hills  and  mountains;  and  three  miles  east 
of  the  city  are  the  grand  caves  of  Bellamar.  The 
population  in  1899  was  36,374.  Matanzas  was 
first  settled  in  1693.  Its  port  was  long  the 
refuge  of  pirates.  The  present  town  is  almost  en- 
tirely of  modem  development. 

KAT'APAN^  Cape.     See  Cape  Matapan. 

MATAB6,  ma'tA-r(/.  A  town  of  Northeastern 
Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Barcelona,  situated  on 
the  Mediterranean  coast  18  miles  northeast  of 
Barcelona  (Map:  Spain,  G  2).  It  is  surrounded 
by  vineyards  and  gardens,  and  has  several  hand- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MATAB<J. 


179 


MATCHES. 


some  promenades,  a  seminary,  a  school  of  arts, 
and  the  celebrat^  Colezio  de  Valldemia.  It  is 
an  important  industrial  centre,  and  manufac- 
tures cotton  and  woolen  textiles,  sail  cloth, 
starch,  soap,  glass,  chemicals,  and  pigments,  espe- 
cially white  lead.  There  is  also  some  shipbuild- 
ing, but  the  commerce  is  insignificant.  The  rail- 
road between  Matar6  and  Barcelona  was  the 
earliest  road  built  in  Spain.  Population,  in 
1887,  18,426;  in  1000,  18,766. 

HATCHES  (OF.  mesche,  Fr.  m^che,  It. 
micoia,  match,  from  ML.  micBa,  Lat.  mywus,  wick, 
from  Gk.  /i^a,myso<i,  lamp-nozzle).  Specially  pre- 
pared pieces  of  inflammable  material  designed 
to  enable  the  user  to  obtain  fire  readily.  At 
present  the  name  match,  or  friction  match,  is 
usually  applied  to  a  splinter  of  wood,  tipped  with 
some  combustible  material  which  will  ignite  on 
being  rubbed  against  either  a  specially  prepared, 
or  any  rough  surface.  One  of  the  first  forms  of 
this  useful  article  was  the  hrimstone  match,  made 
by  cutting  dry  pine  wood  into  thin  strips  about 
six  inches  long,  pointing  the  ends,  and  dipping 
the  latter  into  melted  sulphur;  thus  prepared, 
the  sulphur  points  instantly  ignited  when  applied 
to  a  spark  obtained  by  striking  fire  into  tin- 
der from  a  fiint  and  steel.  Early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  was  invented  the  in- 
atantaneous  light  how,  which  consisted  of  a 
small  tin  box  containing  a  bottle  in  which  was 
placed  some  sulphuric  acid,  with  sufficient  fibrous 
asbestos  to  soak  it  up,  and  a  supply  of  properly 
prepared  matches.  The  latter  were  splints  of 
wood  which  had  been  dipped  first  into  melted 
sulphur  and  afterwards  into  a  paste  composed  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  powdered  loaf  sugar,  pow- 
dered gum  arable,  and  a  little  vermilion  as  col- 
oring matter.  By  dipping  these  prepared  points 
into  the  sulphuric  acid  the  matches  were  in- 
stantly ignited.  The  chief  disadvantages  of  this 
device  were  the  danger  of  using  a  material  so 
destructive  as  sulphuric  acid,  together  with  its 
great  power  of  absorbing  moisture,  which  soon 
rendered  it  inert. 

In  1827  the  lucifer  match,  the  first  true  fric- 
tion match,  was  invented.  The  inflammable 
mixture  was  a  compound  of  chlorate  of  potash 
and  sulphuret  of  antimony  with  enough  of  pow- 
dered gum  to  render  it  adhesive  when  mixed 
with  water  and  applied  to  the  end  of  the  match, 
which  had  previously  been  dipped  in  melted 
brimstone.  These  matches  were  ignited  by  the 
friction  caused  by  drawing  them  through  a  piece 
of  bent  sandpaper. 

The  ignition  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  by 
friction  was  discovered  by  Godfrey  Haukwitz  in 
1680,  and  it  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  be- 
fore this  discovery  was  applied  to  matches.  It 
is  stated  that  in  1833  phosphorus  friction 
matches  were  made  at  Vienna.  About  the  same 
time  John  Walker,  of  England,  who  invented 
the  original  friction  match,  substituted  phos- 
phorus for  the  former  mixture.  In  1836  the 
first  improved  friction  matches  were  made  in  the 
United  States  by  Alonzo  Phillips  of  Springfield, 
Mass.  The  body  of  these  matches  is  usually  of 
wood,  but  some,  called  vestas^  are  of  very  thin 
wax-taper  strips.  The  composition  consists  of 
phoflphonis  and  nitre,  or  phosphorus,  sulphur, 
and  chlorate  of  potash,  mixed  with  melted  gum 
or  glue,  and  colored  with  vermilion,  umber,  soot, 
or  other  coloring  material. 


To  obviate  the  danger  of  fire  incurred  by  using 
matches  so  readily  ignitible  as  the  ordinary  luci- 
fer match,  safety  matches  were  put  upon  the 
market  in  1855.  Their  inventor  was  a  Swede 
named  Limdstrom.  The  safety  match  differs 
from  the  ordinary  match  in  having  the  phos- 
phorus omitted  from  the  composition  applied  to 
the  match  and  combined  instead  with  sand  to 
form  a  friction  surface  on  the  match-box,  where 
the  matches  must  be  rubbed  in  order  to  be 
lighted. 

The  constant  handling  of  ordinary  phosphorus 
is  a  very  unhealthful  occupation,  the  emanation 
of  phosphoric  acid  giving  rise  to  necrosis,  or 
mortification  of  the  bones.  In  the  early  days  of 
the  industry  the  manufacture  of  matches  was 
largely  carried  on,  in  European  countries,  in 
cellars,  and  deaths  from  necrosis  were  so  com- 
mon that  Government  intervention  was  neces- 
sary to  drive  the  manufacturers  into  more  sani- 
tary quarters.  In  the  modem  match  factory, 
better  surroundings,  the  increased  use  of  me- 
chanical appliances,  and  the  smaller  amount  of 
phosphorus  used  have  greatly  decreased  the  danger 
incurred  by  match-makers.  It  might,  however, 
be  entirely  removed  were  the  more  expensive  red 
or  amorphous  phosphate  alone  used. 

In  Great  Britain,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Ger- 
many the  match-making  industry  has  assumed 
enormous  proportions.  In  France  the  making 
of  matches  is  a  Grovemment  monopoly.  In 
the  United  States  the  match  industry  is  practi- 
cally controlled  by  a  single  corporation,  the 
Diamond  Match  Company,  and  much  ingenious 
and  automatic  machinery  is  used  in  its  factories. 
The  first  step  in  the  manufacture  is  to  prepare 
the  splints  from  blocks  of  pine  from  which  all 
knots  and  cross-grained  portions  have  been  re- 
moved. This  wood  comes  in  the  form  of  planks 
two  inches  thick  and  is  thoroughly  dried.  It  is 
then  sawed  into  lengths  of  from  1%  to  2% 
inches,  or  the  length  of  an  ordinary  match.  A 
machine  now  receives  these  blocks  and  they  are 
cut  by  knives  or  dies  into  thin  strips,  each  one 
containing  splints  for  44  matches.  Each  set  of 
splints  as  they  are  cut  from  the  block  are  placed 
in  cast  iron  plates  which  are  formed  into  an 
endless  chain.  The  machine  makes  from  175 
to  250  revolutions  a  minute,  and,  as  has  been 
said,  at  each  revolution  44  matches  are  cut  and 
set.  After  the  splints  have  been  cut  and  set 
in  the  plates  they  are  carried  over  a  drying 
or  heating  block,  where  they  are  heated  in  order 
that  the  melted  paraffin  will  not  become  cold 
on  the  exterior  of  the  stick,  but  will  saturate 
the  end  thoroughly.  The  paraffin  and  the  com- 
position which  forms  the  head  of  the  match 
are  placed  in  proper  receptacles,  which  are 
automaticalhr  replenished  without  stopping  the 
machine.  Through  these  the  splints  pass  and 
at  the  composition  rollers  the  head  of  the  match 
is  received.  As  the  chain  carries  the  bundles 
of  paraffin  along  the  matches  are  cooled  and 
dried  by  blasts  of  air,  and  finally  they  are  auto- 
matically removed  and  packed  in  appropriate 
boxes.  The  boxes,  too,  are  fed  into  the  machine 
automatically,  and  after  receiving  their  contents 
are  discharged  on  a  rotating  table  where  they  re- 
ceive their  covers  at  the  hands  of  girls,  two  to 
four  being  employed  at  each  table.  After  the 
chain  has  discharged  its  matches  into  boxes  it  is 
ready  for  a  fresh  set  of  splints,  and  the  operation 
proceeds  continuously. 


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MATCHES. 


180 


MATEBA. 


In  England  and  parts  of  Continental  Europe 
match-boxes  are  made  by  hand  by  laborers  as  a 
household  industry.  In  America  the  making 
of  boxes  is  effected  by  machinery  and  is  a  part 
of  the  match-making  establishment.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  2,000,000  match-boxes  are  used  per 
day  in  the  United  States,  and  that  five  matches 
per  capita  are  consumed  daily  in  this  country. 

The  following  figures  show  the  value  of 
matches  exported  from  and  imported  into  the 
United  States  for  ten  years: 


TBAB 

Imported 

Exported 

1891 

$93,180 
94,368 
135,250 
203,890 
157,486 
207,671 
135,611 
128,873 
166,706 
187,961 

$73,220 

1892 

73,666 

1893         

67,974 

1896 

94,799 

1896 

90,316 

1897 

70,968 

1898 

78J>48 

1899 

103,693 

IflOO 

95,422 

1905 

62,834 

MATE  (ODutch  maetf  Dutch  maai,  Ger.  Maat, 
companion).  A  naval  officer  who  is  classed  with 
warrant  officers,  but  junior  to  them,  and  who 
holds  an  appointment  instead  of  a  warrant.  When 
serving  on  a  seagoing  ship  mates  mess  with  the 
junior  officers.  There  are  but  six  mates  now  on 
the  active  list  of  the  navy,  four  of  whom  have 
been  appointed  since  1870.  In  the  merchant  ser- 
vice mates  are  the  officers  of  a  ship  subordinate 
to  the  master.  Large  vessels  have  a  first,  second, 
third,  and  sometimes  a  fourth  mate;  smaller 
ships  have  one  or  two  less.  The  first  or  chief 
mate  performs  the  duties  of  executive  for  the 
master.  In  port  he  superintends  and  directs 
the  stowage  and  discharge  of  cargo  and  has  gen- 
eral care  of  the  ship.  At  sea  he  assists  the 
master  in  navigating  and  keeps  the  log;  in  most 
ships  he  has  command  of  the  port  watch.  His 
qualifications  are  superior  to  those  required  of 
the  other  mates,  and  he  is  usually,  like  the  mas- 
ter, appointed  by  the  owners  and  may  be  dis- 
charged by  them  only,  except  in  unusual  cir- 
cumstances. In  case  of  the  death  or  disability 
of  the  master  he  succeeds  to  the  command.  The 
second  mate  commands  the  starboard  watch  at 
sea.  He  is  not  usually  required  to  have  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  navigation,  but  should  be  a 
thorough  seaman  capable  of  directing  the  men 
in  any  kind  of  seamen *8  work.  The  third  and 
fourth  mates  (when  there  are  such)  have  duties 
similar  to  those  of  a  second  mate.  Very  large 
steamers,  such  as  the  great  transatlantic  liners, 
have  more  than  four  mates  or  officers  of  this 
status. 

MATlb^  or  Paraquat  Tea  (abbreviation  of 
Sp.  yerha  de  mat 4,  calabash-herb).  A  substitute 
for  tea,  extensively  used  in  South  America,  and 
almost  universally  through  Brazil.  It  consists 
of  the  leaves  and  green  shoots  of  certain  species 
of  holly  (q.v.),  more  especially  Ilex  Paraguen- 
sis,  dried  and  roughly  ground.  The  true  mat6 
is  a  large  shrub  or  small  tree  with  smooth  leaves 
and  axillary  umbels  of  small  fiowers.  The  leaves 
of  a  number  of  other  species  of  Ilex  are  mixed 
with  mat^,  and  sometimes  it  is  adulterated  with 
leaves  of  plants  in  no  way  related  to  it.  The 
term  mat^,  which  has  by  usage  become  attached 
to  this  material,  belongs  originally  to  the  vessels 
in  which  it  was  infused  for  drinkmg;  these  were 
usually   made   of   gourds   or    calabashes,    often 


trained  into  curious  forms  during  their  growth. 
Into  the  hollow  vessels  thus  formed  a  small 
quantity  of  the  material  is  put,  and  boiling  water 
is  added.  Each  person  who  is  to  partake  of  the 
beverage  is  provided  with  a  small  tube  about 
eight  inches  long  with  a  bulb-like  strainer  at 
one  end  made  either  of  fine  basketwork  or  of 
perforated  metal  to  prevent  the  fine  particles 
from  being  drawn  up  into  the  mouth,  and  when 
his  turn  comes  he  dips  in  his  tube  ( bombilla ) , 
sucks  up  a  small  portion  of  the  infusion,  and 
passes  the  mat^-bowl  on  to  the  next  person.  It 
is  extremely  unpleasant  to  Europeans  at  the  high 
temperature  at  which  it  is  usually  drunk.  The 
effect  of  mat^  is  much  the  same  as  tea,  stimulat- 
ing and  restorative,  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
large  proportion  of  caffein.  The  collection  and 
preparation  of  mat6  is  a  large  industrial  occu- 
pation in  Paraguay  and  Brazil,  upward  of 
6,000,000  pounds  of  mat6  being  annually  ex- 
ported from  Paraguay  to  other  parts  of  South 
America,  but  it  is  not  yet  an  important  article  of 
export  to  other  quarters  of  the  world.  See  Plate 
of  Beverage  Plants. 

MATEHUATiA,  mft'tA-walA.  A  town  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  State  of  Nuevo  Le6n,  Mexico 
(Map:  Mexico,  J  6).  It  has  wide  and  straight 
streets  and  several  plazas,  one  containing  a  gar- 
den and  a  statue  of  Neptune.  There  are  silver 
mines  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the  town  has  sev- 
eral silver-smelting  establishments.  Population, 
in  1896,  8300;  in  1900,  14,206. 

MATEJKOy  rok-Wkt,  Jax  Alotsius  (1838- 
93).  A  Polish  painter,  bom  at  Cracow.  He 
studied  at  the  art  school  in  his  native  town, 
then  went  to  Munich,  and  afterwards  studied 
at  the  Vienna  Academy.  In  1873  he  was  appoint- 
ed director  of  the  Cracow  Art  School.  He  was 
awarded  a  first-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion of  1867,  and  a  medal  of  honor  in  1878.  His 
principal  works  are  large  paintings  of  incidents 
in  Polish  history,  and  include  an  '^Episode  from 
the  Diet  at  Warsaw"  (1807,  Vienna  Museum)  ; 
"The  Union  of  Lublin,  1569"  (1875);  "Wemy- 
hora  Prophesying  the  Future  of  Poland;"  "Al- 
brecht  von  Brandenburg  Doing  Homage  to  King 
Sigismund  I."  (1882,  National  Museum,  Cra- 
cow) ;  "John  Sobieski  Raising  the  Siege  of 
Vienna"  (Vatican,  Rome)  ;  "Declaration  of  the 
Polish  Constitution"  (1892).  These  are  notable 
not  only  for  color  and  composition,  but  for  the 
archaeological  knowledge  displayed  in  their  de- 
tail. He  also  painted  excellent  portraits  and 
published  Uhidry  w  Polace  (1860),  a  work  repre- 
senting the  costumes  of  the  Polish  nation  from 
1222  to  1795.  Many  of  the  best  present-day 
Polish  painters  were  pupils  of  Matejko. 

MATEBA,  mft-ta'rA.  A  city  of  the  Province 
of  Potenza,  Italy,  situated  between  lovely  val- 
leys, 34  miles  west-northwest  of  Taranto  (Map: 
Italy,  L  7).  It  is  irregularly  built  on  steep 
slopes,  the  roofs  of  the  houses  of  the  lower  streets 
being  on  a  level  with  the  roadbeds  of  the  upper 
streets.  The  principal  buildings  are  an  episcopal 
palace,  a  cathedral,  and  a  college.  Matera  has 
manufactures  of  leather  and  arms,  and  a  trade 
in  oil  and  agricultural  produce.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  famous  troglodyte  caverns  of  Monte  Sca- 
glioso,  still  used  as  dwelling  places  by  some  of 
the  lower  classes.  Matera  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop.   Population,  in  1901,  of  commune,  17,237. 


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MATEBIALISH. 


181 


MATEBIALISH. 


ICATEBIALISM  (from  material,  from  Lat. 
materialis,  relating  to  matter,  from  materia, 
matter).  Usually  defined  as  the  philosophical 
view  which  resolves  all  e^dstence  into  matter  or 
into  an  attribute  or  merely  an  effect  of  matter. 
It  makes  matter  the  central  ultimate  reality, 
and  makes  everything  else,  consciousness  in- 
cluded, a  derivative  appearance,  which  is  then 
sometimes  treated  as  illusory.  When  conscious- 
ness is  treated  as  illusory,  materialism  is  sui- 
cidal, for  the  simple  reason  that  materialism  can 
have  meaning  only  for  a  conscious  being,  and  if 
consciousness  is  treated  as  a  vain  show  ma- 
terialism can  consistently  be  regarded  only  as 
one  of  the  varieties  in  the  show.  But  such  an 
attitude  toward  consciousness  is  not  to  be  con- 
sistently maintained  (see  Knowledge,  Theory 
of)  ;  hence  the  only  forms  of  materialism  we 
need  here  consider  are  those  that  regard  con- 
sciousness as  an  effect  or  as  an  attribute  of 
matter,  which,  following  Killpe,  we  shall  call  the 
causal  and  the  attributive  forms  of  materialism. 

The  attributive  form  assumes  that  substance  is 
what  the  etymology  of  the  word  would  suggest — 
namely,  a  permanent  unchanging  entity  which  fur- 
nishes the  support  for  various  appearances ;  these 
appearances,  as  referable  to  tlie  substance,  are 
called  its  attributes.  Materialism  of  this  type 
regards  this  substance  as  an  extended,  impene- 
trable, movable  entity,  which  in  some  way  has 
'inhering*  in  it  or  resting  upon  it  or  referable  to 
it  the  attribute  of  consciousness,  which  may  be 
treated  as  either  a  separable  or  an  inseparable 
mark.  This  method  of  dealing  with  the  relation 
of  matter  and  consciousness  is  charmingly  simple, 
but  it  is  the  simplicity  of  uncritical  thought. 
It  must  be  discarded  along  with  the  notion  of 
substance  (q.v.)  interpreted  as  substrata.  Sub- 
stance is,  properly  speaking,  nothing  but  the 
unitary  complex  of  qualities  called  attributes. 
Instead  of  being  simple,  substance  has  a  com- 
plexity measurable  only  by  the  number  of  attri- 
butes it  possesses.  Not  that  it  is  a  mere  com- 
pound; it  is  unitary  in  the  sense  that  all  the 
attributes  organize  themselves  simultaneously  or 
successively  into  a  single  differentiable  object. 
Now,  if  any  substance  has  consciousness  as  an 
attribute,  that  substance  is  by  that  token  a  con- 
scious substance^  and  to  call  it  merely  material 
is  to  be  blind  to  the  fact  that  materiality  is  as 
much  an  attribute  as  color  or  duration.  At- 
tributive materialism  does  not  deny  the  existence 
of  consciousness. 

Causal  materialism  is  true  or  false  according 
to  the  interpretation  put  upon  cause;  but  even 
when  that  interpretation  is  true  materialism  is 
only  a  half  truth,  for  in  that  case  matter  is  as 
dependent  on  mind  as  mind  is  on  matter.  If  by 
cause  is  meant  anything  but  the  invariable  con- 
dition of  an  event,  causal  materialism  is  false, 
for  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  there  is  any 
such  cause.  (See  Causality.)  But  if  by  cause 
is  meant  an  invariable  condition,  then  all  experi- 
ence warrants  us  in  saying  that  a  certain  organi- 
xation  of  matter  is  cause  of  consciousness.  Such 
a  statement,  however,  says  nothing  about  the 
nature  of  consciousness  except  that  it  requires,  as 
a  condition  of  its  appearance  at  a  certain  time, 
that  there  should  be  in  existence  at  that  time 
iome  sort  of  nervous  organization.  If  one  pro- 
ceeds to  say  that  the  physical  world  is  not  in  its 
turn  dependent  on  the  psychical,  that  statement 
must  be  challenged.     If  the  statement  merely 


means  that  some  form  of  physical  existence  pre- 
ceded in  time  any  ascertainable  form  of  con- 
sciousness, no  valid  objection  can  be  raised;  but 
if  it  means  that  the  physical  can  be  conceived 
to  exist  out  of  all  relation  to  the  psychical,  then 
the  assertion  is  questionable.  For  every  judg- 
ment is  passed  upon  reality  as  it  appears  to  the 
judging  consciousness.  Reality  apart  from  a 
judging  consciousness  is  eo  ipso  unknowable.  But 
this  impossibility  of  the  knowledge  apart  from 
consciousness  is  not  the  impossibility  of  an  exist- 
ence antedating  consciousness.  Relation  to  con- 
sciousness there  must  be  in  any  conceivable  real- 
ity; but  the  relation  need  not  be  one  of  simul- 
taneity. It  is  indubitable  that  we  can  know 
things  which  do  not  exist  at  the  time  we  know 
them.  But  if  there  can  be  knowledge  of  things 
which  antedate  the  knower,  there  is  nothing  im- 
possible in  the  supposition  that  knowable,  if  not 
known,  objects  were  themselves  the  causes  of  the 
succeeding  knowledge.  But  if  they  were  causes 
of  the  succeeding  knowledge,  then  the  succeeding 
knowledge  is  a  determining  element  in  the  ^s- 
tem  of  which  the  cause  is  likewise  a  determining 
element.  In  other  words,  effect  conditions  cause 
as  truly  as  cause  conditions  effect.  This  is  not  to 
say  that  the  effect  is  the  cause  of  its  cause,  for 
cause  means  indispensable  antecedent,  and  that 
is  what  the  effect,  as  effect,  is  not.  But  it  is 
indispensable  nevertheless.  For  instance,  if  the 
universe  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  interposi- 
tion of  an  opaque  body  between  a  luminous  body 
and  an  eye  means  an  eclipse  of  the  luminous 
body,  the  absence  of  such  an  eclipse  carries  with 
it  the  absence  of  such  an  interposition.  This 
same  principle  would  make  consciousness,  which 
is  the  result  of  physical  conditions,  itself  an  in- 
dispensable element  in  the  universe,  in  which 
its  causes  existed.  One  cannot  conceive  the  ex- 
istence of  the  physical  cause  without  conceiving 
the  existence  of  the  psychic  effect.  In  other 
words,  even  if  it  were  possible  to  imagine  con- 
sciousness absolutely  absent  from  the  universe, 
we  could  not  think  away  consciousness  from 
its  place  in  the  universe  without  so  completely 
disrupting  and  disintegrating  the  unity  of  the 
system  of  reality  we  know  that  it  would  be 
utterly  unsafe  to  say  whether  matter  would  be 
left  unchanged  by  the  removal. 

Now  the  materialist  who  makes  consciousness 
an  effect  of  matter,  but  not  itself  an  indisp^- 
sable  element  in  the  universe,  fails  to  see  this 
logical  interrelation  of  effect  and  cause.  A 
materialist  who  recognizes  this  interdependence 
ceases  thereby  to  be  a  materialist,  for  now  in 
his  theory  matter  is  as  much  conditioned  by  mind 
as  mind  is  by  matter.  Neither  is  independent, 
although  one  may  be  prior.  The  materialist  looks 
at  the  priority  and  overlooks  the  interdepen- 
dence. One  consequence  of  overlooking  this  inter- 
dependence is  the  assumption  that  the  laws  of 
matter  are  the  only  natural  laws.  Consciousness 
is  regarded  as  running  its  course  in  accordance 
with  mechanical  principles.  Hence  will  is  of  no 
determining  value.  It  is  this  corollary  from 
materialism  that  has  made  the  doctrine  so  dis- 
tasteful to  the  ordinary  thinker.  For  this  corol- 
lary means  the  denial  of  moral  responsibility. 
But  the  results  of  the  renewed  study  of  psychol- 
ogy within  recent  yeai^  have  made  it  quite  im- 
possible to  assert  that  the  laws  of  consciousness 
are  mechanical  laws. 

Materialism   is   an  old   vierw;    all   the   Ionic 


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MATHEMATICS, 


philosophers  (see  Ioioan  School)  were  by  im- 
plication materialists;  Democritus,  Leucippus, 
Epicunis,  and  Lucretius  (see  articleB  on  them) 
worked  out  a  quite  elaborate  materialistic  sys- 
tem. There  is  a  materialistic  vein  running 
through  the  thought  o£  many  of  the  Italian 
philosophers  of  the  Renaissance.  Gassendi^  like- 
wise, makes  consciousness,  at  least  in  the  form 
of  feeling,  an  inseparable  attribute  of  matter. 
The  eighteenth  century  was  especially  marked 
by  its  materialistic  philosophy.  Priestley  in  Eng- 
land and  La  Mattrie,  Diderot,  and  Holbach  in 
France  were  outspoken  in  their  materialism  of 
the  attributive  kind.  The  latter  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  and  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  were  characterized  by  a  strong 
anti-materialistic  reaction,  to  be  followed  again 
in  the  middle  of  the  latter  century  by  a  strong 
outburst  of  materialistic  thought.  Carl  Vogt, 
Jacob  Moleschott,  Louis  Blichner,  and  Heinrich 
Gzolbe  carried  on  a  vigorous  propagandism  in 
favor  of  materialism,  but  the  results  of  the 
scientific  study  of  psychology  were  too  patent, 
and  the  nineteenth  century  went  out  with  a 
strong  dislike  for  the  view  that  made  matter 
the  one  essential  reality. 

For  an  excellent  history  of  materialism,  see 
F.  A.  Lange,  Oeschichte  des  Materialiamus  (Iser- 
lohn,.1866;  5th  ed.  1896;  Eng.  trans,  by  E.  C. 
Thomas,  London,  1879-81).  The  best  work  to 
commend  to  the  reader  who  wishes  to  know 
what  recent  materialism  has  to  say  for  itself 
is  Bttchner,  Kraft  und  8 toff  (Frankfort,  1857; 
Eng.  trans.,  Force  and  Matter,  4th  ed.,  London, 
1884). 

MATEBIALSy  Stbength  of.  See  Strength 
OF  Materials. 

MATE^BIA  MEiyiCA  (Lat.,  medical  ma- 
terial ) .  That  department  of  the  science  of  medi- 
cine which  treats  of  the  materials  employed  for 
the  alleviation  and  cure  of  disease:  (1)  Their 
physical  properties;  (2)  various  modes  of  prep- 
aration; (3)  chemical  composition  and  rela- 
tions, including  the  tests  for  purity,  and  the 
means  of  detecting  probable  adulterations;  (4) 
physiological  action  on  man  and  animals  in 
large  and  small  doses;  (5)  therapeutic  actions 
and  uses,  and  the  average  doses  in  which  they 
should  be  prescribed;  and  (6)  the  official  prep- 
arations containing  the  substances  in  question, 
and  their  uses.  Strict  classification  of  drugs 
into  groups  according  to  their  physiological  ac- 
tion is  impossible,  as  their  action  is  so  complex 
that  one  would  often  be  found  in  several  classes. 
It  is,  however,  customary  to  group  them  accord- 
ing to  their  most  marked  or  important  charac- 
teristic for  convenience  of  description  and  ease 
in  recalling  those  having  a  common  action.  See 
Thebapeutics  ;   PHABMAC0P(EIA. 

MATEBIEL,  mk'iA'r^'i^V  (Lat.  materialis,  re- 
lating to  matter).  This  term  in  its  military 
sense  includes  everything  in  the  military  or  naval 
services  used  by,  or  necessary  to,  the  personnel ; 
such  as  arms,  ammunition,  baggage,  provisions, 
stores,  tools,  horses,  wagons,  tents,  ptc. 

MATEBNA,  mA-t6r'n&,  Amalie  ( 1847—) .  An 
Austrian  opera  singer^  born  in  Saint  Georgen, 
Styria.  She  made  her  first  stage  appearance  in 
Gratz,  1864,  and  in  the  same  year  married  Karl 
Friedrich,  a  well-known  actor,  and  with  him 
was  engaged  at  the  Carl-Theater,  Vienna.  Her 
d^but  as  a  prima-donna  occurred  in  1869,  when 


she  sang  at  the  Imperial  Opera  as  Selika  in 
UAfricaine,  In  1876  she  created  the  part  of 
Brttnnhilde  at  Bayreuth.  She  became  one  of  the 
greatest  sopranos  of  the  early  Wagnerian  opera, 
and  a  great  favorite  in  the  United  States.  She 
retired  in  1897. 

MAT  OBASS.    See  Ammophila;  Nabdus. 

MATHEMATICAI,  SOCIETY,  The  Ameri- 
CAN.  An  association  for  the  advancement  of  mathe- 
matical science.  It  was  reorganized  in  July, 
1894,  imder  its  present  name.  The  society  has 
a  membership  of  about  400.  A  meeting  is  held  an- 
nually at  Columbia  University,  and  section  meet- 
ings take  place  at  Chicago  and  San  Francisco. 
It  publishes  two  periodicals,  the  Bulletin  of  the 
American  Mathematical  Society,  and  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Am^erioan  Mathematical  Society. 

MATHEMATICAL  SOCIETY,  The  London. 
An  association  foimded  in  1865  by  a  niunber  of 
English  mathematicians,  and  incorporated  in 
1894.  It  was  instituted  for  the  promotion  of 
mathematical  knowledge.  The  society  owns  an 
excellent  library  of  books  and  periodicals  on  sci- 
entific subjects.  The  society  began  in  1865  the 
publication  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  London 
Mathematical  Society,  and  has  now  thirty-five 
volumes  of  essays  upon  advanced  mathematical 
topics. 

MATHEMATICS  (Lat.  m^thematica,  from 
Gk.  fiadrffiariK^^  m^th&natikS,  mathematics,  from 
fid&rffia^  masthima,  learning,  science,  from  /mv- 
ddveiv,  manthanein,  to  learn).  The  technical 
meaning  of  the  word  is  due  to  the  Pythagoreans, 
who  distinguished  four  branches:  "There  are 
four  degrees  of  mathematics:  arithmetic,  music, 
geometry,  spherics."  In  modem  times  attempts 
have  frequently  been  made  to  frame  a  satisfac- 
tory definition  of  the  scope  of  the  science.  Des- 
cartes asserts  that  "all  sciences  which  have  for 
their  object  the  search  after  order  and  measure 
belong  to  mathematics."  D'Alembert  in  the 
Enoyclop4die  defines  it  as  the  science  which  con- 
siders the  properties  of  magnitude  in  so  far  as 
this  is  calculable  or  measurable.  Comte,  in  his 
Philosophic  positive,  speaks  of  it  as  the  science 
which  proposes  to  determine  certain  magnitudes 
from  certain  others  from  the  exact  relations  that 
exist  between  them.  Sagnet  has  proposed  the 
following:  "Mathematics  have  for  their  object 
the  study  of  exact  and  necessary  relations  con- 
cerning the  magnitude,  the  form,  and  the  relative 
position  of  various  objects,  material  or  imma- 
terial, which  appeal  to  our  senses."  With  re- 
gard to  these  definitions  it  may  be  observed  that 
they  are  all  based  on  concepts  such  as  'magni- 
tude,' *order,'  'measure,*  that  are  themselves  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  define. 

HiSTOBT.  Mathematics  as  a  science  makes  its 
first  definite  appearance  among  the  Egyptians. 
There  are  evidences  of  its  antiquity  among  the 
Chinese,  Hindus,  and  Babylonians,  but  the 
earliest  written  records  of  considerable  mathe- 
matical progress  are  found  in  Egypt,  and  give 
an  interesting  view  of  the  state  of  the  science  as 
early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  third  millennium 
before  Christ.  At  tnat  time  arithmetic  was  suf- 
ficiently developed  to  include  a  fair  numerical 
system,  a  cumbersome  but  elaborate  treatment  of 
common  fractions,  and  some  work  in  finite  series. 
A  limited  and  imperfect  system  of  mensuration 
was  known,  a  beginning  was  made  in  algebraic 
symbolism,  and  the  simple  equation  was  solved. 


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1CATHEMATIC& 


Of  the  several  mathematical  papyri  that  have 
come  to  light  in  recent  years,  the  most  elaborate 
is  that  transcribed  by  Ahmes  about  b.g.  1700, 
from  one  written  probably  some  six  or  eight  cen- 
turies earlier.  Mathematics  in  Egypt,  however, 
made  but  slight  progress  beyond  this  point  until 
the  Greek  ascendency  in  Alexandria.  The  Baby- 
lonians were  the  next  to  show  signs  of  mathe- 
matical power,  particularly  in  the  application 
of  arithmetic  and  geometry  to  astronomy.  To 
them  is  due  the  development  of  the  sexagesimal 
system  of  fractions  still  commonly  used  in  angle 
and  time  measurements.  The  extensive  trade  of 
the  Phoenicians  also  developed  a  commercial 
arithmetic  among  them  and  their  neighbors,  but 
it  did  not  lead  to  any  general  scientific  progress. 

The  real  beginning  of  mathematics  as  a  stead- 
ily progressing  science  is  to  be  found  in  Greece, 
and  in  particular  in  the  establishing  of  the 
Ionian  school  of  Thales  about  B.C.  600.  Geometry 
as  a  science  here  makes  its  appearance.  The 
next  great  step  in  the  progress  of  mathematics 
was  taken  by  Pythagoras  in  founding  his  famous 
school  at  Croton,  in  Southern  Italy.  Under  his 
influence  a  considerable  part  of  elementary  geom- 
etry became  developed,  and  a  beginning  was  made 
in  creating  a  theory  of  numbers.  (See  Num- 
BEB.)  Considerable  progress  had  been  made  in 
geometry  before  the  tnird  epoch-making  step  was 
taken,  the  founding  of  the  Athenian  school  about 
B.C.  420.  Hippocrates  of  Chios  began  the  move- 
ment that  made  Athens  the  mathematical  centre 
for  the  next  century  and  a  half.  It  was  Plato, 
however,  who  brought  the  school  to  the  zenith 
of  its  fame.  Although  he  was  not,  strictly  speak- 
ing, a  mathematician,  his  ideas  concerning  the 
methods  of  establishing  truths  in  philosophy  and 
science  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  progress 
of  mathematics.  The  third  century  b.g.  saw  the 
rise  of  the  great  Alexandrian  school,  where 
Euclid  taught,  and  Archimedes,  Apollonius,  and 
Eratosthenes  studied.  With  that  century  closes 
the  Hellenic  ascendency  in  mathematics  and 
philosophy,  and  thenceforth  we  find  scientific 
progress  sporadic  and  short-lived.  By  the  second 
century  of  our  era  progress  had  practically 
ceased.  Hero  and  Ptolemy  were  the  greatest 
of  the  later  Greek  writers  on  applied  geometry. 
The  only  new  movement  in  mathematics  made  by 
the  post-Christian  Greeks  was  that  of  Diophan- 
tns,  whose  work  on  equations  is  the  first  of  any 
pretensions  ever  composed.  The  Romans  did 
almost  nothing  in  matnematics  except  in.  a  pure- 
ly mercantile  way,  their  only  contribution  being 
to  the  practical  work  of  surveying.  Among  the 
later  Romans  the  name  of  the  philosopher 
Bo^thius  stands  out  with  some  prominence  for 
his  text-book  work  in  elementary  mathematics, 
but  he  displayed  no  originality.  The  same  must 
be  said  for  such  mediseval  writers  as  Alcuin, 
Gerbert  (see  Stlvesteb),  and  Bede. 

Meanwhile  mathematics  had  obtained  a  foot- 
hold in  the  East.  The  first  definite  trace  of  real- 
ly satisfactory  work  among  the  Oriental  peoples 
is  that  of  Aryabhatta  early  in  the  sixth  century 
(A.D.).  Aryabhatta  possessed  considerable  know- 
led^  of  the  theory  of  numbers,  of  algebra,  and 
of  the  first  principles  of  trigonometry.  The  next 
Hindu  mathematician  of  great  prominence  was 
Brahmagupta,  who  lived  in  the  seventh  century, 
and  whose  work  on  arithmetic  and  algebra  and 
OB  the  mensuration  of  solids  is  a  distinct  ad- 
vance on  that  of  his  predecessors.     The  list  of 


prominent  Hindu  mathematicians  closes  with 
Bhaskara  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  whose  work 
a  fairly  well  developed  algebraic  symbolism  is 
found.  It  was  among  the  Hindus,  too,  that  our 
present  numeral  system  was  born,  being  by  them 
transmitted,  through  the  Arabs,  to  Europe.  (See 
Numerals.)  One  of  the  most  interestmg  peri- 
ods in  the  development  of  mathematics  is  that 
of  the  Arab  ascendency,  and  in  particular  that 
of  the  founding  of  the  great  school  at  Bagdad. 
In  this  school  one  of  the  first  teachers  was  Al- 
khowarazmi,  who  gave  the  name  to  algebra  in 
the  ninth  century.  He  was  followed  by  several 
writers  of  prominence,  but  it  is  rather  by  their 
preservation  of  Greek  and  Hindu  learning  than 
by  their  own  originality  that  they  are  note- 
worthy. Among  the  last  of  the  Persian  and 
Arab  writers  was  the  poet  Omar  Khayyam, 
whose  work  in  algebra  showed  considerable  power. 
The  work  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain  was  rather  that 
of  teaching  than  of  contributing  to  scientific 
advance. 

The  first  of  the  European  writers  to  contribute 
in  any  large  way  to  the  advance  of  mathematics 
was  Leonardo  of  Pisa,  at  the  opening  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  His  Liber  Ahhaci  placed  before 
Italian  scholars  the  Hindu  number  system  (al- 
ready slightly  known),  and  the  mathematical 
knowledge  of  the  world  at  that  time.  The  period 
of  the  ^naissance  was  one  of  great  activity  in 
mathematics.  This  activity  was  inaugurated  in 
Austria  by  Regiomontanus  and  Peuerbach,  and  in 
<]lefrmany  by  Widmann.  In  Italy,  Paccioli  was 
the  first  to  publish,  in  1494,  any  printed  work 
of  much  importance  on  mathematics,  although 
several  minor  works  had  already  appeared,  nota- 
bly one  on  arithmetic  printed  at  Treviso  in 
1478,  and  two  printed  at  Bamberg  in  1482-83. 
During  the  sixteenth  century  the  Italian  alge- 
braists, notably  Tartaglia,  Ferro,  Cardan,  Fer- 
rari, and  Bombelli,  solved  completely  the  cubic 
and  biquadratic  equations,  and  Vieta,  in  France, 
so  improved  the  symbolism  of  algebra  and  so 
generalized  the  use  of  letters  as  to  put  algebra 
upon  substantially  the  present  foimdation.  It 
needed  only  the  symbolism  suggested  by  Descartes 
and  a  few  of  his  contemporaries  to  bring  ele- 
mentary algebra,  about  1650,  to  the  form  fa- 
miliar to  students  at  the  present  day. 

About  the  time  that  elementary  algebra  was 
becoming  crystallized,  a  revival  of  interest  in 
geometry  took  place.  On  the  side  of  pure  ge- 
ometry this  was  led  by  Kepler,  Desargues,  and 
Pascal,  while  to  Descartes  is  due  the  invention 
of  the  method  of  analytic  geometry.  At  the 
same  period  Fermat  laid  the  foundation  for  the 
modem  theory  of  numbers,  and  the  new  theory 
of  logarithms  (q.v.)  became  generally  known. 
The  greatest  progress  in  the  seventeenth  century 
is,  however,  represented  by  the  invention  of  the 
fluxional  calculus  by  Newton,  and  of  the  difl'er- 
ential  calculus  by  Leibnitz.  These  disciplines, 
essentially  the  same  and  so  considered  at  present, 
revolutionized  mathematics  and  its  applications. 

The  period  of  the  development  of  elementary 
mathematics  closes  with  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  eighteenth  century  was  devoted  largely  to 
the  investigations  of  the  foundations  of  the  new 
analysis,  to  a  consideration  of  its  applications, 
to  the  study  of  infinite  series  (see  Series),  and 
to  the  understanding  of  the  nature  of  complex 
numbers  (q.v.).  The  thirteenth  century  saw  the 
development  of  the  so-called  modem  mathemat- 


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ics,  including  subjects  discussed  in  the  articles 
on  Substitutions;  Quaternions;  Subfaces; 
CuBVE;  CoMPixx  Number;  Determinants; 
Functions;  and  the  more  general  articles  on 
Algebra,  Geometry,  Trigonometry,  Number, 
and  Calculus. 

Classification.  No  entirely  satisfactory 
classification  of  mathematics  is  possible.  The 
various  branches  are  so  interrelated  that  exact 
lines  of  separation  cannot  be  drawn,  a  fact  of 
apparent  and  great  advantage  to  the  science. 
The  most  recent  attempt  at  classification  is  that 
made  in  the  Enoyklopddie  der  mathematischen 
Wisaenschaften,  The  following  scheme  covers 
the  principal  subjects  discussed: 

I.   PURE  mathematics. 

A.  Arithmetic  and  Algebra. 

(a)  Arithmetic  (q.v.). 

(1)  Fandamental    operations  with   pure    numbers. 
See  NuMBBB :  Arithmbtic. 

(3)  The    comblnator;}'    theory.    Inclndlng     combl- 

nations,  permutations,  determinants.    See  PbBt* 

MUTATIOV8  AND  COMBINATIONS. 

(8)  Irrationals  and  the  convergencj  question.    See 
Numbbb;  Ibbatiomal  Numbeb. 

(4)  Complex  numbers  (q.v.). 

(6)  Mengenlehre,  literally  the  •  multitude    theory  * ; 
as  of  a  multitude  (unlimited  number)  of  points. 
(6)   Finite  discrete  croups.    See  Substitcttiom. 

(b)  Algebra  (q.v.). 

(1)  Fundamental  concepts,  Indudiner  rational  func- 
tions.   See  FuifcnoM. 
(i)  Theory  of  invariants.    See  Fobms. 
(8)  Theory  of  equations.    See  Equatioh. 

(c)  Theory  of  numbers.    See  Number. 

(d)  Theory  of  probabilities.    See  Probabiutt. 

B.  Analysis. 

(a)  Analysis  of  real  quantities. 

(1)  Differential  and  integ^ral  calculus.    See  CALoniiUa. 
n)  Differential  equations.    See  Equation. 

(8)  Continuous  transformation  groupe.     See  Substi- 
tution. 
(4)  Infinite  series. 
(6)  Calculus  of  variations. 

(b)  Analysis  of  complex  quantities. 

CL)  General  theory  of  functions.    See  Function. 

(2)  Special  kinds  of  functions,  elliptic,  Abellan,  auto- 

morphic.  etc. 
(8)  Functional  equations  and  operations. 

C.  Qeometry   (q.v.). 

(a)  Pure  geometry.    See  Geometry. 

(1)  General  principles  and  elementary  geometry. 

Q)  Positional  geometry. 

(8)  Projective  geometry.     See  Geombtbt;   Pbojso- 

TION. 

(4)  Descriptive  geometry.    See  Gbombtbt. 

(b)  Algebra  and  analysis  as  applied  to  geom- 

etry.   See  Analytic  Geometry. 

g)  Coordinate  systems.    See  CodBoiNATBS. 
J  Conies. 

(81  Algebraic  curves  and  surfaces. 
(4)  Space  of  n  dimensions.    See  Gbombtbt. 

(c)  Differential    geometry,    including    tran- 

scendent curves  and  surfaces. 

II.    APPLIED  mathematics. 

A.  Mechanics    (q.v.),    including   kinematics,   ki- 

netics, statics,  the  vector  analysis  ( see  Qua- 
ternions), hydrodynamics,  and  the  theory 
of  elasticity. 

B.  Physics    (q.v.),    including    thermodynamics, 

molecular  physics,  electricity,  optics. 

C.  Geodesy    and    Geophysics,    including   naviga- 

tion, geodetic  mensuration,  cartography, 
magnetism. 

D.  Astronomy. 


Bibuooraphy.  Select  special  bibliographies 
may  be  found  in  most  of  the  articles  on  mathe- 
matical topics.  Following  are  some  of  the  best- 
known  general  works  on  the  history  of  mathe- 
matics: Cantor,  Yorlesungen  ilher  Oeschichte 
der  Mathematik  (Leipzig,  1880-92)  ;  Fink,  His- 
tory of  Mathematics  (Chicago,  1900),  form- 
ing a  brief  compendium  of  Cantor's  work; 
Ball,  A  Short  Account  of  the  History  of  Mathe- 
matics (London,  1901);  Smith,  "History  of 
Modem  Mathematics,'*  in  Merriman  and  Wood- 
ward's Higher  Mathematics  (New  York,  1896)  ; 
Suter,  Geschichte  der  mathematischen  Wis- 
senschaften  (Zurich,  1873-75)  ;  Hankel,  Zur 
Geschichte  der  Mathematik  im  Altertum  und 
Mittelalter  (Leipzig,  1874)  ;  Zeuthen,  Die 
Lehre  von  den  Kegelschnitten  im  Altertum  (Co- 
penha^n,  1886)  ;  Zeuthen,  Vorlesungen  iiher  die 
Geschichte  der  Mathematik  (Copenhagen,  Ger. 
trans,  in  1895)  ;  Gttnther,  Geschichte  des  mathe- 
matischen Unterrichts  im  deutschen  Mittelalter 
his  zum  Jahre  1525  (Berlin,  1887)  ;  Cajori,  A 
History  of  Mathematics  (New  York,  1894)  ; 
Cajori,  A  History  of  Elementary  Mathematics 
(New  York,  1896)  ;  Ahhandlungen  zur  Ge- 
schichte der  Mathematik  (Leipzig,  1877  et  seq.). 
The  Bibliotheca  Mathematica  (Leipzig) ^  edited 
by  EnestrSm,  is  devoted  to  the  history  of  the 
subject.  For  the  general  bibliography  of  the 
science,  consult  the  elaborate  Encyklopadie  der 
mathematischen  Wissenschaften,  the  publication 
of  which  was  begun  at  Leipzig  in  1898.  Com- 
plete records  of  the  recent  publications  touch- 
ing mathematical  subjects  may  be  found  in  the 
Jahrhuoh  iiher  die  Fortschritte  der  Mathematih 
(Berlin,  since  1871). 

MATHEB,  mftTH'gr,  Cotton  (1663-1728).  A 
colonial  divine  and  author,  eldest  son  of  Increase 
Mather  (q.v.)  and  Maria,  daughter  of  John 
Cotton  (q.v.).  He  was  bom  in  Boston,  Febru- 
ary 12,  1663.  He  was  very  precocious  and  was 
unfortunately  overestimated  and  praised,  with 
the  result  that  he  became  morbidly  self-con- 
scious. An  omnivorous  reader  from  the  first, 
he  entered  Harvard  at  eleven,  and  graduated  in 
1678  at  fifteen.  At  sixteen  he  studied  medicine, 
despairing  of  being  able  to  enter  the  ministry  on 
account  of  a  propensity  to  stammering.  This  he 
conquered  by  methods  of  deliberate  speech,  and 
at  seventeen  preached  his  first  sermon  and  be- 
came an  assistant  to  his  father.  He  took  his 
master's  degree  in  1681,  refused  a  call  to  New 
Haven,  and  became  associate  pastor  with  his 
father  in  the  North  Church  of  Boston.  In  1686 
he  married;  two  years  later  his  father's  mis- 
sion to  England  left  him  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  in  sole  charge  of  the  North  Church,  and 
probably  the  most  important  man  in  Boston.  He 
was  widely  celebrated  as  a  scholar  and  was  the 
obvious  leader  of  the  conservative  element 
among  the  Puritans  of  the  day.  He  had  also 
begun  to  take  a  great  interest  in  the  subject  of 
witchcraft,  his  Memorahle  Providences  Relating 
to  Witchcraft  and  Possessions  appearing  in  1689. 
During  the  witchcraft  epidemic  at  Salem  in 
1692  he  became  an  infatuated  investigator  of 
suspected  cases,  a  constant  adviser  of  the  mag- 
istrates, and  wrote  his  Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World  (1693)  to  confute  all  doubters.  In  1693 
Mather  planned  his  great  ecclesiastical  history 
of  New  England,  the  Magnalia,  which  was 
finished  in  1697,  and  finally  appeared  in  1702. 


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Meanwhile  he  was  overworked  and  in  an  un- 
balanced condition  of  mind,  partly  in  consequence 
of  attacks  made  upon  him  for  his  activity  in  the 
witchcraft  crisis.  He  was  also  much  worried 
by  his  father's  troubles  as  president  of  Har- 
vard, and  later  was  disappointed  in  not  him- 
self receiving  the  position.  He  had  family 
troubles,  and  was  furthermore  doomed  to  see 
more  liberal  forms  of  religious  thought  prevailing 
around  him.  Nevertheless  he  continued  to  be  a 
prominent  and  useful  citizen,  waging  war  on 
intemperance  and  other  forms  of  immorality. 
In  1703  he  married  again.  In  1707  a  final 
breach  with  (Jovernor  Dudley  greatly  lessened 
his  public  influence.  A  few  years  later  he  was 
made  a  D.D.  by  the  University  of  Glasgow,  but 
tributes  to  his  merits  as  divine,  scholar,  and  au- 
thor could  not  compensate  for  domestic  unhap- 
piness  caused  by  various  deaths  and  by  the 
dissolute  c<Miduct  of  one  of  his  sons.  His  second 
wife  dying  in  1713,  he  took  another  two  years 
later  and  suffered  greatly  in  consequence  of  her 
derangement.  In  1721  by  his  bold  stand  in  favor 
of  inoculation  for  smallpox  he  aroused  almost 
a  panic  of  opposition  to  himself.  Then  came  his 
father's  death,  a  final  disappointment  with  re- 
gard to  the  presidency  of  Harvard,  and  his  own 
death,  February  13,  1728. 

Cotton  Mather  was  a  man  of  extraordinary 
learning,  combined  with  pedantry,  a  stanch  up- 
holder of  antiouity,  especially  in  matters  of 
theology  and  Church  polity,  a  marvelously  vo- 
luminous writer,  an  active  politician,  and,  when 
not  misled  by  excitement,  a  public-spirited  citi- 
Ben.  His  connection  with  the  persecution  of  the 
witches  has  given  him  a  sinister  reputation, 
which  no  efforts  of  biographers  have  been  able 
to  efface ;  but  it  is  at  least  certain  that  he  is  bet- 
ter remembered  than  any  other  of  the  early 
colonial  divines.  Few  persons  can  now  find  time 
to  read  his  numerous  books,  but  no  student  of 
the  period  during  which  he  lived  should  speak 
of  him  without  gratitude.  His  Magnolia  is  full 
of  errors,  yet  gives  the  very  *form  and  pres- 
ence' of  its  age,  and  represents  labors  truly 
heroic.  The  most  important  of  his  works  are: 
Poem  to  the  Memory  of  Urian  Oakes  (1682); 
Wonders  of  the  Invisible  World  (1693;  re- 
printed in  '^Library  of  Old  Authors,"  1862) ; 
Magnalia  Chriati  Americana  (1702;  reprinted  in 
two  volumes,  1820  and  1853)  ;  Bonifacius,  etc., 
or,  as  it  is  better  known.  Essays  to  Do  Oood 
(1710;  Glasgow,  1838);  and  Parentator  (Bos- 
ton, 1724),  a  curious  and  interesting  life  of  his 
father.  Increase.  For  his  life  and  writings  con- 
sult the  biography  by  his  son,  Samuel  Alather 
(Boston,  1729)  ;  Pond,  The  Mather  Family  (Bos- 
ton, 1844)  ;  Wendell,  Cotton  Mather  (New  York, 
1891);  Marvin,  Life  and  Times  of  Cotton 
Mather  (Boston,  1892)  ;  also  Sibley,  Harvard 
Graduates,  vol.  iii.  (Cambridge,  1885)  ;  Tyler, 
History  of  American  Literature,  vol.  ii.  (New 
York,  1881);  Wendell,  Literary  History  of 
America  (New  York,  1900). — Cotton  Mather's 
son,  Samuel  (1706-86),  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1723,  served  as  minister  of  the  North  CJhurch, 
Boston,  until  1742,  and  then,  in  consequence  of 
differences  concerning  revivals,  a  separate  church 
was  formed  for  him  in  North  Bennett  Street. 
He  published  among  other  works  a  Life  of  Cot- 
ion  Mather  (1729)  ;  An  Apology  for  the  Lib- 
ertie  of  the  Churches  in  New  England  (1738) ; 
and  America  Known  to  the  Ancients  (1773). 


MATH  KB,  INCBEASE  (1639-1723).  A  colo- 
nial divine,  youngest  son  of  Richard  Mather 
(q.v.).  He  was  bom  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  June 
21,  1639.  A  precocious  boy,  he  entered  Harvard 
at  twelve  and  graduated  at  seventeen.  On  his 
nineteenth  birthday  he  preached  an  able  sermon 
from  his  father's  pulpit.  Shortly  afterwards, 
at  the  request  of  his  brothers,  Samuel  and  Na- 
thaniel, he  went  to  Dublin,  where,  at  Trinity 
College,  he  took  his  M.A.  Then  he  preached  in 
Devonshire  and  Guernsey  with  success,  but  re- 
turned to  Massachusetts  in  1661.  For  some  time 
he  divided  his  services  between  his  father's 
church  at  Dorchester  and  the  new  North  Church 
at  Boston,  but  in  1664  he  threw  in  his  lot  with 
the  latter. 

In  1681,  on  the  death  of  Urian  Oakes  (q.v.), 
Mather  was  appointed  his  successor  as  president 
of  Harvard,  and  began  his  duties,  but  his  church 
would  not  let  him  go.  In  1685,  after  the  death 
of  President  John  Rogers,  he  was  enabled  to  ac- 
cept the  post  on  the  condition  that  he  should 
still  reside  in  Boston.  He  held  it  until  1701, 
the  college  growing  under  his  care,  but  suffering 
from  various  intrigues.  As  a  result  of  these 
intrigues  Mather  was  finally  forced  to  reside  at 
Cambridge,  and  soon  after  gave  up  the  post, 
which  had  been  rendered  most  uncomfortable  to 
him.  Meanwhile  he  had  made  himself  useful  to 
the  colony  by  resisting  the  attempts  of  Charles 
II.  to  seize  the  charter  of  Massachusetts,  had 
patriotically  opposed  the  tyranny  of  James  II., 
and  in  1688  had  gone  to  England  as  agent  for 
his  fellow  citizens.  He  could  not  secure  from 
William  III.  the  restoration  of  the  old  charter, 
but  he  obtained  a  new  and  fairly  satisfactory 
one,  and  gained  the  favor  both  of  the  King  and 
of  the  people  of  the  colony.  Fortunately  for 
him,  he  was  absent  in  England  during  the  worst 
of  the  witchcraft  delusion,  and  thus  is  not 
amenable  to  some  of  the  censure  that  has  been 
passed  upon  him  as  a  fomenter  of  the  popular 
excitement.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  after 
this  excitement  wore  off,  the  hold  of  Mather  and 
his  son  Cotton  upon  the  clergy  and  people  of 
the  colony  was  greatly  weakened.  He  main- 
tained his  personal  vigor  to  a  considerable 
extent,  until  his  death,  August  23,  1723. 
Chief  among  his  works  are  A  Brief  History  of 
the  War  with  the  Indians  in  New  England 
(1676;  edited  by  Drake,  1862)  ;  A  Relation  of 
Troubles  of  New  England  from  the  Indians 
(1677;  edited  by  Drake,  1864);  Cometograph- 
ia,  or  a  Discourse  Concerning  Comets  (1683); 
and  best  known  and  most  interesting  probably, 
An  Essay  for  the  Recording  of  Illustrious  Provi- 
dences (1684;  reprinted  in  the  "Library  of  Old 
Authors,"  1856).  The  last-named  book  is  usu- 
ally known  as  Remarkable  ProvidenceSy  and  is  a 
mine  for  those  interested  in  seventeenth  century 
superstitions.  His  Cases  of  Conscience  Concern- 
ing Witchcraft  (1693;  reprinted  with  Cotton 
Mather's  Wonders  of  the  Invisible  World  in  the 
"Library  of  Old  Authors,"  1862),  is  interesting 
and  important.  For  Increase  Mather's  life,  con- 
sult: Cotton  Mather's  biography  of  him  en- 
titled Parentator  (Boston,  1724)  ;  Pond,  The 
Mather  Family  (Boston,  1844)  ;  Wendell,  Cot- 
ton  Mather  (New  York,  1891);  and  Marvin, 
Life  and  Times  of  Cotton  Mather  (Boston,  1892). 
Consult,  also:  Tyler,  History  of  American  lAt- 
erature,  vol.  ii.  (New  York,  1881);  and  Wil- 
liston  Walker,  Ten  New  England  Leaders  (New 


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186 


MATHEW. 


York,  1901).  For  a  list  of  his  voluminous  writ- 
ings, consult  Sibley,  Harvard  Graduates ^  vol.  i. 
(Cambridge,  1873). 

MATHEB,  RiGHABD  (1596-1669).  A  colonial 
divine  and  founder  of  the  famous  Mather  family 
in  New  England.  He  was  bom  in  Lowton,  Lan- 
cashire, of  a  family  of  Puritan  yeomen.  He 
began  giving  religious  teaching  when  a  mere 
boy,  then  passed  through  Brasenpse  CJollege,  Ox- 
ford, and  about  1619  was  ordained  and  put  in 
charge  of  the  church  at  Toxteth,  near  Liver- 
pool. In  1635  he  emigrated  to  Massachusetts. 
As  he  was  noted  for  his  learning  and  his  power- 
ful preaching,  there  was  rivalry  among  the  New 
England  churches  to  secure  him.  He  finally, 
settled  at  Dorchester  in  1636,  and  remained  there 
as  pastor  until  his  death,  April  22,  1669.  He 
wrote  public  letters  on  matters  of  Church  gov- 
ernment, helped  to  compile  the  Bay  Psalm  Book 
(q.v.),  and  had  a  leading  share  in  framing  the 
Cambridge  Platform  (1648).  (See  Congbega- 
TiONALiSM.)  He  transmitted  his  powers,  espe- 
cially his  love  of  reading  and  writing  books,  to 
his  six  sons  by  his  first  wife,  Katharine  Holt; 
his  second  marriage  with  the  widow  of  the  fa- 
mous John  Cotton  (q.v.)  proved  childless.  Four 
of  these  sons  became  somewhat  famous  as  preach- 
ers and  authors.  Of  these  the  best  known  is  the 
youngest,  Increase  Matheb  (q.v.). — The  eldest, 
Samuel  (1626-71),  began  preaching  in  Boston, 
soon  removed  to  England,  where  he  was  very 
popular,  and,  after  the  ejection  of  the  Non- 
conformists in  1662,  became  a  leading  clergyman 
of  Dublin.— The  third  son,  Nathaniel  (1631-97), 
also  attained  reputation  in  England  as  a  preach- 
er and  religious  writer,  and  succeeded  his  brother 
Samuel  in  Dublin. — ^The  fifth  son,  Eleazeb 
(1637-69),  was  the  first  minister  at  Northamp- 
ton, Mass.  For  sketches  of  Richard  Mather,  con- 
sult: Increase  Mather,  Life  and  Death  of  Rich- 
ard Mather  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1670)  ;  Cotton 
Mather,  Parentator  (Boston,  1724)  ;  Wendell, 
Cotton  Mather  (New  York,  1891);  and  Tyler, 
History  of  American  Literature,  vol.  ii.  (New 
York,  1881). 

MATHEBy  WILLLA.M  Williams  (1804-59). 
An  American  geologist,  bom  at  Brooklyn,  Conn. 
He  graduated  in  1828  at  West  Point,  where  he 
was  assistant  professor  of  chemistry  from  1829 
to  1835.  He  resigned  from  the  array  in  1836 
and  became  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Louisiana,  from  which  position  he  re- 
tired in  a  few  months  to  superintend  the  geologi- 
cal survey  of  the  first  district  of  New  York 
State,  including  the  counties  bordering  upon 
the  Hudson  River.  While  engaged  in  these  re- 
searches (1836-44)  he  was  State  geologist  for 
Ohio  (1837-40)  and  Kentucky  (1838-39),  and 
professor  of  natural  science,  vice-president  and 
acting  president  at  the  Ohio  University  at 
Athens  (1842-50).  By  experiments  made  at 
Athens  (1845),  he  discovered  that  bromine, 
which  at  that  time  was  selling  at  $16  an  ounce, 
could  be  obtained  at  a  comparatively  small  price 
from  the  bitter  waters  of  the  salt  works  near 
that  place.  Mather  edited  the  Western  Agricul- 
turalist, and  was  the  author  of  the  "Geology  of 
the  First  (reological  District,**  in  Natural  His- 
tory of  New  York  (1843). 

MATHEBS,  mfiTH^Srs,  Helen  Buckingham. 
See  Reeves,  Mrs.  Henbt. 


MATHESON,  mfithVson,  Geobge  (1842—). 
A  Scotch  minister  and  author,  born  in  Glasgow. 
He  lost  his  eyesight  in  his  youth,  but  entered 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  and  graduated  with 
honors.  His  first  charge  was  at  i^nellan,  Argyl- 
shire  (1868-86)  ;  afterwards  he  became  minister 
at  Saint  Bernard's,  Edinburgh  (1886-99).  He 
was  author  of  the  hymn  "O  Love  that  Wilt  Not 
Let  Me  Go.**  His  publications  include:  Natural 
Elements  of  Revealed  Theology  (1881);  Confu- 
cianism and  My  Aspirations  (1882);  Can  the 
Old  Faith  Live  with  the  Newt  (1885)  ;  Distinc- 
tive Messages  of  the  Old  Religion  (1893)  ;  Bible 
Definition  of  Religion  (1898) ;  Leaves  for  Quiet 
Hours   (1904). 

MATHEW,  mfith'a,  Theobald,  commonly 
known  as  Father  Mathew  (1790-1856).  A 
total  abstinence  orator.  He  was  bom  at  Thomas- 
town,  a  few  miles  east  of  Tipperary  Castle,  in 
Ireland,  October  10,  1790.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  while  Mathew  was  still  very  young,  the 
kindness  of  the  Llandaff  familv  enabled  the  boy 
to  enter  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Kilkenny, 
whence  he  was  transferred,  as  a  candidate  for 
the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood,  to  the  College  of 
Maynooth  in  1807.  He  left  that  college,  however, 
m  the  next  year.  He  relinquished  the  secular 
priesthood  for  that  of  the  religious  Order  of  the 
Capuchins,  in  which  he  took  priest's  orders  in 
1814,  and  was  sent  to  the  church  of  his  Order  in 
the  city  of  Cork.  His  singularly  charitable  and 
benevolent  disposition  won  for  him  the  universal 
love  and  respect  alike  of  rich  and  poor.  He 
established  a  religious  brotherhood  similar  to 
that  of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  he  founded 
schools  for  children  of  both  sexes.  But  the  great 
work  of  Father  Mathew*s  life  is  the  marvelous 
reformation  which  he  effected  in  the  habits  of  his 
fellow-countrymen,  and  which  has  won  for  him 
the  title  of  'Apostle  of  Temperance.*  In  1838  he 
established  an  association  on  the  principle  of  total 
abstinence,  at  first  confined  to  the  city  of  Cork, 
but  afterwards  extending  to  the  county  and  ad- 
jacent districts  of  Limerick  and  Kerry.  The 
success  which  attended  this  first  local  effort  led 
to  the  suggestion  that  Father  Mathew  himself 
should  repair  to  the  several  great  centres  of 
population,  especially  in  the  south.  Thence  he 
gradually  extended  the  field  of  his  labors  to 
Dublin,  to  the  north,  and  even  to  Liverpool, 
Manchester,  London,  Glasgow,  and  the  other 
chief  seats  of  the  Irish  population,  even  in  the 
New  World.  His  association  included  a  large 
proportion  of  the  adult  population  of  Ireland, 
without  distinction  of  rank,  creed,  or  sex;  and 
so  complete  was  the  revolution  in  the  habits  of 
the  Irish  people  that  very  many  distilleries  and 
breweries  ceased  from  working.  Mathew's  muni- 
ficent charities,  the  expenses  connected  with  his 
total-abstinence  association,  and  perhaps  his  own 
improvident  and  unworldly  habits,  involved  him 
in  pecuniary  embarrassments  and  embittered  his 
last  years.  A  pension  of  £300,  granted  by  the 
Crown,  was  supplemented  by  private  subscrip- 
tion, and  relieved  him  of  his  liabilities.  In  1848 
he  had  an  attack  of  paralysis  from  which  he 
never  fully  recovered.  From  1849  to  1851  he  was 
in  America  and  founded  numerous  total  absti- 
nence societies.  He  died  at  Queenstown,  Ireland, 
December  8,  1856.  (Consult  his  Life,  by  F.  I. 
Mathew  (London,  1890). 


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MATILDA. 


HATHBWS,  mftth'flz,  Chables  (1776-1835). 
An  English  comedian,  bom  in  London  on  June 
28,  1776.  He  was  the  son  of  a  bookseller,  who 
intended  his  son  to  follow  the  same  vocation; 
but  his  early  inclination  for  the  stage  overcame 
parental  counsel,  and  he  made  his  appearance 
£L8  an  amateur,  in  the  part  of  Richard  III.,  at 
the  Richmond  Theatre  in  1793.  As  a  professional 
comedian  he  appeared  in  the  Theatre  Royal, 
I>ublin,  the  following  year.  His  first  engagement 
in  London  was  at  the  Haymarket,  in  1803 ;  later 
he  transferred  his  services  to  Drury  Lane.  In 
1818  he  first  introduced  in  London  one  of  his 
entertainments,  known  as  'At  Homes,'  such  as 
he  repeated  for  a  number  of  subsequent  seasons 
with  immense  success.  In  the  course  of  his 
eareer  he  twice  visited  America,  in  1822  and 
1834,  and  his  last  appearance  upon  the  stage 
was  made  at  New  York  in  February,  1836.  He 
had  been  since  1828  a  joint  proprietor  of  the 
Adelphi  Theatre  of  London.  His  death  occurred 
at  Plymouth  on  June  28,  1835. 

Mathews  was  a  wonderful  master  of  im- 
personation and  mimicry.  The  variety  of  his 
facial  expression  was  so  extraordinary  that  he 
could  alter  his  curious  features  in  an  instant 
and  deceive  even  his  friends  as  to  his  identity,  a 
peculiarity  of  which  many  quaint  stories  are 
told.  He  was  extremely  sensitive,  and  the  fine- 
ness of  his  taste  and  character,  as  well  as  his 
wit,  made  him  a  welcome  companion  of  the 
most  distinguished  people.  Consult  the  Memoirs 
of  Charles  Mathews,  Comedian,  by  Mrs.  Math- 
ews (London,  1838-39) ;  Anecdotes  of  Actors, 
by  the  same  (London,  1844)  ;  Matthews  and 
Hutton,  Actors  and  Actresses  of  Great  Britain 
<ind  the  United  States,  vol.  ii.  (New  York, 
1886);  Baker,  Our  Old  Actors  (London,  1881). 

KATHEWS,  Chables  James  (1803-78).  An 
English  actor  and  playwright,  son  of  Charles 
^Mathews,  bom  in  Liverpool,  December  26,  1803. 
He  was  educated  at  Merchant  Taylors*  School, 
and  at  a  school  at  Clapham,  kept  by  Richardson 
the  lexicographer.  In  1819  he  began  study  with 
Pugin,  the  architect.  With  Pugin  he  went  to 
Paris,  whose  comedians  increased  a  lurking  dis- 
pcNsition  of  his  to  appear  on  the  stage.  He  did 
flo  as  an  amateur  in  April,  1822,  playing  the 
part  of  Dorival  in  Le  oomidien  d*Etampes,  at 
the  Lyceum  Theatre.  He  afterward  designed  and 
superintended  the  building  of  cottages,  inns,  and 
bridges.  In  1835  he  gave  up  his  profession  and 
turned  to  the  stage.  Though  a  brilliant  actor  in 
light  pieces,  he  met  with  many  reverses  as 
manager.  During  his  long  career  on  the  sta^ 
he  played  more  than  two  hundred  r6les  m 
dramas* written  by  himself  and  others.  Among  his 
most  famous  parts  were  Charles  CJoldstream  in 
Used  Up,  Lavater  in  Cool  as  a  Cucumher,  and 
Puff  in  the  Critic.  Besides  performing  at  the 
principal  London  theatres,  Mathews  made  tours 
through  Canada,  the  United  States,  and  Aus- 
tralia. He  died  at  Manchester,  England,  June 
24,  1878.  For  his  lAfe,  with  selections  from  his 
correspondence,  consult  Charles  Dickens  (Lon- 
don, 1879). 

JCATHEWSy  Lucia  Elizabeth.  See  Vestms, 
Madame. 

MATHEWS,  William  (1818—).  An  Ameri- 
can  author,  bom  at  Waterville,  Me.  He  grad- 
uated at  Waterville  College  (Colby  University) 
in  1835,  studied  law  at  Harvard  and  was  ad- 
Vol.  XUI.— 18. 


mitted  to  the  bar.  In  1841  he  established  The 
Watervillonian,  afterwards  called  The  Yankee 
Blade,  which  imited  with  the  Boston  Portfolio 
in  1856.  He  was  also  in  newspaper  work  in 
Chicago  from  1859  imtil  1862,  when  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  in 
the  University  of  (Jhicago^  a  position  he  resigned 
in  1875.  His  publications  include :  Getting  On  in 
the  World  (1872);  The  Great  Conversers,  and 
Other  Essays  (1874);  Words — Their  Use  and 
Abuse  (1876) ;  and  Hours  with  Men  and  Books 
(1877). 

MATHEWS^  WuuAM  Smythe  Baboook 
( 1837— ) .  An  American  musician  and  writer  on 
music.  He  was  bom  in  Loudon,  N.  H.,  and 
was  educated  entirely  under  native  teachers.  He 
began  his  professional  career  at  Macon,  Gku, 
where  he  was  engaged  in  teaching  from  1860  to 
1863.  Later  he  took  up  similar  work  in  North 
Carolina,  and  at  Marion,  Ala.  His  first  po- 
sition in  Chicago,  with  which  city  he  became 
most  particularly  identified,  was  as  organist  of 
Centenary  M.  E.  Church,  which  appointment  he 
held  from  1867  to  1893,  meanwhile  acting  as 
correspondent  for  Dwight's  Journal  of  Music 
(1866-72),  and  as  editor  of  the  Musical  Inde- 
pendent from  1868  to  1872.  He  first  became  an 
influence  in  the  musical  life  of  Chicago  through 
his  musical  criticisms  in  the  daily  press.  In 
1891  he  foimded  Music,  which  he  purposed  to  be 
exclusively  devoted  to  students  of  music.  His 
publications  include  his  Popular  History  of 
Music  (1889) ;  Outlines  of  Musical  Form  (1867) ; 
How  to  Understand  Music  (2  vols.,  1880  and 
1888,  respectively) ;  One  Hundred  Tears  of  Music 
in  America  (1889) ;  Music,  Its  Ideals  and  Meth- 
ods (1897)  ;  in  collaboration  with  L.  O.  Emerson, 
the  Emerson  Organ  Method  (1870);  and  with 
William  Mason,  Pianoforte  Technics  (1876); 
with  Emil  Liebling,  a  Pronouncing  Dictionary 
of  Musical  Terms  (1896). 

MATHIA8,  m&-thl^a8,  Thomas  James 
(c.  1754-1835).  An  English  author.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellow,  and  was  appointed  treasurer 
of  the  household  to  Queen  Charlotte.  This 
office  he  resigned  in  1818  and  passed  the  later 
part  of  his  life  at  Naples.  During  his  long  resi- 
dence in  Italy  he  became  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  its  language  and  literature,  and  wrote  Ital- 
ian verses  with  considerable  fluency.  But  his 
principal  service  to  Italian  literature  was  his 
edition  of  Tiraboschi's  standard  work,  The  His- 
tory of  Italian  Poetry  (1805).  His  best  work  is 
The  Pursuits  of  Literature,  a  poem  which  was 
published  anonymously  between  1794  and  1797. 
The  chief  interest  of  the  Pursuits  lies  in  its 
satirical  critical  notes,  which  made  a  sensation  at 
the  time. 

MATICO,  mA-t6'k6  (Sp.,  from  South  Ameri- 
can name).  Piper  angustifolium  or  Artanthe 
elongata.  A  shrub  of  the  natural  order  Pipera- 
cese,  a  native  of  Peru,  where  it  is  known  as 
soldiers'  herb,  because  its  hairy  leaves  are  used 
as  a  styptic.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a 
species  of  Eupatorium  (q.v.). 

MATICO.  A  South  American  armadillo 
(q.v.)    {Tolypeutes  oonurus),  allied  to  the  apar. 

MATH/DA  (1102-67).  Daughter  of  Henry 
I.,  King  of  England,  and  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.,  often  known  as  the  Empress  Maud. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MATILDA. 


188 


MATBIABCHATE. 


After  her  husband's  death  in  1125  she  returned 
to  England^  and  in  1126  her  father  compelled 
the  barons  of  the  realm  to  swear  that  they  would 
accept  her  as  his  heir.  In  1128  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  son  of  the  Count 
of  Anjou.  In  1133  she  gave  birth  to  a  son,  who 
was  to  ascend  the  throne  of  England  as  Uenry 
II.  When  Henry  I.  died  in  1135,  Matilda  im- 
mediately claimed  all  his  possessions,  but  was 
opposed  by  her  cousin  Stephen  of  Blois.  In  Nor- 
mandy she  was  successful,  but  in  England  Ste- 
phen was  generally  accepted  as  King,  though 
Matilda  was  loyally  supported  by  her  half- 
brother  Robert  of  Gloucester.  In  1141  she  was 
for  a  time  victorious;  Stephen  was  captured 
and  even  his  brother  Henry,  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter and  Papal  legate,  submitted  to  her  rule.  But 
the  nobles  of  England  found  her  too  haughty, 
and  rose  against  her  authority,  and  her  cause 
was  hopelessly  lost  until  Henry  was  old  enough 
to  participate  in  the  contest.  After  Henry  fl. 
came  to  the  throne  she  used  her  influence  with 
the  King  for  the  preservation  of  peace  in  the 
Kingdom,  and  sought  to  be  mediator  between 
him  and  Becket  (q.v.).  Consult  Round,  Geoffrey 
de  Mandeville:  A  Study  of  the  Anarchy  (Lon- 
don, 1882). 

MATILDA  (1046-1115).  Countess  of  Tus- 
cany, noted  througli  her  close  connection  with  the 
Papacy  during  its  struggle  with  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Boniface  III., 
Count  of  Tuscany,  and  Beatrice  of  Lorraine.  In 
1070  she  married  by  procuration  Grodfrey  (sur- 
named  II  Oohho,  i.e.  *the  Hunchback'),  Duke  of 
Lorraine.  Her  husband  did  not  join  her  until 
1072,  and  died  in  1076.  After  this  Matilda  made 
herself  conspicuous  by  the  zeal  with  which  she 
espoused  the  cause  of  Gregory  VII.,  and  it  was  at 
her  castle  of  Canossa  that  Henry  IV.  in  1077 
made  his  humiliating  submission  to  the  Pope.  In 
1089,  though  forty- three  years  of  age,  she  con- 
tracted a  nominal  marriage  with  the  eighteen- 
year-old  Guelph,  the  son  of  Guelph,  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  in  order  to  gain  additional  support  for 
Gregory's  successor.  Urban  II.,  but  the  marriage 
was  dissolved  in  1095.  When  she  died  (July  24, 
1115),  the  Papacy  claimed  her  extensive  ter- 
ritories, comprising  Tuscany,  Brescia,  Modena, 
Reggio,  Mantua,  and  Ferrara,  on  the  ground  that 
in  1077  she  had  made  the  Church  her  heir.  This 
produced  a  new  conflict  between  Papacy  and  Em- 
pire. In  the  course  of  this  contest  the  cities  rose 
to  great  power  and  asserted  their  independence. 
Consult:  Tosti,  La  contessa  Matilda  ed  i  romani 
pontifici  (2d  ed.,  Rome,  1886)  ;  Overmann,  Ordfin 
Mathilde  von  Ttiscien.  Ihre  Besitzungen.  Oe- 
achichte  ihres  Outes  von  1115-1320  und  ihre 
Regeaten  (Innsbruck,  1895)  ;  Ruddy,  Matilda^, 
Countess  of  Tuscany  (Saint  Louis,  1905). 

MATILEy  mA-t^K,  George  Auguste  (1807- 
81).  A  Swiss- American  jurist,  bom  at  La  Chaux- 
de-Fonds  ( Neuchfttel ) .  He  was  educated  for 
the  bar  at  the  German  universities  of  Berlin  and 
Heidelberg,  and  still  later  studied  in  Paris.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  (1838)  at  Neuchatel, 
and  eight  years  afterwards  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  the  university  there,  and  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court.  He  came  to  America  in 
1849,  and  in  1856  was  made  professor  of  history 
at  Princeton.  In  1858  he  removed  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  as  professor  of  French 
literature.     From   1863  until  his  death  he  was 


connected  with  the  State  Department  in  Wash- 
ington. His  works  include:  Points  de  coutume 
(1838)  ;  Autoriti  du  droit  romain  de  la  coutuine 
de  Bourgogne  et  de  la  Caroline  dans  la  prvnci- 
paut4  de  ?ieuch4tel  (1838)  ;  Mus^  historique  de 
Neuchdtel  (1841-59);  Monuments  de  Vhistoire 
de  Neuchdtel  (1844-48) ;  Histoire  de  la  seigneu- 
rie  de  Valangin  (1852). 

M&.TIN,  mrtAN'  (OP.  mastin,  mdtin,  from 
ML.  ^mansuetinus,  from  mansuetare,  to  tame, 
from  mansuetus,  p.p.  of  mansuescere,  to  tame, 
from  manus,  hand  -+-  suescere,  to  become  accus- 
tomed, inchoative  of  suere,  to  be  accustomed). 
A  large  kind  of  dog,  now  almost  peculiarly 
French,  but  allied  to  the  Great  Dane.  It  has 
rough  hair,  a  rather  flat  forehead,  a  rather 
pointed  muzzle;  the  ears  erect,  but  bent  down 
at  the  tips.  It  is  generally  of  a  whitish  color, 
clouded  with  brown.  It  is  fierce,  but  not  very 
courageous.    Compare  Hound. 

MATINS.    See  CANOiacAL  Houbs  ;  Bbeviabt. 

MATLOCK.  A  town  of  Derbyshire,  England, 
situated  amid  beautiful  scenery,  15  miles  north  of 
Derby.  It  is  noted  for  its  hot  mineral  springs 
and  baths  and  stalactite  caves.  Population,  in 
1901,  5980. 

MATBIAH^CHATE  (from  Lat.  mater,  Gk. 
li'fyniPy  m^tSr,  mother  +  ipx^*  archoSy  ruler, 
from  StpxeiVf  archein,  to  rule ) .  Any  social  group, 
as  a  family,  a  clan,  or  a  tribe,  ruled  by  a  woman 
or  by  women.  The  term  has  been  used  in  eth- 
uolog}'  bince  the  publication  in  1865  of  Bach- 
ofen*s  Das  Mutterrecht,  in  which  it  was  shown 
that  in  all  races  there  exist  survivals  of  a 
metronymic  period  when  children  took  the 
mother's  name,  instead  of  the  father's  name,  and 
when  property  also  descended  in  the  female  line. 
Such  a  system  is  still  in  full  force  among  the 
North  American  Indians,  and  has  been  carefully 
described  by  Morgan  in  his  League  of  the  Iro- 
quois in  1849.  As  an  existing  system  it  may  even 
now  be  observed  among  the  Damaras  of  South 
Africa,  the  Congo  tribes  of  West  Africa,  the  in- 
land negroes,  the  Kasias  of  Bengal,  the  Tahiti- 
ans  and  Tongans  of  Polynesia,  and  the  Hovas 
of  Madagascar.  This  system,  however,  is  in 
fact  only  metronymic y  and  everywhere  falls  short 
of  being  matriarchal.  There  is  no  proof  that 
mankind  has  passed  through  a  stage  of  clan  or 
tribal  rule  by  women,  although  in  his  account 
of  the  Iroquois  Long  House  Morgan  presents  a 
picture  of  a  rigorous  control  of  domestic  affairs 
by  a  matron.  Moreover,  in  the  Iroquois  clan  a 
position  of  importance  and  respect  was  accorded 
to  women.  They  voted  in  the  council  of  the 
clan,  on  equal  terms  with  men.  In  various  Afri- 
can and  Polynesian  tribes  women  have  held  the 
most  exalted  position,  that  of  queen  of  a  tribal 
confederacy.  This,  however,  was  no  such  *matri- 
archy*  as  was  at  one  time  imagined  by  ethnolo- 
gists disposed  to  believe  that  a  patriarchal  sys- 
tem had  been  preceded  by  one  in  which  woman's 
relative  importance  was  as  great  as  that  of  man 
at  a  later  time  became.  More  complete  investi- 
gations have  shown  that  under  metronymic 
organization  it  is  not  the  wife  and  mother  who 
exercises  an  authority  over  children  which  the 
husband  does  not  possess.  The  authority  resally 
lies  in  the  hands  of  the  woman's  nearest  male 
kinsmen,  that  is,  her  brothers,  or  her  maternal 
uncles.     These  male  kinsmen  even  exercise  au- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ICATBIABCHATE. 


189 


HATTEB. 


thority  over  husbands  who  have  come  to  live 
among  them.  Consult:  Westermarck,  The  His- 
tory of  Hutnan  Marriage  (New  York,  1894) ; 
Letoumeau,  The  Evolution  of  Marriage  (ib., 
1891);  Bachofen,  Das  Mutterrecht  (Stuttgart, 
1861) ;  Dargun,  Mutterrecht  und  Raubehe  (Bres- 
lau,  1883). 

MATBICTDTiATION  (from  ML.  matriculare, 
to  enroll,  from  Lat.  matricula,  register,  diminu- 
tive of  matrix,  roll,  origin,  womb,  from  mater, 
mother).  A  term  denoting  in  a  general  sense 
enrollment  or  admission  to  membership  in  an^ 
body  or  society,  specifically  in  a  college  or  imi- 
versity. 

ICATBOSOKIO  SEGBETO,  m&'tr6  m(/n«  6 
sft-gra'tA,  II  (It.,  the  secret  marriage).  An 
opera  bouffe  in  two  acts  with  music  by  Cima- 
Tosa  and  words  by  Bertali,  produced  in  Vienna 
in  1792.  It  was  written  in  imitation  of  Des- 
fancheret's  Mariage  secret, 

MATRIX    (in    mathematics).     See    Deteb- 

HA'TBONAOilA  (Lat.,  neu.  pi.  of  matronal' 
Us,  relating  to  a  matron).  A  festival  of  Juno 
eelebrated  at  Rome  by  the  married  women  and 
maidens  of  the  city  on  the  first  of  March.  It 
typified  the  sacredness  of  married  life  and  com- 
memorated the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Juno 
on  the  Esquiline,  to  which  in  the  festival  the 
matrons  marched  in  procession  with  offerings  for 
the  goddess. 

ICATSITKATA,  mAVsTPi-klSi^tk,  Masatoshi, 
Count  (1835—).  A  Japanese  statesman,  born  in 
8atsuma,  the  son  of  a  samurai.  After  the  revo- 
hitioQ  he  became  head  of  one  of  the  new  prefec- 
tures and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  tax 
reform  of  1876.  He  became  Minister  of  Com- 
merce in  1880,  of  Finance  in  1881,  imperial 
Count  in  1884,  and  Cabinet  president  with  the 
portfolio  of  Finance  in  1891.  He  retired  in  1893, 
but  in  1896  formed  a  new  Cabinet,  became  Minis- 
ter of  Finance,  introduced  the  gold  standard, 
which  put  Japanese  credit  on  a  firm  basis,  and 
retired  in  December,  1897,  because  of  opposition 
to  his  programme  of  taxation. 

MATSITMAI,  mk-t&^mt,  or  HATSUMAYE. 
A  seaport  of  Japan.    See  Fukutama. 

ILATSUMOTO,  mft'tsSS-md'td.  A  town  of 
Japan  in  the  District  of  Nagano,  situated  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  island  of  Nippon,  100  miles 
northwest  of  Tokio  (Map:  Japan,  E  5).  It  lies 
in  a  wide  fertile  plain  surrounded  by  mountains, 
and  contains  a  picturesque  remnant  of  an  old 
daimio  castle.  It  manufactures  silks,  baskets, 
and  preserved  fruits.    Pop.,  1903,  33,493. 

MAT'S'&SHI^MA.  A  small  village  on  the 
Bay  of  Sendai,  on  the  east  coast  of  northern 
Hondo,  Japan,  off  which,  in  a  shallow  lagoon,  lies 
a  group  of  808  tiny  islets  and  rocks  (also  called 
MatsHshima,  or  Tine  Islands') ,  ranging  in  height 
from  30  to  300  feet,  rising  steeply  out  of  the 
water  and  covered  with  pines  and  stunted  brush- 
wood, forming  a  beautiful  natural  garden.  It  is 
one  of  the  'three  natural  wonders'  of  the  coast ; 
the  other  two  are  found  at  Miyadzu  and  Miya- 
jima  (qq.v.). 

MATSXTYAMA,  mrt8?55-ya'mA.  A  town  of 
Japan,  capital  of  the  District  of  Ehime  and  of 
the  former  Province  of  lyo.  It  is  situated  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island  of  Shikoku,  6  miles 
from  its  port,  Mitsu,  with  which  it  is  connected 


by  a  railroad  (Map:  Japan,  C  7).  It  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  large  feudal  castle,  formerly  the 
seat  of  a  daimio,  which  was  one  of  the  few  pre- 
served as  specimens  by  the  Imperial  Grovemment 
when  feudalism  was  abolished.  Population,  in 
1898,  35,545;   in   1903,  37,842. 

MATSXTTB,  mi-tsSCyft,  or  Matsuk.  A  town 
of  Japan,  capital  of  the  District  of  Shimane  and 
formerly  of  the  Province  of  Idzumo.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  a  small  inlet  of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  great  southwestern  peninsula 
of  the  island  of  Nippon,  140  miles  northwest  of 
Kioto  (Map:  Japan,  C  6).  It  is  a  clean,  pros- 
perous city,  with  numerous  temples,  and  is  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  the  polishing 
of  agates.     Population,  in  1903,  35,081. 

MAT'TATHI'AS  (Heb.  Mittithy&h,  Gift  of 
Yahweh).  A  priest,  father  of  Judas  Maccabeeus. 
See  Maccabees. 

MAT^AWA,  or  MATTAWAN.  A  town  in 
Nipissing  District,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  Ontario,  El). 
It  is  an  important  distributing  point  for  lumber- 
ing districts,  and  a  favorite  rendezvous  for 
moose-himting  parties,  sportsmen,  and  anglers. 
Population,  in  1891,  1438;  in  1901,  1400. 

MATTAWA  BIVEB.  A  tributary  of  the 
Ottawa  River,  Canada.  It  has  its  source  in 
Trout  Lake,  near  Lake  Nipissing,  and  after  an 
eastward  course  of  fifty  miles  flows  into  the 
Ottawa  River  at  Mattawa  Town  (Map:  Ontario, 
El).  Prior  to  the  railway  era  it  was  an  im- 
portant trading  route  from  upper  Ottawa  to  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  is  now  much  resorted  to  for  the 
fine  angling  it  affords. 

MATTEAWAN,  mftt't6-A-w6n'.  A  village  in 
Dutchess  County,  N.  Y.,  15  miles  (direct)  south 
of  Poughkeepsie ;  on  Fishkill  Creek,  and  on  the 
Central  New  England  Railroad  (Map:  New  York, 
G  4).  It  has  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Crimi- 
nal Insane,  Highland  Hospital,  and  the  Howland 
Circulating  Library,  with  about  8000  volumes. 
The  village  possesses  water  power  for  manufac- 
turing, and  its  industries  are  represented  by 
wool  and  straw  hat  shops,  machine  shops,  silk 
mills,  carpet  factories,  etc.  Matteawan  was 
founded  in  1814.  Population,  in  1890,  4278;  in 
1900,  5807;  in  1905,  5584  (excluding  the  patients 
in  the  insane  asylum) . 

MATTE  COPPEB.  See  Copper,  section  on 
Metallurgy, 

MATTEI,  mkiA%  Tito  (1841-).  An  Ital- 
ian pianist,  born  at  Campobasso.  He  studied 
in  Naples  imder  several  masters,  including  Thal- 
berg,  Conti,  and  Ruta.  Afterwards  he  played 
in  Paris  and  London,  and  made  several  success- 
ful tours.  His  compositions  include  the  operas 
Maria  di  Gand  (1877)  and  The  Grand  Duke 
(1888),  The  Spider  and  the  Fly  (1893),  and 
many  songs,  besides  considerable  instrumental 
music. 

MATTEO  DI  BASSI,  m&t-tfl^6  dd  bfts's^.  An 
Observantine  Franciscan,  founder  of  the  Order 
of  the  Capuchins  (q.v.). 

MATTEB  (OF.  matidre,  matere,  matire,  Fr. 
matidre,  from  Lat.  materia,  matter;  connected 
with  Skt.  m4,  to  measure,  build).  A  concept  of 
physical  science.  The  essential  nature  of  matter 
is  generally  considered  to  be  unknowable.  Broad- 
ly, the  material  world  is  discriminated  from 
the  world  of  mind,  although  it  is  conceded  that 


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MATTEB. 


all  our  knowledge  of  the  former  comes  to  us 
through  sensation.  In  so  far  as  matter  is  con- 
ceived as  the  basis  of  the  reality  of  the  physical 
world,  the  term  designates  the  object-matter  of 
all  physical  science.  It  is  denned  in  physical 
treatises  wholly  by  its  properties. 

PBOFEBTIES  OF  HATTEB. 

From  the  standpoint  of  physics,  the  properties 
of  matter  may  be  classified  as  inertia,  weight, 
and  various  characteristics  of  size,  shape,  and 
molecular  connections.  When  one  changes  the 
motion  of  a  piece  of  matter  in  any  way  one  is 
conscious  of  a  definite  sensation,  the  intensity  of 
which  depends  upon  two  things — the  suddenness 
of  the  change  and  the  quantity  of  the  matter, 
using  this  word  'quantity'  in  a  general  sense. 
This  sensation,  being  associated  with  matter,  is 
said  to  be  due  to  a  definite  property  of  matter, 
which  is  cabled  its  inertia*  (q.v.).  Again,  if  a 
portion  of  matter  is  held  in  the  hand  and  so  kept 
from  falling  toward  the  earth,  there  is  a  definite 
sensation  which  is  attributed  to  a  property  of 
matter  called  *weight.'  It  can  be  shown  that  if 
our  senses  were  delicate  enough  they  would  ex- 
perience a  similar  sensation  when  any  two  pieces 
of  matter,  e.g.  two  bullets,  were  held  a  small 
distance  apart.    See  Gravitation; 

There  are  a  great  many  properties  common  to 
all  kinds  of  matter,  but  to  different  degrees; 
while  other  properties  are  confined  to  certain 
forms  of  matter,  e.g.  solids  or  liquids  or  gases. 
A  solid  has  a  definite  shape  and  size  of  its  own, 
which  can,  however,  be  changed  by  the  applica- 
tion of  certain  forces.  Some  solids,  e.g.  copper, 
have  ductility  <q.v.)  and  can  be  drawn  out  into 
wires ;  some  have  malledbility  ( q.v. ) ,  and  can  be 
hammered  out  into  thin  sheets;  some  have 
porosity  (q.v.),  and  allow  various  other  portions 
of  matter  to  pass  through  them;  some  are 
'glazed'  and  are  nearly  impervious  to  other  por- 
tions of  matter;  some  are  hard,  others  soft; 
some  are  brittle,  others  tough;  some  are  plastic, 
like  putty,  etc. 

A  liquid  is  such  a  form  of  matter  that  if  left 
to  itself  in  air  (or  in  any  gas  or  other  liquid 
with  which  it  does  not  mix)  it  forms  a  spherical 
drop,  or,  if  contained  in  a  hollow  solid  here  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  it  takes  the  shape  of 
the  vessel,  keeping  a  constant  volume.  A  liquid 
has  then  certain  molecular  properties  in  its  sur- 
face which  makes  it  contract  as  far  as  possible. 
See  Capillabity. 

A  gas  is  such  a  form  of  matter  that,  being 
contained  within  any  closed  vessel,  it  distributes 
itself  uniformly  throughout  the  space  open  to  it; 
thus  having  neither  a  shape  nor  a  size  of  its 
own.  (See  Gases,  General  Propertibb  op.) 
Gases  and  liquids  are  called  fluids  because 
they  can  flow;  they  yield  to  any  force,  however 
small,  which  is  acting  in  such  a  direction  as  to 
make  one  layer  move  over  the  other.  (See 
Hydrostatics.)  Some  bodies  behave  as  liquids 
to  feeble  but  long-continued  forces,  but  as  solids 
to  intense  and  sudden  forces;  shoemaker's  wax 
will  flow  so  as  to  fill  a  tumbler  if  time  is  given, 
but  it  may  be  broken  by  a  sudden  blow,  just  like 
a  piece  of  glass. 

All  forms  of  matter  are  divisible  into  smaller 
parts.  (See  following  paragraphs  on  Theories  of 
Matter.)  They  are  also  more  or  less  'elastic*; 
that  is,  if  the  shape  or  size  of  a  solid  is  deformed 
slightly  by  a  small  force,  or  if  the  volume  of  a 


fluid  is  so  changed,  they  will  return  to  their 
previous  conditions  more  or  less  perfectly  when 
the  deforming  force  is  removed:  this  proves  the 
existence  of  internal  molecular  forces  of  restitu- 
tion. (See  Elasticity.)  Whenever  the  shape 
of  a  solid  is  changed — ^not  the  shape  of  the 
whole  solid  necessarily^  but  the  shape  of  the 
little  cubical  portions  out  of  which  the  body  may 
be  imagined  constructed — there  is  always  to  some 
degree  a  slipping  of  the  layers  of  matter  over  each 
other,  and  corresponding  internal  or  molecular 
friction.  Similarly  if  currents  are  produced  in 
fluids,  there  is  more  or  less  friction  between  the 
layers,  which  is  attributed  to  a  property  called 
viscosity  (q.v.).  In  the  case  of  liquids  there  is 
a  superflcial  viscosity  also,  which  is  made  mani- 
fest when  a  body  floating  in  the  surface  is  moved. 

A  property  common  to  all  forms  of  matter  is 
that  of  'diffusion*;  if  two  portions  of  different 
kinds  of  matter  are  brought  closely  together — 'in 
contact* — it  is  believed  that  there  is  always  a 
passage  across  the  bounding  surface  of  molecules 
of  the  two  kinds  of  matter.  Sometimes  this  pas- 
sage can  be  actually  observed,  e.g.  in  the  case  of 
any  two  gases,  two  such  liquids  as  water  and 
alcohol,  two  such  solids  as  lead  and  gold. 

Since  matter  as  such  has  so  many  properties: 
inertia,  weight,  size,  elasticity,  etc.,  two  portions 
of  matter  may  have  some  properties  in  common 
and  not  others.  Therefore  if  two  portions  of 
matter  are  to  be  defined  as  equal,  or  to  have  equal 
quantities,  it  is  necessary  to  select  some  basis 
of  comparison.  By  definition,  two  portions  of 
matter  are  said  to  have  equal  quantities — or 
equal  'masses' — if  they  have  the  same  inertia; 
the  experimental  test  being  imagined  somewhat 
as  follows:  Subject  one  body  to  the  propulsive 
action  of  a  compressed  spring,  measure  its  veloc- 
ity along  a  smooth  horizontal  table;  compress 
the  same  spring  to  the  same  amount  as  before, 
allow  it  by  its  expansion  to  set  in  motion  a 
second  body,  and  measure  its  velocity;  if  these 
two  velocities  are  the  same,  the  two  bodies  have 
the  same  inertia. 

Newton,  and  later  Bessel,  proved  that  the  ac- 
celeration of  a  falling  body  toward  the  earth  at 
any  one  place  on  the  earth's  surface  is  a  constant 
for  all  kinds  and  amounts  of  matter.  (See 
Gravitation.)  Call  it  g.  The  weight  of  a  body 
of  mass  m  is  mg;  and  so  if  two  bodies  have  the 
same  mass,  as  deflned  above,  they  also  have  the 
same  weight,  and  conversely.  Consequently  the 
mass  of  a  body  is  always  in  practice  measured 
by  comparing  its  weight  with  that  of  a  combina- 
tion of  standards.  A  standard  body  is  chosen, 
a  gram;  other  bodies  of  the  same  mass  are 
made ;  others  whose  masses  are  fractions  or  mul- 
tiples of  that  of  the  standard;  etc.  Such  a  set 
of  bodies  is  called  a  'set  of  weights.* 

It  is  believed  that  matter  as  such  is  inde- 
structible; that  is,  however  it  changes  its  form 
or  whatever  reactions  it  imdergoes,  a  portion  of 
matter  preserves  its  mass  unaltered.  This  idea, 
which  is  entirely  in  accord  with  all  experiments 
and  observations,  is  called  the  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  matter.  It  is  perfectly  possible 
that  the  weight  of  a  body  changes  as  its  tempera- 
ture, or  one  of  its  other  properties,  is  altered, 
but  there  is  no  experimental  evidence  in  favor  of 
such  an  idea.  For  full  discussion  of  properties 
of  matter,  the  reader  may  consult  Tait,  Proper^ 
ties  of  Matter  (Edinburgh,  1885). 


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MATTEBHOBN. 


Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  account 
for  the  properties  of  matter;  some  deny  an  ob- 
jective reality  to  matter,  oUiers  affirm  it.  It  is 
possible  to  show  that  all  observed  phenomena 
m  nature  may  be  predicted  from  certain  general 
mathematical  equations,  the  quantities  in  which 
are  not  necessarily  connected  with  the  percep- 
tions of  man;  and  that  our  mode  of  interpreting 
these  quantities  in  terms  of  matter  is  not  the 
only  possible  one.  Again,  there  was  a  theory 
of  matter,  due  to  Boscovich,  in  which  all  actions 
of  matter,  as  revealed  by  our  senses,  are  attrib- 
uted to  'force-centres,'  which  act  on  each  other 
according  to  different  laws  for  different  dis- 
tances.   This  theory  fails  to  explain  inertia. 

All  theories  which  affirm  the  objective  reality 
of  matter  consider  any  portion  of  it  as  made  up 
of  'molecules'  and  'atoms,'  meaning  by  molecule 
the  smallest  portion  of  the  given  kind  of  matter 
which  retains  the  properties  of  the  whole  (e.g.  a 
molecule  of  copper,  of  water),  and  by  atom 
one  of  the  fragments  of  a  molecule  which  at  the 
present  time  with  our  present  knowledge  we  can- 
not break  up  into  smaller  parts.  There  are 
many  theories  of  this  kind,  which  differ  in  the 
way  they  regard  molecules  and  atoms;  but  they 
all  agree  in  one  respect,  the^  consider  both  the 
molecules  and  atoms  to  be  m  motion.  On  the 
idea  that  molecules  are  in  motion  it  is  possible 
to  explain  the  main  differences  between  solids, 
liquids,  and  gases  and  the  principal  features  of 
diffusion,  osmosis,  evaporation^  dissociation, 
heat-conduction,  fluid  pressure,  viscosity,  etc., 
and  in  particular  to  deduce  the  most  important 
properties  of  a  gas.  Such  theories  as  tnis  are 
called  ^kinetic  theories.'  On  any  kinetic  theory 
the  molecules  of  a  gas  are  conceived  to  be  in 
motion  in  paths  long  compared  with  their  own 
size,  the  average  length  of  path  being  called  the 
'mean  free  path.'  It  is  possible  by  identifying 
certain  actual  physical  quantities,  such  as  pres- 
sure, viscosity,  diffusion,  with  these  quantities  as 
predicted  by  mathematical  treatment  of  the 
simple  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  to  arrive  at  an 
idea  as  to  the  order  of  magnitude  of  the  num- 
ber of  molecules  in  one  cubic  centimeter,  and  the 
length  o'f  the  mean  free  path  at  different  pres- 
suresy  etc.  The  approximate  nimiber  of  mole- 
cules in  I  cubic  centimeter  at  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  6  X  10",  the  mean  distance  apart  of  two 
molecules  is  about  2.6  X  10"^  centimeters,  the 
mean  free  path  is  about  1  X  10^  centimeters,  and 
the  volume  actually  filled  by  the  molecules  in  1 
cubic  centimeter  is  ^^  cubic  centimeter.  If 
the  pressure  is  diminished,  these  quantities  all 
change. 

If  the  pressure  is  reduced  to  .001  centimeter  of 
mercury,  the  mean  free  path  becomes  about  1 
centimeter.  A  space  so  exhausted  of  matter  as 
this  has  special  physical  properties  and  is  called 
a  'Crookes's  vacuum'  or  the  'fourth  state  of 
matter.' 

In  a  liquid  the  molecules  are  supposed  to  be 
moving  about,  having  encounters  with  each 
other,  rebounding,  etc.,  yet  having  practically  no 
free  path. 

In  a  solid  the  molecules  are  supposed  to  be 
held  more  or  less  in  fixed  positions,  about  which 
they  may  vibrate,  thus  forming  an  elastic  con- 
figuration which  can  be  strain^  or  even  perma- 
nently deformed. 


In  the  cases  of  all  three — ^gases,  liquids,  and 
solids — while  the  molecules  are  moving  about, 
the  atoms  in  the  molecule  are  supposed  to  be 
making  immensely  rapid  vibrations,  which  pro- 
duce the  ether  waves  manifested  by  thermal, 
luminous,  and  chemical  effects  when  they  are  ab- 
sorbed. (See  Radiation.)  These  kinetic  ideas 
of  molecules  and  atoms  can  be  used  to  form  a 
concrete  picture  of  nearly  all  the  phenomena 
and  properties  of  matter. 

The  question  remains,  What  is  the  'atom'? 
One  idea  was  that  an  atom  is  a  perfectly  elastic 
sphere,  which  is  obviously  incompatible  with 
facts;  but  the  theory  which  at  present  is  imder 
discussion  and  not  disproved  is  that  atoms  are 
vortices  (q.v.)  in  a  perfect  fluid.  The  simplest 
type  of  vortex  is  like  a  smoke-ring;  but  there 
are  many  more  complicated  forms,  which  can  be 
shown  to  be  stable.  A  vortex  once  formed  in  a 
perfect  fluid  will  maintain  its  identity  as  it 
moves  about,  not  being  a  wave-motion  passing 
through  the  fluid,  but  always  consisting  of  the 
same  portion  of  the  fluid;  vortices  are  elastic; 
they  can  'combine,'  or  come  together,  and  form  a 
single  system.  Thus,  if  atoms  are  simply  vor- 
tices of  ether  moving  freely  through  the  ether, 
many  of  the  properties  of  matter  may  be  ex- 
plained. A  still  more  recent  theory  of  matter  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  an  electric  charge  has 
an  inertia  ^uite  apart  from  that  of  the  matter 
which  carries  the  charge  (see  Electricity). 
Consult  a  series  of  papers,  "Electrons,"  bv  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge,  in  the  Electrician  ( London,  1902-3 ) . 

Bibliography.  Meyer,  The  Kinetic  Theory  of 
Oaaea  (Breslau,  1877,  Eng.  trans.,  London 
1899)  ;  Holman,  Matter,  Energy,  Force,  and 
Work  (New  York,  1898);  Risteen,  Molecules 
and  the  Molecular  Theory  (Boston,  1896) ;  Max- 
well, Matter  and  Motion  (2d  ed..  New  York, 
1892)  ;  Tait,  Properties  of  Matter  (3d  ed.,  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1894)  ;  Poynting  and  Thom- 
son, Properties  of  Matter  (London  and  Philadel- 
phia, 1901) ;  Lehraann,  Molekular  Physik  (Leip- 
zig, 1888-89);  Maxwell,  Theory  of  Heat  (Lon- 
don, 1897);  Kelvin,  Popular  Lectures  and  Ad- 
dresses, vol.  i.  (New  York,  1891);  Thomson, 
Electricity  and  Matter,   (New  York,  1904). 

MATTEB,.  m&'tar',  Jacques  (1791-1864).  A 
French  philosopher,  born  in  Alsace.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Strassburg,  GOttingen,  and  Paris,  and  in 
1820  was  appointed  professor  of  history  and 
director  of  the  College  of  Strassburg.  In  1832 
Guizot  made  him  inspector-general  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris.  In  1845  he  was  chosen  inspec- 
tor of  the  French  public  libraries.  He  retired 
in  1846  to  Strassburg  to  become  a  professor  in 
the  Protestant  theological  seminary  there.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  great  number  of  standard 
works,  among  which  are:  Histoire  universelle 
de  Viglise  chrHienne  (1829-32);  De  Vinfluence 
des  mceurs  sur  les  lois  et  des  lots  sur  les  masurs 
(1832),  crowned  by  the  Academy;  De  V4tat 
moral,  politique  et  litter&raire  de  VAllemagne 
( 1874) ;  and  La  philosophic  de  la  religion 
(1857). 

MAT^TEBHOBN  (Fr.  if  on*  <7ertnn.  It. 
Monte  Cervino).  The  grandest  mountain  mass 
of  the  Alps,  located  near  Zermatt  in  Switzer- 
land, between  the  Canton  of  Valais  and  the  Val 
d'Aosta  in  Italy,  in  the  Pennine  group  (Map: 
Switzerland,  B  3).  Its  height  is  14,780  feet,  but 
that  fact  al<me  gives  little  idea  of  the  sublimity 


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of  its  abrupt  rise  above  the  great  range  of  which 
it  is  the  sentinel  peak.  The  vast  glaciers  around 
it  have  their  upper  sources  in  snows  at  the  foot 
of  this  mighty  crag,  which  rises  on  its  northerly 
face  in  a  sheer  precipice  nearly  4000  feet  above 
them.  Previous  to  1865  it  was  deemed  impos- 
sible of  ascent,  but  its  ascent  is  now  made  less 
perilous  by  a  hut  built  at  a  height  of  12,526  feet, 
and  by  the  familiarity  of  the  guides  with  the 
most  dangerous  points,  and  the  means  to  sur- 
mount them.  Consult:  Tyndall,  Hours  of  Ewer- 
ciae  in  the  Alps  (London,  1871);  Whymper, 
Scrambles  Amongst  the  Alps  (ib.,  1871). 

KCATTESON*;  mfit'te-son,  Tompkins  Harbi- 
son (1813-84).  An  American  portrait  and  genre 
painter,  bom  in  Peterborough,  N.  Y.  His  works 
are  usually  of  subjects  taken  from  early  Ameri- 
can history.  They  include  "Spirit  of  76,"  bought 
by  the  American  Art  Union;  "First  Sabbath  of 
the  Pilgrims;"  "At  the  Stile"  (1869)  ;  and  "Fod- 
dering Cattle"   (1869). 

MATTETJCXJI,  m&t'tA-y'ch^,  Cablo  (1811- 
68).  An  Italian  scientist,  bom  at  Forli,  Ro- 
magna.  He  studied  the  physical  sciences, 
and  through  the  influence  of  Humboldt  was 
made  professor  of  physics  in  the  University 
of  Pisa.  He  devoted  himself  especially  to  the 
investigations  of  the  physiological  effects  of 
electricity,  and  published  his  results  in  French, 
English,  and  Italian  journals  of  science.  He  also 
wrote:  Lezioni  di  fisica  (4th  ed.  1851)  ;  Lezioni 
sui  fenomeni  fisico-chimici  del  corpi  viventi  (2d 
ed.  1846)  ;  and  Cours  special  sur  Vinduction,  le 
magnetisms  de  rotation,  etc.  (1854).  In  1848 
he  was  made  Senator  by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany, and  in  1862  he  held  for  a  few  months  the 
portfolio  of  Public  Instruction  in  the  Rattazzi 
Ministry. 

MATTHAEI,  mAt-t&'6,  Christian  Friedrigh 
(1744-1811).  A  German  classical  philologist, 
bom  at  GrOst,  Thuringia,  and  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig.  From  1774  to  1784  he 
was  professor  of  classical  literature  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Moscow.  In  1789  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor'of  Greek  at  the  University  of  Wittenberg. 
He  published  many  valuable  manuscripts  from 
the  Moscow  Library,  a  codex  of  Homeric  hymns, 
and  edited  Plutarchi  Lihellus  de  Superstitione 
et  Demosthenis  Oratio  Funehris  in  Laudem 
Atheniensium  qui  pro  Patria  Pugnando  Cassi 
Sunt  ad  Chwroneam,  He  also  edited,  among 
other  works:  Oregorii  Thessaloniensis  X.  Ora- 
tiones  (1776),  and  Novum  Testamentum  XII, 
Tomis  Distinctum  Greece  et  Latine  (1788). 

MATTHESON,  mat'tA-s^n,  Johann  (1681- 
1764).  A  German  composer  and  writer  on  music, 
bom  at  Hamburg.  In  1697  he  entered  upon  his 
career  as  a  singer,  and  two  years  later  sang  one 
of  the  rOles  and  also  conducted  at  the  harpsi- 
chord his  first  opera.  Die  Pleyaden.  From  1703 
dates  his  acquamtance  with  Handel.  In  1706 
he  obtained  the  post  of  secretary  to  the  English 
Legation.  In  1715  he  was  appointed  musical 
director  and  canon  at  the  Hamburg  Cathedral, 
and  while  there  did  much  toward  developing 
the  then  unknown  form  of  church  cantata,  and 
made  the  innovation  of  introducing  female  sing- 
ers into  his  choir.  In  1719  he  also  became  Court 
chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Holstein.  From 
1728,  when  deafness  caused  him  to  resign  the 
post  of  musical  director  at  the  cathedral, 
to   his    death,    he    devoted   himself    largely    to 


writing.  His  compositions  are  imimportant,  but 
he  made  many  excellent  translations  of  Eng- 
lish works  on  politics  and  jurisprudence.  A 
man  of  wide  culture,  his  historical  works  arer 
remarkable  for  their  catholicity  of  view.  Most 
notable  are:  Das  neu-eroffnete  Orchester,  oder 
griindliche  Anleitung  (1713);  Critica  Musica 
(1722);  Das  forsohende  Orchester  (1721);  De 
Eruditions  Musica  (1732) ;  and  Die  neueste  Un^ 
tersuchung  der  Singspiele  (1744). 

MATTHEW  (Lat.  Matthofus,  from  Gk.Mar. 
$ahs,  MatthaioSf  from  Heb.  Mattithydh,  Gift  of 
Yahweh).  The  Evangelist,  identical  with  the 
publican  whom  Mark  and  Luke  called  Levi.  He 
was  the  son  of  Alphseus.  The  Hebrew  name 
Matthew,  probably  meaning  *the  gift  of  Jehovah/ 
was  perhaps  a  surname  analogous  to  (Dephas  as 
added  to  Simon.  He  was  early  called  to  be  a 
disciple  and  was  afterwards  numbered  among 
the  twelve  Apostles.  He  was  a  publican,  living 
at  or  near  Capernaum,  probably  one  of  the 
subordinate  class  who  were  charged  with  collect- 
ing the  taxes  in  a  limited  district.  Having  left 
all  to  follow  Jesus,  he  also  made  Him  a  feast 
in  his  house,  at  which  a  great  multitude  of  pub* 
licans  were  present  as  invited  guests  (Matt.  iz. 
9-13,  and  parallels).  After  the  record  of  his 
choice  as  one  of  the  Apostles,  given  by  three 
Evangelists — of  whom  only  Matthew  speaks  of 
himself  as  the  publican — no  mention  is  made  of 
him  in  the  New  Testament,  except  in  the  group 
named  in  Acts  i.  13.  A  tradition  as  old  as  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century  says  that  the 
Twelve  continued  in  Jerusalem  about  twelve 
years  after  the  ascension.  The  statement  of  Eu- 
sebius,  made  long  afterwards,  that  he  preached 
to  his  own  nation  before  he  went  to  foreign 
countriefs,  accords  with  this.  Among  the  coun< 
tries  mentioned  by  other  writers  are  Ethiopia, 
Persia,  Macedonia,  Media,  and  Parthia.  Several 
of  the  earlier  writers  agree  in  numbering  him 
among  the  few  Apostles  who  did  not  suffer  mar- 
tyrdom, though  a  later  tradition  affirms  that  he, 
too,  sealed  his  testimony  with  his  blood.  For 
his  relation  to  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  and  for 
bibliography,  see  Matthew,  Gospel  op. 

MATTHEW,  Gospel  of.  The  first  of  the 
four  Gospels  in  the  New  Testament.  After  a 
preliminary  narrative  containing  an  account  of 
the  divine  announcement  to  Joseph  of  the  coming 
birth  of  Jesus,  the  visit  of  the  Magi  after  that 
birth,  the  flight  of  Joseph  and  his  family  into 
Egypt,  Herod's  massacre  of  the  children,  and 
Joseph's  return  (chs.  i.,  ii.),  a  brief  r6sum4 
is  given  of  the  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist, 
leading  up  to  Jesus*  baptism  by  John  and  His 
temptation  in  the  wilderness  (iii.-iv.  11).  The 
narrative  proper  then  begins  with  Jesus'  with- 
drawal to  Galilee  and  His  active  entrance  upon 
His  work.  The  record  of  this  work  is  divided  into 
three  principal  parts:  (a)  His  ministry  in  Galilee 
(iv.  12-xv.  20)  ;  (b)  His  ministry  in  the  regions 
north  and  east  of  Galilee  (xv.  21-xvii.  20)  ;  (c) 
His  ministry  in  Jerusalem  (xxi.-xxv.).  These 
parts  cover  practically  the  same  events  as  the 
main  portions  of  Marie  and  Luke,  but  the  events 
themselves  are  arranged  in  a  way  peculiar  to  this 
Gospel.  The  chronological  order  is  apparently 
abandoned  for  the  topical  order.  As  a  result^ 
after  a  short  introductory  passage  (iv.  12-25) 
there  is  presented  a  group  of  discourses,  treating 
of  the  Messianic   Kingdom — the  composite  ad« 


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dresB  known  as  the  Sennon  on  the  Mount  (v.  1- 
vii  29) .  This  is  followed  by  a  group  of  miracles, 
evidently  intended  to  be  typical  of  Messianic 
times  (viii.  1-ix.  34).  This  in  turn  is  followed 
by  another  group  of  discourses,  though  of  broader 
compass  than  the  former  (ix.  35-xiii.  58).  Then 
comes  another  smaller  group  of  miracles  repre- 
sentative of  Messianic  conditions  (xiv.  13-36)  and 
another  smaller  group  of  discourses  of  a  more 
distinctly  judgment  cnaracter  (xv.  1-20).  This 
same  arrangement  is  carried  out  in  the  second 
main  portion  of  the  narrative — the  ministry  in 
the  northern  r^ion — ^the  groups,  however,  being 
all  of  them  small.  First  are  two  miracles,  the 
leading  one  evidently  intended  to  represent  the 
future  mission  to  the  Gentiles  (xv.  21-39).  Then 
follow  two  discourses,  the  main  one  having  to 
do  with  Jesus'  coming  passion  (xvi.).  Finally 
there  are  two  more  miracles,  the  principal  one  of 
which  apparently  represents  the  Messianic  glory 
which  is  to  be  (xvii.  1-21).  There  then  follows 
a  passage  of  considerable  length,  the  object  of 
which  seemingly  is  to  form  a  transition  to  the 
closing  main  portion  of  the  narrative.  In  this 
also  a  tendency  to  the  same  grouping  order  is 
seen  (xvii.  22-xx.).  Then  is  given  the  final 
Jerusalem  ministry  (xxi.-xxv.).  In  this,  how- 
ever, apart  from  the  introductory  passage,  con- 
taining a  record  of  the  triumphal  entry  into  the 
city,  the  cleaning  of  the  temple,  and  a  general 
summary  statement  regarding  healings  accom- 
plished during  that  day,  the  whole  narrative  is 
concerned  with  the  discourses  and  discussions  of 
Tuesday  of  Passion  Week,  the  one  exception 
being  the  account  of  the  withering  of  the  fig  tree. 
The  Gospel  closes  with  the  record  of  the  Pass- 
over meal,  the  agony  in  Gethsemane,  the  be- 
trayal, arrest,  trial,  crucifixion,  and  resurrection 
(xxvi.-xxviii.). 

From  this  arrangement  of  his  material  it  is 
quite  clear  that  the  Evangelist  had  before  him- 
self the  didactic  purpose  of  representing  Jesus 
Christ  to  his  readers  as  the  Jewish  Messiah.  This 
is  confirmed  by  the  prophetic  setting  in  which 
the  narrative  is  placed.  The  birth  of  Jesus,  the 
events  of  His  life,  the  circumstances  surrounding 
His  death,  are  not  simply  connected  with  Old 
Testament  predictions,  but  connected  with  them 
as  being  the  necessary  outcome  of  a  divinely  pre- 
arranged plan,  making  Him  the  consummation  of 
theocratic  history  and  the  fulfillment  of  the- 
ocratic prediction — though  not  answering  to  the 
national  Messianic  hopes,  but  rather  standing 
out  against  them  and  disclosing  the  falseness  o! 
the  Judaism  of  that  time.  As  a  consequence, 
while  the  first  chapters  arc  marked  by  the  ante- 
typal  idea,  the  last  chapters  are  marked  by  the 
idea  of  judgment  upon  the  false  views  of  the 
people. 

There  would  seem  to  be  no  room  for  doubt  that 
the  author  of  the  Gospel  was  a  Jew.  The  narra- 
tive discloses  a  distinctively  Jewish  cast,  not 
merely  in  the  above  Jewish  presentation  of 
Jesus,  but  in  many  specific  Jewish  details  which 
this  representation  involves.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  quite  as  clear  that,  though  a  Jew,  the  author 
was  not  in  any  way  a  narrow-minded  one.  He 
recognizes  the  admission  of  the  (Sentiles  into  the 
Kingdom,  and  is  in  perfect  accord  with  it.  He 
unites  with  the  third  Gospel  in  reciting  the  Bap- 
tist's rebuke  of  the  Jerusalem  Jews  (ch.  iii.)  ; 
while  he  is  alone  in  giving  Jesus*  denunciation 
of  the  Pharisees  and  Scnbes    (ch.  xxiii.)    and 


Jesus'  commission  to  go  out  into  all  the  world 
and  make  disciples  of  all  nations  (ch.  xxviii.). 
From  these  facts  it  would  seem  to  follow  that 
the  Grospel  was  intended  for  Jewish  Christian 
readers.  Where  these  readers  were  situated  is 
not  so  apparent,  though  the  tendency  on  the  au- 
thor's part  to  explain  Judean  customs  and  be- 
liefs (xxii.  23;  xxvii.  15)  and  to  interpret  He- 
brew and  Aramaic  words  (i.  23;  xxvii.  33,  46) 
would  go  to  show  that  they  were  not  personally 
familiar  with  Palestine  and  the  Jewish  life 
within  that  land.  In  confirmation  of  this  is  the 
fact,  generally  accepted  to-day,  that  the  Gospel 
is  a  piece  of  first-hand  Greek  composition  and  not 
a  translation  from  a  Hebrew  original.  The 
place  of  writing  is  impossible  to  determine, 
though  Palestine  seems  most  probable.  The  date 
is  a  matter  of  much  discussion  and  cannot  be 
decided  with  any  certainty.  At  the  same  time 
the  placing  of  it  by  the  TUbingen  School  in  the 
second  century  is  now  abandoned  and  the  ques- 
tion is  mainly  concerned  with  the  dividing  line 
of  A.D.  70 — the  date  of  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. For  either  side  of  this  line  definite 
reasons  may  be  urged,  the  general  Jewish  tone 
of  the  Gospel — especially  its  Jewish-Christian 
didactic,  if  not  apologetic  cast — suiting  the  sit- 
uation either  before  or  after  this  event. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  Apostle  Matthew 
there  is  nothing  in  the  above  conclusions  which 
would  render  impossible  an  authorship  of  the 
Gospel  by  him.  But  when  we  come  to  external 
evidence,  we  find  a  well-supported  tradition, 
which  can  be  traced  back  to  Papias  (c.lOO  a.d.), 
a  reputed  disciple  of  the  Apostle  John,  to  the 
effect  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew  (Aramaic). 
(See  Eusebius,  Hist,  Ecclea.,  iii.  39.)  The  term, 
however,  which  Papias  uses  to  designate  this 
writing,  Logia,  is  subject  to  considerable  debate. 
It  is  used  in  many  different  meanings,  so  that 
there  is  serious  doubt  as  to  whether  it  can  be 
identified  with  the  general  term  Euangelion, 
used  to  designate  the  (Sospels  which  we  have. 
As  a  result  the  following  questions  present  them- 
selves: (1)  What  was  the  nature  of  this  tradi- 
tional Hebrew  writing  of  Matthew?  Was  it  a 
collection  of  sayings  of  Jesus,  with  more  or  less 
narrative  additions,  or  was  it  a  full  narrative 
Gospel,  approximating,  at  least,  such  as  we  have 
in  the  New  Testament?  (2)  What  was  the  ori- 
gin of  our  canonical  Matthew?  Was  it  a  second 
Gospel  writing  by  Matthew,  more  or  less  de- 
velopcwi  out  of  this  first  one  of  his,  or  was  it  an 
independent  Gospel  writing  by  a  later  non-Apos- 
tolic hand  elaborated  from  the  original  Matthew 
writing;  or  is  it  not,  after  all,  to  be  considered 
a  first-hand  Greek  composition,  but  a  transla- 
tion from  this  Hebrew  writing  which  Matthew 
originally  produced?  Advocates  are  found  for 
the  view  implied  in  each  of  these  questions, 
though  the  general  attitude  of  criticism  to-day 
may  be  considered  as  favorable  to  the  following 
position:  (1)  Papias's  Logia  was  a  collection  of 
'Sayings  of  Jesus,'  originally  written  in  Aramaic 
by  the  Apostle  Matthew,  but  coming  finally 
through  outside  translation  into  the  Greek  form 
in  which  it  was  used  by  Matthew  and  Luke.  (2) 
The  canonical  Matthew  is  an  original  Greek 
writing  by  a  later  non-Apostolic  hand,  more  or 
less  developed  from  the  Matthew  Logia,  and 
composed  not  far  from  a.d.  70. 

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tions  of  the  more  recent  commentaries  on  Mat- 
thew, consult  the  following  special  works: 
Westcott,  Introdtiction  to  the  Study  of  th^  Oos- 
pels  (New  York,  1896) ;  Palmer,  The  Oospel 
Problems  <vnd  Their  Solution  (London,  1899) ; 
Badham,  Formation  of  the  Gospels  (London, 
1891);  Carpenter,  The  First  Three  Gospels 
(London,  1890)  ;  Kesch,  Die  Logia  Jesu  (Leip- 
zig, 1898)  ;  Dalman,  Die  Worte  Jesu  (Eng. 
trans.,  Edinburgh,  1902) ;  J.  A.  Robinson,  The 
Study  of  the  Gospels  (London,  1902) ;  Wright, 
Composition  of  the  Four  Gospels  (London, 
1890). 

KCATTHEW  OF  WESTKINSTEB.  An 
imaginary  name  by  which  the  supposed  author 
of  the  Flores  Historiarum  was  designated.  Lu- 
ard  demonstrated  that  no  such  person  ever  ex- 
isted, and  that  the  Flores  was  the  work  of  sev- 
eral different  authors.  Consult  Luard's  preface 
to  his  edition  of  the  Flores^  in  3  vols.  (London, 
1890),  in  the  "Rolls  Series." 

MATTHEW  PABISy  or  Matthew  of  Pabis. 
An  English  chronicler.     See  Paris,  Matthew. 

MATTHEWS,  m&th^az,  Edmund  Orviixb 
(1836^).  An  American  naval  officer,  bom  at 
Baltimore.  He  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy 
in  1856,  and  in  1861,  on  board  the  Wahdshy  assist- 
ed in  the  capture  of  the  Confederate  forts  at  Hat- 
teras  Inlet.  He  was  appointed  lieutenant-com- 
mander in  1862,  commanded  the  Sonoma  of  the 
South  Atlantic  Squadron  in  1864-65,  and  from 
1865  to  1869  was  on  duty  at  the  Naval  Academy. 
In  1870  he  was  promoted  to  be  commander,  and 
from  1878  to  1881  was  inspector  of  ordnance  at 
the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard.  In  1881  he  was  ap- 
pointed captain^  in  1894  commodore,  and  in  1898 
rear-admiral,  and,  having  been  retired  in  the 
latter  year,  was  appointed  president  of  the  Ex- 
amining Board. 

MATTHEWS  (James)  Brandeb  (1852^). 
An  American  author  and  educator,  born  in  New 
Orleans.  He  graduated  from  Columbia  Collece 
in  1871  and  from  the  Ckilumbia  Law  School  m 
1873.  In  1892  he  was  made  a  professor  in  Co- 
lumbia, and  soon  won  eminence  in  America  as  a 
critic  of  dramatic  literature.  His  writings  con- 
sist mainly  of  essays,  on  the  theatre,  of  comedies, 
and  of  short  stories,  yet  Americanisms  and  Briti- 
cisms (1892)  might  be  classified  as  a  linguistic 
study.  As  their  titles  imply.  Aspects  of  Fiction 
(1896;  revised  in  1902)  and  An  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  American  Literature  (1896)  enter 
upon  other  fields.  His  Father's  Son  (1895),  a 
novel,  deals  with  a  New  York  broker's  influence 
on  his  son.  Sketches  of  New  York  life,  called 
Vignettes  of  Manhattan,  appeared  in  1894;  Stud- 
ies in  Local  Color  appeared  in  1898,  and  A 
Confident  To-morrow  in  1900.  Matthews's  dra- 
matic criticism,  which  is  French  in  tone,  includes 
French  Dramatists  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(1881;  revised  in  1891  and  1901)  and  Studies 
of  the  Stage  (1894),  to  which  may  be  added  The 
Theatres  of  Paris  (1880).  His  comedies, 
which  are  literary  rather  than  practically 
dramatic,  include  Margery's  Lovers  (1884), 
In  the  Vestibule  Limited  (1892),  and  The  De- 
cision of  the  Court  (1893).  More  recent  works 
are  The  Action  and  the  Word  (1900)  ;  The  His- 
torical Novel  and  Other  Essays  (1901)  ;  Parts  of 
Speech,  Essays  on  English  (1901)  ;  The  Philos- 
ophy of  the  Short-Story  (1901)  ;  with  Laurence 
Hutton,  Actors  and  Actresses  of  the  United  States 


and  Great  Britain  (1900);  Recollections  of  an 
Anthologist  (1904).  In  1906  he  became  secretary 
of  the  Simplified  Spelling  Board. 

MATTHEWS,  Stanutt  (1824-89).  An 
American  jurist,  bom  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  He 
graduated  at  Kenyon  College  in  1840,  practiced 
law  in  Cincinnati,  and  was  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  in  1851-53.  He  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1855,  served  in  the  Civil  War  as 
lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel  of  Ohio  regiments, 
and  was  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Cincin- 
nati in  1863-64.  On  the  resignation  of  John 
Sherman  he  was  elected  to  the  United  Statea 
Senate  as  a  Republican,  and  served  in  1877-79. 
He  was  appointed  by  President  Garfield  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in 
1881. 

MATTHEWS,  Washington  (1843-1905).  An 
American  ethnologist,  born  at  Killiney  in  Ire- 
land. He  graduated  from  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Iowa  in  1864;  entered 
the  United  States  Airmy  as  assistant  surgeon^ 
and  retired  in  1895  with  the  rank  of  surgeon. 
He  made  ethnological  and  philological  studies  of 
North  American  Indian  tribes,  and  published: 
Dictionary  of  the  Language  of  the  Hidatsa 
(1873);  Navajo  Silversmiths  (1883);  Navajo 
Weavers  (1884);  The  Mountain  Chant,  a  Na- 
vajo Ceremony  (1887);  and  Navajo  Legends 
(1897). 

MATTHI^AS  (Lat.,  from  Ok.  ^areiat,  a 
shorter  form  of  MarraBlaty  Mattathias,  from 
Heb.  Mattithyah,  Gift  of  Yahweh).  The  dis- 
ciple chosen  by  lot  to  succeed  Judas  Iscariot  as 
one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (Acts  i.  15-26).  This 
is  the  only  reference  to  him  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Later  tradition  (Eusebius,  Hist,  Eccles,, 
i.  12;  11.  1)  made  him  one  of  the  seventy  (Luke 
X.  1).  He  figures  prominently  in  Apocryphal 
literature ;  a  Gospel  of  Matthias  and  the  Acts  of 
Andrew  and  Matthias  deal  with  his  doctrine  and 
his  work  among  the  Ethiopian  cannibals. 

MATTHIAS  (1557-1619).  Holy  Roman  Em- 
peror  from  1612  to  1619.  He  was  born  February 
24,  1557,  a  younger  son  of  Maximilian  II.  In 
1557  a  Catholic  party  in  the  Belgian  Netherlands 
offered  him  the  governorship,  which  he  accepted. 
He  found  his  authority,  however,  hemmed  in  at  all 
points,  and  resigned  in  1581.  In  1593  his  brother, 
the  Emperor  Rudolph  II.,  appointed  him  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Archduchy  of  Austria.  Matthias  ex- 
erted himself  to  suppress  Protestantism,  in  which 
he  had  the  assistance  of  the  celebrated  prelate 
Khlesl  (q.v.).  In  consequence  of  the  incapacity 
of  Rudolph,  whose  oppressive  acts  had  excited 
a  formidable  insurrection  in  Hungary,  Matthias 
was  formally  declared  by  the  Austrian  princes 
head  of  their  house  in  1606.  He  thereupon  came 
to  terms  with  the  Hungarian  Protestants,  con- 
cluding with  them  the  Treaty  of  Vienna.  Two 
years  later  he  extorted  from  Rudolph,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Lieben,  Juujb  25,  1608,  the  cession  of 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Moravia,  and  in  1611  the 
crown  of  Bohemia,  of  which  Rudolph  had  been 
deprived  by  his  subjects,  was  transferred  to  Mat- 
thias. Rudolph  died  without  issue  in  1612,  and 
Matthias  was  at  once  chosen  his  successor  in  the 
German  Empire.  A  confederation  of  Protestant 
States,  known  as  the  Union,  had  been  established 
in  1608,  and  a  Roman  Catholic  League  had  been 
organized  in  1609.     Matthias  attempted  unsuc- 


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ceMfully  to  brins  the  latter,  which  was  under 
Bavarian  leadership,  under  Austrian  influence. 
In  1617  Matthias,  who  was  without  heirs,  was 
compelled  to  have  his  cousin,  Ferdinand  of  Styria, 
crowned  King  of  Bohemia,  and  the  next  year 
King  of  Hungary.  The  Bohemians  revolted 
against  Ferdinand,  enraged  by  the  severity  of  his 
religious  persecutions;  the  insurrection  at 
Prague,  in  1618,  gave  the  signal  for  the  outbreak 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (q.v.),  and  the  last 
days  of  Matthias  were  embittered  by  the  failure 
of  all  his  efforts  to  restore  peace.  He  died  March 
20,  1619.    See  Austria-Hungabt. 

ICATTHIAS,  Gospel  of.  See  Apocrypha, 
heading  Jfevo  Testament, 

ICATTHIAS  I.,  OOBVI^NTJS  (1443-90). 
King  of  Hungary  from  1458  to  1490.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  J&nos  Hunyady  ( q.v. ) ,  and  was 
elected  Kin^  of  Himgary  in  1458,  in  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  some  of  the  great  nobles,  who 
offered  the  crown  to  the  Emperor  Frederick  III. 
The  boy  KiQg  fought  successfully  against  the 
Emperor,  who  sold  his  claims  to  the  crown  in 
1463.  Matthias  had  in  the  meantime  to  contend 
against  the  Turks,  at  that  time  under  the  rule 
of  Sultan  Mohammed  II.  In  a  war  of  several 
years'  duration  the  Hungarian  arms  asserted 
themselves  successfully  against  the  forces  of  the 
conqueror  of  Constantinople.  After  some  hostili- 
ties with  Stephen,  Waywode  of  Moldavia,  Mat- 
thias engaged  ( 1468)  in  a  war  against  his  father- 
in-law,  George  Podiebrad,  King  of  Bohemia, 
which  occupied  him  for  some  years,  and  was 
followed  by  a  war  with  Poland,  after  which  he 
again  turned  his  arms  with  success  against  the 
Turks.  Matthias  reached  the  height  of  his  power 
when  in  1485,  in  a  war  with  the  Smperor  Freder- 
ick III.,  he  made  himself  master  of  Vienna,  the 
Hapsburg  capital.  There  he  died  five  years  later. 
Matthias  Ck)rvinu8  was  a  great  patron  of  arts  and 
letters,  and  adorned  his  capital  with  the  works  of 
renowned  sculptors,  in  addition  to  a  library  said 
to  contain  50,000  volumes.  He  sent  a  large  staff 
of  literary  men  to  Italy  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing copies  of  valuable  manuscripts.  He  also 
adorned  his  Court  by  the  presence  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  Italy  and  Germany,  and  himself 
was  an  author  of  no  mean  ability.  At  the  same 
time  the  affairs  of  the  Government  were  not  neg- 
lected. The  finances  were  brought  into  a  flour- 
ishing condition,  industry  and  commerce  were 
promoted  by  wise  legislation,  the  army  was  reor- 
ganized, and  justice  was  strictly  aaministered. 
Consult  Fischer,  Konig  Mathias  Corvinua  und 
teine  Bihliothek   (Leipzig,  1878). 

HATTHISSON,  mat^t^sdn,  Fbiedbich  von 
(1761-1831).  A  German  lyric  poet,  bom  at 
Hohendodeleben,  January  23,  1761;  he  died  at 
Worlitz,  March  12,  1831.  Trained  for  the  minis- 
try at  Halle,  he  supported  himself  by  teaching  till 
appointed  (1794)  reader  to  the  Princess  of  An- 
hait-Dessau,  with  whom  he  traveled  in  Switzer- 
land, Tyrol,  and  Italy.  On  her  death  (1811)  he 
was  attached  to  the  Court  of  Wflrttemberg,  and 
resided  for  some  time  in  Italy.  His  prose  is 
mediocre,  his  verse  melodious  and  graceful,  espe- 
cially in  rural  description,  but  never  strong. 
Matthisson's  Schriften,  as  finally  revised  by  the 
author,  came  out  in  8  vols.  (Zurich,  1825-29). 
Vol.  ix.  (1833)  contains  a  biography  by  D5ring. 

ICATTING  (from  mat,  AS.  meatta,  from  Lat. 
tnatta,  mat).    A  general  name  for  various  coarse 


woven  or  plaited  fibrous  materials  for  covering 
the  floors  of  rooms,  passages,  lobbies,  etc.,  for 
door-mats,  for  hanging  as  screens,  for  packing 
furniture,  or  for  packing  heavy  merchandise. 
Matting  is  extensively  manufactured  from  straw, 
bulrushes,  grasses  of  several  kinds,  and  the 
leaves  of  various  palms,  and  forms  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  Floor-matting,  now  so  ex- 
tensively employed  as  a  cheap,  cool,  and  cleanly 
substitute  for  carpeting,  is  woven  from  two  en- 
tirely different  materiSs:  Straw,  made  from  a 
species  of  reed,  or  grass  having  culms  6  feet 
high,  and  the  fibrous  husk  of  the  cocoanut  palm, 
called  coir,  (See  CoiB.)  Most  of  the  straw  mat- 
ting comes  from  China  or  Japan;  the  Bungo 
matting  is  made  from  a  coarse  straw,  and  the 
Bingo  matting  from  a  finer  material,  which  is 
easier  to  manipulate,  but  not  so  durable  as  the 
coarse  straw.  The  loom  employed  is  a  most  simple 
hand-machine,  consisting  merely  of  an  upright 
bamboo  framework,  with  cylindrical  cross-pieces 
above  and  below,  over  which  the  warp  runs,  the 
woof  being  woven  in  without  a  shuttle.  The  warp 
threads  are  of  hemp,  oiled  to  make  them  smooth. 
The  straw  is  woven  while  still  wet  and  is  then 
dried  in  the  sun  or  over  slow  fires.  Matting 
is  either  made  in  sections  of  two  to  five  yards, 
which  are  afterwards  neatly  joined  together  into 
a  roll  of  40  yards,  or  the  fabric  is  all  woven 
in  one  piece,  in  which  case  it  is  likely  to  be  loose 
in  texture.  To  remedy  this  the  matting  is  loos- 
ened and  pulled  down  closer  by  coolies,  while  it 
is  drying  over  a  box  containing  a  charcoal  fire. 

The  yam  from  which  cocoa  matting  is  woven 
is  sometimes  spun  by  machinery,  but  it  is  said 
that  the  hand-spun  yam  is  both  cheaper  and 
better.  The  yam  is  twisted  by  being  rolled  in 
a  peculiar  manner  in  the  hands,  the  work  being 
done  by  natives  during  the  rainy  season.  The 
yam  is  first  bleached  and  then  sorted  into  colors. 
The  process  of  weaving  is  an  arduous  one,  and 
the  looms  are  peculiarly  constructed  for  the 
purpose  and  very  strong.  The  value  of  the  straw 
matting  imported  into  the  United  States  an- 
nually from  China,  Japan,  and  India  for  ten 
years  is  as  follows:  1891,  $1,489,093;  1892, 
$1,637,473;  1893,  $1,666,106;  1894,  $1,874,977; 
1895,  $1,638,638;  1896,  $2,777,417;  1897,  $3,922,- 
003;  1898,  $1,437,171;  1899,  $2,651,690;  1900, 
$2,674,911.  Consult  History  and  Manufacture  of 
Floor  Coverings  (New  York,  1898). 

MATTIPIp.  mttt-t€^p6  ( South. American  name ) , 
or  Frog-Snake.  A  colubrine  serpent  {Xenodon 
severus)  of  Northeastern  South  America,  related 
to  the  hognose,  and  one  of  many  similar  species 
of  the  opisthoglyph  subfamily  Xenodontinae.  The 
snakes  of  this  group  are  poisonous,  although  the 
enlarged  posterior  teeth  which  serve  as  *fangs* 
are  solid,  and  have  no  ^ooves  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  poison  from  distinct  venom-glands.  They 
are  slow  to  bite,  however,  and  little  worse  results 
in  a  healthy  man  than  local  and  temporary  pain, 
swelling,  and  soreness. 

MAT^ISON,  HiBAM  (1811-68).  A  clergy- 
man of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  was 
bom  at  Norway,  Herkimer  County,  N.  Y.  He 
filled  pastorates  at  Watertown  and  Rome,  N.  Y., 
and  in  1852  removed  to  New  York  City,  where  he 
was  pastor  of  John  Street  Church,  and  after- 
wards of  Trinity  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
Thirty-fourth  Street,  which  he  organized.  He 
labored  with  great  earnestness  to  persuade  the 


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i9e 


MATY. 


General  Conferenije  in  1860  to  take  action  against 
all  slave-holding  in  the  Church;  but,  failmg  in 
this,  he  withdrew  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  November  1,  1861,  and  became  pastor  of 
Saint  John's  Independent  Methodist  Church, 
New  York  City.  He  returned  in  1865  to  the 
denomination  that  he  had  left,  and  was  appointed 
to  Trinity  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Jersey 
City.  The  last  year  of  his  life  he  was  district 
secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union.  His  books  and  contributions  to  the 
periodical  press,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  weref 
numerous,  including  among  others:  Tracts  for 
the  Times  (1843)  ;  an  improved  edition  of  Bur- 
ritt's  Oeography  of  the  Heavens  (1850)  ;  Spirit- 
Rapping  Unveiled  (1854);  Sacred  Melodies 
(1869);  Impending  Crisis  (1859);  Immortality 
of  the  Soul  (1866);  Resurrection  of  the  Body 
(1866);  Defense  of  American  Methodism 
(1866);  Popular  Amusements  (1867).  He  was 
widely  known  for  his  vigorous  opposition  to 
political  Romanism.  Consult  his.  Life,  by  Van- 
sant  (New  York,  1870). 

KCATTO  GBOSSOv  m&t^td  grds^sd.  A  western 
8tate  of  Brazil,  bounded  by  the  States  of  Ama- 
2onas  and  Parft  on  the  north,  Goyaz  on  the  east, 
Sfto  Paulo,  Paran&,  and  the  Republic  of  Para- 
guay on  the  south,  and  Bolivia  on  the  west.  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  532,683  square  miles.  Matto 
Grosso  is  the  second  in  size  among  the  States  of 
Brazil  and  one  of  the  least  populated.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  it  is  still  unexplored,  and 
little  is  knowTi  about  its  natural  resources.  The 
southern  half  of  the  State  forms  part  of  the 
great  Brazilian  plateau,  which  falls  in  several 
escarpments  toward  the  low  forest  regions  in  the 
north,  and  is  cut  by  deep  valleys  along  the  rivers. 
The  rivers  of  Matto  Grosso  rise  in  the  centre  of 
the  State  and  flow  in  every  direction.  The  chief 
of  these  are  the  Xingu,  which  flows  northward 
and  falls  into  the  estuary  of  the  Amazon;  the 
Tapajos,  the  Araguayft,  the  Paraguay,  and  nu- 
merous affluents  of  the  Madeira,  and  the  Paran&. 
Owing  to  the  vast  area  of  the  State,  the  climate 
shows  considerable  variation.  The  low,  swampy 
depressions  along  the  rivers  have  an  extremely 
hot  and  imhealthful  climate,  while  in  the  elevated 
plateaus  it  is  more  moderate,  and  the  cool  winds 
from  the  pampas  sometimes  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture even  to  the  freezing  point.  Agricultural 
land  is  found  mainly  in  the  valleys,  while  the 
plateaus  afford  good  grazing.  The  agricultural 
production  of  the  State  is  insignificant.  Mat6, 
rubber,  vanilla,  and  sarsaparilla  are  mostly  gath- 
ered by  the  aborigines.  The  gold  and  diamond 
mines  of  the  State,  once  extensively  exploited,  are 
now  abandoned.  It  is  generally  believed,  how- 
ever, that  the  mineral  deposits  of  Matto  Grosso 
are  still  very  valuable.  The  civilized  population 
of  the  State  was  in  1900  only  118,025,  many  of 
whom  were  of  mixed  race,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  there  are  still  about  25,000  uncivilized  In- 
dians belonging  to  various  tribes.  The  com- 
mercial centre  of  the  State  is  Corumbfi,  on  the 
Paraguay,  and  the  capital  is  Cuyabft   (q.v.). 

MATTOON'.  A  city  in  Coles  County,  111.,  56 
miles  west  of  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  on  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  and  the 
Illinois  Central  railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  D  4). 
There  are  a  Carnegie  public  library  and  reading- 
room,  and  the  Old  Folks'  Home  of  the  I.  O.  O.  F. 
The  city  is  the  centre  of  a  broom-corn  district, 


and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  broom-com, 
grain,  live  stock,  and  fruit.  Among  the  industrial 
plants  are  the  repair  shops  of  the  Big  Four  and 
Illinois  Centra]  railroads,  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  broom  factories,  brick  and  tile  works,  car- 
riage and  wagon  shops,  flouring  mills,  grain  ele- 
vators, and  hay  press.  Settled  and  incorporated 
in  1855,  Mattoon  is  governed  under  a  revised 
charter  of  1867,  providing  for  a  mayor,  elected 
biennially,  and  a  unicameral  council  which  con- 
firms the  executive's  nominations  to  the  majority 
of  administrative  offices.  The  city  owns  and 
operates  the  electric  light  plant.  Population,  in 
1890,  6833;  in  1900,  9622;  in  1906  (local  est), 
12,000. 

KCATXJBiK',  ma't5<5-rSn'.  A  town  of  Vene- 
zuela, in  the  State  of  Bermudez  (Map:  Venezuela, 
E  2).  It  is  situated  on  a  savanna  west  of  the 
Orinoco  delta,  and  40  miles  inland  from  the  Gulf 
of  Paria.  It  is  connected  by  a  highwav  with  the 
port  of  Cumantf,  and  is  the  commercial  centre  of 
the  plains  west  of  the  delta.  Its  trade  is  chiefly 
in  cattle  and  hides.  Population,  about  10,000. 
The  town  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  State 
of  the  same  name  which  was  united  with  Ber- 
mudez. 

KCATXntlN^  m&t^ii-rln,  Chables  Robebt 
(1782-1824).  An  Irish  romancer  and  novelist, 
born  in  Dublin,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College. 
Maturin  took  orders  in  the  Anglican  Churdi, 
became  curate  of  Saint  Peter's,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  an  eloquent  preacher.  He  died  October 
30,  1824.  His  novels  comprise:  The  Fatal  Re- 
venge (1807)  ;  The  Wild  Irish  Boy  (1808) ;  The 
Milesian  Chief  (1812);  Women  (1818);  Mel- 
moth  the  Wanderer  (1820);  and  Alhigensea 
( 1824) .  In  these  novels  he  essayed  by  turn  both 
the  description  of  manners  and  the  supernatural 
romance  of  the  Radcliffe  school.  Maturin  wrote 
plays,  of  which  Bertram,  produced  by  Kean  at 
Drury  Lane,  May  9,  1816,  ran  for  twenty-two 
nights.  The  others  either  failed  or  were  less 
successful.  Consult  MeUnoth,  edited  with  me- 
moir and  bibliography  (London,  1892). 

MATY,  ma't^,  Matthew  ( 1718-76) .  An  Eng- 
lish writer  and  librarian,  bom  at  Montfort,  near 
Utrecht,  Holland,  May  17,  1718.  His  father  was 
a  Protestant  refugee  from  Provence,  who  had  set- 
tled at  Montfort  as  minister  of  the  Walloon 
church  there.  Matthew  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leyden,  where  he  graduated  Ph.D. 
and  M.D.  in  1740.  The  next  year  he  came  to 
London  and  began  practice  as  a  physician,  but 
he  devoted  much  time  to  literature.  In  1750  he 
started  the  Journal  Britannique  (suspended 
1750),  a  bimonthly  printed  at  The  Hague.  It 
gave  in  French  an  account  of  English  literary 
news.  This  periodical  brought  Maty  numerous 
acquaintances  among  men  of  letters.  In  1751  he 
was  elected  to  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  he 
became  secretary  in  1765.  After  serving  as  an 
under-librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  he  was 
appointed  principal  librarian  in  1772.  He  died 
July  2,  1776.  Maty  helped  Gibbon  brin^  out  the 
Essay  on  the  Study  of  Literature,  contributed  to 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, and  published  several  independent  books. 
His  last  work  was  the  Memoirs  of  the  Earl  of 
Chesterfieldy  completed  by  his  son-in-law,  Justa- 
mond,  and  published  with  Chesterfield's  Mis- 
cellaneous Works  (1777). 


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MATZNEB. 


197 


MATJLE. 


ICXTZNEB,  m^tafn^r,  Eduabd  Adolf  Febdi- 
NAND  ( 1805*92 ) .  A  German  philologist,  bom  at 
Koetock,  and  educated  there,  at  Greifswald,  and 
Heidelberg.  He  taught  in  gymnasia  at  Berlin 
and  Bromberg  and  in  the  famous  Luisenschule  in 
Berlin  (1838-92).  His  earlier  labors  included 
editions  of  Lycurgus  (1836),  Antiphon  (1838), 
and  Dinarchus  (1842)  ;  but  he  is  better  known 
for  his  contributions  to  English  and  Romance 
philology.  He  wrote :  Syntaw  der  neufrtmedsischen 
Sprache  (1843-45);  Altfranzoaische  Lieder 
(1853);  Franzosische  Orammatik  (1856;  3d  ed. 
1884) ;  a  very  valuable  Engliaohe  Orammatik 
(1860-65;  3d  ed.  1880-85);  and  Altenglische 
Sprachprohen  (1867-69;  with  a  partial  vocabu- 
lary, to  M,  1872). 

ICATZOON^  Milk  in  which  lactic  acid  fer- 
mentation has  been  allowed  to  proceed  only  to  a 
certain  point,  differing  in  this  way  from  sour 
milk.  It  is  often  tolerated  by  irritable  stomachs 
which  will  not  retain  milk,  or  other  fermented 
milk  foods,  as  koumiss  or  kefir.  It  may  be  pre- 
pared by  boiling  milk  and  letting  it  cool  to  100* 
F.  A  small  amount  of  previously  prepared  mat- 
zoon  is  then  added  and  the  mixture  kept  in  a 
warm  room  for  twelve  hours;  it  is  then  placed 
on  ice. 

KATTBETTGEy  md'hSzh^  A  fortified  town  of 
France,  in  the  Department  of  Nord,  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Sambre.  It  is  well  built  and 
important  from  a  military  point  of  view.  It 
has  manufactures  of  iron  bars,  hardware,  and 
marble.  The  town  has  an  arsenal,  several  old 
convents,  a  museum,  and  a  public  library.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  20,826. 

HATTCH,  mouK,  Kabl  (1837-75).  A  German 
traveler  and  African  explorer,  bom  at  Stetten, 
WUrttemberg.  He  went  to  South  Africa  in  1863, 
traveled  through  the  Transvaal,  and  made  an  ex- 
ceUent  map  of  it;  discovered  valuable  gold  fields 
in  1867,  explored  the  diamond  fields  in  1870  and 
1871,  and  in  the  latter  year  discovered  the  ruined 
city  of  Zimbabwe,  in  Mashonaland,  which  he 
identified  with  biblical  Ophir.  He  wrote  Reisen 
im>  Innem  von  SUdafrika,  1865-72  (1874),  and 
contributions  to  Petermanna  Mitteilungen,  Ck)n- 
sult  the  biography  by  Mager  (Stuttgart,  1895). 

HATTCH  CHUNK,  m^k  chtkok.  A  borough 
and  the  county-seat  of  Carbon  County,  Pa.,  46 
miles  west  bv  north  of  Easton,  on  the  Lehigh 
River,  the  Leiiigh  Canal,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley 
and  the  Central  of  New  Jersey  railroads  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  K  5).  This  town  marks  the  pas- 
sage of  the  river  through  precipitous  mountains, 
and  forms  the  eastern  extremity  of  a  highly  pro- 
ductive anthracite  region.  Its  elevated  situation 
on  the  side  of  the  moimtain,  from  the  Indian 
name  of  which  it  is  named,  and  its  picturesque 
surroundings,  with  a  healthful  climate,  cause  it 
to  be  much  frequented  as  a  summer  resort. 
Nine  miles  west  by  south  of  the" village  are  the 
Summit  Hill  coal  mines,  which  are  celebrated  as 
among  the  richest  in  the  State.  Another  feature 
of  interest  here  is  a  burning  mine.  The  coal  was 
formerly  carried  by  means  of  a  gravity  railroad, 
called  the  'Switchback,'  to  Mauch  Chunk,  the  cars 
returning  by  a  similar  road  to  the  mines.  This 
road  is  now  used  for  tourists  and  excursions  only, 
and  the  coal  is  transported  through  a  tunnel. 
Mount  Pisgah  and  Mount  Jefferson,  both  ascended 
by  the  road  mentioned,  Prospect  Rock,  and  Flag- 


staff Peak,  are  points  from  which  can  be  gained 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  Lehigh  Valley.  Glen 
Onoko  is  another  attractive  place  of  resort,  two 
miles  distant.  The  borough  has  a  public  library, 
the  Dimmick  Memorial  Library,  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building.  Its  business  interests  lie  in  a  very 
extensive  coal  trade,  and  there  are  also  foundries 
and  machine  shops.  The  government  is  admin- 
istered by  a  mayor,  elected  every  three  years, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  Mauch  Chunk  was 
foimded  in  1818  by  the  Lehigh  Coal  and  Naviga- 
tion Company,  and  rapidly  became  a  coal-mining 
centre.  In  1850  it  was  incorporated  as  a  bor- 
ough.   Population,  in  1890,  4101 ;  in  1900,  4029. 

MAT7CHLINE,  mftK^In.  A  town  in  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  Ayr,  surrounded  by  a  pic- 
turesque country,  and  famous  in  connection  with 
Robert  Bums,  who,  during  fourteen  years,  lived 
at  the  farm  of  Mossgiel,  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
to  the  north  (Map:  Scotland,  D  4).  The  scenes 
of  some  of  his  most  admired  lyrics  are  in  the 
neighborhood ;  the  cottage  of  Toosie  Nancy,*  the- 
atre of  the  'Jolly  Beggars,'  and  Mauchline  Kirk, 
the  scene  of  the  'Holy  Fair,'  are  in  the  town. 
Population,  in  1901,  of  civil  parish,  2572. 

MAT7D  MITLLEB.  A  poem  by  John  G.  Whit- 
tier  which  appeared  in  the  National  Era,  Decem- 
ber, 1854.  The  ballad  tells  the  unrealized  ro- 
mance of  a  beautiful  rustic  maiden  and  an  am- 
bitious judge. 

MATJDSLEY,  mftdzll,  Henby  (1835—).  An 
English  alienist  and  psychologist,  bora  at  Rome, 
near  Settle,  Yorkshire.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  where  he  graduated  in  medi- 
cine in  1857.  In  1859-62  he  was  medical 
superintendent  at  the  insane  asylum,  Manches- 
ter, in  1869-79  was  professor  of  medical  juris- 
prudence at  University  College,  London,  and  in 
1864-74  physician  to  the  West  London  Hospital. 
He  was  made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  in  1869,  and  chosen  Gulstonian  lec- 
turer to  that  body  in  1870.  He  edited  the 
Journal  of  Medical  Science  from  1863  to  1878. 
Edinburgh  gave  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  in  1884. 
His  best  known  works  are:  Physiology  and  Pa- 
thology of  the  Mind  (1867);  Responsibility  in 
Mental  Disease,  in  the  "Intemational  Scientific 
Series"  (1874)  ;  The  Pathology  of  Mind  (1882)  ; 
The  Physiology  of  Mind  (1883)  ;  Body  and  Will 
(1883)  ;  Natural  Causes  and  Supernatural  Seem- 
ings  (1886);  and  Shakespeare:  Testimonied  in 
His  Own  Bringings  Forth  (1905). 

MAUI,  m&^59-^.  One  of  the  Hawaiian  Isl- 
ands (q.v). 

HAXTLDE  LA  CIJLV]±BE,  m61d  1&  kW- 
vyftr',  Mabie  Alphonse  Ren6  de  (1848 — ).  A 
French  historian,  bom  at  Nibelle,  Loiret.  He 
studied  law  and  entered  upon  an  administrative 
career,  but  after  holding  a  number  of  ofiices  re- 
signed and  devoted  himself  to  historical  work. 
Among  his  publications  are:  Jeanne  de  France, 
duchesse  d'OrUans  et  de  Berry,  U6J^-1505 {ISS3) ; 
and  Eistoire  de  Louis  XIL  (1890). 

MAUXE,  mou^A.  A  river  of  Chile,  rising  in 
the  Andes.  After  flowing  140  miles  in  a  westerly 
direction  it  empties  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  about 
100  miles  north  of  Concepcion,  and  near  Consti- 
tucion  (Map:  Chile,  C  II).  It  is  navigable  for 
52  miles  for  small  craft.  It  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  territory  of  the  Araucanians. 


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ICAUNDY  THTTBSDAY. 


MAXJXE.  A  maritime  province  of  Chile^ 
bounded  by  the  Province  of  Talca  on  the  north, 
Linares  and  Nuble  on  the  east,  Concepci<5n  on 
the  south,  and  the  Pacific  on  the  west  (Map: 
Chile,  C  11).  Area,  2475  square  miles.  A  large 
portion  of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  the  Coast 
Range,  which  is  well  wooded  and  rises  to  an  alti- 
tude of  nearly  3000  feet.  The  chief  occupations 
are  stock-raising  and  agriculture.  A  branch 
railway  line  from  Parral  runs  through  the  prov- 
ince and  terminates  at  the  port  of  Chanco  on  the 
coast.  Population,  in  1903,  143,146.  The  chief 
port  is  Constitucion.  The  capital  is  Cauquenes, 
situated  on  the  railway  line  and  having  a  popu- 
lation of  10,119. 

MATTIiMAIN,  mftl-m&n^  or  MOULMEIN. 
A  seaport  town,  capital  of  the  Amherst  district 
and  of  the  Tenasserim  division  of  Lower  Burma, 
at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Salwin,  Gyaing,  and 
Attaran,  on  the  Gulf  of  Martaban,  an  arm 
of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  (Map:  Burma,  C  3).  The 
town  lies  between  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Sal- 
win  and  a  fine  range  of  densely  wooded  hills 
which,  at  a  distance  of  from  one  to  six  miles, 
runs  parallel  with  the  river.  Maulmain  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  healthful  towns  of 
India;  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  78" — 
the  highest  mean  for  any  month  being  83°  in 
April,  and  the  lowest  75°  in  January.  The  prin- 
cipal street  extends  for  four  miles  along  the 
river,  and  other  streets  shaded  with  acacia  and 
jack  trees  branch  off  from  it  toward  the  hills,  on 
which  are  the  pretty  residences  of  Europeans  and 
wealthy  Burmese  and  numerous  pagodas  with 
gilded  spires.  The  hills  command  an  extensive 
view  of  beautiful  and  varied  scenery.  Martaban 
lies  on  the  opposite  river  bank  to  the  north. 
Maulmain  is  divided  into  five  districts  under  the 
superintendence  of  a  goung,  or  native  head  of  po- 
lice. The  native  houses,  built  of  bamboo  and 
thatched  with  palm  leaves,  are  raised  on  piles 
10  or  12  feet  from  the  ground.  The  principal 
buildings',  besides  several  pagodas,  include  a 
public  library,  a  general  hospital,  and  substantial 
barracks.  There  are  several  educational  and  char- 
itable institutions,  missionary  establishments,  and 
churches.  Vessels  of  10  feet  draught  reach  the 
wharves  and  jetties  at  all  states  of  the  tide ;  at 
spring  tide,  when  the  rise  and  fall  is  from  20  to 
23  feet,  the  town  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  the 
largest  tonnage.  A  considerable  export  and  im- 
port trade  is  carried  on,  chiefly  with  Calcutta, 
Madras,  Rangoon,  and  Penang.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  timber,  rice,  cotton,  horns,  hides,  ivory, 
wax,  gums,  drugs,  lead,  and  copper;  the  imports 
are  chiefly  cotton  and  woolen  piece  goods,  hard- 
ware, provisions,  general  merchandise,  and — 
omitting  timber,  which  is  obtained  from  the 
neighboring  teak  forests — all  the  materials  re- 
quired for  shipbuilding,  which  is  an  important 
industry.  The  United  States  is  represented  by  a 
consular  agent.  The  town  dates  from  the  British 
occupation  of  Tenasserim  in  1826.  The  hetero- 
geneous and  polyglot  population  in  1891  num- 
bered 55,785;  in' 1901,  58,446,  consisting  besides 
Burmese,  of  Hindus,  Malays,  Europeans,  Eura- 
sians, Chinese,  Armenians,  and  Jews. 

MAUMEE,  mfl-mS'.  A  river  formed  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  by  the  junction  of  the  Saint  Joseph 
and  the  Saint  Mary's  rivers,  flowini?  northeast 
through  the  northwestern  part  of  Ohio.  Its  length 
is   150  miles,  and  it  empties  through  Maumee 


Bay  into  Lake  Erie  at  its  western  extremity 
(Map:  Ohio,  C  3).  The  city  of  Toledo  stretches 
along  its  bimks  for  four  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  the  river  is  navigable  for  12  miles  to  the 
Maumee  Rapids,  above  which  its  course  is  fol- 
lowed as  far  as  Defiance  by  the  Miami  and  Erie 
Canal,  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  the  Ohio 
River.  Maumee  Bay  is  for  the  most  part  shallow, 
but  its  channel  has  been  deepened,  straightened, 
and  marked  by  lighthouses. 

MAUNA  KEA,  mA'S^nA  kh^k  (Hawaiian, 
white  mountain).  The  highest  mountain  in 
Polynesia.  It  ia  an  extinct  volcano  occupying 
the  northern  and  north-central  portions  of  Ha- 
waii, and  its  height  is  13,805  feet  (Map:  Ha- 
waii, F  4).  During  most  of  the  year  snow  lies 
on  its  peaks,  which  are  composed  of  gravel  and 
reddish  scoria.  Its  sides  are  covered  with  for- 
ests, where  wild  cattle  range  and  are  hunted  for 
their  horns,  hides,  and  tallow. 

MAUNA  LOA,  Wk  (Hawaiian,  great  moun- 
tain). The  largest  volcano  in  the  world  (though 
not  the  loftiest),  occupying  much  of  the  central 
and  southern  portion  of  Hawaii  (Map:  Hawaii, 
F  4).  It  is  13,760  feet  in  height,  and  slopes 
gradually  from  the  sea  to  the  summit  near 
the  centre  of  the  island,  where  the  group  of 
craters  forms  an  immense  caldron  a  mile  and  a 
half  in  diameter  and  1000  feet  deep.  It  exceeds 
by  far  any  other  volcano  in  the  amount  of  lava 
discharged;  the  last  great  eruption  (1880-81) 
sent  a  stream  down  the  eastern  slope  50  miles 
long  and  in  some  places  3  miles  wide.  The  crater 
is  in  almost  continuous  activity  and  large  erup- 
tions have  been  frequent  during  the  past  century. 
On  the  eastern  slope  is  the  large  crater  of  Kil- 
auea  (q.v.). 

MAUNDEBi,  mftuMSr,  Samuel  (1785-1849). 
An  English  compiler,  bom  in  Devonshire.  His 
first  literary  work  was  in  connection  with  the 
Catechisms  (1837-49),  published  by  his  brother- 
in-law  and  partner,  William  Pinnock,  with  whom 
he  was  associated  also  in  the  Literary  Gazette 
of  London.  Among  his  numerous  compilations 
are:  The  Little  Lexicon  (1825)  ;  Treasury  of 
Knowledge  (1830);  Biographical  Treasury 
(1838) ;  Scientific  and  Literary  Treasury {IS41)  ; 
Treasury  of  History  (1844);  Treasury  of  Nat- 
ural History  (1848)  ;  and  the  Treasury  of  Geog- 
raphy (1856) — most  of  which  passed  through 
many  editions. 

MAUNDEVILLE,  man'de-vll.  Sir  John.  See 
Mandeville,  The  Travels  of  Sib  John. 

MATJNDBELL^manMrel,HENRr(  1665-1701) . 
An  English  traveler.  He  graduated  from  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  curate  of  Bromley, 
Kent,  from  1689  to  1695.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  English  factory 
at  Aleppo,  Syria.  He  published  in  1703  A  Jour- 
ney from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem ^  a  valuable  work 
often  reprinted,  and  translated  into  French,  Ger- 
man, and  Dutch. 

MAXTNDY  THTTBSDAY.  The  Thursday 
preceding  Good  Friday,  also  called  Holy  Thurs- 
day. The  origin  of  the  name  is  in  doubt.  It  is 
referred  to  the  Latin  dies  mandati^  the  day  of 
the  mandate:  "A  new  commandment  give  1 
unto  you,  that  ye  love  one  another"  (Saint  John 
xiii.  34)  ;  to  the  old  mnnde,  a  hand  basket,  from 
which  food  was  distributed  to  the  poor  on  the  day 
before  Good  Friday;  and  to  the  phrase  Accipite 


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199 


ICAUPBBTTTIS. 


et  manducate,  'take  and  eat/  occurring  in  the 
Epistle  for  the  day  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  (I.  Cor.  xi.  24). 

MAUPASSANT,  md'p&'sIlN',  Henm  RENfi 
Albicbt  Guy  de  (1860-93).  A  French  novelist, 
one  of  the  greatest  modern  writers  of  short 
stories.  Maupassant,  after  serving  in  the  Navy 
Department  as  clerk,  and  as  soldier  in  the  Ger- 
man War,  was  slowly  initiated  by  Flaubert,  who 
was  an  old  friend  of  Madame  de  Maupassant, 
into  the  craft  of  story-telling.  Restraint  ripened 
his  genius,  and  his  first  story,  Boule  de  auif,  pub- 
lished in  Lea  soirees  de  M4dan  in  1880,  revealed 
a  finished  master  of  the  naturalistic  school.  In 
the  same  year  he  published  some  striking  but 
sensual  poems,  Des  vers  (1880),  and  a  drama, 
Bistoire  du  vieuw  temps,  but  he  saw  clearly 
that  his  career  was  elsewhere.  He  confirmed  the 
promise  of  Boule  de  suif  in  about  two  hundred 
tales  gathered  under  the  titles:  La  tnaiaon 
Tellier  (1881) ;  Mile.  Fifi  (1883)  ;  Contes  de  la 
B^casse  ( 1883)  ;  Clair  de  lune  ( 1883)  ;  Lee  soeurs 
Rtmdoli  (1884) ;  Yvette  (1884)  ;  Contes  du  jour 
et  de  la  nuit  ( 1885) ;  Contes  et  nouvelles  { 1885) ; 
Le  Horla  (1887);  La  petite  Roque  (1888);  La 
main  gauche  (1889)  ;  Le  p^e  Milon  (1899),  and 
others,  among  them  L'inutile  beauts  (1890).  Be- 
sides these  he  wrote  six  novels,  Une  vie  (1883)  ; 
Bel-Ami  (1885);  Mont-Oriol  (1887);  Pierre  et 
Jean  (1888)  ;  Fort  comme  la  mort  (1889)-;  Notre 
coeur  (1890)  ;  and  several  volumes  of  traveler's 
impressions,  Au  eoleil  (1884)  ;  8ur  I'eau  (1888) ; 
La  vie  errante  ( 1890) .  Traces  of  insanity  appear 
at  times  in  all  the  work  from  1887  onward.  The 
condition  is  most  strongly  marked  in  the  lonser 
novels.  It  caused  a  practical  suspension  of  his 
literary  work  in  1890.  In  1892  Maupassant  be- 
came wholly  insane.  July  6,  1893,  he  died  in  an 
asylum  at  Passy.  His  whole  work  is  a  melan- 
choly yet  fascinating  study  in  imaginative 
psychology.  He  begins  as  a  playful  satyr,  yet 
with  an  aristocratic  assumption  of  superiority 
to  his  fellow  men  that  masked  a  pessimism  as 
•deep  as  Flaubert's.  Year  by  year  he  loses  the 
sensuous  exuberance  of  youth,  more  and  more 
he  is,  as  it  were,  hypnotized  by  the  ghastly  fas- 
cinations of  death,  as  were  Villon,  Gautier,  and 
Baudelaire.  The  moral  gloom  deepens,  the  moral 
unrest  grows.  The  robust  animalism  of  Une  vie 
becomes  a  melancholy  moral  anatomy  in  Notre 
4XBur,  In  losing  its  sensuality  it  had  become 
morbid  and  morally  uncertain  even  in  Pierre  et 
Jean,  artistically  Maupassant's  best  novel.  The 
shorter  stories,  because  requiring  less  sustained 
effort,  show  this  less  clearly.  To  the  very  end 
Maupassant  did  work  of  a  character  similar  to 
bis  early  work ;  but  from  Le  Horla  onward  there 
are  stories  that  could  not  be  attributed  to  the  ear- 
lier period.  As  a  whole  and  in  average  excellence 
these  stories  are  in  style  and  art  the  best  in 
France.  There  are  stories  of  his  native  Nor- 
mandy, tales  of  selfishness  and  meanness,  chiefly 
tragic,  occasionally  comic,  more  often  grim  in 
their  irony;  there  are  stories,  usually  cjmical, 
of  Parisian  foibles,  of  life  in  strange  lands,  of 
hunting,  medical  incident,  of  love,  crime,  hor- 
ror, misery,  all  carefully  elaborated  and  ill- 
credibly  deft  in  the  rapid  portraiture  of  a  scene 
or  character.  All  is  sharply  individualized  and 
the  point  of  view  is  the  absence  of  any  moral 
law.  Characteristic  of  Maupassant's  good  hu- 
mor and  better  nature  are  Le  papa  de  Simon, 
Let  id^es  du  colonel.  Miss  Harriet,  Mademoiselle 


Perle,  and  Clochette;  typical  of  his  whimsical 
and  satirical  irony  are  Le  parapluie,  Denis, 
D4cor^,  Auio  hois;  bitterly  satirical  are  L'hM- 
tage.  La  partie  de  campagne,  Pain  maudit,  Mai- 
son  Tellier,  Hautdt  p^e  et  file,  and  most  exquis- 
ite of  all  this  group,  Yvette;  more  intensely 
misanthropic  are  tales  of  sordid  brutality  or 
wanton  cruelty  such  as  En  mer,  Uoncle  Jules,  Le 
diahle,  Coco,  L'dne,  La  fille  de  ferme,  or  Les 
sabots,  and  it  is  to  the  wanton  side  of  war  that  he 
directs  attention  in  La  m^e  sauvage  and  Saint- 
Antoine.  Finally  there  are  at  least  forty  stories 
that  are  pathologic  in  their  pessimism.  Nause- 
ated horror  of  life  and  haunting  terror  of  death 
are  whispered  in  the  stories  of  1884  and  recur 
with  growing  frequency  and  intensity,  as  will 
appear  from  consecutive  reading  of  Petit  soldat, 
Solitude,  Un  fou,  Lui,  La  petite  Roque,  Le  Horla, 
and  Qui  sait. 

MAUFEOU,  m6'p^,  Ren^  Nicx)las  Chables 
AuGUSTiN  DE  (1714-92).  A  French  politician  and 
chancellor,  born  in  Paris.  He  was  made  coun- 
cilor of  Parliament,  first  president  (1763),  and 
finally  succeeded  his  father,  Ren6  Charles  de 
Maupeou,  as  Chancellor  of  France  in  1768.  He 
upheld  the  King  in  his  plan  to  override  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris,  and  sided  with  Madame  du 
Barry  against  the  Duke  of  Choiseul.  After  the 
Duke's  exile  in  1770  he,  the  Duke  of  Aiguillon, 
and  the  Comptroller-General,  Abb6  Terray,  formed 
a  triumvirate  to  suppress  the  power  of  Parliament. 
The  *Maupeou  Parliament'  as  it  was  called,  which 
was  then  formed,  became  very  unpopular,  and 
Beaumarchais  attacked  it.  Upon  the  death  of  the 
King,  the  Chancellor  wrote  an  account  of  his 
high-handed  disruption  of  the  Parliament,  under 
the  title  Code  des  parlements  ou  Collection  d^4dits 
.  .  .  depuis  d^cembre  1770,  jusqu*d  dicembre 
1771  (1772). 

MAUPEBTXTIS,  md'p&r'tw^,  Piebbe  Louis 
MoBEAU  DE  (169^-1769).  A  French  mathemati- 
cian and  astronomer,  bom  at  Saint-Malo.  His 
education  was  begun  under  a  tutor,  and  in  1714 
he  went  to  Paris  to  the  College  of  La  Marche. 
In  1718  he  joined  the  army  and  soon  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant.  Having  acquired  a  taste  for 
mathematics,  he  resigned  five  years  later  and 
became  adjoint  g4om^tre  in  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris,  and  in  1725  associS,  For 
the  next  seven  years  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  investigation  of  certain  geometric  problems, 
publishing  his  results  in  a  series  of  memoirs.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  Frenchmen  to  master  the 
teachings  of  Newton.  He  went  to  England  in 
1728  and  was  admitted  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  The  next  year  he  returned  to  Basel  and 
studied  the  integral  calculus  with  Bernoulli.  In 
1736  he  conducted  the  expedition  for  measuring 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  Lapland.  The  re- 
sults of  this  work  confirmed  Newton's  theory  of 
the  flattening  of  the  earth  at  the  poles.  It  was 
on  his  return  that  he  became  acquainted  with 
Voltaire  and  Samuel  Konig.  In  1740  Frederick 
the  Great  called  him  to  Prussia,  and  he  accom- 
panied the  King  in  the  campaign  in  Silesia.  Hav- 
ing been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Austrians  at 
Mollwitz,  Maupertuis  was  set  free  by  Maria 
Theresa  and  returned  to  Paris.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1743,  but 
the  next  year  he  was  again  called  to  Prussia  and 
in  1746  became  president  of  the  Academy  at  Ber- 
lin.    In  1760  KOnig  came  there  as  professor  of 


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philosophy,  and  he  and  Maupertuis  were  soon 
quarreling  over  the  question  of  the  discovery  of 
infinitesimal  calculus  and  of  certain  laws  of 
which  Maupertuis  claimed  to  be  the  author. 
Voltaire  sided  with  Kdnig  and  satirized  Mauper- 
tuis severely.  Frederick  interposed  in  behalf 
of  Maupertuis,  but  to  no  avail.  The  latter, 
broken  in  health  and  spirit,  returned  to  France, 
and  in  1758  went  to  Basel,  where  he  died  in 
a  short  time.  Some  of  his  chief  works  are: 
8ur  la  figure  de  la  terre  (1738) ;  Diacours  sur 
la  paraliaxe  de  la  lune  (1741);  Discoura  sur 
la  figure  dea  astres  (1742)  ;  Lettre  8ur  la  com^te 
de  1742  (1742)  ;  Astronomie  nautique  (1745  and 
1756) ;  Eaaai  de  coamologie  (1750) ;  Maupertiana 
ou  Merita  diver  a  (Leyden,  1753).  His  collected 
works,  in  four  volumes,  were  published  in  Paris 
in  1752  and  again  in  Lyons  in  1768,  imder  the 
title,  (Euvrea  compUtea  de  M,  de  Maupertuia, 
Consult:  De  la  Baumelle,  Vie  de  Maupertuia 
(Paris,  1856)  ;  Damiron,  M&noirea  aur  Mauper- 
tuia (Paris,  1858). 

ULATTPKAT,  mdpra'.  A  novel  by  George 
Sand  (1836).  A  drama  in  six  acts  was  made 
from  the  story  by  the  author  and  presented  at  the 
Od6on  in  1853. 

MAUBEL,  md'rel',  Victob  (1848—).  A 
French  barytone  sineer,  bom  in  Marseilles.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  the  Marseilles  and  Paris  conserva- 
tories, and  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
Opera  House  in  Paris.  Afterwards  he  went  to 
Italy,  and  sang  at  the  Scala  in  Milan.  A  tour 
through  Europe  and  in  America  followed,  and 
in  1879  he  returned  to  Paris  and  sang  in  Ham- 
let, Aida,  Fauatf  and  other  operas  with  much 
success.  In  another  visit  to  Paris  after  this  date 
he  attempted  to  revive  Italian  opera  in  company 
with  the  brothers  Corti,  but  without  success. 
His  fine  voice,  and  talent  as  an  actor,  caused  him 
to  be  chosen  by  Verdi  to  create  the  rCles  of  lago 
in  Otello  and  Falstaff  in  Falataff,  In  1885  he 
began  an  extended  tour,  appearing  in  Italy,  North 
and  South  America,  and  in  1893  and  1894  sang 
Verdi's  famous  r6les  in  Paris  at  the  express  de- 
sire of  the  composer.  In  1898  he  appeared  at 
the  Berlin  Opera  House.  His  best-known  writ- 
ings are  L'art  du  chant  and  Dix  ana  de  oarridre, 

MAXTBENBBECHEB,  mou'ren-breK-^r,  WiL- 
HELM  (1838-92).  A  German  historian,  bom  in 
Bonn.  He  studied  there,  in  Berlin,  and  in 
Munich,  his  great  teachers  being  Ranke  and  Von 
Sybel,  with  whom  he  was  associated  on  his  Eia- 
torische  Zeitachrifi,  At  Bonn  he  became  docent 
in  1862.  He  spent  a  year  at  Simanca,  Spain,  in 
historical  research,  and  after  his  return  to  Ger- 
many was  appointed  professor  at  Dorpat 
(1867),  at  Kttnigsberg  (1869),  at  Bonn  (1877), 
and  at  Leipzig  (1884).  From  1881  to  1892  he 
edited  the  Hiatoriachea  Taachenbuch.  He  wrote 
England  im  Reformatumazeitalter  (1866)  ;  8tu- 
dien  und  Skizzen  zur  Oeaohichte  der  Reformor 
tionazeit  (1874);  Die  Katholiaohe  Reformation 
(1880)  ;  Oeaohichte  der  deutaohen  Konigawahlen 
vom  10,  hia  13.  Jahrhundert  (1889) ;  and  Oriind- 
ung  dea  deutachen  Reicha  (1892).  Consult  Wolf, 
W.  Maurenbrecher  (Berlin,  1893). 

MAUBEPAS,  m^'r6-p&^  Jean  Fb£di6bio 
Ph^lippeaux,  Coimt  (1701-81).  Minister  of 
State  in  the  reigns  of  Louis  XV.  and  XVI.  of 
France.  He  was  bom  July  9,  1701,  at  Versailles. 
The  office  of  Minister  of  State  had  been  held  by 
his  father,  who  on  resigning  in  1716  was  able  to 


transfer  it  to  his  son.  It  fell  to  Maurepas  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  but  was  administered  dur- 
ing his  minority  by  the  Marquis  de  Villi^re,  his 
future  father-in-law.  Maurepas  became  Minister 
of  Marine  in  1725,  and  Secretary  of  State  in 
1738.  He  made  some  attempts  toward  restoring 
the  efficiency  of  the  navy  by  establishing  naval 
academies  and  introducing  scientific  methods  of 
instruction.  A  satirical  couplet  against  Madame 
de  Pompadour  brought  about  his  disgrace  in 
1749,  and  he  was  exiled  from  Court  until  the 
death  of  Louis  XV.  When  Louis  XVI.  came  to 
the  throne  in  1774,  Maurepas  was  recalled.  With- 
out striking  ability  of  his  own,  he  displayed 
great  wisdom  in  the  selection  of  the  members 
of  his  council,  Vergennes  being  made  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs,  Turgot  Comptroller-General, 
and  Malesherbes  Minister  of  the  Royal  House- 
hold. He  supported  Vergennes  in  the  alliance 
with  the  United  States  and  in  the  declaration  of 
war  against  England.  He  belonged  in  spirit 
nevertheless  to  the  old  regime,  and  in  alarm  at 
Turgot*s  wide-reaching  plans  of  reform  brought 
about  that  Minister's  downfall  in  1776,  his  place 
being  taken  by  Necker,  who  in  turn  was  dis- 
missed in  May,  1781.  He  held  his  place  as  chief 
Minister  of  the  Crown  until  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Versailles,  November  21,  1781.  Memoirs 
of  a  curious  nature  were  published  under  his 
name  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1790-92),  but  were  really 
largely  the  work  of  his  secretary.  The  Btb- 
lioth^que  Nationaley  however,  contains  a  volu- 
minous collection  of  French  cJianaona  made  by 
him. 

MAXTBEB,  mou'rgr,  Geobq  Ludwig  vox 
(1790-1872).  A  (rerman  statesman  and  jurist, 
born  near  Diirkheim  in  Bavaria.  He  was  educated 
at  Heidelberg,  and  studied  jurisprudence  in  Paris. 
In  1826  his  Oeaohichte  dea  altgermaniachen  Oe- 
richtaverfahrena  was  crowned  by  the  Academy  of 
Munich,  and  he  was  appointed  professor  of  juris- 
prudence in  the  imiversity.  From  1832  to  1834, 
during  the  minority  of  King  Ctho,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Regency  at  Athens, 
where  his  energy  and  ability  accomplished  a  com- 
plete reorganization  of  civil  procedure.  In  1847 
he  was  Bavarian  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and 
Justice.  The  most  valuable,  perhaps,  of  his  va- 
rious works  on  history  and  jurisprudence  are: 
Daa  griechiache  Volk  vor  und  nach  dem  Freiheita- 
kampfe  (1836)  and  Oeachichte  der  Dorfverfaa- 
aung  in  Deutachland  ( 1865-66) . 

MAXTBEB,  KoNBAD  von  (1823-1902).  A 
German  jurist,  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
bom  at  Frankenthal,  Bavaria,  studied  at  Munich, 
Leipzig,  and  Berlin,  and  in  1847  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Munich.  He 
made  an  especial  study  of  Icelandic  language, 
literature,  and  history.  In  connection  with  these 
subjects,  he  published:  Die  Entatehung  dea  is- 
IdndischenStaates  und  seiner  Verfaaaung  (1852)  ; 
Die  Bekehrung  dea  nonvegiachen  Stammea  eum 
Chriatentum  (1855-56)  ;  I  aland  von  seiner  ersten 
Entdeckung  hia  zum  Untergang  dea  Freiataates 
(1874);  Zur  politischen  Oeachichte  lalanda 
(1880).  He  also  edited  Oull-ThdHa-Saga  (1858), 
and  a  collection  of  legends  entitled  laldndische 
Volkaaagen  der  Oegenwart  (1860). 

MAXT'BETA'NIA  (Lat.,  Gk.Movpmxrfa,  Mau- 
rouaia,  from  putvpoc,  mauroa,  black).  TTie  an- 
cient name  of  the  most  northwestern  part  of 
Africa.     It  was  so  called  from  the  Mauri  or 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MAXTBETANIA. 


201 


ICAUBIGE. 


Maurusii,  a  general  designation  for  the  numer- 
ous tribes  it  contained.  At  the  time  of  its  great- 
est expansion  it  included  the  present  Morocco  and 
more  than  two-thirds  of  Algeria,  extending  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Ampsaga  River  (Wady-ei- 
Kebir).  Among  the  kings  of  Mauretania  were 
Boochus  I.,  the  father-in-law  of  Jugurtha,  Boc- 
chus  II.,  who  espoused  the  cause  of  Gsesar 
against  the  Pompeians,  and  Juba,  the  son  of  the 
Pompeian  partisan  Juba  I.  of  Numidia.  Under 
the  Emperor  Claudius  it  was  made  a  Roman  prov- 
ince and  divided  into  Mauretania  Csesarensis  and 
Mauretania  Tingitana,  separated  by  the  Mulucha 
(Muluya)  River.  The  country  was  noted  for  its 
extraordinary  fertility,  and  its  upland  plains, 
stretching  from  the  Atlas  Mountains  to  the  sea, 
supplied  Italy  with  grain.  From  the  hands  of  the 
Romans  it  passed  in  succession  to  the  Vandals, 
the  Byzantines,  and  the  Arabs.  See  Babbabt 
States. 

KAXTBIOE,  ma'ris,  Flavius  Tibebius  Mau- 
RICTUS  (c.539-602).  Byzantine  Emperor  from 
582  to  602.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient 
Roman  family.  During  the  reigns  of  Justin  II. 
and  Tiberius  II.,  Maurice  was  in  the  mili- 
tary service,  and  in  578  was  appointed  by  the 
latter  Emperor  to  the  command  of  the  army 
sent  against  the  Persians.  In  582*  he  obtained 
the  rare  honor  of  a  triumph  at  Constantinople, 
became  son-in-law  of  Tiberius,  and  in  August  of 
the  same  year  succeeded  him  on  the  throne. 
Immediately  after  his  accession,  the  Persians 
invaded  the  Byzantine  territories;  a  fierce  con- 
test of  nine  years'  duration  ensued,  which,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  internal  convulsions  that  distracted 
Persia,  resulted  in  favor  of  the  Byzantines.  The 
King  of  Persia,  Khosru  II.,  driven  from  his 
throne,  fled  to  the  Byzantines,  an  army  was  im- 
mediately assembled,  and  in  591  Khosru  was  re- 
stored to  his  throne,  giving  up  to  Maurice  the 
fortresses  of  Daras,  Martyropolis,  and  Persar- 
menia.  In  599  the  Avars  demanded  ransom 
money  for  12,000  soldiers  whom  they  held  as  pris- 
oners. The  Emperor  refused  to  ransom  them,  and 
they  were  consequently  put  to  death.  This  ex- 
cited a  deep  resentment  in  the  army,  and  in  602, 
when  the  Emperor  ordered  his  troops  to  take 
up  their  winter  quarters  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Danube,  they  broke  out  into  open  revolt, 
proclaimed  Phocas  Emperor,  and  marched  upon 
Ckmstantinople.  Maurice  with  all  his  family 
and  many  of  his  friends  was  put  to  death  on 
November  27,  602.  Consult:  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Fall,  ch.  xlv.,  ed.  by  Bury  (London,  1896-1900)  ; 
Bury,  Later  Roman  Empire  (London,  1889). 

MATTBICE,  Prince  of  Orange  and  Count  of 
Nassau,  commonly  styled  Maurice  of  Nassau 
(1567-1625).  Stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  his 
age.  He  was  the  son  of  William  the  Silent, 
founder  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  and  was  born  at 
Dillenburg,  in  Nassau,  in  1567.  After  the  assas- 
sination of  his  father  in  1684,  the  provinces  of 
Holland  and  Zealand,  and  later  Utrecht,  elected 
him  their  Stadtholder.  A  great  portion  of  the 
Netherlands  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Span- 
iards ;  and  though  during  the  first  part  of  his  ad- 
ministration he  was  unsuccessful,  later  Maurice 
rapidly  wrested  cities  and  fortresses  from  the 
enemy.  In  1591  Zutphen,  Deventer,  Nimeguen, 
and  other  places  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch ; 
in  1593  Gertruydenberg,  and  in  1594  the  Province 


of  Groningen.  In  1597,  with  the  help  of  some 
English  auxiliaries,  Maurice  defeated  the  Span- 
iards at  Tumhout  in  Brabant,  and  in  1600  won 
a  splendid  victory  at  Nieuwport.  In  1604,  how- 
ever, Ostend,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  sur- 
rendered to  the  Spaniards.  Finally  in  1609 
Spain  agreed  to  a  truce  of  twelve  ye&rs,  which 
meant  the  practical  achievement  of  their  inde- 
pendence by  the  Dutch.  In  1621  the  struggle  was 
renewed.  Maurice  from  political  motives  was  the 
bitter  enemy  of  Bameveldt  (q.v.),  whose  death 
he  caused. 

MAUBICE,  Duke  and  Elector  of  Saxony 
( 1521-53) .  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Duke  Henry 
the  Pious  of  the  Albertine  line.  He  was  born  at 
Freiburg,  March  21,  1521,  married  in  1541  Agnes, 
daughter  of  the  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
Duchy  of  Saxony.  He  was  early  involved  in  dis- 
putes with  his  cousin,  the  Elector  John  Frederick 
of  the  Ernestine  line.  Though  a  Protestant,  he  did 
not  join  the  Schmalkaldic  League,  and  was  finally 
won  over  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who,  pre- 
paring to  crush  (jrerman  Protestantism  by  force 
of  arms,  promised  him  (June  19,  1546)  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  Ernestine  line  and  the  electoral 
dignity  as  soon  as  John  Frederick,  who  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  League,  should  be 
dispossessed.  He  invaded  electoral  Saxony,  but 
was  driven  from  it  and  from  his  own  domains 
and  only  saved  by  the  timely  assistance  of  the 
Emperor  and  the  Duke  of  Alva,  who  at  the  battle 
of  MQhlberg  (1547)  annihilated  the  army  of  the 
Schmalkaldic  League  and  took  John  Frederick 
prisoner.  Maurice  now  became  ruler  of  the 
whole  of  Saxony,  with  the  electoral  dignity. 
The  imprisonment  of  Philip  ol  Hesse,  whom 
Maurice  nad  prevailed  upon  to  submit  to  the  Em- 
peror, was  the  first  cause  of  estrangement  between 
Charles  and  Maurice.  The  attempts  of  the  Em- 
peror to  increase  his  own  preponderance,  and,  so 
to  say,  the  influence  of  Spain  in  Germany,  supplied 
another;  a  further  source  of  trouble  was  the  re- 
fusal of  the  Emperor  to  hand  over  to  Maurice  the 
episcopal  territories  of  Magdeburg  and  Halber- 
stadt,  the  prospect  of  whose  possession  had  been 
held  out  to  him ;  in  addition  Maurice  was  alarmed 
for  the  safety  of  Protestantism.  Although  the 
new  Elector  zealously  supported  the  Augsburg 
Interim  of  1548,  he  gradually  came  to  see  that 
his  close  alliance  with  the  Emperor  was  alien- 
ating from  him  the  affections  of  his  Protes- 
tant subjects.  He  accordingly  abandoned  the 
cause  of  the  Emperor  with  as  little  scruple  as 
he  had  formerly  sacrificed  the  interests  of  his 
relatives  and  co-religionists,  and  arranged  an 
alliance  against  Charles  V.,  comprising  a  num- 
ber of  German  princes  and  Henry  II.  of  France, 
to  whom  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Ver- 
dun were  promised  as  a  reward  for  his  assist- 
ance. In  March,  1552,  Maurice  suddenly  ap- 
peared with  an  army  in  South  Germany  and 
compelled  the  Emperor,  who  was  then  at  Inns 
bruck,  to  take  refuge  in  flight,  leaving  to  his 
brother  Ferdinand  the  conduct  of  negotiations. 
Finally,  at  a  convocation  of  the  electors  and 
princes  of  the  Empire  at  Passau,  the  terms  of  a 
treaty  of  peace  were  arranged,  in  which  it  was 
agreed  that  the  Lutheran  States  should  be  free  to 
maintain  their  mode  of  worship.  In  the  summer 
of  1553  Maurice  took  the  field  against  Albert, 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg-Culmbach,  who  had  re- 
fused to  accede  to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Pas- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HAJTBICE. 


200 


MAUBiTnrs. 


sau,  and  was  raiding  thcf  Rhine  bishoprics  and 
Franconia,  when  he  was  fatally  wounded  in  the 
battle  at  Sievershausen,  July  9th,  dying  July 
11th.  Although  but  thirty- two  years  of  age,  he 
had  establish^  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  ablest 
diplomats,  administrators,  and  generals  of  his 
time;  but  he  imited  with  a  most  agreeable  per- 
sonality a  dissimulation  and  bad  faith  which  lost 
him  the  confidence  of  both  parties. 

Consult:  Issleib,  "Moritz  von  Sachsen  als  pro- 
testantischer  Ftirst/'  a  short  study  in  Sammlung 
gemeinveraUindlicher  wissenschaftlicher  Vortrdge 
(Hamburg,  1898)  ;  Langenn,  Moritz,  Herzog  und 
ChurfUrst  zu  Sachsen  (Leipzig,  1841)  ;  Prutz, 
"Moritz  von  Sachsen,**  in  Der  neue  Plutarch, 
vol.  ix.  (Leipzig,  1882).  See  Reformation; 
Saxony. 

MAXTBICEy  Saint.  See  Legion,  Tueban. 

UAUBlCEy  (John)  Frederic  Denison 
<  1805-72).  An  English  author  and  divine,  bom 
at  Normanston,the  son  of  a  Unitarian  clergyman. 
He  studied  at  Cambridge  and  became  engaged  in 
literary  work  in  London.  Influenced  by  03leridge 
and  others,  he  decided  to  become  a  clergyman 
in  the  Established  Church.  He  went  to  Oxford 
and  took  his  M.A.  degree,  and  was  ordained  in 
1831.  His  first  position  was  the  curacy  of 
Bubbenhall.  In  183G  he  became  chaplain  of 
Grey*s  Hospital,  London;  in  1840  professor  of 
history  and  English  literature  at  King's  College, 
and  in  1846  of  divinitv  in  this  school,  losing  these 
last  positions  in  1853  because  of  his  supposedly 
radical  religious  views.  He  was  chaplain  of 
Lincoln's  Inn,  1846-60;  incumbent  of  Saint 
Peter's,  Vere  Street,  London,  1860-69;  profes- 
sor of  moral  philosophv  at  Cambridge  from 
1860  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  London, 
April  1,  1872.  At  the  time  of  his  death  there 
was  probably  no  clergyman  in  England  more 
deeply  revered  and  loved  by  the  people,  and 
within  the  Church  he  had  become  the  head  of  the 
'Broad  Church  Party,*  and  had  a  large  follow- 
ing among  the  younger  men.  He  founded  the 
Working  Men's  College  in  London  in  1854  and 
became  its  principal.  He  wrote  one  novel, 
Eustace  Conway  (1834).  Other  works  are:  The 
Kingdom  of  Christ  ( 1838 )  ;  Religions  of  the 
World  (1847)  ;  Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philoso- 
phy (1850-57)  ;  Prophets  and  Kings  of  the  Old 
Testament  (1853)  ;  Unity  of  the  New  Testament 
(1854)  ;  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  First  and 
Second  Centuries  ( 1854 )  ;  Patriarchs  and  Law- 
givers of  the  Old  Testament  (1855)  ;  Epistle  of 
Saint  John  (1867)  ;  The  Word  Eternal  (1863)  ; 
Conscience  (1868)  ;  Social  Morality  (1869).  Con- 
sult his  Lif€y  *chiefly  told  in  his  own  letters*  by 
his  son,  Frederic  Maurice  (London,  1884). 

MAUBICE,  Thomas  (1754-1824).  An  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  historian,  bom  at  Hertford.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Parr,  in  an  academy  at  Stan- 
more,  and  afterwards  entered  Saint  John*s  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  but  the  next  year  removed  to  Uni- 
versity CJollege,  at  which  he  graduated  in  1773. 
Appointed  curate  of  Woodford  in  Essex,  he  re- 
signed in  1785  for  a  pastorate  at  Epping.  In 
1798  he  was  appointed  by  Earl  Spencer  Vicar  of 
Wormleighton  in  Warwickshire,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  appointed  keeper  of  manuscripts  in  the 
British  Museum.  In  1800  he  received  the  pen- 
sion left  vacant  by  the  death  of  the  poet  Cowper, 
and  in  1804  was  presented  by  the  L^ord  Chancel- 
lor to  the  vicarage  of  Cudham  in  Kent.    He  was 


a  learned  Orientalist,  and  published  a  voluminous 
work  on  Indian  Antiquities  (1793-1800).  In 
addition,  he  wrote  History  of  Hindustan  (1795- 
98)  and  a  Modern  History  of  Hindustan  (1802- 
10). 

MAiraiCE  OF  SAXONY.  A  French  sol- 
dier generally  known  as  Marshal  Saxe.  See 
Saxe,  Maurice,  Count  of. 

MAXTBICITTS,  mft-rlshl-fts,  Flavius  Tibe- 
rius.   A  Byzantine  Emperor.    Sec  Maurice. 

MAU'BITA^mA.    See  Mauretania. 

MAUBITIA,  mft-rIsh1-&  (Neo-Lat.,  so  called 
in  honor  of  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau) .  A  genus 
of  palms,  having  male  flowers  and  female  or 
hermaphrodite  flowers  on  distinct  trees,  imperfect 
spathes,  and  fan-shaped  leaves.  They  are  all 
natives  of  the  hottest  parts  of  America.  Some  of 
them,  like  Mauritia  vinifera,  the  buriti  palm 
(a.v.),  have  lofty  columnar  smooth  stems; 
otners  are  slender,  and  armed  with  strong  conical 
spines.  The  Miriti  palm  (Mauritia  flexuosa) 
grows  to  the  height  of  100  feet,  or  even  150  feet 
in  river  deltas;  it  has  very  large  leaves  on  long 
stalks.  The  stem  and  leaf-stalks  are  utilized  for 
various  purposes.  The  fibre  from  the  young 
leaves  is  extensively  used  for  cordage  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  hammocks.  Sago  is  obtained 
from  the  stems.  A  beverage  is  made  from  the 
fruit,  as  from  that  of  the  buriti  palm  and  sev- 
eral other  species. 

MAXTBITIXrS,  mft-rlsh^-Os  (named  in  honor 
of  Maurice  of  Nassau),  formerly  Ile  de  France. 
A  British  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  550  miles 
east  of  Madagascar,  between  longitudes  57°  and 
58''  K,  and  latitudes  19''  and  20*»  S.  (Map:  Af- 
rica, K  7).  Its  area  is  705  square  miles.  The 
coasts  are  low  except  at  three  points  where  the 
mountains  reach  them.  The  surface  rises  in 
the  interior  to  a  plateau,  surmounted  by  three 
groups  of  mountains  with  other  outlying  eleva- 
tions. Extinct  craters  testify  to  the  volcanic 
origin  of  the  island,  which,  however,  is  frinsred 
with  coral  reefs.  The  highest  peaks  are  Pitou 
de  la  Rivifere  Noire  (2711  feet)  and  Ponce 
(2650  feet).  The  coasts,  although  well  indented, 
are  difficult  of  access  on  account  of  the  numerous 
coral  reefs  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  The 
rivers  are  short  and  unfit  for  navigation.  The 
climate  is  considerably  tempered  bv  the  moun- 
tainous character  of  the  island.  The  only  good 
harbor  is  Port  Louis,  on  the  northwest  coast, 
which  is  sheltered  by  coral  reefs.  There  is  about 
10"  difference  between  the  temperature  in  the 
interior  and  that  of  the  coast  regions.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  at  Port  Louis,  the  capital 
and  largest  town,  is  about  79"  F.  The  island  has 
suffered  considerably  from  hurricanes  and  fever 
epidemics.  The  present  flora  is  almost  entirely 
foreign,  although  some  of  the  plants  were  intro- 
duced so  long  ago  that  they  have  come  to  be  con- 
sidered indigenous.  The  fauna  of  Mauritius,  never 
very  extensive,  has  been  still  more  impoverished 
by  the  almost  total  destruction  of  the  once  mag- 
nificent forests,  which  have  been  replaced  with 
plantations.  Most  of  the  domestic  animals  are  of 
foreign  origin.  Among  the  extinct  species  may 
be  mentioned  the  dodo  (q.v.)  and  several  other 
birds  whose  inability  to  fly  was  the  cause  of 
their  early  extermination.  Mauritius  has  a  fer- 
tile although  somewhat  stony  soil,  adapted  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  chief  tropical  products. 


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MAITBY. 


Cane  sugar  has  been  the  staple  of  the  island  for 
a  very  long  period,  and  it  is  mainly  by  the  sugar 
cn^  that  the  economic  condition  of  the  island 
is  determined.  Formerly  nearly  all  the  export 
sugar  went  to  Europe,  but  this  outlet  has  been 
largely  closed  in  recent  years  by  the  competition 
of  European  beet  sugar.  If  the  East  Indian 
markets  nad  not  been  opened  in  the  last  decade  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  sugar  industry  would 
have  been  ruined.  Other  products  of  minor  im- 
portance are  cereals,  cotton,  pepper,  indigo,  drugs, 
and  tea.  The  commerce  of  Mauritius  is  chiefly 
with  Great  Britain  and  the  British  colonies.  The 
annual  value  of  t.^e  total  commerce  during  1900-4 
fluctuated  between  50,000,000  rupees  and  57,- 
000,000  rupees,  the  exports  usually  exceeding  the 
imports  bv  several  million  rupees.  Of  exports  to 
the  value  of  $12,281,000  for  1905,  nearly  $10,863,- 
000  represented  sugar,  and  the  rest  rum,  vanilla, 
aloe  fibre,  molasses,  and  cocoanuts.  The  chief  im- 
ports ($8,981,000  in  1905)  are  cotton  goods,  pro- 
visions, coal,  machinery,  and  fertilizers.  The  cnief 
article  of  export  from  Mauritius  to  the  United 
States  is  sugar.  Port  Louis  is  connected  by  steam- 
ship lines  with  Madagascar,  Reunion,  and  British 
India.  It  is  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  colony 
that  nearly  all  vessels  between  Europe  and  India 
via  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  touch  at  Port  Louis. 
The  colony  has  railroad  lines  along  the  west 
and  north  coasts  and  crossing  the  island  from 
east  to  west,  with  a  total  length  of  122  miles. 

Together  with  the  Rodrigues,  Cargados,  Cha- 
gos,  and  Oil  Islands,  etc.,  Mauritius  forms  a 
Crown  colony  of  Great  Britain,  which  is  admini- 
stered by  a  Governor,  assisted  by  an  executive 
council  of  five  members  and  a  legislative  council 
of  twenty-seven,  including  ten  members  elected 
on  a  property  qualification.  The  semi-represent- 
ative form  of  government  was  introduced  in  1885. 
Primary  education  is  mostly  provided  by  the 
Government.  The  population  of  Mauritius,  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1891,  was  371,655;  1901, 
378,195;  1904,  378,745,  consisting  chiefly  of 
African  races  and  some  Chinese.  The  European 
population  is  mostly  French.  Port  Louis  (q.v.) 
had  a  population  of  52,740  in  1901. 

Mauritius  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1505  and  remained  in  their  possession  until 
1598,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Dutch,  who  gave 
it  its  present  name.  Aside  from  erecting  a  fort 
at  Grand  Port,  one  of  the  smaller  trading  ports, 
the  Dutch  did  no  more  for  the  settlement  of  the 
island  than  their  predecessors,  and  finally  aban- 
doned it  in  1710.  The  island  was  soon  taken 
over  by  the  French  and  under  their  rule  began 
to  develop,  especially  during  the  second  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  During  the  war  between 
France  and  England  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  island  was  captured  by  Eng- 
land and  was  formally  ceded  by  France  in  1814. 
Consult:  Martin,  The  British  Possessions  in  Af- 
rica, vol.  iv.  (London,  1834);  Unienville,  Sta- 
iistique  de  Vile  Maurice  ei  ses  d^pendances 
(Mauritius,  1886) ;  Ep'in&y,  Renseignements  pour 
servir  d  Vhistoire  de  Vile  de  France  (Mauritius, 
1890)  ;  Decotter,  O^graphie  de  Maurice  et  de  sea 
d^pendanoee  (Mauritius,  1891)  ;  Chalmers,  A 
History  of  Currency  in  the  British  Colonies  ( Lon- 
don. 1893)  ;  Anderson,  The  Sugar  Industry  of 
Mauritius  (London,  1899)  ;  Keller,  Madagascar, 
Mauritius,  and  Other  East  African  Islands  (Lon- 
don, 1900)  ;  The  Mauritius  Almanac  (Mauritius, 
•nnual)  ;  Annual  Colonial  Reports  (London) ; 
Vol.  XIII. -u. 


TTie  Mauritius  Civil  List  (Port  Louis,  semi-an- 
nual). 

MAUBirrCTS  AND  LAZABXTS^  Obdeb  of. 
An  Italian  order  of  merit  with  five  classes, 
originally  an  ecclesiastical  order  foimded  by 
Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy  in  1434.  It  was  sup- 
pressed in  1802,  restored  by  Victor  Emmanuel  of 
Sardinia  in  1816,  and  reconstituted  by  Victor 
Emmanuel  II.  in  1868. 

MAITBOCOBDATOS.     See  Mavboogrdatos. 

MAXmOMICHALISy  m&v'ra-md-K&a^.  See 
Mavbomichalis. 

MAXTBXrS,  mft'riis,  Saint  (494T-584).  He 
was  bom  in  Rome  about  494.  He  was  of  a  noble 
family,  and  was  placed  by  his  father,  Eutychius, 
under  the  tutelage  of  Saint  Benedict,  under 
whom  he  became  a  model  of  virtue.  Benedict 
sent  him  to  Gaul^  where  he  founded  the  monas- 
tery of  Glanfeuil,  or  Saint-Maur-sur-Loire,  in 
543,  over  which  he  presided  for  forty  years.  He 
died  in  584,  and  his  day  is  January  15th.  The 
Congregation  of  Saint-Maur  has  done  a  great 
work  in  reforming  the  monastic  orders  and  in 
ecclesiastical  literature. 

MAXTOEtUS,  Rabanus.  A  German  theolo- 
gian.   See  Rabanus  Maubus. 

MAIT&Y^  mft'rd,  Dabnet  Hebndon  (1822- 
1900).  An  American  soldier  and  author,  bom 
at  Fredericksburg,  Va.  He  studied  law  for  a 
time  at  the  University  of  Virginia,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1846,  served  in  the  Mexican  War, 
and  was  brevetted  first  lieutenant  for  gallantry 
at  Cerro  Gordo.  From  1847  to  1850  he  was 
assistant  professor  of  geography  and  ethics,  and 
from  1850  to  1852  of  infantry  tactics  at  West 
Point.  He  then  served  in  the  West,  and  was 
superintendent  of  cavalry  instruction  at  Carlisle 
Barracks  in  1858.  While  serving  as  assistant 
adjutant-general  in  New  Mexico  in  1861,  he  was 
discharged  from  the  army  and  entered  the  Con- 
federate service  as  colonel.  After  the  battle  of 
Pea  Ridge  he  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier- 
general  and  opposed  Grant  during  the  Van  Dom 
raid.  He  also  met  Sherman  in  his  attack  on 
Vicksburg  in  1862.  Later  he  was  promoted  to  be 
major-general,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  Tennessee.  At  the  end  of  the 
war  he  was  in  command  of  the  Department  of  the 
Gulf,  and  surrendered  on  May  24,  1865.  From 
1886  to  1889  he  served  as  Minister  to  Colombftt. 
His  writings  include:  Skirmish  Drill  for  Mounted 
Troops  ( 1859 ) ;  Recollections  of  a  Virginian  in 
the  Mewican,  Indian,  and  Civil  Wars  (1894); 
Young  People's  History  of  Virginia  and  Vir- 
ginians (1904). 

MAXTBY,  md'rA',  Jean  Siffbein  <  1746-1817). 
A  French  prelate,  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  bom 
at  Valr6as,  in  the  Department  of  Vaucluse, 
France.  He  studied  for  the  priesthood  at  Avi- 
gnon, and  went  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  twenty 
as  ahh4  pr^cepteur.  He  soon  made  himself  known 
as  an  eloquent  panegyrist,  became  a  favorite 
preacher  at  the  Court  and  was  appointed  to  the 
abbey  of  Fr^nade.  He  was  elected  also  to  a  seat 
in  the  French  Academy.  In  1789  he  was  chosen 
deputy  of  the  clergy  to  the  States-General,  where 
he  was  prominent  in  defense  of  the  C%urch  and 
royalty;  and  with  great  vigor,  skill,  and  elo- 
quence opposed  the  revolutionary  measures  until 
the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.,  matching  himself  fre- 
quently and  successfully  against  Mirabeau.    At 


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204 


MAUSOLEUK. 


the  dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  he 
left  France  in  1791,  and  at  the  invitation  of  Pius 
VI.  took  up  his  residence  in  Rome,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  honor.  In  1794  he  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Nic«ea  in  partibvs,  nuncio  to  the 
Diet  at  Frankfort,  Cardinal,  and  Bishop  of  Monte- 
flascone.  On  the  invasion  of  Ital^  by  the  French  in 
1798  he  fled  in  disguise  to  Venice,  and  thence  to 
Saint  Petersburg.  Returning  in  1799,  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  Count  of  Provence,  afterwards 
Louis  XVIII.,  his  ambassador  to  the  Holy  See. 
Becoming  reconciled  to  Napoleon,  he  returned  to 
France  m  1806.  In  1810  he  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  his  refusal  to  abdicate 
this  office  at  the  command  of  Pius  VII.  cost  him 
a  short  imprisonment  at  Rome  after  the  Restora- 
tion. Maury  published  a  treatise  entitled  Essai 
8ur  Viloquence  de  la  chaire  (1810). 

MAUBY,  mou'rA,  Juan  MabIa  (1772-1845). 
A  Spanish  poet,  bom  at  Malaga.  He  studied 
abroad,  both  in  France  and  England,  and  oh  his 
return  to  Spain  took  part  in  the  War  of  the 
French  Occupation.  He  was  a  supporter  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  was  afterwards  exiled 
and  died  in  Paris.  His  works  include:  La 
agresi^n  hritdnica  (1806);  UEspagne  po4tique 
( 1826-27 ) ;  and  Esvero  y  Almcdora^  a  poem  in 
twelve  cantos.  His  complete  works  were  pub- 
lished as  the  Poesiaa  castellanas   (1846). 

MAUBY,  md'T^y  Louis  Ferdinand  Alfbed 
(1817-92).  A  French  scholar  and  archaeologist, 
bom  at  Meaux,  Seine-et-Mame.  In  1860  he  was 
made  librarian  at  the  Tuileries.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  history  and  morality  at  the  College 
of  France  in  1862,  and  was  general  director  of 
the  archives  from  1868  until  1888,  when  he  re- 
tired. He  assisted  Napoleon  III.  in  his  Histoire 
de  Jules  C^ar,  and  published  himself  Esaai  sur 
lea  Ugendes  pieusea  du  moyen  6ge  (1843)  ;  Lea 
f6ea  du  moyen  Age,  recherchea  aur  leur  origine 
(1843)  ;  Hiatoire  dea  religiona  de  la  Grice  an- 
tique (1867-59);  and  Croyancea  et  Ugendea  de 
VantiquitS  (1863). 

MAXTOBtY,  Matthew  Fontaine  (1806-73). 
An  American  naval  officer  and  hydrographer,  bom 
in  Spottsylvania  County,  Va.  He  studied  at  the 
Harpeth  Academy  in  Tennessee  until  1825,  when 
he  was  appointed  midshipman  in  the  navy  and 
the  next  year  was  an  officer  on  the  Vincennea 
during  her  voyage  around  the  world.  In  1839 
he  sustained  a  fracture  of  the  leg  which  made 
him  a  cripple  for  life.  This  accident  led  to  his 
being  appomted  to  the  Naval  Observatory  and 
Hydrographic  Office  in  Washington,  where  he 
made  a  study  of  old  ships*  logs,  the  result  of 
which  was  a  series  of  Wind  and  Current  Charta 
that  were  of  incalculable  benefit  to  navigators. 
Here  also  he  prepared  his  Phyaical  Geography  of 
the  Sea  and  Ita  Meteorology  (1855).  In  1853 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander,  but 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  ofTered  his 
services  to  the  Confederacy.  In  1862  he  went 
on  a  mission  to  Europe,  where  he  remained  until 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  when  he  went  to  Mexico 
and  was  appointed  commissioner  of  emigration  by 
the  Emperor  Maximilian.  Upon  the  overthrow 
of  the  Imperial  regime,  Maury  returned  to  the 
United  States  and  became  professor  of  physics 
at  the  Virginia  Military  Institute.  Among  his 
publications  not  previouslv  mentioned  are  Let- 
tera  on  the  Amazon  and  the  Atlantic  Slopea  of 
South  America  (1853)   and  Lanes  for  Steamera 


Crossing  the  Atlantic  (1854).  Consult  Corbin» 
Life  of  Matthew  Fontaine  Maury  (London, 
1888). 

MAUSEB^  mou'zgr,  Paul  (1838—).  A  Ger- 
man inventor.  He  was  bom  at  Obemdorf,  Wtlrt- 
temberg,  where  he  received  his  early  education. 
Together  with  his  brother,  Wilhelm  Mauser 
(1834-82),  he  secured  employment  in  the  arsenal 
factory  of  his  native  town.  He  appears  to  have 
been  chiefly  responsible  for  the  joint  inventions 
of  the  two  brothers.  It  was  he  who,  in  1879,  in- 
vented the  Mauser  revolver,  and  in  1882,  in  con- 
junction with  his  brother,  he  succeeded  in 
securing  the  adoption  by  the  Servian  (Jovem- 
ment  of  an  improved  rifle  known  as  the  'Mau- 
ser, 1882.*  He  is  principally  known,  however, 
for  his  invention  of  the  Mauser  magazine  rifle, 
and  a  magazine  revolver.  (See  Small  Abms.) 
His  weapon  was  distinguished  for  its  low  trajec- 
tory, and  the  projectile  which  it  fired  for  ita 
penetrative  power.  In  1898  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Reichstag. 

MAXTSEB  OXTN.  A  rifle  invented  by  Mauser 
( q.v. ) .    See  Small  Abms. 

MAU'SOLEOJM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiavauXeiov^ 
m^ua6leion,  from  Mat'cruAoc,  Maua6los),  A  sep- 
ulchral monument  of  large  size,  containing  a 
chamber  in  which  urns  or  coffins  are  deposited. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  tomb  erected  at 
Halicamassus  to  Mausolus,  King  of  Caria,  by 
his  widow,  Artemisia.  The  work  is  said  to 
have  been  begun  by  Mausolus  (B.C.  353),  and 
to  have  been  completed  by  the  artists  after  the 
death  of  Artemisia  (c.350  B.C.).  It  was  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  monuments  of  the  kind, 
and  was  esteemed  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  world.  The  architects  were  Satyrus  and 
Pythius  or  Pythis,  and  it  is  said  that  Scopas, 
Bryaxis,  Timotheus  (or,  according  to  Vitruvius, 
Praxiteles),  and  Leochares  were  employed  on  the 
sculpture.  It  was  described  by  Pliny,  and  is 
mentioned  by  mediaeval  writers,  as  late  as  the 
twelfth  century,  in  a  manner  that  seems  to  imply 
it  was  still  uninjured.  The  upper  part  was  over- 
thrown, probably  by  an  earthquake,  in  the  course 
of  the  following  two  centuries;  for  when  the 
Knights  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem,  in  1402, 
took  possession  of  the  site  of  Halicamassus,  they 
used  the  ruins  as  a  quarry  in  building  their 
castle.  The  interior  was  still  undisturbed,  for 
in  1522,  when  repairing  the  castle  and  excavating 
among  the  ruins  for  building  materials,  the 
knights  discovered  a  large  chamber  decorated 
with  colored  marbles,  reliefs,  and  columns.  These 
were  all  destroyed  to  furnish  lime.  An  inner 
chamber  contained  a  white  marble  sarcophagus. 
Fragments  of  the  frieze  were  used  to  decorate  the 
castle  walls,  and  in  1846  these  were  obtained 
by  Sir  Stratford  Canning  for  the  British  Mu- 
seum. In  1856-58  excavations  conducted  for 
the  British  GJovemment  by  Charles  T.  Newton  led 
to  the  discovery  of  the  lost  site  and  the  recov- 
ery of  many  fragments  of  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture. The  foundations  and  fragments,  combined 
with  Pliny's  rather  inadequate  notice,  have  led 
to  several  attempts  to  reconstruct  the  monument, 
but  without  any  very  conclusive  result.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Mausoleum  consisted  of  a  lofty 
base  or  podium,  on  which  stood  a  chamber  sur- 
rounded by  an  Ionic  colonnade  (the  pteron)  ; 
this  was  surmounted  by  a  pyramid  of  24  steps, 
on  the  truncated  apex  of  which  was  a  marble 


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four-horse  chariot.  Whether  the  colossal  statues 
of  Mausolus  and  Artemisia  were  placed  in  the 
chariot  or  elsewhere  in  the  building  is  a  matter 
of  dispute.  The  reliefs  belong  to  three  friezes, 
and  represent  a  battle  of  the  Greeks  and  Ama- 
flonSy  the  contest  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapi- 
ths,  and  a  chariot  race.  Their  exact  position  in 
the  building  is  uncertain,  though  the  first  is  prob- 
ably the  frieze  of  the  external  Ionic  order.  In 
addition  to  the  histories  of  Greek  sculpture,  con- 
sult :  Newton,  History  of  Discoveries  of  Halicar- 
fUis8%A8,  Cnidus,  and  BranchicUe  (London,  1862)  ; 
and  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  the  Levant  (ib., 
1865)  ;  Oldfield,  in  Archceologia,  vols.  liv.  (1895) 
and  Iy.  (1896) ;  Adler,  Das  Mausoleum  zu  Hali- 
Jcamas  (Berlin,  1900) ;  A.  H.  Smith,  Catalogue  of 
Bculptures  in  the  British  Museum,  yol.  ii.  (Lon- 
don, 1900),  where  the  fragments  are  described 
and  sketches  of  the  proposed  restorations  given. 

KAU^TON.  A  city  and  the  couniy-seat  of 
Juneau  County,  Wis.,  129  miles  northwest  of 
Milwaukee,  on  the  Lemonweir  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad 
(Map:  Wisconsin,  C  5).  Good  water  power  is 
derived  from  the  river,  and  there  are  flouring 
mills,  machine  shops,  and  other  industrial  estab- 
lishments. Population,  in  1890,  1343;  in  1900, 
1718;  in  1905,  1857. 

MATTVAISES  TEBB3SS,  md-vftz'  tftr'.  See 
Bad  Lands. 

MAUVE,  m?Jv  (Fr.,  mallow).  A  color  re- 
sembling the  purple  markings  of  the  petals  of 
mallow.  It  is  called  also  aniline  purple  and  ani- 
line violet,  and  is  not  now  in  use  among  painters. 

MAUVE,  mdv,  Anton  (1838-88).  A  Dutch 
landscape  and  animal  painter,  born  at  Zaandam. 
His  family  removed  to  Haarlem  when  he  was  a 
boy,  and  Mauve  studied  there  imder  the  cattle 
painter  Van  Os,  but  he  was  chiefly  self-taught. 
Afterwards  he  spent  some  time  in  Gosterbeek, 
and  later  lived  at  The  Hague,  and  at  the  village 
of  Laren.  Mauve  stands  with  Israels  and  Maris 
in  the  front  rank  of  modem  Dutch  painters. 
He  selected  subjects  similar  to  those  painted  by 
Millet,  but  he  was  more  poetical,  if  less  dra- 
matic, and  he  was  the  better  colorist  of  the 
two.  Mauve  painted  in  oil  and  water-color  with 
equal  ease,  although  his  last  water-colors  are  con- 
Bidered  the  best  of  his  works.  "The  Flock  of 
Sheep,"  "The  Flock  Returning,"  "Near  Laren,*' 
•*0n  the  Heath,"  and  "Evening  "  are  examples  of 
his  best  work. 

MAV^BICE,  Peter  (1780-1831).  An 
American  engraver,  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  was  the  son  of  Peter  Maverick,  etcher  and 
engraver,  from  whom  he  learned  his  art.  He  was 
a  founder  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design 
and  one  of  the  first  engravers  of  note  in  this 
country.  His  plates  include  the  portraits  of 
Heniy  Clay,  after  King  (1822);  Bishop  Benja- 
min Moore,  after  Dunlap;  and  Andrew  Jackson, 
after  Waldo.  Asher  B.  Durand  (q.v.),  the  en- 
graver, was  his  pupil,  and  for  a  time  his  partner 
m  1817. 

MAVTS  (OF.  mauviSf  m>alvis,  Fr.  mauvis, 
probably  from  Bret,  milfid,  milvid,  milthouid, 
Com,  melhuetf  melhues,  lark).  The  song  thrush 
{Turdus  musicus)  of  Europe  is  commonly  known 
in  Scotland  as  the  mavis,  and  although  this  name 
is  now  rather  uncommon  in  England,  where 
throstle*  and  'redwing*  are  more  often  heard,  it 
has  passed  into  literature  to  such  an  extent  as 


to  be  well  known  wherever  English  is  spoken. 
(See  SoNO  Thbush.)  In  Scotland  the  mistle- 
thrush  (q.v.)  is  known  as  'big  mavis.' 

MAVBOCOBBATOS,  mft^vrA-kOr-d&^tfts,  Aii- 
EXANDER,  Prince  (1791-1866).  A  Greek  states- 
man, bom  at  Constantinople,  February  16,  1791, 
of  a  Fanariote  family  celebrated  for  the  part  it 
has  played  in  the  aflfairs  of  Greece.  He  was 
a  scholar  and  an  ardent  patriot,  and  devoted 
himself  with  singleness  of  purpose  to  the  cause 
of  Greek  independence,  expending  the  bulk  of  his 
private  fortune  for  the  equipment  of  fleet  and 
army.  He  prepared  the  Greek  declaration  of 
independence  and  the  plan  of  a  provisional 
Government,  was  elected  president  of  the  ex- 
ecutive body  (1822),  and  imdertook  the  same 
year  an  expedition  to  Epirus,  which  ended  in 
the  unsuccessful  battle  of  Peta;  but  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  bold  and  resolute  defense 
of  Missolonghi  (1822-23).  Notwithstanding  the 
opposition  of  the  party  of  Kolokotronis  and 
Demetrius  Ypsilanti  (see  Kolokotbonis ;  Ypsi- 
ULNn),  he  was  able  afterwards  to  render  im- 

Sortant  services  to  his  country  in  the  heroic 
efense  of  Navarino  and  Sphacteria.  He  was 
a  steadfast  admirer  of  English  policy  and  in- 
stitutions, and  a  fierce  opponent  of  the  pro- 
Russian  Government  of  Uapo  d'Istria  (q.v.). 
After  the  accession  of  King  Otho  (1832)  he  was 
at  different  times  a  Cabinet  minister  and  ambas- 
sador at  various  courts.  The  leading  feature 
of  his  policy — ^his  endeavor  to  promo^  British 
influence — made  him  at  times  very  unpopular 
among  his  countrymen.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Crimean  War  he  became  head  of  the  Cabinet,  but 
resigned  after  remaining  in  office  for  little  more 
than  a  year.    He  died  August  18,  1865. 

MAVBOMICHALIS,  m&v'r&-m6-K&n«s.  A 
Greek  princely  family  of  Maina,  in  the  Morea. 
Its  more  important  members  were:  Geoboios, 
who  led  the  Mainot  revolt  of  1770 ;  Petbos  ( 1776- 
1848),  often  called  Petro  Bey,  who  became  Bey  of 
Maina  in  1816,  led  the  revolt  of  1821  in  the 
Morea,  became  president  of  the  Congress  of  Astros 
in  1822,  and  as  leader  of  the  Hellenic  party  op- 
posed (japo  d'Istria  and  his  Russian  policy  and 
was  imprisoned  in  Nauplia ;  and  his  brother  KoN- 
8TANTIN0S  and  son  Geoboios,  who  had  fought 
bravely  in  the  war  of  independence  and  who  in 
1831  assassinated  Capo  d'Istria  to  avenge  the  im- 
prisonment of  Petro  Bey.  Georgios  was  executed 
and  Konstantinos  was  killed  by  the  President's 
followers.  Petros  was  set  at  liberty  by  the  new 
Administration,  and  as  a  reward  for  his  zealous 
support  of  Otho  was  made  vice-president  of  the 
Council  of  State. 

MAW-SEED  {maw,  AS.  mwga,  Icel.  magiy 
OHG.  mago,  Ger.  Magen,  stomach  +  seed),  A 
common  name  for  poppy-seed  which  is  given  to 
cage  birds  especially  when  they  are  moulting. 

KAX,  maks,  Gabbiel  (1840—).  A  German 
historical  painter,  of  the  Munich  School.  He 
was  bom  in  Prague,  the  son  of  the  sculptor 
Joseph  Max  (1803-54).  After  his  father's  death 
he  studied  four  years  at  the  Academy  of  Prague, 
three  years  in  that  of  Vienna,  and  from  1863  to 
1869  under  Piloty  at  Munich.  His  first  notable 
success  was  achieved  by  "The  Christian  Martyr** 
(1867),  a  maiden  bound  to  a  rude  stone  cross,  at 
whose  feet  a  young  Roman  patrician,  returning 
at  dawn  from  revelry,  lays  down  a  garland.  His 
next  noteworthy  productions  were  'The  Melan- 


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MAXIMA  AND  MINIMA. 


choly  Nun"  (1869,  Hamburg  Gallery)  and  'The 
Anatomist"  (1869) — both  strikingly  sombre  and 
pathetic,  and  illustrative  of  the  i>ainter's  mor- 
bid tendencies.  Patient  suffering  is  depicted  in 
"The  Blind  Lamp  Seller  in  the  Catacombs" 
(1871) ;  in  "Nydia,"  the  blind  Thessalian  flower 

g'lrl  of  Bulwer's  Last  Days  of  Pompeii  (1874). 
ne  of  his  most  touching  pictures  is  'The 
Last  Token"  (1874,  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York).  The  tragic  element  is  best  represented 
by  "The  Lion's  Bride"  ( 1875 ) ,  probably  his  best- 
known  work.  The  "Handkerchief  of  Saint  Ver- 
onica" (1874)  created  a  sensation  as  a  pictorial 
phenomenon,  the  Saviour's  eyes  appearing  by 
turns  to  open  and  close.  His  spiritualistic  ten- 
dencies are  revealed  in  such  paintings  as  "Spirit 
Greeting"  (1879).  ConauM:  Klemt,  Oabriel  Maw 
und  seine  Werke  (Vienna,  1887),  and  Meissner 
in  Die  Kunst  unserer  Zeit  (Munich,  1899). 

MAXENTIUS,  m&ks-en^shl-tis.  Roman  Em- 
peror.    See  CONSTANTINE  I. 

MAXENTXTTS,  CiBOUS  of.  A  circus  on  the 
Appian  Way  near  Rome  dedicated  to  Divus 
Romulus,  son  of  Maxentius,  who  died  in  a.d.  309. 
*  It  was  350  yards  by  86  and  it  accommodated 
18,000  spectators.  The  barriers  and  spina  were 
set  obliquely  to  equalize  the  distance  to  be  covered 
by  contestants  starting  in  different  positions. 

MAX^Y,  Samuel  Bell  (1825-95).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Tompkinsville,  Ky.  He 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1846,  and  served  throughout  the  Mexican  War. 
In  1850  he  began  to  practice  law,  but  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  raised  a  Confederate 
regiment,  becoming  its  colonel;  soon  he  was 
promoted  brigadier-general.  He  served  under 
General  Bragg,  took  part  in  the  attack  on  Buell's 
retreating  army,  and  was  at  the  first  siege  of 
Port  Hudson.  In  1863,  when  in  command  of  the 
Indian  Territory,  he  organized  an  army  of  8000, 
defeated  (Jen.  Frederick  Steele,  and  captured 
his  train  of  227  wagons.  For  these  services  he 
was  promoted  major-general.  In  1874  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator,  and  in  1881 
reelected. 

ULAXHMj  Sir  Hibam  Stevens  (1840 — ).  An 
engineer  and  inventor,  bom  in  Sangersville, 
Maine,  where  he  received  his  early  education. 
After  being  apprenticed  to  a  coach-builder,  he 
worked  in  a  machine  shop  at  Fitchburg,  Mass., 
later  becoming  foreman  of  an  instrument  fac- 
tory. After  this  he  worked  at  the  Novelty  Iron 
Works  and  Shipbuilding  Company  in  New  York. 
Meanwhile  he  had  patented  various  improve- 
ments in  steam-engines  and  had  put  on  the  mar- 
ket an  automatic  gas  machine.  In  1878  he 
invented  an  improved  incandescent  lamp.  In 
this  field  he  made  other  important  inventions, 
some  of  which  were  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position of  1881.  His  most  celebrated  invention 
was  the  Maxim  gun  (see  Machine  Gun),  in 
which  invention  he  is  said  to  have  developed  an 
idea  of  his  boyhood.  More  than  one  hundred 
international  patents  relating  to  petroleum  and 
other  motors,  and  so  on,  were  taken  out  by  him. 
He  bought  an  estate  near  Bexley,  England,  where 
he  erected  his  laboratories  and  experimental  sta- 
tion, in  which  he  carried  on  some  elaborate 
experiments  in  aeronautics  (q.v.).  He  became  a 
naturalized  citizen  of  Great  Britain  because  of 
the  alleged  unfair  treatment  of  his  inventions  by 
the  United  States  Government.    He  was  made  a 


chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  was 
created  a  knight  by  the  English  Crown  in  1901. 

MAXTir,  Hudson  (1853 — ).  An  American 
inventor  and  engineer,  bom  at  Orneville,  Me. 
He  was  educated  in  the  local  schools  and  at  the 
Wesleyan  Seminary,  Kent's  Hill,  Me.,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  chemistry,  engineer- 
ing, and  natural  science,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  formulating  a  hypothesis  of  the  compound 
nature  of  atoms.  From  1883  to  1888  he  was 
engaged  in  the  printing  and  publishing  business 
at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  devising  a  process  for  print- 
ing daily  papers  in  colors.  In  1888  he  became 
interested  in  ordnance  and  explosives,  and  was 
among  the  first  to  make  smokeless  powder  in 
the  United  States.  Extending  this  business  he 
developed  the  Maxim- Schupphaus  smokeless  pow- 
der, which  was  used  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment ;  in  1901  he  sold  to  the  same  Gk)vernment 
the  secret  of  the  high  explosive,  maximite  (q.v.). 
Later  inventions  include  various  processes  con- 
nected with  the  electric  furnace,  a  detonating 
fuze  for  high-explosive  projectiles,  automobile 
torpedoes,  and  "stabillite,"  a  smokeless  powder 
invented  by  him  and  developed  by  him  in  connec- 
tion with  the  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Company. 

mrAYTWffA  AND  MINIMA  (Lat.,  neut.  pi. 
of  fn<iwimus,  greatest,  and  minimus,  least).  In 
mathematics,  the  greatest  and  the  least  values  of 
variable  quantities  or  magnitudes.  Strictly,  a 
maximum  is  not  necessarily  the  greatest  of  all 
the  possible  values  of  a  variable;  it  is  a  value 
that  is  greater  than  the  values  immediately  pre- 
ceding and  following  it  in  series.  Similarly,  a 
minimum,  strictly  defined,  is  a  value  that  is  less 
than  the  values  immediately  preceding  and  fol- 
lowing it.  Hence  a  function  may  have  several 
maxima  and  minima,  equal  or  unequal  among 
themselves.  Thus,  in  the  accompanying  figure, 
«i»  ««t  <*8»  are  maximum  values  of  the  ordinates 
ot  f{a),  and  bi,  b^*  ^9»  ^^^  minimum  values.  The 
tangent  of  the  angle  which  a  line  tangent  at  any 
point  to  the  curve  makes  with  the  X-axis  is  zero 
at  a  maximum  or  minimum  value  of  the  ordin- 
ate.   This  means  that  the  differential  coefficient 

^  =  0  (see  Caxculus),  and  hence  the  abscis- 

sas  corresponding  to  the  maxima  and  minima  are 

dy 
the  roots  of  -r-  =  0. 

CUD 


A  function  of  two  .'ndependent  variables, 
f{w,  y),  has  a  maximum  value  when  /"(ap,  y)  > 
f{m  -\-  fc,  y  4-  fc),  for  all  small  values  of  h  and 
fc,  positive  or  negative;  and  a  minimum  value 
when  f(w,  y)  <  f{af  +  h,  y  +  k).  The  condi- 
tions  for  maxima  and  minima  in  the  case  of  a 

function  u  of  two  variables  are    —  =  0,  and 


tne    further    conditions    for    a    maximum    are 


|H  =  0 


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B'  <  AC  and  A  <  0,  and  for  a  minimum  B" 
<  AC  and  A  >  0.  When  B«  =  AC  or  A  =  B 
=  C  =  0,  further  inyestigation  is  necessary. 

A  few  of  the  important  propositions  of  plane 
maxima  and  minima  are:  (1)  Of  all  triangles 
formed  with  the  same  two  given  sides,  that  is  the 
maximum  whose  sides  contoin  a  rieht  angle;  (2) 
of  all  isoperimetric  triansles  (those  of  equal 
perimeters)  on  the  same  base,  the  isosceles  is 
the  maximum;  (3)  of  all  isoperimetric  triangles, 
that  which  is  eauilateral  is  the  maximiim;  (4) 
of  all  triangles  naving  the  same  base  and  area, 
the  isosceles  has  the  minimum  perimeter;  (5) 
if  a  line  of  given  length  be  bent  and  its  ends 
joined  by  a  straight  line,  the  area  of  the  figure 
inclosed  is  a  maximum  when  the  curved  line  has 
the  form  of  a  semicircle;  (6)  of  all  isoperi- 
metric plane  figures,  the  maximum  is  a  circle; 
( 7 )  of  all  isoperimetric  polygons  of  a  given  num- 
ber of  sides,  the  maximum  is  regular. 

Traces  of  the  doctrine  of  maxima  and  minima 
are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  Apollonius  on 
conic  sections,  and  among  the  theorems  of  Zeno- 
dorus.  The  Hindus  displayed  great  ingenuity 
in  solving,  by  ordinary  algebra,  problems  of 
TwftTJfna.  and  minima;  but  thorough  investigation 
of  the  subject  requires  the  aid  of  the  calculus, 
and  Kepler,  the  Bernoulli  brothers,  Newton, 
Maclaurin,  Euler,  and  Lagrange  distinguished 
.  themselves  in  this  department.     See  Calculus. 

•WAXTTiir  OXTN.    See  Machine  Guir. 

MAYTTTTA^US.  A  Latin  elegiac  poet  of 
the  sixth  century  a.d.  The  author,  whose  name 
may  be  merely  borrowed  from  a  character  in 
the  fourth  of  the  six  elegies,  deals  in  a  dramatic 
and  realistic  way  with  variations  on  the  theme 
love  and  old  age.'  Hie  diction  and  metre  are  far 
above  the  average  of  the  period.  The  elegies 
were  popular  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  were 
frequently  imitated.  They  were  translated  in 
part  in  several  early  English  manuscripts  and 
entire  by  H.  W[alker?],  (1689),  who,  like  sev- 
eral early  editors,  ascribed  them  to  Cornelius 
Gallus;  and  were  edited  by  Petschenig  (1890), 
and  by  Richard  Webster  with  commentary 
(Princeton,  1900). 

MAXIMIANUS  I.  A  Roman  Emperor.  See 
Diocletian. 

MAXIMIANUS  II.  A  name  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  Valerius  Maximianus  Galerius  (q.v.),  a 
Roman  emperor. 

MAXTBai/IAir  I.  (1459-1519).  Holy  Ro- 
man Emperor  from  1493  to  1519.  He  was  the 
son  and  successor  of  Frederick  III.,  and  was 
bom  at  Wiener-Neustadt,  near  Vienna,  March 
22,  1459.  His  first  wife,  whom  he  married  in 
1477,  was  Mary  of  Burgundy,  daughter  and 
sole  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold  (q.v.),  Duke 
of  Burgundy  and  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands. 
Maximilian  became  at  once  involved  in  war  with 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  who  laid  claim  to  Burgundy 
and  other  parts  of  Mary's  inheritance.  Max- 
imilian won  the  battle  of  Guinegate  in  1479,  but 
wTis  finally  compelled  in  1482  to  conclude  the 
Treaty  of  Arras  with  Louis,  who  retained  Bur- 
mmdy,  Artois,  and  Franche-Comt^.  The  bulk  of 
the  Netherlands,  the  most  opulent  realm  in  Eu- 
rope, remained  with  the  Hapsburgs.  In  1486 
Kaximilian  was  elected  King  of  the  Romans.    In 


1488  the  Flemings  rose  against  Maximilian,  who 
was  for  a  time  held  a  prisoner  at  Bniges.  In 
1490  he  made  a  successful  incursion  into  Hungary 
and  soon  after  became  master  of  the  Austrian 
crownlands.  He  again  took  up  arms  against 
France,  whose  King,  Charles  VIII.,  had  married 
Anne  of  Brittany,  in  order  to  acquire  that  great 
duchy,  after  a  matrimonial  alliance  had  been 
concluded  between  that  princess  and  Maximilian. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Senlis,  in  1493,  Maximilian 
recovered  Artois  and  Franche-Comt^.  In  the 
same  year  he  succeeded  his  father  on  the  im- 
perial throne  of  Germany.  Soon  afterwards, 
Mary  of  Burgundy  having  died  in  1482,  he  mar- 
ried Bianca,  a  daughter  of  the  late  Duke  of 
Milan,  Galeazzo  Sforza,  and  thus  was  involved 
subsequently  in  the  Italian  wars.  He  joined  the 
League  of  Cambrai  a^inst  Venice  in  1508  and 
the  Holy  League  against  France  in  1513,  and 
after  Francis  I.'s  victory  at  Melegnano  (1515) 
was  forced  to  cede  Milan  to  the  French.  Nor  was 
Maximilian  more  successful  against  the  Swiss, 
who  in  1499  completely  separated  themselves 
from  the  German  Empire.  By  the  marriage  of 
Philip,  the  son  of  Maximilian,  with  the  Infanta 
Joan,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the 
House  of  Hapsburg,  in  1516,  ascended  the  throne 
of  Spain  in  the  person  of  Charles  I.  (Maximil- 
ian's successor  in  the  Empire  as  CJharles  V.). 
The  marriage  of  two  of  Maximilian's  grandchil- 
dren with  the  son  and  daughter  of  Ladislas,  King 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  ultimately  brought 
both  these  kingdoms  to  the  Austrian  monarchy. 
Maximilian  died  at  Wels,  in  Upper  Austria, 
January  12,  1519.  As  an  administrator  Max- 
imilian sought  to  strengthen  the  organization  of 
the  Empire.  The  evil  of  private  warfare  was 
partially  remedied  by  the  declaration  of  a  per- 
petual peace  for  the  Empire  at  Worms  in  1495, 
and  for  the  better  maintenance  of  the  peace  a 
division  of  the  Empire  was  made  into  circles. 
Reforms  in  the  administration  were  introduced 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Imperial  Chamber 
and  the  Aulic  Coimcil  (q.v.).  Maximilian  wrote 
works  on  the  art  of  war,  hunting,  gardening,  etc., 
and  sketched  the  Weisskunig,  an  autobiographic 
poem.  His  frank  and  generous  nature,  and  his 
many  accomplishments  gained  him  the  title  of 
"Last  of  the  Knights."  Consult:  Heyck,  Kaiser 
Maximilian  I.  (Bielefeld,  1898);  Van  Dyke, 
Renascence  Portraits  (New  York,  1905)  ;  Jansen, 
Kaiser  Maximilian  I.  (Munich,  1905). 

MAXIMITilAy  n.  (1527-76).  Holy  Ro- 
man  Emperor  from  1564  to  1576.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.,  and 
was  bom  in  Vienna,  July  31,  1527.  He  was 
educated  in  Spain  with  his  cousin,  Philip  II. 
In  1548  he  married  his  cousin  Maria,  daughter 
of  Charles  V.  Notwithstanding  the  surround- 
ings in  which  he  had  been  educated,  his  attitude 
toward  the  Reformation  was  so  liberal  that  he 
was  even  considered  by  those  about  him  to  be 
at  heart  a  heretic.  The  Protestants  of  Germany 
expected  much  from  his  accession,  even  hoping 
that  they  might  have  a  Protestant  Emperor 
of  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  These  hopes  re- 
mained unfulfilled.  Lack  of  decison,  dynastic 
policy,  his  personal  ambitions,  all  united  to  keep 
Maximilian  in  his  allegiance  to  the  ChuVch.    He 


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was  crowned  King  of  Bohemia  and  elected  King 
of  the  Romans  in  1562,  and  was  elected  King  of 
Hungary  in  1563.  In  1564  he  succeeded  his 
father  on  the  Imperial  throne  of  Germany,  in 
Bohemia,  and  in  the  portion  of  Hungary  not 
under  the  sway  of  the  Turks  or  the  Transylva- 
nian  princes.  In  1566  Solyman  the  Magnificent 
determined  to  make  a  fresh  onslaught  upon 
the  power  of  Austria.  His  vast  army  was  ar- 
rested by  the  heroic  defenders  of  Sziget,  and  the 
great  Sultan  died  in  his  camp  before  the  strong- 
hold fell.  Maximilian  displayed  great  inactivi^ 
in  the  face  of  the  impending  danger,  and  con- 
cluded a  disadvantageous  treaty  with  Solyman's 
successor.  The  marriage  of  Maximilian's  daugh- 
ter Anne  with  Philip  II.,  and  the  hope  held  out 
to  him  by  the  Pope  that  he  might  acquire  the 
Polish  Kingdom,  acted  to  repress  the  Emperor's 
interest  in  the  Protestant  cause.  He  interceded 
with  Philip  in  behalf  of  the  Protestants  of  the 
Low  Countries,  but  without  much  success.  Un- 
der his  tolerant  rule  Germany  enjoyed  a  period 
of  comparative  tranquillity,  which  was  followed 
by  one  of  religious  strife  under  his  successor, 
Kudolph  II.  Consult:  Koch,  Quellen  zur  Oe- 
8chiohte  Mawimilians  II.  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1857- 
61)  ;  Hopfen,  Kaiser  Mawimilian  II.  und  der 
Compromisskiitholizisfnus  (Munich,  1895).  See 
Austria-Hungary. 

MAXIMILIAN^  Ferdinand  Joseph  (1832- 
67 ) .  Archduke  of  Austria  and  Emperor  of  Mex- 
ico. He  was  the  second  son  of  the  Austrian  Arch- 
duke Francis  Charles,  and  a  brother  to  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria.  He  was 
liberally  educated,  became  commander  of  the 
Austrian  Navy  in  1854,  and  later  served  with 
success  as  Governor  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia. 
In  1862-63  the  French  troops  of  Napoleon  III.  oc- 
cupied the  principal  parts  of  Mexico.  (See 
Mexicx);  Juarez.)  An  assembly  of  notables, 
named  by  the  French  commanders,  was  convened, 
and  on  July  10,  1863,  this  body  offered  the  crown 
to  Maximilian,  who  as  a  Hapsburg  represented 
the  dynasty  which  had  preceded  the  Bourbons 
upon  the  throne  of  Spain.  Maximilian  announced 
that  he  would  accept  only  on  condition  that  "the 
vote  of  the  assembly  of  notables  could  be  ratified 
by  the  Mexican  people  in  a  general  election,  and 
that  the  European  nations  would  give  sufficient 
guarantees  that  the  throne  would  be  protected 
from  dangers  which  might  threaten  it."  The 
Mexican  popular  vote  was  easily  secured  by 
Marshal  Bazaine,  and  Napoleon  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Miramar»  by  which  he  bound  himself  to  main- 
tain the  French  army  in  Mexico  until  the  army 
.  of  the  Empire  should  be  thoroughly  organized. 
On  May  29  Maximilian,  with  the  Empress  Carlot- 
ta,  daughter  of  King  Leopold  of  Belgium,  landed 
at  Vera  Cruz.  The  new  ruler  announced  that 
his  mission  was  "the  rejuvenation  of  Mexico." 
Unfortunately,  he  knew  nothing  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  country  or  of  the  people  over  whom 
he  had  come  to  rule.  Anxious  to  conciliate 
all  parties,  he  soon  found  himself  without  the 
cordial  support  of  any.  His  desire  to  rule  with- 
out the  French  led  him  to  neglect  their  repre- 
sentatives, until  he  suddenly  realized  that  the 
foreign  army,  hated  equally  by  all  divisions  of 
his  subjects,  was  the  only  power  really  behind 
his  throne.  In  despair  of  accomplishing  anything 
by  conciliation,  the  Emperor  was  persuaded  to 
issue  a  decree,  October  3,  1866,  declaring  that  all 
persons  bearing  arms  against  his  empire  were 


bandits,  and  if  caught  would  be  tried  by  court- 
martial  and  shot.  Before  the  end  of  the  month 
four  highly  esteemed  Republican  officers  had  been 
executed  in  accordance  with  this  decree,  and  the 
last  hope  of  popular  support  for  Maximilian's 
rule  had  been  destroyed.  Meantime,  the  United 
States  Government,  relieved  of  its  embarrass- 
ments by  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy,  succeeded 
in  convincing  the  French  Emperor  that  his  inter- 
vention in  Mexico  would  not  be  tolerated.  In 
consequence,  on  May  31,  1866,  Maximilian  re- 
ceived dispatches  announcing  that  all  French 
troops  would  be  withdrawn  from  Mexico.  Maxi- 
milian would  probably  have  resigned  at  once 
had  not  the  Efmpress  Carlotta  dissuaded  him, 
imdertaking  to  go  to  Europe  and  use  her  influ- 
ence with  Napoleon  III.  She  proceeded  to  Paris, 
where  the  Emperor  at  first  refused  to  see  her, 
and  finally  brutally  asked  her  to  leave  France. 
The  Pope  gave  her  little  better  consolation,  and 
she  became  hopelessly  insane.  (See  Carlotta.) 
Maximilian  determined  to  abdicate,  but  the 
French  commissioners  sent  by  Napoleon  III.  were 
tmable  to  agree  to  the  terms  which  he  stipulated, 
and  eventually  he  decided  to  accept  the  offer  of 
Generals  Miramon  and  Marquez  (qq.v.),  who 
promised  to  raise  a  force  sufficient  to  replace  the 
French  troops  and  maintain  his  empire.  The 
Church  Party  urged  the  Emperor  to  remain, 
promising  its  support,  and  Maximilian  estab- 
lished his  headquarters  at  Quer^taro.  There 
he  was  surrounded  by  the  Republican  army  in 
the  early  part  of  March,  1867.  On  May  14th 
plans  were  made  for  a  sortie  by  which  the  Em- 
peror might  escape  to  Mexico  City  or  to  the  coast. 
Before  such  plans  could  be  carried  out.  Colonel 
Miguel  Lopez,  a  constant  favorite  of  the  Emperor 
and  Empress,  and  one  who  had  received  many 
proofs  of  their  generosity,  informed  the  enemy  of 
the  plan  and  arranged  to  admit  them  into  the 
Imperial  camp.  Maximilian  and  his  generals 
were  forced  to  surrender,  and  after  a  short  con- 
finement were  tried  by  a  military  court.  The 
Emperor  was  accused  of  treason,  usurpation  of 
public  power,  filibustering,  trying  to  prolong  the 
civil  war,  and  of  signing  the  decree  of  October 
3,  1865.  He  was  declared  guilty  and  condemned 
to  be  shot,  together  with  Generals  Miramon  and 
Mejia.  The  execution  took  place  on  the  morn- 
ing of  June  19,  1867.  The  Emperor's  body  was 
eventually  surrendered  to  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment, and  now  rests  in  the  Imperial  vault  in 
Vienna.  Maximilian  was  a  prolific  writer,  and 
seven  volumes  of  his  prose  and  verse  were  pub- 
lished in  Vienna  in  1867.  Among  the  best  ac- 
counts of  the  Emperor  are :  Chynoweth,  The  Fall 
of  Maximilian  (London,  1872),  and  Prince  Salm- 
Salm,  My  Diary  in  Mexico  in  1867  (Eng.  trans., 
London,  1868).  HalPs  Life  of  Maximilian  /. 
(New  York,  1868)  is  especially  valuable  for  its 
account  of  the  legal  aspects  of  the  trial  and 
execution. 

MAXIMILIAN  I.  (1573-1651).  A  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  prominent  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
bom  in  Munich.  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit 
University  of  Ingolstadt,  and  in  the  internal 
administration  of  his  realm  displayed  much 
statecraft.  He  improved  the  judicial  and  execu- 
tive departments,  organized  a  militia  effective 
for  defense,  maintained  a  well -disciplined  stand- 
ing army  under  the  famous  Count  of  Tilly  (q.v.) , 
and  placed  the  treasury  upon  a  secure  basis.  In 
the  affairs  of  the  Empire  he  was  an  active  oppo- 


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MAXIMITE. 


nent  of  the  Protestant  cause.  When  in  1607 
the  ban  of  the  Empire  was  pronounced  aj^inst 
the  free  city  of  Donauw5rth  (q.v.),  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  occupy  the  town,  which  he  forthwith 
proceeded  to  make  Roman  Catholic.  As  a  re- 
sult of  his  methods,  the  Protestant  Union  was 
organized  in  1608.  He  in  turn  established  the 
Catholic  League  (1609),  with  himself  at  its 
head.  After  the  disturbances  in  the  Austrian 
estates  (1618-19),  he  sided  with  the  Emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  (q.v.),  and  arrangements  were 
made  (1619)  by  which  he  was  to  receive  the  Up- 
per Palatinate  and  the  electoral  dignity  of  Fred- 
erick V.  (a.v.).  His  army,  commanded  by  Tilly, 
defeated  tnat  of  Frederick  under  Christian  cjf 
Anhalt  at  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain  (No- 
vember 8,  1620),  and  occupied  the  Palatinate. 
It  was  he  who,  in  opposition  to  any  extension 
of  the  Imperial  power  through  Wallenstein's 
army,  effected  Wallenstein*8  dismissal  at  the 
Diet  of  Ratisbon  (1623).  During  the  Swedish 
period  of  the  war  he  was  driven  from  Munich 
"by  the  entrance  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  into  Ba- 
varia in  1632.  In  1637-38  he  fought  against 
the  Swedes  and  French  on  the  Upper  Rhine, 
but  in  1647  independently  concluded  the  truce 
of  Ulm.  He  has  been  considered  the  most  im- 
portant German  statesman  of  the  time.  Con- 
sult: Wolf,  Oeachichte  Maximilians  /.  und  seiner 
Zeit  (continued  by  Breyer,  4  vols.,  Munich,  1807- 
11),  and  Von  Aretin,  Oeschichte  des  hairischen 
Herzogs  und  Kurfursten  Maximilian  I,  (vol.  i., 
PaMau,  1842).  See  also  the  article  Thibtt 
Ykabs'  W^ab. 

HAXnaiilAN  IL,  Emanuel  (1662-1726). 
An  elector  of  Bavaria,  grandson  of  Maximil- 
ian the  Great.  He  succeed  his  father,  Fer- 
dinand Maria,  in  1679;  fought  on  the  side  of 
Austria  in  the  great  struggle  against  the  Turks 
which  began  in  1683  and  in  1685  married  Maria 
Antonia,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  I. 
Appointed  Governor  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands 
in  1692,  he  resigned  this  thankless  post  after  the 
death  of  his  son,  who  had  been  named  heir  to 
the  Spanish  throne.  He  sided  with  France  in  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  Louis  XIV.  hav- 
ing promised  him  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  But 
the  defeat  of  Httchstadt  (1704)  more  than  out- 
weighed his  previous  victories;  the  Elector  was 
forced  to  take  refuge  in  the  Netherlands,  and  was 
not  restored  until  the  Peace  of  Baden  in  1714. 
Consult  Ruith,  KurfUrst  Max  Emanuel  von  Bay- 
em  und  die  Donaustadte  (Ingolstadt,  1889). 

ICAXIKILIAN  I.  (Maximilian  Joseph) 
(1756-1825).  First  King  (originally  Elector) 
of  Bavaria,  He  succeeded  Charles  Theodore  as 
Elector  of  Bavaria  in  1799.  His  domestic  pol- 
icy was  excellent,  aiming  at  general  reform. 
He  aimed  at  dynastic  aggrandizement,  and,  as  a 
reward  for  his  support  of  Napoleon,  received  the 
title  of  King,  which  he  assumed  in  1806,  and 
important  accession  of  territory  in  Swabia  and 
Franconia,  together  with  Tyrol,  and  later  Salz- 
burg, both  of  which  he  had  afterwards  to  relin- 
quish. In  the  War  of  Liberation  he  reluctant- 
ly sided  with  the  Allies.  His  liberal  policy  at 
home  was  shown  by  his  grant  of  the  Constitution 
of  1818,  which  unified  his  scattered  domains. 

yATiMn'TA'W  n.  (Maximilian  Joseph) 
(1811-64).  King  of  Bavaria.  He  was  the  son 
of  Louis  I.,  studied  at  G5ttingen  and  Berlin, 
traveled  abroad,  and  gave  himself,  while  prince, 
to  a  quiet  life  surrounded  by  men  famous  in 


art  and  literature.  On  his  father's  abdication 
in  1848,  Maximilian  ascended  the  throne,  and 
made  concessions  to  the  liberal  spirit  of  the 
time;  but  though  he  favored  German  unity,  he 
looked  with  hostility  upon  Prussia,  and  turned 
rather  to  Austria  as  the  leader  in  the  movement 
of  unification. 

M  A  XTMTTil AK^  Obdeb  of.  A  royal  Bava- 
rian order,  with  but  one  class,  founded  by  Maxi- 
milian II.  in  1853  for  distinction  in  science  and 
art.  It  is  intended  especially  for  German  schol- 
ars and  artists,  and  its  membership  is  limited  to 
100.    The  King  is  the  grand  master. 

MAX'IMIL'IAarA.     See  Inaja  Palm. 

MAX'IKI^XTSy  Gaius  Julius  Vebus.  A 
Roman  Emperor  (a.d.  235-238).  He  was  original- 
ly a  Thracian  shepherd.  Attracting  the  attention 
of  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus  by  his  im- 
mense size  and  wonderful  feats  of  strength  and 
agility,  he  was  admitted  to  the  army ;  was  rapid- 
ly advanced  for  his  bravery,  put  in  command  of  a 
new  legion  raised  in  Pannonia,  and  obtained 
great  influence  over  the  soldiers.  At  the  head  of 
this  legion  he  followed  Alexander  Severus  in  his 
campaign  against  the  Germans.  When  the  army 
was  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  he 
conspired  against  Alexander,  and  caused  him  to 
be  put  to  death  in  his  tent,  with  his  mother  Mam- 
msea  (a.d.  235).  Being  proclaimed  Emperor,  he 
named  his  son  Maximus  Csesar,  and  made  him  col- 
league in  the  Empire.  He  continued  the  war 
against  the  Germans,  and  devastated  a  large 
territory  beyond  the  Rhine.  But  his  cruelty 
and  rapacity  aroused  the  indignation  of  the  peo- 
ple. For  alleged  conspiracy  against  him  he 
put  to  death  Magnus,  a  Senator,  with  4000  other 
persons,  and  for  the  Imperial  treasury  confis- 
cated the  municipal  property.  He  opposed  Chris- 
tianity, and  persecuted  the  bishops  who  had 
been  favored  oy  Alexander.  The  provinces  of 
Africa  revolted  and  proclaimed  Gordianus,  who 
was  soon  after  acknowledged  by  the  Senate  and 
people  (March,  238),  but  died  after  a  brief 
reign  of  twenty-two  days.  Fearing  the  venceance 
of  Maximinus,  the  Senate  then  proclaimed  Em- 
perors Pupienus  Maximus  and  Balbinus,  and 
with  them  was  associated,  by  order  of  the  people, 
the  third  Gordianus.  Maximinus,  having  crossed 
the  Isonzo,  laid  siege  to  Aquileia  in  Italy,  but 
met  with  strong  resistance  from  the  garrison  and 
people.  The  soldiers  mutinied  and  killed  both 
him  and  his  son,  June  17,  238. 

MAXIMINTrS  DA^A,  Galertus  Valebius. 
A  Roman  Emperor  (a.d.  308-313).  When  Dio- 
cletian and  Maximian  abdicated  (a.d.  305),  Ga- 
lerius  and  Constantius  Chlorus  were  made  Au- 
gusti,  and  Flavins  Severus  and  Maximinus  Daza 
became  Caesars,  and  Daza  received  the  Grovem- 
ment  of  Syria  and  Egypt.  Early  in  308  he 
proclaimed  himself  Augustus.  He  persecuted 
the  Christians  relentlessly.  In  313  war  broke 
out  between  Daza  and  Licinius,  the  successor  of 
Flavins  Severus,  and  ended  with  the  defeat  and 
death  of  the  former  in  August  of  the  same  year. 

MAXIMITE  (named  for  its  inventor,  Hud- 
son Maxim,  q.v.).  A  high  explosive,  used  as  a 
bursting  charge  for  armor-piercing  projectiles. 
Its  composition  is  a  secret,  which  was  acquired 
by  the  United  States  Government  in  1901,  but  it 
is  known  to  be  a  picric  acid  compound  and  is 
said  to  be  50  per  cent,  more  powerful  than  ordi- 
nary dynamite.    Though  easily  detonated  by  a 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MAXnCITB. 


910 


MAXWELL. 


Buitable  fuze,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  ex- 
plode maximite  by  shock,  and  it  can  withstand 
not  only  discharge  from  a  gun  but  also  the  shock 
of  impact  of  the  projectile  on  the  target,  not 
being  exploded  until  the  fuze  operates.  Uncon- 
fined  maximite  bums  slowly  without  explosion, 
and  its  property  of  melting  and  of  solidifying 
on  cooling  enables  projectiles  to  be  filled  with  it 
with  great  facility.     See  Explosites;   Pbojeo 

TILES. 

MAXIMS  (Fr.  nmwime,  from  ML.  mawima, 
maxim,  abbreviation  of  mawima  propoHtio,  chief 
premise,  fem.  sg.  of  Lat.  mawimuSy  greatest, 
superlatilve  of  magnu^y  great),  Leoax.  A  term 
used  by  members  of  the  legal  profession  and 
writers  on  jurisprudence  to  denote  those  brief 
and  pithy  utterances  which  by  general  consent 
have  been  accepted  as  stating  in  condensed  though 
necessarily  imperfect  form  the  general  principles 
which  are  the  foundation  of  both  law  and  equity. 
As  the  ultimate  foundation  of  these  general  prin- 
ciples is  the  natural  law  of  justice,  safety,  and 
gublic  policy,  the  basis  of  the  common  or  cus- 
jmary  law  is  the  same  in  all  countries,  and  its 
general  principles  remain  substantially  un- 
changed by  statute  or  local  enactment.  Hence 
many  of  the  utterances  of  ancient  Roman  magis- 
trates and  authors  of  legal  treatises  retain  as 
much  force  and  truth  as  when  first  promulgated. 
In  very  few  instances  can  the  maxims  be  traced 
to  their  original  sources.  Many  are  derived  from 
the  Roman  law;  many  are  from  Continental 
jurists  of  the  Middle  Ages;  while  a  very  large 
number  were  enunciated  by  early  English  judges 
and  writers,  and  still  others  are  of  quite  modern 
origin.  Like  other  expressions  of  the  common 
law,  maxims  derive  their  force  and  authority 
in  the  first  place  through  the  truth  and  justice 
of  the  principles  which  they  enunciate,  and,  sec- 
ondly, through  the  universality  of  their  accept- 
ance and  application  by  courts  in  the  past.  They 
are  not,  therefore,  of  absolutely  equal  and  bind- 
ing authority,  and  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a 
line  strictly  dividing  accepted  maxims  from  mere 
expressions  of  opinion.  The  number  of  those 
universally  accepted  as  having  some  authority 
in  law  is  very  large  indeed.  Works  devoted  en- 
tirely to  the  consideration  of  the  meaning  and 
application  of  this  form  of  law  have  been  pub- 
lished by  several  authors. 

Examples  are:  caveat  emptor — let  the  buyer 
be  on  his  guard — an  important  principle  of  the 
law  of  sales,  but  not  to  be  construed  too  strictlv; 
Qui  facit  per  alium,  facit  per  se — ^he  who  acts  by 
another,  acts  himself — ^in  which  may  be  seen  the 
main  principle  of  the  law  of  agency;  JEquitaB 
tequitur  legem — equity  follows  the  law ;  Ex  nthilo 
nihil  fit — from  nothing  comes  nothing;  Fraus  est 
celare  fraudem — to  conceal  a  fraud  is  itself  a 
fraud;  A  Vimpossihle  nul  n'est  tenu — no  one  is 
bound  to  do  what  is  impossible,  the  language 
being  what  is  called  *law  French*;  Uhi  jus,  ibi 
remedium — where  there  is  a  right  there  is  a 
remedy ;  Ignorantia  legis  neminem  excusat — igno- 
rance of  the  law  excuses  no  one;  Prior  tempore, 
potior  jure — ^first  in  time,  first  in  right;  Id  cer- 
turn  est,  quod  certum  reddi  potest — ^that  is  cer- 
tain which  may  be  rendered  so.  Among  those 
commonly  given  in  English  may  be  mentioned: 
Acts  indicate  the  intention;  When  the  equities 
are  equal  the  law  shall  prevail;  Once  a  fraud, 
always  a  fraud. 

The  difficulty  in  practically  employing  maxima 


is  twofold;  first,  in  correctly  amplifying  and  ex- 
pounding the  extended  meaning  sought  to  be 
conveyed  in  the  condensed  form;  and,  secondly, 
in  properly  applying  it  to  the  adjudication  of  the 
particular  facts  of  the  case  in  question;  and  it 
IS  the  work  more  especially  of  the  writer  of 
treatises  on  the  various  branches  of  law  and 
equity  to  perform  the  first  duty,  while  to  the 
active  practitioners  and  to  the  judges  emergencies 
are  constantly  presented  calling  for  the  exercise 
of  the  latter  function.  It  may  safely  be  said 
that  legal  maxims  play  a  much  less  important 
part  in  the  law  than  formerly.  Grenerally  they 
have  lost  whatever  character  they  may  have  pos- 
sessed in  early  times  as  precise  governing  rules 
determining  the  rights  of  parties  to  a  litiga- 
tion. They  are  now  regarded  only  as  convenient 
forms  of  expression  denoting  important  legal 
principles  which  have  many  variations  or  modi- 
fications, and.  consequently  are  not  capable  of  any 
complete  statement  or  exposition  wnich  at  the 
same  time  has  the  convenience  of  brevity.  Con- 
sult Broom,  Legal  Maxima  (7th  ed.,  London, 
1900)  ;  Wharton's  Law  Lexicon  (London,  1902).. 

MAX^IMXTS.  The  name  of  four  Roman  em- 
perors.— ^Mabcus  Clodius  Pupienus  MAmfus, 
elected  by  the  Senate  as  the  colleague  of  Balbinus 
(q.v.)  in  A.D.  238,  but  soon  afterwards  murdered  by 
the  praetorian  guards. — Magnus  Clemens  3klAXi- 
MUS,bom  of  obscure  parentage  in  Spain ;  from  368 
held  high  military  rank  in  Britain;  was  pro- 
claimed Emperor  by  his  soldiers,  as  a  result  of 
their  disaffection  toward  Gratian,  whom  he  de- 
feated and  slew  (383).  Theodosius  andValentin- 
ianus  II.  were  induced  to  recognize  him  as  their 
colleague  and  as  Augustus  of  Gaul,  Spain,  Brit- 
ain, etc. ;  but  when  he  sought  to  extend  his  sway 
over  Italy  also,  he  was  defeated  by  Theodosius, 
taken  prisoner,  and  executed  (388). — Maximus 
Ttrannus,  proclaimed  Emperor  in  Spain  (408) 
when  (jerontius  rebelled  against  the  usurper  Con- 
stantine  III.;  was  deposed  on  the  defeat  of 
(jrerontius  (411)  ;  again  rebelled  (418),  and  was 
defeated  and  slain  (422). — PETRONrus  Maximus, 
the  intimate  friend  of  Valentinianus  III.,  against 
whom  he  turned  (455),  succeeding  him  after  his 
murder  in  the  same  year;  but  at  the  end  of  three 
months  Maximus  was  slain  as  he  was  fleeing  from 
an  invasion  of  the  Vandals,  invited  by  Eudoxia, 
the  widow  of  Valentinianus. 

MAXIMUS,  Saint,  called  Confessor  (c.580- 
662).  An  advocate  of  orthodoxy  against  the 
Monothelite  heresy.  He  was  born  in  Constanti- 
nople, and  served  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  610- 
630,  at  which  latter  date  he  entered  the  mon- 
astery of  Chrysopolis  ( Scutari ) .  He  urged  Pope 
Martin  I.,  at  the  first  Lateran  Synod,  649,  to 
anathematize  the  Monothelite  doctrine,  in  which 
condemnation  Heraclius  and  Constans  II.  were 
implicated.  By  command  of  the  latter,  Maximus 
was  banished  to  Thrace,  655;  being  recalled  to 
(Constantinople  in  662,  he  was  commanded  to  ac- 
cept the  Monothelite  heresy.  Refusing  to  do  so, 
his  tongue  was  cut  out,  his  right  hand  cut  off, 
and  he  was  banished  to  Lazika,  Colchis,  where 
he  died  August  13,  662.  He  is  called  among  the 
Greeks  Theologos,  and  is  venerated  as  a  saint  by 
the  Western  and  Eastern  Churches.  He  was  a 
voluminous  author;  his  works  are  in  Migne, 
Patrol.  Orasca,  xc.-xci. 

MAX^WELIiy  James  Clerk- (1831-79).  One 
of  the  greatest  of  modem  physicists.     He  was 


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MAY. 


bom  in  Edinburgh,  the  only  son  of  John  Clerk- 
Maxwell  ot  Middlebie,  Scotland,  receiving  his 
early  education  at  the  Edinburgh  Academy,  and 
his  first  published  scientific  paper,  On  the  De- 
scription of  Oval  Curves,  was  read  for  him  by 
Professor  Forbes  before  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh  before  he  was  fifteen.  Ue  spent  three 
years  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he 
pursued  most  zealously  the  study  of  mathematics, 
physics,  chemistry,  and  philosophy,  devoting  con- 
siderable time  to  experimental  research.  During 
this  period  he  wrote  two  valuable  papers.  On  the 
Theory  of  Rolling  Curves  and  On  the  Equilihrium 
of  Elastic  Solids,  He  went  to  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity in  the  autumn  of  1850  and  there  made  a 
brilliant  record  as  a  student,  graduating  in  1854 
with  the  position  of  second  wrangler,  and  being 
equal  with  the  senior  wrangler  in  the  competition 
for  Smith's  prize.  In  1856  he  became  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen; in  1860  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
King's  College,  London.  He  was  successively 
scholar  and  fellow  of  Trinity,  and  became,  in 
1871,  the  first  professor  of  experimental  physics 
in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  a  post  for  which 
he  was  in  every  way  preeminently  qualified.  The 
Cavendish  laboratory  was  erected  and  furnished 
under  his  supervision.  The  great  work  of  his 
life  is  his  treatise  on  Electricity  and  Magnetism 
(2  vols.,  1873).  He  had  previously,  from  1856 
onward,  published  various  papers  on  these  sub- 
jects, following  very  closely  the  experimental  pro- 
cedure of  Faraday.  Using  the  discoveries  of  this 
great  experimenter,  Maxwell  so  connected  and  ar- 
ranged them  as  to  make  the  material  available 
for  mathematical  discussion  and  treatment.  He 
early  advanced  the  view  that  electric  or  magnetic 
forces  result  from  changes  in  the  distribution  of 
the  energy  which  is  stored  up  in  the  ether  and 
are  not  produced  by  the  attractions  of  electric  or 
magnetic  matter  which  is  distributed  over  the 
surfaces  of  conductors  or  magnetic  substances. 
He  then  demonstrated  that  electromagnetic  ac- 
tion traveled  through  space  in  the  form  of  trans- 
verse waves  similar  to  those  of  light  and  having 
the  same  velocity.  Maxwell's  theory  was  cor- 
roborated by  Hertz,  who  not  only  produced  these 
waves,  but  showed  that  they  are  propagated  just 
as  waves  of  light  are,  and  experience  reflection, 
refraction,  and  polarization,  and  he  also  meas- 
ured their  velocity.  Subsequent  experiments 
amply  confirmed  Maxwell's  hypothesis  that  elec- 
tricity and  light  are  the  same  in  their  ultimate 
nature.  After  Maxwell's  researches  on  electricity 
and  magnetism  comes  his  work  on  color,  the 
well-known  Maxwell  disks  and  color-box  being 
his  inventions.  He  showed  that  any  given  color 
could  be  produced  by  the  combination  of  three 
colors  selected  from  difi'erent  parts  of  the 
spectrum.  These  three  fundamental  colors  would 
correspond  to  three  different  sets  of  nerves  or 
sensations  in  the  eye,  each  excited  proportion- 
ately to  the  amount  of  its  appropriate  color  in 
the  compound  color.  The  absence  of  any  one  set 
of  sensations  would  occasion  color-blindness. 

A  paper  on  the  Stability  of  Motion  of  Saturn's 
Rings  gained  for  Maxwell  the  Adam's  prize  from 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  1857,  and  led  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  rings  must  either  be  fluid 
or  else  consist  of  a  large  number  of  small  par- 
ticles. The  kinetic  theory  of  pases  was  also  in- 
vestigated by  Maxwell,  and  the  results  of  his 
study  are  given  in  a  number  of  papers  in  the 


Philosophical  Transactions,  Philosophical  Maga- 
zine,  and  the  reports  of  the  British  Association. 
Maxwell  was  a  member  of  the  electrical  stand- 
ards committee  appointed  by  the  British  Asso- 
ciation in  1862,  and  served  on  a  subcommittee  to 
construct  the  standard  of  resistance,  which  was 
produced  from  experiments  made  in  his  labora- 
tory at  King's  College.  Among  his  many  papers 
and  works,  a  small  treatise  on  dynamics.  Matter 
and  Motion,  will  be  found  of  great  interest  to  the 
general  reader,  as  it  contains  a  clear  and  com- 
prehensive statement  of  the  principles  underlying 
this  science.  A  memorial  edition  of  Maxwell's 
scientific  papers  published  by  the  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Press  was  published  in  1890.  Consult: 
Campbell  and  Gamett,  Life  of  James  Clerk  Maw- 
well  (London,  1882)  ;  Glazebrook,  James  Clerk 
Maxwell  and  Modem  Physics  (ib.,  1896). 

MAXWELL,  William  Hamilton  (1792- 
1850),  An  Irish  novelist,  bom  at  Newry,  County 
Down,  Ireland,  in  1792;  graduated  B.A.  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Dublin,  in  1812;  served  in  the  Pe- 
ninsular campaigns  and  at  Waterloo ;  took  orders 
in  the  Church  of  England  and  was  appointed  to 
the  rectory  of  Ballagh,  in  Connemara,  in  the  ex- 
treme west  of  Ireland.  As  there  was  no  other 
Protestant  in  the  parish,  he  devoted  himself  to 
sport  and  to  novel-writing.  He  retired  from  his 
living  in  1844  and  settled  near  Edinburgh,  where 
he  died  December  29,  1850.  Maxwell  has  a  place 
in  the  development  of  English  fiction  as  the 
founder  of  the  military  novel.  From  him  Charles 
Lever  learned  his  art.  His  best  work  is  represented 
by  Wild  Sports  of  the  West,ioith  Legendary  Tales 
and  Local  Sketches  (1832)  ;  Stories  of  Waterloo 
(1834);  My  Life,  afterwards  called  Adventures 
of  Captain  Blake  (1835)  ;  and  The  Bivouac,  or 
Stories  of  the  Peninsular  War  ( 1837 ) .  He  wrote 
an  autobiography  under  the  title  Rambling  Recol- 
lections of  a  Soldier  of  Fortune  (1842),  and  a 
popular  life  of  Wellington  (1839-41). 

MAXWELL,  William  Henbt  (1852—).  An 
American  educator,  bom  in  the  north  of  Ireland 
and  educated  at  Queen's  (Allege,  Galway.  He 
came  to  America  in  1874,  was  a  teacher  in  the 
Brooklyn  night  schools,  became  assistant  super- 
intendent of  the  Brooklyn  public  schools  in  1882, 
and  superintendent  in  1887,  and  in  1898  was 
appointed  to  a  like  position  in  Greater  New  York. 
He  was  especially  interested  in  the  teaching  of 
English,  and  wrote  English  grammars.  He  urged 
a  State  requirement  of  college  education  for  pub- 
lic school  teachers,  and  raised  the  requirements 
of  teachers'  examinations. 

MAXWELL,  Sir  William  Stirling-.  See 
Stibling-Maxwell. 

MAY.     See  Mat-Dat;    Mokth. 

MAY,  Cape.    See  Cape  Mat. 

MAY,  Edward  Harrison  (1824-87).  An 
American  painter,  born  in  London.  He  was 
brought  to  America  when  a  child,  and  first 
studied  under  Daniel  Huntington.  Afterwards 
he  studied  with  Couture  in  Paris  and  made  his 
home  there.  His  pictures  include:  "The  Dying 
Brigand"  (1855),  in  the  Philadelphia  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts;  and  "Mary  Magdalen  at  the 
Sepulchre"  (1873),  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts,  New  York  City.  His  portraits  in- 
clude those  of  Laboulaye  (1866)  and  of  Anson 
Burlingame  (1869). 


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MAY,  John  Wilder  (1819-83).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  bom  at  Attleboro,  Mass.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1846,  was 
admitted  to  the  Massachusetts  bar  in  1851,  and 
practiced  in  Roxbury  and  Boston.  In  1867  he 
was  elected  to  the  Legislature  and  became  dis- 
trict attorney  of  Suffolk  County.  May  was  judge 
of  the  Boston  municipal  court  (1873)  ;  editor  of 
Angeirs  Limitations  (1876),  Greenleafs  Evi- 
dence (1876),  and  Stephens's  Digest  of  Evidence 
(1877)  ;  and  author  of  The  Law  of  Insurance 
(1874-82,  and  often)  and  The  Law  of  Crimes 
(3d  ed.,  1905). 

MAY,  Phil  ( 1864-1903 ) .  An  English  illustra- 
tor, born  in  Leeds.  Ue  left  Leeds  for  London  as  a 
mere  lad,  and  spent  several  years  with  a  com- 
pany of  wandering  actors.  Afterwards  he  at- 
tracted attention  by  his  drawings  in  Saint 
Stephen's  Review,  and  in  1884  went  to  Australia, 
where  he  worked  on  the  Sydney  Bulletin  until 
1889.  In  1891  he  published  The  Parson  and  the 
Painter,  a  series  of  remarkable  sketches.  Later 
his  work  was  produced  in  the  Daily  Graphic; 
BUick  and  White;  the  Graphic,  for  which  he  trav- 
eled in  America;  and  the  Sketch;  and  in  1895 
he  took  Du  Maurier's  place  on  the  staff  of  Punch. 
By  the  elimination  of  every  unnecessaij  line,  by 
a  felicitous  composition,  a  high  technical  excel- 
lence in  the  use  of  light  and  shade,  and  the 
keenest  observation  and  unflagging  humor.  May 
holds  a  place  among  celebrated  English  carica- 
turists. His  specialty  is  East  London,  and  the 
types  he  made  famous  are  the  frequenters  of  the 
race-course,  the  prize-ring,  and  the  stage,  and  the 
'gutter-snipes,*  the  children  of  the  slums.  Phil 
May*8  Gutter-Snipes  ( 1896) ,  a  collection  of  draw- 
ings, contains  much  of  his  best  work.  In  these 
his  talent  is  at  its  ripest,  and  the  quality  of 
sympathy  and  kindliness,  never  lacking  in  his 
conception,  is  especially  prominent.  Other  publi- 
cations by  him  are  Phil  May's  Annual  from  1892, 
and  Phil  May's  Sketch  Book  (1897,  60  car- 
toons). 

MAY,  Samuel  Joseph  (1797-1871).  An 
American  reformer,  prominent  as  an  abolitionist 
in  the  anti-slavery  struggle.  He  was  bom  in 
Boston;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1817;  stud- 
ied for  the  ministry  in  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School  under  Dr.  Ware;  was  ordained  in  1822; 
and  soon  afterwards  became  pastor  of  the  Uni- 
tarian Church  in  Brooklyn,  Conn.  In  1830 
he  became  a  disciple  of  William  Lloyd  Garri- 
fion,  and  in  1832  joined  the  first  New  England 
anti-slavery  society.  When  Prudence  Crandall 
(q.v.)  was  persecuted  for  opening  her  school  at 
Canterbury,  Conn.,  to  girls  of  negro  blood,  he 
became  her  friend  and  champion,  and  later  gave 
her  advice  and  assistance  when  she  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned.  In  the  same  year,  1833,  he  was 
a  delegate  to  the  convention  at  Philadelphia 
which  founded  the  first  American  anti-slavery  so- 
ciety, and  was  made  one  of  the  vice-presidents. 
In  1834  he  resigned  his  pastorate  and  became  gen- 
eral agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Anti-Slavery  So- 
ciety. In  October,  1835,  while  giving  a  series  of 
lectures  in  Vermont,  May  was  five  times  mobbed, 
once  while  addressing  an  audience  in  the  hall  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  at  Montpelier.  The 
next  year  he  became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian 
Church  in  South  Scituate,  Mass.,  and  remained 
there  until  1842,  when  he  took  charge  for  three 
years  of  the  Girls'  Normal  School  at  Lexington, 


Mass.  In  1845  he  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian 
society  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  and  continued  to  hold 
that  position  until  three  years  before  his  death. 
In  1851  he  assisted  in  the  famous  rescue  of  the 
slave  *Jerry,'  and  for  this  offense  against  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  he  and  seventeen  others  were 
arrested  on  warrants  issued  by  the  United  States 
District  Court  at  Auburn.  Anxious  to  test  the 
question  before  the  courts.  May  and  two  other 
participants  in  the  rescue  issued  a  public  decla- 
ration to  the  effect  that  they  had  assisted  in 
the  rescue  of  Jerry,  that  they  were  ready  to 
stand  trial,  but  would  base  their  defense  upon 
the  '^unconstitutionality  and  extreme  wickedness 
of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law."  They  were,  however, 
never  brought  to  trial.  By  temperament  May 
was  averse  to  strife  and  possessed  a  sunny  temper 
and  a  gentle  disposition,  but,  being,  in  his  own 
words,  "a  Unitarian,  a  non-resistant,  a  woman's 
rights  man,  an  anti-capital  punishment  man,  and 
a  Garrison  abolitionist,"  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  be 
engaged  in  many  controversies.  He  published  an 
interesting  volume  entitled  Some  Recollections  of 
Our  Anti-Slavery  Conflict  (1869).  Consult  Mul- 
ford  (ed.).  Memoir  of  Samuel  Joseph  May  (Bos- 
ton, 1873;  newed.  1882). 

MAY,  Thomas  (1595-1650).  An  English  his- 
torian and  poet.  He  was  born  at  Mayfield,  Sus- 
sex, England,  of  an  ancient  family;  graduated 
B.A.  from  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1612;  became  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn,  London, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but,  owing  to  a 
defect  in  his  speech,  did  not  practice  law.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  literature  and  published  the 
tragedies  of  Antigone  and  Agrippina,  a  comedy 
entitled  The  Heir,  and  other  works.  By  special 
command  of  Charles  I.,  with  whom  he  was  a  favor- 
ite, he  published  two  poems  on  the  reigns  of 
Henr^  II.  and  Edward  III.  He  translated  into 
English  verse  Selected  Epigrams  of  Martial, 
Vergil's  Georgics,  and  Lucan's  Pharsalia,  to  the 
last  of  which  he  wrote  a  continuation  in  English 
and  Latin.  During  the  Parliamentary  troubles 
he  became  a  Repuolican.  He  was  secretary  to 
Cromwell  during  the  Civil  War  and  was  employed 
to  write  its  history.  Published  originally  in 
Latin,  and  translated  into  English  in  1650,  his 
History  of  the  English  Parliament,  begun  Novem- 
ber, 1640,  was  edited  by  Baron  A&s^res,  and 
translated  into  French  by  Guizot  (1812;  new  ed. 
1853).  May  died  November  13,  1650,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but  soon  after  the 
Kestoration  his  body  was  disinterred  and  thrown 
into  a  pit  in  the  adjoining  Saint  Margaret's 
churchyard. 

MAY,  Thomas  Ebskike,  Lord  Famborough 
(1815-86).  An  English  constitutional  jurist. 
He  was  bom  in  London,  February  8,  1816,  was 
educated  at  Bedford  School,  became  assistant 
librarian  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1831,  and 
entered  the  bar  in  1838.  In  1844  he  published 
a  treatise  on  the  Law,  Privileges,  Proceedings,  and 
Usages  of  Parliament  (10th  ed.  1893),  which  has 
become  a  standard  authority  on  parliamentary 
law  and  has  been  translated  into  French,  (German, 
Hungarian,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Japanese.  In 
1846  he  was  made  examiner  of  petitions  for  pri- 
vate bills,  and  the  next  year  he  was  appointed 
taxing  master  to  the  House  of  CJommons,  of 
which  he  became  clerk  in  1871.  In  1861-63  he 
published  The  Constitutional  Histon/  of  England 
Since  the  Accession  of  George  III.,  1760-1860, 


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MAYAN  STOCK. 


This  learned  and  impartial  work  is  supplement- 
ary to  Hallam's.  He  also  published  Democraoy 
tn  Europe:  A  History  ( 1877) ,  and  contributed  to 
the  Edinburgh  Review,  to  the  Law  Magazine,  and 
to  other  periodicals.  He  was  president  of  the 
Statute  Law  Revision  Committee,  1866-84.  He 
resigned  the  clerkship  of  the  House  of  Commons 
in  April,  1886,  was  created  Baron  Famborough, 
and  died  at  Westminster  Palace,  May  17,  1886. 

MAY  Ay  ma'yi  (Skt.,  artifice,  illusion,  un- 
reality). In  the  Puranic  mythology  of  the  Hin- 
dus, the  personified  will  or  energy  of  the  supreme 
bein^,  who  thereby  created  the  imiverse.  As, 
in  this  later  doctrine,  the  world  is  imreal  or 
illusory,  Maya  assumes  the  character  of  illusion 
personified.  Maya  is  the  cause  of  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  world;  it  makes  the  unreal  uni- 
verse seem  as  if  it  reaUy  existed  or  was  distinct 
from  the  one  Supreme  Spirit.  In  this  sense, 
Maya  also  occurs  in  the  later  Vedanta  philosophy 
and  in  some  of  the  sectarian  philosophies  of 
India.  According  to  the  modem  Hindu  view 
Maya  represents  the  limitations  of  time,  space, 
and  causation  by  which  the  absolute  becomes  the 
universe.  It  is  then  almost  a  synonym  for  the 
phenomenal  world.  The  modem  Hindu  views  on 
the  subject  will  be  foimd  in  Tripathi,  Sketch  of 
the  Vedanta  Philosophy  (Bombay,  1901),  and 
Vivekananda,  Lectures  on  Vedanta  Philosophy 
(New  York,  1902). 

MAYA.  The  civilized  native  race  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Yucatan,  Mexico,  the  most  important 
of  the  cognate  peoples  constituting  the  Mayan 
stock  ( q.v. ) .  In  151 1  the  first  landing  was  effected 
by  the  Spaniards  on  the  coast  of  Yucatan,  at  the 
sacred  island  of  Cozumel.  In  1526,  Mexico  hav- 
ing already  fallen,  the  first  attempt  was  made 
upon  the  peninsula.  In  1539  the  Spanish  com- 
mander, Montejo,  entered  Chich6n-Itzfl,  and  a 
year  or  two  later  the  Spanish  Government  was 
declared  established,  the  capital  being  fixed  at  the 
new  city  of  M6rida  in  1542.  The  country  was 
mapped  out  into  tribute  districts;  missionaries 
b^an  to  Christianize  the  natives,  and  in  their 
seal  destroyed  as  heathen  abominations  the  na- 
tive temples  and  records  wherever  found.  Resist- 
ance was  crushed  out  by  wholesale  massacres  and 
the  Maya  sovereignty  was  at  an  end.  The  war- 
like ItzA  (q.v.),  who  had  previously  retired  be- 
yond the  Guatemala  border,  maintained  their  in- 
dependence until  1697.  In  1848  occurred  a  gen- 
eral rising  throughout  the  peninsula,  the  Indians 
seizing  the  opportunity  afforded  by  internal 
troubles  in  Mexico.  Massing  their  forces  in 
thousands,  they  took  one  city  aiter  another,  burn- 
ing and  destroying  everything  and  consigning  to 
indiscriminate  massacre  whole  garrisons  and 
populations.  The  entire  strength  of  the  Mexican 
Government  was  invoked  to  put  down  the  rebel- 
lion. The  Maya  of  the  northern  and  central 
area  were  finally  subdued,  while  the  more  deter- 
mined warriors  retired  to  the  difficult  region 
along  the  southern  coast,  where  they  continued 
to  defy  the  Mexican  armies  for  more  than  half  a 
century,  while  maintaining  friendly  relations  with 
the  English  of  Belize,  from  whom  they  obtained 
their  firearms  and  ammunition.  The  end  came 
in  May,  1901,  when  by  means  of  a  combined  land 
and  naval  approach  the  Mexican  army  drove  the 
independent  Maya,  about  15,000  in  number,  from 
their  last  citadel  of  Chan-Santa  Cruz,  opening  up 
to  the  new  civilization   a  region  never  before 


traversed  by  white  men.  The  present  nimiber  of 
those  speaking  the  Maya  language  is  about  300,- 
000,  alK)ut  one-third  of  whom  are  mixed  bloods, 
or  persons  of  European  descent  who  have  adopted 
the  language  as  their  own.  For  general  char- 
acteristics, see  Matan  Stock. 

MAYAQXTEZ,  ma-ya^gw&s.  The  capital  of 
the  Department  of  May&guez,  and  the  third 
largest  city  in  Porto  Kico,  situated  near  the 
western  coast  on  the  May&guez  River,  which  is 
crossed  by  several  bridges  (Map:  Porto  Rico, 
A3).  Its  harbor  consists  of  an  extensive  and 
well-sheltered,  but  shallow  roadstead,  in  which 
heavier  vessels  have  to  anchor  a  mile  from  shore. 
The  industries  of  the  city  are  insignificant,  but 
it  is  an  important  centre  of  the  coffee  trade  of 
the  island,  and  it  exports,  besides  coffee,  consider- 
able quantities  of  sugar  and  oranges,  chiefly  to 
the  United  States.    Population,  in  1899,  15,187. 

MAYAN  (mH^yan)  STOCK.  A  group  of  cog- 
nate tribes  or  nations  occupying  the  States  of 
Vera  Cruz,  Yucatan,  Campeche,  Tabasco,  and 
Chiapas,  in  Mexico,  with  the  greater  part  of 
Guatemala  and  a  small  portion  of  Salvador,  and 
exhibiting  in  their  ancient  native  culture  the 
highest  aboriginal  development  found  upon  the 
American  continent.  The  stock  includes  six  lan- 
guages, with  nearly  thirty  dialects,  the  princi- 
pal nations  being  tiie  Huastec  of  northern  Vera 
Cruz;  the  Maya  proper  of  Yucatan  peninsula, 
with  the  Itz&  and  Lacandon,  speaking  the 
same  language,  across  the  Guatemala  frontier; 
the  Tzental,  in  Tabasco  and  Chiapas ;  the  Pokom, 
in  the  Vera  Pas  district,  central  Guatemala;  the 
Mam,  on  the  Chiapas-Guatemala  frontier;  and 
the  Quich6  and  Cakchiquel,  speaking  dialects  of 
one  language,  in  southern  and  western  Guatemala 
and  northern  Salvador.  Their  combined  popula- 
tion is  probably  not  far  short  of  two  million. 

According  to  all  historical  and  traditional  evi- 
dence, the  Mayan  tribes  emigrated  from  the  far 
north  at  a  very  early  period,  probably  not  far 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era.  As  they 
advanced  along  the  shore  of  the  Mexican  Gulf 
they  left  the  Huastec  as  a  detached  colony  at  the 
north  of  the  Pftnuco  River  on  the  northern  fron- 
tier of  the  present  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  while  the 
rest  proceeded  southward  into  Chiapas  and  Yuca- 
tan, and  thence  still  southward  into  Guatemala. 
The  date  of  their  arrival  in  Yucatan  seems  to 
have  been  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century.  Guatemala  was  probably  occupied  not 
long  afterwards,  as  the  Quich6  chronicles  are 
said  to  go  back  more  than  eight  hundred  years 
before  the  Conquest,  or  to  about  700  a.d.  The 
great  ruined  cities  of  Uxmal  and  Chich6n-ItzA 
date  back  from  twelve  to  fourteen  centuries, 
while  Palenque  antedates  all  American  historical 
records. 

Physically  the  Mayan  peoples  are  dark,  short, 
broad-headed,  and  muscular.  In  pre-Columbian 
times  they  had  attained  a  high  grade  of  civil- 
ization. Agriculture  was  their  main  depend- 
ence, com  being  the  principal  crop,  to  which 
were  added  beans,  peppers,  and  cacao,  the  last, 
together  with  pieces  of  copper,  being  used  among 
the  Maya  proper  as  the  ordinary  standard  of 
value.  Bees  were  domesticated  for  their  honey 
and  wax.  Cotton  was  spun  for  clothing  and 
dyed  and  woven  into  fabrics  which  rival^  silk 
in  delicacy.  The  lands  were  held  in  common 
by  each  village  and  were  parceled  out  by  the 


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chiefs  on  a  basis  of  a  certain  com  production 
per  year  to  each  family.  Gold,  silver,  and  cop- 
per were  used  for  ornamental  purposes,  but 
ordinary  metal  tools  were  imknown.  The  Maya 
of  the  coast  region  had  large  seagoing  canoes, 
with  which  they  carried  on  regular  trade  with 
Cuba  and  voyaged  north  and  south  along  the 
Gulf  coast  and  the  Caribbean  shore.  Descent  was 
generally  in  the  male  line,  and  each  village  com- 
munity was  governed  by  a  chief  who  derived  his 
authority  from  the  hereditary  ruler  of  the  tribe 
or  province.  A  century  before  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards  the  whole  peninsula  of  Yucatan  was 
under  one  compact  governmental  authority,  while 
the  greater  part  of  Guatemala  was  divided  be- 
tween the  sovereignties  of  the  Quich6  and  the 
Cakchiquel. 

The  Mayan  peoples  were  remarkable  above 
all  other  cultured  American  nations  for  their 
architecture,  their  calendar,  and  their  hierogly- 
phic system.  Of  their  architecture,  as  exempli- 
fied in  the  ffreat  ruins  of  Palenque,  Uxmal, 
Mayapan,  and  Chich6n-Itzft,  with  hundreds  of 
lesser  cities  and  isolated  temples  scattered  through 
the  tangled  tropical  forests,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
speak  at  length  here.  The  material  was  usually 
a  hard  limestone,  imbedded  in  firm  mortar,  well 
cut  and  exactly  fitted,  and  lavishly  carved  on 
every  part  with  mythical  and  historical  figures 
and  hieroglyphic  inscriptions.  Their  hiero- 
glyphic records  and  rituals  were  carved  or 
painted  upon  the  walls  of  their  temples  and 
palaces  or  written  in  books  of  folded  sheets  of 
maguey  paper.  The  explanation  of  these  hiero- 
glyphs is  one  of  the  most  important  problems  in 
American  archaeology.  From  the  rounded  out- 
lines of  the  characters,  somewhat  resembling  peb- 
bles or  skulls  i^  shape,  they  have  been  described 
as  calculiform.  In  spite  of  wholesale  destruction 
by  the  Spanish  missionaries  and  authorities,  a 
few  of  these  ancient  sacred  books  still  remain 
for  study  and  interpretation,  notably  the  Codex 
Troano,  the  Codex  Peresianus,  and  the  Dresden 
Codex,  besides  a  number  of  others  in  the  Maya 
language,  but  in  Latin  characters,  compiled  by 
natives  of  the  Yucatan  peninsula  later  than  the 
Conquest,  and  usually  grouped  under  the  title 
of  "Books  of  Chilan  Balam.**  From  these  books 
our  knowledge  of  the  Maya  past  is  chiefly  de- 
rived. The  Quiche  of  Guatemala  have  also  their 
sacred  book,  the  Popol  Vuh,  of  which  a  transla- 
tion has  been  made  by  the  Abb6  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg.  The  calendar  system  of  the  Maya, 
which  was  practically  the  same  among  the  neigh- 
boring tribes  of  the  same  stock,  was  more  elab- 
orate and  exact  than  that  of  the  Aztec  tribes. 
Their  year,  beginning  on  July  16th,  when  the  sun 
crossed  the  zenith,  consisted  of  365  days,  divided 
into  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each,  the 
days  being  grouped  into  weeks  of  five  days  each. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  there  was  an  interval  of 
five  'nameless  days*  before  the  beginning  of  the 
new  year.  The  years  were  grouped  into  katuns 
of  twenty  years  each,  the  completion  of  each 
successive  katun  being  signalized  by  the  placing 
of  a  commemorative  inscribed  stone  in  the  wall 
of  the  principal  temple  of  the  city.  Thirteen 
katuns  made  up  an  ahau  katun,  or  great  cycle  of 
260  years.  Tnere  was  also  a  lesser  cycle  of 
fifty- two  years,  similar  to  that  of  the  Aztec  and 
Tarasco. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  Maya 
languages,  owing  to  the  literary  tendency,  cul- 


tural superiority,  and  numerical  strength  of  the 
people  using  them.  Compared  with  other  Indian 
languages  they  are  comparatively  simple  in 
structure.  The  Maya  itself  forms  one  of  the  few 
American  languages  which  have  enough  vitality 
not  only  to  hold  their  own,  but  even  to  force 
themselves  on  Furopean  settlers  and  supplant 
their  own  speech.  In  Yucatan  whole  families  of 
pure  white  blood  are  found  who  know  no  Spanish, 
using  the  Maya  exclusively.  The  earliest  Maya 
grammar  is  that  of  Father  Villalpando,  published 
about  1555.  The  first  dictionary  is  also  by 
him,  published  in  1571.  There  is  also  the  Maya- 
Spanish  Dictionary  of  Perez,  1877,  with  about 
20,000  words,  and  the  manuscript  Dictionary  of 
the  Convent  of  Motdl,  in  three  large  quarto  vol- 
umes, in  the  Carter  Brown  Library  of  Provi- 
dence. The  best  synopses  of  Mayan  culture  and 
chronolo^  are:  Brinton,  Chronicles  of  the 
Mayas;  id..  Annals  of  the  Cakchiquels;  id.,  Es- 
says of  a?t  Americanist.  See  CnicufiN-lTzX, 
ChuJlN  BauCm;  Katun;  Popol  Vuh. 

MAY  APPLE.  A  North  American  perennial 
herb.    See  J^Iandbake;  Podophyllum. 

MAYBACH,  ml'bUG,  Albebt  von  ( 1822-1904) . 
A  Prussian  administrator,  born  in  Werne,  West- 
phalia. He  early  entered  the  governmental  em- 
ploy in  the  department  of  railroads,  of  which 
he  became  head  in  1874,  when  he  urged  the  con- 
trol of  all  railroads  by  the  Empire.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  measure  and  the  defeat  of  the  move- 
ment for  private  control  in  the  early  80's  was 
due  largely  to  him.  From  1882  to  1893  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies, 
and  in  1891,  after  twelve  years'  service,  resigned 
from  the  supervision  of  the  railways  of  Alsace 
and  Lorraine. 

MAY  BEETLE.    See  June  Bug. 

MAY  BIBD,  or  Mat  Cock.  The  name  of  sev- 
eral birds  which  appear  in  May;  especial Iv, 
among  American  sportsmen,  the  knot  (q.v.).  In 
New  England  the  black-bellied  plover  (q.v.)  la 
locally  called  'May  cock,'  but  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  Southern  United  States  a  curlew  is 
meant  by  this  term. 

MAY  DANCE.  The  dance  performed  through- 
out England  upon  the  first  of  May.  The  cele- 
bration of  May  Day  with  a  dance  is  an  old  cus- 
tom, being  possibly  of  Swedish  or  Gothic  origin, 
but  more  probably  from  Roman  (its  prototype 
being  the  Floralia)  or  Egyptian  and  Indian 
sources.  In  England  the  dance  was  a  composite 
one,  in  which  the  morris  dance  (q.v.)  played 
an  important  part.  There  was  also  a  milkmaids* 
dance,  and  the  characters  of  Robin  Hood,  Maid 
Marian,  Scarlet,  Little  John,  Tom  the  Piper, 
the  Hobby  Horse,  the  Lord  and  Lady  of  the 
May,  all  joined  in  the  various  dances  which 
centred  around  the  May  pole.    See  May  Day. 

MAY  DAY  (OF.,  Fr.  mat,  from  Lat.  Mains; 
connected  with  OLat.  majus,  great,  Lat.  magnus, 
Gk.  M^af,  megas,  Goth,  mikils,  great.  Skt.  mah, 
to  be  great).  Tlie  name  popularly  given  to  the 
first  day  of  May,  which  among  the  Germanic 
and  Latin  people  has  been  associated  from  an 
early  period  with  festal  ceremonies  religious  in 
origin.  It  was  the  custom  on  this  day  to  start 
before  dawn,  make  excursions  to  the  woods  and 
fields,  and  return  laden  with  green  flowerinpf 
boughs.  It  is  plain  that  this  festival,  which 
was  celebrated  by  all  classes  alike,  represented 


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215 


MAYEK. 


the  continuance  of  an  ancient  pagan  ceremony; 
and  there  seems  to  be  good  reason  for  regarding 
it  as  a  survival  of  rites  originally  offered  to  the 
Roman  goddess  Maia,  who  was  evidently  wor- 
shiped as  the  principle  and  cause  of  fertility. 
Although  recorded  testimony  does  not  enable 
us  to  reconstruct  the  details  of  her  ceremony, 
it  is  probable  that  one  essential  feature  was  a 
ritual  marriage  to  a  partner  who  represented 
the  male  element  of  growth,  whence  arose  habitual 
acts  of  license,  which  were  not  repugnant  to 
early  moral  sentiment,  but  which  under  a  stricter 
ethical  code  gave  occasion  for  scandal.  Songs 
and  dances,  which  were  usual  on  similar  occa- 
sions, and  are  reminiscent  of  the  same  spirit, 
have  continued  in  popular  use  to  our  own  day, 
as  the  familiar  English  game  of  children,  "Here 
oats,  peas,  beans,  and  barley  grows."  The  actual 
basis  of  May  Day  seems  to  have  been  the  Roman 
Floralia,  celebrated  April  28,  and  instituted  at 
Rome,  in  the  year  B.C.  241,  on  account  of  a  bad 
harvest.  Flora  (q.v.),  to  whom  the  feast  was 
consecrated,  was  likewise  a  fertility  goddess, 
and  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  ele- 
ments of  her  rite  were  similar  to  customs  which 
had  previously  been  associated  with  Maia.  Among 
observances  of  the  Floralia  are  mentioned  gay 
costumes,  dramatic  performances,  and  dances  de- 
scribed as  frequently  indecent.  In  the  mediaeval 
May  festival  an  important  feature  consisted  in 
a  nocturnal  expedition  to  the  forest,  whence 
branches  were  brought  and  afterwards  attached 
to  doors.  The  bushes  brought  home  were  planted 
in  the  streets,  and  a  lover  might  thus  honor  the 
residence  of  his  mistress.  Correspcmding  to  this 
act  of  'bringing  in  the  May,*  it  was  usual  for 
the  young  men  of  the  village  to  fetch  from  the 
wood  a  tree,  the  tallest  and  strai^htest  which 
could  be  procured.  This  was  stripped  of  its 
boughs,  planted  in  the  public  green,  decorated 
with  garlands  and  ribands,  painted  with  gay 
stripes,  and  became  the  centre  of  dances  and 
games  having  for  the  most  part  an  amatory  char- 
acter. The  tree  thus  obtained,  as  well  as  the 
branches  of  individual  celebrants,  were  called 
simply  *the  May;*  in  England  the  white-flower- 
ing hawthorn,  especially,  received  this  title.  A 
*May-pole,*  once  introduced,  might  remain  for 
many  years,  and  annually  be  made  the  focus  of 
popular  amusements.  With  the  season  continued 
to  be  associated  theatrical  performances.  These 
were  frequently  of  a  comic  nature,  and  might 
be  crowded  with  local  jests  and  personal  allu- 
sions often  of  a  scurrilous  sort,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  pastoral  of  Adam  de  la  Halle,  Le  jeu 
de  Robin  et  de  Marion,  composed  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  for  use  on  such  an  occasion.  In 
England  the  story  of  Robin  Hood  was  connected 
with  the  May-games,  and  the  personages  of  his 
cycle  were  introduced  into  the  performances  of 
costumed  or  masked  actors,  called  'Morris  dan- 
cers.* In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land the  first  of  May  received  the  name  of  Bel- 
tan  ( q.v. ) ,  and  was  originally,  no  doubt,  an  inde- 
pendent ceremony.  Customs  analogous  to  May 
Day  are  widespread.  Among  the  Russians  there 
is  a  spring  festival,  celebrated  by  the  boys  and 
Ifirls  with  a  choral  dance  caljed  Khorovod.  (See 
SiAVONic  Music.)  The  European  spring-tide 
feast  seems  to  have  come  from  the  Orient,  where 
orgiastic  merriment  was  common  in  the  spring. 
So  in  modem  India  the  Holi  festival  is  celebrated 
in  March  or  April,  with  the  singing  of  songs 


generally  obscene,  and  with  the  sprinkling  with 
red  powder  and  water  or  with  filth.  The  nat- 
uralistic basis  of  the  custom  is  joy  at  the  cre- 
ative impulses  felt  in  the  spring  and  manifested 
both  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  world.  Hence 
comes  the  erotic  character  of  the  songs  and 
dances,  while  the  May-pole  itself  is  probably 
phallic  in  origin.    See  Phallicism. 

MAYENy  mi^en.  A  town  in  the  Prussian 
Rhine  Province,  Germany,  on  the  Nette,  15  miles 
west  of  Coblenz  (Map:  Prussia,  B  3).  It  has  a 
late  Gothic  church  and  a  partly  preserved  castle 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Clotn,  tobacco,  and  leather 
are  manufactured,  and  there  is  trade  in  mill- 
stones.    Population,  1900,  11,961;  1905,  13,435. 

MAYENCBy  mA'yftNs'.  A  town  of  Germany. 
See  Mainz. 

MAYENNE,  m&'6n'.  A  northwestern  depart- 
ment of  France,  traversed  by  the  River  Mayenne, 
a  tributary  of  the  Loire  (^^p:  France,  N.,  E  4). 
It  was  formerly  part  of  the  Province  of  Maine. 
Area,  2012  square  miles.  Its  surface  is  mostly 
level,  becoming  hilly  toward  the  northeast.  Its 
fertile  soil  produces  grain,  fiax,  hemp,  and  apples ; 
there  are  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  marble,  and  slate. 
A  large  number  of  cattle  and  fine  horses  are 
reared.  Population,  in  1896,  321,187;  in  1901, 
313,103;  in  1906,  305,457.     Capital,  Laval. 

MAYENNE.  The  capital  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  Department  of  Mayenne,  in  the 
northwest  of  France  (Map:  France,  N.,  E  4).  It 
is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Mayenne,  a  tribu- 
taiy  of  the  Loire.  Its  streets  are  steep,  nar- 
row, and  winding.  It  has  manufactures  of  iron, 
calico,  and  linen,  and  trades  chiefiy  in  horses 
and  grain.    Population,  in  1901,  10,125. 

MAYENNE,  Duke  of.    See  Guise. 

MAY^B,  Alfbed  Mabshall  (1836-97).  An 
American  physicist.  He  was  born  at  Baltimore  and 
was  educated  at  Saint  Mary's  CJoUege,  Baltimore. 
In  1856  he  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  and 
chemistry  in  the  University  of  Maryland,  and 
subsequently  held  positions  in  the  Westminster 
College  in  Missouri,  in  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 
lege, in  Lehigh  University,  and  in  the  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology.  In  1863  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  spent  two  years  in  study  and 
research,  working  under  the  famous  physicist 
Regnault.  He  was  for  a  time  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  and  con- 
tributed a  number  of  papers  to  its  pages.  In 
1872  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences.  After  assuming  the  pro- 
fessorship of  physics  at  Stevens  Institute  (1871) 
he  devoted  himself  to  acoustics,  in  which  field 
he  performed  many  new  and  interesting  experi- 
ments, and  made  some  valuable  discoveries.  His 
most  important  work  in  acoustics,  perhaps,  was 
the  determination  of  the  law  connecting  the  pitch 
of  a  sound  with  the  duration  of  the  residual 
sensation  in  the  ear.  To  Professor  Mayer  is  also 
due  a  method  of  determining  the  comparative 
intensity  of  sounds  with  the  same  pitch,  and  the 
location  of  the  organs  of  hearing  in  the  mosquito. 
He  developed  new  methods  for  analyzing  sound, 
and  he  made  researches  into  the  nature  of  elec- 
tricity, besides  being  the  first  to  give  accurately 
the  temperature  correction  for  tuning-forks.  An 
early  paper  on  the  Thermodynamics  of  Water- 
falls (1869)  aroused  considerable  interest,  and 
one  on  the  variation  of  the  elasticity  of  metals 


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MAYEBS. 


with  change  of  temperature  showed  the  delicacy 
of  Professor  Mayer'8  experimental  work.  Hie 
last  important  research  was  an  experimental  in- 
vestigation of  the  equilibrium  of  the  forces  act- 
ing in  the  flotation  of  disks  and  rings  of  metal 
and  their  application  to  measure  surface  tension. 
In  addition  to  his  scientific  attainments,  Professor 
Mayer  was  an  enthusiastic  sportsman  and  wrote 
Sport  with  Oun  and  Rod  in  American  Woods  and 
Waters  ( 1883) .  Consult  short  biographical  sketch 
in  Science,  August  20,  1897,  by  W.  LeConte  Ste- 
vens. Besides  many  contributions  to  scientific 
journals  and  encyclopedias,  Professor  Mayer  was 
the  author  of  Lecture  Notes  on  Physic»  (1868) ; 
The  Earth  a  Oreat  Magnet  (1872)  ;  Light,  with 
Charles  Barnard  (1877);  and  Sound  (1878). 

MAYEB,  Brantz  (1809-79).  An  American 
author,  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.  After  graduation 
at  Saint  Mary's  College  he  traveled  in  the  East, 
practiced  law  (1829-41),  was  secretary  of  the 
American  Legation  at  Mexico  (1843),  and 
wrote  his  observations  there  in  Meanco  as  It  Was 
and  Is  (1844)  ;  Mexico,  Aztec,  Spanish,  and  Re- 
publican ( 1851 ) ;  Observations  of  Mexican  His- 
tory and  Archwology  (1866)  ;  and  Mexican  An^ 
tiquities  (1858)  ;  works  that  retain  some  value, 
especially  for  the  period  following  the  Spanish 
conquest.  He  wrote  also  Captain  Canot,  or 
Twenty  Years  of  an  African  Slaver  (1854),  and 
other  less  important  books.  Mayer  served  as 
paymaster  in  the  Civil  War  and  was  a  founder 
of  the  Maryland  Historical  Society  (1844).  He 
died  in  Baltimore. 

MAYEBy  Constant  ( 1832-1901 ) .  An  Ameri- 
can painter,  bom  at  Besan^on,  France.  He  was  a 
student  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts,  and  after- 
wards a  pupil  of  L6on  Cogniet.  After  1857  be 
lived  in  New  York  City.  His  works  include: 
"Love's  Melancholy"  (1867);  "Maud  Muller" 
(1867)  ;  "Street  Melodies;"  and  the  "Song  of  the 
Shirt."  He  also  painted  several  portraits,  includ- 
ing those  of  Generals  Grant  and  Sheridan,  the 
Empress  Carlotta,  and  others. 

MAYEB,  Frank  Blackwell  (1827—).  An 
American  portrait  and  genre  painter,  bom  in 
Baltimore.  He  studied  under  Alfred  Miller  in 
Baltimore  and  under  Gleyre  in  Paris.  After- 
wards he  settled  in  Annapolis,  Md.  His  collec- 
tion of  drawings  of  the  Dakota  Indians  has 
an  archseological  value.  His  works  include: 
"Feast  of  Mondawmin"  (1867)  ;  "Treaty  of  Trav- 
erse des  Sioux,  Minnesota"  (1886)  ;  "The  Con- 
tinentals;" and  "The  Attic  Philosopher,"  which 
won  a  medal  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of 
1876. 

MAYEB,  mi'gr,  Johann  Tobias  (1723-62). 
A  German  mathematician  and  astronomer,  bom 
at  Marbach  in  WHrltemberg.  He  was  self-educated 
and  at  first  taught  mathematics  for  a  living.  In 
1746  he  became  connected  with  a  cartographic 
establishment  and  gained  fame  for  his  improve- 
ments in  map-making.  In  1751  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  in  the 
7"Jniversity  of  Gottingen,  and  in  1754  director 
of  the  observatory,  where  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life  he  did  much  to  advance  the  sci- 
ences of  astronomy  and  navigation.  His  first 
published  work  was  A  Treatise  on  Curves  for 
the  Construction  of  Geometrical  Problems,  which 
was  followed  the  same  year  (1745)  by  A  Mathe- 
matical Atl^s.  At  Gottingen  he  gave  much  labor 
to  a  Zodiacal  Catalogue,  which  contains  998  stars 


and  of  which  a  newly  computed  edition  was 
published  by  Auwers  in  1894.  His  Lunar  Tables, . 
published  in  1752-63,  were  so  correct  as  to  be 
adopted  by  the  British  Board  of  Admiralty.  In 
1760  he  invented  the  repeating  circle,  which  was 
afterwards  used  with  so  much  success  by  Borda 
in  measuring  the  arc  of  the  meridian.  His 
posthumous  works  include :  Theoria  Lunar  Juxta 
Systema  Newtonianum  (1767) ;  TabuUs  Motuum 
Solis  et  Luna  Novce  et  Correctw  Quibus  Accedit 
Methodus  Longitudinum  Promota  ( 1770)  ;  Obser- 
vationes  AstronomuB  Quadrante  Murali  HabitcB 
in  Observatorio  Ocettingensi  (2d  ed.  1826).  He 
left  a  large  number  of  scientific  memoirs,  which 
were  published  by  Lichtenberg  in  1776. 

JIAYEB,  Julius  Robert  von  (1814-78).  A 
German  physicist,  bom  in  Heilbronn,  Wiirttem- 
berg.  He  attended  the  gymnasium  at  Heilbronn, 
studied  medicine  at  TQbingen,  and  finished  his 
university  course  at  Munich  and  Paris.  He  made 
a  voyage  to  Java  in  1840,  and  while  there  made 
observations  on  the  blood  which  led  him  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  subject  of  animal  heat,  and  final- 
ly to  that  of  the  conservation  and  correlation  of 
forces.  After  his  return  to  Heilbronn  he  prac- 
ticed medicine  there,  but  after  a  few  years  de- 
voted himself  almost  exclusively  to  his  scientific 
investigations.  He  published  a  preliminary  notice 
of  his  work  up  to  1842,  in  Liebig's  Anna ie»  der  Che- 
mie  und  Phannaoie,  under  the  title  '^Bemerkun- 
gen  fiber  die  Rrftfte  der  unbelebten  Natur,"  after 
it  had  been  refused  by  PoggendorfTsAnnalen  on  ac- 
count of  its  novel  and  revolutionary  character.  It 
was  in  this  paper  that  the  first  announcement  was 
made  of  the  principle  underlying  the  theory  of 
the  conservation  of  energy.  In  1845  he  made  a 
fuller  explanation  of  the  subject  in  a  memoir, 
under  the  title  Die  organische  Bewegung  in  ihrem 
Zusammenhange  mit  dem  Stoffwechsel.  In  1848 
he  published  Beitvdge  zur  Dynamik  des  HimmelSy 
and  in  1851  the  essay  for  which  he  is  perhaps 
more  generally  known  in  popular  science,  that 
upon  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  (Bemer- 
kungen  iiber  da^  mechanische  Aequivalent  der 
Wiirme) ,  in  which  he  developed  and  expanded  the 
principles  laid  down  in  his  former  papers.  To 
Mayer  is  due  the  first  conception  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  conservation  of  energy,  though  he  was  soon 
followed  by  Joule  and  Helmholtz  (qq.v.)  with  in- 
vestigations and  papers  on  the  same  subjects. 
His  collected  works  appeared  under  the  title  Die 
Mechanik  der  Wiirme,  3d  ed.,  by  Weyrauch 
(1893).  Consult:  Weyrauch,  Robert  Mayer 
(Stuttgart,  1890)  ;  id.,  Kleinere  Schriften  und 
Brief e  von  Robert  Mayer  (ib.,  1893)  ;  and  Gross, 
Robert  Mayer  und  Hermann  von  Helmholtz  ( Ber- 
lin, 1898). 

MAYEBS,  William  Frederick  (1831-78). 
A  sinologue,  born  in  Tasmania.  Educated  in 
Marseilles  and  proficient  in  modern  languages, 
he  was  appointed  at  twenty-eight  student-inter- 
preter in  China,  and  acted  as  Vice-Consul  at 
Canton  and  Chi-fu,  becoming  in  1872  Chinese 
secretary  to  the  British  Legation  in  Peking.  He 
was  a  master  of  Chinese,  Tibetan,  and  Korean. 
He  published  "The  Lamaist  Septem  in  Tibet," 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
(1869);  The  Anglo-Chinese  Calendar  Manual 
(1869);  his  masterpiece,  The  Chinese  Reader^M 
Manual  (1874)  ;  The  Chinese  Government,  a  Man- 
ual of  Chinese  Titles  (1878)  ;  and  in  collabora- 
tion with  Dennys  and  King,  The  Treaty  Ports  of 


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217 


XAYHEW. 


China  (1867).  He  procured  for  the  British  Mu- 
seum one  of  the  few  extant  copies  of  the  great 
Imperial  cyclopsedia  of  Chinese  literature  in 
5020  volumes. 

MAVFATIt.  One  of  the  most  fashionable 
sections  of  London.  It  lies  east  of  Hyde  Park, 
between  Park  Lane  and  Bond  Street,  and  derives 
its  name  from  a  fair  formerly  held  in  the  locality 
during  May. 

MAY^FIRTiP.  A  city  and  the  coimty-seat  of 
Graves  County,  Ky.,  25  miles  south  of  Paducah; 
on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  (Map:  Ken- 
tucky, C  4).  It  is  the  seat  of  West  Kentucky 
College.  It  controls  a  large  trade  in  tobacco, 
having  large  warehouses  and  a  number  of  re- 
handlmg  concerns;  and  there  are  flouring,  plan- 
ing, and  woolen  mills,  tobacco  and  clothing  fac- 
tories, etc.  Settled  about  1820,  Mayfield  was  in- 
corporated some  six  years  later.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  under  a  charter  of  1893,  bv 
a  mayor,  chosen  every  four  years,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  Population,  in  1890,  2909;  in 
1900,  4081 ;  in  1905  (local  est.),  4200. 

MAxIfiSH.  The  most  common  of  American 
ki  Hi  fish   {'FunduliM  majaUs).     See  Killifish. 

MATFLOWEB.    See  Abbutus,  Trailing. 

MATFLOWEB,  The.  A  ship  of  180  tons 
burden,  hired  to  take  the  Pilgrims  from  South- 
ampton, England,  to  the  New  World  in  1620. 
Some  had  sailed  from  Delft  Haven  in  the  Speed- 
icell,  which  started  with  the  Mayflower,  but  put 
back  after  several  days.  The  Mayflower  arrived 
at  Plymouth  December  11th,  or  2l8t,  New  Style 
(anniversary   celebrated   December   22d). 

JIAYFLOWEB  DESCENDANTS,  Sogiett 
OF.  A  patriotic  hereditary  society,  organized  in 
New  York  City  on  December  22,  1894.  It  admits 
to  membership  any  lineal  descendant  of  any 
passenger  of  the  voyage  of  the  Mayflower  which 
terminated  at  Plymouth  Rock,  Mass.,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1620.  The  badge  of  the  society  is  a  round 
medallion  of  gold  with  a  representation  of  the 
Mayflower  in  relief  surroimded  by  a  wreath 
composed  of  the  blossoms  of  the  mayflower 
connected  at  the  bottom  by  a  scroll  on  which 
is  the  legend  "1620,  Plymouth,  1897."  There 
are  many  State  societies,  from  which  repre- 
sentatives meet  triennially,  usually  in  Ply- 
mouth, Mass.,  at  the  general  society,  which 
was  organized  on  January  12,  1897.  A  general 
register  was  published  in  1901,  showing  nearly 
2000  members,  and  the  various  State  societies 
have  issued  books  containing  historical  infor- 
mation. 

MAY  FLY.  An  insect  of  the  order  Epheme- 
rida,  sometimes  also  called  'shad-fly'  and  'day- 
fly,'  the  latter,  like  the  scientific  name,  derived 
from  the  ephemeral  life  of  the  adult.  They  have 
short  antennffi,  very  large  fore  wings,  very  small 
hind  wings,  absolutely  trophied  mouth-parts,  and 
two  or  three  long,  slender  filaments  at  the  end 
of  the  abdomen.  The  transformations  are  com- 
plete, and  the  early  stages  are  passed  in  the 
water.  The  larvae  are  active,  possess  long  and 
strong  legs,  and  breathe  by  means  of  tracheal 
gills.  They  are  found  under  stones  in  running 
streams  or  swimming  among  water  plants  in 
quiet  waters,  or  they  may  live  at  the  bottom, 
more  or  less  covered  with  slime  or  mud;  some 
forms  also  burrow  into  the  sand  banks  of  rivers. 
They  both  swim  and  crawl,  and  they  feed  largely 


upon  vegetable  matter.  The  pupa  or  nymph  is 
also  active  and  feeds.  It  has  small  wing-pads, 
and  when  ready  to  transform  it  floats  at  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  the  subimago  issues 
through  the  skin  of  the  thorax.  The  emergence 
is  very  rapid,  and  the  subimago  flies  away  almost 
immediately  after  the  skin  cracks.  The  existence 
of  a  subimago  stage  is  peculiar  to  this  order  of 
insects,  and  there  is  a  subsequent  molt  after 
the  subimago  reaches  the  shore,  the  true  imago 
issuing  from  the  skin  of  the  subimago.  The  May 
flies  differ  from  all  other  insects  not  only  in  this 
additional  transformation,  but  also  in  possessing 
paired  sexual  organs  which  open  to  the  exterior 
by  separate  oriflces.  The  life  of  the  adult  insect 
is  very  short,  but  the  popular  idea  that  they  live 
but  a  day  is  erroneous.  Curtis  kept  one  alive 
three  weeks.  Most  species  couple  ouring  flight, 
and  egg-laying  is  usually  performed  in  fresh 
water,  where  the  egg  clusters  disintegrate  and 
the  eggs  sink  to  the  beds  of  the  rivers  and 
streams.  The  larval  life  lasts  from  one  to  three 
years,  and  the  larvae  form  a  favorite  food  for 
many  food-fishes.  The  adults  are  also  eagerly 
sought  for  by  fish,  and  many  of  the  artificial 
flies,  especially  those  forms  known  as  *duns,* 
*drakes,'  and  'spinners*  (see  Flt-Casting ) ,  are 
imitations  of  May  flies.  About  300  species  have 
been  described — 85  from  temperate  North  Amer- 
ica. They  are  strongly  attracted  to  light  and  fly 
in  enormous  numbers,  so  that  they  sometimes 
half  flll  the  globes  of  electric  street  lamps  with 
their  bodies  in  a  single  evening,  and  greatly 
trouble  lighthouse  keepers,  especially  along  the 
Great  Lakes,  by  swarming  about  the  lantern  in 
such  crowds  as  to  obscure  the  light. 

MAYHEM  (archaic  form  of  maim,  from  OF. 
mahaigner,  mehaigner,  to  maim).  At  common 
law,  the  offense  of  so  maiming  another,  or  doing 
such  violence  to  his  members,  as  to  render  him 
the  less  able  in  fighting  either  to  defend  himself 
or  to  annoy  his  adversary.  It  rendered  the 
wrongdoer  liable  to  a  civil  action  for  damages 
by  the  injured  person  and  also  to  a  criminal 
prosecution  as  "an  atrocious  breach  of  the  King's 
peace,  and  as  tending  to  deprive  him  of  the  aid 
and  assistance  of  his  subjects."  Destroying  or 
disabling  an  arm  or  leg,  hand  or  foot,  putting 
out  an  eye,  or  breaking  a  front  tooth,  was  a 
mayhem. 

MAYHEW,  ma'hft,  Augustus  Septimus 
(1826-75).  An  English  journalist  and  author, 
bom  in  London.  He  wrote  in  collaboration  with 
his  brother  Henry  such  works  as  The  Oreateat 
Plague  of  Life,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Lady  in 
Search  of  a  Good  Servant  (1847,  illustrated  by 
George  Cruikshank),  and  he  joined  H.  S.  Ed- 
wards in  the  production  of  such  farces  as  The 
Ooose  and  the  Oolden  Eggs  (Strand  Theatre, 
1869);  Christmas  Boxes  (Strand,  1860);  and 
The  Four  Cousins  (Globe  Theatre,  1871).  From 
1848  to  1850  he  edited  The  Comic  Almanac,  to 
which  he  had  been  a  contributor  since  1845,  and 
his  individual  productions  include  Paved  with 
Gold,  or  the  Romance  and  Reality  of  the  London 
Streets  (1857),  and  Faces  for  Fortunes  (3  vols., 
1865). 

MAYHEW,  ExPEKiENCE  (1673-1758).  A 
New  England  divine.  He  was  bom  in  Martha's 
Vineyard,  Mass.,  the  oldest  son  of  Rev.  John 
May  hew,  and  great-grandson  of  Gov.  Thomas 
Mayhew.    He  began  to  preach  to  the  Indians  at 


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the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  had  the  oversight  of 
five  or  six  Indian  assemblies,  which  he  continued 
for  sixty-four  years.  Having  thoroughly  mas- 
tered the  Indian  language,  which  he  had  learned 
in  infancy,  he  was  employed  by  the  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  New  England 
to  make  a  new  version  of  the  Psalms  and  of  the 
€k)spel  of  John,  which  he  did  in  1700  in  parallel 
columns  of  English  and  Indian.  He  published 
Indian  Converts  (1727),  comprising  the  lives  of 
thirty  Indian  preachers  and  eighty  other  converts, 
besides  a  volume  entitled  Grace  Defended,  Con- 
sult Hal  lock,  The  Venerable  Mayhew  and  the 
Aboriginal  Indians  of  Martha*s  Vineyard,  con- 
densed from  Rev.  E.  Mayhew's  History  of  Indian 
Converts  and  brought  down  to  date  (New  York, 
1874). — His  son,  Jonathan,  was  distinguished  as 
a  preacher  and  patriot  (see  Mayhew,  Jona- 
than).— Another  son,  Zachabiah,  was  mission- 
ary to  the  Martha's  Vineyand  Indians  from  1767 
to  his  death,  March  6,  1806. 

MAYHEW,  Henry  (1812-87).  An  English 
author,  son  of  a  London  attorney.  From  West- 
minster School  he  ran  away  to  sea,  making  a 
voyage  to  Calcutta.  On  his  return  he  was  ar- 
ticled to  his  father  for  three  years.  In  con- 
junction with  Gilbert  ft  Beckett,  he  started  the 
Figaro  in  London,  a  comic  weekly  ( 1831-39) ,  and 
The  Thief  ( 1832 ) ,  *a  paste  and  scissors'  journal, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Punch  (1841). 
He  made  a  hit  with  The  Wandering  Minstrel,  a 
one-act  farce  ( 1834),  which  was  followed  by  But 
However  (1838),  written  in  conjunction  with 
Henry  Baylis.  Along  with  his  brother  Augustus 
(1826-76),  he  wrote  several  clever  fictions,  as 
The  Greatest  Plague  of  Life  (1847)  ;  The  Good 
Genius  that  Turned  Everything  to  Gold,  a  fairy 
tale  (1847)  ;  Whom  to  Marry  (1848)  ;  and  Liv- 
ing for  Appearances  ( 1855) .  His  most  important 
work  was  a  series  of  articles  in  collaboration 
with  John  Binny,  written  to  make  known  the 
actual  condition  of  the  lower  classes  in  London. 
Originally  appearing  in  the  Morning  Chronicle, 
they  were  collected  in  1851  under  the  title  Lon- 
don Labour  and  the  London  Poor.  In  1856  the 
series  was  continued  in  monthly  numbers  with 
the  title  The  Great  World  of  London  (completed 
and  published  in  1862  as  Criminal  Prisons  of 
London). — His  brother  Horace  (1816-72)  was 
also  a  well-kno\vn  humorist.  He  wrote  farces 
and  tales  and  was  for  a  time  subeditor  of  Punch. 

MAYHEW,  Jonathan  (1720-66).  An  Ameri- 
can clergyman,  bom  on  the  island  of  Martha's 
Vineyard,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1744,  studied  theology,  and  from  1744  until  his 
death  was  pastor  of  the  West  Church  (Congre- 
gational), Boston.  He  became  one  of  the  best 
known  preachers  in  New  England  and  his  influ- 
ence on  the  political  views  and  theories  of  the 
colonists  in  the  pre-Revolutionary  period  was 
probably  greater  than  that  of  any  other  clergy- 
man. Dr.  Mayhew  was  an  ardent  believer  in  the 
rights  of  the  American  colonies,  and  expressed 
his  views  with  great  boldness  from  his  pulpit.  In 
January.  1750,  he  preached  a  sermon  on  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.,  in  which  he  declared  that 
all  allepriance  was  limited  by  certain  inalienable 
rights  that  could  not  be  abrogated  by  the  sover- 
eign without  giving  a  corresponding  right  of 
abrogation  to  the  subject.  His  fearlessness  led 
to  his  being  bitterly  attacked  by  the  Tories,  who 
charged  him,  without  warrant,  with  being  the 


instigator  of  the  Boston  Stamp  Act  riots  that 
resulted  in  the  sacking  of  Governor  Hutchin- 
son's house.  In  May,  1766,  he  preached  a 
Thanksgiving  sermon  for  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp 
Act  that  was  a  remarkable  plea  for  civil  and 
religious  liberty.  Later  in  the  same  year  and 
only  a  short  time  before  his  death  he  wrote  to 
James  Otis  a  letter  which  probably  contains  the 
earliest  suggestion  of  a  imion  of  all  the  colonies. 
The  subsequent  institution  of  committees  of  corre- 
spondence undoubtedly  had  its  inception  in  Dr. 
Mayhew's  plan.  His  sermons  were  published  sep- 
arately in  pamphlet  form  and  in  collections. 
Among  them  were:  Seven  Sermons  (1749)  ;  Dis- 
course Concerning  Unlimited  Submission  and 
Non-Resistance  to  the  Higher  Pouters  (1750); 
Sermons  (1756);  and  Sermons  to  Young  Men 
(1767).  Consult  Bradford,  Memoir  of  the  Life 
and  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Mayhew 
(Boston,  1838). 

MAYHEW,  Thomas  (1592-1682).  An 
American  colonial  Governor.  He  was  bom  in 
England  and  was  a  merchant  in  Southampton  be- 
fore he  emigrated  to  America  in  1631.  He  set- 
tled in  Watertown  in  1636.  obtained  in  1641  from 
the  agent  of  Lord  Stirling  a  grant  of  Martha's 
Vineyard  and  the  neighboring  islands,  and  in 
1642  became  both  patentee  and  Governor  of  the 
granted  district.  His  son  Thomas  having  been 
called  to  the  ministry  at  Edgartown,  Governor 
Mayhew  encouraged  his  work,  Doth  by  his  advice 
and  by  inducing  the  Indian  sachems  to  govern 
their  people  according  to  the  English  laws.  After 
his  son's  death,  Mayhew  continued  the  ministra- 
tions, and  organized  an  Indian  church.  For  forty 
years  while  he  lived  among  them  the  English 
and  Indians  were  at  peace.  He  died  in  Martha's 
Vineyard  in  March,  1682. 

MAT  LAWS.  The  name  applied  to  a  series 
of  laws  enacted  by  the  Prussian  Diet  in  May, 
1873,  marking  the  opening  of  the  conflict  be- 
tween Church  and  State  generally  known  as  the 
Kulturkampf  (q.v.). 

MAYNA,  mI'nA,  or  MATTTA.  A  group  of 
tribes  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic  stock, 
upon  the  Upper  Marafion  (Amazon)  between  the 
Santiago  and  Pastaza  rivers  on  the  Peru-Ecuador 
frontier.  Their  language  is  particularly  harsh 
and  difficult.  A  part  were  gathered  in  missions 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  but  the  majority 
are  still  wild  and  unsubdued,  living  by  hunting 
and  fishing.  The  name  is  also  frequently  used 
collectively  to  include  all  the  tribes  of  the 
Ucayali  and  Huallaga  region,  the  former  Peru- 
vian Province  of  Maynas. 

MAY^ABD,  Edward  (1813-91).  An  Ameri- 
can dental  surgeon  and  inventor,  bom  at  Madi- 
son, N.  Y.,  of  Puritan  ancestry.  He  entered  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point 
in  1831,  but  his  delicate  constitution  caused  him 
to  resign  and  take  up  the  profession  of  dentistry, 
a  calling  which  he  followed  more  or  less  from 
1836  to  1890,  in  the  city  of  Washington,  D.  C. 
In  1846  he  made  known  his  discovery  of  the 
great  diversity  of  situation,  form,  and  capacity 
of  the  maxillary  antra.  He  also  exploited  the 
existence  of  dental  febriles  and  demonstrated 
that  sensitive  dentine  could  be  cut  with  less 
sufTering  to  the  patient  by  operating  in  certain 
directions  than  in  the  opposite  ones;  a  fact  sub- 
sequently demonstrated  by  the  microscope.  In 
1838  he  introduced   the  method  of  filling  the 


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MAYNOOTH. 


nenre  cavity  of  teeth  with  gold  foil,  including  the 
nerve  canals  in  molar  and  bicuspid  teeth;  and 
seven  years  later  introduced  the  system  into 
Europe.  He  became  a  member  of  the  faculty  of 
the  Baltimore  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  and 
of  the  National  University  of  Washington.  His 
first  important  mechanical  invention  in  the  con- 
struction of  firearms  dates  from  1845,  in  which 
year  he  patented  a  system  of  priming  for  fire- 
arms, which  practically  superseded  the  percussion 
cap.  Tlie  L'nited  States  Government  bought 
the  right  of  use  and  manufactured  nearly 
50,000  rifles  employing  the  new  principle  of 
ignition.  Germany  and  one  or  two  other  Eu- 
ropean powers  also  adopted  his  inventions 
in  part.  In  1851  he  patented  a  breech-load- 
ing rifle,  afterwards  known  as  the  Maynard 
rifle,  and  five  years  afterwards  adapted  it  to 
the  use  of  the  metallic  cartridge,  also  an  inven- 
tion of  his.  In  1860  he  patented  a  method  of  con- 
verting muzzle-loaders  into  breech-loaders.  Other 
important  inventions  in  firearms  were  a  method 
of  joining  together  two  rifle  or  shot  barrels, 
which  permitted  the  expansion  or  contraction  of 
one  barrel  independently  of  the  other  (1868); 
an  invention  in\^luable  to  sportsmen,  and  a 
mechanism  for  indicating  at  any  time  the  num- 
ber of  cartridges  in  the  magazine  of  a  repeating 
rifle  (1886).  He  was  granted  the  Great  Medal 
of  Merit  of  Sweden  and  was  appointed  chevalier 
of  the  military  order  of  the  Red  Eagle  of  Russia. 

KAYNABD,  Geobge  Willouqhby  (1843—). 
An  American  portrait  and  figure  painter,  son  of 
Edward  Maynard,  born  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  the  Royal  Academy  at  Antwerp, 
and  in  1878  opened  a  studio  in  Paris;  later  he 
settled  in  New  York  City.  He  was  elected  mem- 
tK?r  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  18S5, 
and  is  also  member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  and  of  the  American  W^ater-Color  Society. 
Maj-nard  early  devoted  himself  to  decorative 
painting,  and  his  work  may  be  seen  in  the  Con- 
gressional Library  at  Washington,  D.  C,  and  in 
the  Appellate  Court  of  New  \ork  City.  Among 
his  works  are:  "Vespers  at  Antwerp"  and  "1776," 
sent  to  the  Centennial  Exhibition  .  of  1876; 
"Musical  Memories";  "Venetian  Court";  "An 
Ancient  Mariner"  (1883);  "Aurora";  "Old  and 
Rare" ;  and  "Strange  Gods."  His  Pompeian  deco- 
rations in  the  Agricultural  Building  at  Chicago  in 
1893  were  notable.  At  Buffalo  in  1901  he  received 
a  silver  medaL  and  at  St.  Louis  in  1904  he  ex- 
hibited '*The  Surf."  The  Metropolitan  Museum 
in  New  York  has  his  "In  Strange  Seas." 

KAYKABD,  HoBACE  (1814-82).  An  Ameri- 
can politician,  bom  in  Westboro,  Mass.  He 
prraduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1838,  and  short- 
ly afterwards  removed  to  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  where 
for  some  years  he  was  a  tutor  and  then  professor 
of  mathematics  and  natural  history  in  the  East 
Tennessee  College.  In  1845  he  became  a  lawyer, 
and  in  1857  was  elected  by  the  ^Americans'  to 
Congress,  where  he  continued  to  ait  until  1803. 
Like  Andrew  Johnson,  W.  G.  Browiilow,  and 
others,  Maynard  strove  hard  but  unsuccessfully 
to  keep  Tennessee  in  the  Union,  and  because  of 
his  loyalty  suffered  loss  of  property  and  exile. 
He  was  a^in  a  Representative  in  Conaress  from 
1866  to  1876,  was  Minister  to  Russia  from  1875 
to  1880,  and  was  Postmaster-General  in  President 
Hayes's  Cabinet  from  August,  1880,  to  March, 
1881. 

Vol.  XIII.— li 


MAYNABD,  Sir  John  (1602-90).  An  Eng- 
lish  constitutional  lawyer.  He  was  born  at  7^v- 
istock,  England,  and  was  educated  at  Exeter  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  After  the  regular  course  of  study 
in  the  Middle  Temple  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1020;  he  had  been  elected  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment in  the  previous  year.  He  was  subsequently 
made  a  sergeant-at-law  and  King's  sergeant,  but 
declined  the  place  on  the  bench  offered  him  by 
Charles  II.  in  1000.  While  an  advocate  for  in- 
creasing the  power  of  the  people,  he  never  con- 
curred in  the  extreme  views  taken  by  the  radical 
republicans,  and,  although  an  earnest  Presby- 
terian, stood  aloof  from  the  fanaticism  of  many 
in  his  party.  He  was  active  in  the  prosecution 
of  Stratford  and  Laud,  but  opposed  the  arbitrary 
power  assumed  by  the  army,  and  Cromweirs  evi- 
dent intention  of  making  himself  King  in  fact, 
if  not  in  name;  for  the  position  he  took  in  this 
respect  he  was  twice  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
of  London  by  order  of  the  Protector.  At  the 
Restoration,  the  honor  of  knighthood  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  Charles  II.;  his  political 
course  imder  that  monarch  was  judicious  and 
conservative.  In  the  time  of  the  revolution  and 
the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  he  showed 
ability,  notably  in  the  great  conference  held  be- 
tween the  House  of  Lords  and  the  Commons  in 
regard  to  the  abdication  of  James  IL,  a  measure 
which  he  strenuously  advocated.  In  the  same 
year,  1089,  he  was  made  a  commissioner  of  the 
Great  Seal.  A  number  of  his  political  speeches 
and  legal  decisions  have  been  printed  in  various 
collections.  His  manuscript  collections  in  eighty- 
seven  volumes  are  preserved  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
Library.     He  died  at  Gunnersbury  Manor. 

MATNE,  Jaspeb  (1604-72).  An  English 
dramatist  and  divine,  educated  at  Westminster 
School,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A. 
1628;  MA.  1631).  While  at  the  university  he 
WTote  considerable  occasional  verse.  To  him  has 
been  ascribed  the  beautiful  eulogy  signed  I.  ^M.  S. 
prefixed  to  the  second  folio  of  Shakespeare's  works 
(1632).  He  afterwards  wrote  verses  in  honor 
of  Ben  Jonson  and  Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  His 
two  plays  are  the  City  Match,  a  comedy  (printed 
1639),  and  The  Amorous  War  (printed  1648),  a 
tragi-comedy,  containing  the  quaint  lyric  begin- 
ning "Time*  is  a  feathered  tiling"  (reprinted  in 
The  Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse,  A.  T.  Quiller- 
Couch,  Oxford,  1900).  In  1638  he  beffan  a  trans- 
lation of  Lucian's  Dialogues  (printed  1664),  af- 
terwards completed  by  Francis  Hicks;  and  for 
Donne's  Paradoxes  (1652),  he  translated  several 
Latin  epigrams.  During  the  civil  war  he  lived 
mostly  at  Oxford,  where  he  frequently  preached 
before  the  King.  After  the  Restoration  he  was 
appointed  a  canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Chichester.  He  died  at  Oxford,  De- 
cember 6,  1672. 

MAY^OOTH.  A  villnrre  of  Kildare,  Ireland, 
a  short  distance  west  of  Dublin,  havin^r  a  popula- 
tion of  less  than  a  thousand.  It  was  the  seat  of 
the  Geraldincs,  the  ruins  of  whose  castle  remain. 
It  was  of  importance  in  the  rebellions  of  the  Iri^h 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VITL,  and  in  the  time  of 
the  civil  wars  and  the  Commonwealth.  It  is 
chiefly  known  now  as  the  site  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Collpce  of  Saint  Patrick.  There  have 
been  600  students  in  attendance,  all  candidates 
for  the  priesthood,  and  more  than  half  supported 
by  funds  for  that  purpose. 


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XAYOB. 


ILLYOf  maf6.  A  maritime  county  of  the 
Province  of  Connaught,  Ireland,  bounded  north 
and  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  east  by  Sligo  and 
Roscommon,  and  south  by  Galway  (Map:  Ire- 
land, B  3).  Area,  2156  square  miles.  The  coast- 
line of  Mayo  is  about  250  miles  long.  The  sur- 
face is  very  irregular,  the  interior  being  a  plain 
bordered  by  two  ranges  of  mountains.  The  chief 
branch  of  industry  is  cattle-raising.  Fisheries 
and  linen  manufactures  are  also  carried  on.  The 
capital  is  Castlebar.  Population,  in  1841,  389,- 
260;  in  1901,  199,166. 

JIATO,  mil'yd.  A  tribe  of  Piman  stock  (q.v.) 
upon  the  river  of  the  same  name  in  Southern 
Sonora,  Mexico.  They  and  the  Yaqui  (q.v.), 
their  northern  neighbors  and  allies,  speak  dia- 
lects of  the  same  language,  and  in  physical  char- 
acteristics and  habit  are  identical.  They  are 
agricultural  and  very  industrious,  cultivating 
corn,  cotton,  squashes,  beans,  tobacco,  and 
m&gVLey,  from  which  last  they  manufacture  mes- 
cal. They  also  work  as  miners,  teamsters,  and 
the  like.  Their  houses  are  light  structures  of 
cane  and  boughs,  covered  with  palm  leaves.  They 
are  now  very  much  Mexicanized  and  number  per- 
haps 7000. 

MAYO,  ma'd,  Amory  Dwight  (1823—).  An 
American  clergyman  and  educator.  He  was  bom 
in  Warwick,  Franklin  CJounty,  Mass.;  educated 
at  Amherst  College;  studied  theology  with  the 
Rev.  Hosea  Ballou.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Univer- 
salist  church  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  later  of  Unitarian 
churches  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  in  Springfield, 
Mass. ;  afterwards  he  engaged  in  educational  work 
in  the  South.  For  several  years  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  polity  in  the  Meadville 
(Pa.)  Theological  School.  He  edited  the  Massa- 
chusetts Journal  of  Education  and  engaged  besides 
in  general  labors  throughout  the  country  to  stim- 
ulate popular  interest  in  the  school  system. 
Among  his  works  are:  The  Balance:  or  Moral 
Arguments  for  Universalism  (1846)  ;  Graces  and 
Powers  of  the  Christian  JAfe  (1852)  ;  Symbols  of 
the  Capitol:  or  Civilization  in  New  York  ( 1869)  ; 
Southern  Women  in  the  Recent  Educational 
Movement  in  the  South  (1892) ;  and  Talks  icith 
Teachers   (1885). 

MAYO,  Frank  (1839-96).  An  American  ac- 
tor, doubtless  best  known  for  his  long-continued 
popularity  in  the  backwoods  character  of  Davy 
Crockett,  which  somewhat  obscured  his  more 
legitimate  laurels.  He  was  born  in  Boston.  Early 
in  life  he  went  to  San  Francisco,  where  at  seven- 
teen he  began  his  career,  and  within  a  few  years 
was  appearing  with  the  young  Edwin  Booth.  In 
1863  he  became  a  leading  man  in  San  Francisco 
and  in  1865  in  Boston.  He  won  applause  as 
Othello,  Hamlet,  Ferdinand  in  The  Tempest,  and 
in  other  classic  rOles,  but  greater  success  with  the 
public  as  Badger  in  The  Streets  of  New  York, 
till  in  1872  he  brought  out  Davy  Crockett,  Among 
his  later  productions  were  his  own  dramatizations 
of  Nordeck  and  of  Mark  Twain's  Pudd*nhead 
Wilson,  the  latter  a  character  well  suited  to 
display  his  peculiar  gifts  as  a  comedian. 

MAYO,  Richard  Southwell  Boitrke,  sixth 
Earl  of  (1822-72).  An  English  statesman.  He 
was  bom  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College  there,  afterwards  traveled  in 
Russia,  and  published  an  account  of  his  trip, 
entitled  In  Saint  Petersburg  and  Moscow  (2  vols.. 


1846).  From  1847  to  1869  he  was  a  member  of 
Parliament,  and  in  1852,  1858,  and  1866  was  ap- 
pointed Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.  In  January, 
1869,  by  Disraeli^s  appointment,  he  became  Qov- 
emor-(j«neral  of  India,  in  which  capacity  he  in- 
troduced extensive  and  careful  reforms  in  the 
conduct  of  the  public  service,  and  was  an  efficient 
and  successful  administrator.  While  inspecting 
the  penal  settlement  at  Port  Blair,  Andeman 
Islands,  he  was  killed  by  one  of  the  convicts. 
Consult  Hunter,  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Mayo  (Lon- 
don, 1876). 

MAYO,  WiLLLAM  Stabbuck  (1812-95).  An 
American  novelist  and  traveler.  He  graiduated 
from  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  (1833),  traveled  widely  in  little  ex- 
plored regions,  and  first  won  notice  in  fiction  by 
Kaloolah  (1849),  a  romance  of  Central  Africa. 
This  was  followed  by  The  Berber,  a  story  of  the 
mountaineers  of  the  Atlas  (1850)  ;  Romance  Dust 
from  an  Historic  Placer,  a  collection  of  short 
stories  (1851) ;  and  Never  Again  (1873).  Mayors 
novels  are  strong  in  narration,  good  in  plot,  weak 
in  character. 

MAY6K,  mA-yon',  or  Albay.  An  active  vol- 
cano and  the  highest  peak  in  Luzon,  Philippine 
Islands.  It  is  situated  in  the  Province  of  Albay, 
near  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  island 
(Map:  Philippine  Islands,  D  4).  It  is  a  ma- 
jestic cone,  rising  from  the  seashore  to  a 
height  of  8274  feet,  and  capped  by  a  white  cloud 
of  smoke  which  in  the  night  assumes  a  fiery 
glow.  Its  sides  are  covered  with  grass  and  moss, 
and  though  apparently  smooth  and  unobstructed, 
the  mountain  is  very  difficult  of  ascent.  There 
have  been  a  number  of  eruptions  during  the  past 
century,  in  which  the  mountain  emitted  great 
quantities  of  lava,  cinders,  and  incandescent  rocks, 
on  more  than  one  occasion  destroying  an  entire 
town. 

MA  YOB  (from  Lat.  major,  greater,  compara- 
tive of  magnus,  great).  The  chief  executive  of- 
ficer of  a  municipal  corporation.  In  England  the 
mayor  was  originally  a  steward,  bailiff,  or  over- 
seer. Later  he  became  the  chief  magistrate  of  a 
corporate  town.  During  the  reign  of  John  the 
right  of  formally  choosing  their  mayor  was  con- 
ceded to  the  barons  of  London,  the  election  being 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  King.  During 
the  same  reign  tne  other  large  towns  were  al- 
lowed to  have  mayors.  The  mayors  of  the  cities 
of  York,  Dublin,  and  London  bear  the  title  of  'lord 
mayor.'  The  lord  mayor  of  London,  whose  juris- 
diction extends  only  to  the  ancient  inner  city,  is 
chosen  annually  from  among  the  aldermen,  prac- 
tically by  the  liverymen  of  the  guilds.  His  chief 
duty  is  to  sustain  the  hospitality  of  the  city,  for 
which  purpose  he  receives  an  allowance  of  £8000 
a  year,  together  with  the  use  of  the  mansion 
house.  The  ordinary  English  mayor  is  elected 
by  the  municipal  council,  usually  from  among  the 
aldermen,  for  a  term  of  one  year.  He  is  an  ex- 
officio  justice  of  the  peace  and  usually  serves  as 
a  returning  officer.  In  France  there  is  a  mayor 
{maire)  at  the  head  of  each  commune,  elected 
by  the  municipal  council  from  among  its  own 
members.  He  serves  during  the  term  of  the 
council.  In  the  Germanic  countries  the  mayor 
or  burgomaster  is  usually  a  highly  trained  pro- 
fessional officer  with  more  or  less  experience  in 
the  municipal  service,  and  is  frequently  called  to 
the  headship  of  a  larger  muncipality  after  having. 


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MAYOW. 


gained  a  reputation  as  mayor  of  a  smaller  town. 
Ue  is  elected  by  the  city  council  for  a  long  term, 
often  for  life.  The  prevailing  method  of  selecting 
mayors  in  the  larger  countries  of  Europe  is  elec- 
tion by  the  municipal  council.  In  Belgium, 
Denmark,  Holland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  in 
Italy,  so  far  as  the  larger  towns  are  concerned, 
the  method  of  ap{)ointment  is  by  the  central 
government. 

In  the  United  States  the  office  of  mayor  existed 
from  the  earliest  colonial  times,  being  taken  over 
as  a  part  of  the  English  municipal  system.  At 
first  the  mayor  was  usually  appointed  by  the 
Governor,  and  was  generally  a  member  of  the 
municipal  council.  Later  he  was  excluded  from 
the  council  and  then  came  to  be  chosen  by  the 
council,  although  occasionally,  as  in  the  city  of 
Boston,  he  was  elected  by  popular  vote  from  the 
beginning.  This  is  now  the  rule  in  the  United 
States  almost  without  exception.  The  term  of  the 
mayor  in  the  United  States  varies  from  one  year 
to  five,  the  usual  term  being  two  years.  Everywhere 
in  Europe  the  mayor  acts  as  the  local  agent 
of  the  central  government  and  consequently  is 
often  subject  to  disciplinary  control  by  the  cen- 
tral government.  Thus  the  French  mayor  may 
be  suspended  by  the  prefect  for  one  month,  by 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior  for  three  months,  and 
may  be  permanently  removed  by  the  President ;  a 
somewhat  similar  rule  prevails  in  other  Conti- 
nental States.  In  several  American  States  the 
mayor  may  be  removed  by  the  Governor  for 
cause^  subject  to  the  power  of  the  courts  to  de- 
termine what  shall  constitute  just  cause  in  a 
given  case.  Besides  his  duty  as  agent  of  the  cen- 
tral government  the  mayor  is  the  official  head  of 
the  municipal  corporation.  His  powers  are  much 
larger  in  some  countries  than  in  others.  In  the 
United  States  there  is  a  marked  tendency  of  late 
years  toward  increasing  the  power  of  this  officer 
and  making  him  chiefly  responsible  for  the  good 
government  of  the  city.  See  sections  Local  Oov- 
emment  in  the  various  countries  mentioned.    See 

also   MUNICIPAUTT. 

MAT^OB,.  John  Eyeton  Bickebsteth  (1825 
— ).  An  English  classical  philologist,  bom  at 
Ba^dagama,  Ceylon.  He  graduated  from  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  appointed 
fellow  in  1849;  from  1849  to  1853  he  was  assist- 
ant master  at  Marlborough  College.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  appointed  college  lecturer,  and  since 
1872  has  been  professor  of  Latin  in  the  univer- 
sity. He  also  held  the  office  of  librarian  of  the 
university  from  1863  to  1867.  Professor  Mayor 
is  best  known  as  editor  of  Thirteen  fia tires  of  Ju- 
venal (2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  London,  1881).  He  has 
also  edited  some  of  Cicero's  works,  Homer's 
Odyssey,  books  ix.-xii.,  and  is  the  author  of  many 
other  works  relating  to  the  classics,  the  history  of 
education,  and  the  Church.  He  was  formerly  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  Journal  of  Philology  and  of 
the  Classical  Review. 

Iff  A  YOB,  Joseph  BicKERSTETH  (1828—).  An 
English  classical  scholar.  He  was  educated  at 
Rugby  and  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
From  1863  to  1868  he  was  head  master  of 
Kingston  Proprietary  School,  and  in  1870  be- 
came professor  of  classics  in  King's  College,  Lon- 
don. This  post  he  resigned  in  1879.  Mayor  had 
married  in  1863  a  niece  of  the  historian  George 
Grote,  and  became  his  literary  executor,  editing 
his  posthumous  essays  on  philosophy.    His  other 


works  include  an  edition  of  Cicero,  De  Natura 
Deorum  (1880-86);  a  valuable  bibliography  en- 
titled A  Guide  to  the  Choice  of  Classical  Books 
(1880-96);  Chapters  on  English  Metre  (2d  ed. 
1901 ) ;  and  editions  of  the  Epistle  of  Saint  James 
(2d  ed.  1892)  and  of  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
StromateiSf  Book  VIL  (based  on  Hort's  notes, 
1902).  He  edited  the  Classical  Review  (1887- 
93).    He  was  a  brother  of  J.  E.  B.  Mayor. 

MAYOBQA,  m&ydr'gft,  Mabtin  db  (c.1715- 
83).  A  viceroy  of  Mexico.  In  1773  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Central  America.  In  1779, 
on  the  death  of  Bucareli,  he  was  made  Viceroy 
of  Mexico.  While  he  was  in  power  there  broke 
out  an  epidemic  of  smallpox,  to  arrest  which  he 
made  great  exertions.  He  founded  an  academy  of 
arts  in  Mexico,  and  sent  to  the  royal  archives  of 
Spain  for  publication  copies  of  the  manuscripts 
of  the  historian  Veytia.  His  attitude  toward 
foreign  encroachment  was  vigorously  defensive. 

MAYOB   OF  THE  PALACE.     See   Majob 

DOMUS. 

MAYOBIJNA,  ma^d-rCo^nA.  A  fierce  and 
savage  tribe  of  Panoan  stock  (q.v.)  living  south 
of  the  Marafion  (Amazon),  between  the  Ucayali 
and  Javari  rivers,  Northeastern  Peru.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  lived  formerly  farther  to  the 
west  and  to  have  been  driven  into  the  forest  by 
the  Inca  conquest.  From  the  frequency  of 
beards  and  light  skins  among  them,  traditionally 
due  to  admixture  of  Spanish  captive  blood,  they 
are  sometimes  called  Barbados  (bearded)  by 
the  Spaniards.  They  live  by  hunting  and  keep 
to  the  forests,  seldom  coming  down  to  the  rivers, 
being  at  war  both  with  all  the  other  tribes  and 
with  the  whites.  Their  weapons  are  spears, 
clubs,  and  blowpipes,  and  they  are  famous  for 
their  powerful  blowgun  poison.  They  are  tall 
and  well  formed,  go  perfectly  naked,  and  cut 
their  hair  across  the  forehead,  letting  it  fall 
loosely  down  behind. 

MAYO-SMITH,  Richmond  (18641901).  An 
American  economist  and  educator,  born  in  Troy, 
Ohio.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1875,  and 
after  two  years  at  Berlin  and  Heidelberg  became 
assistant  professor  of  economics  at  Columbia. 
In  1880  he  began  to  teach  in  the  graduate  school 
of  political  science,  where  he  devoted  himself 
especially  to  statistics,  a  form  of  investigation 
in  which  he  was  an  acknowledged  authority. 
He  was  an  editor  of  the  Political  Science  Quar- 
terly, vice-president  of  the  American  Statistical 
Association,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Economic  Association.  His  publica- 
tions include:  Emigration  and  Immigration 
(1890);  Sociology  and  Statistics  (1895);  and 
Statistics  and  Economics  (1899). 

MAYOTTA,  m&-y6t'tA.  One  of  the  Comoro 
Islands    ( q.v. ) . 

MAYOW,  mft'6,  or  MAYO,  John  (1643-79). 
An  English  scientist  and  philosopher,  bom  in 
London.  He  studied  law  and  medicine  at 
Oxford,  and  practiced  medicine  at  Bath,  but 
devoted  himself  specially  to  research  in  chem- 
istry and  physiology,  and  is  chiefly  known  for 
his  ingenious  speculations  concerning  the  process 
of  combustion,  in  which  he  anticipated,  to  some 
extent,  the  ideas  which  have  since  been  induced 
from  the  discoveries  of  Priestley,  Lavoisier,  and 
others.  His  principal  publication  is  De  Sale 
Nitro  et  Spiritu  Nitri  Aereo  (1674).    His  work 


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MATOW. 


222 


MAZAHBBBAir. 


in  anatomy  and  physiology,  especially  on  the 
subject  of  muscular  action  and  on  respiration,  is 
acarccly  less  important.  His  Opera  Omnia 
Medioa  Phyaica  appeared  in  1681. 

MAYOYAOy  mryo-ya'A.  A  head-hunting 
Malay  people  In  Central  Luzon,  speaking  Ifugao. 
i^ee  Philippine  Islands. 

MATPOP.  The  fruit  of  a  Passion  flower 
<q.v.). 

MAYB,  mir,  Geobg  von  (1841—).  A  Ger- 
man statistician  and  economist,  born  in  WUrz- 
burg.  He  studied  at  ^lunich,  where  he  became 
prott's>or  in  1808;  he  was  appointed  in  1879 
under-secretary  to  the  Ministry  for  Alsace-Lor- 
raine; he  was  retired  in  1887,  and  became 
docent  (1891)  and  professor  (1895)  in  the  Uni- 
vcrfsity  of  Strassburg. .  In  1898  he  was  called 
to  Munich.  He  founded  the  Zeitachrift  des 
bayrischen  statisHschen  Bureaus  (1869)  and 
Das  allgemeine  siatistische  Archiv  (1887); 
and  wrote:  Die  Qesetzmassigkeit  im  Oesell- 
schaftslehen  (1877);  Zur  Reichsfinanz-Reform 
(1893);  Statistik  und  Gesellschaftslehre  (1895- 
97);  Die  Pflicht  im  Wirt  schaftslehen  (1900); 
Flotte  und  Finanzen  (1900)  ;  Orundriss  zu  Vor- 
lesungen  ilber  praktische  Xationalokonomie 
(1900  »q.)  ;  and  Zolltariffcntwurf  und  Wissen- 
srhaft  (1901.) 

MAYB,  or  MAYEB,  Johann  Simon  (1763- 
1845).  A  German-Italian  dramatic  composer, 
born  at  Mendorf,  Bavaria.  His  father  was  a 
miisieian,  and  the  boy  studied  under  him  and  at 
a  Jesuit  seminary  at  Ingolstadt,  and  later  under 
Lenzi  at  Bergamo,  Italy,  where  he  settled  per- 
manently. In  1791  an  oratorio,  Jacob  a  Labano 
Fufjims,  was  so  successful  that  he  was  com- 
iiiissionod  to  write  three  more,  and  in  1794 
he  produced  his  first  opera,  Saffo,  ossia  i  riti 
<d\\poUo  Lcucadio.  During  the  next  twenty 
years  he  wrote  about  seventy  operas,  which 
were  only  surpassed  in  popular  favor  by  those 
of  Rossini.  In  1802  he  became  chapel-master 
at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  in  Bergamo,  and  while 
there  refused  the  offers  of  posts  at  London, 
Paris.  Dresden,  and  Milan.  He  was  also  pro- 
fessor of  composition  in  the  music  school  of 
Bergamo,  and  Donizetti  was  one  of  his  pupils. 
His  best  operas  were:  Lodoiska  (1795)  ;  Ginevra 
di  Scozia  (1801):  ^f€dia  (1812);  and  Rosa 
bianoa  e  Rosa  rossa  (1814).  He  was  blind  for 
a  number  of  years  before  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred at  Bergamo.  In  1852  a  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  that  city. 

MAY  SUCKEB.     A  fish.     See  Citlips. 

MAYS'VILLE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  ^lason  County,  Ky.,  64  miles  southeast  of 
Cincinnati;  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  on  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Ohio  and  the  Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville railroads  CNIap:  Kentucky,  H  2).  It  has 
the  Maysville  and  Mason  County  Public  Library, 
incorporated  in  1878.  Odd  Fellows  and  Masonic 
temples,  and  Beechwood  Park.  There  are  impor- 
tant commercial  interests,  the  city  being  the 
centre  of  a  fine  apicultural  country,  and  its  in- 
dustries are  represented  by  cotton  mills,  ice  fac- 
tories, flour,  saw,  and  planing  mills,  foundries, 
distilleries,  cigar,  chewing  tobacco,  furniture,  and 
shoe  factories,  presst^d  brick  plants,  and  plow 
and  pulley  works.  Settled  as  early  as  1784,  Maya- 
Tille  was  incorporated  as  a  town  by  the  Virginia 
I>egislature  in  1787,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city 


in  1833,  becoming  a  fourth-class  city  sixty  years 
later.  In  1848  it  was  made  the  county -seat. 
Population,  1900,  6423;   1905    (local  est.),  8000. 

ICAYWEED  (older  Eng.  maicioeed,  variant 
of  mayihiwecd;  influenced  by  popular  etymology 
with  i/oj/,  the  fifth  month).  Dog  Fennel 
{Anthemis  Cotula).  A  plant  of  the  order  Com- 
positap,  growing  in  pastures  and  meadows.  It  is 
a  native  of  Europe,  but,  although  widely  spread 
in  America,  it  is  not  an  aggressive  weed. 

MAYWOOD.  A  village  in  Cook  County,  TIL, 
on  the  Des  Plaines  River,  seven  miles  west  of 
Chicago,  on  the  Chicago  Great  Western,  the  Chi- 
cago and  North -Western,  and  the  Chicago  Junc- 
tion railroads  (Map:  Illinois.  E  2).  The  most 
important  industry  of  the  village  is  the  tin-plate 
works.     Population,  in  1900,  4532. 

KAZADE,  mA'zAd',  Chables  de  (1820-93). 
A  French  publicist,  l)om  at  Castel-Sarrazin 
(Tarn-et-Oaronne).  He  studied  law  at  Tou- 
louse, and  afterwards  became  a  contributor  to 
the  French  periodicals.  He  became  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  and  from 
1852  to  1858,  and  again  from  1865  until  his  death 
directed  its  department  of  politics.  His  publica- 
tions include:  VEspagne  moderne  (1855); 
L'Ftalie  moderne  (1860);  La  Pologne  contem- 
poraine  (1863);  L'ltalie  et  les  lialiens  (1864); 
Lamartine^  sa  He  Uttthaire  et  politique  (1872)  ; 
La  guerre  de  France  ( 1875)  ;  Le  eotnte  de  Cavour 
(1877);  and  he  edited  the  Correspondence  du 
inarcchal  Davout   ( 1887  ) . 

MAZAGAN,  mft'z6-f^in',  A  seaport  of  Mo- 
rocco, Africii,  situated  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
about  110  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Morocco,  of 
which  it  is  the  port  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  brisk 
trade  in  agricultural  products,  fruit,  and  wool. 
The  foreign  trade  for  1904  exceeded  $3,586,000, 
and  tlio  ship])ing  entered  was  over  218,000  tons. 
The  setthMiunt  was  founded  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1500.  The  population  is  estimated  at  6000,  in- 
cluding a  number  of  European  merchants  and  eon- 
siilar  agents. 

MAZAKET,  mA'zA'mft'.  A  town  in  the  De- 
partment of  Tarn.  France,  situated  about  50 
miles  east-southeast  of  Toulouse  (Map:  France, 
8.,  G  5).  It  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  cloth,  flannel,  and  leather.  Population, 
in  1901,  13,978. 

MAZAKDEBAN,  mn'zAn-dc-rSn'.  A  northern 
province  of  Persia,  soiith  of  the  Caspian  Kea, 
boimded  respectively  east,  south,  and  west  by 
Astrabad.  Irak-Ajami.  and  the  Elburz  Moun- 
tains and  Gilan  (Map:  Persia,  D  3).  It  is  about 
200  miles  long  by  50  miles  broad,  with  an  esti- 
mated area  of  10.000  square  miles.  The  surface 
sinks  from  the  elevated  wooded  ranges  of  the 
southern  Elburz  to  an  extensive  level  along  the 
sea,  and  is  watered  by  numerous  streams.  The 
climate  is  malarial.  Tlie  chief  minerals  are  iron 
ore  and  petrolcnni  and  its  by-products.  The 
ground  in  many  parts  is  swampy,  but  fertile,  and 
rice,  cotton,  snirar-cane.  fruit-trees,  and  the  mul- 
berry for  the  silk  industry  are  largely  cultivated. 
Fishing  is  an  important  industry,  as  also  is 
grazing,  horses,  rattle,  sheep  and  goats,  being 
raised  in  great  numbers.  Tliere  is  a  consider- 
able export  trade  with  Russia  of  silk,  caWare, 
and  agricultural  products,  the  imports  bein^ 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  cutlery,  and  tobacco. 
Population,  estimated  at  300.000.'    Capital,  Sari. 


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323 


ICAZATIiAN. 


MAZANDEBANI,  iml'zan-de-ra^ii^.  The  na- 
tives of  Mazanderan,  or  Taberistan,  in  Northern 
Persia,  on  the  Caspian  Sea.  They  speak  a 
dialect  of  Persian  which,  like  the  speech  of  the? 
neighboring  Province  of  Ghilan,  has  peculiarities 
justifying  its  classification  as  a  special  form  of 
the  Persian  tongue.  The  Mazanderani  are  of 
smaller  stature  than  the  people  of  the  highlands, 
well-proportioned,  with  regular  features,  bushy 
eyebrows,  and  abundant  hair. 
'mAZABIN,  mA'z&'rJLN^  Jules  (1602-61).  A 
Cardinal  and  Prime  Minister  of  France  during 
the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  bom  July 
14,  1602,  at  Piscina,  in  the  Abruzzi,  Italy,  his 
father  being  intendant  of  the  household  of  Philip 
Colonna.  He  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  College 
at  Rome,  and  later  accompanied  Jerome  Colonna 
to  the  Spanish  University  of  Alcalft,  where  he 
studied  law,  but  also  indulged  in  gambling  and 
love-making — practices  whicli  were  continued  at 
Salamanca.  On  returning  to  Rome,  Mazarin 
became  a  doctor  of  canon  and  civil  law,  and  en- 
tered the  Pope's  military  service  as  a  captain  of 
infantry  in  the  Colonna  regiment.  His  talents, 
however,  were  more  diplomatic  than  military, 
and  after  being  employed  on  several  political 
missions  in  Italy  he  accompanied  the  Papal 
legate  to  the  Court  of  France,  and  there,  about 
1628,  became  known  to  Richelieu,  who  perceived 
his  peculiar  talents  and  engaged  him  to  maintain 
the  French  interests  in  Italy.  This  he  did  while 
still  employed  by  the  Pope  as  vice-legate  to 
Avignon  (1632)  and  nuncio  to  the  French  Court, 
an  oflBce  to  which  he  was  appointed  in  1634.  The 
Spaniards  complained  of  his  partiality  for 
France,  and  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  recall  him. 
In  1639,  however,  he  openly  entered  the  service 
of  Louis  XIII.,  was  naturalized  a  Frenchman, 
and  in  1641  received  a  cardinal's  hat,  through 
the  influence  of  Richelieu,  who,  when  dying, 
recommended  Mazarin  to  the  King  as  the  only 
person  capable  of  carrying  on  his  political  sys- 
tem. Mazarin's  position  was  one  of  great  diffi- 
culty amid  the  intrigues,  jealousies,  and  strifes 
of  the  earlier  years  of  Louis  XIV.'s  minority. 
The  Queen  mother.  Anne  of  Austria,  was  at  first 
hostile  to  him,  but  although  she  was  declared 
pole  regent  and  guardian  of  the  young  King, 
Mazarin  kept  his  place  as  Minister,  and  soon 
made  hiAself  indispensable  to  her  by  his  won- 
derful business  qualities,  while  the  exquisite 
charm  of  his  manner  eventually  gained  her  heart. 
It  is  said,  in  fact,  that  a  secret  marriage  took 
place  between  the  Queen  Regent  and  her  Prime 
Minister,  but  this  has  never  been  absolutely 
proved.  The  result  of  the  close  alliance  between 
the  Queen  and  himself  w^s  that  Mazarin  ruled 
with  almost  as  unlimited  sway  as  Richelieu  had 
done.  The  Parlement  of  Paris,  thinking  to  con- 
quer political  power,  resisted  the  registration  of 
edicts  of  taxation ;  but  Mazarin  caused  the  lead- 
ers of  the  opposition  to  be  arrested,  upon  which 
began  the  disturbances  of  the  Fronde  (q.v.). 
Twice  compelled  to  retire  from  Court,  he  made 
a  triumphant  entry  into  the  capital  in  1653,  and 
in  a  short  time  had  regained  his  former  power. 
In  the  internal  government  of  the  country 
those  principles  of  despotism  were  established 
on  which  Louis  XIV.  afterwards  acted.  Mazarin 
continned  Richelieu's  foreign  policy,  waging  war 
Tigorcrasly  against  the  Hapsburg  power  in  Aus- 
tria and  Spain;  his  most  important  diplomatic 
acts  were  in  connection  with  the  Peace  of  West- 


phalia in  1648,  and  that  of  the  Pyrenees  in  1659. 
The  administration  of  justice  in  France  under 
Mazarin  became  very  corrupt,  and  the  commerce 
and  finances  of  the  country  underwent  a  great 
depression.  As  a  financier  Mazarin  was  far  in- 
ferior to  Richelieu.  He  was  avaricious,  and  en- 
riched himself  at  the  expense  of  the  country.  He 
died  at  Vincennes,  March  9,  1661.  His  magnifi- 
cent library  he  bequeathed  to  the  College  Mazarin 
at  Paris.  The  best  idea  of  Mazarin  is  obtained 
from  his  correspondence,  published  by  Ch4ruel, 
"Lettres  du  cardinal  Mazarin  j>endant  son  minis- 
t^re,"  in  the  Collection  de  documents  incdits  sur 
Vhistoire  de  France,  first  series  (Paris,  1872-94). 
Consult,  also:  Mason,  Mazarin  (London,  1886)  ; 
Cousin,  Jeunesae  de  Mazarin  (Paris,  1865)  ;  Per- 
kins, France  Under  Mazarin  (New  York,  1894)  ; 
Ch^ruel,  Histoire  de  France  sous  le  ministdre  de 
Mazarin,  16511661  (Paris,  1882). 

MAZAB-I-SHEKIF,  m&zar'-^she-ref'.  A 
fortified  town  of  Afghan  Turkestan,  situated 
about  20  miles  southeast  of  Balkh  (Map:  Af- 
ghanistan, K  3).  It  manufactures  swords  and 
other  weapons,  and  attracts  many  pilgrims  on 
account  of  the  tomb  of  the  Prophet  Ali,  which 
it  contains.  In  the  vicinity  are  mineral  springs. 
Population,  estimated  at  25,000. 

MAZABB6n,  m&'thiir-r6n^  A  town  of  South- 
eastern Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Murcia,  sit- 
uated 21/.  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  coast, 
16  miles  west  of  Cartagena  (Map:  Spain,  E  4). 
In  the  neighboring  mountains  are  mines  of  iron 
and  argentiferous  lead,  and  the  town'  contains 
several  metallurgical  establishments,  besides 
soap  factories  and  flour  mills.  A  railroad  five 
miles  long  connects  it  with  its  port  in  the  small 
Bay  of  Mazarr6n,  where  there  is  a  good  road- 
stead and  a  lighthouse.  At  this  port  is  located 
one  of  the  largest  and  best  lead-smelting  estab- 
lishments of  Spain,  capable  of  producing  125  tons 
of  lead  daily.  There  is  abjo  considerable  trade 
in  lead  and  ores,  machinery,  coal,  and  timber. 
Population,  in  1887,  16,445;  in  1900,  23,362. 

MAZASy  vah'zk',  Prison  of.  A  prison  in  Paris 
in  which  the  first  trial  of  solitary  confinement  was 
made  in  France.  It  was  built  between  1845  and 
1850  to  replace  the  prison  of  La  Force,  and 
contained  1200  cells  arranged  in  six  converging 
galleries.  It  stood  on  the  Boulevard  Mazas 
(now  the  Boulevard  Diderot),  and  was  officially 
known  as  Maison  d*arrH  cellulaire.  The  build- 
ing was  demolished  in  1900. 

MAZATEC,  ma'zi-tSk^  A  Zapotecan  tribe 
occupying  the  districts  of  Teotitlan  and  Cui- 
catlan,  in  Northeastern  Oaxaca,  Mexico.  They 
are  agricultural  and  are  noted  silk-raisers,  weav- 
ing gorgeous  fabrics  of  that  material,  and  hav- 
ing many  curious  beliefs  and  tabus  in  connection 
with  the  tending  of  the  silkworms. 

MAZATLAN,  ma'sA-tlRn'.  A  seaport  in  the 
State  of  Sinaloa,  Mexico,  situated  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Gulf  of  California  (Map:  Mexico, 
F  6).  It  is  a  well-built  and  picturesque  town, 
and  has  a  handsome  city  hall,  a  nautical  school, 
and  two  hospitals.  A  street  railroad  runs 
through  the  town,  which  is  lighted  by  gas.  The 
harbor  is  the  best  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  has 
direct  steamship  communication  with  San  Fran- 
cisco and  other  towns  along  the  coast.  The  chief 
exports  are  silver,  pearls,  copper,  lead,  dyewoods. 


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ICAZATLAK. 


224 


MAZZBL 


and  skins.  Population,  in  1900,  17,852.  In  1903 
the  bubonic  plague  made  its  appearance  at  the 
port.  Great  excitement  prevailed,  and  many 
deaths  resulted. 

MAZDAK,  m^d&k  (470-T).  A  Persian  re- 
former, who  founded  a  religious  and  social  sect 
that  existed  for  a  time  and  were  known  as 
Mazdakites,  after  his  name.  He  was  born  at 
Persepolis,  and  belonged  ori^nally  to  the  Magian 
faith,  being  a  priest  at  Nishapur.  He  became 
imbued  with  communistic  and  reformatory  views 
and  preached  the  doctrine  not  alone  of  the 
equality  of  mankind,  but  the  community  of 
property,  including  women,  and  the  consequent 
abolition  of  marriage  laws.  Simplicity  in  man- 
ner of  life  and  dress,  and  abstinence  from  animal 
food,  except  milk  and  eggs,  were  enjoined.  He 
succeeded  in  converting  to  his  faith  King  Kavadh, 
or  Kobad  (a.d.  488-531)  ;  but  a  revolution  of  the 
nobles,  urged  on  doubtless  also  bj  the  jealous 
Magian  clergy,  resulted  in  dethroning  the  King 
and  placed  Jamasp,  his  brother,  on  the  throne 
(A.D.  497).  Three  years  later  Kobad  was  re- 
stored to  power,  and  for  political  purposes  he  out- 
wardly recanted  his  Mazdakite  views.  Toward 
the  end  of  his  reign,  suspecting  State  intrigues 
by  the  Mazdakites,  he  allowed  Mazdak  and  thou- 
sands of  his  followers  to  be  put  to  death.  Traces 
of  the  sect  lingered  on  in  the*  neighborhood  of 
Hamadan  as  late  as  the  Seljukid  era. 

MAZE,  mAz,  Hippoltte  (1839-91).  A  French 
historian  and  politician,  bom  at  Arras.  He 
entered  the  Ecole  Normale  Sup6rieure  in  1859, 
became  a  fellow  in  history  in  1863,  and  taught 
at  the  lyc6es  of  Cahors,  Saint-Quentin,  Angers, 
and  Versailles.  He  was  appointed  a  prefect  in 
1870.  Th«  next  year,  however,  he  returned  to 
teaching,  and  became  first  professor  of  history 
at  the  Lyc^  Fontanes  in  Paris.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1879  as  a  Repub- 
lican and  reelected  in  1881.  From  1886  until 
his  death  he  was  Senator  from  Seine-et-Oise. 
Among  his  publications  are:  La  rdpuhlique  dea 
Etata-Unis  d'AmMque,  aa  fondation  (1869); 
Hoche  en  Vendue  (1882)  ;  and  La  lutte  contre  la 
mia^e  (1883). 

MAZEP^A,  Ivan  Stkfanovitch  (1640- 
1709).  A  leader  of  the  Cbssacks,  bom  in  the 
Russian  Government  of  Kiev,  of  a  noble  family. 
He  became  a  page  in  the  service  of  John  Casimir, 
King  of  Poland.  A  Polish  nobleman  surprised 
him  in  an  intrigue  with  his  wife,  bound  him 
naked  on  his  own  horse,  and  lashed  the  ani- 
mal out  into  the  steppes.  The  horse  carried  him 
to  his  own  distant  residence — not  to  the  Ukraine, 
as  has  been  often  said;  but  Mazeppa,  out  of 
shame,  fled  to  the  Ukraine,  joined  the  (Cossacks, 
rose  to  high  distinction  among  them,  overthrew 
their  hetman,  Samilovitch,  and  in  1687  was 
elected  in  his  place.  He  won  the  confidence 
of  Peter  the  Great,  who  loaded  him  with  honors 
and  made  him  Prince  of  the  Ukraine;  but  on 
the  curtailment  of  the  freedom  of  the  Cossacks 
by  Russia,  Mazeppa,  hoping  to  achieve  complete 
independence,  entered  into  negotiations  with 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  joined  him  with  a  con- 
siderable band,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Poltova,  in  1709,  after  which  he  fled  to  Bender, 
and  there  died  in  the  same  year.  His  story  has 
been  widely  treated  in  painting,  poetry,  the 
novel,  and  the  drama,  notably  by  Byron  in  his 
poem  Mazeppa. 


MA2uBANI6,  ma'zhlRJ-ra'nfch,  Ivan  (1814- 
90).  A  Croatian  poet  and  statesman,  born  in 
Novi.  He  studied  at  Fiume  and  Agram,  and 
practiced  law  for  several  years.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  promoting  the  national  spirit 
of  the  Croats,  and  wrote  the  influential  mani- 
festo Hrvati  Magjarom  (*The  Croats  to  the  Mag- 
yars*) (1848).  He  was  made  procurator-general 
of  Croatia  and  Slavonia  in  1850.  Afterwards 
he  became  first  Chancellor  <^  Croatia  and 
Slavonia  (1861),  and  from  1873  to  1880  was 
Ban,  or  Governor,  of  Croatia.  Maluranic  is 
one  of  the  most  representative  as  well  as  the 
greatest  of  Croatian  poets.  His  poems  first  ap- 
peared in  the  Danica  iliraka  (The  Star  of 
Illyria')  in  1835.  His  masterpiece  is  the  epic 
poeni  on  the  death  of  Ismail  Cengicf,  Smrt  8mail- 
age  CengiAi  (1846). 

MAZXTSKAy  m&-zniSr^k&  (Pol.,  Mazur  dance, 
so  named  from  the  Mazurs,  a  branch  of  the 
Polish  nation  inhabiting  Masovia,  in  Russian 
Poland,  and  a  district  in  East  Prussia).  A  na- 
tional Polish  dancer  in  triple  time  and  moderate 
tempo.   Its  principal  rhythm  is     J    j     ^^ 

Frequently  the  musical  phrase  ends  with  the  see- 
ond  neat,  so  that  the  third  becomes  an  up  beat  to 
the  next  bar.  The  history  of  the  mazurka  goes 
back  to  the  sixteenth  century,  when  it  was  a 
song  accompanied  by  a  dance.  Augustus  III. 
(1733-63)  introduced  it  into  Germany,  and  from 
that  country  it  spread  to  France  and,  about  1845, 
to  England.  The  Russian  mazurka  differs  from 
its  original  prototype  in  that  it  may  be  danced 
by  any  number  of  people,  while  the  Polish 
mazurka  is  generally  performed  by  either  four 
or  eight  couples.  The  steps  and  even  the  figures 
are  frequently  varied.  Chopin  revolutionized  the 
mazurka.  He  extended  its  form  and  introduced 
characteristic  Polish  melodies,  leaving  prac- 
tically only  the  national  character. 

MAZZABA  DEL  VAI/LO,  m&t-&a^r&  d§l 
valid.  A  city  in  the  Province  of  Trapani, 
Sicily,  13  miles  by  rail  from  Marsala,  on  the 
Mediterranean  (Map:  Italy,  6  10).  A  massive 
wall  36  feet  high  encircles  the  city,  which  has 
many  interesting  ruins.  Its  cathedral  and 
castle,  dating  from  the  Norman  period,  and  the 
archiepiscopal  palace  are  the  most  attractive 
buildings.  The  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring 
region  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  an  im- 
portant trade  is  carried  on  in  barley,  com,  olive 
oil,  fruit,  cotton,  and  wine.  Mazzara  del  Vallo, 
the  ancient  Mazara,  was  settled  by  colonists 
from  Selinus,  and  figured  prominently  in  the 
early  history  of  the  island.  Population,  in  1901 
(commune),  20,130. 

MAZZABINO,  mUt's&-r6^n6.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Caltanissetta,  Sicily,  situated  about 
35  miles  east  of  Girgenti  (Map:  Italy,  J  10). 
It  has  an  old  castle  and  sulphur  springs  in  the 
vicinity.  Its  products  consist  of  fruit,  vegeta- 
bles, and  wine.  Population,  in  1901  (com- 
mune), 16,355. 

MAZZEI,  m&t-sa'^,  Philip  (1730-1816).  An 
Italian  physician,  author,  and  traveler,  a  native 
of  Tuscany.  In  December,  1773,  he  went  to 
Virginia  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  grape 
and  olive  culture  in  that  colony.  There  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Thomas  Jefferson,  and 
later,  after  his  return  to  Italy,  corresponded 
with  him.  From  1779  to  1783  he  was  the  official 
agent   of    Virginia    in    Italy    for    the    purchase 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MAZZEI. 


225 


HAZZINI. 


ef  arms,  ammuDition,  and  supplies,  and  in  1785 
he  revisited  America.  The  correspondence  be- 
tween him  and  Jefferson  was  renewed  after  this 
second  visit,  and  in  April,  1796,  Jefferson  wrote 
to  him  the  famous  'Mazzei  letter.'  In  it  he  bit- 
terly attacked  the  Federalist  leaders  (including, 
by  implication,  Washington)  for  their  'monar- 
chist ic'  tendencies,  and  declared  that  democracy 
was  being  betrayed  by  "men  who  were  Samsons 
in  the  field  and  Solomons  in  the  council,  but  who 
have  had  their  heads  shorn  by  this  harlot,  Eng- 
land." The  letter  was  translated  into  Italian 
and  published  in  an  Italian  paper,  translated 
into  French  and  published  in  the  Moniteur  at 
Paris,  w^here  it  was  seen  by  an  American  by 
whom  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  sent 
to  the  United  States,  where  it  appeared  in  print 
in  May,  1797,  soon  after  Jefferson's  inaugura- 
tion as  Vice-President.  Its  publication  raised  a 
furor  am9ng  the  Federalists,  who,  in  their  feel- 
ing against  Jefferson,  even  suggested  his  impeach- 
ment. Mazzei  subsequently  became  a  privy  coun- 
cilor to  the  King  of  Poland,  and  later  in  life 
was  pensioned  by  the  Czar  of  Kussia.  He  wrote 
Recherches  hiatoriques  et  politiques  sur  lea  Etats- 
Unis  de  VAm^rique  septentrionale  (1788). 

KAZZINI,  m&t-s^n^,  Giuseppe  (1808-72). 
An  Italian  patriot  prominently  connected  with 
the  struggle  for  Italian  unity  and  the  repub- 
lican movement  throughout  Europe.  He  was 
bom  in  Genoa,  June  28,  1808,  studied  at  the 
University  of  Genoa,  and  practiced  law  in  his 
native  city.  In  1827  his  first  essay  in  litera- 
ture, "Deir  amor  patrio  di  Dante,"  appeared 
in  the  Liberal  journal  /{  Suhalpino;  and  he  sub- 
sequently contributed  critical,  literary,  and 
political  papers  to  the  Antologia  of  Florenoer 
and  the  Indicator e  Oenovese.  In  the  pages  of 
the  latter  originally  appeared  the  essay  subse- 
quent Iv  republished  under  the  title  of  Scritti 
d*un  Italiano  vivente.  In  1830  Mazzini  joined 
the  Carbonari  (q.v.)  and  at  once  became  an 
active  and  influential  member.  He  was  soon 
arrested,  detained  for  six  months  in  the  fortress 
of  Savona,  and  finally  liberated  on  condition  of 
his  departure  from  Italy.  After  short  resi- 
dences in  several  places,  he  made  his  home  in 
Marseilles,  and  thence  addressed  to  Charles  Al- 
bert of  Sardinia  the  famous  letter  which  caused 
him  to  be  condemned  to  perpetual  banishment. 
Having  become  convinced  that  the  Carbonari  was 
not  efllcient  for  the  work  of  Italian  regenera- 
tion, Mazzini  now  undertook  the  organization 
of  a  new  liberal  league.  Young  Italy  (1831). 
This  organization  sought  to  secure  the  over- 
throw of  all  existing  Italian  governments  and 
the  union  of  the  peninsula  under  a  republican 
government.  In  addition  to  its  paramount  aim, 
the  general  principles  of  this  association  enforced 
the  obligation  .to  labor  for  a  common  moral 
regeneration  and  the  establishment  of  political 
equality  over  the  world.  Liberty,  equality,  and 
humanity  were  the  watchwords  of  the  body; 
education  and  insurrection  the  great  agencies 
of  its  operations;  assassination  was  erased 
from  its  statutes,  and  the  symbolic  dagger  of 
the  Carbonari  was  replaced  by  the  more  humane 
emblems  of  a  book  and  the  cypress.  The  white, 
red,  and  green  tricolor  fiag  of  the  society  became 
that  of  the  new  Italian  nation.  Mazzini  was  the 
animating  spirit  of  this  league,  which  was  the 
parent  of  similar  associations  adapted  to  the 
individual  requirement  of  the  various  European 


nationalities.  In  1834  Mazzini  planned  an  armed 
invasion  of  Savoy  from  Switzerland,  and  on  Feb- 
ruary  Ist  an  attack  was  made  on  some  custom- 
house officials  at  the  frontier  of  Savoy;  but  the 
undertaking  failed  utterly.  In  1837  Mazzini 
quitted  Switzerland  for  England,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  London.  There  he  maintained  in- 
cessant activity  in  literary  propaganda,  and  was 
in  touch  with  political  agitators  of  his  own  coun- 
try, Poland,  and  other  countries.  He  wrote  much 
for  various  periodicals,  on  literary  subjects,  com- 
munism, education,  music,  etc.  After  the  Febru- 
ary Revolution  of  1848  Mazzini  went  to  Milan, 
where  he  was  a  resolute  opponent  of  the  proposed 
annexation  of  the  smaller  Italian  States  to  Sar- 
dinia. He  retired  to  Switzerland  on  the  capitu- 
lation of  Milan  to  the  Austrians,only  to  reappear 
in  Florence  on  the  rising  in  Tuscany.  He  beoume 
a  member  of  the  Provisional  Government,  and 
when,  almost  simultaneously,  Rome  was  pro- 
claimed a  republic,  he  was  sent  there  as  a 
Deputy,  and  was  elected  triumvir.  On  the  tak- 
ing of  Rome  by  the  French  troops  under  Oudinot, 
he  went  to  Switzerland  and  thence  returned  to 
London.  He  bitterly  attacked  the  course  of 
France  in  public  letters  to  De  Tocqueville  and 
others.  At  his  instigation,  as  president  of  the 
Italian  National  Committee,  risings  in  Milan 
(1853)  and  in  Genoa  (1857)  were  auempted.  In 
1859,  while  lending  the  whole  weight  of  his  in- 
fluence to  the  revolutionary  movements  going  on 
in  Italy,  he  combated  the  threatened  French  in- 
tervention. He  assisted  in  organizing  Garibaldi's 
expeditions  of  1860,  1862,  and  1867.  Thoi^h  re- 
peatedly elected  by  Messina  to  the  Italian  Parlia- 
ment, Mazzini  refused  to  take  his  seat  under  a 
monarchical  government.  In  1866  the  Italian 
Government  abrogated  the  sentence  of  death  un- 
der which  Mazzini  had  been  living  for  many 
vears,  but  he  refused  to  accept  a  "pardon  for 
having  loved  Italy  bevond  all  earthly  things." 
In  1868  he  fell  into  a  dangerous  illness,  from  the 
effects  of  which  his  health  never  recovered, 
though  his  zeal  remained  as  ardent  as  ever. 
After  an  ineffective  scheme  for  a  republican  ris- 
ing in  Sicily  in  1870,  Mazzini  ventured  to  enter 
Italy,  and  was  arrested  at  Gaeta,  where  he  re- 
mained a  prisoner  till  Rome  was  occupied  by 
the  Italian  army.  On  his  death,  at  Pisa,  March 
10,  1872,  the  Italian  Government  accorded  him 
a  public  funeral.  Of  the  value  of  Mazzini's 
services  to  the  cause  of  Italian  independence 
there  are  widely  differing  opinions.  Republican- 
ism was  a  cardinal  principle  with  him,  to  which 
he  adhered  with  inflexible  tenacity,  never  being 
willing  to  yield  his  personal  conviction  to  the 
actual  necessities  of  Italy  as  did  Manin,  Gari- 
baldi, and  Crispi.  Hence  he  antagonized  the  Sar- 
dinian monarchy,  and  obstructed  the  work  of 
Cavour.  His  impassioned  writings  often  led  less 
noble  spirits  into  deeds  that  he  would  not  at 
all  approve.  Mazzini  possessed  in  the  highest 
degree  that  personal  fascination  by  which  friends 
are  converted  into  ardent  partisans.  In  his  pri- 
vate life  he  was  a  model  of  purity  and  frugal 
simplicity,  as  in  his  public  career  he  was  con- 
spicuous for  disinterestedness  and  self-abnega- 
tion. 

A  comprehensive  edition  of  Mazzini's  works, 
in  eighteen  volumes,  f^critti  edite  ed  inedite, 
appeared  in  Milan,  1861-91.  Editions  of  his 
letters  were  published  at  Milan  in  1875,  at  Rome 
in     1885,    and    at    Turin    in     1888.     Consult: 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ICAZZINI. 


226 


HEAD. 


^a^di,  Giuseppe  Mazsini,  la  vita,  gli  acritti  e  le 
«iie  do/ <Hiie(  Milam,  1872)  ;  Count  Schack,  Mazzini 
und  die  italienische  Einheit  (Stuttgart,  1891); 
Sinioni,  Uisioire  dca  conspirations  mazsiniennes 
(Paris,  1870)  ;  Mario,  Mazzini  nella  sua  vita  e 
nel  suo  apostolato  (Milan,  1891)  ;  Bouiller,  Vn 
roi  et  un  conspirateur — Victor  Emanuel  et  Maz- 
zini (Paris,  1885)  ;  Saffi.  11  pensiero  politico  e 
sodale  de  Giuseppe  Mazzini  (Rome,  1887);  E. 
A.  V.  (Mme.  Ashurst-Venturi),  Memoir  of 
Joseph  Mazzini,  with  two  essays  (London, 
1877)  ;  Linton,  Recollections  of  Mazzini  and  His 
Friends  (London,  1892).  See  Cavour;  Gabi- 
BALDi;  Italy. 

MAZZOLINI,  mkVsd-Wn^,  Lodovico  (1479- 
1528).  An  Italian  painter,  born  at  Ferrara, 
whose  real  name  was  Mazzuoli,  though  Vasari 
calls  him  ^Malino.  He  studied  at  Bologna  under 
Lorenzo  Costa.  His  best  pictures  are  small  in 
size  and  of  a  fresh,  exquisite  coloring,  and  he 
has  been  considered  the  finest  painter  of  the 
Ferrarese  School.  "(?lirist  with  the  Doctors" 
(1524)  in  the  Berlin  Gallery  is  considered  his 
masterpiece,  and  there  are  pictures  by  him  in 
many  of  the  great  European  museums. 

KAZZONX,  mAt-si/n^  Guido  (?-1518).  An 
Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Modena  and  called 
II  Modanino.  After  the  capture  of  Naples  by 
Charles  VIII.  in  1494,  he  went  to  France  and 
stayed  there  for  about  twenty  years.  Many  of 
his  works  have  been  destroyed;  those  that  re- 
main, notably  that  of  a  group  round  the 
Sepulchre,  which  is  in  the  Church  of  Monte 
Oliveto  at  Naples,  show  uncommon  technique 
and  a  realistic  treatment  not  usual  in  that  age. 
Other  works  by  him  are  in  the  Church  of  San 
Giovanni  Decollato  and  the  Duomo  at  Modena; 
their  material  is  terra-cotta. 

MAZZONI,  Guido  (1859—).  An  Italian 
poet  and  critic,  bom  at  Florence.  He  studied 
at  Pisa  and  Bologna,  was  made  professor  of 
Italian  language  and  literature  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua  in  1887,  and  occupied  the  same 
position  at  the  Florence  Institute  from  1894. 
Like  many  of  the  younger  Italian  poets,  he 
was  at  first  a  disciple  of  Carducci,  but  after- 
wards his  expression  became  more  individual. 
His  criticism  is  marked  by  a  pure,  elegant  style 
and  an  evident  knowledge  of  foreij^  literatures. 
His  works  include:  Meleagro  da  Gadara  (1880) ; 
Esperimenti  mctrici  (1882);  In  Bihlioteca 
(1882-86);  Focsie  (1883);  Xuove  poesie 
(1886)  ;  Rasscgne  litterarie  (1887)  ;  Tra  libri  e 
carte  (1887);  Poesie  (1891);  Voei  della  vita 
(1893);  and  II  teatro  della  rivoluzionCf  La 
vita  di  Molidrc  e  altri  scritti  di  letteratura  fran- 
cese   (1894). 

MAZZUCHELU;  mat'sCo-kfiPl^,  Giovanni 
Maria,  Count  (1707-65).  An  Italian  writer 
on  science  and  literature.  He  studied  juris- 
prudence, then  turned  to  scientific  research.  In 
1737  he  published  his  Notizie  storiche  e  cri- 
tiche  interna  alia  Hta  e  agli  scritti  d*Archimede. 
His  principal  work  was  the  compilation  of  a  great 
cyclopapdia  of  Italian  literature  and  science  from 
the  beginnings  of  Italian  civilization,  Scritiori 
d'ltalia,  ciod  notizie  storiche  e  critirhe  intomo 
alle  vite  e  agli  scrittori  de*  letterati  italiani. 
This  task  he  did  not  live  to  complete.  He  also 
wrote  biographies  of  Scipio  Capece  and  Giusto 
de'  Conti;  and  be  edited  Villani's  series  of 
biographies  of  illustrious  Florentines. 


MAZZUOLA,  m&t'sSS-dOA,  Fbancesco.  See 
Pabmiqiano. 

MEAD  (AS.  medu,  OHG.  metu,  mito,  Ger. 
Meth;  connected  with  Ir.  meadh,  Welsh  medd, 
mead,  OChurcli  Slav.  medU,  Lith.  medus,  Lett. 
maddus,  honey,  Gk.  fUBv,  methy,  mead,  Av.  madu, 
wine,  Skt.  madhu,  honey,  sweet).  A  fermented 
liquor  made  from  honey.  The  honey  is  mixed 
with  water,  and  fermentation  is  induced  and 
conducted  in  the  usual  manner.  Mead  has  been 
in  use  from  very  ancient  times,  and  was  known 
equally  to  the  nations  of  Southern  Europe  and 
the  barbarous  tribes  of  more  northern  regions. 
Pliny  says  it  has  all  the  bad  qualities  of  wine, 
but  not  the  good  ones.  The  Latin  name  is 
hydromeli. 

HEAD,  mSd,  Edwin  Doak  (1849—).  An 
American  author  and  editor,  bom  in  Chesterfield, 
N.  H.  In  1866  he  entered  the  employ  of  Ticknor 
&  Fields,  the  Boston  publishers.  From  1875 
until  1879  he  studied  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Leipzig,  and  upon  his  return  to  America  began 
to  lecture  on  American  literature  and  politics. 
In  1883  he  became  director  of  the  Old  South 
Historical  Work,  and  in  1890  succeeded  Edward 
Everett  Hale  as  editor  of  the  Xew  England 
Magazine.  His  publications  include  The  Phi- 
losophy of  Carlyle  (1881),  and  Martin  Luther: 
A  Study  of  the  Reformation  (1884). 

HEAD,  or  MEDE,  Joseph  (1586-1638).  A 
Church  of  England  theologian.  He  was  born  at 
Berden,  Essex.  While  a  boy  at  school  at 
Wethersfield  he  accidentally  picked  up  a  copy  of 
Bcllarmine*s  Hebrew  grammar,  and  soon  acquired 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  language.  He  grad- 
uated at  Clirist  Church,  Cambridge,  in  1610.  In 
1613  he  was  made  a  fellow  of  his  college,  and 
reader  of  the  Greek  lectures  on  Sir  Walter 
Mildmay's  foundation,  which  oflice  he  occupied 
till  his  death.  He  was  learned  in  mathematics, 
medicine,  and  various  branches  of  natural  sci- 
ence, history,  antiquities,  and  the  literature 
and  sciences  of  the  East.  His  chief  work  was 
Clavis  Apocalyptica  (1627),  translated  into  Eng- 
lish in  1643,  which  has  been  called  the  first  ra- 
tional attempt  to  interpret  the  Apocalypse.  His 
complete  works  were  published  at  London,  1648- 
52;  new  edition  with  life,  1672. 

HEAD,  Labkin  Goldsmith  (1835 — ).  An 
American  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Chesterfield, 
N.  H.  He  studied  imder  Henry  K.  Brown,  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  His  earliest  work  in  marble 
was  called  "The  Recording  Angel."  In  1857,  he 
modeled  the  colossal  statue  "Vermont,"  for  the 
dome  of  the  State  House  at  Montpelier.  "Ethan 
Allen"  adorns  the  same  building.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  was  for  six  months  an  artist  for 
Harper's  Weekly.  Since  1862  he  has  resided 
chiefly  at  Florence.  There  he  executed  a  niunber 
of  statuettes,  such  as  "Echo,"  "La  Contadinella," 
"Sappho,''  "Mountain  Boy,"  and  "The  Returned 
Soldier"  (1866).  His  other  works  include  the 
Lincoln  monument  at  Springfield,  111.;  the  sol- 
diers' monument  at  Saint  Johnsbury,  Vt. ;  "Co- 
lumbus's Last  Appeal  to  Isabella";  the  statue  of 
Ethan  Allen  (1874)  in  the  National  Statuary 
Hall  at  Washington;  and  the  group,  'The  Return 
of  Proserpine  from  the  Realms  of  Pluto,"  in 
the  main  entrance  of  the  agricultural  build- 
ing  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago. 
He  executed  a  group  of  the  Stanford  fam- 
ily   for    the    Stanford    University,    California* 


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ICE  AD. 


327 


HEADE. 


which  was  partly  destroyed  in  the  earthquake  of 
1906.  Among  his  other  works  of  note  have  been 
a  colossal  statue,  **The  Mississippi  River,"  and 
portraits  in  bronze  of  the  late  John  Hay,  \V.  D. 
Howells,  and  Henry  James.  His  work  is  charac- 
terized by  fine  decorative  feeling  and  by  a  skill- 
ful accentuation  of  light  and  shade. 

MEAD,  lUcHABD  ( 1673-1  ;54).  An  Euglish 
physician.  He  was  born  at  Stepney,  and  at  an 
early  age  entered  the  university  at  Utrecht. 
After  three  years*  study  he  went  to  Leyden, 
where  he  entered  upon  the  study  of  medicine 
under  the  noted  Professors  Pitcaime  and  Her- 
mann. Having  taken  his  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy  and  physics,  he  returned  to  Stepney 
and  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  1696. 
In  1703  Dr.  Mead  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society,  and  a  lecturer  at  Saint  Thomas's 
Hospital.  His  reputation  both  as  a  practitioner 
and  as  a  writer  on  medical  subjects  was  very 
great,  and  he  was  in  constant  correspondence 
with  the  most  eminent  scientists  of  the  day  in 
his  own  and  foreign  countries.  He  received  the 
appointment  of  physician-in-ordinary  to  George 
II.,  and  in  1716  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
College  of  Physicians.  In  addition  to  bis  ac- 
quirements as  a  physician,  Dr.  ^lead  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  natural  history, 
antiquarianism,  and  numismatics.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Bentley,  Pope,  and  Johnson. 
His  works  were  first  published  in  I^tin,  and 
subsequently  translated  into  English,  French, 
and  Italian.  They  include  A  Mechanical  Account 
of  Poisons  (1702)  and  Monita  et  Prcecepta 
Medioa  (1751). 

"TRADE,  Geobge  Gokdon  (1815-72).  An 
Ameriean  soldier,  bom  of  American  parentage 
at  Cadiz,  Spain,  December  31,  1815.  He  at- 
tended school  in  Philadelphia,  Washington,  and 
Baltimore;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835, 
and  served  in  the  Seminole  War.  In  October, 
1836,  he  resigned  from  the  army,  adopted  the 
profession  of  civil  engineer,  and  between  1837 
and  1842  was  employed  as  an  assistant  engineer 
in  the  surveys  made  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment of  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  the 
Texas  boundary,  and  the  northeastern  boundary 
of  the  United  States.  In  1842  he  was  reap- 
pointed to  the  army  as  a  second  lieutenant  in 
the  corps  of  topographical  engineers.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  when 
General  Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  he  was 
ordered  to  the  front,  and  ser\'ed  with  distinction 
throughout  the  war.  Later  he  was  employed  in 
superintending  river  and  harbor  improvements, 
and  in  the  construction  of  lighthouses  on  Dela- 
ware Bay  and  olf  the  coast  ot  Florida.  He  was 
promoted  to  be  first  lieutenant  in  1851  and 
eaptain  in  1856,  and  had  charge  of  the  national 
survey  of  the  northern  lakes  until  1861.  At  the 
outbreak  ol  the  Civil  War  he  was  ordered  to 
Washington;  was  commissioned  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  August  31,  1861,  and  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  second  brigade  of  the  Penn- 
Bjlvania  reserve  corps.  He  was  in  the  action 
at  Drancsville,  Va.,  December  20th;  was  at 
Mechanicsrille,  June  26,  1862,  and  at  the  battle 
of  €laines*8  Mill  on  the  following  day;  and 
served  with  his  reserves  throughout  the  Penin- 
sular campaign,  being  severely  wounded,  June 
80th,  at  the  battle  of  Frazier's  Farm.  On 
August  29-30,  having  recovered  from  his  wound. 


he  was  engaged  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run;  and  in  September  took  command  of  a 
division  of  the  First  Army  Corps.  At  the  battle 
of  Antietam  he  was  slightly  woimded  and  had 
two  horses  shot  under  him.  In  recognition  of 
iiis  gjillantry  in  this  battle  he  received  com- 
mand of  the  Fifth  Army  Corps,  and  on  No\'em- 
l>er  29,  1862,  was  commissioned  major-general  of 
volunteers.  He  was  engaged  in  the  battles  of 
Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville,  covering 
the  retreat  at  Chancellorsville  with  his  corps 
and  guarding  the  crossings  until  the  entire  army 
was  safely  over  the  Rappahannock.  On  June  28, 
1863.  he  was  unexpectedly  ordered  to  succeed 
General  Hooker  in  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac.  The  main  army  of  the  Confe<ler- 
ates,  xmder  General  Lee,  had  invaded  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  it  devolved  upon  Meade  to  arrest  this 
movement  and  drive  back  the  enemy.  Por- 
tions of  Lee*s  army  had  reached  York,  CarlLsle, 
and  the  Susquehanna;  but  upon  the  advance  of 
the  Federal  army  these  were  called  in.  On  July 
1st  tlie  hostile  armies  met  at  Gettysburg,  and 
a  three  days'  battle  ensued,  which  resulted  in 
the  utter  discomfiture  of  Lee,  who,  however,  was 
not  pursued  with  any  vigor.  (See  Gettysburg, 
Battle  of.)  For  this  victory  Meade  was  publicly 
thanked  bv  a  resolution  of  Congress,  passe<l  Jan- 
uary 28,  1866.  From  :May  4,  1864,  to  April  9, 
1865,  General  Meade  commanded  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  imder  General  Grant,  through  the 
bloody  struggle  in  the  Wilderness,  and  until 
the  surrender  of  Lee.  On  August  18,  1864,  he 
was  commissioned  a  major-general  in  the  Ignited 
States  Army.  At  the  close  of  the  ^var  he  wns 
placed  in  command  of  the  Military  Division  of 
the  Atlantic,  which  command  he  retained  from 
July  1,  1865,  to  August  6,  1866.  During  the 
years  1866-67  he  was  in  command  of  the  Depni-t- 
ment  of  the  East,  and  subsequently  of  the  third 
military  district  of  the  South  (luider  the  re- 
construction lawp) .  From  March,  1869,  until  his 
death,  he  was  again  in  command  of  the  Military 
Division  of  the  Atlantic.  He  died  on  November 
6,  1872.  Citizens  of  Philadelphia  presented  him 
with  a  house,  and  after  his  death  a  fund  of  $100,- 
000  was  collected  by  subscription  and  presented 
to  his  family.  Consult:  Bache,  Life  of  General 
O.  G.  Meade  (Philadelphia,  1897)  ;  and  Penny- 
packer,  General  Meade  (New  York,  1901),  in  the 
*'Great  Commanders  Series." 

inSADE,  RicnARD  Worsam  (1837-97).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  New  York  City. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1850; 
became  navigating  officer  of  the  Cumberland  in 
1856;  cooperated  with  General  Sherman  as  com- 
mander of  a  division  ©f  the  squadron  off  Helena, 
Ark.,  in  breaking  up  guerrilla  warfare  on  the 
Mississippi  River  in  1862-63;  commanded  the 
marines  in  New  York  City  during  the  draft  riots 
there  in  July,  1863;  and  subsequently  served 
with  distinction  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  West 
Gulf  blockading  squadrons.  After  the  close  of 
the  war  until  1868  he  acted  as  head  of  the  de- 
partment of  seamanship  and  naval  tactics  at  the 
ignited  States  Naval  Academy.  He  then  served 
for  a  time  in  Alaska,  and  from  1871  to  1873,  in 
command  of  the  Narragansett,  cruised  in  the 
Pacific.  After  his  return  he  acted  as  president 
of  the  board  appointed  to  revise  the  ordnance 
instructions  of  the  navy.  He  was  promoted  to 
be  captain  in  March,  1880.  and  to  be  commander 
in  May,   1892.     He  was  naval  commissioner  of 


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MEADE. 


228 


MEADOW-LABK. 


the  Government  to  the  World's  Columhian  Ex- 
position at  Chicago,  and  succeeded  Admiral 
Stanton  in  command  of  the  North  Atlantic 
squadron  in  1894.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
promoted  to  be  rear-admiral,  but  a  disagreement 
between  him  and  the  Navy  Department  led  to  his 
retirement  at  his  own  request  in  May,  1895. 

MEADE,  William  (1789-1862).  Protestant 
Episcopal  Bishop  of  Virginia.  He  was  bom 
near  Millwood,  Va.;  was  graduated  at  Princeton 
in  1808,  studied  theology,  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1814;  was  assistant  clergyman  in  his 
native  parish  at  Millwood;  from  1811,  pastor 
of  Christ  Church,  Alexandria,  D.  C,  for  eighteen 
months,  and  afterwards  rector  at  Millwood.  In 
1829  he  was  appointed  Assistant  Bishop  and  in 
1841  Bishop  of  Virginia.  He  contributed  lib- 
erally to  the  foundation  of  the  Diocesan  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Alexandria.  He  was  an 
active  member  of  the  American  Colonization 
Society,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Evangelical  Knowledge  Society  (1847).  In  1861 
he  labored  to  prevent  the  secession  of  Virginia, 
but  acquiesced  when  that  action  was  finally 
determined  upon.  His  principal  literary  produc- 
tions are :  Lectures  on  Family  Prayers  ( 1834 )  ; 
Letters  on  the  Duty  of  Affording  Religious  In- 
struction to  Those  in  Bondage  (1834);  Com- 
panion to  the  Font  and  the  Pulpit  (1846); 
Lectures  on  the  Pastoral  Office  (1849);  Rea- 
sons for  Loving  the  Episcopal  Church  ( 1857 ) ; 
Old  Churches,  Ministers,  and  Families  of  Vir- 
ginia (1857)  ;  and  The  Bible  and  the  Classics 
( 1861 ) .  A  memorial  of  Bishop  Meade  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Johns  (Baltimore, 
1867). 

MEADOW  (AS.  moBd,  OFries.  mede,  meadow, 
OHG.  m<ita-screch,  grasshopper,  Ger.  Matte,  mead- 
ow; probably  connected  with  OHG.  mcen,  Ger. 
mAhen,  AS.  mdwan,  Eng.  mow,  Lat.  metere,  Gk. 
dfiAv,  aman,  to  reap,  Olr.  mcithel,  party  of  reap- 
ers). A  tract  of  low,  level  land,  especially 
upon  the  margin  of  a  stream,  in  which  the 
dominant  plant  forms  are  grasses.  Prairies 
(q.v.)  may  be  considered  as  extensive  meadows. 
Some  writers  hold  that  meadows  are  the  product 
of  artificial  conditions;  others  that  they  are 
natural  formations.  It  seems  scarcely  to  be 
doubted  that  alpine  meadows  are  natural, 
either  because  trees  fail  to  obtain  a  foothold  on 
account  of  snow-slides  or  because  the  snow  re- 
mains long  in  such  situations,  and  grasses  take 
possession  during  the  short  summer  if  there  is 
sufficient  soil  moisture.  Along  streams,  meadows 
are  probably  due  to  continued  grazing  or  mow- 
ing, because  tree  vegetation  may  be  kept  down 
by  such  agencies.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  ex- 
tremely unfavorable  for  the  development  of 
trees,  which  might  fail  to  develop  even  in  a 
region  specially  favorable  to  tree  growth,  since 
seeds  would  germinate  with  difficulty.  Hence 
a  meadow  may  perpetuate  itself  naturally,  even 
though  originally  artificial.  Besides  the  grasses, 
other  plants  are  found  in  meadows,  among  which 
are  many  species  of  vernal  herbs,  which  mature 
before  mowing  time  arrives.  Some  botanists,  as 
Wettstein,  believe  that  plants  have  acquired  cer- 
tain habits  which  adapt  them  to  life  in  meadows 
that  are  annually  mowed. 

From  an  agricultural  standpoint  a  meadow 
is  either  a  lowland  or  an  iipland  field  upon 
Avhich  hay  or  pasture  grasses  grow  from  self- 


sown  or  hand-sown  seed.  They  are  also  per- 
manent or  temporary  as  well  as  natural  and 
artificial.  When  the  grasses  are  fed  down  by 
stock,  meadows  are  called  pastures.  For  artifi- 
cial meadows  the  soil  is  plowed  deeply  and 
brought  to  the  very  best  condition  before  the 
seed  is  sown.  A  rich,  clean  soil  of  fine  tilth 
adds  greatly  to  the  weight  of  the  crop.  Fre- 
quently grass  seed  is  sown  with  small  grain  as 
a  nurse  crop,  but  the  practice  is  not  always 
successful,  since  the  faster  growing  cereal  de- 
prives the  young  grasses  of  light,  and  they  con- 
sequently fail.  The  best  method  is  to  sow  the 
grass  seed  broadcast  without  a  nurse  crop. 
Timothy,  red-top,  fescue-grass,  orchard-grass, 
oat-grass,  rye-grass,  blue  grass,  bent-grass,  and 
many  other  grasses  are  very  commonly  grown 
either  as  mixtures  or  alone.  Timothy  is  often 
grown  as  a  single  crop.  Clover  is  frequently 
added  to  a  grass  mixture.  When  a  mixture  is 
grown  for  hay,  grasses  which  bloom  about  the 
same  time  are  selected,  but  when  used  for  pas- 
ture species  that  ripen  at  difiTerent  times  are 
preferred.  Mowing  machines  and  other  imple- 
ments have  quite  revolutionized  haymaking 
within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  have  enabled  the 
farmer  to  make  use  of  more  extensive  meadows 
than  when  all  the  work  was  done  by  hand.  See 
also  Hay  and  Pastubes. 

MEADOW  FESCUE.     See  Fescue. 

MEADOW  FOXTAIL.  A  valuable  fodder 
grass.    See  Foxtail  Grass. 

MEADOW  OBASS.  A  name  applied  to 
many  of  the  numerous  species  of  the  genus  Poa, 
which  are  chiefiy  natives  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  parts  of  the  world,  and  form  a  very 
important  part  of  the  herbage  of  pastures  and 
meadows.  Most  of  the  species  are  slender  and 
of  delicate  appearance,  tender,  nutritious,  and 
rather  abundant.  The  rough-stalked  meadow 
grass  {Poa  trivialis)  and  the  blue  grass  or 
smooth-stalked  meadow  grass  {Poa  pratensis) 
are  among  the  most  common,  and  are  esteemed 
among  the  most  valuable  for  sowing  in  mixtures 
of  grasses  for  pasture.  The  Abyssinian  meadow 
grass  (Poa  Ahyssinica) ,  an  annual  species,  yields 
immense  returns  of  herbage  in  its  native  coun- 
try. Its  seeds  are  used  as  grain  for  making 
bread.  Beer  is  made  by  putting  slices  of  this 
bread  into  warm  water,  the  temperature  of  which 
is  kept  up  in  a  closed  vessel  for  some  days.  Poa 
annua  is  a  common  species,  frequently  found  as  a 
weed  in  cultivated  grounds,  but  it  is  employed 
with  advantage  for  sowing  on  lawns  in  towns, 
and  wherever  from  any  cause  perennial  grasses 
are  apt  to  be  destroyed.  It  is  often  to  be  seen 
in  flower,  and  is  said  to  ripen  its  seeds  in  four 
or  five  weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing.  It  is 
very  abimdant  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The 
name  is  sometimes  given  to  species  of  Alopecurus, 
which  are  more  commonly  known  as  foxtail  grass 
(q.v.). 

MEADOW-LABK.  A  North  American  star- 
ling-like bird  frequenting  meadows  and  open 
places.  Few  American  song  birds  are  more  gen- 
eral favorites.  This  is  not  a  lark  at  all,  but 
belongs  to  the  family  Icteridae,  and  is  therefore 
a  near  relative  of  the  bobolink,  oriole,  and  black- 
bird. The  genus  (Sturnella)  contains  only  one 
well-marked  species,  the  common  meadow-lark 
( Sturnella  magna )  of  the  Eastern  United  States, 


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229 


MEAGHEB. 


but  there  are  several  subspecies  which,  though 
they  may  not  differ  much  in  color,  exhibit 
marked  peculiarities  in  habit  and  song.  The 
common  meadow-lark  ranges  in  summer  from 
New  Brunswick  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  even  in  winter  only  retreats 
as  far  south  as  Soutbern  New  England  and 
Illinois.  The  Western  meadow-lark  (variety  ne- 
glecta)  occupies  the  western  half  of  the  con- 
tinent and  extends  southward  into  Western 
Mexico,  while  other  subspecies  occur  in  Cuba 
and  Mexico.  Meadow-larks  are  about  ten  and 
three-quarters  inches  in  length,  with  large  feet 
and  a  long,  straight,  sharp  bill.  The  feathers  of 
the  upper  surface  are  prevailingly  black,  with 
rufous  and  buff  borders  and  tips,  so  that  the 
whole  upper  surface  is  variegated  with  those  three 
colors.  The  throat,  breast,  and  anterior  half 
of  the  belly  are  bright  yellow,  with  a  prominent 
black  crescent  about  the  middle  of  toe  breast. 
The  tail  feathers  are  narrow  and  short,  and  when 
the  bird  takes  to  the  wing  the  white  outer  ones 
become  very  conspicuous.  The  Western  meadow- 
lark  has  lighter  upper  parts,  more  perfect,  less 
confluent  bars  on  the  tail  feathers,  and  the 
sides,  as  well  as  the  front,  of  the  throat  are 
yellow.  The  notes  of  the  meadow-lark  are  clear 
and  strong — a  sort  of  cheerful  whistle — but 
Chapman  says  that  they  differ  in  different  lo- 
calities, so  that  the  notes  of  the  Florida  birds 
are  markedly  different  from  those  heard  in  the 
Northern  States.  The  notes  of  the  Western 
meadow-lark  are  famous  for  their  musical  qual- 
ity. The  contrast  between  its  brilliant  song  and 
that  of  the  Eastern  form,  added  to  other  peculiar 
trait«,  convince  many  students  of  the  full  specific 
rank  of  the  Western  bird.  Consult  on  this  point 
Coues,  Birds  of  the  'Sorthweat  (Washington, 
1874). 

Meadow-larks  feed  upon  both  seeds  and  in- 
sects, which  they  obtain  upon  the  ground  in  the 
open  meadows  and  fields.  In  summer  they  are 
not  gregarious,  though  several  pairs  may  be  seen 
in  neiOTiboring  fields;  but  in  winter  they  are 
often  found  in  swamps  in  some  numbers.  The 
nest  is  built  upon  the  ground,  and  is  composed 
of  grasses,  so  arranged  as  to  arch  over  at  the 
top  and  make  a  more  or  less  completely  covered 
shelter.  The  eggs  (see  Colored  Plate  of  Eggs 
OF  Song  Birds)  are  four  to  six  in  number,  large 
for  the  size  of  the  bird,  white,  marked  chiefly 
at  the  larger  end  with  bright  brown.  Although 
not  a  game  bird,  meadow-larks  are  frequently 
hunted,  both  for  sport  and  food,  but  they  are 
not  especially  desirable  for  the  table,  and  the 
shooting  of  them  is  nearly  everywhere  illegal. 
See  Plate  of  Larks  and  Starlings. 

HEADOW  HOUSE.  The  American  name  for 
the  short-tailed  wild  mice  of  the  genus  Micro- 
tus  of  the  class  called  'Sroles"  in  Europe.  The 
commonest  species  is  the  widespread  Microtua 
Pennsylvanicus,  called  in  the  older  books  Arvi- 
cola  riparia.  Many  other  species  and  subspecies 
are  catalogued.    See  Mouse. 

MEADOW  MUSSEL,  or  Horse  Mussel.  See 
Mussel. 

MEADOW  SAFFBON.  A  European  plant. 
See  CoLCHicuM. 

MEADOW  SNIPE.  A  gunner's  name  for 
snipe  frequenting  grassy  places,  especially  Wil- 
son's and  the  jack  snipe.  (See  Snipe.)  The 
marsh-hens    and    corn-crake    are    often    called 


meadow  crake  or  drake,  meadow  clapper,  etc., 
by  sportsmen. 

MEADOW-SWEET.    A  plant.    See  Sphlea. 

MEAD^VUXE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Crawford  County,  Pa.,  122  miles  by  rail  north 
of  Pittsburg;  on  French  Creek,  and  on  the  Erie 
and  the  Bessemer  and  Lake  Erie  railroads  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  A  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  Alle- 
gheny College  (Methodist  Episcopal),  estab- 
lished in  1815,  and  of  the  Meadville  Theological 
School  (Unitarian),  opened  in  1844,  and  has 
four  schools  of  music,  two  city  hospitals,  and 
a  public  library.  Among  the  prominent  struc- 
tures are  the  court-house,  college  buildings,  First 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  Lafayette 
Block.  Other  noteworthy  features  are  Huide- 
koper,  Diamond,  and  Oakwood  parks,  three  iron 
bridges,  and  the  fair  grounds  and  race  track. 
Meadville  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural  valley,  and 
its  industries  are  represented  by  railroad  shops 
of  the  Erie,  the  Phoenix  iron  works,  malleable 
iron  works,  vise  works,  planing  mills,  breweries, 
a  distillery,  chocolate  chip  works,  etc.  The  city 
is  also  an  important  market^  and  a  shipping 
point  for  the  oil  regions.  The  government  is 
administered,  under  a  charter  of  1889,  by  a 
mayor,  chosen  every  three  years,  and  a  bi- 
cameral council,  which  elects  the  solicitor,  civil 
engineer,  and  city  clerk,  and  confirms  the  execu^ 
tive's  appointments  to  a  number  of  minor  offices, 
the  treasurer,  controller,  and  assessors  being 
elected  by  the  people.  Settled  in  1788,  Mead- 
ville became  a  borough  in  1823  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1866.  Population,  1900,  10,291 ;  1906 
(local  est.),  11,250. 

MEAFOBD,  m^fdrd.  A  lake-port  town  of 
Grey  County,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  Nottawasaga 
Bay,  an  inlet  of  Georgian  Bay,  Lake  Huron,  20 
miles  west- northwest  of  Collingwood,  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railroad  (Map:  Ontario,  C  3).  It 
has  a  fine  harbor,  factories,  several  mills,  and  an 
agricultural  trade.  Population,  1901,  1916;  1906 
(local  est.),  3000. 

MEAGHEB,  ma^H§r,  Thokas  Fbancis  (1823- 
67).  An  Irish-American  soldier.  He  was  bom 
in  Waterford,  Ireland,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Jesuit  College  of  Clongowes  Wood,  and  at  Stony- 
hurst  College,  Lancashire,  England.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  of  1848  he 
was  sent  to  Paris  by  the  Irish  Confederation  to 
congratulate  the  republican  leaders.  On  his  re- 
turn, he  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  sedition, 
tried  for  high  treason,  found  guilty,  and  sen- 
tenced to  death;  but  subsequently  the  sentence 
was  changed  to  banishment  for  life  to  Tas- 
mania. Transported  thither,  he  escaped  in  1852 
and  succeeded  in  reaching  New  York.  In  1855 
he  began  to  practice  at  the  New  York  bar, 
and  the  following  year  became  the  editor  of  the 
Irish  News.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
in  1861,  he  organized  a  company  of  zouaves, 
joined  the  Sixty-ninth  Regiment,  New  York  Vol- 
unteers, was  acting  major  at  the  first  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  and  after  serving  the  three  months 
of  the  first  call,  returned  to  New  York  and 
organized  the  Irish  brigade,  being  commissioned 
brigadier-general  on  February  3,  1862.  He  served 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  Peninsular  campaign, 
and  participated  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
and  in  the  battles  of  Antietam  'and  Fredericks- 
burg, in  the  last  of  which  he  was  seriously 
wounded    while    leading   a    charge    on   Marye'g 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


miAQHEBi. 


230 


MEALYWINQ. 


Heights.  He  resigned  temporarily,  but  was  re- 
commissioned  in  1864,  and  for  some  time  was  in 
command  of  the  District  of  Etowah.  He  was 
appointed  secretary  of  Montana  Territory  in 
I8ti5,  and  for  several  months  in  1866,  during  the 
absence  of  Governor  Kdgerton,  served  as  Gov- 
ernor pro  tern.  On  July  1,  1807,  he  fell  from  the 
deck  of  a  steamer,  at  Fort  Benton,  on  the  upper 
Missouri,  and  was  drowned.  lie  published 
Speeches  on  the  Legislative  Independence  of  Ire- 
land (1852)  and  Last  Days  of  the  Sixty-ninth 
yew  York  Regiment  in  Virginia. 

MEAGBE,  or  MAIGRE  (OF.,  Fr.  matgrc, 
lean,  from  Lat.  macer,  lean;  connected  witli  Gk. 
fULKp6sj  inakroSy  long).  Any  of  several  European 
drum  fish  of  the  world-wide  genus  Sciuena.  The 
typical  meagre  is  Sciwna  aquila,  which  ranges 
from  Great  Britain  to  the  coasts  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  but  is  best  known  about  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  wliere  it  has  been  \QTy  highly 
esteemed  since  the  days  of  antiquity.  It 
reaches  a  length  of  six  feet,  but  ordinary  speci- 
mens are  about  half  that,  llie  color  is  brownish 
gray  on  the  back,  with  silvery  gray  sides  and  a 
white  abdomen.  It  has  always  been  highly 
valued,  especially  by  the  Italians,  but  to  English 
palates  the  llesh  seems  rather  dry  and  tasteless. 
A  closely  related  species  is  the  umbrine  {Soifsna 
umhrina)  J  also  one  of  the  favorite  food  fishes  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  taken  near 
Great  Britain  and  elsewhere. 

ITRATi.     See  Bread;    Flour. 

MEAIi  MOTH.  A  pyralid  moth  {Pyralis 
farinalis),  cosmopolitan  in  distribution,  which 
infests  milling  establishments  and  storerooms  and 
which  in  the  larval  stage  feeds  upon  stored 
grain,  bran,  and  even  straw,  and  occasionally 
upon  dried  plants  in  herbaria.  A  closely  allied 
species  {Pyralis  costalis)  is  known  as  the  clover- 
hay  worm.  There  are  probably  four  generations 
annually.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  small  clusters 
and  the  larvw  live  in  long  tubes  constructed 
of  silk  and  particles  of  meal  and  other  material, 
and  while  thus  incased  in  the  obscure  corners 
in  which  they  habitually  live  they  are  com- 
pletely concealed  from  obser\'ation.  Another 
species,  commonly  called  the  Indian-meal  moth 
{Plodia  interpunctella)  y  in  the  larval  stages 
feeds  not  only  upon  Indian  meal,  but  upon  all 
sorts  of  dried  vegetable  products,  such  as  peas, 
beans,  nuts,  acorns,  and  dried  fruit,  and  upon 
root  and  bark  preserved  in  drug  stores. 

l[£AIi  WOBM.  The  larva  of  eitlier  one  of 
two  or  more  beetles  of  the  family  Tenebrionid®, 
which,  originally  of  Asiatic  or  European  origin, 
have  become  cosmopolitan  enemies  of  meal,  flour, 
bran,  and  other  mill  products.  They  develop  in 
refuse  grain-dust  accumulated  in  dark  corners  and 
out-of-the-way  places  in  flour  mills,  bakeries, 
stores,  and  stables.  They  are  also  of  importance 
as  enemies  to  ship  biscuits  and  other  kinds  of 
crackers.  These  meal  worms  are  easily  bred  in 
confinement,  have  a  commercial  value  to  the  bird 
dealer,  and  are  kept  on  sale  in  bird  stores  as  food 
for  *soft-billed*  cage-birds.  The  yellow  meal 
worm  {TeneI)rio  molitor)  is  the  commonest  of 
these  insects.  The  beetle  is  over  half  an  inch  in 
length,  somewhat  flattened,  shining,  and  nearly 
black;  and  the  larva  is  cylindrical,  slender,  over 
an  inch  long,  find  has  a  waxy  appearance  and  a 
yellowish  color.  The  eggs  are  white,  bean-shaped, 
about  one-tw^entieth  of  an  inch  long,  and  are  de- 


posited in  the  meal  or  other  food  substance.  The 
dark  meal  worm  (Tenehrio  ohscurus)  is  very 
similar  to  the  yellow  meal  worm,  but  dull  black 
in  color ;  it  has  been  found  in  black  pepper,  phos- 
phate fertilizers,  cotton  seed  and  cotton  meals, 
and  in  commercial  soda  ash.  Perfect  cleanliness 
about  storerooms  and  milling  establishments  is 
the  best  preventive  of  the  attacks  of  these  in- 
sects, and  rooms  or  buildings  once  infested  may- 
be freed  by  the  use  of  disulphide  of  carbon  or 
hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  Consult  Chittenden,  Bul- 
letin 4y  y^io  Series,  Division  of  Entomology, 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington,  1896). 
MEALY  BUG.  A  naked  scale-insect  of  the 
genus  Dactylopius,  so  called  because  of  the  white, 
meal-like  powder  which  covers  it.  Like  other 
members  of  the  subfamily  Coccinap,  the  body  is 
not  covered  by  a  scale,  and  the  females  keep  the 
form  of  the  body  with  the  segments  distinct  until 
the  end,  and  also  retain  the  power  of  motion. 
The  antenna  of  the  female  are  six-jointed  in  the 
larva  and  eight-jointed  in  the  adult;  the  male 
larva  has  seven-jointed  antenme.  The  tarsi  are 
furnished  with  four  digitules,  and  the  anal  ring 
with  four  hairs.  Most  bf  the  mealy  bugs  are 
tropical  or  subtropical,  but  several  species  breed 
abundantly  out  of  doors  in  the  Southern  United 
States,  e.g.  Dactylopius  citri,  a  well-known  enemy 


THE  MEALY  BUG 

«,  Female  (enlarged);  b,  groap  of  mealj  bags  on  a  tree. 

of  orange  groves  in  Florida.  It  is,  however,  as 
greenhouse  pests  in  temperate  regions  that  the 
mealy  bugs  are  best  known.  They  secrete  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  honey  dew,  and  are  frequently  at- 
tended by  ants,  which  are  responsible  for  much 
of  the  spread  of  mealy  bugs  in  greenhouses,  since 
they  attend  the  young  bugs  and  carry  them  to 
appropriate  feeding  grounds.  The  mealy  secre- 
tion which  covers  these  bugs  renders  it  difficult 
to  destroy  them  with  some  of  the  insecticide  mix- 
tures, but  a  dilute  kerosetie-soap  emulsion  is 
efficacious.  Consult  Comstock,  Report  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (Wash- 
ington, 1880). 

MEALYWINQ.  A  bug  of  the  family  Aley- 
rodidap,  so  called  from  the  white,  meal-like  excre- 
tion on  the  wings  of  the  adult  insect.  The  mealy- 
wings  are  allied  to  the  aphids  and  scale- insects. 
They  are  very  small,  frequently  minute,  and  in- 
fest the  leaves  of  plants,  both  herbaceous  and  of 
trees,  usually  on  the  lower  side.  In  their  early 
stages  they  are  scale-like,  and  much  resemble 
some  of  the  Coccidae.  Unlike  the  Coccidae,  the 
two  sexes  develop  in  a  similar  manner,  and  both 
males  and  females  are  active  and  have  two  pairs 
of  wings.  In  the  early  stages  the  body  may  be 
more  or  less  covered  with  wax.  The  antemwe  of 
the  ndults  are  seven-jointed,  and  the  eyes  are 
usually  constricted  near  the  middle,  being  some- 
times entirely  divided.  The  wings  are  broad  and 
well-rounded,  and  may  be  clear  or  spotted  and 
banded  in  difi'erent  ways.    About  150  species  are 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEAiiYwnra. 


231 


MEAHIHO. 


imoHTi,  of  which  more  than  50  occur  in  the 
United  States.  The  most  destructive  species  is 
Aleyrod€8  cUri,  which  attacks  the  orange  and 
lemon  in  Florida  and  Louisiana,  and  causes  the 
leaves  to  turn  yellow  and  die.  They  secrete  a 
considerable  amount  of  honey  dew,  which  attracts 
the  sporefi  of  smut  fungi,  resulting  ultimately  in 
the  blackening  of  the  foliage  of  the  orange  trees. 

MEAN  (OF.  meien,  moieit,  Fr.  moyen,  from 
Lat.  medianus,  middle,  from  medius,  middle). 
In  mathematics,  a  term  interpolated  between  two 
other  terms  of  a  series.     The  arithmetic  mean 

a  4'  b 
of  twc  quantities  a,  h,  is  — ^  ;  their  geometric 


18  -|/a6,  and  their  harmotUo  mean  is 


2ab 


The  arithmetic  mean  is  greater  than  the  geo- 
metric mean,  and  the  latter  is  greater  than  the 
harmonic  mean.  In  averaging  observed  results 
of  physical  experiments,  the  mean  result  may  be 
found  by  dividing  the  sum  of  the  observed  re- 
sults by  the  number  of  observations.  But  in 
case  the  observed  results  are  not  regarded  as 
equally  accurate,  certain  numbers  may  be  as- 
signed to  these  results  representing  their  relative 
a«:uraey;  e.g.  four  men,  A,  B,  C,  D,  have  deter- 
mined the  area  of  a  triangle  and  found  19.50, 
19.75,  20,  and  20.25  square  meters,  respectively. 
If  the  relative  accuracy  of  their  work  may  be 
represented  by  the  numbers  3,  2,  2,  4  respective- 
ly, the  area  of  the  triangle  will  be  taken  as: 

319.50  + 219.75 -h  2-20  4  4-20.25 

3-1-2  +  2  +  4  -ly.yi. 

For  further  practical  methods  of  averages,  see 
Least  Squabes,  Method  of. 

JCEAN^'DEB.     A  river  of  Asia  Minor.     See 

M.£ANDEB. 

KEANINQ  (from  mean,  AS.  masnan,  OHG. 
meinan,  Ger.  mcinen,  to  think;  connected  with 
OChurch  Slav.  mCniti,  Skt.  man^  to  think).  The 
mental  processes  that  constitute  the  unanalyzed 
consciousnesses  of  ordinary,  everyday  experience 
are  always  surcharged  with  meaning  or  signifi- 
cance. Mind,  as  it  is  given,  is  mind  in  function; 
mental  stuff  that  stands  for,  represents,  sym- 
bolizes, refers  to,  objects  and  events  in  the  out- 
hide  world.  The  value  and  validity  of  such 
objective  reference  form  a  question  for  epistemol- 
«gy.  (See  Knowledge,  Theory  ok.)  But  the 
psychologist,  after  he  has  analyzed  consciousness 
into  its  simplest  structural  elements  (see  Ele- 
ments, Conscious),  and  has  traced  the  forma- 
tion of  the  more  complex  processes  from  connec- 
tions of  the  elements  (see  Association  of  Ideas; 
Fi'sion) — after,  that  is  to  say,  he  has  analyzed 
and  reconstructed  mind  without  regard  to  mind's 
significance  and  meaninf; — is  met  by  the  ques- 
tion: What  is,  in  psychological  terms,  the  vehicle 
of  meaning?  How  Ud  meanin*?  p^et  into  mental 
processes?  \Miat  are  the  processes,  or  what  the 
aspects  of  process,  that  'carry'  the  meaning  of  a 
given  psj'chical  complex? 

As  regards  what  we  may  term  the  'origin'  of 
meaning,  only  two  views  seem  to  be  possible. 
Mind  may,  at  its  first  appearance  in  the  world, 
have  been  meaningless;  and  meaning  may  have 
been  *worked  into'  it,  in  the  course  of  natural 
evolution.  This  view,  however,  presents  extreme 
difficulties.  It  is  not  hard  to  conceive  that  the 
meaningful  or  significant  aspect  of  mental  proc- 


ess should  have  been  refined  and  differentiated 
under  the  operation  pf  natural  selection;  but  it 
is  impossible  to  form  any  definite  idea  of  the 
way  in  which  an  organism  should  lay  hold  of 
meaningless  material,  and  press  it  into  service  as 
meaningfuL  We  have,  in  other  words,  a  reciur- 
rence  of  the  difficulty  which  characterizes  hetero- 
genetic  will  theories  (see  Will)  :  we  can  no  more 
derive  meaning  from  tlie  unmeaning  than  we  can 
derive  voluntary  action  from  the  physiological 
reflex.  The  alternative  view  is  thus  forced  upon 
us,  that  meaning  oUd  not  'get  into'  mind,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  it  was  always  there.  Mind  is 
'struck  out'  in  the  interaction  between  organism 
and  natural  environment;  and,  arising  as  it  did, 
could  do  nothing  else  than  mean.  A  mind  that 
should  not  mean  is  a  contradiction  in  terms: 
we  may  abstract  from  meaning,  in  our  laboratory 
dissections  of  consciousness,  as  we  abstract  from 
life  in  the  anatomical  laboratory;  but  a  mean- 
ingless mind  is  not  a  mind,  as  a  dead  organism 
is  not  an  organism.    See  Noetic  Consciousness. 

When,''  therefore,  we  come  to  our  other  ques- 
tion, regarding  the  processes  or  aspects  of  proc- 
ess that  form  the  vehicle  of  meaning,  we  find  an 
answer  ready  to  our  hand.  Mental  process  is 
intrinsically  meaningful;  any  process  can  carry 
meaning.  And  it  may  be  remarked,  by  the  way, 
that  this  fact  largely  accounts  for  the  short 
cuts  in  mental  function,  the  substitutions  of  proc- 
ess for  process  within  a  functional  formation 
(like  that  of  space  perception,  e.g.),  that  make 
mental  analysis  so  difficult,  and  render  a  lapse 
into  the  'psychologist's  fallacy'  a  matter  of  such 
fatal  ease.  (See  Introspection.)  On  the  other 
hand,  as  mind  advances  in  complexity,  it  be- 
comes necessary  that  arrangements  be  made  (if 
we  may  use  that  expression)  for  devolving  the 
carriage  of  meaning  upon  determinate  constitu- 
ents of  consciousness.  In  the  absence  of  such 
arrangements  the  grossest  confusion  would  result. 
To  take  a  simple  instance:  there  are  many  words 
which,  as  the  spelling-books  say,  are  pronounced 
alike  but  spelled  differently.  "The  rain  (reign) 
is  over  at  last!"  What  is  it  that  makes  one 
hearer  think  of  the  weather,  and  another  of  the 
Queen  of  England?  Why  does  the  auditory 
stimulus  mean  rain  to  the  one  and  reign  to  the 
other  ? 

In  replying  to  this  question,  we  must  remem- 
ber that  consciousness  is  a  complex  affair,  and 
that  its  range  is  wider  than  the  range  of  atten- 
tion (q.v.).  Hence  there  will  always  be,  in  a 
given  consciousness,  a  certain  *focar  process  or 
group  of  processes,  corresponding  to  the  range 
of  attention,  and  a  group  or  groups  of  obscurer 
'marginal'  processes  which  lie  beyond  that  range. 
Xow,  as  Bagley  puts  it,  the  "same  symbol  [e.g. 
word]  arouses  at  different  times  focal  references 
which  may  be  uniform  or  disparate,  consistent  or 
inconsistent;  and  yet  the  meaning  of  the  symbol, 
in  combination  with  other  symbols,  is  perfectly 
unequivocal."  The  required  uniformity  is  fur- 
nished, and  the  inconsistencies  compensated,  by 
the  marginal  context:  "the  meaning  is  a  function 
of  the  more  transitive  parts  of  consciousness,  the 
fringe  or  relations  which  we  feel  surrounding 
the  image"  (James).  The  ^arrangement*  spoken 
of  above  consists,  then,  in  the  relegation  of  the 
meaning-function  to  the  background  of  conscious- 
ness; that  constancy  of  adaptation  to  the  outside 
world,  which  becomes  impossible  to  the  focal 
processes  as   mental   development  advances  and 


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MEANING. 


282 


MEASLES. 


experience  widens,  but  which  is  nevertheless  nec- 
essary if  mind  is  to  remain  meanin^ul,  is  se- 
cured by  constancy  of  the  marginal  elements. 
One  man  hears  'ram/  because  the  fringe  of  felt 
relations  clustering  round  the  auditory  83rmbol 
puts  him  in  a  weather  mood;  another  hears 
*reign/  because  his  margin  puts  him  in  the  mood 
of  politics.  The  chief  constituents  of  the  mood 
are,  undoubtedly,  organic  sensations,  whereby 
the  organism  is  literally  'adapting*  itself  to  the 
reception  of  the  stimulus.  The  meaning- reac- 
tion may  become  so  automatic  that  the  margin 
thins  out  to  a  mere  thread  of  organic  process; 
or  it  may  demand  so  distinct  a  wrench  from  the 
present  topic  of  thought  that  the  shift  of  mood 
is  clearly  noticeable.  In  either  case  the  fringe 
is  essential  to  meaning.  We  have  all  noti<^ 
how  empty  and  meaningless  a  word  becomes 
when  we  have  repeated  it  over  and  over  again: 
we  listen  blankly  to  the  sound  of  it,  wondering  if 
we  are  ever  to  recover  the  idea  that  we  have 
used  so  long  and  found  so  useful.  But  all  that 
repetition  does  to  the  word  is  to  strip  it  of  its 
fringes.  There  could  hardly  be  a  more  striking 
proof  of  the  fact  that  mental  economy  has  shifted 
the  burden  of  meaning  from  the  centre  of  con- 
sciousness to  its  periphery.  Consult:  James, 
Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York,  1890); 
Bagley,  in  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  vol. 
xii.  (Worcester,  1900) ;  Titchener,  Primer  of 
Psychology  (New  York,  1900). 

MEABES,  m§rz,  John  (c.  1756-1809).  An 
English  navigator.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1771;  served  against  the  French  in  the  West 
India  Islands,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  peace 
became  captain  in  the  merchant  service.  He 
went  to  India  and  formed  at  Calcutta  what  was 
called  the  Northwest  America  Company  for  open- 
ing trade  with  Russian  America.  In  1786  he  ex- 
plored a  part  of  the  coast  of  Alaska.  He  went  to 
China  by  way  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  en- 
tered Nootka  Sound  (1788).  The  next  year  he 
sent  to  Nootka  Sound  three  ships  which  were 
seized  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  ground  that  Eng- 
lislhmen  had  no  right  to  trade  in  those  waters. 
The  act  caused  great  excitement  in  England  and 
a  large  fleet  known  as  the  'Spanish  Armament 
of  1790'  was  collected  to  punish  the  Spaniards, 
who  saved  themselves  only  by  making  ample 
reparation.  Meares  published  Voyages  Made  in 
th0  Years  1788  and  1789  from  China  to  the 
Northwest  Coast  of  America  (1790). 

MEABIM,  mft'&-r§N^  A  river  in  the  State 
of  Maranhao,  Brazil,  rising  in  the  Serra  do 
Negro  and  flowing  north  into  the  Bay  of  Sfto 
Marcos  near  the  city  of  Maranhao  ( Map :  Brazil, 
J  4).  It  is  about  350  miles  long  and  navigable, 
but  subject  to  very  sudden  and  violent  bores. 

MEABNS,  mftrnz.  A  county  of  Scotland. 
See  Kincardineshire. 

MEASLES  (from  MDutch  maselen,  masselen, 
spots;  connected  with  OHG.  masala^  masara, 
Ger.  Maser,  diminutive  of  OHG.  mdsa,  Ger.  Mase, 
spot,  mark  of  a  wound),  known  also  as  Rubeola 
and  MoRBiLiJ.  One  of  the  group  of  diseases 
termed  exanthemata  (q.v.).  It  is  communicable 
from  person  to  person,  and  seldom  occurs  more 
than  once  in  the  same  individual.  After  a  period 
of  incubation  of  about  a  fortnight,  appear  head- 
ache, slight  disturbance  of  the  stomach,  rise  of 
temperature  toward  evening,  lassitude,  slight  in- 


jection of  the  eyes,  with  trifling  coryza.  After  48 
to  72  hours,  coryza  is  marked.  In  the  mouth  are 
seen  the  signs  of  the  disease,  the  exanthema, 
"Koplik's  Spots."  These  are  isolated  rose-red 
spots,  with  a  minute  bluish-white  centre  on  nor- 
mally colored  mucous  membrane. 

The  eruption  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
disease  usually  appears  upon  the  fourth  day  from 
the  commencement  of  the  febrile  symptoms  and 
the  catarrh,  seldom  earlier,  but  not  imfrequent- 
ly  some  days  later.  It  is  a  rash,  consisting  at 
first  of  minute  red  papulse,  which,  as  they  mul- 
tiply, coalesce  into  crescentic  patches.  It  is  two 
or  tj^ree  days  in  coming  out,  beginning  on  the 
face  and  neck,  and  gradually  traveling  down- 
ward. The  rash  fades  in  the  same  order  as  it 
occurs;  and  as  it  begins  to  decline  three  days 
after  its  appearance,  its  whole  duration  is  about 
a  week.  The  red  color  gives  way  to  a  somewhat 
yellowish  tint,  and  the  cuticle  crumbles  away^ 
in  a  fine  bran-like  powder,  the  process  being 
often  attended  with  considerable  itcning. 

There  are  two  important  points  in  which  it 
differs  from  smallpox  (q.v.),  with  which  in  its 
early  stage  it  may  be  confounded;  they  are: 
(1)  That  the  fever  does  not  cease  or  even  abate 
when  the  eruption  appears,  but  sometimes  in- 
creases in  intensity;  and  (2)  that  the  disease  is  . 
not  more  severe  or  more  dangerous  because  the 
eruption  is  plentiful  or  early.  The  character 
of  the  eruption,  after  the  first  day,  will  serve  to 
remove  all  doubt  regarding  these  two  diseases; 
and  the  comparative  prevalence  of  either  disease 
in  the  neighborhood  will  materially  assist  in 
forming  the  diagnosis.  It  is  distinguished  from 
scarlet  fever  (q.v.),  or  scarlatina,  (1)  by  the 
presence  at  the  outset  of  catarrhal  symptoms, 
which  do  not  occur  in  the  latter  disease,  at  any 
rate,  prior  to  the  eruption;  (2)  by  the  absence 
of  the  throat-affection,  which  always  accompanies 
well-marked  cases  of  scarlet  fever;  (3)  by  the 
character  of  the  rash,  which  in  measles  is  said 
to  present  somewhat  the  tint  of  the  raspberry^ 
and  in  scarlet  fever  that  of  a  boiled  lobster; 
which  in  measles  appears  in  crescentic  patches, 
and  in  scarlet  fever  is  universally  diffused. 

In  ordinary  unccHU plicated  measles  the  prog- 
nosis is  almost  always  favorable.  The  chief 
danger  is  from  inflammation  of  some  of  the  tex- 
tures that  compose  the  lungs,  and  in  feeble  chil- 
dren it  often  leaves  chronic  bronchial  mischief 
behind  it.  No  age  is  exempt  from  the  disease, 
but  it  is  much  more  common  in  childhood  than 
subsequently,  a  second  attack  being  comparative- 
ly rare. 

In  mild  forms  of  the  disease  nothing  more  is 
requisite  than  to  keep  the  patient  on  a  low  diet, 
attend  to  the  state  of  the  bowels,  and  prevent 
exposure  to  cold,  which  is  best  accomplished  by 
keeping  him  in  bed  with  the  ordinary  warmth  to 
which  he  is  accustomed  in  health..  If  the  chest 
symptoms  become  urgent,  they  must  be  treated 
according  to  their  nature.  Bronchitis  (q.v.), 
sometimes  extending  into  pneumonia  (q.v.),  is 
most  to  be  feared.  If  the  eruption  disappears 
prematurely,  it  may  sometimes  be  brought  back 
by  placing  the  patient  in  a  warm  bath.  In  such 
cases  stimulants  are  often  required,  but  roust, 
of  course,  only  be  given  by  the  advice  of  the 
physician.  The  patient  must  be  carefully  pro- 
tected from  exposure  to  cold  for  a  week  or  two 
after  the  disease  has  apparently  disappeared,  as 
the  lungs  and  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels  are  for 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KEASLES. 


233 


HEASXmEMENT. 


tome  time  very  susceptible  to  inflammatory  at- 
tacks. 

fbccept  for  the  lesions  of  the  skin  there  are 
no  characteristic  pathological  changes  in  measles. 
As  in  other  infectious  diseases,  degenerations  in 
the  internal  organs,  especially  in  the  kidneys,  are 
not  uncommon.  Extension  of  the  catarrhal  in- 
flammation of  the  bronchi  to  the  lungs  frequent- 
ly results  in  a  broncho-pneumonia.  As  to  the 
specific  cause  of  the  disease  nothing  is  definitely 
Imown.  Canon  and  Rielicke  in  1892  reported  the 
disoovery  in  fourteen  cases  of  measles  of  a  pe- 
culiar bacillus  found  in  the  blood,  more  rarely  ^ 
in  the  catarrhal  exudate,  which  they  considered 
specific.  These  observations  as  yet  lack  confirma- 
tion. Others  claim  that  the  cause  is  possibly  a 
Plasmodium.  The  specific  agent  has  not  been 
isolated.  Consult  Koplik,  JHse<ise8  of  Infancy 
and  Childhood  (New  York  and  Philadelphia, 
1»06). 

KEASUBE  (OF.,  Fr.  meaure,  from  Lat.  men- 
9ura,  measure,  from  metiri,  to  measure).  In 
music,  the  smallest  metrical  division  of  a  move- 
ment or  piece,  represented  by  the  notes  or  rests 
comprised  within  two  successive  bars  of  the  staff. 
The  time-value  of  a  measure  is  a  fixed  unit,  de- 
pending on  the  character  of  the  time  which  gov- 
erns the  movement.  There  are  but  two  general 
kinds  of  time,  viz.  duple  time,  containing  an 
equal  quantity  of  notes  in  the  bar,  and  triple 
time,  containing  an  unequal  quantity.   See  Time. 

KEASTTBE  FOB  MEASTTBE.  A  comedy  by 
Shakespeare,  produced  in  1604,  printed  in  1023. 
The  plot  is  found  in  Cinthio's  **Hecatommithi,** 
in  the  romance  and  tragedy  Epitia,  It  was  used 
by  G.  Whetstone  in  his  play  Promos  and  Cos- 
tandra  (1578),  and  in  his  prose  tales  Hepta- 
meron  ojf  Civill  Discourses  (1582).  If  Shake- 
speare used  that  version,  he  took  from  it  merelv 
the  outline,  and  may  have  known  the  original. 
The  play  belongs  to  the  period  of  Othello,  Ham- 
let, the  revised,  and  King  Lear,  which  Darme- 
steter  calls  his  pessimistic  period.  Though 
called  a  comedy,  it  is  gloomy,  brightened  only 
by  the  character  of  Isabella.  After  the  Resto- 
ration it  was  revised  cmd  altere'd  by  D'Avenant 
as  The  Law  Against  Lovers  (1662),  and  later 
adapted  by  Gildon  (1700). 

MEA8XJBEMENT  of  Ships  fob  Tonnage. 
The  measurement  of  ships  to  determine  their 
tonnage  (q.v.)  is  now  made  in  practically  the 
same  way  by  all  maritime  nations.  The  old  rule 
in  the  United  States  was  established  by  act  of 
Congress  in  1799.  This  provided  that  the  ton- 
nage should  be  ascertained  as  follows:  From 
the  extreme  length  in  feet  deduct  three-fourths 
the  breadth;  multiply  the  remainder  thus  ob- 
tained by  the  breadth  and  this  product  by  the 
depth;  divide  the  last  product  by  95  and  the 
quotient  was  the  register  tonnage  for  payment  of 
dues.  In  this  rule  the  depth  of  a  double-decked 
vessel  was  arbitrarily  assumed  as  one-half  the 
breadth,  so  that  it  was  to  the  interest  of  ship- 
owners to  build  deep  ships  without  much  regard 
to  the  effect  of  the  deepening  upon  other  quali- 
ties. In  Great  Britain  a  somewhat  similar  rule 
obtained.  The  square  of  the  breadth  was  multi- 
plied by  the  inboard  length  and  the  product 
divided  by  94.  This  rule  had  the  same  effect 
on  ship  construction  as  that  of  the  United 
States;  and  the  rule  is  still  sometimes  employed 
in  yacht  and  pleasure  boat  measurement.     Ton- 


nage so  obtained  is  designated  as  'old  measure- 
ment'; thus,  320  tons  (O.M.). 

In  1835,  due  to  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Moorsom,  an 
act  of  Parliament  provided  for  a  more  accurate 
determination  of  the  tonnage  of  vessels.  Instead 
of  a  thumb  rule  which  might  be— and  usually 
was — ^very  much  in  error,  the  measurement  of  the 
cubic  contents  of  vessels  was  effected  in  accord- 
ance with  Newton's  theorem  for  the  determina- 
tion of  contents  of  solids  bounded  by  irregular 
surfaces.  This  act  was  followed  by  the  'Merchant 
Shipping  Act  of  1854,'  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
present  practice  throughout  the  maritime  world, 
though  some  of  its  provisions  have  been  modified 
in  England  as  well  as  elsewhere. 

The  method  of  measuring  prescribed  in  this  act 
and  subsequent  amendments  is  as  follows: 
Measure  the  length  of  the  ship  on  the  tonnage 
deck  from  the  inside  of  the  planking  or  plating 
at  the  extreme  forward  end  at  the  stem  to  the 
inside  of  the  planking  or  plating  at  the  ex- 
treme after  end  at  the  stem,  and  deduct  the 
rake  of  bow  and  stem  in  the  thickness  of  the 
deck  so  as  to  reduce  the  measurement  to  the 
length  of  the  ship  at  the  under  side  of  the  deck 
or  tops  of  the  beams.  This  is  the  'length  on  the 
tonnage  deck,'  which  deck  is  the  upper  one  in  all 
ships  which  have  less  than  three  decks  and 
second  deck  from  below  in  all  others.  Divide 
the  length  obtained  as  follows:  In  ships  which 
have  a  length  on  the  tonnage  deck  of  50  feet, 
this  length  is  divided  into  4  equal  parts;  a 
length  of  50  to  120  feet,  into  6  equal  parts;  120 
to  180  feet  into  8  equal  parts;  180  to  225  feet 
into  10  equal  parts;  and  over  225  into  12  equal 
parts.  The  division  marks  being  established, 
ascertain  the  depth  at  the  midship  division 
mark;  if  it  exceeds  16  feet  divide  it  into  7  equal 
parts,  if  16  feet  or  less,  into  5  equal  parts. 
Measure  the  inside  breadth  of  the  ship  at  each 
mark  and  at  the  upper  part  of  the  depth  and 
number  them  from  top  to  bottom;  multiply 
the  2d  and  4th  by  4  and  the  3d  by  2;  add  these 
products  together  and  to  the  sum  add  the  1st  and 
6th;  multiply  the  total  by  one-third  the  com- 
mon interval  between  the  breadths  and  this 
product  will  be  deemed  the  transverse  area  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  section.  Divide  the  lower 
breadth  (between  the  inner  bottom,  or  upper 
side  of  double  bottom  and  the  lower  division 
line)  into  four  parts  by  equally  spaced  trans- 
verse horizontal  lines;  measure  the  breadth  at 
the  four  new  points  and  at  the  top  of  the  inner 
bottom;  and  proceed  as  before.  The  sum  of  the 
two  areas  thus  determined  is  the  total  transverse 
area  at  the  point.  The  transverse  areas  at  the 
different  points  (4,  6,  8,  10,  or  12  in  number)  in 
the  length  of  the  ship  being  determined,  they  are 
to  be  numbered  from  forward  (or  aft,  either 
will  do),  the  forward  one  being  at  the  extreme 
forward  end  of  the  measured  length,  and  the 
other  at  its  extreme  after  end.  Multiply  the  sec- 
ond and  every  even  numbered  area  (except  the 
last)  by  4,  and  the  third  and  every  odd  numbered 
area  (except  the  first)  by  2;  add  these  products 
together,  and  to  the  sum  add  the  first  and  last 
if  they  yield  anything;  multiply  the  sum  so 
obtained  by  one- third  the  common  interval  be- 
tween the  areas  and  the  product  will  be  the 
cubic  contents  of  the  ship  below  the  tonnage 
deck.  Add  to  this  the  cubic  contents  of  all  in- 
closed spaces  above  the  tonnage  deck  including 


Digitized  by 


Laoogle 


HEASUBEHENT. 


234 


MEASXnEtINO  WOBM. 


poop,  forecastle,  deckhouses,  between  decks, 
etc.  From  the  total  so  obtained  the  fol- 
lowing deductions  are  made:  (1)  Space 
exclusively  occupied  by  the  crew  and  the 
storage  of  their  clothing,  etc.;  provided  that 
this  space  does  not  exceed  20  per  cent,  of  the 
remaining  tonnage  of  the  ship;  if  it  is  greater 
than  20  per  cent,  the  excess  is  to  be  considered 
as  part  of  the  tonnage  space.  (2)  Space  framed 
in  above  the  upper  deck  for  machinery  or  for 
admission  of  light  or  air.  (3)  In  vessels  pro- 
pelled wholly  by  sails,  any  space  set  apart  and 
ust»d  exclusively  for  stowage  of  sails,  if  not 
exceeding  2^4  per  cent,  of  the  tonnage  of  the 
ship.  (4)  Any  space  used  exclusively  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  master.  (5)  Any  space 
used  exclusively  for  the  working  of  the  helm  or 
of  anchor  gear  or  for  keeping  charts,  signals, 
instruments  of  navigation,  and  boatswain's 
stores.  (6)  Space  occupied  by  donkey  engine 
and  boiler  if  connected  with  main  pumps  of 
ships.  (7)  Double  bottom  when  not  available  for 
car<;o,  stores,  or  fuel.  (8)  Actual  engine  room 
and  fire-room  including  shaft  alley,  but  omitting 
all  space  not  occupied  by  engines  and  Ixiilers  or 
necessary  for  working  them.  When  the  actual 
engine  and  fire  rooms  occupy  in  paddle  ve**sels  20 
to  30  per  cent,  of  the  gross  tonnage  the  deduction 
is  to  be  37  per  cent,  of  gross  tonnage;  when  the 
engine  and  fire  rooms  occupy  20  per  cent,  or  less 
the  deduction  may  l>e  37  per  cent,  of  tlie  gross 
tonnage  or  n,^  times  the  actual  engine  and 
fire  room  space,  the  option  resting  with  the 
Board  of  Trade:  when  the  space  occupied  by  the 
propelling  machinery,  etc.,  exceeds  30  per  cent, 
of  the  gross  tonnnji^e  the  deduction  to  Ikj  made 
is  37  per  cent,  of  it  or  l^/j  times  the  actual 
engine  and  fire  iX)om  space,  the  option  remaining 
with  the  owners.  In  the  ease  of  screw  steamers 
when  the  space  occupied  by  the  machinery  and 
boilers  is  13  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  gross  tonnage 
the  deduction  is  32  per  cent,  of  that  tonnage; 
when  the  space  occupied  is  13  per  cent,  or  less 
the  deduction  is  32  per  cent,  of  the  gros.s  ton- 
nage, or  \^i  times  the  actual  space,  the  option 
remaining  with  the  Board  of  Trade;  when  the 
space  occupied  is  20  per  cent,  or  more  the  de- 
duction is  32  per  cent,  or  l-^*  times  the  actual 
space,  at  the  option  of  the  owners. 

The  total  additions  and  deductions  to  the  ton- 
nage space  having  l)een  made,  the  capacity  in 
cui)ic  feet  so  obtained  is  divided  by  100,  and  the 
result  is  the  rvfjistcr  ionnage  (or  net  register 
tonnage)  of  the  ship.  The  gross  rrgistrr  ton- 
nage is  obtained  by  dividing  by  100  the  total 
capacity  of  the  hull  and  deckhouses  without  de- 
ductions. 

Wlien,  owing  to  the  presence  of  cargo  or  other 
reason,  it  is  impracticable  to  measure  a  vessel 
as  lieretoforc  descril)ed,  the  tonnage  is  deter- 
mined as  follows:  Pass  a  chain  around  the  hull 
at  the  midship  section  and  measure  the  leni^h 
under  the  bottom  from  the  upper  deck  at  one 
side  to  the  upper  deck  at  the  other.  Call  this  the 
girth.  Add  one-half  the  girth  to  one-half  the 
main  breadth;  square  the  sum  so  obtained  and 
multiply  the  result  by  the  lenjitli  of  the  ship 
from  outsid(*  the  stem  to  outside  the  stern  post ; 
multiply  this  product  by  .0018  for  wooden  ships 
and  by  .0021   for  those  built  of  iron  or  steel. 

By  the  act  of  (^ongrp^s  of  ;May  6.  1S04  (taking 
effect  JanTiary  1,  lHfi.5),  the  Ignited  States 
adopted  the  English  system  with  slight  changes 


in  details  which  are  thought  to  conduce  to 
greater  accuracy.  This  act  has  been  supple- 
mented by  several  others,  notably  that  of  March 
2,  1896,  which  makes  the  American  practice 
almost  identical  with  the  English;  indeed,  the 
wording  of  the  law  is  generally  the  same  through- 
out. In  measuring,  however,  the  United  States 
law  divides  vessels  into  six  classes  according  to 
length  and  the  divisions  in  each  class  for  meas- 
urement of  transverse  areas  are:  In  Class  1 
(vessels  under  50  feet  length  on  the  tonnage 
deck)  the  length  is  divided  into  6  equal  parts; 
in  Class  2  (vessels  50  to  100  feet  long),  8  equal 
parts;  in  Class  3  (vessels  100  to  150  feet  long), 
10  equal  parts;  in  Class  4  (vessels  150  to  200 
feet  long),  12  equal  parts;  in  Class  5  (vessels 
200  to  250  feet  long),  14  equal  parts;  in 
Class  6  (vessels  over  250  feet  long),  16  equal 
parts.  The  method  of  measuring  and  computing 
net  and  gross  tonnage  is  the  same  as  that  al- 
ready described. 

The  British  system  of  measurement  has  also 
been  adopted  by  the  following  coimtries  on  the 
dates  given:  Itenmark,  1867;  Austria-Hungary, 
1871;  Germanv,  1873;  France,  1873;  lUlv,  1873; 
Spain,  1874;  Sweden,  1875;  Netherlands,  1876; 
Norway,  1876;  Greece,  1878;  Russia,  1879;  Fin- 
land, 1877;  Haiti,  1882;  Belgium,  1884;  Japan, 
1884.  In  some  of  these  the  allowance  of  deduc- 
tions, particularly  that  for  propelling  machinery, 
difi'ers  somewhat  from  the  British  rule. 

BiBLioGBAPHY.  For  further  information,  con- 
sult: Instructions  to  Measuring  i^urreyors  (Lon- 
don, 1891)  ;  Lloyd^a  teaman's  Almanac  ( Ixindon, 
1893);  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States, 
Section  4163;  and  the  SuppUnnents  to  the  Re- 
vised Statutes,  also  the  Statutes  at  Ixirge  for 
1805.  The  Instructions  to  Measuring  Surveyors 
gives  all  the  British  acts  complete  with  in.struc- 
tions  for  carrying  them  into  effect,  definitions, 
etc. 

MEASTJBE  OF  DAKA0ES.     See  Damages. 

MEASURES.     See  Weights  and  Measures. 

MEASUBIK0    WOBM.      Any    one    of    the 

larva?  of  the  lepidopterous  superfamily  Ocomet- 
rida*,  also  called  loopers.  The  group  is  a  very 
extensive  one  and  consists  of  fragile  moths  with 
comparatively  large  wings.  The  caterpillars  are 
long  and  slender,  with  only  one  pair  of  abdominal 
feet  placed  upon  the  ninth  segment  of  the  body. 
There  is  also  an  anal  pair  of  feet  which  function 
as  claspers.  The  measuring  worms  walk  by  mov- 
ing these  two  pairs  of  feet  up  to  the  thoracic 
legs,  so  that  the  body  forms  a  large  loop,  giving 
the  insect  the  appearance  of  measuring  the  sur- 
face upon  which  it  is  walking.  It  is  this  habit 
which  has  given  the  popular  names  'loopers.* 
*inchworms,*  etc.  (see  GF»METRrD  Moth),  and 
the  scientific  name  Geometridae  to  the  insects 
of  this  group.  Measuring  worms  feed  upon  the 
leaves  of  plants,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
which  bore  into  seeds.  They  are  usually  protec- 
tively colored  so  as  to  resemble  twigs,  and  they 
have  the  attitude  when  at  rest  of  holding  the 
body  stitf  and  erect  at  an  angle  from  the  main 
stem  of  the  plant,  so  that  they  almost  perfectly 
resemble  twigs.  The  individuals  of  the  same 
species  vary  in  color  during  life,  and  with  some 
speeies  there  is  a  well-marked  dimorphism.  In 
some  species  the  dimorphism  is  potential,  and 
the   future   color   is   settled   by  some   condition 


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235 


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oecurring  during  the  early  life  of  the  larva. 
Poultoji  has  niade  a  careful  study  of  the  atti- 
tudes and  colors  of  these  larvie,  and  rates  the 
value  of  their  protecting  influence  at  a  very 
high  point.  In  one  variable  English  species  he 
states  that  the  dark  tint  is  due  to  pigment  in  the 
skin  or  immediately  below  it  and  the  green 
color  to  a  layer  of  fat  between  the  hypodermis 
and  the  superficial  muscles.  In  some  geotnetrids 
the  adult  females  are  wingless.  A  marked  ex- 
ample of  this  group  is  seen  in  the  canker-worm 
moths  of  the  United  States.  (See  Cankeb- 
WoBM.)  The  winter  moth  (Ckeimatobia  bruma- 
<a),  a  species  which  is  common  and  widespread 
in  Europe  and  North  America,  has  also  a  wing- 
leas  female.  One  of  the  currant-worms  common 
to  Europe  and  North  America  (Eufitchia  ri- 
hearia)  is  a  member  of  this  group  in  which  the 
female  is  fully  winged. 

Certain  moths  of  the  noctuine  series  exist, 
whose  larvjp  lack  certain  of  the  middle  prolegs, 
and  which  therefore  walk  in  a  looping  or  meas- 
uring manner,  but  these  are  not  true  measuring 
worms.  The  cotton  caterpillar  {Alexia  xylina) 
is  an  example. 

Consult:  Edwards,  Standard  yatural  History ^ 
vol.  ii.  (Boston,  1884);  Comstock,  Manual  for 
the  Study  of  Insects  (Ithaca,  1895)  ;  Sharp, 
Cambridge  Natural  History ,  vol.  vi.  (London, 
1899)  ;  Packard,  "A  Monograph  of  the  Geomet- 
rid  Moths  or  Phalapnidae  of  the  United  States," 
in  Hayden's  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Surrey,  vol.  x.  (  Washington,  1876). 

KF.AT  (AS.  mete,  Icel.  viatr,  mata,  Goth. 
mats,  OHG.  maa,  meat,  Ger.  Mass-leid,  aversion 
to  meat).  The  flesh  of  animals  used  as  food. 
Sometimes  the  word  is  restricted  to  tlie  domes- 
tic animals,  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  while  the  term 
game  is  applied  to  the  flesh  of  wild  animals,  and 
poultrj  to  the  flesh  of  domestic  fowl.  The  great 
importance  of  the  meat  in- 
dustry Is  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing figures:  In  1900  the 
estimated  number  of  cattle  in 
the  United  States  was  67,000.- 
000;  of  these  some  17,000,- 
000  were  dairy  cows,  two 
yean  old  and  over,  M'hile  the 
remaining  60,000,000  included 
beef  cattle,  dairy  bulls,  dairy 
heifers  under  two  years  old, 
dairy  calves,  etc.  In  1901  the 
total  number  of  cattle  slaugli- 
tered  in  Chicago,  Saint  Louis, 
Kansas  City,  and  Omaha  was 
4,500,000.  the  number  slaugh- 
tered by  large  packers  in  other 
cities  and  by  local  butchers 
greatly  exceeds  this  figure. 
The  total  number  of  hogs  in 
the  United  States  in  1900  has 
been  estimated  at  63,000,000, 
the  number  annually  slaugh- 
tered at  40,000,000,' in  years 
when  the  business  was  most  active  and  the  sup- 
ply most  plentiful.  The  value  of  all  hogs  slaugh- 
tered during  the  year  ending  March  1,  1902,  has 
been  estimated  at  $338,350,000.  Similar  sUtis- 
tics  for  the  sheep  and  lambs  slaughtered  for 
food  are  not  available. 

Meat,  i.e.  flesh  food,  consists  of  the  muscular 
tissue,  or  lean,   and  the  varying  quantities   of 
Vol.  XII I.— 16. 


fat  which  are  found  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
carcass  between  and  within  membranes  and  ten- 
dons. Besides  the  fat  ordinarily  visible,  there  is 
always  present  more  or  less  of  fat  in  particles 
too  small  to  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 
lean  which  surrounds  it.  These  particles  can, 
however,  be  readily  obtained  by  chemical  methoda 
in  quantities  sufficient  to  be  seen  and  weighed. 
The  lean  part  of  the  meat  has  practically  the 
same  final  structure,  regardless  of  its  kind  and 
source.  All  muscular  tissue  is  made  up  of 
prism-shaped  bundles,  which  can  be  divided  into 
smaller  and  smaller  bundles,  until  finally  the 
muscle   fibres   or   tubes   are  reached.     These   ir- 


regular  tubes   vary   in   diameter   from 


to 


^J^  of  an  inch,  and  are  therefore  invisible  to  the 
unaided  eye.  They  are  held  together  in  bundles 
by  means  of  connective  tissue  between  and  inside 
which  the  invisible  fat  is  stored.  The  envelope 
or  wall  of  each  tube  is  a  very  delicate,  elastic 
membrane,  composed  of  nitrogenous  material. 
The  walls  themselves  are  comparatively  perma- 
nent, but  tlieir  contents  are  continually  under- 
going change  and  renewal. 

Meat  is  very  commonly  eaten  fresh,  but  large 
quantities  are  also  salted,  smoked,  dried,  and 
canned.  The  meats  found  in  the  markets  con- 
sist of  the  lean  or  muscular  tissue,  connective 
tissue,  or  gristle,  fatty  tissue,  blood  vessels, 
nerves,  bone,  etc.  No  general  statement  can  be 
made  with  regard  to  the  proportion  in  which 
these  substances  occur,  as  it  is  found  to  vary 
greatly  with  the  kind  of  animal,  with  different 
'cuts'  from  the  same  animal,  and  with  many  other 
conditions.  Nearly  all  meats  bought  and  sold  in 
the  markets  contain  portions  not  suitable  for 
eating,  which  may  l)e  properly  designated  as 
refuse. 

Cits  of  Meat.  The  metliods  of  cutting  car- 
casses of  beef,  veal,  mutton,  and  pork  into  parts, 
and  the  terms   used  for  the  different  *cuts,'   as 


Fio 
1,  Neck  ;  2,  chuck 
croes-rlbs ;  8,  plate  :  9.  navel ;  10.  loin 
cut  round  ;  15,  hind  shank. 


1.  DiAQBAM  OP  CUTS  OP  DKRP  (llve  animal). 
8,  rlbn;  4.  shouldered  clod:  6,   fore   shank;  6,  brisket;  7. 
11,  flank  ;  12,  rump ;  13,  round ;  14,  second 


these  parts  are  commonly  called,  vary  consider- 
ably in  different  localities.  The  figures  for  com- 
position quoted  below  apply  in  general  to  cuts 
as  indicated  by  the  accompanying  diagrams. 
These  show  tJie  positions  of  the  diilerent  cuts,  both 
in  the  live  animal  and  in  the  dresbcd  carcass  as 
found  in  tlie  markets.  The  lines  of  division  be- 
tween the  different  cuts  will  vary  slightly  accord- 


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236 


MEAT. 


ing  to  the  usage  of  the  local  market,  even  where 
the  general  method  of  cutting  is  as  here  indi- 
cated. The  names  of  the  same  cuts  likewise  vary 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Thus  the  part 
nearest  the  ribs  of  beef  is 
frequently  called  *small  end 
of  loin*  or  'short  steak.'  The 
other  end  of  the  loin  is 
called  *hip  sirloin*  or  'sir- 
loin.' Between  the  short 
and  the  sirloin  is  a 
portion  quite  general- 
ly called  the  'tender- 
loin,* for  the  reason 
that  the  real  tender- 
loin, the  very  tender 
strip  of  meat  lying 
inside  the  loin,  is 
found  most  fully  de- 
veloped in  this  cut. 
Porterhouse  steak  is  a 
term  frequently  ap- 
plied to  either  the. 
short  steak  or  the  ten- 
derloin. It  is  not  un- 
common to  find 
the  flank  cut  so 
as  to  include 
more  of  the  loin 
than  is  indicated 
in  the  figures  be- 
low, in  which 
case  the  upper 
portion  is  called 
'flank  steak.'  The 
larger  part  of 
the  flank  and  the 
rump  is  very  fre- 
quently corned  or 
pickled  in  brine. 
In  some  markets 
the  rump  is  cut 
so  as  to  include  ^^^'  *•  i>bm»««>  »««>■  or  beef. 
a  portion  of  the  loin,  which  is  then  sold  as 
'rump  steak.'  The  portion  of  the  round  on  the 
outside  of  the  leg  is  regarded  as  more  tender  than 
that  on  the  inside,  and  is  frequently  preferred 
to  the  latter. 


considerably  from  that  employed  with  beef.  This 
is  illiistrated  by  Figs.  3  and  4,  which  show  the 
relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal  and  in 
a  dressed  side. 

Figs.  5  and  6  show  the  relative  position  of  the 
cuts  in  a  dressed  side  of  mutton  or  lamb  and  in 
a  live  animal. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  pork  differs 
considerably  from  that  employed  with  other 
meats.  A  large  portion  of  the  carcass  of  a 
dressed  pig  consists  of  almost 
clear  fat.  This  furnishes  the 
cuts  which  are  used  for  'salt 
pork'  and  bacon.  Figs.  7  and  8 
illustrate  a  common  method  of 
cutting  up  pork,  showing  the 
relative  positions  of  the  cuts  in 
the  animal  and  in  the  dressed 
side.  The  hams  and  shoulders 
are  more  frequently  cured,  but 
are  also  sold  as  fresh  pork 
'steak.*  The  tenderloin  proper, 
which  is  not  indicated  in  the 
figure,  is  a  comparatively  lean 
and  very  small  strip  of  meat 
lying  under  the  bones  of  the 
loin  and  usually  weighing  less 
than  a  pound.  In  cutting 
up  pork,  some  fat  is  usu- 
ally trimmed  off  from 
the  hams  and  shoulders, 
which  is  called  'ham  and 
shoulder  fat'  and  is  often 
used  for  sausages,  etc. 
What  is  called  'leaf  lard,' 
is  made  from  the  leaf  fat 
of  the  peritoneum  and  the 
fat  about  the  kidney  and  along  the  belly. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  average  com- 
position of  a  nimiber  of  kinds  and  cuts  of  meat 
and  also  that  of  a  number  of  meat  products. 

The  amount  of  refuse,  chiefly  bone,  in  meat 
as  purchased,  varies  greatly  with  the  different 
cuts.  Judged  by  the  averages  of  a  large  number 
of  analyses,  it  ranges  in  beef  from  nothing  in 
tenderloin  to  about  58  per  cent,  in  lean  hind 
shank;  in  veal,  nothing  in  flank  to  63  per  cent, 
in  medium  fat  hind  shank;  in  lamb,  from  7 
per  cent,  in  very  fat  hind  leg  to  20  per  cent,  in 
shoulder;  in  mutton,  from  about  10  per  cent,  in 


F:0    i.     DBB88KD     BIDE     OF 
VEAL. 


Fie.  3.   DIAGRAM  OP  CUTS  OP  TEAL. 

1,  Neck ;  3,  chuck :  3,  ahoulder ;  4,  lore  shank ;  6,  breast ; 
e,  ribs ;  7,  loin ;  8,  flank  ;  9.  leg ;  10,  hind  shank. 

The  general  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  beef 
is  illustrated  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  which  show  the 
relative  position  of  the  cuts  in  the  animal  and  in 
a  dressed  side. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  a  side  of  veal  differs 


FlO.    6.    DIAOBAM  OP  CUTS  OP  MUTTON  OR  LAMB  IN  THE  LIVE 
ANIMAL. 

1,  Neck ;  2,  chuck ;  3,  shoulder;  4,  flank ;  5,  loin  ;  6,  leg. 

medium  fat  flank  to  about  28  per  cent,  in 
medium  fat  neck ;  and  in  pork,  from  about  1  per 
cent,  in  fresh  lean  ham  to  68  per  cent,  in  the 
head.  It  would  perhaps  not  be  incorrect  to  say 
that,  considering  all  means,  the  refuse  averages 


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287 


MEAT. 


from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  material  as  pur- 
chased. 

DiGESTiBiUTT.  According  to  the  results  of  a 
number  of  experiments,  an  average  of  97  per 
cent,  of  the  protein  and  96  per  cent,  of  the  fat 
of  meat  is  digested.  Little  is  known  of  the  rela- 
tive digestibility  of  different  kinds  of  meat,  but 
it  is  probable  that  as  regards  thoroughness  of 
digestion  they  do  not  vary  greatly. 

Textube  (Toughness)  of  Meats.  Whether 
meats  are  tough  or  tender  depends  upon  two 
things:  the  character  of  the  walls  of  the  muscle 
tubes  and  the  character  of  the  connective  tissues 
which  bind  the  tubes  and  muscles  together.  In 
yoimg  and  well-nourished  animals  the  tube  walls 
are  thin  and  delicate,  and  the  connective  tissue 
is  small  in  amount.  As  the  animals  grow  older 
or  are  made  to  work  (and  this  is  particularly 
true  in  the  case  of  poorly  nourished  animals)  the 
walls  of  the  muscle  tubes  and  the  connective 
tissues  become  thick  and  hard.  This  is  the 
reason  why  the  flesh  of  young, 
well-fed  animals  is  tender  and 
easily  masticated,  while  the 
flesh  of  old,  hard-worked,  or 
poorly  fed  animals  is  often  so 
tough  that  prolonged  boiling 
or  roasting  seems  to  have  but 
little  effect  on  it. 

After  slaughtering,  meats 
ondergo  marked  changes  in 
texture.  These  changes  can  be 
grouped  under  three  classes  or 
stages.  In  the  first  stage, 
when  the  meat  is  just  slaugh- 
tered, the  flesh  is  soft,  juicy, 
and  quite  tender.  In  the  next 
stage  the  flesh  stiffens  and  the 
meat  becomes  hard  and  tough. 
This  condition  is  known  as 
rigor  mortis  and  continues 
ontil  the  third  stage,  when  the 
first  changes  of  decomposition 
set  in.  Li  hot  climates  the 
meat  is  commonly  eaten  in 
either  the  first  or  second 
stage.  In  cold  climates  it  is 
seldom  eaten  before  the  second 
stase,  and  generally,  in  order 
to  lessen  the  toughness,  it  is 
allowed  to  enter  the  third  stage, 
when  it  becomes  soft  and  tender,  and  acquires 
added  flavor.  The  softening  is  due  in  part  to 
the  formation  of  lactic  acid,  which  acts  upon  the 
connective  tissue.  The  same  effect  may  be  pro- 
duced, though  more  rapidly,  by  macerating  the 
meat  with  weak  vinegar.  Meat  is  sometimes 
made  tender  by  cutting  the  flesh  into  thin  slices 
and  pounding  it  across  the  cut  ends  until  the 
fibres  are  broken. 

The  fiavor  depends  largely  upon  the  kinds  and 
amoimts  of  'nitrogenous  extractives*  which  the 
muscle  fibres  or  tubes  contain.  Pork  and  mutton 
are  deficient  in  extractives,  and  what  fiavor  they 
possess  is  due  largely  to  the  fats  contained  in 
them.  The  flesh  of  birds  and  of  most  game  is 
very  rich  in  extractives,  which  accounts  for  its 
high  flavor.  In  general,  the  flavor  of  any  par- 
ticular meat  is  largely  modified  by  the  condition 
of  the  animal  when  slaughtered,  and  by  its  food, 
age,  br^d,  etc.  The  fiesh  of  young  animals  is 
niore  tender  than  but  not  so  highly  flavored  as  that 
of  more  mature  animals.     It  is  often  said  that 


¥lQ.  6.  DBB88KD  BIDB 
OF  MUTTON  OB 
LAMB. 


the  flesh  of  males  is  more  highly  flavored  than 
that  of  females.  There  are  at  least  two  excep- 
tions to  this  rule,  since  the  flesh  of  the  goose  is 
more  highly  flavored  than  that  of  the  gander, 
and  in  the  case  of  pork  there  is  little  difference 
between  the  flesh  of  the  male  and  that  of  the 
female.    Castration,  as  illustrated  in  the  familiar 


7 

8!       8     . 

.              / 

f 

6              -^ 

m^ 

-Jirv^:,-i=^ 

FlO.  7.   DIAQBAM  OF  OUTS  OF  POBK. 

1,  Head ;  2,  shoulder ;  3,  back ;  4,  middle  cut ;  5.  belly; 
6,  ham ;  7,  ribs ;  8,  loin. 

example  of  the  capon,  tends  to  make  the  flesh 
more  tender,  fatter,  and  better  flavored.  The 
flesh  of  the  animals  which  feed  exclusively  upon 
fish  or  fiesh  has  a  strong,  disagreeable  taste,  and 
is  eaten  only  by  uncivilized  people  or  those  in 
great  need.  Fish  is  an  exception  to  the  rule, 
however.  Meat  which  is  allowed  to  hang  and 
ripen  develops  added  flavors.  In  the  flrst  stages 
of  decomposition  compounds  quite  similar  to  the 
nitrogenous  extractives  are  formed,  and  it  ia 
to  these  that  the  improved  flavors  are  due. 

Charactebibtigs  op  Good  Meat.  Meat  should 
have  little  or  no  odor  and  should  be  without  any 
cadaveric  smell  characteristic  of  diseased  or  de- 
composing flesh.  It  should  have  a  uniform  color, 
neither  abnormally  pale  nor  inclined  to  purplish, 
and  should  be  firm  and  elastic  without  pitting  or 
crackling  on  pressure.  The  surface  of  the  meat 
should  be  just  sufi^ciently  moist  to  be  detected, 
and  the  longer  it  is  kept  the  dryer  it  should  be- 
come. There  should  be  no  evidence  of  any  dis- 
eased condition,  injury,  or  the  presence  of 
parasites. 

Cattle.  The  meat  of  steers,  which  animals 
furnish  the  prime  grade  of  beef,  is  very  light  red 
and  of  fairly  firm  consistency,  while  the  fat  is 
also  firm  and  white  in  color  and  so  dispersed 
through  the  muscle  bundles  as  to  give  the  much 
sought  for  marbled  appearance.  The  flesh  of 
bulls  is  dark  red,  coarse,  and  stringy,  and  con- 
tains but  small  quantities  of  fat  between  the 
muscle  fibres.  In  old  cows  the  meat  is  tough, 
and  the  fat,  which  is  principally  deposited  under 
the  skin,  is  yellowish  and  not  so  firm  in  consis- 
tency. The  carcasses  of  fat  heifers  are  practi- 
cally indistinguishable  from  steers. 

Calves.  This  meat  is  very  pale,  being  almost 
white  in  milk  fattened  animals,  but  is  rather 
tough,  while  the  fat  is  reddish  white  shortly 
after  slaughter,  gradually  changing  to  pure  white. 
It  is  soft  in  comparison  to  beef  fat.  Tlie  meat  of 
calves  has  a  characteristic  odor. 

"Monkey"  or  "bob"  veal  is  a  term  applied  to 
the  carcasses  of  calves  slaughtered  too  young 
(during  the  first  three  weeks  of  life)  and  is  lack- 
ing in  nutritive  properties.  It  is  soft  and  moist, 
the  muscles  are  friable  and  poorly  developed,  and 
the  fat  is  flabby  and  jelly-like  and  disagreeable  to 
look  upon. 

Sheep.  Mutton  is  light  red  in  color  and  has  a 
characteristic  sheepy  odor,  while  the  fat  is  pure 
white  and  odorless.     In  well-fed  animals  the  fat 


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288 


MEAT. 


is  abundant,  especially  about  the  kidneys  and  be- 
neath the  skin.  The  meat  of  the  males  has  at 
tiroes  a  very  strong  so-called  *'buck  odor." 

Goats.  Goats'  meat  can  usually  be  distin- 
guished from  mutton  by  its  characteristic  odor 
and  the  lack  of  deposits  of  fats  except  around  the 
kidneys  and  the  prominence  of  the  bony  processes. 

Hogs.  The  meat  of  the  hog  is  pale  red,  some 
parts  being  white  with  usually  pure  white  fatty 
tissue,  although  this  varies  somewhat  with  the 
food  and  breeding.  Upon  cooling  the  meat  be- 
comes white.  In  old  hogs  the  meat  is  redder  and 
tougher  and  the  subcutaneous  accumulation  of 
fat  is  not  so  marked.  In  old  boars  the  meat  has 
an  extremely  offensive  odor,  especially  noticed 
during  cooking. 

Cooking.  Meat  is  not  often  eaten  raw  by 
civilized  people.  For  the  most  part  it  is  either 
roasted,  broiled,  fried,  stewed,  or  boiled.  Among 
the  chief  objects  of  cooking  are  the  loosening  and 
softening  of  the  tissues,  which  facilitates  di- 
gestion by  exposing  them  more  fully  to  the  action 
of  the  digestive  juices.  Another  important  ob- 
ject is  to  kill  parasites  and  microdrganisms  if 
present,  and  thus  destroy  organisms  that  might 
otherwise  expose  the  eater  to  great  risks.  Minor, 
but  by  no  means  unimportant,  objects  are  the 
coagulation  of  the  albumen  and  blood  so  as  to 


render  the  meat  more  accept- 
able to  the  sight,  and  the  de- 
velopment and  improvement 
of  the  natural  flavor,  which 
is  often  accomplished  in  part 
by  the  addition  of  condi- 
ments. 

If  meat  in  cooking  is 
placed  in  cold  water  and 
heated  gradually,  part  of  the 
organic  salts,  the  soluble  al- 
bumen, and  the  extractives 
or  flavoring  matters  will  be 
dissolved  out.  The  broth  or 
soup  obtained  will  be  rich, 
but  the  meat  will  be  corre- 
spondingly tasteless.  This 
tasteless  material  has  been 
found  to  be  as  easily  and 
completely  digested  as  the 
same  weight  of  ordinary 
roast.  It  contains  nearly  all 
the  protein  of  the  meat,  and, 
if  it  is  properly  combined 
with  vegetables,  salt,  and 
flavoring  materials,  makes 
an  agreeable  as  well  as  nu-  Fio.  8.  dressed  side  of 
tritious  food.     If  a  piece  of  pork. 


AVBEAOR  OOMPOSmOH  OF  ▲  NUMBRS  OF  OuTS  OF  MEAT  AKD  MbAT  PbODTTCTS 


Ohack,  indnding  shoulder,  edible  portion 

Loin,  porterhouse  steak,  edible  portion 

Loin,  airloin  steak,  edible  portion  

Roiuid,  edible  portion 

Bump,  edible  portion 

Forequarter,  as  purchased 

Hindquarter,  as  purchased 

Breast,  edible  portion 

ChuckfOdible  portion 

Leg,  cutlets,  edible  portion 

Forequarter,  as  purchased   

Hindquaiter,  as  purchased 

Breast  or  chuck,  edible  portion 

Loin,  without  kidney  and  tallow,  edible  portion. 

Foreqoarter,  as  ptirchased  

Hindquarter,  as  purchased 

ICDTTON,  FBBUi 

Chuck,  edible  porticm 

Flank,  edible  portion.   

Leg,  hind,  edible  portion.. 

LoSd,  without  kidney  or  tallow,  ediUe  portkm 

Forequarter,  as  purchased  

Sndquarter,  as  purchased.    .  

FORK,  FRRIB 

Chuck,  ribs,  and  shoulder,  edible  poiiioa 

Flank,  edible  portion 

Head,  edible  portion 

Head  cheese,  ediUe  portion 

Ham,  fresh,  ediUe  portion   

Loin,  chops,  edible  portion 

POULTRT  Am>  Qua 

Chicken  broUers,  edible  portion. 

Chicken  broilers,  as  purchased 

Chicken,  heart 

Fowl,  as  purchased    

Ooose,  young,  as  purchased 

Turkey,  as  purchased. 

Chicken,  gixzard 

Plover,  roast  canned.. 

<)uail,  canned   


Pro- 
tein * 

Total 

Fuel 

Refuse 

Water 

Fat 

carbohy- 

Ash 

value,  per 

PercL 

Per  ct. 

drates 

pound 

Peret. 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Calories 

65.0 

19.2 

15.4 

0.9 

1,005 

eo.o 

21.9 

20.4 

1.0 

1,270 

61.9 

18.9 

18.6 

1.0 

1,1.30 

67.8 

20.9 

10.6 

1.1 

835 

67.0 

18.7 

23.1 

0.9 

1,326 

20.« 

49.6 

14.4 

15.1 

0.7 

906 

16.3 

62.0 

16.1 

15.4 

0.8 

950 

€8.2 

20.3 

110     

1.1 

840 

73.8 

19.7 

5.8 

1.0 

010 

70.7 

20.3 

7.7 

1.1 

705 

24.5 

54.2 

15.1 

6.0 

0.7 

635 

20.7 

66.2 

16.2 

6.G 

0.8 

680 

66.2 

19.1 

23.6 

1.0 

1,350 

63.1 

18.7 

28.3 

1.0 

1,&I0 

18.8 

44.7 

14.9 

21.0 

0.8 

1,166 

16.7 

51.3 

16.6 

10.1 

0.9 

986 

48.2 

14.6 

368 

0.8 

1,825 

42.7 

14.9 

426 

0.7 

2,066 

63.2 

18.7 

17.5 

0.8 

1,085 

47.8 

15.6 

86.2 

0.8 

1,815 

21.2 

41.6 

12.3 

24.6 

0.7 

1,266 

17.2 

46.4 

13.8 

23.2 

0.7 

i;286 

51.1 

17.3 

31.1 

0.9 

1,635 

69.0 

18.6 

22.2 

1.0 

1,280 

45.3 

13.4 

413 

a7 

1,000 

433 

19.5 

338 

8.3 

1,790 

50.1 

15.7 

33.4 

0.9 

1,700 

50.7 

16.4 

32.0 

0.9 

1.656 

74.8 

25.1 

2.5 

1.1 

205 

43  7 

12.8 

1.4 

07 

296 

41.6 

720 

20.7 

5.5 

1.4 

616 

47.1 

13.7 

12.3 

0.7 

775 

25.9 

38.5 

13.4 

29.8 

0.7 

1,605 

17.6 

42.4 

16. 1 

18.4 

0.8 

1,076 

22.7 

72.5 

24.7 

1.4 

1.4 

620 

57.7 

22.4 

10.2 

7.6 

2.1 

966 

,.     . 

66.9 

21.8 

80 

1.7 

1.6 

775 

*  In  many  cases  the  sum  of  the  constituents  does  not  equal  100,  since  no  account  is  taken  of  the  carbohydrates.    In  analjiea 
d  meat  it  is  sometimes  customar:'  to  estimate  the  protein  as  the  difference  between  100  and  the  sum  of  the  other  constituents. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MEAT. 


239 


MEAT. 


meat  is  plunged  into  boiling  water,  the  albumen 
on  the  entire  surface  of  the  meat  is  quickly  coag- 
ulated, and  the  enveloping  crust  thus  formed  re- 
sists the  dissolving  action  of  water  and  prevents 
the  escape  of  the  juices  and  flavoring  matters. 
Thus  cooked,  the  meat  retains  most  of  its  flavor- 
ing matters  and  has  the  desired  meaty  taste. 
The  resulting  broth  is  correspondingly  poor. 

Theoretically,  the  principal  diff'erence  between 
rdasting  or  baking  and  boiling  is  the  medium  in 
which  the  meat  is  co<^ed.  In  boiling,  the  flesh 
to  be  cooked  is  surrounded  by  boiling  water;  in 
roasting,  by  hot  air,  although  in  roasting  proper 
much  of  the  heat  comes  to  the  joint  as  "radiant" 
heat.  In  both  eases,  if  properly  conducted,  the 
fibres  of  the  meats  are  cooked  in  their  own  juices. 

It  is  interesting  and  at  the  sam6  time  important 
to  remember  that  the  smaller  the  cut  to  be  roasted 
the  hotter  should  be  the  fire  and  the  shorter  the 
period  of  cooking.  A  very  hot  fire  coagulates 
the  exterior  and  prevents  the  drying  up  of  the 
meat  juices.  This  method  would  not,  however,  be 
applicable  to  large  cuts,  because  meats  are  poor 
conductors  of  heat,  and  a  large  piece  of  meat  ex- 
posed to  this  intense  heat  would  become  burned 
and  changed  to  charcoal  on  the  exterior  long  be- 
fore the  heat  could  penetrate  to  the  interior.  The 
broiling  of  a  steak  or  a  chop  is  done  on  exactly 
this  principle.  An  intense  heat  should  be  applied 
to  coagulate  the  albumen  thoroughly  and  stop  the 
pores,  and  thus  prevent  the  escape  of  the  juices. 

Recent  experiments  on  the  losses  in  cooking 
meat  lead  to  the  following  deductions:  The 
chief  loss  in  weight  during  the  cooking  of  beef, 
and  doubtless  other  meats  also,  is  due  to  the 
driving  away  of  water.  When  beef  is  "pan- 
broiled"  there  appears  to  be  no  great  loss  of  nu- 
tritive material.  When  beef  is  cooked  in  water 
from  3  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  solids  is  found 
in  the  broth.  Beef  which  has  been  used  for 
the  preparation  of  beef  tea  or  broth  has  lost 
comparatively  little  nutritive  value,  thougli  much 
of  the  flavoring  material  has  been  removed. 
The  amount  of  fat  found  in  the  broth  varies 
directly  with  the  amount  present  in  the  meat — 
i.e.,  the  fatter  the  meat  the  larger  the  quantity 
in  the  broth.  The  amount  of  water  lost  during 
cooking  varies  inversely  as  the  fatness  of  the  meat 
— i.e.,  the  fatter  the  meat  the  less  the  shrinkage 
in  cooking.  In  cooking  in  water  the  loss  of  con- 
stituents is  inversely  proportional  to  the  size 
of  the  pieee  of  meat.  '  In  other  words,  the  smaller 
the  piece  the  greater  the  percentage  of  loss.  The 
loss  appears  to  depend  upon  the  length  of  time 
of  cooking.  When  meat  in  pieces  weighing  from 
1^  to  5  pounds  is  cooked  in  water  at  80o  to  85o 
C.  (1750  to  i85o  F.)  there  appears  to  be  little 
difference  in  the  amount  of  material  found  in 
the  broth  whether  the  meat  is  placed  in  cold 
water  or  hot  water  at  the  start. 

Since  meat  nutrients  are  principally  protein 
and  fat,  a  considerable  amount  of  carbohydrate 
foods  ( bread  and  other  cereals,  vegetables,  fruits, 
etc.)  are  eaten  with  the  meats  to  form  a  well- 
balanced  diet.  According  to  the  results  of  a 
large  number  of  dietary  studies,  beef  and  veal  to- 
gether furnished  10.3  per  cent,  of  the  diet  of  the 
average  American  family;  mutton  and  lamb,  1.4 
per  cent.;  pork,  5.4  per  cent.;  and  poultry,  1.1 
per  cent,  of  the  total  food;  beef  and  veal,  24.6; 
mutton  and  lamb,  3.3;  pork,  8.8;  and  poultry, 
2.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  protein,  and  19.5,  3.8, 
30.0,  and  1.2  per  cent,  respectively  of  the  total  fat. 


ExPOBT  Tbade  in  Meat  and  Abattoib  Pbod- 
UCTS.  Our  export  trade  in  animal  products 
originated  in  1876,  since  which  time  it  has  been 
carried  on  in  an  ever-increasing  scale  until  to- 
day the  United  States  fumisliSs  one- third  the 
world's  supply  of  meats. 

The  United  States*  meat  products  enjoy  the 
lowest  tariff  rates  imposed  by  most  of  the  foreign 
countries,  the  exceptions  being  France  and  Spain. 
In  the  supply  of  fresh  beef  to  foreign  countries 
the  United  States  has  a  serious  competitor  in 
the  Argentine  Republic,  which  has  grown  rapidly 
since  1900.  Thus  of  the  total  annual  imporU 
of  fresh  beef  into  all  countries  for  the  period 
1895  to  1897,  amounting  to  293,000,000  pounds, 
the  United  States  supplied  223,000,000  pounds  or 
76  per  cent.,  while  Argentine  supplied  but  6,000,- 
000  pounds  or  2  per  cent.  In  1904  of  the  487,- 
000,000  pounds  imported  the  United  States  sup- 
plied 268,000,000  pounds  or  55  per  cent.,  while 
Argentine  supplied  188,000.000  pounds  or  39  per 
cent.,  showing  the  extreme  rapid  growth  of  this 
industry  in  Argentine  within  recent  years.  This 
in  a  measure  can  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  in 
1900  Great  Britain  closed  her  ports  to  live  cattle 
and  sheep  from  Argentine,  since  which  time  this 
large  cattle  raising  country  has  exported  animal 
products  on  a  rapidly  increasing  scale. 

In  the  appended  tables  an  id^  of  the  position 
the  United  States  holds  in  the  export  meat  trade 
can  be  obtained. 

Pkbobmtaob  or  IiiK>m  or  Mbat  Ahxhals  ahd  PAcznco  Hovss 
Pbodvotb  nrro  THXKTBnr  EracwaAif  CovwrvmB  ahd  Cvba 

n   1904,   DBBITBO  FBOM  THS  UMRBD  ftTATBS 


United  Kingdom . 

Germany 

Netherlands 

France 

Belgiiun 

Switzerlaad 

Austria-Hungary . 

Cuba 

Denmark 

Spain 

Italy 

Riw8ia(1903) 

Norwi^ 

Sweden  (1903)... 


Total  of 
3  fol- 
lowing 

columns 

Live 

Packing. 

meat 

kOOM 

onfmala 

products 

Per  ct. 

Per  ei. 

Per  et. 

47.81 

73.74 

«.58 

80.16 

57.98 

56.76 

67.41 

37.OT 

.a 

60.d2 

4.14 

17.02 

12.30 

36.73 

47.56 

28.91 

6R.96 

(b) 

(b) 

(b) 

6.13 

12.08 

25.36 

31.26 

2.56 

4.97 

20.08 

22,95 

a  40.38 

a34.15 

a  46.27 

Poaltry^ 
game, 
rabbits, 
pigeons, 
etc 

Perct. 
11.08 


I 


95.^ 


(b) 


c4.ao 


a  =  Omitting  France  and  Denmark.        b  =  Not  stated 
o  =  Omitting  France,  Belgium,  Denmax^  and  Norway. 

The  effects  on  our  export  trade  of  the  recent 
sensational  newspaper  articles  on  abattoir  agita- 
tion was  quite  marked.  In  July,  1905,  canned 
beef  went  abroad  to  the  amount  of  5,232,794 
pounds,  with  a  value  of  $542,168.  For  the  same 
month  in  1906  only  1,039,852  pounds  were  ex- 
ported, valued  at  $104,710.  For  sewn  months 
ending  July,  1905,  the  value  of  the  canned  beef 
shipped  abroad  was  over  $4,000,000,  while  for 
the  corresponding  period  of  1906  it  fell  to  $3,000,- 
000,  showing  $1,000,000  loss  in  that  one  item. 
Furthermore,  there  was  a  decrease  of  nearly 
$400,000  shrinkage  in  fresh  beef  exports.  A 
marked  decrease  also  appears  from  the  figures  in 
our  exports  of  salted  and  pickled  beef,  tallow, 
hog  products,  oleo,  and  dairy  products.  With  the 
rigid  enforcement  of  the  highly  satisfactory  meat 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEAT. 


240 


MECCA. 


inspection  law  passed  by  the  Fifty-ninth  Congress 
which  went  into  effect  October  1,  1906,  the  meats 
and  meat  food  products  of  the  United  States 
will  not  onlv  regain  their  lost  position  in  the 
markets  of  the  world,  but  will  take  a  higher  and 
broader  plane  and  more  extensive  development 
than  they  have  ever  known. 

(For  information  regarding  this  meat  inspec- 
tion law,  and  its  enforcement  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  see  article  on  Pack- 
ing Industry.) 

The  value  of  total  meat  animals  and  packing- 
house products  exported  by  the  United  States 
during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1904,  to  different 
foreign  countries  was  as  follows:  United  King- 
dom, $140,397,199 ;  Germany, $21,822,696 ;  Nether- 
lands, $15,781,643;  Belgium,  $7,603,761;  Cuba, 
$6,760,800;  Canada,  $5,038,141;  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way, $3,578,348;  France,  $1,982,313;  British 
South  Africa,  $1,958,708;  Denmark,  $1,700,907; 
Italy,  $1,533,430;  British  West  Indies,  $1,533,- 
419;  other  countries,  $1,248,761. 

For  further  information,  consult  the  general 
works  mentioned  under  Food;  also  F5rster,  Der 
Kdhnvert  des  Rindfleisches  bei  den  gebrduch- 
lichsten  ZubereitungsarteniBerliYiy  1897)  ;  United 
states  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations  Bulletins  Nos.  28  (revised), 
66,  and  102 ;  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Chemistry  Bulletin  13,  part 
10;  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  34  and  183;  Parloa, 
Home  Economics;  and  Douglas,  Encyclopedia  of 
Meats;  Ostertag,  Handbook  of  Meat  Inspection 
(New  York,  1904). 

MEAT-BIBD.     The  Canada  jay.     See  Jat. 

MEAT-FLT.     See  Flesh-Fly. 

MEAT  EXTBACT.  The  term  meat  extract  is 
commonly  applied  to  a  large  number  of  prepara- 
tions of  very  different  character.  They  may  be 
conveniently  divided  into  three  classes:  (1) 
True  meat  extracts;  (2)  meat  juice  obtained  by 
pressure  and  preserved,  compounds  which  contain 
dried  pulverized  meat,  and  similar  preparations; 
and  (3)  albumose  or  peptose  preparations,  com- 
monly called  predigested  foods.  The  true  meat 
extract,  if  pure,  contains  little  else  besides  the 
flavoring  matters  of  the  meat  from  which  it  is 
prepared,  together  with  such  mineral  salts  as  may 
be  dissolved  out.  It  should  contain  no  gelatin 
or  fat,  and  cannot,  from  the  way  in  which  it 
is  made,  contain  any  albumen.  It  is,  there- 
fore, not  a  food  at  all,  but  a  stimulant,  and 
should  be  classed  with  tea,  coffee,  and  other 
allied  substances.  It  should  never  be  admin- 
istered to  the  sick  except  as  directed  by  com- 
petent medical  advice.  Its  strong  meaty  taste 
13  deceptive,  and  the  person  depending  upon  it 
alone  for  food  would  certainly  die  of  starvation. 
Such  meat  extracts  are  often  found  useful  in  the 
kitchen  for  flavoring  soups,  sauces^  etc.  Broth 
and  beef  tea  as  prepared  ordinarily  in  the  house- 
hold contain  more  or  less  protein,  gelatin,  and 
fat,  and  therefore  are  foods  as  well  as  stimu- 
lants. The  proportion  of  water  in  such  com- 
pounds is  always  very  large.  The  preserved  meat 
juice  and  similar  preparations  contain  more  or 
IcHs  protein^  and  therefore  have  some  value  as 
food.  The  third  class  of  preparations  is  com- 
paratively new.  The  better  ones  are  really  what 
they  claim  to  be — predijjested  foods.  They  con- 
tain   the    sol»'* 'e    albumoses     (peptoses),    etc.. 


which  are  obtained  from  meat  by  artificial  diges* 
tion.  The  use  of  such  preparations  should  be 
regulated  by  competent  medical  advice. 

MEATH,  mSTH.  A  county  of  the  Province  of 
Leinster,  Ireland,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  the  counties  of  Dublin  and  Louth, 
on  the  north  by  Monaghan,  Louth,  and  Cavan,  on 
the  west  by  Westmeath  and  Cavan,  and  on  the 
south  by  Dublin,  Kildare,  and  Kings;  area,  906 
square  miles  (Map:  Ireland,  E  3).  The  soil  is 
a  rich  loam  and  fertile;  but  it  is  devoted  almost 
entirely  to  pasture,  only  21  per  cent,  being  under 
crops.  The  capital  is  Trim.  Population,  in 
1841,  183,860;  in  1901,  67,460. 

MEAUX,  m5.  A  town  of  France,  in  the  De- 
partment of  Seine-et-Mame,  on  the  river  Mame 
(Map:  France,  N.,  H  4).  It  is  28  miles  by  rail 
east  of  Paris.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  a  college, 
and  a  public  library.  Bossuet,  whose  remains  are 
in  the  cathedral,  was  bishop  here  for  twenty-three 
years.  It  has  a  brisk  trade  in  com,  cheese,  eggs, 
and  poultry;  its  mills  supply  Paris  with  most 
of  its  meal  and  com.  There  are  manufactures 
of  cotton  and  other  cloths,  cheese,  sugar,  steel, 
etc.    Population,  in  1901,  13,690. 

MEC^CA  (Ar.  Makkah,  or  Bakkah,  Koran, 
Sura  iii.  90;  called  also  al-Musharrifah,  the 
Exalted,  Umm  ai-Kura,  mother  of  cities,  and  al- 
Balad  al-Amin,  the  safe  place,  known  to  the 
geographer  Ptolemy  as  Macoraba).  Capital  of 
the  Turkish  Province  of  Hedjaz  in  Arabia,  and, 
through  being  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  and 
containing  the  Kaaba,  the  central  and  most  holy 
city  of  all  Islam.  The  two  other  principal  holy 
cities  are  Medina  and  Jerusalem.  It  is  situated 
in  latitude  21**  28'  N.  and  in  longitude  40''  16' 
E.,  250  miles  south  of  Medina,  and  about  60 
miles  east  of  Jiddah,  its  port  on  the  Red  Sea, 
in  a  narrow,  barren  valley,  surrounded  by  bare 
hills  from  250  to  800  feet  high.  The  city 
is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  and  from  one- 
third  to  two- thirds  of  a  mile  wide,  and  is  divided 
into  the  upper  and  lower  city.  An  aqueduct  built 
by  Zubaidah  (810),  wife  of  Hamn  al-Rashid, 
brings  good  water  from  the  mountains  to  the 
east.  By  its  position,  Mecca  commands  the  trade 
routes  connecting  lower  Hedjaz  with  North,  South, 
and  Central  Arabia,  and  it  has  at  all  times  been 
a  commercial  and  religious  centre.  The  streets  are 
somewhat  regular,  but  unpaved;  dusty  in  sum- 
mer, and  muddy  during  the  rainy  season.  The 
houses  are  often  five  stories  high.  Some  of  the 
Government  buildings,  the  Hamidiyyah,  or  palace 
of  the  Governor,  the  printing  office,  the  chief 
watch-house,  and  the  three  armories,  are  in  the 
new  part  of  the  city  {al-Jiydd)  southeast  of  the 
^arlJm,  or  sacred  precincts,  and  this  part  of  the 
city  has  a  European  appearance.  The  only  manu- 
factures of  Mecca  are  rosaries  and  pottery;  some 
dyeing  is  also  done;  the  inhabitants  make  their 
living  chiefly  by  letting  rooms  at  the  time  of  the 
pilgrimage  (see  Hajj)  to  the  pilgrims  who  come 
here  often  to  the  number  of  100,000.  The  largest 
number  of  these  pilgrims  are  Malays  and  In- 
dians; then  come  negroes,  Persians,  Turks, 
Egyptians,  Syrians,  Tatars,  and  Chinese.  Ordi- 
narily the  city  contains  about  50,000  inhabitants. 
The  centre  of  the  city  is  the  Masjid  al-^a- 
Him,  or  Sacred  Mosque,  which  lies  beneath  the 
level  upon  which  the  rest  of  the  city  stands  and 
is  always  liable  to  inundations  from  the  Sail  or 
mountain  torrent.     This  sacred  area  is  capable 


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HECCA. 


241 


KBGHANICAL  POWEBS. 


of  holding  35,000  people.  (See  Kaaba.)  A 
great  number  of  people  are  attached  to  the 
mosque  in  some  kind  of  ecclesiastical  capacity, 
as  Khdfiha  (preachers),  K^tihs  (scribes),  Muf- 
tis, judicial  assessors,  muezzins,  etc.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  each  section  of  the  Mohammedan 
world  has  its  representatives  in  Mecca,  who  take 
care  of  its  pilgrims,  provide  them  with  lodgings, 
instruct  them  in  the  ceremonies,  and  the  like. 
By  the  side  of  the  mosque  runs  the  Mas'ah,  a 
iitreet  lined  by  high  houses  and  reaching  up  to 
the  hills,  Safa  and  Marwah,  through  which  the 
pilgrims  must  run  seven  times.  A  telegraph 
line  connects  Mecca  with  Jiddah  on  the  west  and 
with  Taif  on  the  east,  where  the  Meccans  spend 
their  summer. 

The  history  of  Mecca  has  been  an  eventful  one. 
Mohammedan  legend  holds  that  it  was  inhabited 
by  Ishmael,  whose  posterity  was  supplanted  by 
the  Banu  Jurhum  of  Yemen,  who  in  their  turn 
were  supplanted  by  the  Khuz&^a,  also  of  Yemen, 
in  the  year  a.d.  210.  About  460  a  certain  Kus- 
sal  of  the  Koreish  family,  and  an  ancestor  of 
Mohammed,  seized  the  Kaaba  and  his  family  is 
supposed  to  reign  there  to-day.  Here  Mohammed 
was  bom  (c.  670),  and  in  the  same  year  the  city 
was  menaced  by  the  Abyssinians  ('Year  of  the 
Elephant' ) .  Its  patricians  opposed  the  Prophet, 
but  gave  in  eignt  years  after  he  had  fled  to 
Medina.  Though  large  sums  of  money  were 
lavished  upon  it  by  successive  Mohammedan 
rulers,  it  was  not  an  easy  city  to  hold.  It  had 
its  own  pretender  to  the  Caliphate  in  Abdallah- 
ben-Zobelr,  who  was  besieged  in  Mecca  in  692  by 
the  Caliph  al-Hajjaj  and  finally  slain.  In  930 
it  was  devastated  by  the  Karma thians.  But  it 
always  had  its  own  rulers  or  sherifs,  descend- 
ants of  the  Prophet  through  Hasan,  son  of  Ali; 
and,  though  they  recognized  the  supremacy  oif 
the  Fatimites,  Mamelukes,  and  Turkish  sultans, 
they  had  a  large  measure  of  independence.  Since 
Selim  I.  (1517)  they  have  ruled  in  the  name  of 
the  Turkish  Sultan.  In  1803  the  Wahhabis  took 
the  city,  but  were  driven  out  by  Mehemet  Ali 
in  1813.  A  change  in  the  dynasty  of  sherifs 
occurred  in  1827.  Since  1840  their  prestige  has 
gradually  diminished,  a  Wali  (Governor)  being 
sent  by  the  Porte  to  offset  their  power.  Though 
all  non-Mohammedans  are  strictly  prohibited 
from  visiting  the  sacred  territory,  a  few  Euro- 
peans have  been  there  (see  Hajj,  where  the 
literature  will  also  be  found) .  Consult  Snouck- 
Hurgronje,  Mekka  (The  Hague,  1888-89,  with 
atlas),  and  Kahn  and  Sparroy,  With  the  PilgritM 
to  Mecca  (New  York,  1905). 

ICkCMAINf  m&'shftN^  Piebbe  Fban^ois  An- 
DBfe  (1744-1804).  A  French  astronomer,  bom  at 
Lao'n.  He  attracted  the  attention  of  Lalande 
(q.v.),  who  secured  him  a  place  as  Government 
hydrographer.  He  still,  however,  managed  to 
keep  up  his  astronomical  studies,  and  was  in 
1782  elected  to  the  Academy.  In  1791,  when  the 
Government  had  decided  to  use  the  arc  of  merid- 
ian between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona  as  a  basis 
for  the  new  metric  system,  he  was  employed 
to  measure  that  portion  which  lies  between 
Rodez  and  Barcelona.  On  the  completion  of 
this  work  he  resumed  his  observations  at  Paris, 
but,  an  error  having  been  discovered  in  his 
measurements,  he  returned  to  Spain  to  correct 
it  and  was  there  stricken  with  yellow  ffever.  He 
contributed  memoirs  on  eclipses  and  the  theory 


of  comets  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  to  the  Connaissance  du  Temps,  of 
which  he  was  editor  from  1788  till  1794. 

MECHANICAL  ADVANTAGB.  See  Me- 
chanical Powers. 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEEB.  See  Engi- 
neer AND  EnGINEEBINQ. 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEEBS^  American 
Society  of.  An  association  of  professional  me- 
chanical engineers,  manufacturers,  and  pro- 
fessors in  technical  schools,  organized  in  New 
York  in  1880  to  promote  the  arts  and  sciences 
connected  with  engineering  and  mechanical  con- 
struction. There  are  two  meetings  yearly:  one, 
the  regular  meeting,  in  New  York  City  in 
December;  the  other  in  some  manufacturing 
city.  The  society  has  a  considerable  member- 
ship in  all  civilized  countries  and  has  head- 
quarters in  New  York  City,  with  a  library  of 
over  eight  thousand  volumes.  Membership  in  the 
society  is  carefully  guarded,  and  consists  of 
honorary  members,  members,  associates,  and 
juniors.  To  be  eligible  as  a  member,  the  candi- 
date must  be  not  less  than  thirty  years  of  age, 
and  must  be  a  competent  engineer,  designer,  or 
constructor,  or  must  have  served  as  a  teacher  of 
engineering  for  more  than  five  years.  An  asso- 
ciate must  be  not  less  than  twenty-six  years  of 
age,  and  must  possess  the  qualifications  of  a 
member.  A  junior  must  have  had  considerable 
engineering  experience  or  must  be  a  graduate  of 
an  engineering  school.  The  society  is  governed 
by  a  council  consisting  of  a  president,  six  vice- 
presidents,  nine  managers,  and  a  secretary  and 
treasurer. 

MECHANICAL  EQUIVALENT  07 
HEAT.     See  Heat. 

MECHANICAL  POWEBS  -  MACHINES. 
Technically  described  a  machine  is  a  co'hibination 
of  resistant  bodies  for  modifying  energy  and 
doing  work,  the  members  of  which  are  so  ar- 
ran^d  that,  in  operation,  the  motion  of  any 
member  involves  definite,  relative,  constrained 
motion  of  the  others.  A  brief  analysis  of  this 
definition  will  help  to  make  it  clear.  First,  a 
machine  must  consist  of  a  combination  of  bodies ; 
thus  a  lever  must  have  its  fulcrum,  a  screw  its 
nut,  a  wheel  and  axle  its  bearings,  and  so  on  with 
other  examples ;  the  simplest  machine  must  have 
at  least  two  members  between  which  relative 
motion  is  possible.  Second,  the  members  of  a  ma- 
chine must  be  resistant  in  order  to  transmit  force ; 
they  generally  are  rigid,  but  not  necessarily 
so,  since  flexible  belts,  chains,  or  springs  may 
be  employed  to  transmit  force  under  the  par- 
ticular action  to  which  they  are  adapted.  Third, 
a  machine  is  used  to  modify  energy  and  perform 
work.  This  proposition  is  obvious.  The  con- 
ception of  a  machine  involves  the  conception  of 
some  source  of  energy  and  a  train  of  mechanism 
suitably  arranged  to  receive,  modify,  and  apply 
the  energy  derived  from  this  source  to  the  de- 
sired end.  A  machine,  then,  consists  of  (1) 
parts  receiving  the  energy;  (2)  parts  transmit- 
ting and  modifying  the  energy;  and  (3)  parts 
performing  the  required  work.  Finally,  (4)  the 
relative  motions  of  the  members  of  a  machine  are 
constrained  or  restricted  to  Certain  definite,  pre- 
determined paths  in  which  they  must  move,  if 
they  move  at  all,  relatively.  The  first  two 
propositions  of  the  definition  are  equally  true  of 
structures    (such  as  a  bridge)   as  of  machines, 


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lEECHAKICAL  POWBBa 


242 


MECHANICAL  UNITS. 


but  the  third  and  fourth  are  true  of  machines 
only  and  serve  to  distinguish  machines  from 
structures.  A  structure  modifies  and  transmits 
force  only,  and  does  not  permit  relative  motion 
of  its  members;  a  machine  modifies  and  trans- 
mits force  -and  motion,  that  is,  energy,  and  per- 
mits relative  constrained  motion  of  its  members. 

The  distinction  between  a  machine  and  a 
mechanism  remains  to  be  explained.  A  mechan- 
ism is  a  combination  of  resistant  bodies  for  trans- 
mitting and  modifying  motion  (not  motion  and 
force  or  energy  as  in  machines)  so  arranged  that, 
in  operation,  the  motion  of  any  member  involves 
definite,  relative,  constrained  motion  of  the  other 
members.  A  mechanism  does  work  incidentally 
such  as  the  overcoming  of  its  own  frictional 
resistance;  its  primary  function  is  to  modify  and 
transmit  motion;  a  mechanism  or  combination 
of  mechanisms  which  receive  energy  and  transmit 
and  modify  it  for  the  performance  of  useful 
work   constitute  a   machine. 

Machines  are  of  various  degrees  of  complexity, 
but  the  simple  parts  or  elements  of  which  they 
are  composed  are  reducible  to  a  very  few.  These 
elementary  machines  are  called  the  mechanical 
powers,  and  are  commonly  reckoned  as  the 
lever,  the  inclined  plane,  the  jointed  link,  or 
toggle  joint,  and  the  hydraulic  press.  All  ma- 
chines and  all  locomotive  movements  of  ani- 
mals resolve  themselves  into  the  action  of  one 
or  a  combination  of  these  simple  mechanical 
powers  or  machine  elements.  A  few  observations 
applicable  to  all  may  appropriately  be  made 
here.  (1)  In  treating  of  the  theory  of  the  lever 
and  other  mechanical  powers,  the  question  really 
oxamined  is,  not  what  power  is  necessary  to 
move  a  certain  weight,  but  what  power  is  neces- 
sary to  balance  it.  This  once  done,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  least  additional  force  will  suffice  to  be- 
gin motion.  (2)  In  pure  theoretical  mechanics, 
it  is  assumed  that  the  machines  are  without 
weight.  A  lever,  for  instance,  is  supposed  to  be 
a  mere  rigid  line;  it  is  also  supp<^se<l  to  be  per- 
fectly rigid,  not  bending  or  altering  its  form 
\mder  any  pressure.  The  motion  of  the  machine 
is  also  supposed  to  be  without  friction.  In  prac- 
tical mechanics,  the  weight  of  the  machine,  the 
yielding  of  its  parts,  and  the  resistance  of  fric- 
tion have  to  be  taken  into  account.  (3)  ^\^len 
the  effect  of  a  machine  is  to  make  a  force  over- 
come a  resistance  greater  than  itself,  it  is  said 
to  give  a  mechanical  advaritaffe.  A  machine, 
however,  never  actually  increases  power — for 
that  would  be  to  create  work  or  energy,  a  thing 
as  impossible  as  to  create  matter.  What  is 
gained  in  one  way  by  a  machine  is  always  lost 
in  another.  One  pound  of  weight  at  the  long  end 
of  a  lever  will  lift  10  pounds  at  the  short  end, 
if  the  arms  are  rightly  proportioned;  but  to  lift 
10  pounds  through  1  foot,  it  must  descend  10 
feet.  The  two  weights,  when  thus  in  motion, 
have  equal  momenta;  the  moving  mass  multi- 
plied into  its  velocity  is  equal  to  the  resisting 
mass  multiplied  into  its  velocity.  When  the 
lever  seems  to  multiply  force,  it  only  concen- 
trates or  accumulates  the  exertions  of  the  force. 
The  descending  one-pound  weight,  in  the  case 
above  supposed,  may  be  conceived  as  making 
ten  distinct  exertions  of  its  force,  each  through 
a  space  of  a  foot :  and  all  these  are  concentrated 
in  the  raising  of  the  ten-pound  weight  through 
one  foot.  The  principle  thus  illustrated  in  the 
case   of  the   lever  holds  good   of  all  the  other 


mechanical  powers.  (4)  The  object  of  a  machine 
is  not  always  to  increase  force  or  pressure;  it  is 
as  often  to  gain  velocity  at  the  expense  of  force. 
(See  Leveb.)  In  a  factory,  for  example,  the 
object  of  the  train  of  machinery  is  to  distribute 
the  slowly  working  force  of  a  powerful  water- 
wheel  or  other  prime  mover,  among  a  multitude 
of  terminal  parts  moving  rapidly,  but  having 
little  resistance  to  overcome.  (5)  The  mechani- 
cal advantage  of  a  compound  machine  is  theo- 
retically equal  to  the  product  of  the  separate 
mechanical  advantages  of  the  simple  machines 
composing  it;  but  in  applying  machines  to  do 
work,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  inertia  of 
the  materials  composing  them,  the  flexure  of 
parts  subjected  to  strains,  and  the  friction,  which 
increases  rapidly  with  the  complexity  of  the 
parts;  and  these  considerations  make  it  desirable 
that  a  machine  should  consist  of  as  few  parts 
as  are  consistent  with  the  work  it  has  to  da 
(6)  The  forces  or  'moving  powers'  by  which 
machines  are  driven  are  the  muscular  strength  of 
men  and  animals,  wind,  water,  electrical  and 
magnetic  attractions,  steam,  etc.;  and  the  grand 
object  in  the  construction  of  machines  is,  with 
a  given  amount  of  impelling  power,  to  get  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  of  the  kind  required. 
(See  Work;  Foot-pol :«d. )  This  gives  rise  to  a 
multitude  of  problems,  some  more  or  less  gen- 
eral, others  relating  more  especially  to  particu- 
lar cases — problems  the  investigatioB  of  which 
constitutes  the  science  of  applied  mechanics. 
One  of  the  questions  of  most  general  applica- 
tion is  the  following:  If  the  resistance  to  a 
machine  were  gradually  reduced  to  zero,  its 
velocity  would  be  constantly  accelerated  until  it 
attained  a  maximum^  which  would  be  when  the 
point  to  which  the  impelling  force  is  applied  was 
moving  at  the  same  rate  as  the  impelling  force 
itself  (e.g.  the  piston-rod  of  a  steam-engine) 
would  move  if  unresisted.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  resistance  were  increased  to  a  certain  point, 
the  machine  would  come  to  a  stand.  Now  the 
problem  is,  between  these  two  extremes  to  find 
the  rate  at  which  the  greatest  effect  or  amount 
of  work  is  got  from  the  same  amount  of  driving 
power.  The  investigation  would  be  out  of  place 
here,  but  for  a  turbine  the  greatest  effect  is  pro- 
duced when  the  velocity  of  the  point  of  applica- 
tion is  one-half  of  the  maximum  veloi-ity  above 
s})oken  of.  The  moving  force  and  the  resistance 
should  therefore  be  so  adjusted  as  to  produce 
iliis  velcK'ity.     See  Mechanics. 

KBCHANICAI*  TISSUE.  The  supporting 
tissue  (stereome)  of  the  plant,  including  not 
only  the  vascular  system,  but  also  the  cortical 
sclerenchyma  and  collenchyma.  Cortical  me- 
chanical tissue  is  particularly  prominent  in  the 
hypoderma  of  stems  and  leaves. 

MECHANICAL  UNITS.  Various  units  or 
standards  used  in  different  countries  and  under 
different  conditions  for  the  expression  of  me- 
chanical quantities.  One  system,  the  C.  G.  S. 
system  (q.v.),  is  based  upon  the  centimeter,  the 
gram,  and  the  mean  solar  second.  Another  uses 
the  foot,  the  pound,  and  the  mean  solar  second. 
The  yard  and  the  pound  are  legally  defined 
as  follows:  "The  straight  line  or  distance  be- 
tween the  centres  of  the  transverse  lines  in  the 
two  gold  plugs  in  the  bronze  bar  deposited  in  the 
office  of  the  Exchequer  [London]  shall  be  the 
genuine  standard  yard  at  62**  F.;  the  pound  is 
the  mass  of  a  certain  piece  of  platinum  marked 


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HECHAHICAL  UNITS. 


248 


HECHANIC& 


T.  S.  1844,  1  pound/  and  deposited  at  the  office 
of  the  £xchequ»."  Both  the  standard  yard  and 
pound  are  now  preserved  at  the  Standards  Office 
of  the  Board  of  Trade,  London.  Still  another 
system  is  based  upon  the  loot  (one-third  of  the 
yard),  the  mean  solar  8ec<Mid,  and  the  weight  of 
one  pound  at  sea-level  and  latitude  1^5°  as  the 
unit  of  force.  (A  unit  mass  is  given  an  accelera- 
tion unity  by  a  unit  force;  hence,  since  the  unit 
force  gives  per  second  an  acceleration  32.172  feet 
per  second  to  a  mass  of  one  pound,  it  will  give  an 
acceleration  1  to  32.172  pounds;  therefore,  on 
this  system,  the  unit  of  mass  is  32.172  poimds.) 
The  relations  between  these  units  is  as  follows : 

1  centimeter  =  0.39d7079  Inches  =  0.01093633  yards. 

1  yard  =  »1.43835  centimeter. 

1  in^m  ^  aU0-2204«2125  lb.  =  15.43236  grraine. 

1  pouud  =  453.59265  grams. 

The  units  for  the  various  important  mechanical 
quantities  are  derived  from  them.  These  de- 
rived unita  and  a  few  others  are  given  in  the 
following  sections: 

Velocity. — One  centimeter  per  second;  one 
yard  (or  foot)  per  second;  one  nautical  mile, 
knot   (6080  feet),  per  hour. 

Acceleration, — Unit  velocity  per  second. 

Force, — One  gram  with  unit  C.  G.  S.  accelera- 
tion =  dyne;  one  pound  with  unit  ( f t.-lb.-sec. ) 
acceleration  =  poundal  =  13,825  dynes.  Weight 
of  one  pound  =  44,620  dynes. 

Work, — One  dyne  acting  through  one  centi- 
meter =  erg;  W  ergs  =  joule.  One  pound  raised 
one  foot  =  foot-pound  ^=  1.326  joules.  One  kilo- 
gram raised  one  meter  =  kilogram-meter  =  9.81 
joules.  (The  last  two  relations  are  approxi- 
mate.) 

Pou)€r, — One  joule  per  second  =  umtt;  33,000 
foot  -  pounds  per  minute  =  horse  -  power  =  746 
watts;  *force  dte  chevar=  75  kilogram-meters  per 
second  =  736  watts. 

Pressure. — One  dvne  per  square  centimeter  = 
*barie.'  One  megadyne  (10*  dynes)  per  square 
centimeter  =  *megabarie.*  *  Weight  of  one  pound 
per  square  foot*  =  47.9  dynes  per  square  centi- 
meter; one  poundal  per  square  foot  =  14.88 
dynes  per  square  centimeter;  'one  centimeter  of 
mercury*  =  13.5950  X  980.692  dynes  per  square 
centimeter  =  13,332.5  dynes  per  square  centi- 
meter; hence  75  centimeters  of  mercury  =  1 
megabarie  (very  closely)  ;  76  centimeters  of  mer- 
cury,  *one  atmosphere*  =  1.0133  megabaries. 

MECKANICS  (Lat.  mcchanica,  from  Gk. 
fiflX<tf't^^f  mcchanika,  firixo-vn^'flj  mechanikCy  me- 
chanics, from  firixair^,  mechane,  device).  The 
science  which  is  concerned  with  the  motion  of 
matter;  the  possible  kinds  of  motion,  the  condi- 
tions under  which  the  motion  remains  unohangeil, 
and  those  under  which  it  changes.  That  branch 
of  mechanics  which  discusses  the  possible  kinds 
of  motion  is  called  kinematics;  while  that  which 
discusses  the  properties  of  matter  in  motion  is 
called  dynamics.  Dynamics  b  divided  also  into 
two  parts — statics  and  kinetics — the  former 
treating  the  conditions  under  which  there  is  no 
change  in  the  motion;  the  latter,  those  under 
which  there  is  change. 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

The  first  mechanical  problems  solved  were 
those  dealing  with  the  simple  machines.  Archi- 
medee  (b.o.  287-212)  was  acquainted  with  the 
law  of  the  lever  in  its  simplest  form;  and  Leo- 


nardo da  Vinci  (1452-1519)  stated  the  law  for 
the  most  general  case,  when  the  forces  were  in 
any  directions  and  applied  at  any  points.  The 
principle  of  the  inclined  plane  was  known  to 
Galileo  (1564-1642)  and  to  Stevinus  (1548- 
1620).  Stevinus  was  the  first  to  use  a  line  to 
describe  a  force,  and  to  make  \ise  of  the  principle 
of  the  composition  and  resolution  of  forces;  he 
also  discussed  the  properties  of  pulleys  and  com- 
binations of  pulleys,  using  the  principle  that  if 
force  applied  to  the  cord  (a  weight)  move  doun 
a  certain  distance,  a  weight  fastened  to  the  pul- 
lev  must  move  up  a  distance  such  that  the  product 
of  each  weight  by  its  distance  is  the  same.  This 
principle  is  that  of  'virtual  velocities,'  so  called, 
which  was  applied  also  by  Galileo,  Torricelli, 
Bernoulli,  and  Lagrange.  In  his  treatment  of 
the  inclined  plane  Galileo  made  use  of  the  gen- 
eral principle  that  there  is  equilibrium  in  any 
ease  when  the  weight  as  a  whole  cannot  descend 
farther;  or,  as  Torricelli  expressed  it,  when  the 
'centre  of  gravity'  cannot  descend. 

Galileo  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of  dy- 
namics. He  recognized  the  fact  that  if  a  piece 
of  matter  was  in  motion  and  was  free  from  ex- 
ternal action  it  would  continue  its  motion  un- 
altered. He  proved  by  experiment  that  all  bodies 
fall  with  the  same  acceleration  toward  the  earth, 
and  proposed  tliat  the  value  of  a  force's  action  on  a 
body  be  measured  by  the  acceleration  produced. 
He  recognized  the  independence  of  different  mo- 
tions in  discussing  the  motion  of  a  projectile. 
He  was  acquainted,  too,  with  the  general  prop- 
erties of  a  simple  pendulum,  especially  its  prop- 
erty of  having  a  definite  period  which  varied  with 
the  length  of  the  string. 

Huygens  ( 1629-96)  did  fully  as  important  work 
as  Galileo  Mid  deserves  to  rank  with  him.  He  de- 
duced the  formula  for  centrifugal  motion,  a  =s^r. 
He  invented  a  pendulum  clock  and  the  'escape- 
ment' for  it ;  be  used  a  pendulum  to  determine  g ; 
and  proposed  a  seconds  pendulum  as  a  stand- 
ard of  length.  He  solved  the  problem  of  deduc- 
ing the  length  of  a  simple  pendulum  which  would 
vibrate  in  the  same  period  as  a  compound  one, 
that  is,  he  determined  the  position  of  the  centre 
of  oscillation  (q.v.).  In  this  last  deduction  he 
made  use  of  the  principle  that  in  whatever  man- 
ner the  particles  of  a  compound  pendulum  in- 
fluenced each  other,  the  velocities  acquired  in 
the  descent  of  the  j^endulum  are  such  that  by 
virtue  of  them  their  centre  of  gravity  rises  just 
as  high  as  the  point  from  which  it  fell,  whether 
the  pendulum  is  considered  a  rigid  body  or  as 
breaking  up  into  particles  each  connected  with 
the  axis  by  a  cord  and  thus  forming  a  great  num- 
ber of  simple  pendulums.  If  p„  p,,  etc.,  are  the 
ucights  of  the  particles,  h^,  h^  etc.,  are  the  dis- 
tances they  have  fallen  at  any  instant,  and  «,, 
s^  etc.,  are  their  speeds  at  that  instant.  HuygensVs 
principle  leads  to  the  relation,  ^Sj*  -\-  iPz^i'  + 

etc.  =  (piA,  -h  p^/j,  -f  etc.)  -  or 

2Jp«*=  -  2pA. 

In  the  case  of  a  rigid  body  turning  around  a  fixed 
axis  Zkp^=  Jar^2pr^  where  ta  is  the  angular 
speed  and  r  is  the  distance  of  the  particle  of 
weight  p  from  the  axis.  Thus  Huygens  was  led 
to  the  use  of  2/*/^  as  a  measure  of  the  inertia 
of  a  rotating  body.  He  did  not,  however,  realize 
the  idea  of  mass  as  distinct  from  weight.     The 


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name  'moment  of  inertia'  was  given  SmH  by 
£uler. 

Newton  gave  the  principles  of  mechanics  their 
final  form,  and  since  his  day  there  have  been  no 
important  additions  to  them.  We  owe  to  Newton 
(1642-1727)  the  recognition  of  other  forces  than 
weight,  the  general  idea  of  force,  and  in  particu- 
lar the  conception  of  inertia  or  mass  as  a  prop- 
erty of  matter  distinct  from  its  weight,  the  gen- 
eral statement  of  the  principle  of  the  composition 
and  resolution  of  forces,  and  the  law  of  action 
and  reaction  being  equal  but  opposite.  Newton 
adopted  as  the  proper  measure  of  a  force  the  ac- 
celeration produced  in  a  given  portion  of  matter ; 
or,  in  other  words,  the  velocity  produced  in  a 
given  time.  According  to  Huygens  the  measure 
of  the  force  is  the  square  of  the  velocity  produced 
in  a  given  distance.  Among  the  philosophers 
who  came  after  Newton  and  Huygens  there  was  a 
school,  following  Descartes,  who  measured  forces 
by  the  change  in  mv;  another,  following  Leibnitz, 
who  measured  it  by  the  change  in  mv*.  Thus,  to  a 
certain  extent  one  school  succeeded  Newton;  the 
other,  Huygens.  The  two  were  shown  by 
D*Alembert  to  be  identical,  although  there  was  a 
great  controversy  for  many  years  concerning 
their  relative  merits. 

KINEMATICS. 

All  possible  motions  of  any  geometrical  figure 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  translation  and 
rotation.  In  the  former  all  lines  in  the  moving 
figure  remain  parallel  to  themselves,  i.e.  the 
motions  of  all  the  points  are  identical;  in  the 
latter  all  the  points  of  the  figure  are  describing 
circles  whose  centres  lie  on  a  straight  line  called 
the  'axis.'  In  the  general  case  the  motion  of  a 
figure  is  a  combination  of  translation  and  rota- 
tion. 

Tbanslation.  In  motion  of  translation  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  motion  of  one  point  of 
the  figure  only,  as  that  is  the  same  for  all  the 
points.  If  the  figure  is  moved  from  one  position 
to  another,  this  displacement  may  be  represented 
by  a  straight  line  joining  the  initial  and  final 
positions  of  any  one  point  of  the  figure.  This 
line  indicates  by  its  direction  and  its  length 
the  displacement  of  the  whole  figure ;  it  is  called 
a  vector,  and  displacement  is  said  to  be  a  vector 
quantity  because  it  requires  for  its  complete  im- 
derfitanding  a  direction  and  a  numerical  quantity 
only,  and  so  can  be  pictured  by  a  straight  line 
having  the  proper  direction  and  a  length  equal 
to  or  proportional  to  the  numerical  quantity. 

If  the  motion  of  the  figure  is  uniform — ^that 
is,  if  it  passes  over  equal  distances  in  equal  in- 
tervals of  time— the  rate  of  motion,  or  the  dis- 
tance traversed  divided  by  the  time  taken,  is 
called  the  linear  speed.  If  the  motion  is  not  uni- 
form, the  linear  speed  at  any  instant  is  the  dis- 
tance which  the  figure  would  move  in  the  next 
second  if  its  motion  were  to  continue  for  that 
interval  of  time  at  exactly  the  same  rate  as  it  is 
at  that  instant:  in  mathematical  symbols,  if  Ax 
is  the  length  of  the  extremely  short  distance 
traversed  in  the  extremely  short  interval  of  time 
At  immediately  following  the  given  instant,  the 

Ax 
linear  speed  at  that  instant  is  the  value  of    — 
^  At 

in  the  limit  as  At  is  taken  smaller  and  smaller. 
Speed  is  therefore  a  number.  If  the  speed  in  a 
particular  direction  is  considered — that  is,  if  a 
distinction  is  made  between  the  motions  of  fig- 


ures with  the  same  speed  but  in  different  direc- 
tions— the  linear  speed  in  a  given  direction  is 
called  the  linear  velocity  in  that  direction. 
Linear  velocity  is  evidently  a  vector  quantity; 
the  linear  speed  giving  the  numerical  quantity, 
i.e.  the  lengtn  of  the  vector. 

If  a  figure  is  given  simultaneously  two  dis- 
placements, the  resulting  displacement  is  evi- 
dently found  by  'adding  geometrically'  the  two 
components.  Thus  if  AB  and  BC  represent  the 
two  component  displacements,  the  actual  one 
will  be  AC,  formed  by  placing  BC  so  as  to  con- 
tinue the  motion  indicated  by  AB  and  completing 
the  triangle.  (A  man  walking  across  the  deck 
of  a  moving  ship  illustrates  this  'composition'  of 
displacements.)     Similarly,  if  AB  and  BC  repre- 

sent  the  linear  ve- 
C  locities  of  the  two 
component  motions, 
the  actual  velocity 
is  represented  in  di- 
rection and  speed  by 
AC.  In  a  perfectly 
similar  manner, 
three,  four,  etc.,  vec- 
tor qualities  may  be 
added  geometrically. 
Further,  conversely, 
any  displacement  or 
velocity  may  be  re- 
garded as  made  up 
of  two  displacements  or  two  velocities,  the 
condition  being  that  the  two  vectors  represent- 
ing the  component  quantities  should  form  a 
broken  line  joining  the  ends  of  the  vector  rep- 
resenting the  actual  quantity.  This  is  called 
'resolution'  of  displacement  or  velocity.  In  re- 
solving vectors  it  is  nearly  always  best  to  take 
the  components  so  that  they  are  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  for  then  they  are  independent  of 
each  other.  Thus  if  AB  is  a  displacement— or 
any  vector — ^its  'component  in  the  direction'  AF 
is  the  vector  AC  obtained  by  dropping  a  per- 
pendicular from  B  upon  AF.  AB  is  e<juivalent 
to  AC  and  CB,  but  CB  has  no  connection  with 
the  direction  AF,  and  AC  is  then  that  component 
of  AB  which  indicates  how  much  AB  is  con- 


cerned with  the  direction  AF.  In  mathematical 
language  the  component  in  the  direction  AF  of 
a  vector  AB  is  AB  cos  (CAB). 

In  general  the  velocity  of  a  moving  figure  will 
not  be  constant;  and  the  rate  of  change  of  the 
linear  velocity  at  any  instant — that  is,  if  Av  i? 
the  extremely  small  change  of  the  velocity  in 
the   extremely   small   interval   of  time    At,   the 

limiting  value  of  — -  —  is  called  the  linear  ac- 
celeration at  that  instant.  It  is  evident  that 
acceleration  being  the  change  in  velocity,  and 
therefore  the  difference  between  two  lines,  is  it- 
self a  vector  quantity:  it  has  a  numerical  value 
and  a  definite  direction,  and  as  with  displace- 
ments and  velocities,  accelerations  can  be  corn- 


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pounded  by  geometrical  addition  or  resolved  into 
components.  Since  linear  velocity  is  character- 
ized by  a  speed  and  by  a  direction,  it  can  change 
in  two  independent  ways:  the  speed  can  change, 
the  direction  remaining  the  same,  e.g.  a  falling 
body ;  the  direction  can  change,  the  speed  remain- 
ing the  same,  e.g.  a  particle  moving  in  a  circle 
at  a  uniform  rate.  (In  general,  both  speed  and 
direction  change,  e.g.  a  vibrating  simple  pendu- 
lum.) There  are  therefore  two  independent  types 
of  linear  acceleration.  The  three  most  interest- 
ing cases  of  linear  acceleration  are  the  following : 

(1)  Motion  in  a  straight  line,  constant  ac- 
celeration. If  the  acceleration  is  positive,  the 
speed  increases;  if  it  is  negative,  the  speed  de- 
creases. Let  the  acceleration  be  called  a,  and 
the  speed  at  any  instant  s^;  then,  t  seconds  later, 
the  speed  will  be  «  =  «©  +  a*,  and  the  distance 
traversed  in  that  time  will  he  xz=8tt  ■\-  at*.  If 
t  is  eliminated  from  these  equations  it  is  seen 
that  «*  --«o*  =  2aflP.  These  formulae  apply  to  a 
body  falling  freely  toward  the  earth,  in  which 
case  a  =  980 ;  to  a  body  thrown  vertically  up- 
ward, in  which  case  a  =  —  980 ;  and  to  many 
other  illustrations. 

(2)  Uniform  motion  in  a  circle.  If  the  circle 
has  a  radius  r,  and  if  the  constant  speed  is  «, 

g* 
the  acceleration  has  for  its  numerical  value    — 

r 
and  its  direction  at  any  instant  is  along  the 
radius  toward  the  centre  from  the  point  where 
at  that  moment  the  moving  point  is.  This  last 
fact  is  evident  if  the  change  in  the  velocity  is 
considered.  At  any  position  in  its  path  around 
the  circle  the  moving  point  has  a  velocity  along 
the  tangent  to  the  circle;  the  following  instant 
this  velocity  is  changed  into  the  next  tangent; 
and  to  secure  this  change  a  small  vector  perpen- 
dicular to  the  first  tangent  must  be  added  to  the 
vector  representing  the  first  velocity.  The  proof 
that  the  numerical  value  of  the  acceleration  is 
ft 

—  will  be  found  in  all  text-books  on  mechanics. 
r 

If  the  point  makes  N  complete  revolutions  per 
second  9  =  2irrN;  and  the  acceleration  equals 
4irVN«. 

(3)  Simple  harmonic  motion  of  translation. 
This  is  a  vibratory  motion,  to  and  fro  along 
a  straight  line,  such  that,  if  distances  from  its 
middle  point  are  called  w,  the  acceleration  of  the 
moving  point  when  it  is  at  a  distance  x  from  the 
centre  has  the  numerical  value  n*x,  where  n  is 
a  constant  quantity,  and  its  direction  is  toward 
the  middle  point  or  centre.  (To  distances  at  one 
side  of  the  centre  are  given  positive  values;  at 
the  other  side  negative.)  This  motion  can  be 
easilv  shown  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the 
point  which  is  the  projection  on  a  diameter  of  a 
point  moving  in  a  circle  with  uniform  speed. 
It  can  be  shown  further  that  the  period  of  this 
harmonic  motion,  that  is,  the  time  required  for 
the  point  to  go  from  one  end  of  its  path  to  the 
other  and  back  again,  is  27r/it,  where  ir  = 
8.1416.  The  length  of  the  path  is  called  the 
cmplitude;  and  the  position  of  the  vibrating 
point  at  any  instant  gives  its  phase.  Thus  there 
may  be  two  vibrating  points  which  have  the  same 
period  and  the  same  amplitude,  but  differ  in 
phase— one  lags  apparently  behind  the  other. 

A  pendulum  with  a  long  support  in  ji^  cord 
makes  harmonic  vibrations,  if  the  amplitude  is 
small;  so  does  any  point  of  a  violin  string  if 


the  string  is  vibrating  in  its  simplest  mode;  bo 
does  a  weight  hanging  from  a  rubber  band  or  a 
spiral  spring,  if  it  is  set  vibrating  in  a  vertical 
direction. 

Rotation.  It  can  be  shown  by  geometry  that 
if  a  fi^re  of  any  shape  with  one  point  fixed 
is  displaced  in  any  way  by  anv  series  of  rota- 
tions, the  final  position  may  be  reached  from 
the  initial  one  by  a  single  rotation  around  an 
axis  passing  through  the  fixed  point.  The  simplest 
mode  of  describing  such  a  displacement  is  to 
imagine  a  plane  section  through  the  figure  per- 
pendicular to  this  axis,  to  take  in  this  plane  a 
line  fixed  in  space  and  one  fixed  in  the  figure, 
and  then  to  measure  the  rotation  by  the  change 
in  the  angle  made  with  the  former  line  by  the 
latter  as  the  figure  turns  around  the  axis.  Three 
things  are  then  necessary  for  the  representation 
of  the  angular  displacement:  (1)  The  position 
of  the  axis;  (2)  its  direction — ^a  line  in  one  direc- 
tion will  represent  rotation  in  the  direction  of 
the  hands  of  a  watch,  while  one  in  the  opposite 
direction  will  represent  opposite  rotation;  (3) 
the  numerical  value  of  the  angle  of  displacement, 
measured  as  just  described. 

(The  numerical  value  of  the  angle  between 
two  lines  is  obtained  by  describing  a  circle  of 
any  radius  R  with  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  lines  as  the  centre,  measuring  the  length  of 
the  arc,  A,  intercepted  between  the  two  lines,  and 
dividing  A  by  R.     See  Tkigonometr y  ) . 

This  angular  displacement  can  be  completely 
pictured  by  a  straight  line  in  the  proper  direc- 
tion made  to  coincide  with  the  axis  of  rotation 
and  of  a  length  proportional  to  the  angle  of  rota- 
tion :  such  a  line  is  called  a  rotor,  or  a  localized 
vector,  because  it  is  a  vector  placed  in  a  definite 
position. 

If  a  rotation  around  a  fixed  axis  is  considered, 
the  angular  speed  is  the  rate  of  change  of  the 
angle  formed  by  the  line  fixed  in  space  and  that 
fixed  in  the  figure,  as  described  above.  The  angu- 
lar velocity  in  this  case  is  the  angular  speed 
around  the  given  axis  in  a  definite  sense  of  ro- 
tation; it  is  therefore  a  rotor.  If  a  figure  with 
one  point  fixed  is  given  simultaneously  two  angu- 
lar velocities  around  two  different  axes,  the  re- 
sultant angular  velocity  will  be  a  rotor  which  is 
the  geometrical  sum  of  the  two  component  rotors. 
Angular  acceleration  is  the  rate  of  change  of 
angular  velocity;  and  there  are  two  independent 
types:  (1)  the  position  of  the  axis  fixed,  but 
the  angular  speed  changing;  (2)  the  angular 
speed  constant,  but  the  position  of  the  axis 
changing.  A  door  or  gate  when  opening  or  clos- 
ing is  an  illustration  of  the  first  type;  while  a 
spinning  top  generally  furnishes  an  illustration 
of  the  second,  because,  when  the  axis  of  the  top 
is  not  vertical,  it  is  moving  so  as  to  describe  a 
cone  in  space.  Actually  in  the  case  of  a  spin- 
ning top  the  angular  speed  is  decreasing  owing  to 
friction,  so  it  is  an  illustration  of  the  combina- 
tion of  the  two  types. 

The  three  most  interesting  cases  of  rotation 
are  the  following: 

(1)  Position  of  axis  fixed,  constant  angu- 
lar acceleration.  If  the  constant  acceleration 
is  a,  and  if  at  any  instant  the  angular  speed 
is  Wo,  the  angular  speed  t  seconds  later  will 
be  »  =  ufQ  +  at,  and  the  angle  rotated 
through  in  that  interval  of  time  will  be  ^  = 
Wot  +  J  at*.  If  *  is  eliminated  from  these  two 
equations,  it  is  seen  that  w"  —  w  o'  =  2a^.    This 


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motkm  is  illustrated  bv  a  fly-wheel  or  |priiid- 
stone  ccMning  to  rest  under  a  constant  friction  or 
being  set  in  motion  at  a  unifonn  rate. 

It  is  evident  from  the  above  definition  of  the 
numerical  value  of  an  angle  that  if  the  linear 
speed  and  acceleration  of  any  point  at  a  distance 
H  from  the  axis  are  »  and  a,  they  are  connected 
with  the  angular  speed  and  acceleration  of  the 
whole  figure  by  the  relations  a  =  Rw,  a  =  Ra. 

(2)  Angular  speed  constant,  but  the  position 
of  the  axis  describing  a  cone  at  a  uniform  rate. 
This  motion  is  illustrated,  as  explained  above, 
by  a  spinning  top.  A  piece  of  apparatus  which 
furnishes  a  more  accurate  illustration  consists  es- 
sentially of  a  heavy  wheel  whose  axle  is  so  sup- 
ported that  it  can  turn  freely  within  a  circular 
ring  which  is  fastened  rigidly  to  a  metal  rod 
carrying  sliding  weights  at  its  further  end;  this 
rod  is  pivoted  at  its  middle  point  so  as  to  be 
free  to  turn  in  any  direction ;  and  the  axle  of  the 
wheel  is  set  in  the  same  line  as  this  rod.  This 
instrument  is  called  a  'gyroscopic  pendulum,* 
(For  a  description  of  one  made  out  of  a  bicycle 
wheel,  see  Physical  Rcvieic,  vol.  x.  p.  43,  1901.) 
To  produce  the  desired  motion,  balance  the  wheel 
and  its  ring  by  means  of  the  sliding  weights  until 
the  rod  is  horizontal,  set  the  wheel  in  rapid  ro- 
tation, and  disturb  the  balance  slightly  by  adding 
a  small  weight  to  either  portion  of  the  rod.  The 
rod  will  immediately  begin  to  move  around  in  a 
horizontal  plane;  and  thus  the  position  of  the 
axis  of  rotation  of  the  wheel  will  change,  and 
will  describe  a  plane — the  limiting  form  of  a 
cone.  The  reason  lor  this  change  is  that  there  is 
compounded  with  the  angular  velocity  of  the 
wheel  around  its  own  axis  another  one  due  to 
the  disturbed  balance  of  the  rod  which  would  of 
itself  make  the  whole  apparatus  rotate  around  a 
horizontal  axis,  i.e.  turn  over  as  the  extra  weight 
pulls  its  side  down.  This  addcnl  angular  velocity 
is  about  an  axis  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the 
wheel,  and  both  lie  in  a  horizontal  plane;  the 
two  angular  velocities  will  compound  therefore  to 
form  an  angular  velocity  about  an  axis  in  the 
same  horizontal  plane,  but  in  a  position  different 
from  that  of  the  axis  of  the  wheel  before  it  was 
disturbed.  As  fast  as  this  axis  takes  up  its 
new  position,  it  is  again  disturbed;  and  so  the 
motion  is  a  continuous  change  of  position  of  the 
axis  of  the  wheel  in  a  horizontal  plane.  (This 
case  in  rotation  corresponds,  tlierefore,  perfectly 
to  the  one  in  translation  of  motion  of  a  point  in 
a  circle  at  a  uniform  speed.)  In  the  actual  use 
of  the  gyroscopic  pendulum  there  are  other  phe- 
nomena depending  upon  the  properties  of  matter 
in  motion ;  the  above  description  is  designed  to 
be  a  purely  kinematic  one. 

(3)  Simple  harmonic  motion  of  rotation.  This 
motion  is  illustrated  by  the  to  and  fro  rotation  of 
an  ordinary  clock  pendulum  or  by  the  vibrations 
of  any  body  set  swinging  through  small  arcs  when 
suspended  on  a  horizontal  axis,  also  by  the  bal- 
anco-wlieel  of  a  watch.  Let,  as  Iwfore.  two  lines 
be  taken  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis, 
one  fixed  in  the  figure,  the  other  in  space,  but 
so  chosen  that  they  coincide  when  the  vibrating 
figure  is  in  its  central  position.  Then,  if  6  is 
the  angular  displacement  at  any  instant  of  the 
line  fixed  in  the  figure  from  the  one  fixed  in 
space,  the  angular  acceleration  equals  m"  ^, 
where  m  is  a  constant  quantity,  and  the  direction 
of  the  axis  of  the  acceleration  is  such  as  always 
to  produce  an  angular  velocity  toward  the  posi- 


tion of  equilibrium.  The  period  of  a  complete 
vibration  may  be  shown  to  be  2w/nt,  The  ampli- 
tude is  the  extreme  angle  turned  through  by  the 
line  fixed  in  the  figure;  the  phase  at  any  given 
instant  depends  upon  the  position  of  thia  Ime  at 
that  instant. 

MoTiOK  IN  GEincBAX.  Translation  and  rotation 
are?  particular  types  of  motion,  and  in  general 
the  motion  of  a  figure  includes  both.  It  may  be 
proved,  however,  by  geometry  that  the  most  gen- 
eral displacement  of  a  figure,  produced  by  any 
number  of  motions,  may  be  reduced  to  a  com- 
bination of  a  translation  along  a  certain  line  and 
a  rotation  around  it  as  an  axis;  such  a  combina- 
tion is  called  *screw-motion.' 

DTWAMICS. 

Kinematics  is  a  science  which  is  concerned 
with  geometrical  ideas  alone ;  it  is  the  application 
of  logical  principles  to  certain  definitions  and 
axioms;  it  is  not  concerned  with  any  appeal  to 
experience'.  On  the  other  hand,  dynamics  is 
fundamentally  a  science  based  on  our  experience 
of  certain  sensations  associated  with  the  idea  of 
matter;  and  the  object  of  the  science  is  to  make 
such  an  analysis  of  the  facts  of  observation  and 
experience  as  will  lead  to  the  statement  of  a  few 
principles  from  which  all  observed  phenomena 
may  be  predicted.  It  is  possible  to  have  a  science 
based  entirely  on  definitions — which  are  sug- 
gested by  observations,  however — and  to  show 
that  all  observed  phenomena  can  be  regarded  as 
consequences  ol  these  definitions,  if  they  are  iden- 
tified with  actual  physical  quantities  which  ap- 
peal to  our  senses.  Such  a  science  is  called 
'theoretical  dynamics.'  In  the  following  treat- 
ment statics  is  considered  as  a  special  case  of 
kinetics. 

Translation.  The  simplest  property  of  mat- 
ter (q.v.)  is  illustrated  by  an  experiment  due  to 
Galileo.  If  a  ball  rolls  down  an  inclined  plane 
and  then  meets  another  plane  inclined  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  the  ball  will  roll  up  it  with  a 
constantly  decreasing  velocity;  the  less  inclined 
this  second  plane  is,  the  less  is  the  rate  of 
change  of  the  velocity  of  the  ball  as  it  rolls  up; 
therefore,  if  the  plane  is  perfectly  horizontal, 
there  is  every  reason  for  believing  that  the  cause 
of  the  observed  decreasing  velocity  of  the  ball  is 
friction,  and  that  if  there  were  no  friction  the 
velocity  of  the  ball  would  not  change.  In  other 
words,  it  is  thought  to  be  a  general  law  of  nature 
that  a  portion  of  matter  free  from  all  external 
actions  will  maintain  its  state  of  motion  un- 
altered. 

If,  however,  the  motion  of  one  portion  of  mat- 
ter is  influenced  by  the  presence  of  another  piece 
of  matter,  it  is  observed  thrjt  the  effect  is  mutual. 
The  simplest  case  of  two  bodies  influencing  each 
other's  motion  is  illustrated  by  two  billiard  balls 
striking  when  rolling  on  a  smooth  table,  i.e.  a 
surface  free  from  friction ;  by  a  man  standing  on 
a  board  which  rests  on  smooth  ice,  and  then 
jumping  off;  by  a  bullet  fired  from  a  gun;  etc. 
One  law  applies  to  all  such  cases:  if  m^  and  m, 
are  the  masses  of  the  two  pieces  of  matter  which  are 
supposed  to  be  so  small  as  to  be  called  *particlcs,' 
v^  and  t?2  their  linear  velocities  at  any  instant, 
Vi  and  y,  their  linear  velocities  at  any  later  time, 
then 

provided  there  are  no  external  actions,  that  is, 
provided  that  the  only  cause  of  the  change  in  the 


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liaear  velocity  of  one  body  is  oonnected  with 
the  presenoe  of  the  other.  In  this  equation  the 
som  of  f»it7i  and  ?)i,r,  and  of  w,Vi  and  ?n,V, 
is  1  geometrical  one,  for  each  of  the  terms  is  a 
Tector  <]nantity.  Owing  to  the  importance  of  the 
prodnet  mass  X  linear  velocity,  it  has  reoeived  a 
same,  linear  mowtentuni.    See  Impact. 

This  law  can  be  expressed  in  a  different  way. 
If  the  positions  of  two  particles  of  matter  of 
masses  m^  and  m,  at  any  instant  are  given  by 
eo6rdinates  Xi^,  and  r^,,  the  coordinates  of  the 
*ce«tre  of  inertia'  {q.v.)  are  defined  to  be 


in-iXi  -f-  m^2 


and  y  = 


nhyi  +  wij^i 


Consequently  as  the  particles  move,  the  centre 
of  iBertia  changes  its  position.  If  Ui  and  <«,  are 
the  components  along  the  axis  of  X  of  the  veloci- 
ties of  the  two  particles  and  i^^  and  tc,  their  com- 
ponents alone  the  axis  of  Y,  the  components  along 
the  axes  of  X  and  Y  of  the  velocity  of  the  centre 
of  inertia  are 

«  =  — _  _L  ^ —  and  w  =  - 


«h  +  »*«i 


W*l  ~l~   ^2 


But  it  Vt  and  v^  are  the  actual  velocities  of  the 
two  particles,  v,  is  the  geometrical  sum  of  Ux 
and  Wi.  Consequently,  if  the  actual  velocity  of 
the  centre  of  inertia  is  P,  it  is  the  geometrical 
sum  of  u  and  w;  that  is, 

or  (i»h  -|-  m,)  1?"  =  wiif  1  4-  m^v^ rr  ti^Vi  +  m,V,. 
Sinee  mi  +  m^  does  not  change  in  any  physical 
action,  v  must  remain  constant  in  direction  and 
amount,  however  the  velocities  of  the  two  par- 
ticles are  altered  by  their  mutual  influence. 

So  far  as  is  known  this  law  of  influence  of  two 
bodies  can  be  extended  to  any  number  of  bodies 
mutually  influencing  each  other;  that  is,  if  any 
number  of  particles  of  matter  of  masses,  m^,  m^ 
etc,  are  left  alone,  free  from  external  actions, 
their  velocities,  however  changed  by  mutual  re- 
actions, must  satisfy  the  law  that  the  geometrical 
sum  of  the  linear  momenta  remains  unchanged, 
•lit;,  H-  »m?,  -{-  etc.  =  constant. 

Expressed  in  terms  of  the  properties  of  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  system  of  particles,  this 
law  is  that  the  centre  of  inertia  of  a  system  of 
particles  free  from  external  influences  moves  in  a 
straight  line  with  constant  speed.  A  large  solid 
is  of  course  a  special  case  of  a  system  of  par- 
ticles; and  the  motion  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
of  such  a  body  must  obey  the  same  laws  as  does 
a  sin^  particle. 

This  principle  of  dynamics  is  known  as  the 
'conservation  of  linear  momentum.'  When  this 
principle  is  applied  to  the  mutual  action  of  two 
bodies,  it  takes  the  form 

mit?i  -f-  m,t?,  =  constant, 

where  m^  is  the  mass  of  one  body  and  Vi  is  the 
velocity  of  its  centre  of  inertia,  f»j  is  the  mass 
of  the  second  body  and  Vt  the  velocity  of  its  cen- 
tre of  inertia,  and  the  summation  is  a  geometrical 
one.  This  equation  means  then,  that  if  m,iii  is 
changed  in  any  way  by  Vj  changing  either  in 
direction  or  in  speed,  m,t7a  must  change  at  the 
same  time  by  an  amount  equal  and  opposite  to 
that  of  the  change  of  Wit?,.  The  rates  of 
changes  of  the  two  momenta  must  then  be  equal 
and  opposite  vectors  in  the  same  straight  line; 


that  is,  fWiOi  =  — m^f  if  g,  and  a,  are  the  linear 
accelerations  of  the  two  centres  of  inertia.  (Illus- 
trations are  afforded  by  a  body  falling  toward 
the  earth,  the  earth  has  an  acceleration  upward ; 
by  a  piece  of  iron  attracted  to  a  magnet  which  is 
suspended  free  to  move,  etc.)  This  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  saying  that  under  the  influence  of  the 
second  body  the  first  has  received  an  acceleration 
a,.  The  product  tHiOi  is  called  the  'kinetic 
reaction'  of  the  body  of  mass  m^  against  the 
given  influence,  which  is  equal  and  opposite  the 
kinetic  reaction  of  the  second  body  against  the 
action  of  the  first.  The  influence  of  any  body 
on  another  of  mass  tn  is  measured,  therefore,  by 
the  product  of  m  and  the  acceleration  produced, 
i.e.  ma.  If  there  is  a  system  of  many  bodies, 
the  action  on  one  due  to  all  the  othere  is  the  sum  of 
its  kinetic  reactions  against  all  the  actions ;  that 
is,  it  is  the  product  of  the  mass  of  that  one  into 
the  geometrical  sum  of  the  accelerations  which 
each  in  turn  of  the  others  by  itself  would  pro- 
duce— or  the  actual  acceleration  of  the  one.  The 
product  of  the  mass  of  any  body,  therefore,  by 
the  linear  acceleration  of  its  centre  of  inertia 
measures  the  external  influences  acting  on  it. 
These  external  influences  combine  to  form  what 
is  called  the  'external  force.*     In  symbols 

F  =  ma 
meaning  that  if  a  body  of  mass  m  is  subjected  to 
a  given  set  of  external  influences  its  acceleration 
is  given  by  F/w»  or  if  bodies  of  difl'erent  masses 
are  subject  to  the  same  force  the  accelerations 
produced  vary  inversely  as  the  masses.  A  'unit 
force'  is  such  an  external  action  as  results  in  an 
acceleration  of  1  when  the  mass  is  1,  or  an 
acceleration  2  when  the  mass  is  %,  etc.  If  the 
C.  G.  S.  system  is  used,  the  unit  of  mass  is  a 
gram,  and  a  unit  acceleration  is  a  change  in  one 
second  of  the  velocity  by  an  amount  of  one  centi- 
meter per  second;  the  unit  foree  on  this  system 
is  called  the  'dyne.*  The  dyne  is  so  small,  being 
illustrated  nearly  by  the  upward  force  of  the 
hand  required  to  keep  a  milligram  from  falling, 
that  a  'megadyne*  (or  10"  X  dyne)  is  used  as  a 
practical  unit. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  forces  (q.v.)  :  gravi- 
tation, electrical,  magnetic,  muscular,  elastic,  etc. 
It  should  not  be  thought  that  they  are  things  that 
exist ;  they  are  simply  numerical  values  of  quan- 
tities giving  the  measure  of  external  influences 
on  the  motion  of  a  body,  e.g.  the  effect  of  pulling 
a  string  attached  to  a  body,  the  effect  of  a  mag- 
net on  a  piece  of  iron,  etc.  Forces  are  vector 
quantities  and  may  be  compounded  or  resolved 
into  components.  The  commonest  illustrations 
of  a  force  are  given  by  a  body  falling  freely  to- 
ward the  earth,  in  which  case  the  acceleration,  g, 
is  a  constant  for  all  bodies  at  any  one  place  on 
the  earth's  surface  (see  Gravitation),  and  so 
the  force  on  a  body  of  mass  m  is  tng^  and  if  a 
body  is  suspended  and  kept  from  falling,  there 
must  be  an  upward  force  mg  due  to  the  sus- 
pension; g  is  nearly  980  centimeters  per-second 
per  second,  or  about  32  feet  per-second  per  sec- 
ond. This  product  mg  is  called  the  'weight*  of 
the  body. 

One  of  the  most  important  illustrations  of 
force  is  shown  by  uniform  motion  of  a  particle 
in  a  circle,  which  may  be  produced  by  a  string 
whirling  the  body  in  a  sling,  or  by  making  the 
body  roll  around  inside  a  horizontal  circular  hoop 
on  a  smooth  table.  In  the  former  case  the  string 
is  said  to  'exert  a  tension*  on  the  particle;   in 


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the  latter,  the  hoop  is  said  to  'exert  a  pressure' 
on  it.  In  both  cases  the  acceleration  is  «*/r, 
where  a  is  the  linear  speed  of  the  particle  and  r 
is  the  radius  of  its  path,  and  has  the  direction 
from  the  moving  particle  toward  the  centre  of 
the  circle;  consequently  the  force  is  m^/r  in  this 
direction.  In  other  words,  to  make  a  particle  of 
mass  m  move  at  a  uniform  speed  «  in  a  circle  of 
radius  r  requires  a  force  acting  on  it  directed 
toward  the  centre  and  with  a  numerical  value 
ms^/r,  or,  if  ta  is  the  angular  speed  of  the  par- 
ticle, mr<a\  If  this  force  is  decreased,  the  par- 
ticle will  cease  to  move  in  a  circle  and  will  move 
farther  away  from  the  centre;  if  the  force  is  re- 
moved at  any  instant — ^by  cutting  the  string — the 
particle  will  continue  to  move  with  the  same 
velocity  that  it  has  at  that  instant,  i.e.  along  the 
tangent  to  the  circle  with  a  constant  speed. 
This  fact  that,  unless  the  force  is  sufficiently 
great,  the  particles  of  a  rotating  body  will  move 
farther  away  from  the  axis  of  rotation  is  illus- 
trated in  manjr  ways.  The  body  is  said  to  move 
under  the  action  of  a  'centrifugal  force.' 

A  simple  pendulum  is  defined  to  be  a  particle 
of  matter  suspended  by  a  long  massless  string. 
If  it  swings  through  small  angles  in  a  vertical 
plane,  the  motion  of  the  particle  or  *bob'  is  prac- 
tically in  a  straight  line, 
and  is  simple  harmonic. 
Let  O  be  the  point  of  sus- 
pension of  the  pendulum, 
let  OQ  be  its  position  when 
hanging  at  rest,  and  OP  its 
position  at  any  instant 
while  it  vibrates;  call  the 
angle  QOP,  $.  There  are 
two  forces  acting  on  the 
particle  of  mass  m  placed 
at  P :  one  is  the  tension  of 
the  string  along  the  string 
toward  O,  the  other  is  its 
weight  mg,  vertically  down. 
The  actual  motion  at  this 
instant  is  tangent  to  the 
circle  whose  radius  is  OP, 
that  is,  it  is  in  the  direction  PR,  either  up  or 
down.  The  force  T  has  no  component  in  this 
direction,  being  perpendicular  to  it;  and  that  of 
the  force  mg  is  mg  sin^  (using  the  general  for- 
mula for  resolving  a  vector).  Therefore  the 
acceleration  of  the  vibrating  particle,  in  the  di- 
rection PR,  the  force  divid^  by  the  mass,  is 

mgBin0 

— ^j— or^m^ 

This  acceleration  may  be  written 

PQ  X 

g  Qpi  or  calling  PQ,  x,  and  OP,  I,  g-^ 

If  the  amplitude  js  very  small,  PQ  is  prac- 
tically the  path^f  the  moving  particle;  and 
thus  the  motion  is  harmonic,  in  accordance  with 
the  definition  of  such  motion;  and  its  period, 
therefore,  is 


2'aIf 


For  other  illustrations  of  forces  see  Electricity  ; 
Magnetism;  Elasticity;  Gravitation;  Cen- 
tral Forces. 

It  has  been  shown  that,  if  there  are  no  external 
influences,  the  centre  of  inertia  of  a  system  of 
particles  or  of  a  large  body  continues,  if  in  mo- 
tion, to  move  in  a  straight  line  with  a  constant 


speed.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  action 
and  reaction  of  each  pair  of  particles  are  equal 
and  opposite.  If,  however,  there  are  external 
forces,  the  acceleration  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
in  any  direction  is  the  sum  of  the  components  of 
these  forces  in  this  direction  divided  by  the  mass 
of  the  whole  system.  This  is  equivalent  to  saying 
that  the  motion  of  the  centre  of  inertia  of  a  sys- 
tem of  particles  is  exactly  as  if  a  single  particle 
of  the  mass  of  the  system  were  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  given  forces.  Thus  if  an  iron  beam 
falls  from  a  building  (without  touching  any- 
thing as  it  falls)  the  motion  of  its  centre  of 
inertia  is  like  that  of  a  falling  particle — ^vertical 
— however  the  beam  revolves.  If  a  hammer  is 
thrown  at  random  into  the  air,  its  centre  of 
inertia  will  describe  a  parabola,  because  that  is 
the  path  of  a  projected  particle.  See  Projectile. 
Many  forces  are  not  constant  and  some  are 
abrupt,  like  the  blow  of  a  hammer;  and  in 
these  cases  it  is  impossible  to  measure  them. 
Their  effect  is  evidently  to  produce  a  sudden 
change  in  velocity;  and  it  is  measured  by  the 
total  change  in  the  linear  momentum.  Force 
itself  is  the  rate  of  change  of  linear  momentum ; 
so  if  a  force  F  acting  on  a  particle  produces  a 
change  of  momentum  from  mv^  to  mv  in  an 
interval  of  time  t, 


F  = 


mv  —  wiVq 


t 

and  thus  the  total  change  of  momentum  equals 
the  product  of  the  force  and  the  interval  of  time. 
This  product  F^  is  called  the  'impulse'  of  the 
force,  and  may  be  measured  even  if  both  F  and  t 
are  unknown.  Similarly,  if  an  impulsive  force 
acts  on  a  large  body,  the  velocity  of  its  centre 
of  inertia  will  be  changed  from  t^o  to  i;  in  the 
direction  of  the  force.  In  other  words,  the 
change  of  velocity  of  the  centre  of  inertia,  t^— r«, 
equals  the  amount  of  the  impulse  divided  by  the 
mass  of  the  body,  entirely  regardless  of  the  point 
of  application  of  the  force.  The  time  required 
for  a  force  F  to  change  the  velocity  from  t?o  to  t?  is 
mv  —  mvQ 
F 
The  distance  required  for  this  same  force  F  to 
produce  this  change  in  velocity  from  i7o  to  t?  in 
its  direction  is  found  by  the  formulse  of  kine- 
matics, which  show  that  under  a  constant  ac- 
celeration a,  the  distance  traversed  while  the 
speed  chaises  from  ««  to  «  is  such  that  2am  = 
r  —  «o*.      Therefore,  in  this  case,  since  a  =  F/m, 

The  product  Fa?,  that  is,  the  force  multiplied  by 
a  distance  in  its  line  of  action,  is  called  the 
'work';  the  quantity  %mfi*  is  called  the  Idnetic 
energy'  of  translation  of  the  body  whose  mass 
is  m  when  it  has  the  speed  8.  This  formula  is 
expressed  in  words  by  saying  that  the  ^toork 
done  by  the  force*  on  the  body  equals  the  in- 
crease  in  its  kinetic  energy  of  translation,  pro- 
vided the  speed  is  increasing,  e.g.  a  train  being 
set  in  motion.  If  the  speed  is  decreasing,  e.g. 
a  train  slowing  up  by  virtue  of  its  brakes  and 
the  resulting  friction,  it  is  said  that  the  body 
loses  an  amount  of  kinetic  energy  of  translation 
equal  to  the  work  it  does  in  overcoming  friction 
or  ^against  the  force*  F. 

Rotation.     A  'rigid  body'  is  defined  as  one 
which   is  not  deformed  in  any  way  under  the 


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forces  actiBg  on  it.  If  such  a  body  is  pivoted  on 
an  axis  whose  position  is  fixed,  e.g.  a  door,  a 
grindstone,  etc.,  it  is  self-evident  that  the  an- 
gular motion  produced  in  it  by  a  force  such  as  a 
push  or  pull  depends  not  alone  on  the  amount 
of  the  force  and  its  direction,  but  also  on  its 
point  of  application.  Thus  if  the  force  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  door  and  near  the  hinges, 
there  is  only  a  slight  eflfect;  if  it  is  applied  near 
the  edge  of  the  door,  it  is  much  greater;  and  if 
the  line  of  action  of  the  force  passes  through 
the  axis  of  rotation,  there  is  no  effect  so  far  as 
rotation  is  concerned.  If  a  plane  section  be 
imagined  in  the  body,  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis,  it  is  evident  that  a  force  perpendicular  to 
this  plane,  i.e.  parallel  to  the  axis,  has  no  effect 
on  the  angular  motion;  while  a  force  lying  in 
this  plane  has  an  effect  which  depends  upon  both 
the  force  and  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the 
point  where  the  axis  cuts  the  plane  to  the  line 
of  action  of  the  force.  This  perpendicular  dis- 
tance is  called  the  *lever-arm'  of  the  force  with 
reference  to  the  axis;  and  the  product  of  the 
numerical  value  of  the  force  and  its  lever-arm  is 
called  the  'moment  of  the  force*  around  the  axis. 
A  'moment*  such  that  the  resulting  effect  of  the 
force  is  to  produce  rotation  in  one  direction  is 
called  positive;  while  if  its  effect  is  to  produce 
the  opposite  rotation,  it  is  called  negative.  A 
moment  is  then  a  rotor.  It  can  be  shown  by 
theoretical  considerations  that  the  'moment  of  a 
force'  about  an  axis  is  the  proper  numerical 
value  to  give  the  rotational  effect  of  the  force; 
and  this  is  in  accordance  with  experience,  for, 
if  a  body  pivoted  on  an  axis  is  kept  from  turn> 
reg  imder  the  opposing  actions  of  two  forces  dif- 
ferently placed,  it  is  found  that  the  moments  of 
the  two  forces  about  the  axis  are  equal  and 
opposite. 

If  a  moment  is  acting  on  a  pivoted  body  such 
as  a  door,  its  immediate  effect  is  to  produce 
tngular  acceleration ;  just  as  the  effect  of  a  force 
in  translation  is  to  produce  linear  acceleration. 
It  is  important  to  determine  the  connection  be- 
tween the  moment  of  the  force  and  the  resulting 
angular  acceleration.  The  simplest  case  is  that 
of  a  particle  of  matter  joined  to  an  axis  by  a 
maasless  rigid  rod,  and  a  force  acting  on  the 
particle  at  right  angles  to  the  rod.  It  the  rod 
has  a  length  r,  and  the  particle  has  a  mass  m, 
the  moment  of  the  force  F  around  the  axis  is  Fr, 
and  the  linear  acceleration  of  the  particle  in  the 

F 
direction    of    the    force    is   — .      Therefore,    the 

m 

F 
angular  acceleration  (o)   is    — ;  and  if  the  mo- 

tnr 

ment  of  the  force  is  called  L, 

L=  Fr  =  ntf^a. 
The  coefficient  of  o,  mr'f  is  called  the  'moment 
of  inertia'  of  the  particle  around  the  axis.  If, 
now,  the  rotating  body  is  of  any  shape  or  size, 
it  may  be  shown  that  the  angular  acceleration 
(o)    resulting  from  a  moment   (L)   is  given  by 

the  formula  a  =  =-^5,  where  2mr*  is  the  sum 

cf  the  products  of  the  mass  of  each  particle  of 
the  body  by  the  square  of  its  distance  from  the 
axis.  2mr*  is  called  the  moment  of  inertia  of 
the  whole  body  around  the  axis  and  is  commonly 
written  I.    Hence 

L  =  Ta, 
a  formula  for  rotation  of  a  rigid  body  around 


an  axis  whose  position  is  fixed,  which  corre- 
sponds perfectly  with  the  formula  F  =  ma  for 
translation.  In  the  same  way,  therefore,  that  m 
measures  the  inertia  of  a  body  so  far  as  trans- 
lation is  concerned,  I  measures  its  inertia  for 
rotation. 

A  simple  illustration  is  that  of  a  body  pivoted 
about  a  horizontal  axis  so  that  it  can  make  oscil- 
lations under  the  action  of  gravity,  like  a  com- 
mon clock's  pendulum.  Take  a  plane  section 
of  the  body  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  rotation 
(at  O)  and  passing  through  the  centre  of  in- 
ertia (C),  to  describe  the  rotation  choose  the 
line  fixed  in  the  body  as  the  one  joining  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  body  and  the  point  where 
the  axis  meets  the  plane  (OC),  and  as  the  line 
fixed  in  space  the  one  where  OC  comes  when 
the  bodyjs  hanging  at  rest  (OA).  As  the  body 
vibrates,* it  will  occupy  in  turn  different  posi- 
tions which  are  completely  described  by  the  angle 
(0)  between  OC  and  OA.  The  problem  is  to 
find  the  angular  acceleration. 
There  are  two  forces  acting  on 
the  body :  one  is  the  supporting 
force  of  the  pivot,  and  its  mo- 
ment about  the  axis  is  zero 
because  it  passes  through  O; 
the  other  is  the  weight  of  the 
body,  which  is  mg,  where  tn  is 
the  mass  of  the  body  and  g  is 
the  linear  acceleration  of  a  body 
falling  freely,  and  its  line  of 
action  is  vertically  down 
through  the  centre  of  inertia — 
both  of  which  facts  will  be  ex- 
Calling  the  length  of  the  line 
6C,  If  the  moment  of  the  force  mg  about  the  axis 
through   O   is   mglainB;   therefore   the   angular 


acceleration  is 


mglsinS 


and    it   is   in   such    a 


direction  around  the  axis  as  to  produce  angular 
motion  tending  to  *bring  OC  to  coincide  with  OA. 
If  the  amplitude  of  the  vibration  is  small  the 
sin^    may  be  replaced  by  $;  and  the  angular 

acceleration  is  -^^.  Consequently  the  motion 
is  simple  harmonic;  and  the  period  of  one  com- 
plete vibration  is  27r-v/ ,•    Such  an  oscillating 

y  mgl 
body  is  called  a  'compound  pendulum,'  and  it  has 
many  interesting  properties.  (See  Centbb  op 
Gtbation;  Centre  of  Oscillation.)  A  simple 
pendulum  is  .?.  special  case  of  a  compound  one; 
in   it   I  =  mP   and   so   the   period   becomes,   as 

before,  2ir^L, 

Since  L  =  la,  if  the  angular  velocity  around 
the  axis  is  called  w,  this  equation  may  be  written 
I"  —  I"o 

^=   —t ' 

where  o  —  Wo  is  the  change  in  the  angular  veloc- 
ity in  t  seconds.  The  product  ht  is  called  the 
'impulse'  of  the  moment  of  the  force,  or  the 
moment  of  the  impulse  of  the  force.  As  a  result 
of  an  impulsive  moment,  the  product  lu — called 
the  'angular  momentum' — is  changed. 

The  time  taken  for  a  moment  L  to  change  the 
angular  velocity  from   6)0  to  q  is  evidently 

i  __  !<«»  —  I<->o 


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The  angle  through  which  the  body  turns  while 
this  change  is  going  on  is  given  by  the  formula 
of  kinematics  2a$  =  u^  — u^  ;    and  aa  «  =  L/I, 


the  angle 


0^ 


^lua  — Ug)o' 


The  product  L  is  called  *work* ;  and  the  work 
is  said  to  be  done  by  the  moment  if  o  is  in- 
creasing, and  against  the  moment  if  o  is  de- 
creasing. %Iu*  is  called  the  'kinetic  energy  of 
rotation'  of  the  body  whose  moment  of  inertia 
about  a  given  axis  is  I  and  whose  angular  speed 

is  6>. 

MonoN  IN   Genebal.     If   the   rigid  body   is 

not  pivoted  around  a  fixed  axis,  but  is  free  to 

move  in  any  direction  or  manner,  it  will  receive, 

in  general,  both  linear  and  angular  ao^eleration 

imder  the  influence  of  a  force,  e.g.  if  a  body  is 

thrown  in  the  air.     (Under  the  action  of  gravity 

alone  there  is,  however,  only  linear  acceleration, 

for  reasons  to  be  given  immediately.)      It  has 

been  shown  that  the  linear  acceleration  of  the 

centre  of  inertia  of  a  body  acted  on  by  any  forces 

is  the  same  as  that  which  a  particle  having  a 

mass  equal  to  that  of  the  body  would  have  under 

the  action  of  the  same  forces.    A  force  in  general 

does  not  have  a  line  of  action  passing  through  the 

centre  of  inertia;  imagine  a  plane  section  of  the 

body  through  the  line  of  action  and  tlie  centre 

of  inertia;  the  force  will  then  in  general  have  a 

moment   about  an   axis   through   the   centre   of 

inertia  perpendicular  to  this  plane.     Since  the 

translation  of  the  centre  of  inertia  of  the  body 

imdcr  the  action  of  the  force  is  quite  independent 

of  the  rotation,  the  rotation  will  be  exactly  as 

if  the  above  axis  is  fixed,  i.e.  if  m  is  the  total 

mass  of  the  body,  I  its  moment  of  inertia  about 

this    particular    axis,    F   the    force,    and    L    its 

moment  about  the  axis,  the  linear  acceleration 

F 
of  the  centre  of  inertia  will  be    —    and  the  an- 


gular acceleration 


So,  if  the  force  has  its 


line  of  action  through  the  centre  of  inertia,  there 
will  be  no  angular  acceleration,  e.g.  the  action 
of  gravity. 

If  an  impulsive  force,  whose  impulse  is  K  and 
whose  lever  arm  with  reference  to  an  axis 
through  the  centre  of  inertia  is  k,  acts  upon 
the  body,  the  velocity  of  the  centre  of  inertia  in 
the  direction  of  the  force  will  change  accord- 
ing to  the  formula  v  —  Vo  =  K/m,  and  the  angu- 
lar velocitv  about  the  axis  through  the  centre  of 

Kit 
inertia  will  be  given  by  the  formula  w — w^  =  -^. 

If  the  body  is  originally  at  rest,  its  centre  of 
inertia  will  move  instantly  in  the  direction  of 
the  force  with  a  velocity  K/m,  and  it  will  in- 

KA" 

stantly  rotate  with  an  angular  velocity  -r-.     If 

the  line  of  the  force  is  through  the  centre  of  in- 
ertia fc  =  0,  and  there  is  no  angular  motion. 
This  fact  furnishes  an  experimental  method  for 
the  determination  of  the  centre  of  inertia  (q.v.). 
If  the  linear  velocity  of  the  centre  of  inertia 
at  any  instant  is  v,  and  if  the  angular  velocity 
is  «,  the  entire  kinetic  energy  is  Mitnv*  -f 
%Iw^  where  m  is  the  total  mass  and  I  is  the  mo- 
ment of  inertia  of  the  body  about  the  axis  of 
TDtation  through  the  centre  of  inertia. 


Composition  of  Fobces — Statics.  If  several 
forces  are  acting  on  a  rigid  body  there  will  be 
produced  as  a  rule  both  linear  and  angular 
accelerations;  it  is  a  problem  then  to  determine 
what  single  force,  if  any,  can  produce  the  same 
result.  If  such  can  be  found,  it  is  called  the 
'resultant.'  Since,  as  stated  in  kinematics,  the 
most  general  motion  is  a  'screw-motion,'  it  is 
impossible  in  general  to  have  a  resultant.  If, 
however,  the  forces  all  have  their  lines  of  action 
in  one  plane,  they  have  a  resultant  except  in 
one  case  to  be  noted  hereafter.  Such  forces  are 
called  'coplanar.'  It  is  simplest  to  distinguish 
between  two  groups  of  pairs  of  forces,  parallel 
and  non-paralieL 

Two  Non-Pa  raijjcl  Coplanab  Forges.  The 
lines  of  action  of  two  such  forces  meet  in  a  point 
in  their  plane.  Consider  a  case  in  which  this 
point  is  in  the  rigid  body  on  which  the  two  forces 
are  acting.  The  effect  of  a  force  upon  a '  rigid 
body  is  evidently  the  same  wherever  its  point 
of  application  is,  provided  it  is  in  the  line  of 
action  of  the  force.  Therefore  the  action  of  the 
two  forces  in  this  caae  is  as  if  they  were  both 
applied  at  that  point  of  the  rigid  body  where 
their  lines  of  action  cross.  Their  resultant  is 
then  found  by  constructing  their  geometrical 
sum  at  this  point;  for  such  a  force  has  obvious- 
ly a  translational  effect  equivalent  to  the  sum  of 
tJie  effects  of  the  two  forces,  and  it  may  be 
shown  by  simple  geometry  that  its  moment 
around  any  axis  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  mo- 
ments of  the  two  forces  around  that  axis,  and  so 
its  rotational  effect  is  the  same  as  the  combined 
effects  of  the  two  forces.  The  line  of  action  of 
the  resultant  passes  through  the  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  two  forces,  but  its  point  of  appli- 
cation can  be  anywhere  in  this  line;  conse- 
quently, it  is  entirely  immaterial  whether  the 
point  of  intersection  itself  is  a  point  of  the  body 
or  not. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  body  is  under  the 
action  of  three  forces,  one  of  which  is  equal  and 
opposite  to  the  resultant  of  the  other  two,  there 
is  no  resulting  force  or  moment ;  that  is,  there  is 
neither  linear  nor  angular  acceleration.  Such  a 
condition  is  called  'equilibrium'  (q.v.).  The 
stability,  instability,  etc.,  of  equilibrium  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  article  on  Equujbbium. 

Conversely,  if  a  rigid  body  is  in  equilibrium  un- 
der the  action  of  three  non-parallel  forces,  their 
lines  of  action  must  meet  in  a  point,  they  must 
lie  in  one  plane,  and  one  must  be  equal  and  op- 
posite to  the  geometrical  sum  of  the  other  two. 

Two  Parallel  Forces.  Two  parallel  forces 
form  a  limiting  case  of  two  non-parallel  coplanar 
forces  whose  point  of  intersection  recedes  to  an 
infinite  distance.  Their  geometrical  sum  then  be- 
comes their  algebraic  sum;  if  the  two  forces  are 
in  the  same  direction,  their  resultant  is  a  force 
parallel  to  them,  in  the  same  plane,  and  numeric- 
ally equal  to  the  sum  of  their  numerical  values; 
if  they  are  in  opposite  directions,  their  resultant 
is  a  force  parallel  to  them,  in  the  same  plane, 
and  numerically  equal  to  the  difference  of  their 
numerical  values.  (For  the  time  being,  the  case 
is  excluded  in  which  the  two  parallel  forces  are 
equal  and  opposite ;  such  a  combination  is  called 
a  'couple,'  q.v.).  This  resultant  must  have  such 
a  position  relative  to  the  two  forces  that  its 
moment  about  any  axis  equals  the  sum  of  their 
moments  about  the  same  axis.  If  the  forces  are 
as  shown  in  the  figure,  F^  and  F^  being  at  a 


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known  distance  AC  apart  and  O  being  the  inter- 
section of  any  axis  perpendicular  to  their  plane 
with  the  plane,  OCBA,  being  a  line  perpendicular 
to  the  forces,  the  resultant  R  must  have  such  a 
position  that 

RBO  =  Fi  AO  +  F,CO 
Substituting  for  R  its  value  Fi  +  F„  this  be- 
comes 

(Fi  +  Fj)BO  =  FjAO +  F,CO^ 
or  FjAC  =  ( Fi  4-  Fa)  BC 


hence 


BC=^ 


rAC 


F,+F/ 

and  therefore  the  position  of  the  resultant  is 
given  in  terms  of  known  quantities.  (This  ex- 
presses the  obvious  fact  that  the  "moment  of  the 
resultant  aroimd  an  axis  through  G  equals  the 


moment  of  F^  around  the  same  axis;  for  the 
moment  of  F,  around  this  axis  is  zero.)  In  a 
perfectly  similar  manner  the  resultant  of  two 
parallel  forces  in  opposite  directions  may  be 
foimd. 

One  of  the  most  important  illustrations  of 
parallel  forces  is  given  by  the  gravitational  ac- 
tion of  the  earth  on  a  body.  Experiments  show 
that  the  accelerations  of  all  bodies — all  materials 
and  all  quantities — when  falling  freely  toward  the 
earth  at  any  point  on  its  surface  are  the 
same,  V**  Therefore  each  particle  of  matter 
of  mass  m  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
being  acted  upon  by  a  force  mg,  whose  direc- 
tion is  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Any 
large  rigid  body  is,  then,  under  the  action  of  a 
great  number  of  parallel  forces.  Their  resultant 
is  a  vertical  force  Mg,  if  M  is  the  total  mass 
of  the  body.  Its  centre,  i.e.  the  point  through 
which  its  line  of  action  always  passes,  however 
the  body  is  turned,  is  called  its  *centre  of  gravity* 
(q.v.).  It  may  be  shown  analytically  and  by 
experiment  that  this  point  coincides  with  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  body.  This  is  further 
evident  from  the  fact  that,  if  a  body  falls,  how- 
ever it  revolves  in  so  doing,  its  centre  of  gravity 
must  have  the  acceleration  g;  and  this  property 
has  been  shown  to  be  peculiar  to  the  centre  of 
inertia. 

It  is  evident  that  if  a  rigid  body  is  under  the 
action  of  three  co-planar  parallel  forces,  one  of 
which  is  equal  and  opposite  to  the  resultant  of 
the  other  two,  the  body  is  in  equilibrium.  The 
conditions  then  are  (1)  that  the  algebraic  sum 
of  the  three  forces  equals  zero;  (2)  that  the 
algebraic  sum  of  the  momenta  of  the  three  forces 
Vol.  XIIL— 17. 


around  any  axis  equals  zero.  If  any  number  of 
coplanar  forces,  parallel  or  non-parallel,  act  on 
a  rigid  body  their  resultant  may  be  found  by 
compounding  them  in  pairs,  as  described.  If, 
however,  the  final  pair  of  forces  is  a  couple,  that 
is,  consists  of  two  equal  and  opposite  forces, 
there  is  no  resultant.  The  moment  of  a  couple 
around  any  axis  perpendicular  to  their  plane  is 
the  product  of  either  of  the  forces  by  their 
distance  apart;  this  product  is  called  the 
'strength*  of  the  couple.  The  action  of  a  couple 
is  to  make  a  body  rotate  about  an  axis  perpen- 
dicular to  its  plane  and  passing  through  the 
centre  of  inertia  of  the  body;  and  this  can  be 
balanced,  not  by  a  single  force,  but  by  another 
couple  of  equal  strength,  and  opposite  in  direc- 
tion.   A  couple  is  then  a  rotor. 

The  action  on  a  rigid  body  of  any  number  of 
forces  in  all  directions  can  be  reduced  in  the 
end  to  a  single  force  through  the  centre  of 
inertia  and  a  couple;  for  each  force  can  be  re- 
placed by  a  parallel  force  through  the  centre  of 
mertia  and  a  couple  lying  in  their  plane,  and 
so  all  the  forces  reduce  to  the  sum  of  a  number 
of  forces  all  passing  through  the  centre  of 
inertia  and  to  the  sum  of  an  equal  number  of 
couples  each  tending  to  produce  rotation  around 
its  own  axis  passing  through  the  centre  of 
inertia. 

The  dynamics  of  fluid  bodies  are  considered 
in  Hydrodynamics  and  Pneumatics. 

Work  and  Energy.  Two  general  f ormulce  were 
developed  in  the  discussion  of  translation  and 
rotation, 

Fi  =  Jww*  —  J  msQ^ 
L^zTrilar"  — i< 

The  first  formula  may  be  expressed  in  words  as 
follows:  if  a  particle  whose  mass  is  m  is  moving 
with  a  speed  «o  in  any  direction,  this  will  be 
changed  to  «  in  that  same  direction  under  the 
action  of  a  constant  force  F  in  that  direction, 
provided  the  distance  traversed  in  that  time  is 
X  as  given  by  the  relation  Fx  =  %  ms*  —  %m«o*.  y 
An  illustration  is  afforded  by  an  arrow  shot  from 
a  bow:  s©  =  0,  then  Fa?=i/^ms^  Fa?  is  called 
the  *work*  done  by  the  bow,  ana  the  quantity 
%m«*  is  called  the  kinetic  energy  of  translation. 
Any  body,  not  itself  in  motion,  which  has  the 
power  of  producing  kinetic  energy  in  another 
body  is  said  to  have  potential  energy.  Thus  a 
bent  bow,  a  compressed  spring,  a  stretched  elastic 
cord,  etc.,  have  potential  energy.  To  bend  the 
bow,  compress  the  spring,  stretch  the  cord,  etc., 
a  force  must  be  overcome;  that  is,  motion  is 
produced  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  elastic 
force  of  the  body.  The  numerical  value  of  the 
potential  energy  is  defined  as  equal  to  the  prod- 
uct of  the  force  overcome  and  the  distance 
through  which  this  has  been  done,  i.e.  to  the 
*work  done  on'  the  bow,  spring,  or  string.  If 
the  spring  is  compressed  by  a  body  falling  upon 
it,  the  spring  gains  potential  energy  since  work 
is  done  on  it  and  the  body  loses  kinetic  energy. 
(The  spring  and  body  together  would  naturally 
continue  to  vibrate  up  and  down,  but  it  may  be 
supposed  here  that  the  spring  is  caught  and  held 
when  it  is  compressed  to  its  greatest  extent. )  If 
F  is  the  force  of  opposition  due  to  the  spring; 
a?,  the  distance  required  to  change  the  speed  of 
the  body  of  mass  nu  from  9  to  Sq;  the  gain  of 
potential  energy  of  the  spring  in  that  distance  is 
¥a),  and  the  loss  of  kinetic  energy  is 
ims*  — -  itn«o*,  where  Fx  =im««  —  imso*.      Sim- 


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ilarly,  if  the  spring  expels  the  body,  the  spring 
does  work  on  the  b<Sy  and  loses  potential  energy, 
and  the  body  gains  kinetic  energy ;  the  loss  in  po- 
tential energy  being  For  and  the  gain  in  kinetic 
energy  being  J»w»— iwwo*  if  in  the  distance  w 
the  speed  is  increased  from  Soto  a;  and  as  before 
Fx  =  iwM*  —  JwMo*»  "^^^  kinetic  energy  of  the 
spring  itself  is  neglected. 

In  words^  this  formula  means  that  the  loss  of 
potential  energy  of  the  system  producing  the 
acceleration  equals  the  gain  of  kinetic  energy 
of  the  particle  accelerate ;  or,  the  gain  of  po- 
tential energy  of  a  system  producing  retardation 
equals  the  loss  of  kinetic  energy  of  the  retarded 
particle.  Kinetic  energy  may  also  be  produced 
by  the  impact  of  another  body;  and  all  experi- 
ments are  in  accord  with  the  idea  that  the 
kinetic  energy  gained  by  a  body  in  this  case 
equals  that  lost  by  the  impinging  particle  pro- 
vided no  other  effects  are  produced.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  impact  of  perfectly  elastic 
bodies.  (In  general,  when  there  is  impact,  heat- 
effects  such  as  rise  of  temperature  are  produced, 
in  which  case  the  kinetic  energy  gained  by  the 
particle  does  not  equal  that  lost.)  In  general, 
then,  in  mechanics,  wnenever  one  body  loses  energy 
another  body  gains  an  equal  amount,  work  be- 
ing simply  the  transfer  of  the  energy.  Work  is 
done  in  two  ways:  producing  a  change  in  speed 
and  overcoming  some  opposing  elastic  force. 
Unless  there  is  motion  in  the  direction  of  the 
force,  no  work  is  done. 

It  is  evident  that  the  kinetic  energy  of  a 
moving  body  involves  the  idea  of  speed,  not  veloc- 
ity, because  the  amount  of  work  it  can  do  is 
independent  of  the  direction  of  the  motion.  (Also 
if  there  is  no  change  in  the  speed  of  a  body,  the 
force  is  at  right  angles  to  the  motion  and  so  no 
work  is  done,  whatever  the  change  in  direction 
may  be.)  Illustrations  of  the  second  formula, 
he  =  11(0* — il«p*>  ^^^  given  by  the  turning  of  a 
grindstone,  and  by  a  fly-wheel  being  set  in  motion 
or  stopped. 

There  are  other  ways  of  doing  work  than  in 
overcoming  elastic  forces  and  producing  speed, 
e.g.  raising  a  body  up  from  the  earth,  separating 
a  piece  of  iron  from  a  magnet,  separating  two 
bodies  electrified  oppositely,  overcoming  the 
force  of  friction,  etc.  In  all  these  cases,  the 
body  doing  the  work  loses  energy  and  the  system 
on  which  work  is  done  gains  energy.  The  *prin- 
ciple  of  the  conservation  of  energy*  is  that  in 
every  case  the  energy  lost  by  the  former  equals 
that  gained  by  the  latter;  so  that  on  the  whole 
there  is  no  change.  Every  phenomenon  in  nature 
is  in  accord  with  this  principle  so  far  as  is 
known. 

When  a  body  is  raised  from  the  earth,  work 
is  done  equal  to  the  product  of  the  weight  of  the 
body  and  the  vertical  height  it  is  raised,  mgh. 
This  amount  of  energy  is  gained  by  the  system 
consisting  of  the  earth  and  the  body  whose  mass 
is  m ;  but  until  gravitation  is  understood  it  will 
be  impossible  to  locate  the  energy  in  any  definite 
place  or  places.  If  a  body  falls  through  a  height 
h.  it  and  the  earth  lose  potential  energy,  vigh, 
which  is  gained  in  the  form  of  kinetic  energy 
by  the  falling  body  and  the  earth,  principally  by 
the  former,  since  the  change  in  the  speed  of  the 
earth  occasioned  by  the  body  as  it  falls  toward  it 
is  so  infinitesimal.  If,  after  the  body  falls  a  dis- 
tance, h,  its  speed  is  5,  its  kinetic  energy  is 
%ms*,  and  therefore  mgh  =  14  ws'  or  s*  =  2gh. 


This  formula  shows  that  the  speed  of  a  falling 
body  depends  upon  the  vertical  height  traversed, 
not  on  the  slope  or  length  of  the  path  itself;  it 
may  fall  vertically,  or  down  an  inclined  plane, 
or  down  a  spiral,  etc. 

The  cases  of  work  being  done  against  electri- 
cal and  magnetic  forces  are  discussed  under 
Electbicity  and  Magnetisic.  Whenever  work 
is  done  in  overcoming  friction,  it  is  observed 
that  heat-effects  are  produced,  which  can  be 
traced  to  the  fact  that  the  minute  portions 
of  the  body  on  which  the  work  is  done  gain 
energy.  This  question  is  fully  discussed  vmder 
Heat.  Since,  when  any  inelastic  body  is  de- 
formed in  any  way,  there  is  internal  friction,, 
part  of  the  energy  gained  by  such  a  body  when 
it  strikes  another  body  goes  into  producing  heat- 
effects. 

It  is  a  general  property  of  motion,  which  foK 
lows  at  once  from  the  definition  of  potential 
energy,  that  all  motions  take  place  of  themselves^ 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  potential  en- 
ergy of  the  system  decrease,  and  that  equilibrium 
is  not  reached  imtil  the  potential  energy  has. 
reached  a  value  such  that  it  is  a  minimum — that 
is,  is  as  small  as  is  possible  under  existing  condi- 
tions. 

The  unit  of  work  or  energy  is  that  correspond- 
ing to  a  imit  force  acting  through  a  distance  of 
a  unit  length.  On  the  C.  G.  S.  system  this  unit 
is,  then,  that  corresponding  to  a  force  of  1  dyne 
acting  through  1  cm.;  it  is  called  an  *erg.'  An 
erg  is,  however,  such  a  small  unit  that  10^  ergs — 
a  *joule,'  as  it  is  called — is  ordinarily  used  as  the 
practical  unit.  The  amount  of  work  done  in  a 
unit  interval  of  time  by  any  agency  is  called  its 
'activity'  or  'power'  (q.v.).  On  the  C.  G.  S.  sys- 
tem the  unit  is,  then,  1  erg  per  second.  The 
practical  unit  is,  however,  1  joule  per  second; 
this  is  called  a  *watt.' 

Machines  are  mechanical  appliances  by  means 
of  which  a  force  applied  at  one  point  and  in  a 
definite  direction  is  made  to  produce  a  different 
force  at  another  point  and  generally  in  a  different 
direction;  the  work  done  by  means  of  the  latter 
force  can  never  be  greater  than  that  done  by  the 
former — it  is  in  practice  always  less,  owing  to 
friction  and  other  causes.  The  *mechanical  ad- 
vantage* of  the  machine  is  the  ratio  of  the  two 
forces  described  above.  There  are  many  forms  of 
machines:  levers,  pulleys,  inclined  plane,  wedge, 
screw,  windlass,  etc.  (See  the  separate  articles.) 
The  problem  in  any  one  case  is  to  determine  the- 
theoretical  mechanical  advantage  of  a  machine; 
that  is,  on  the  assumption  that  there  is  no  fric- 
tion when  the  forces  are  working.  There  are 
two  general  methods  of  solving  this:  one  is  to* 
imagine  a  certain  force  acting  on  the  machine  and 
to  determine  by  the  ordinary  principles  of  equi- 
librium what  second  force  will  just  balance  the 
action  of  the  first;  the  second  is  to  consider  the 
machine  in  equilibrium  under  the  action  of  these 
two  forces,  then  to  imagine  a  small  displacement, 
and  to  express  the  fact  that  the  work  done  by 
one  force  equals  that  done  against  the  other. 
For  the  application  of  these  principles  to  the 
various  machines  reference  should  be  made  to 
the  separate  articles  in  which  they  are  de- 
scribed. 

Bibliography.  A  brief  useful  treatise  for  the 
general  reader,  which  gives  a  clear  conception  of 
the  elementary  principles  of  mechanics,  is  Max- 
well, Matter  and  Motion  (New  York,  1892).  The 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MECH^NICa 


258       MECHAHICS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 


following  works,  all  of  which  are  standard,  can 
be  recommended  to  the  student  of  mechanics: 
Mach,  Science  of  Mech4mics  (Eng.  trans.,  Chi- 
cago, 1893) ;  Ziwet,  Theoretical  Mechanics  (New 
York,  1904) ;  Love,  Theoretical  Mechanics  (Cam- 
bridge, 1897);  Routh,  Elementary  Rigid  Dy- 
namics (London,  1891) ;  id..  Advanced  Rigid  Dy- 
namics (London,  1892) ;  id.,  fitatics  (2  vols., Cam- 
bridge,  1892) ;  id.,  Dynamics  of  a  Particle  (Cam- 
hridge,  1898)  ;  Cox,  Mechanics  (}!^ew  York,  1904) ; 
Maurer,  Technical  Mechanics  (New  York,  1905) ; 
Barton,  Mechanical  Processes  (Annapolis,  1900)  ; 
Goodman,  Mechanics  Applied  to  Engineering 
(London,  1904). 

MECHAKICSBUBG,  m^-kfin^s-bOrg.  A 
borough  in  Cumberland  County,  Pa.,  8  miles  west 
of  Harrisburg;  on  the  Cumberland  Valley  Rail- 
road (Map:  Pennsylvania, H  7).  It  is  the  seat 
of  Irving  Female  CoUe^  (Lutheran),  and  has  a 
public  library.  The  city  is  surroimded  by  an 
agricultural  and  iron-mining  cotmtry,  is  an  im- 
portant shipping  point  for  iron  ore  and  a  depot 
for  supplies  for  the  iron  region,  and  manufactures 
spokes,  and  foundry  and  machine-shops  products. 
The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  a  coun- 
cil. Mechanicsburg  was  settled  in  1806,  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1828.  Population, 
1900,  3841;  1906  (local  est.),  4600. 

MECHANICS'  LIEN.  A  statutory  lien  or 
charge  upon  real  estate  to  secure  payment  for 
work  and  labor  performed  on,  or  materials  fur- 
nished for,  buildings  or  other  improvements 
thereon,  at  the  request  or  with  the  consent,  ex- 
press or  implied,  of  the  owner.  Under  the  early 
English  law  no  liens  on  real  estate  were  recog- 
nized, as  it  was  against  the  policy  of  the  feudal 
system  to  permit  a  tenant  thus  to  charge  land 
which  he  held  of  his  feudal  lord,  who  in  turn 
held  of  the  King.  After  the  feudal  system  was 
abolished,  lands  might  be  charged  with  liens  by 
express  agreement  of  the  owner,  and  this  became 
common  in  the  form  of  mortgages.  Courts  of 
equity  also  recognized  certain  agreements  in  the 
nature  of  mortgages.  Therefore,  there  are  no 
common-law  liens  on  real  estate.  By  statutes, 
however,  several  liens  were  created,  such  as 
judgment  liens,  and  liens  for  taxes  and  assess- 
ments. With  the  development  of  business  cus- 
toms much  work  which  was  formerly  done  by 
persons  acting  as  servants  for  a  master  came  to 
D€  performed  by  independent  contractors  who 
stood  on  an  equal  footing  with  those  who  en- 
gaged them.  For  the  protection  of  such  con- 
tractors and  of  material  men  whose  wares  are 
used  in  buildings  and  other  improvements  on 
real  estate,  the  statutes  known  as  'mechanics' 
lien  laws*  have  been  enacted  in  all  the  United 
States  and  in  Canada,  but  not  in  England.  There 
was  a  precedent  by  analog  for  such  laws  in  the 
common-law  liens  of  artisans  on  personal  prop- 
erty for  labor  bestowed  on  it,  such  as  the  repair 
of  a  wagon  or  a  pair  of  shoes.  Somewhat  similar 
liens  on  real  estate  were  also  recognized  and 
protected  by  the  civil  law.  The  theory  on  which 
mechanics*  liens  are  given  by  statute  is  that  the 
value  of  the  real  estate  has  been  increased  by  the 
addition  of  the  improvements  on  which  the  work 
was  performed  or  materials  furnished,  and  that 
the  property  should  accordingly  be  held  subject 
to  such  claims.  This  creates  a  preference  of 
these  claims  over  those  of  unsecured  creditors  of 
the  owner,  but  a  mechanics*  lien  is  subject  to 
valid    prior   liens   on   the    real   estate,   such   as 


mortgages,  judgments,  taxes,  etc.  The  term  me- 
chanics* lien  is  used  in  a  general  sense  to  cover 
all  liens  for  labor^  whether  skilled  or  unskilled, 
and  to  describe  liens  for  materials  furnished. 
These  liens  give  a  right  to  look  to  the  property 
for  compensation,  but  do  not  create  a  personal 
claim  against  the  owner.  As  a  ^neral  rule,  the 
lien  attaches  both  to  the  buildmg  or  improve- 
ment and  to  the  land  on  which  it  is  erected ;  but 
if  the  improvement  is  placed  on  the  land  without 
the  owner*s  consent  the  lien  will  not  extend  to 
the  land,  but  will  cover  the  improvement  to  the 
extent  of  the  interest  of  the  person  who  ordered 
the  work  and  materials.  The  hen  only  attaches  to 
the  very  property  on  which  the  work  was  done, 
and  will  not  affect  the  other  real  estate  of  the 
owner.  A  mechanics'  lien  may  be  filed  against 
any  title  or  interest  in  real  estate,  even  though 
it  is  quite  limited,  as  a  lease  for  a  year,  pro- 
vided it  is  such  an  interest  as  may  be  sold  on 
execution. 

The  statutes  in  the  different  States  vary  in 
their  provisions  as  to  the  character  of  the  im- 
provements which  will  serve  to  raise  a  lien.  In 
general,  however,  such  liens  will  attach  to  the 
real  estate  where  any  structure  in  the  nature  of 
a  building  is  constructed,  altered,  or  repaired.  In 
some  States  the  right  is  extended  to  cover  the 
erection  of  fences,  laying  pipes,  building  sewers, 
grading,  terracing,  or  sodding  the  land,  and  all 
other  improvements  which  may  be  said  to  benefit 
the  land.  The  idea  of  benefit  is  usually  con- 
sistently followed,  in  that  the  lien  does  not  at- 
tach where  buildings  are  torn  down  or  moved 
from  the  land.  In  most  States  only  a  person 
who  does  work  or  furnishes  materials  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  owner  is  entitled  to  protect  himself 
by  a  mechanics*  lien.  However,  in  a  number  of 
States,  subcontractors,  that  is,  those  who  work 
or  furnish  materials  for  the  one  who  contracts 
directly  with  the  owner,  are  allowed  to  file  direct 
or  subordinate  liens  against  the  property. 

As  a  general  rule  the  work  to  which  the  owner 
is  entitled  under  a  contract  must  be  entirely 
performed  before  the  contractor  can  file  a  lien, 
but  where  an  owner  defaults  in  his  payments  or 
otherwise  breaks  his  part  of  the  contract,  the 
right  to  file  a  lien  usually  attaches  at  once. 
In  order  to  perfect  a  mechanics*  lien  the  statutes 
of  most  jurisdictions  provide  that  a  notice  set- 
ting forth  the  names  of  the  owner  and  the  party 
claiming  the  lien,  the  character  of  the  work 
done,  a  description  of  the  premises,  the  total 
contract  price,  the  amount  paid  thereon,  the 
amount  still  due,  and  the  date  when  the  last 
item  of  work  was  performed,  shall  be  filed  in  the 
county  clerk's  office  and  a  copy  thereof  served  on 
the  owner  of  the  property  affected.  In  a  number 
of  the  States  this  lien  attaches  and  relates  back 
to  the  time  of  the  commencement  of  the  work 
upon  its  being  filed,  and  is  prior  to  all  liens  sub- 
sequent to  that  time,  but  it  is  hardly  the  general 
rule,  as  they  usually  attach  and  take  precedence 
according  to  the  order  of  their  being  filed. 
The  statutes  of  the  States  vary  in  their  details 
as  to  procedure,  time  of  filing,  etc.,  and  must 
be  consulted  to  ascertain  those  particulars.     See 

GaRNISHMKXT;    LlEN;    MORTGAGE. 

MECHANICS  OF  DEVELOPMENT.  This 
term,  or  'Entwicklungsmechanik*  of  the  German 
enibryolojrists  and  cytologists,  is  in  frequent 
use.  *«nfr?,'ested  by  the  ehanjres  undergone  dur- 
ing cell-division   (see  Mitosis)   and  also  in  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MECHANICS  or  DEVELOPMENT.       254        MECELENBTJBa  DECLABATION. 


egg  of  all  animals  previous  to  and  following  fer- 
tilization. These  changes  are  so  orderly  and 
complex '  as  to  suggest  mechanical  causes  for 
them.  As  early  as  the  first  (|uarter  of  the  last 
century  Pander  (1817)  inquired  into  the  me- 
chanics of  development,  and  Lotze  followed  him 
with  some  luminous  suggestions.  The  subject 
was  continued  by  His  and  by  Rauber,  Van  Ben- 
eden,  and  more  recently  through  observation  and 
experiments  in  artificial  fertilization  and  in  ani- 
mal grafting  carried  on  by  0.  Hertwig,  Boveri, 
Fol,  BUtschli,  Pfltiger,  Born,  Roux,  Driesch, 
Schultze,  Gerlach,  Wilson,  Loew,  and  others.  Thus 
Biitschli  by  his  researches  on  'foam'  has  shown 
that  the  forms  of  the  amoeba  and  other  Protozoa 
may  be  due  to  mechanical  causes  of  the  environ- 
ment. His  studies  may  be  called  'protoplasmic 
mechanics.'  Here  also  come  in  the  suggestions  of 
Herbert  Spencer  and  of  Ryder  as  to  the  me- 
chanics and  mathematics  of  the  initial  steps 
taken  during  the  growth  of  organisms.  See 
Growth. 

MECHANICSVXLLE,  m^-kftnlks-vll.  A  vil- 
lage in  Saratoga  County,  N.  Y.,  19  miles  north 
of  Albany;  on  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Cham- 
plain  Canal,  and  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Co. 
and  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroads  (Map:  New 
York,  G  3).  It  has  a  public  school  library  of 
over  6400  volumes.  The  industrial  interests  are 
favored  by  abundant  water  power,  and  include  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  pulp  and  paper,  knit 
goods,  sash  and  blinds,  and  other  establishments. 
The  water-works  are  owned  and  operated  by  the 
municipality.  Population,  in  1890,  2379;  in 
1900,  4696;  in  1906,5877. 

MECHANICSVXLLE,  Battle  of.  A  battle 
fought  at  Mechanicsville,  on  the  Chickahominy 
River,  seven  miles  from  Richmond,  Va.,  June  26, 
1862,  between  a  Federal  force  of  about  5000 
under  the  immediate  command  of  General  Fitz 
John  Porter  and  a  Confederate  force  of  about 
10,000  under  the  command  of  General  Robert 
E.  Lee.  The  Confederates  in  three  corps,  com- 
manded by  A.  P.  Hill,  Longstreet,  and  D.  H. 
Hill,  made  two  attacks  on  the  strong  Fed- 
eral position,  but  made  little  impression,  and, 
after  sufi'ering  great  loss,  were  finally  driven 
back.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  27th,  how- 
ever, General  Jackson  with  a  strong  Confederate 
reinforcement  having  arrived  in  the  vicinity, 
General  Porter  abandoned  his  position  for  a 
stronger  one  several  miles  to  his  rear,  where  later 
in  the  day  he  was  again  attacked.  (See  Gaines's 
Mill.)  In  the  enjjagement  at  Mechanicsville 
the  Federals  lost  about  360;  the  Confederates 
about  2000.  The  engagement  was  the  first  of  the 
so-called  *Seven  Days'  Battle'  of  the  Peninsular 
campaign,  and  is  sometimes  known  as  the  battle 
of  Beaver  Dam  Creek. 

MECHANISM  (Lat.  mechanisma,  contriv- 
ance, from  Gk.  /ii/xai^,  mf^chan^,  device).  In 
philosophy  properly  employed  to  designate  any 
view  which  seeks  to  explain  the  universe  in  terms 
of  motion;  in  this  sense  it  is  practically  equiva- 
lent to  materialism  (q.v.).  It  is,  however,  often 
used  more  loosely  as  a  synonym  for  naturalism 
(q.v.) ;  in  this  latter  sense  its  antonym  is  teleol- 
ogy (q.v.). 

MECHEBINO,  mft'kftr§^nd,  II.  A  name 
sometimes  applied  to  the  Italian  painter  Do- 
menico  Beccafumi  (q.v.). 


MECHLINy  m^K^In,  or  MALTNES.     One  of 

the  chief  cities  of  the  Belgian  Province  of  Ant- 
werp, situated  13  miles  south -southeast  of  the 
city  of  Antwerp,  on  the  navigable  River  Dyle, 
which  fiows  through  the  city  in  a  number  of 
arms  (Map:  Belgium,  C  3).  The  city  is  circular 
in  shape,  surrounded  by  a  canal  and  a  wide 
boulevard.  As  the  See  of  the  Cardinal  Primate 
of  Belgium,  it  retains  a  considerable  ecclesiastical 
importance;  of  its  numerous  churches,  the  most 
noteworthy  is  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Rombaud,  a 
vast  Gothic  structure,  adorned  in  the  interior 
with  many  fine  paintings  and  choice  carvings, 
the  altarpiece  by  Van  Dyck  being  one  of  that 
master's  finest  works.  It  was  built  between  the 
twelfth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  one  tower, 
320  feet  in  height,  remains  unfinished.  The  other 
buildings  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  churches 
of  Saint  John  and  of  Our  Lady,  which  contain 
works  by  Rubens ;  the  town  hall,  dating  from  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  known  as  the  Beyard;  the 
market  hall,  erected  in  1340;  and  the  splendid 
modem  archiepiscopal  palace.  Mechlin  has  two 
seminaries,  an  academy  of  painting,  a  gymna- 
sium, and  a  botanical  garden.  It  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  important  lace  manufactures,  but 
its  chief  manufactures  now  are  caps  and  woolen 
goods,  *gobelin*  tapestry,  tobacco,  starch,  and 
beer.  There  are  also  extensive  workshops  at  the 
railroad  station  outside  the  city,  which  is  the 
centre  of  several  railroad  lines.  Population,  1890, 
61,014;  1000,66,013;  1906,  68,494. 

MECHIiIK  LACE.  A  lace  so  named  from 
being  originally  manufactured  at  Mechlin,  in 
Belgium.  It  is  a  hexagon  mesh  of  three  threads 
in  which  the  pattern  is  worked.  The  mesh  con- 
sists of  four  plaited  and  two  twisted  sides.  See 
Lace. 

MECK^EL'S  GANGLION,  or  The  Spheno- 
palatine Ganglion.  The  largest  of  the  four 
sympathetic  ganglia  connected  with  the  fifth 
cranial  nerve,  the  others  being  the  ophthalmic 
(q.v.),  the  otic  (q.v.),  and  the  submaxillary 
(q.v.).  It  lies  deep  in  the  spheno-maxillary 
fossa  (a  small  triangular  space  just  beneath 
the  apex  of  the  orbit),  close  to  the  spheno-pala- 
tine  foramen.  The  ganglion  is  a  small  tri- 
angular or  heart-shaped  body,  of  a  reddish-gray 
color,  and  was  first  described  by  Meckel.  Like 
the  other  ganglia  of  the  fifth  nerve,  it  possesses 
a  motor,  a  sensory,  and  a  sympathetic  root.  Its 
sensory  root  is  derived  from  the  superior  maxil- 
lary branch  of  the  fifth  nerve,  through  its  two 
spheno-palatine  branches ;  its  motor  root  from  the 
facial  nerve,  through  the  large  superficial  petrosal 
nerve ;  and  its  sympathetic  root  from  the  carotid 
plexus,  through  the  large  deep  petrosal  nerve. 
The  ganglion  gives  off  branches  of  distribution 
in  four  groups :  an  ascending  group,  which  passes 
to  the  orbit;  a  descending,  to  the  palate;  an  in- 
ternal, to  the  nose;  and  posterior  branches  to 
the  pharynx  and  nasal  foss®.  See  Nebvous  Sys- 
tem AND  Bbain. 

MECK^ENBUBG  DECLARATION  OF 
INDEPENDENCE.  In  American  history,  a 
series  of  resolutions  purporting  to  have  been 
adopted  at  Charlotte,  Mecklenburg  (bounty,  N.  C, 
May  20,  1775,  by  a  convention  of  delegates  repre- 
senting each  militia  company  of  the  county.  An- 
other set  of  resolutions  is  attributed  to  a  similar 
meeting  on  May  31..  1775,  but  the  use  at  that 
time  of  both  modes  of  reckoning  time  miUces  it 


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255 


MECKLENBXJBO-SCHWEBIN. 


probable  that  only  one  meeting  was  held,  al- 
though this  has  always  been  a  debatable  question 
and  has  given  rise  to  a  detailed  and  prolonged 
controversy.  The  copy  of  the  resolutions  made 
by  the  secretary  of  the  meeting  is  said  to  have 
been  destroyed  by  fire,  but  on  April  30,  1819, 
what  purported  to  be  a  copy,  made  probably  from 
recollection,  was  published  in  the  Raleigh  (N.  C.) 
Register.  The  use  of  phrases  in  the  published 
copy  similar  to  certain  passaces  in  the  real 
Declaration  of  Independence  of  July  4,  1776, 
caused  doubt  to  arise  as  to  the  authenticity  of 
the  Mecklenburg  Declaration.  The  Legislature  of 
North  Carolina  in  1831,  after  an  investigation  of 
the  subject,  declared  May  20th  a  legal  holiday. 
The  weight  of  authority  at  present  is  overwhelm- 
ingly against  the  authenticity  of  the  Declaration, 
and  favors  the  opinion  that  only  one  meeting  waa 
held — the  one  of  May  31st — and  that  the  reso- 
lutions there  adopted,  bearing  no  resemblance  to 
Jefferson's  Declaration,  constitute  the  nearest 
approach  there  was  to  a  Mecklenburg  Declaration 
of  Independence.  The  resolutions,  as  published 
in  the  Raleigh  Register  in  1819,  are  five  in  number. 
They  declare:  (1)  that  whoever  aids  or  abets  the 
invasion  of  American  rights  is  **an  enemy  to  this 
country — to  America — and  to  the  inherent  and  in- 
alienable rights  of  man;"  (2)  that  all  political 
bands  between  those  passing  the  resolutions  and 
the  mother  country  are  dissolved,  the  allegiance  of 
the  citizens  of  Mecklenburg  County  to  the  British 
Crown  being  absolved  and  all  political  connec- 
tion with  that  nation  broken  off;  (3)  that  "we  do 
hereby  declare  ourselves  a  free  and  independent 
people;  are,  and  of  a  right  ought  to  be,  a  self- 
governing  association,  under  the  control  of  no 
power  other  than  that  of  our  God  and  the  gen- 
eral government  of  the  Congress;  to  the  main- 
tenance of  which  independence  we  solemnly  pledge 
to  each  other  our  mutual  codperation,  our  lives, 
our  fortunes,  and  our  most  sacred  honor;"  (4) 
that  those  passing  the  resolutions  acknowledge 
the  existence  of  no  law  or  public  officer,  but  re- 
adopt  their  former  laws  in  so  far  as  these  laws 
do  not  recognize  the  authoritv  of  the  Crown,  thus 
vacating  all  civil  and  military  commissions 
granted  by  the  Crown;  and  (5)  that  all  military 
officers  in  the  county  are  retained  in  their  former 
command  and  that  every  member  of  the  conven- 
tion be  henceforth  a  civil  officer  with  power  to 
issue  process,  hear  and  determine  all  matters  of 
controversy,  preserve  peace  and  harmony,  and 
endeavor  to  spread  the  love  of  country  until  a 
more  general  organized  government  be  estab- 
lished in  the  province. 

The  best  discussion  of  the  authenticity  of  the 
Declaration  is  that  by  Lyman  C.  Draper,  The 
Mecklenburg  Declaration:  Its  Origin^  History y 
and  Actors,  with  a  Bibliography  of  its  JAterature 
and  Explanatory  DocumentSy  a  work  which  was 
never  published  and  forms  part  of  the  manu- 
script collections  of  the  Wisconsin  Historical  So- 
ciety. After  an  elaborate  consideration  of  the 
evidence.  Draper  decided  against  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Declaration.  In  the  library  of 
the  Wisconsin  Historical  Society  are  also 
many  documents  bearing  on  the  subject.  For 
briefer  discussions  consult  articles  in  the  North 
American  Review  for  1874,  and  in  vol.  xxi. 
of  the  Magazine  of  American  History,  and 
the  note  (p.  423)  in  Froth ingham.  Rise  of  the 
Republic  of  the  United  States  (Boston,  1881) 
— all  opposing  the  authenticity  of  the  Declara- 


tion; and  a  chapter  by  Hawks  in  Cooke,  Revolu- 
tionary  History  of  North  Carolina  (Raleigh^ 
1853),  and  Graham,  Address  on  the  Meck^n- 
burg  Declaration  of  Independence  of  May  20, 
1775  (New  York,  1876) — defending  its  authen- 
ticity. 

MECKLENBTTBa-SCHWEBIN,  mek^dn- 
b?^rK  shvA-rCn'.  A  grand  duchy  and  constituent 
State  of  the  German  Empire,  boimded  by  the 
Baltic  Sea  on  the  north,  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Pomerania  and  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz  on  the  east,  the  Prussian  provinces  of 
Brandenburg  and  Hanover  on  the  south,  and 
Schleswig-Holstein,  the  Principality  of  Ratzeburg 
(belonging  to  Mecklenburg-Strelitz) ,  and  the  Ter- 
ritory of  LQbeck  on  the  west  (Miip:  Germany, 
D  2 ) .  Area,  including  the  three  enclaves  in  Bran- 
denburg and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  5081  square 
miles. 

The  country  is  generally  fiat  with  the  exception 
of  the  central  part,  which  is  traversed  from 
southeast  to  northwest  by  a  chain  of  low  hills, 
forming  the  watershed  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Baltic  Sea.  The  fiat  coast-line  is  100  miles  long 
and  is  broken  by  a  number  of  deep  indenta- 
tions, including  the  Bay  of  Wismar.  Numerous 
rivers  traverse  the  country  from  north  to  south. 
The  Recknitz,  the  Wamow,  and  the  Stepenitz 
fiow  toward  the  Baltic,  and  the  New  Elde  and 
the  Sude  are  tributaries  of  the  Elbe,  which  for 
a  few  miles  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
grand  duchy.  The  country  abounds  in  lakes,  the 
largest  of  which  are  the  MUritz  See  (51  square 
miles),  the  Schweriner  See  (23  square  miles), 
the  Kolpiner,  and  the  Plauer  See. 

The  climate  is  mild  and  healthful,  although 
somewhat  raw.  The  average  annual  temperature 
is  46°  and  the  annual  precipitation  21  inches. 
There  are  chalybeate  springs  at  Doberan  and 
(joldberg  and  saline  springs  at  SUlze.  According 
to  the  industrial  census  of  1895  nearly  one-half  of 
the  population  depended  for  their  livelihood  on 
agriculture.  The  land  is  divided  between  the 
Crown,  the  aristocracy,  the  clergy,  and  the  towns, 
the  peasantry  forming  an  hereditary  tenantry 
class.  About  90  per  cent,  of  the  area  H  under 
cultivation  in  pastures  and  in  forests.  The  crops 
exceed  the  local  demand  and  are  partly  exported. 
Rye,  wheat,  oats,  barlev,  and  potatoes  are  the 
staples.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  to  some  extent. 
Stock-raising  is  carried  on  extensively,  and  dairy- 
ing is  an  important  adjunct  to  agriculture. 

The  manufacturing  industries  are  far  inferior 
to  the  agricultural  interests.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  foundries,  machine  works,  sugar  refineries, 
breweries,  distilleries,  paper  mills,  tanneries,  to- 
bacco factories,  brick  yards,  etc. ;  but  many  man- 
ufactures are  imported  for  local  consumption, 
and  the  native  exports  contain  no  manufactured 
product  of  importance.  The  trade  is  very  ex- 
tensive and  favored  by  the  situation  of  the  coun- 
.  try.  The  imports  pass  chiefly  through  the  seaports 
of  Warnemtinde  and  Wismar.  The  chief  exports 
are  agricultural,  dairy,  and  animal  products,  live 
animals,  etc.,  and  are  transported  mostly  by  rail. 
The  outward  and  inward  shipping  exceeded  1,- 
167,000  tons  in  1904.  The  transportation  facili- 
ties are  excellent,  consisting  of  a  system  of  navi- 
gable rivers  and  canals,  and  a  number  of  State 
railway  lines  with  a  total  length  of  730  miles  in 
1905,  about  100  miles  belonging  to  Prussia. 

Tlie  Constitution  of  the  two  duchies  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  is  based 


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256 


MECELENBUBa-STBELITZ. 


on  the  agreement  concluded  in  1755  between  the 
Duke  of  AJecklenburg-Schwerin  and  his  estates, 
and  adopted  in  the  same  year  by  the  Duchy  of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  The  crown  is  hereditary 
in  the  male  line  in  both  duchies  and  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  reigning  dynasty  in  either  State  the 
succession  reverts  to  the  other  house.  In  the  case 
of  the  extinction  of  both  houses,  the  right  of  suc- 
cession passes  to  Prussia.  The  government  of  the 
two  Mecklenburgs  is  semi-feudal  in  character, 
and  the  proprietors  of  the  land,  whether  belong- 
ing to  the  nobility  or  not,  are  endowed  with  many 
special  privileges.  The  common  assembly,  or 
Landesunion,  of  both  grand  duchies  consists  of 
the  representatives  of  the  landed  aristocracy,  or 
Ritterschaft,  and  the  burgomasters  of  49  towns. 
The  tenants  of  the  royal  domains  are  not  repre- 
sented. 

The  assembly  convenes  every  year  for  a  short 
period,  alternately  at  Sternberg  and  at  Malchin. 
There  are  also  a  permanent  committee  of  nine 
members  at  Rostock  representing  the  two  estates 
when  the  Landtag  is  not  in  session,  and  convoca- 
tion and  deputation  diets  which  can  be  assembled 
for  special  purposes  in  either  of  the  duchies.  The 
Principality  of  Ratzeburg  is  under  the  direct 
authority  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz.  The  executive  authority  in  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin  is  vested  in  a  Cabinet  of  four  min- 
isters. Mecklenburg-Schwerin  is  represented  by 
two  members  in  the  Bundesrat  and  sends  six 
Deputies  to  the  Reichstag.  The  capital  is  Schwe- 
rin;  the  summer  residence  of  the  Grand  Duke 
is  Ludwigslust. 

The  two  duchies  have  two  separate  systems  of 
lower  courts  and  a  common  supreme  court  at  Ros- 
tock. There  is  no  general  financial  system  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  The  reve- 
nue is  divided  into  three  classes,  of  which  by  far 
the  largest  (derived  from  the  royal  domains  and 
ordinary  taxes)  is  under  the  sole  control  of  the 
Grand  Duke.  A  part  of  it  goes  to  cover  the  ordi- 
nary expenses  of  the  Government.  The  total  public 
debt,  incurred  to  some  extent  for  the  purchase  of 
railways,  amounted  in  1906  to  $30,263,000.  Gen- 
eral and  technical  education  is  on  a  high  plane. 
The  university  at  Rostock  (q.v.)  provides  higher 
education.  Pop.,  1890,  578,342;  1900,  607,770; 
1905,  625,045,  almost  entirely  Protestant. 

History.  The  territory  of  Mecklenburg  was 
anciently  occupied  by  Germanic  peoples,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  Wends, 
Obotrits,  and  other  Slavic  tribes  took  possession  of 
the  region.  The  Slavic  inhabitants  long  resisted 
the  power  of  Germany,  but  were  finally  subdued 
in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century  by 
Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony.  Henry  left  a 
part  of  the  country  ( which  took  its  name  from 
Mikilinborg,  the  principal  settlement  of  the  Obo- 
trits, near  the  modern  Wismar)  under  the  rule 
of  the  Obotrit  princes,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  Germanization  of  the  region  was  prosecuted. 
After  1229  the  territory  was  frequently  divided 
and  subdivided  among  the  descendants  of  the 
original  Slavic  rulers.  In  1348  Mecklenburg  was 
elevated  into  a  duchv  by  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV.  In  1363  Albert  III.,  Duke  of  Mecklenburg, 
was  called  to  the  throne  of  Sweden,  but  in  1389 
was  dethroned  by  Margaret,  Queen  of  Denmark 
and  Norway.  In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury Lutheranism  was  made  the  established  re- 
ligion in  Mecklenburg.  About  this  time  there 
was  a  division  into  the  two  ducal  lines  of  Meck- 


lenburg-Schwerin and  Mecklenburg-Gttstrow.  In 
the  Thirty  Years*  War  the  Dukes  of  Mecklenburg 
joined  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  in  the  struggle 
against  the  Catholic  powers,  and,  as  a  result, 
were  deprived  of  their  possessions,  which  were 
conferred  in  1629  upon  Wallenstein.  In  1631, 
however,  the  dukes  were  restored  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus  of  Sweden.  After  various  subdivisions 
of  the  ducal  line  into  the  branches  of  Schwerin, 
Strelitz,  and  others,  and  the  successive  extinction 
of  several  of  these  collateral  houses,  the  Imperial 
Commission,  which  met  at  Hamburg  in  1701, 
brought  about  a  family  compact,  by  which  it  was 
arranged  that  Schwerin  and  Giistrow  should  form 
one  duchy  and  Strelitz  with  Ratzeburg,  Star- 
gard,  etc.,  another.  In  1815  the  dukes  of  both 
the  Mecklenburgs  assumed  the  title  of  Grand 
Duke.  Frederick  Francis  (1785-1837),  Grand 
Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  abolished  serfdom 
in  his  dominions,  to  which  he  added  Wismar. 
The  reign  of  Frederick  Francis  II.  of  the  same 
duchy,  who  succeeded  his  father,  Paul  Frederick, 
in  1842,  was  disturbed  by  a  contest  between  the 
nobles  and  the  burghers  and  smaller  landowners. 
The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  gave  a 
fresh  stimulus  to  the  popular  ferment  in  both 
duchies,  and  the  disturbances  could  only  be 
quelled  by  the  intervention  of  the  Prussian  troops ; 
but  a  reaction  took  place  in  1850,  and  matters 
were  restored  to  their  former  condition.  Fred- 
erick Francis  II.  (q.v.).  Grand  Duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin, was  one  of  the  principal  gen- 
erals in  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870-71.  As 
members  of  the  nfew  German  Empire,  the  two 
duchies  have  maintained  their  internal  constitu- 
tion very  much  on  the  old  footing.  Consult: 
Boll,  Oeschichte  Mecklenburgs  ( Neubrandenburg, 
1855-56)  ;  Mayer,  Oeschichte  des  Orossherzog- 
thums  Mecklenburg  -  Strelitz  1816  -  90  ( Neustre- 
litz,  1890). 

MECKLENBUBG-STBELITZ,  -strS^Its.  A 
grand  duchy  and  constituent  State  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  consisting  of  the  grand  duchy 
proper,  bounded  by  the  Prussian  provinces  of 
Poraerania  and  Brandenburg  and  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  and  of  the  Princij^ality 
of  Ratzeburg,  which  is  separated  from  it  by 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin  (Map:  Germany,  E  2). 
Total  area,  1131  square  miles.  In  the  formation 
of  its  surface  the  grand  duchy  proper  resembles 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  It  is  watered  chiefly  by 
the  Havel,  and  contains  numerous  lakes.  The 
Principality  of  Ratzeburg  is  watered  by  the  Ste- 
penitz. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation,  and  the 
system  of  land  tenure  does  not  differ  from  that 
prevailing  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin.  The  trade  is  naturally  less  developed 
than  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  on  account  of  the 
absence  of  harbors,  but  there  is  considerable  in- 
land traffic,  and  the  railway  facilities  are  good. 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz  is  governed  by  the  same 
constitution  as  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  (q.v.). 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Minister  of 
State  and  a  small  council.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment is  at  Neustrelitz.  The  financial  system 
also  resembles  that  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz  is  represented  by  one  mem- 
ber in  the  Bundesrat.  and  returns  one  Deputy  to 
the  Reichstag.  Population,  in  1890,  97,978;  in 
1905,  103,451,  almost  exclusively  Protestant.  For 
historv,  see  Mecklenbubg-Schwerin. 


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MECONIC  ACID. 


257 


HEDAL. 


HECON^C  ACID  (Gk.  /AiiKUfPuc&s,  mSkdnikos, 
pertaining  to  the  poppy,  from  fi'^Kwy^  m^kdn, 
poppy )»  C7H4O7+3H2O.  An  acid  existing  in 
opium,  which,  when  good,  yields  from  6  to  8  per 
«ent.  of  it.  Both  the  acid  and  its  salts  assume 
a  characteristic  blood-red  tint  with  ferric  salts; 
and  this  test,  which  is  very  sensitive,  is  employed 
by  the  toxicologist  in  searching  for  traces  of 
opium.  As,  however,  the  alkaline  sulphocyanides 
Avhich  exist  normally  in  the  saliva  give  a  pre- 
cisely similar  tint  with  the  ferric  salts,  it  is 
necessary  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  meconate 
of  iron  from  the  sulphocyanide  of  iron.  A  solu- 
tion of  chloride  of  gold  or  of  corrosive  sublimate 
removes  all  doubt  by  discharging  the  color  of  the 
sulphocyanide,  but  not  affecting  the  color  of  the 
meconate  of  iron.  The  constitution  of  meconic 
acid  is  represented  by  the  formula  C{yHO,(OH) 
(COOH)t,  showing  it  to  be  chemically  a  mono- 
hydroxy-dibasic  acid.  The  alkaloids  morphine, 
codeine,  narcotine,  thebaine,  papaverine,  and 
others  exist  in  opium  in  combination  partly  with 
meconic,  partly  with  sulphuric  acid. 

MECO^iniTH  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiVi^tbptop,  fn€- 
k^ion,  poppy- juice,  from  /ai^/cw,  m^k6n,  poppy). 
The  earliest  matter  discharged  from  the  bowels  of 
a  new-born  infant.  It  is  of  a  brownish-green  or 
almost  black  color,  acid,  devoid  of  odor,  and 
rapidly  putrefying  on  exposure  to  air.  It  is 
usually  regarded  as  a  product  of  the  fcetal  liver, 
but  it  conteins  neither  biliary  acids  nor  bile-pig- 
ment. It  consists  of  an  abundance  of  cylinder 
epithelium  of  a  green  tint,  of  mucus  corpuscles, 
and  of  fat,  with  which  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
cholesterine. 

MED  All  (OF.  medaille,  Fr.  mHaille,  from 
Lat.  metallum,  from  Gk.  fUraWov^  metal).  A 
piece  of  metal,  more  or  less  of  the  form  of  a  coin, 
stamped  on  one  side  or  both  with  image  and 
inscription,  with  the  object  of  commemorating  an 
event  or  of  honoring  a  person,  and  not  intended 
for  circulation  as  money.  This  use  of  the  word 
excludes  all  ancient  and  modern  coins,  even  those 
which,  like  the  American  Columbian  half-dollar, 
are  commemorative  pieces  struck  only  for  a  spe- 
cial occasion,  but  designed  for  circulation  as 
money.  The  coins  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
have  so  many  medallic,  i.e.  commemorative, 
characteristics,  that  the  belief  that  they  were 
really  medals  rather  than  coins  was  a  natural 
one.  There  is  hardly  any  event  of  popular 
inteiest,  whether  public  or  private,  in  ancient 
times,  especially  under  the  Roman  Empire,  that 
is  not  recorded  on  the  coins.  Tlie  term  medal- 
lion is  for  convenience  still  used  of  certain 
classes  of  ancient  coins  that  surpass  the 
rest  in  size  and  technique;  but  the  strictly 
monetary  character  of  even  these  is  now  suffi- 
ciently proved.  Though  objects  of  real  art, 
often  designed  for  royal  gifts  or  for  ornament, 
they  were  still  multiples  of  the  regular  coins, 
and  as  such  could  be  entered  into  circulation. 
Such  were  the  magnificent  'medallions*  of  Syra- 
cuse, real  gems  of  the  die-engraver's  art  signed 
with  the  artist's  name,  and  the  'medallions*  in 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  of  the  Roman  Emperors, 
coined  under  tiieir  special  control,  and  hence 
lacking  the  usual  S.  C.  {Senatus  consvltOy  *by 
order  of  the  Senate*)  of  the  senatorial  bronze 
money.  Sometimes  these  Roman  medallions  are 
found  set  in  a  circlet  of  fine  metal.  This  was 
not  the  work  of  the  coiner,  however,  but  of  the 


jeweler  who  adapted  the  coin  to  artistic  use. 
If  we  are  to  seek  anything  approximating  the 
medal  in  ancient  times,  it  may  perhaps  be  found 
in  certain  pagan  talismans  and  in  the  little 
Christian  medals  of  devotion. 

Modem  medals  begin  in  the  period  of  the 
Renaissance.  The  earliest  bear  the  portraits 
and  inscriptions  (in  Latin)  of  rulers  and  poten- 
tates. The  subjects  are  at  first  drawn  ex- 
clusively from  classical  art;  hence  their  value  as 
documents  of  contemporary  history,  though  not 
of  art,  is  materially  lessened.  The  most  famous 
Italian  medalist  of  the  fifteenth  century  was 
Vittorio  Pisani  of  Verona,  whose  splendid  works 
are  signed  "Opvs  Pisani  Pictoris.**  It  became 
the  custom  for  rulers  to  inaugurate  their  reign 
and  celebrate  its  chief  events  by  striking  medals. 
The  series  of  the  popes  begins  with  Paul  II. 
(1464-71),  and  continues  without  a  break  to 
the  present  time.  Medals  of  the  earlier  popes 
are  the  work  of  a  later  period.  A  medallic 
mint  is  connected  with  the  Vatican,  where  the 
best  artists  are  employed.  Some  of  the  medals 
of  Julius  II.,  Leo  X.,  and  Clement  VII.  have 
an  especial  interest,  as  having  been  designed 
by  Raphael  and  Giulio  Romano,  and  engraved  by 
Benvenuto  Cellini.  A  sixteenth-century  medal 
of  Sicily  is  probably  the  first  instance  in  modern 
times  of  the  use  of  a  medal  as  a  vehicle  of 
political  satire;  it  is  directed  by  Frederic  II. 
against  his  adversary,  Ferdinand  of  Spain. 
Satirical  medals  were  afterwards  common  in  the 
Low  Countries.  Some  of  the  Dutch  medals  are 
noted  for  the  elaborate  views,  maps,  and  plans 
engraved  on  them.  Of  many  reigns  a  complete 
medallic  history  can  be  written,  as,  for  example, 
of  that  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  American  Presi- 
dents, beginning  with  Washington,  are  commemo- 
rated in  a  series  of  portrait  medals.  But  it  is 
no  longer  merely  kings  and  rulers  and  great  mili- 
tary and  naval  events  that  are  commemorated 
in  medals.  Events  of  general  interest  in  science, 
art,  or  literature,  movements  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  conditions,  learned  societies,  are  all  found 
recorded  in  these  artistic  little  documents  of 
history. 

Besides  the  purely  commemorative  medals, 
there  is  another  class — that  of  'decorations' — 
which,  beginning  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  has  attained  an  enormous  development. 
These  are  conferred  by  the  sovereign  or  the  State 
as  marks  of  distinction  for  eminent  services, 
particularly  in  the  army  and  navy.  Such 
medals  of  honor  are  seldom  of  much  intrinsic 
value,  their  worth  depending  mainly  on  the  asso- 
ciations connected  with  them.  They  have  rib- 
bons attached,  with  clasps  or  small  bars,  each 
of  which  often  bears  the  name  of  a  battle.  Such 
medals  are  intended  to  be  worn  on  the  breast. 
They  are  of  very  varied  form,  the  cross  being 
the  most  common. 

Bibliography.  Snowden.  Description  of  'Na- 
tional and  Miscellaneous  Medals  (Philadelphia, 
1861 )  ;  Sandham,  Coins,  Medals,  and  Tokens  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  (London,  1869)  ;  Lou- 
bat,  Medallic  History  of  the  United  States  (New 
York,  1878)  ;  Hawkins,  Medallic  Illustration  of 
History  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (London, 
1885)  ;  MacSherry,  "The  National  Medals  of 
the  United  States,**  in  Maryland  Historical 
Fund  Publications,  No.  25  (Baltimore,  1887); 
Heiss,  Les  mMailleurs  de  la  Renaissance,  vol. 
viii.    (Paris,    1890)  ;    Leduc,   Histoire  des  d^co- 


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•MTR-nAT. 


258 


ITigPBAa 


rations  en  France  (Le  Mans,  1890)  ;  Long, 
British  Navy  Medals  and  How  They  Were  Won 
(London,  1895)  ;  Irwin,  British  War  Medals  and 
Decorations  (2d  ed.,  London,  1899).  There  is  a 
series  of  articles  by  Marvin  on  Masonic  medals 
in  the  American  Journal  of  Numismatics,  vols, 
x.-xiv.,  xxii.-xxxvi.  (Boston,  1876-80;  1888- 
1902). 

MEDALLION  (Fr.  m^daillon,  augmentative 
of  m4daille,  medal).  In  architecture,  a  circular 
or  oval  panel  carved  in  bas-relief  with  a  head, 
bust,  figure^  ornamental  design,  etc.  The  term 
is  also  used  of  a  similar  design  in  color. 

MEDAL  OF  HONOR,  United  States.  The 
medal  of  honor  of  the  United  States,  given  for 
bravery  on  the  field  of  battle,  was  first  instituted 
in  1862  by  a  law  approved  July  12th  of  that 
year.  The  New  Medal  of  Honor  adopted  1905  is 
a  five- pointed  star  of  rose  gold  finish.  On  tlie 
medallion  in  centre  is  the  head  of  Minerva  in 
bold  relief,  surrounded  by  a  band  bearing  the  in- 
scription "United  States  of  America."  Upon 
each  point  of  the  star  is  an  oak  leaf.  The  star 
is  encircled  by  a  green  enamel  laurel  wreath. 
Surmounting  the  star  and  wreath  is  an  eagle 
resting  on  a  bar,  upon  which  Valor  is  in  raised 
letters.  The  decoration  is  pendant  from  a  con- 
cealed pin  by  blue  silk  watered  ribbon,  upon 
which  18  emblazoned  thirteen  stars  in  white. 
The  reverse  side  is  plain  for  engraving  the  name 
of  recipient,  which  is  preceded  by  the  inscrip- 
tion "The  Congress  to ."    On  March  25,  1776, 

before  even  independence  had  been  proclaimed. 
Congress  ordered  that  a  gold  medal  be  struck  and 
presented  to  General  Washington.  Benjamin 
Franklin,  who  at  the  time  was  in  Paris,  was  in- 
structed to  employ  the  greatest  artists  in  France 
to  execute  a  suitable  design.  Although  this  was 
the  first  medal  voted,  the  first  one  struck  was  a 
silver  medal  presented  to  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Fleury,  a  volunteer  officer  from  the  French  reg- 
ular army,  who,  entering  the  United  States  Army 
in  1777  as  a  private,  distinguished  himself  so 
greatly  and  rendered  such  valuable  services,  that 
Congress  promoted  him  to  be  lieutenant-colonel. 
For  his  gallantry  in  the  assault  upon  Stony 
Point,  July  15,  1779,  Congress  voted  him  a  silver 
medal,  and  afterwards  a  vote  of  thanks.  It 
was  not  until  the  institution  of  the  medal  of 
honor  that  the  United  States  possessed  a  mili- 
tary equivalent  to  the  Victoria  cross  (q.v.)  of 
England,  or  the  iron  cross  (q.v.)  of  Prussia. 
Like  the  former  decoration,  it  is  bestowed  on 
both  commissioned  and  non-commissioned  ranks 
alike,  the  decoration  being  the  same  in  every 
instance.  Ikledals  of  honor  are  only  awarded  to 
officers  or  enlisted  men  for  distinguished  braverj^ 
or  conspicuous  gallantry,  which  has  been  mani- 
fested in  action,  by  conduct  distinguished  above 
the  others,  and  that  involved  risk  of  life,  or  duty 
more  than  ordinarily  hazardous.  An  interest- 
ing account  of  the  deeds  by  which  the  medal  of 
honor  has  been  won  will  be  found  in  Roden- 
bough,  Uncle  Sam*s  Medal  of  Honor  (New  York, 
1886). 

MEDAL  OF  HONOR  LEGION.  A  patriotic 
society  whose  membership  comprises  oflScers  and 
enlisted  men  who  have  received  the  medal  of 
honor  (q.v.).  The  society  was  originally  organ- 
ized in  1890  to  admit  those  who  had  participated 
in  the  Civil  War,  but  the  membership  was  subse- 
quently extended  to  include  all  who  have  received 


the  medal  of  honor,  regardless  of  the  war  in 
which  they  engaged.  The  number  of  members  on 
the  rolls  in  September,  1906,  was  468. 

MEDANO,  mft-da^nd.  A  Spanish  term  ap- 
plied to  the  curious  traveling,  crescent-shapei 
sand  hills  which  occur  in  numbers  on  the  ele- 
vated pampa  of  Islay  near  Arequipa,  Peru.  They 
move  across  the  desert  from  south  to  north  in 
the  direction  of  the  prevailing  day  wind.  They 
are  composed  of  a  white  sand  apparently  quite 
different  from  that  which  makes  up  the  rest  of 
the  desert  surface. 

MED^ABY,  Samuel  (1801-64).  An  Ameri- 
can editor  and  politician.  He  was  bom  in  Mont- 
gomery County,  Pa.,  and  had  an  academic  educa- 
tion. In  1825  he  removed  to  Ohio,  and  in  1828^ 
became  editor  of  the  Ohio  Sun,  a  Democratic 
paper.  After  serving  in  both  Houses  of  the 
Ohio  Legislature,   he  was  editor  from   1836  to 

1857  of  the  Ohio  Statesman,  which  became  & 
great  power  in  the  West  and  Southwest.  He 
was  high  in  the  confidence  of  President  Jackson 
and  the  succeeding  Democratic  Presidents,  and 
is  said  to  have  originated  the  phrase  "Fifty- four 
forty  or  fight"  during  the  Oregon  boundary 
dispute.  In  1853  he  declined  the  position  of 
United  States  Minister  to  Chile.  He  was  the 
last  Territorial  Governor  of  Minnesota  in  1857- 
58,  was  postmaster  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  1858, 
and   was   Governor   of   Kansas   Territory   from 

1858  to  1860,  when  he  resigned  to  found  The 
Crisis,  which  he  continued  to  edit  until  his  death. 
The  Democrats  of  Ohio  erected  a  handsome  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  at  Columbus. 

MEDE^A  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  U-^Btui,  M^deia), 
In  Grecian  legend,  a  famous  sorceress,  the 
daughter  of  ^^tes.  King  of  Colchis,  and  of  the 
Oceanid  Idyia,  or  of  Hecate,  and  niece  of  Circe. 
On  the  arrival  of  the  Argonauts  (a.v.)  at  the 
Court  of  ^Eetes,  in  search  of  the  Golden  Fleece, 
she  fell  in  love  with  Jason,  aided  him  by  her 
magic  arts  to  perform  the  tasks  set  him,  and 
finally  to  carry  off  the  fleece.  Pursued  in  her 
flight  with  the  Argonauts  by  her  father,  she 
killed  her  brother  Absyrtos  and  scattered  the 
fragments  of  his  body  on  the  sea.  Her  father 
pausing  to  give  burial  to  the  remains,  the  Ar- 
gonauts gained  time  for  their  escane.  On  the 
return  of  Jason  to  lolcus,  she  aided  nim  to  take 
vengeance  on  Pelias,  who  had  murdered  her  hus- 
band*s  parents.  Having  cut  up  an  old  sheep 
and  boiled  the  pieces  with  magic  herbs,  she 
brought  forth  from  the  caldron  a  young  lamb, 
an  incident  represented  not  infrequently  on 
Greek  vases.  She  then  easily  persuaded  the 
daughters  of  Pelias  to  cut  their  father  in  pieces, 
that  he  might  regain  his  youth;  but  when  they 
had  yielded,  she  refused  to  employ  hcT  art.  For 
this  she  and  Jason  were  forced  to  flee  to  Corinth, 
where  Jason  repudiated  Medea  to  marry  Glance, 
or  Creusa,  the  daughter  of  the  King.  Medea  sent 
her  rival  a  poisoned  robe  and  crown,  whereby 
both  the  princess  and  her  father  were  destroyed. 
To  complete  her  revenge,  she  then  slew  the 
children  she  had  borne  Jason,  and  fled  on  her 
drapon-chariot  to  Athens,  where  she  was  received 
by  King  ^geus,  to  whom  some  said  she  bore  a 
son,  Medos.  On  the  arrival  from  TroBzen  of  the 
son  of  ^geus,  Theseus,  she  plotted  against  his 
life,  but  was  discovered,  and  with  her  son  fled 
back  to  Asia,  where  Medos  gave  his  name  to  the 
Medes.    As  a  sorceress  she  seems,  like  Circe,  im- 


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259 


UEDHTXBST. 


mortal  in  some  of  the  writers,  while  others 
regarded  her  as  a  heroine  and  imited  her  to 
Achilles  in  the  Elysian  fields.  These  outlines 
of  the  legend  were  often  very  variously  filled 
in,  and  it  is  clear  that  in  the  story  many  ele- 
ments are  combined.  Much  points  to  an  original 
divinity  simk  to  heroine,  as  is  so  often  the  case, 
and  much  also  to  an  original  good  sorceress,  a 
counterpoise  to  the  wicked  Circe.  The  attempts 
to  interpret  the  myth  in  the  light  of  natural 
phenomena  cannot  be  regarded  as  successful. 
The  figure  of  Medea  was  a  favorite  one  in  art, 
especially  with  the  vase-painters.  The  Corinthian 
episode  is  common  on  Roman  sarcophagi.  It  at- 
tained especial  prominence  through  the  great 
tragedy  Medea,  by  Euripides. 

MEDEA.  (1)  A  tragedy  by  Euripides  rep- 
resented in  B.C.  431,  when  it  obtained  only  the 
third  prize.  The  delineation  of  the  passionate 
heroine  makes  it  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Greek 
tragedies.  Euripides's  Medea  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  Ennius.  (2)  A  play  of  consider- 
able power  by  Seneca,  1027  lines  in  length.  It 
is  only  occasionally  like  the  play  of  Euripides. 
It  is  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  its  choral 
odes.     (3)  A  tragedy  by  Richard  Glover  (1761). 

Ml^ECIN  MAIiGB^  LTTI,  mft'd'sfiN'  mftl'- 
grft'  lw6,  Le  (Fr.,  the  physician  in  spite  of  him- 
self). A  three-act  farce-comedy  in  prose  by  Mo- 
lifere,  produced  at  the  Palais  Royal  in  1666.  The 
plot  is  taken  from  an  old  fabliau  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  Le  midecin  de  Bray  or  Le  vilain  mire, 
Martine,  the  wife  of  Sganarelle,  who  has  been 
beaten  by  her  husband,  seeks  to  revenge  herself, 
and  informs  the  servants  of  G^ronte,  who  are  in 
search  of  a  physician  for  his  daughter  Lucinde, 
that  Sganarelle  is  a  wonderful  doctor.  •  He  has, 
however,  the  peculiarity  that  he  will  not  use  his 
art  unless  beaten.  The  servants  follow  her  sug- 
gestion, and  Sganarelle  works  a  cure  on  Lucinde, 
whose  only  illness  is  the  desire  to  marry  L6an- 
dre.  The  comedy  was  set  to  music  by  Gounod 
and  presented  at  the  Op4ra  Comique  in  1858. 
It  was  given  in  London  as  "The  Mock  Doctor** 
in  1865. 

KiiDECIN  VOLANT,  v^laN',  Le  (Fr.,  the 
flying  doctor).  A  comedy  by  Moli^re  (1659),  in 
which  Sganarelle,  the  valet  of  Valfere,  appears  dis- 
guised as  a  physician,  engaged  by  Gorgibus  to 
treat  his  daughter  Lucile,  whom  Val^re  loves, 
and  who,  to  escape  another  marriage,  feigns  ill- 
ness. Sganarelle  directs  Gorgibus  to  transfer  his 
daughter  to  a  room  from  which  she  can  readily 
elope,  and  distracts  his  attention  by  appearing 
alternately  as  the  physician  and  as  the  valet. 
In  the  performance  of  his  double  rOle  Sganarelle 
is  obliged  to  leave  and  enter  the  house  by  the 
window,  whence  the  title  of  the  play. 

H]^d£e,  m&'dA'  (Fr.,  Medea).  The  title  of 
several  French  tragedies  inspired  by  the  Medea  of 
Euripides.  (1)  A  play  by  Jean  de  la  Peruse 
(1553),  a  translation  of  Seneca's  version  of  the 
tragedy.  (2)  A  tragedy  by  Pierre  Corneille 
( 1635) ,  based  on  Euripides  with  an  admixture  of 
Seneca,  but  with  a  number  of  new  minor  charac- 
ters and  with  variations  in  the  details  of  the  plot. 
(3)  A  play  by  Clement  (1779)  which  eliminates 
the  supernatural  features.  (4)  A  play  by  Ca- 
tulle  Mend^,  produced  at  the  Renaissance  in 
1898  with  Sarah  Bernhardt  in  the  title  rOle.  It  is 
based  on  Euripides  and  Seneca,  with  modifica- 
tions  ingeniously  introduced. 


MEDELliN,.  ma'Dft-lyen'.  The  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Antioquia,  Colombia,  situated 
between  the  ranges  of  the  central  and  western 
Cordilleras  (Map:  Colombia,  B  2).  It  is  a 
beautiful  town,  and  its  elevation  being  about 
5000  feet  above  sea-level,  the  climate  is  pleasant. 
Its  streets  are  broad  and  straight,  and  it  has 
several  parks  and  squares  adorned  with  hand- 
some buildings,  among  which  are  a  high  school, 
a  museum,  and  a  public  library.  The  manu- 
factures of  the  town  are  chiefly  shoes,  clothing, 
locks,  and  chemicals,  and  it  has  some  trade  in 
gold  and  silver.  Population,  20,000.  Medellfn 
was  founded  in  1674. 

MED^FOBD.  A  city,  including  the  villages 
of  Hillside,  Glenwood,  South  Medford,  Welling- 
ton, and  West  Medford,  in  Middlesex  County, 
Mass.,  five  miles  north  by  west  of  Boston;  on 
the  Mystic  River,  and  on  the  southern  and  west- 
em  divisions  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad 
(Map:  Massachusetts,  E  3).  The  city,  which 
extends  four  miles  in  length  and  breadth  and 
occupies  an  area  of  about  nine  square  miles,  is 
a  popular  residential  suburb  of  Boston,  and  the 
seat  of  Tufts  College  (q.v.).  It  has  a  public 
library;  several  historically  interesting  build- 
ings, of  which  the  old  Cradock  House,  built  in 
1634,  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  structure  retaining 
its  original  form  in  the  United  States;  Middle- 
sex Fells  Park,  Mystic  Valley  Parkway,  Brooks 
Playstead,  Salem  Street  Common,  and  several 
smaller  parks;  and  three  cemeteries,  the  largest 
of  which,  Oak  Grove,  contains  about  34  acres. 
The  principal  manufactures  include  carriages, 
bricks,  machinery,  chemicals,  dyes,  calico,  rum, 
etc.  The  government  is  administered  under  the 
revised  charter  of  1903,  which  provides  for  a 
mayor,  elected  every  two  years ;  a  board  of  alder- 
men, consisting  of  21  members,  elected  for  one 
year,  seven  of  whom  are  elected  at  large,  and  14 
by  wards;  and  subordinate  administrative  offi- 
cials. The  last  are  elected  either  by  the  alder- 
men, or  appointed  by  the  mayor  with  the  con- 
firmation of  the  board  of  aldermen.  The  school 
board  is  independently  chosen  by  popular  vote. 
Population,  in  1890,  11,079;  in  1900,  18,244;  in 
1905,  19,686.  Founded  as  Mead  ford  by  a  com- 
pany from  Salem  in  1630,  Medford  became  a  town 
in  the  following  year  and  was  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1892.  Consult  Usher,  History  of  the  Toicn  of 
Medford,  Mass.   (Boston,  1886). 

MEDFORD.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Taylor  County,  Wis.,  119  miles  by  rail'south  of 
Ashland;  on  the  Black  River,  and  on  the  Wis- 
consin Central  Railroad  (Map:  Wisconsin,  C  3). 
It  has  saw  and  flouring  mills,  a  foundry,  a  tan- 
nery, building  supplies,  veneer,  and  cheese  fac- 
tories, etc.;  and  is  the  centre  of  a  dairy  district. 
Population,  in  1890,  1193;  in  1900,  1758;  in  1905, 
1923. 

MEiyHUBST,  Walter  Henry  (1796-1857). 
An  English  missionary.  He  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, and  went,  by  appointment  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society  in  1816,  to  Malacca  as  a 
missionary  printer.  His  fitness  for  the  ministry 
induced  the  missionaries  to  ordain  him  in  1819, 
and  he  did  good  service  in  various  Eastern 
fields,  Malacca,  Penang,  Batavia,  Parapattan, 
and,  from  1842  to  1856,  at  Shanghai.  For  six 
years  he  performed  mission  work  in  the  interior 
of  China  amid  much  peril.  In  1847  delegates 
from  several  stations  convened  in  Shanghai  for 


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the  revision  of  the  New  Testament.  In  this 
work  he  was  engaged  until  1850,  when  he  de- 
voted his  time  to  the  Old  Testament.  In  1857 
he  returned  to  England  in  impaired  health,  and 
died  three  days  after  his  arrival.  He  was  well 
versed  in  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  Javanese,  and 
other  languages,  besides  Dutch  and  French,  in 
all  of  which  he  wrote.  His  special  works  are: 
China,  Its  State  and  Prospects,  with  Especial 
Reference  to  the  Diffusion  of  the  Gospel  (1838)  ; 
Dissertation  on  the  Theology  of  the  Chinese 
(1847);  A  Chinese  Dictionary  (1842-43);  An 
English  and  Japanese  Vocabulary  (1830)  ;  Dtc- 
tionary  of  the  Hokkien  Dialect  (1832)  ;  Chinese 
Dialogues  (1844);  English  and  Chinese  Dic- 
tionary (1847-48). 

MEa)IA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mij^/o,  from  Uijdos, 
Medos,  from  OPers.  Mnda,  Mede).  In  ancient 
times,  the  name  of  the  northwestern  part  of 
Iran,  bounded  by  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north, 
by  Persia  on  the  south,  by  Parthia  on  the  east, 
and  by  Assyria  on  the  west.  The  northern  por- 
tion of  the  country  is  very  mountainous;  the 
south  is  a  rich  and  fertile  tract.  Media  at  pres- 
ent forms  the  Persian  provinces  of  Azerbaijan, 
Ghilan,  Mazanderan,  and  Irak-Ajemi,  and  the 
northern  portion  of  Luristan. 

The  Medians  were  in  language,  religion,  and 
manners  very  nearly  allied  to  the  Persians. 
After  they  had  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  the  As- 
syrians, their  tribes  united  about  B.C.  708  under 
Deioces,  whom  later  Persian  tradition  seeks  to 
identify  mth  Kai  Kobad.  Deioces  made  Ecba- 
tana  (q.v.)  his  capital.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Phraortes  (B.C.  647-625),  whose  name 
has  been  brought  into  possible  connection  with 
the  early  history  of  Zorocistrianism.  The  King 
who  followed  was  his  son  CJyaxares,  who  reigned 
B.C.  626-585.  (See  Cyaxares  I.)  This  monarch, in 
alliance  with  Nabopolassar,  King  of  Babylon, 
overthrew  the  Assyrian  Empire  about  B.C.  604, 
spread  the  terror  of  his  arms  as  far  as  Egypt  and 
the  farthest  bounds  of  Asia  Minor,  and  van- 
quished the  brigand  hordes  of  Scythia,  who  had 
-extended  their  ravages  to  S^Tia.  He  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  son  Astyages,  in  whom  the  later  tradi- 
tion apparently  wrongly  seeks  to  recognize  the 
tyrant  Azh-dahak,  or  Azhi-dahaka,  of  Babylon, 
who  was  overthrown  by  Cyrus  (q.v.).  Persia 
now  became  the  mistress  instead  of  the  vassal 
of  Media;  and  from  this  time  the  two  nations 
are  spoken  of  as  one  people.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (b.c.  323)  the  new  por- 
tion of  Media  became  a  separate  kingdom. 
Media  Minor,  and  existed  till  the  time  of 
Augustus,  the  other  portion,  under  the  name  of 
Media  Major,  forming  a  part  of  the  Syrian 
monarchy.  Media  was  on  several  occasions 
separated  from  Persia.  In  B.C.  152  Mithridates 
I.  took  Great  Media  from  the  Syrians  and  an- 
nexed it  to  the  Parthian  Empire,  and  about  B.C. 
36  it  had  a  king  of  its  own,  named  Artavasdes, 
against  whom  Mark  Antony  made  war.  Under 
the  Sassanian  dynasty  the  whole  of  Media  was 
united  to  Persia.  It  became,  during  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  the  stronghold 
of  the  Turcoman  tribes  Kara-Koinlu,  or  'Black 
Sheep,*  and  Ak-Koinlu,  or  *White  Sheep.* 

In  early  tiroes  the  Medes  were  a  warlike  race, 
possessed  of  an  enthusiastic  love  of  independence, 
and  distinguished  for  their  skill  with  the  bow. 
They  were  also  ceiebrated  for  their  horseman- 
ahip,  and  it  was  from  them  that  the  Persians 


adopted  this  and  other  favorite  exercises  and  ac- 
quirements. Media  played  an  important  part  in 
the  early  religious  history  of  the  East^  when 
we  consider  that  the  Magi  sprang  from  Media 
and  Zoroaster  probably  arose  tnere,  although  part 
of  his  activity  is  located  in  Bactria.  Consult: 
Justi,  "Das  Medische  Reich,"  in  Geiger  and 
Kuhn,  Orundriss  der  iranisch^n  Philologie,  ii. 
(Stuttgart,  1904)  ;  Ragozin,  Media,  Babylon,  and 
Persia  (New  York,  1888). 

MEDIA.  A  borough  and  the  county-seat  of 
Delaware  County,  Pa.,  14  miles  west  of  Phila- 
delphia; on  the  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and 
Washington  Railroad  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  L  8). 
It  is  finely  situated  in  a  fertile  and  picturesque 
region  and  is  a  popular  residential  suburb  of 
Philadelphia  and  summer  resort.  The  Delaware 
County  Institute  of  Science,  founded  in  1833,  has 
a  valuable  scientific  library  of  5000  volumes,  and 
there  is  a  free  library  with  about  3000  volumes. 
The  water- works  are  owned  by  the  municipality, 
also  the  street-lighting  plant.  Population,  1900, 
3075;  1906  (local  est),  3350. 

MEa)IANT  (It.  mediante,  from  L&t.  mediare, 
to  divide  in  the  middle,  from  medius,  middle). 
The  third  degree  of  the  musical  scale.  The  chord 
of  the  mediant  is  the  triad  built  upon  the  third 
degree.  In  mediaeval  music,  the  tone  lying  mid- 
way between  the  final  and  dominant.  See 
Mode. 

MEDIATE  (Lat.  mediatus,  p.p.  of  mediare, 
to  divide  in  the  middle).  Under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, and  especially  in  Germany,  a  term  applied 
to  those  lordships  or  possessions  which  were 
held  by  feudal  tenure  under  one  of  the  greater 
vassals,  and  so  only  mediately  under  the  Em- 
peror as  the  supreme  feudal  lord.  Many  of  the 
smaller  States  or  lordships  were  gradually  re- 
duced to  this  condition,  as  the  neighboring  greater 
States  increased  in  power,  and  amid  the  cnanges 
caused  by  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution,  in 
1803  and  1806,  many  small  States  were  thus 
mediatized,  the  greater  States  thus  finding  some 
compensation  for  their  losses  in  other  quarters. 

MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION,  The  American. 
An  association  organized  in  1847,  and  having 
in  1906  a  membership  of  over  twenty-five  thou- 
sand. Its  annual  sessions  are  held  in  the  difl'er- 
ent  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  but  the  pres- 
ent headquarters  are  at  Chicago,  111.,  where  the 
weekly  Journal  is  published.  The  business  body, 
the  House  of  Delegates,  is  composed  of  150  mem- 
bers from  the  various  State  associations  and  from 
various  branches  of  the  federal  medical  service. 
The  object  of  the  association  is  to  promote  the 
science  and  art  of  medicine.  Its  scientific  work 
is  conducted  through  twelve  sections. 

MEDICAL  CODE.  A  body  of  laws  adopted 
by  a  medical  association  regulating  the  conduct 
of  the  profession.  Such  codes  forbid  the  public 
advertising  of  specific  medicines  and  gratuitous 
cures,  and  condemn  patent  and  secret  nostrums. 
The  codes  of  both  chief  schools  of  practice  re- 
quire the  professional  attendance  of  one  physi- 
cian upon  the  family  of  another  to  be  made 
without  charge,  except  under  circumstances  in- 
volving unusual  trouble  and  expense;  they  ex- 
plain the  proper  relations  which  should  exist 
between  patient  and  physician,  and  they  care- 
fullj  define  the  relative  positions  of  the  attend- 
ing and  the  consulting  physician,  forbidding  the 
latter  to  infringe  upon   the  peculiar  rights   of 


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the  former.  The  medical  code  of  ethics  in  Eng- 
land was  prepared  in  1803  by  Thomas  Percival, 
and  on  it  is  founded  the  code  established  in  the 
United  States.  Prior  to  1847  the  codes  of 
medical  ethics  which  existed  in  this  country  were 
instituted  by  State  and  local  societies,  and  there 
were  none  in  many  of  the  States.  At  its  annual 
convention  in  that  year  the  American  Medical 
Association  adopted  a  code  which  was  recognized 
as  the  national  code  throughout  the  United 
States  for  thirty-five  years.  The  code  of  the 
American  Medical  Association  excludes  all  physi- 
cians other  than  'regular*  from  consultations; 
and  the  action  of  the  New  York  County  Medical 
Society,  in  1882,  in  giving  their  members  the 
right  to  consult  with  'all  legally  qualified  prac- 
titioners,' was,  for  24  years,  the  cause  of  a  serious 
difference  between  the  national  and  the  State  or- 
ganizations, delegates  from  the  New  York  State 
Society  having  been  refused  admittance  to  the 
annual  meetings  of  the  American  Medical  Asso- 
<iation  until  1906.  Consult  Flint,  Medical  Ethics 
<ind  Etiquette  (New  York,  1883). 

MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT,  United  States 
Army.  This  department,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  War,  is  charged  with  the  duty 
of  investigating  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
army  and  making  recommendations  in  reference 
thereto,  with  the  duty  of  caring  for  the  sick 
and  wounded;  making  physical  examinations  of 
officers  and  enlisted  men;  the  management  and 
control  of  military  hospitals;  the  recruitment, 
instruction,  and  control  of  the  Hospital  Corps 
and  of  the  Army  Nurse  Corps  (female)  ;  and 
furnishing  all  medical  and  hospital  supplies, 
except  for  public  animals.  In  1906  the  depart- 
ment consisted  of  1  brigadier-general,  8  colonels, 
12  lieutenant-colonels,  60  majors,  86  captains, 
128  first  lieutenants,  172  contract  surgeons,  300 
hospital  stewards,  400  acting  hospital  stew- 
ards, and  in  the  Hospital  Corps,  which  is  under 
the  command  and  control  of  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment, there  were  3300  enlisted  men;  making  a 
total  of  295  commissioned  officers  and  4000  en- 
listed men.  The  Army  Medical  School  is  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  is  organized  with  a 
faculty  of  four  or  more  professors  selected  from 
the  senior  officers  of  the  Medical  Department 
stationed  in  or  near  the  city  of  Washington,  and 
such  associate  professors  as  may  be  required. 
The  senior  officer  acts  as  president,  and  the 
junior  as  secretary  of  the  faculty.  Student 
officers  are  selected  by  the  Surgeon-General  from 
those  medical  officers  who  have  been  appointed 
since  the  last  preceding  term  of  the  school  and 
such  others  as  may  be  authorized  to  attend.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  of  five  months'  duration 
annually,  and  includes  lectures  and  practical 
instruction  in  the  duties  of  medical  officers  in 
war  and  peace;  military  surgery,  the  care  of 
the  wounded  in  time  of  war,  and  hospital  ad- 
ministration; military  hygiene;  military  medi- 
cine; microscopy,  sanitary  and  clinical;  pathol- 
ogy, histology,  bacteriology,  and  urinology; 
hospital  corps  drill;  and  first  aid  to  wounded. 
Civilian  physicians  and  dentists  are  employed 
whenever  necessary,  under  contracts  entered  into 
by  or  with  the  authority  of  the  Surgeon -General 
of  the  army.  (See  Contract  Surgeon.)  See 
SuBQEON,  Military  ;  Hospital  Corps  ;  Hospital, 
section  Military  Hospitals. 

MEDICAL  DEPABTMENT,  United  States 
Navy.     The  medical  corps  of  the  United  States 


Navy,  in  1906,  consisted  of  a  Surgeon-General 
(ranking  as  rear-admiral),  fifteen  medical  di- 
rectors (ranking  as  captains ) ,  fifteen  medical  in- 
spectors (ranking  as  commanders),  87  surgeons 
(ranking  as  lieutenant-commanders),  and  125 
past  assistant  and  assistant  surgeons  (ranking 
from  lieutenant,  junior  grade,  to  lieutenant, 
senior  grade ) .  By  an  enactment  of  Congress  the 
relative  grades  in  the  navy  and  array  have  been 
made  to  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible.  Can- 
didates for  surgeonships  in  the  navy  must  be  be- 
tween twenty-one  and  thirty  years  of  age,  and 
must  apply  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  per- 
mission to  take  the  required  entrance  exami- 
nation. 

.  MEDICAL  EDUCATION.  The  earliest  in- 
stitutions for  the  teaching  of  medicine  were  situat- 
ed in  temples  and  groves  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  the  deities  who  were  supposed  to  preside  over 
the  health  of  their  worshipers.  Thus  in  Egypt 
the  god  Osiris  and  his  wife  Isis  were  the  tutelary 
deities  of  the  medical  arts,  and  in  Greece  the 
god  of  health  was  ^sculapius.  The  temples 
were  situated  in  the  neighborhood  usually  of 
streams  and  springs  which  were  supposed  to 
possess  healing  properties.  One  of  the  most 
famous  of  these  ancient  temples  was  that  sit- 
uated on  the  island  of  Cos;  its  most  celebrated 
disciple  was  Hippocrates,  who  fiourished  early  in 
the  fourth  century  b.c.,  and  whose  teachings  ruled 
medical  science  even  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Throughout  Italy  the  same  methods 
prevailed,  the  Romans  deriving  most  of  their 
medical  lore  from  Greek  teachers.  Thus  Galen 
was  a  native  of  Pergamum,  where  there  wa%  a 
'famous  medical  school  in  which  he  was  educated. 
His  great  work  as  a  teacher,  however,  was  done 
in  Rome.  Greek  teachers  were  also  responsible 
for  the  rise  of  the  Arabian  school  of  medicine. 
In  the  sixth  century  a.d.  the  Nestorians,  being 
driven  out  of  Syria  because  of  their  heretical 
opinions,  settled  largely  among  the  Arabs,  and 
transmitted  to  them  their  medical  knowledge.  By 
this  time  the  teacher  of  medicine  was  practically 
divorced  from  his  religious  functions,  although 
even  down  to  the  mediaeval  period  much  of  the 
medical  learning  of  the  world  appertained  to  the 
priesthood. 

Until  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  the  teaching 
of  medicine  in  the  mediaeval  medical  schools 
consisted  almost  solely  in  dissertations  and  lec- 
tures upon  the  writings  of  Hippocrates  and 
Galen.  The  dissection  of  the  human  body  was 
only  intermittently  practiced.  In  1315  Mondino 
dissected  in  Bologna  the  cadavers  of  two  women. 
Master  Albert,  a  lecturer  in  the  same  institution, 
dissected,  in  1319,  a  body  stolen  from  the  ceme- 
tery by  the  students.  Bertucci  and  Pietro  de 
Angela,  a  little  later,  made  systematic  dissec- 
tions. But  on  the  whole,  anatomical  science  had 
made  little  advance. 

Clinical  teaching  was  on  no  better  basis.  The 
only  wav  in  which  the  student  received  bedside 
instruction  was  through  apprenticing  himself 
to  some  practitioner  and  accompanying  him  on 
his  rounds,  or  by  acting  as  his  servant  and  as- 
sistant. Although  the  great  universities  con- 
ferred degrees  in  course,  there  were,  nevertheless, 
enormous  numbers  of  quacks  and  charlatans  who 
fiourished  in  the  absence  of  any  efficient  laws 
regulating  the  right  of  persons  to  practice  the 
healing  art. 


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In  the  Middle  Ages  the  most  famous  of  all 
the  medical  schools  was  that  of  Salerno,  near 
Naples,  which  was  organized  in  connection  with 
a  monastery  of  Benedictine  monks.  Its  grad- 
uates were  to  be  found  teaching  in  all  quarters 
of  the  globe,  and  its  influence  was  widespread^ 
not  only  at  the  period  in  which  it  flourished, 
but  for  many  years  subsequent.  Another  cele- 
brated medical  school  was  that  of  Montpel- 
lier,  in  France.  The  University  of  Paris  was 
founded  in  1205  and  graduated  enormous  classes. 
Its  graduates  were  held  in  high  esteem.  They 
were  not  allowed  to  practice  surgery,  and  held 
practitioners  of  that  art  in  the  greatest  con- 
tempt. France,  however,  was  the  pioneer  in 
recognizing  the  necessity  for  a  higher  education 
of  surgeons,  and  for  their  elevation  to  a  rank  cor- 
responding to  that  of  physicians.  In  surgical 
teaching  3ie  French  were  always  greatly  in  ad- 
vance of  other  nations.  It  was  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  likewise,  that  midwifery  was  first 
taught  to  classes  of  male  students. 

Among  the  most  famous  centres  for  medical 
teaching  in  the  sixteenth  century  were  the  schools 
of  Bologna,  Padua,  and  Pisa  in  Italy.  At  the 
present  time  Italian  physicians  are  doing  an 
enormous  amount  of  scientific  research  work. 
The  facilities  ofl'ered  to  students  in  their  medical 
colleges,  however,  are  not  to  be  compared  with 
those  afforded  by  the  other  Continental  medical 
schools.  In  Germany  there  were  numbers  of 
universities  with  fiourishing  medical  depart- 
ments at  a  very  early  period,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  Erfurt,  Wittenberg,  and  Vienna. 
With  the  nineteenUi  century  a  new  era  dawned 
in"  German  medicine.  To  it  more  than  to  any 
other  single  nation  is  due  the  credit  of  the 
wonderful  achievements  of  the  present  day  medi- 
cine. Virchow,  Koch,  and  the  other  distinguished 
occupants  of  professorial  chairs  have  had  in 
their  classes  and  laboratories  eager  students 
from  all  over  the  world.  A  more  general  educa- 
tion and  a  larger  acquaintance  with  the  various 
branches  of-  the  natural  sciences  are  required 
of  the  German  medical  student  than  is  cus- 
tomary elsewhere;  a  term  of  five  years  is  re- 
quisite to  obtain  the  degree  of  M.D. 

In  England  the  teaching  of  medicine  was 
established  upon  a  scientific  basis  chiefly  by 
the  efforts  of  Thomas  Linacre,  who  founded 
chairs  for  the  teaching  of  medicine  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  As  physi- 
cian to  Henry  VIII.  he  possessed  an  enormous 
influence  at  Court,  and  this  he  wielded  to  great 
advantage,  inducing  the  King  to  take  the  power 
of  licensing  persons  to  practice  medicine  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  bishops,  and  rendering  it 
necessary  for  the  candidates  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation and  receive  a  degree  from  one  or  the 
other  of  the  two  universities.  In  England,  as 
in  France,  it  was  many  years  before  the  educa- 
tion of  the  surgeon  was  considered  as  of  equal 
importance  with  that  of  the  physician.  Until 
1745  the  surgeons  were  associated  with  the 
barbers  in  the  corporation  of  the  barber  sur- 
geons. In  that  year  they  separated,  although  it 
was  not  until  more  than  fifty  years  later  that 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  was  incorporated. 

The  medical  profession  in  England  consists  of 
three  classes:  first,  physicians,  who  have  received 
their  degree  from  one  of  the  universities;  second, 
surgeons,  who  have  graduated  from  one  or  an- 
other  of    the    medical    schools    which    exist    in 


connection  with  the  hospitals;  and  thirds 
apothecaries,  who  dispense  their  own  drugs  and 
are  generally  considered  as  family  physicians. 
Dispensers  like  American  apothecaries  are  in 
England  called  chemists.  The  large  hospitals  in 
London  have,  in  many  instances,  medical  schools 
connected  with  them.  Of  the  more  prominent  may 
be  mentioned  Saint  Thomas,  Saint  Bartholomew,. 
Saint  George,  and  Guy's.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion at  these  hospitals  is  three  years;  the  teach- 
ers are  the  physicians  and  surgeons  who  serve 
the  hospitals.  After  passing  the  examinations, 
at  his  medical  school,  in  order  to  obtain  au- 
thority to  practice  the  graduate  is  obliged  to 
pass  an  examination  before  a  board  composed 
of  representatives  of  some  of  the  leading  medical 
societies,  such  as  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  or  the  Society 
of  Apothecaries,  or  of  some  of  the  faculty  of 
one  of  the  universities. 

The  medical  schools  of  Scotland  are  of  great 
antiquity.  That  of  Saint  Andrews  was  founded 
in  1411,  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh  datea 
back  to  the  year  1582,  although  it  was  many 
years  subsequent  to  this  before  medical  teaching 
there  was  placed  on  a  scientific  basis.  The 
latter  university  exerted  an  incalculable  influ- 
ence on  medical  teaching  in  the  United  States, 
owing  to  the  large  number  of  American  students 
who  attended  its  courses. 

From  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of 
North  America  public  lectures  on  medical  topics 
were  given  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  To 
Dr.  Cadwallader  Colden  is  ascribed  the  credit 
of  the  first  attempt  to  establish  a  system- 
atic course  on  medicine  in  the  Colonies.  He 
tried  to  have  the  Assembly  in  the  Province  of 
Pennsylvania  pass  an  act  imposing  a  tax  upon 
every  unmarried  man  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
porting a  'public  physical  lecture  in  Philadel- 
phia.' His  efforts  were  fruitless.  In  1750  Dr. 
Thomas  Cadwallader  lectured  on  anatomy  in 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1752  Dr.  William  Hunter, 
a  cousin  of  the  great  John  Hunter,  lectured  on 
anatomy  at  Newport,  R.  I.  Dr.  Charles  F. 
Wiessenthal,  of  Baltimore,  delivered  lectures  on 
surgery  in  that  city  prior  to  the  Revolution. 

The  first  medical  school  in  the  United  States 
was  founded  by  Drs.  John  Morgan  and  William 
Shippen,  Jr.,  in  1765,  when  they  established  a 
medical  department  of  the  College  of  Philadel- 

?hia,  which  institution  subsequently  became  the 
Jniversity  of  Pennsylvania.  This  was  shortly 
followed  by  the  organization,  in  1767,  of  the 
medical  department  of  King's  College,  New  York, 
the  lineal  ancestor  of  Columbia  University. 
Harvard  University  established  its  medical  de- 
partment in  1782,  and  in  1798  a  medical  depart- 
ment was  established  by  Dr.  Nathan  Smith  at 
Dartmouth  College.  Previous  to  the  foundation 
of  medical  schools,  the  education  of  physicians 
in  this  country  had  been  entirely  by  means  of 
the  apprenticeship  system,  except  when  a  young 
man  possessed  sufficient  means  to  go  abroad  ana 
study  in  the  medical  schools  of  Edinburgh,  Lon- 
don, or  the  Continent.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  at  the  outset  of  the  War  for  Independence 
there  were  upward  of  3500  practitioners  in  the 
Colonies,  of  whom  not  more  than  400  had  re- 
ceived medical  degrees.  Most  of  the  early  teachers 
in  American  medical  schools  had  been  educated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  This  led  to  a  close 
perpetuation   of   the   traditions   of  the   medical 


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school  of  Edinburgh  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
In  the  early  part  of  th6  nineteenth  century  it  be- 
came customary  for  American  physicians  desirous 
of  studying  abroad  to  take  their  post-graduate 
work  in  France.  In  this  way  the  teaching  of 
Laennec,  Trousseau,  and  above  all  of  the  great 
Louis,  became  familiar  to  the  American  professicm, 
and  served  to  give  an  immense  impetus  to  scien- 
tific medical  work  in  the  United  States.  The  most 
prominent  medical  colleges  of  the  United  States 
now  require  candidates  for  admission  to  possess 
a  collegiate  degree,  or  to  pass  examinations 
practically  equivalent  to  those  customary  at  the 
termination  of  the  sophomore  year  of  the  col- 
legiate course. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1902-3,  there 
were  at  that  time  in  the  United  States  a  total 
of  146  medical  colleges,  also  6  post-graduate;  of 
these,  118  were  classed  as  regular,  19  as  homoeo- 
pathic, 7  as  eclectic,  2  as  physio-medical.  There 
were  27,062  students  in  these  institutions,  and 
4928  instructors.  In  almost  every  State  of  the 
Union  there  are  now  examining  boards  which 
hold  biennial  examinations,  which  it  is  neeessair 
for  a  physician  to  pass  before  he  can  establish 
himself  in  practice  in  the  State.  In  1875  there 
were  no  medical  schools  in  the  United  States 
which  required  even  so  much  as  a  three  years' 
course.  In  1903  a  four  years*  course  was  com- 
pulsory in  144  medical  schools. 

AlEn)iCAL  Education  of  Women.  The  proposi- 
tion to  admit  women  into  the  medical  profession 
met  with  bitter  opposition,  which  has  gradually 
given  way.  Although  the  Boston  Homoeopathic 
School  for  Women  was  opened  as  early  as  1848, 
the  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  the 
Medical  Education  of  Women,  organized  some 
time  afterwards,  first  brought  the  subject  clearly 
to  public  attention.  The  Woman's  Medical  Col- 
lege at  Philadelphia  was  opened  in  1850,  and 
graduates  about  20  physicians  every  year.  The 
Woman's  Medical  College  of  the  New  York  In- 
firmary was  opened  in  1868  by  Dr.  Elizabeth 
Blackwell  (q.v.)  and  her  sister  Emily,  the  In- 
firmary for  Women  and  Children  having  been  in 
successful  operation  since  its  establishment  by 
Dr.  Blackwell  in  1853.  The  college  was  closed 
in  June,  1898,  having  fulfilled  its  mission.  The 
New  York  Free  Medical  College  for  Women  was 
founded  in  1870.  There  are,  besides  these, 
women's  colleges  at  Baltimore,  San  Francisco, 
and  Chicago,  and  a  homoeopathic  institution  in 
New  York.  At  the  University  of  Michigan  female 
students  are  admitted  to  the  regular  courses  in 
medicine,  which  are  for  four  years,  attending 
certain  lectures  separately.  The  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  at  Boston  and  Omaha 
Medical  College  are  open  to  both  sexes,  and  the 
Meharry  medical  department  of  the  University 
of  Central  Tennessee  was  founded  for  colored 
male  and  female  students.  In  the  large  cities 
the  dispensaries  are  now  open  to  women,  and 
candidates  for  degrees  in  the  Woman's  Medical 
College  of  New  York  were  received  as  residents 
of  the  New  York  Infirmary  to  receive  special 
instruction  in  obstetrics  and  pharmacy.  A  be- 
quest of  $10,000  was  left  the  medical  department 
of  Harvard  University,  with  the  condition  that 
women  should  be  admitted  to  the  full  course 
of  instruction;  and  although  the  bequest  with 
this  proviso  was  not  accepted  by  the  authorities, 
there  was  a  noticeably  strong  vote  in  its  favor. 


In  1890  the  trustees  of  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore,  accepted  from  ladies  of  that  city  and 
elsewhere  $100,000  for  the  endowment  fund  of  the 
university  medical  school,  with  the  understanding 
that  it  should  admit  women  on  the  same  terms  as 
men.  Medical  schools  for  women  have  been  found- 
ed by  American  women  in  Turkey,  and  fifteen 
graduates  of  the  Woman's  Medical  College  of 
Philadelphia  in  1884  were  especially  prepared  for 
missionary  work  in  foreign  lands.  One  of  the  first 
female  practitioners  in  England  was  Dr.  Eliza- 
beth Blackwell,  who  settled  in  London  in  1868 
and  became  connected  with  the  Women's  Medical 
College  there.  As  late  as  1867  the  Apothecaries* 
Society  passed  resolutions  excluding  women  from 
examinations  for  degrees.  The  admission  of 
women  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh  led  to 
open  riots  among  the  students.  The  'enabling 
bill,*  giving  permission  to  medical  schools  and 
societies  to  grant  qualifications  for  the  registra- 
tion of  physicians  without  regard  to  sex,  was 
passed  by  Parliament  in  1876;  King's  and 
Queen's  College  of  Physicians,  Dublin,  and  the 
London  University  threw  open  their  doors  to 
women  soon  afterwards ;  and  a  preparatory  medi- 
cal school  in  London  annually  recruits  the  num- 
ber of  female  matriculates  in  these  institutions. 
There  are  dispensaries  at  London,  Leeds,  and 
Bristol  superintended  by  female  physicians;  and 
Queen  Victoria  during  her  reign  interested  her- 
self in  behalf  of  medical  missions  carried  on  by 
Englishwomen  in  the  East.  The  faculty  of 
medicine  at  Paris  has  given  a  number  of  diplo- 
mas to  women,  as  have  the  universities  of  Bern, 
Zurich,  and  Geneva.  The  first  woman  medical 
graduate  in  Germany  was  Mrs.  Dorothea  Chris- 
tiana Erxleben,  who  received  the  medical  degree 
from  the  University  of  Halle  in  1754,  upon  rec- 
ommendation by  Frederick  the  Great  in  a  royal 
decree.  But  medical  colleges  in  Germany  were 
closed  to  women  till  1900,  when  by  a  decision 
of  the  German  Federal  Council  female  medical 
students  were  entitled  to  be  admitted  to  the 
State  examinations  in  medicine.  Heidelberg 
University  opened  its  doors  to  women  in  1900. 
There  are  medical  courses  for  women  at  the 
Carolinian  institutions  at  Stockholm  and  at  Up- 
sala.  The  Spanish  universities  of  Madrid,  Val- 
ladolid,  and  Barcelona  extend  the  same  privi- 
leges. The  War  Department  of  the  Russian 
Government  founded  a  medical  school  for  women 
at  Saint  Petersburg;  a  similar  institution  is 
now  open  at  Moscow.  All  the  medical  societies  in 
the  United  States  and  many  in  foreign  countries 
admit  female  physicians  to  their  congresses  and 
discussions. 

MEDICAL  ELECTBICITY.  See  Electbic- 
ITY,  Medical  Uses  of. 

MEDICAL  JX7BISPBTXDENCE,  or  Foren- 
sic Medicine.  The  application  of  medical 
science  to  the  elucidation  of  legal  questions 
which  have  a  medical  aspect.  The  questions  in- 
cluded in  modern  medical  jurisprudence  are 
divided  by  Godkin  into  five  general  classes: 
(1)  Those  arising  out  of  sex  relations,  as  im- 
potence and  sterility,  pr^nancy,  legitimacy,  and 
rape;  (2)  injuries  inflicted  on  the  living  or- 
ganism, as  infanticide,  wounds,  poisons,  injuries, 
and  death  from  violence;  (3)  questions  arising 
out  of  disqualifying  diseases,  as  the  different 
forms  of  mental  alienation;  (4)  those  arising 
out  of  deceptive  practices,  as  feigned  diseases; 


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(5)  questions  of  a  miscellaneous  nature,  as  age, 
identity,  presumption  of  seniority,  and  life  as- 
surance. 

In  criminal  trials  in  the  United  States  each 
side  hires  its  own  experts,  and,  owing  to  the 
use  of  hypothetical  questicms  and  the  advocate's 
eliciting  only  part  of  the  truth,  the  spectacle  is 
often  presented  of  equally  competent  medical 
experts  flatly  contradicting  each  other.  The 
effect  which  this  has  had  in  casting  doubt  upon 
the  value  of  expert  opinion,  and  the  dissatisfac- 
tion to  which  it  has  given  rise  in  the  minds 
of  judges,  juries,  and  experts  themselves,  have 
led  to  numerous  plans  for  remedying  this  defect 
in  the  present  system  of  calling  expert  witnesses 
by  establishing  a  class  of  official  experts;  but 
most  of  these  plans  conflict  with  one  or  all  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  the  common  law 
relating  to  the  conduct  of  criminal  trials:  that 
the  court  shall  be  the  sole  judge  of  the  law,  that 
the  jury  shall  pass  upon  facts,  and  that  the 
defendant  shall  have  the  right  to  present  any 
proper  evidence  on  his  own  behalf. 

In  France  experts  are  generally  selected  from 
a  list  of  official  specialists,  termed  experts  asser- 
mentis,  and  if  the  parties  cannot  agree  upon 
the  experts,  the  court  appoints  them.  The  court 
may  order  an  investigation  and  report  by  experts 
whenever  necessary,  and  the  order  contains  a 
statement  as  to  the  exact  object  of  the  investiga- 
tion, and  appoints  a  referee  or  juge  commissaire. 
Barristers  or  avocats  do  not  appear  before  the 
experts;  but  the  parties  are  represented  by 
solicitors  or  avou^s,  or  sometimes  by  persons 
specially  skilled  in  the  matter  under  investiga- 
tion. The  report  must  be  signed  by  all  the  ex- 
perts (who  are  three  in  number),  the  reasons 
for  any  dissenting  opinion  being  embodied  in  the 
report.  The  judges,  however,  are  not  bound  by 
the  report  if  it  is  contrary  to  their  convictions. 

In  Germany,  after  the  issues  are  determined 
upon  which  expert  testimony  is  sought,  the 
parties  may  agree  upon  the  experts,  and  the 
court  may  appoint  them.  The  court  may  limit 
the  number  of  experts,  or  may  submit  to  the 
parties  the  names  of  a  number  of  experts,  permit 
each  side  to  challenge  a  certain  number,  and 
appoint  those  remaining.  There  is  a  class  of 
officially  appointed  experts  on  certain  subjects, 
and  these  have  the  preference  in  trials  \\hich 
concern  those  subjects,  unless  there  is  some 
special  reason  to  the  contrary. 

The  plan  suggested  by  Sir  James  Stephen  in 
his  History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  EngUmdj 
and  used  for  some  years  in  Leeds,  has  given 
much  satisfaction.  Under  this  plan,  which  re- 
quires a  high  standard  of  professional  honor 
and  knowledge,  medical  men  refuse  to  testify 
unless  before  doing  so  they  can  meet  in  confer- 
ence with  the  experts  of  the  opposing  side,  and 
have  an  exchange  of  views.  As  a  result,  it  is 
stated  that  at  Leeds  medical  witnesses  are  rarely 
cross-examined,  and  often  they  are  called  on  one 
side  only. 

See  Evidence;  Bloodstains;  Homicide;  In- 
fanticide; Insanity.  Consult:  Hamilton  and 
(jiodkin,  A  System  of  Legal  Medicine  (New  York, 
1900)  ;  and  Reese,  Textbook  of  Medical  Jurispru- 
dence and  Toxicology    (Philadelphia,  1902). 

MEDICAL  SCHOOL.  See  Medical  Educa- 
tion. 

MEDICAL  SCHOOL,  Netley.  An  establish- 
ment at  Netley,  near  Southampton,  England,  for 


the  technical  education  of  medical  officers  for 
the  British  and  Indian  military  service.  Can- 
didates are  examined  competitively  in  the  ordi- 
nary subjects  of  professional  knowledge;  and, 
passing  satisfactorily  through  that  ordeal,  are 
then  required  to  attend,  fdr  six  months,  at  the 
Military  Medical  School,  where  they  go  through, 
practical  courses  of  military  hygiene,  military 
and  clinical-military  surgery  and  medicine,  and 
pathology  with  morbid  anatomy.  There  is  a. 
training  school  for  army  nurses  in  connection 
with  the  hospital  at  Netley,  where  women  enlist 
for  life  or  during  competency  for  work  in  army 
hospitals,  in  the  field,  or  in  foreign  lands  in  care 
of  the  sick  soldiery. 

MEDICAL  STATISTICS  of  the  United- 
States.  In  the  United  States  of  America,  in- 
cluding the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and  Hawaii^ 
there  were,  in  1906,  135,621  physicians  to  a 
population  of  96,000,000.  The  last  complete 
data  we  have  concerning  the  number  of  and 
attendance  upon  medical  schools  are  for  1903. 
In  this  year  there  were,  including  graduate^ 
schools,  146  medical  schools  in  the  United  States, 
with  27,062  students  and  4928  instructors.  The 
growth  in  the  number  of  medical  students  in- 
twenty-one  years  has  been  142  per  cent.  Of  the 
146  schools,  118  are  regular,  19  are  homoeo- 
pathic. 7  eclectic,  2  physio-medical.  The  status 
of  these  schools,  while  determined  in  part  by  the 
ruling  of  State  boards  of  health  or  medical  ex- 
aminers, as  in  New  York  and  Illinois,  is  gener- 
ally fixed  by  the  associations  of  the  organized 
medical  bodies  of  education.  See  the  article 
Medical  Edi  cation. 

The  ratio  of  physicians  to  population  is  less, 
than  1  to  725  in'  the  United  States,  while  in 
foreign  countries  it  varies  from  1  to  about  1100* 
in  the  British  isles  to  I  to  about  8600  in  Russia. 
We  are  said  to  have  in  proportion  to  our  popula- 
tion four  times  as  many  physicians  as  France, 
five  times  as  many  as  Germany,  six  times  as 
many  as  Italy. 

MEDICI,  ma'd^-ch*.  The.  The  most  cele- 
brated family  of  the  Florentine  Republic.  The 
Medici  owed  their  earliest  distinction  to  the 
success  with  which  they  had  pursued  various, 
branches  of  commerce,  and  the  liberal  spirit  ia 
which  they  devoted  their  wealth  to  purposes  of 
general  utility.  From  the  thirteenth  century^ 
the  Medici  took  part  in  all  the  leading  events, 
of  the  Republic.  From  the  time  when  Salvestro- 
de'  Medici  attained  the  rank  of  gonfaloniere  in 
1378  the  family  rose  rapidly  to  preeminence,  th& 
foundation  of  its  greatness  being  especially  due  to 
Giovanni,  who  died  in  1429,  leaving  to  his  sons, 
Cosimo  and  Lorenzo,  a  heritage  of  wealth  and 
honors  hitherto  unparalleled  in  the  Republic. 
With  Cosimo  (1389-1464),  on  whom  was  grate- 
fully bestowed  the  title  of  *Father  of  his  Coun- 
try,' began  the  glorious  epoch  of  the  Medici ;  while 
from  Lorenzo  was  descended  the  collateral  branch, 
of  the  family,  which  in  the  sixteenth  century 
obtained  absolute  sway  over  Tuscany.  Oosimo's 
life,  except  during  a  short  period,  when  the  Al- 
bizzi  and  other  families  reestablished  a  successful 
opposition  against  the  policy  and  credit  of  the 
Medici,  was  one  uninterrupted  course  of  prosper- 
ity. At  once  a  munificent  patron  and  a  success- 
ful cultivator  of  art  and  literature,  he  did  more 
than  any  sovereign  in  Europe  to  revive  the  study 
of  the  ancient  classics,  and  to  foster  a  taste  for 


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mental  culture.  He  assembled  about  him  learned 
men  of  every  nation,  and  gave  liberal  support  to 
numerous  Greek  scholars;  and  by  his  foundation 
of  an  academy  for  the  study  of  the  philosophy  of 
Plato,  and  of  a  library  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Oriental  manuscripts,  he  inaugurated  a  new  era 
in  modem  learning  and  art.  But,  though  he  re- 
tained the  forms  of  the  Republic,  and  nominally 
confided  the  executive  authority  to  a  gonfaloniere 
and  eight  priori  or  senators,  he  totally  extin- 
guished the  freedom  of  Florence. 

His  grandson,  Lobenzo  the  Magnificent 
(1449-92),  became  the  virtual  head  of  the  Flor- 
entine State  in  1469.  In  1478  the  conspiracy  of 
the  Pazzi  nearly  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the 
Medici.  Lorenzo's  brother  Giuliano  was  slain, 
and  he  himself  barely  escaped.  The  result  of  the 
conspiracy  was  to  give  Lorenzo  a  firmer  hold 
upon  the  State.  He  pursued  with  signal  success 
the  policy  of  his  family,  which  was  to  win  the 
favor  of  the  lower  classes,  and  thereby  make 
absolute  their  own  power.  He  encouraged  liter- 
ature and  the  arts,  employed  learned  men  to 
collect  choice  books  and  antiquities  for  him  from 
every  part  of  the  known  world,  established  print- 
ing presses  in  his  dominions,  founded  academies 
for  the  study  of  classical  learning,  and  filled 
his  gardens  with  collections  of  the  remains  of 
ancient  art.  When,  however,  his  munificence 
and  conciliatory  manners  had  gained  for  him 
the  affection  of  the  higher  and  the  devotion  of 
the  lower  classes,  he  lost  no  time  in  breaking 
down  the  forms  of  constitutional  independence 
that  he  and  his  predecessors  had  hitherto  suf- 
fered to  exist.  Some  few  Florentines,  alarmed  at 
the  progress  of  the  voluptuous  refinement,  which 
was  smothering  every  spark  of  personal  inde- 
pendence, tried  to  stem  the  current  of  corruption 
by  an  ascetic  severity  of  morals,  which  gained  for 
them  the  name  of  piagnoniy  or  weepers.  Fore- 
most among  them  was  the  Dominican  friar  Gi- 
rolamo  Savonarola  (q.v.),  whose  eloquent  ap- 
peals to  the  people  in  favor  of  a  popular  and 
democratic  form  of  government  and  a  life  of 
asceticism  threatened  for  a  time  the  overthrow 
of  the  Medici.  Lorenzo  achieved  some  reputation 
in  belles-lettres.  We  have  from  him  poems  of 
many  kinds,  lyric,  moral,  dramatic,  and  descrip- 
tive. His  Camoni  and  Sonetti  are  love  poems, 
to  which  he  added  a  prose  commentary.  A  true 
feeling  for  nature  appears  in  the  Caccia  col  fal- 
cone,  and  a  rather  pleasing  picture  of  rural  life 
is  to  be  found  in  his  Nencia  da  Barherino.  A 
dramatic  composition  of  a  kind  held  in  favor  at 
the  time  is  the  Rappresentcusione  di  Santi  Oiovan- 
ni  e  Paolo  (performed  in  1489).  Like  so  many 
writers  of  the  period,  he  cultivated  the  form  of 
the  hallata  or  oance-song.  He  wrote  also  a  num- 
ber of  Canti  carnasciateschi  or  carnival  songs. 
The  religious  spirit  prevails  in  his  Laudi  apiri- 
iuali.  His  love  poetry  is  the  best  of  all  that  he 
produced,  and  the  most  distinctive  characteristic 
m  it  is  the  note  of  melancholy. 

PiETBO  (born  in  1471),  who  succeeded  his 
father  Lorenzo  in  1492,  possessed  neither  capacity 
nor  prudence;  and  in  the  troubles  which  the  am- 
bition of  her  princes  and  the  undue  use  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  popes  brought  upon  Italy, 
by  plunging  her  into  civil  and  forei^  war,  he 
showed  himself  treacherous  and  vacillating,  alike 
to  friends  and  foes.  When  Charles  VIII.  of 
FTance,  in  1494,  marched  into  Italy  in  order 
to   achieve   the   conquest   of   Naples,   Pietro,   in 


hopes  of  conciliating  the  powerful  invader,  has« 
tened  to  meet  the  troops  on  their  entrance  into 
the  dominions  of  Florence,  and  surrendered  to 
Charles  the  fortresses  of  Leghorn  and  Pisa, 
which  constituted  the  keys  of  the  Bepublic.  The 
magistrates  and  people,  incensed  at  his  perfidy, 
drove  him  from  Florence,  and  formally  deposed 
the  family  of  Medici  from  all  participation  in 
power.  Pietro  lost  his  life  in  the  battle  of  the 
Garigliano  in  1503  while  fighting  in  the  French 
ranks.  In  1512  the  Medici  were  reinstated  in 
Florence,  and  the  elevation  of  Giovanni  de'  Medici 
to  the  Papal  chair,  under  the  title  of  Leo  X. 
(1513-21),  completed  the  restoration  of  the  fam- 
ily to  their  former  splendor.  The  accession  of 
Giulio  de'  Medici  to  the  pontificate  as  Clement 
VII.  (1523-34),  the  marriage  of  Catharine,  the 
granddaughter  of  Pietro,  to  Henry  II.  of  France 
in  1533,  and  the  military  power  of  the  cadet 
branch  ( descended  from  a  younger  brother  of  the 
'Father  of  his  Country')  widened  the  rOle  which 
the  Medici  were  enabled  to  play. 

Expelled  from  Florence  in  1527,  they  were  re- 
instated, and  this  time  permanently,  in  1530,, 
by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.  and  Pope  Clement  VII.  The  Florentines  were 
forced  to  accept  as  their  ruler  a  worthless  prince, 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  a  natural  son  of  Lorenzo 
II.  (the  father  of  Catharine),  who  in  1532  was 
invested  with  the  ducal  dignity.  Gn  his  death  by 
assassination  without  direct  heirs,  in  1537,  Cosimo 
I.,  the  descendant  of  a  collateral  branch,  was  raised 
to  the  ducal  chair.  Cosimo,  known  as  the  Great, 
possessed  the  astuteness  of  character,  the  love  of 
elegance,  and  taste  for  literature  that  had  dis- 
tinguished his  great  ancestors;  but  none  of  their 
frank  and  generous  spirit.  He  founded  the 
academies  of  painting  and  of  fine  arts,  made 
collections  of  paintings  and  statuary,  published 
magnificent  editions  of  his  own  works  and  those 
of  others,  and  encouraged  trade,  for  the  protection 
of  which  he  instituted  1>he  ecclesiastical  Order  of 
Saint  Stephen.  He  was  implacable  in  his  enmity, 
and  did  not  scruple  to  extirpate  utterly  the  race 
of  the  Strozzi  (c^.v.),  the  hereditary  foes  of  his. 
house.  His  acquisition  of  Siena  gamed  for  him 
in  1569  the  title  of  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  from 
Pius  V.  He  died  in  1574,  leaving  enormous  wealth 
and  regal  power  to  his  descendants,  who,  through- 
out the  next  half  century,  maintained  the  literary 
and  artistic  fame  of  their  family.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  race  rapidly  degenerated,  and 
after  several  of  its  representatives  had  suffered 
themselves  to  be  made  the  tools  of  Spanish  and 
Austrian  ambition,  the  dynasty  of  the  Medici 
became  extinct  with  Giovanni  Gastone,  who  died 
in  1737.  In  accordance  with  the  stipulation  of 
the  Peace  of  Vienna,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tus- 
cany passed  to  the  House  of  Lorraine.  The  name 
of  the  Medici  family  was  kept  alive  by  a  house 
which  pretended  to  have  emanated  from  it  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  which  acquired  the  Prin- 
cipality of  Ottajano  toward  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  To  this  house  belonged  Luigi  de* 
Medici  (176(1-1830),  Duke  of  Sarto,  known  as 
the  Chevalier  de'  Medici.  He  was  a  minister 
of  Ferdinand  I.  and  Francis  I.  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  and  died  while  visiting  Madrid  in 
1830.  Consult:  Fabroni,  Vita  Magni  Co9m% 
Medicei  (Pisa,  1788-89)  ;  Armengaud,  "Cosme 
des  M^dicis  et  sa  correspondance  in^dite,"  in 
the  Comptes  rendus  de  Vacad^mie  des  sciences 
morales  et  philosophiques  (Paris,  1876)  ;  Galluzi^ 


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266 


MEDICINE. 


Storia  del  granducato  di  Toaoana  (Florence, 
1871) ;  Perrens,  Eiatoire  de  Florence  depute  la 
domination  dee  M^dicis  jusqu'A  la  chute  de  la 
r^publique  (Paris,  1888-90)  ;  Roscoe,  The  Life  of 
Lorenzo  de*  Medici  (London,  1784),  ed.  by  W. 
Hazlitt  (London,  1890)  ;  Reumont,  Lorenzo  de* 
Medici  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Roscoe,  Life  and 
Pontificate  of  Leo  X,  (6th  ed.,  London,  1846). 
See  Cathabine  de'  Medici;  mIbia  de'  Medici; 
Tuscany. 

MEDICIy  Tombs  of  the.  The  burial  place  of 
the  Medici  family  in  the  new  sacristy  of  the 
Church  of  San  Lorenzo,  at  Florence.  It  contains 
Michelangelo's  statues  of  Giuliano  and  Lorenzo 
•de'  Medici,  the  former  represented  as  a  general 
of  the  Church,  the  latter  in  deep  meditation.  The 
sarcophagus  of  Giuliano  is  adorned  by  the  fa- 
mous sculptures  of  Day  and  Night,  and  that  of 
Lorenzo  by  those  of  Evening  and  Dawn.  The 
^ork  was  left  unfinished  in  1534. 

MEDICI,  Villa.  A  villa,  south  of  the  Pin- 
<sian  Hill  at  Rome,  built  in  1540  for  Cardinal 
Ricci  da  Montepulciano  and  acquired  by  the 
Medici  in  1600.  In  1801  it  became  the  home 
of  the  French  Academy  of  Art,  which  was 
founded  by  Louis  XIV.  and  formerly  was  in  the 
Palazzo  Salviati.  The  facade  incloses  ancient 
reliefs  and  an  important  collection  of  casts  is 
contained  in  the  wing. 

MEDICINA,  ma'dS-chg'nft.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Bologna,  Italy,  15  miles  east  of  the 
city  of  Bologna  (Map:  Italy,  F  3).  It  is  situ- 
ated in  a  low-lying  region  which  is  extensively 
■cultivated.  It  has  some  manufactures,  and  trades 
in  grain,  wine,  and  mineral  waters.  Population, 
in  1901   (commune),  12,535. 

MEDICINAL  PLANTS.  Plants  of  which 
some  part  or  product  is  used  in  medicine.  Con- 
sult Potter,  Materia  Medicay  Pharmacy  and 
Therapeutics  (Philadelphia,  1902). 

MEDICINE,  American  Academy  of.  An 
association  organized  in  1876,  holding  annual 
meetings  in  the  different  large  cities  of  the  United 
States :  ( 1 )  to  bring  together  physicians  who  are 
also  alumni  of  some  academic  or  scientific  col- 
lege; (2)  to  urge  the  importance  of  a  thorough 
mental  training  before  studying  medicine;  and 
(3)  to  investigate  and  discuss  problems  of  medi- 
cal sociology.  The  society  has  a  membership  of 
nearly  900,  and  its  publication  is  The  Bulletin, 
appearing  at  Easton,  Pa. 

MEDICINE,  Forensic.  See  Medical  Juris- 
prudence. 

MEDICINE  (OF.  medicine,  Fr.  m^decine, 
from  Lat.  medicina,  medicine,  from  medicinus, 
relating  to  a  physician,  from  medicus,  physician, 
from  medere,  Av.  mad,  to  heal),  History  of. 
While  medical  practice,  in  an  elementary  form, 
is  probably  as  old  as  man,  the  oldest  records  of 
medical  matters  extant  are  those  of  Egypt.  Most 
of  our  knowledge  of  Egyptian  medicine  is  derived 
from  the  Greeks,  but  recent  discoveries  of  ancient 
papyri  and  better  methods  of  deciphering  in- 
scriptions have  yielded  much  original  informa- 
tion. The  Papyrus  Ebers  dates  from  about  the 
sixteenth  century  B.C..  and  much  of  the  learning 
therein  recorded  had  been  traditional  for  cen- 
turies. Certain  facts  concerning  Egyptian  medi- 
cine are  well  established.  This  art,  as  most 
others,  was  vested  in  the  priests;  there  was  an 
•extensive  formulary,  combined  with  many  cere- 


monial rites;  practice  was  widely  specialized — 
there  were  physicians,  gynecologists,  veterinari- 
ans, and  military  surgeons;  but  there  was  noth- 
ing like  progress  from  one  age  to  another. 
Egyptian  medical  lore  was  preserved  in  the  last 
six  volumes  of  the  Sacred  Book.  These  treated 
of  anatomy,  general  diseases,  instruments,  reme- 
dies, diseases  of  the  eye,  and  diseases  of  women, 
and  in  completeness  and  arrangement  rival  the 
Hippocratic  collection,  which  they  antedate  by  a 
thousand  years. 

The  Hebrews  derived  their  medical  knowledge 
from  Egypt,  and  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their 
thorough  conception  of  the  value  of  public 
hygiene  and  sanitation,  of  which  systems  they 
may  be  considered  the  originators.  In  the  early 
days  of  the  existence  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  dis- 
ease was  looked  upon  as  a  punishment  for  sin, 
and  the  Levites  were  the  sole  practitioners.  Later 
in  their  history  the  Jews  received  the  impress  of 
Assyrian,  and  later  still  of  Greek  thought.  After 
two  captivities  we  find  a  class  of  temple  physi- 
cians and  special  surgeons,  and  in  the  centuries 
immediately  preceding  the  Christian  Era  there 
were  communal  or  city  physicians  who  were 
held  in  high  esteem.  Jewish  medical  records  em- 
braced in  the  Talmud  (q.v.)  show  that  the  Jew- 
ish physicians  had,  like  the  Egyptian,  little 
know'ledge  of  human  anatomy,  that  their  surgery 
was  crude,  and  that  no  operations  in  midwifery 
were  performed. 

The  Vedas  (q.v.),  the  sacred  books  of  India, 
show  that  medicine  as  a  separate  science  was  in 
that  country  very  ancient.  The  Indian  physi- 
cians combined  a  close  observation  of  pathological 
phenomena  with  a  genius  for  misinterpretation, 
so  that  their  study  availed  them  little.  Demon- 
ology  played  a  large  part  in  their  practice  and 
belief.  Physicians  were  drawn  from  the  highest 
caste  (the  Brahmans),  and  long  training,  de- 
corum, and  piety  were  required  of  them.  Their 
therapeutic  methods  embraced  diet,  bathing,  and 
innumerable  drugs. 

The  origin  of  Chinese  medicine  is  lost  in  tra- 
dition and  fable.  The  Chinese  attributed  the  in- 
vention of  medicine  to  the  Emperor  Hwang-ti, 
who  was  supposed  to  have  lived  about  b.c.  2687. 
They  had  elaborate  rules  for  noting  the  pulse,  and 
a  portentous  array  of  curious  remedies,  drawn 
from  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  king- 
doms. They  knew  no  anatomy,  and  their  surgery 
was  of  a  barbarous  type.  No  bloody  operations 
were  performed,  but  cupping,  acupuncture  (q.v.), 
plasters,  and  fomentations  were  used.  Medical 
practice  was  entirely  unregulated. 

It  is  Greece  that  furnishes  us  with  the  most 
interesting  and  significant  remains  of  the  his- 
tory of  medicine  during  antiquity.  Chiron  (q.v.), 
the  Centaur,  is  fabled  to  have  introduced  the  art 
of  healing  into  Greece,  and  to  have  been  the  pre- 
ceptor of  .^culapius  (q.v.),  who  was  as  eminent 
among  the  Greeks  as  was  Hermes  in  Egypt.  Some 
scholars  consider  them  identical.  The  followers 
of  ^sculapius  early  formed  a  separate  cult  or 
worship.  They  had  temples  situated  in  groves 
and  near  springs,  where  healing  was  practiced 
and  instruction  given.  Treatment  consisted  of 
the  interpretation  of  dreams,  propitiatory  sacri- 
fices, the  offering  of  votive  tablets,  etc.,  but  diet- 
ing, pure  air,  temperate  living,  and  bathing  also 
had  their  part  in  the  cure,  together  with  frictions, 
emetics,  and  purgatives.  The  system  finally  de- 
generated into  mere  mysticism,  and  by  the  time 


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267 


MEDICINE. 


of  Hippocrates  only  the  superstitious  resorted 
to  it.  Besides  the  temple  medicine  there  were 
g>'mna8ia,  older  even  than  iEsculapius,  each  of 
which  had  its  gymnasiarch  or  director;  a  gym- 
nast, under  him,  who  directed  the  treatment  of 
the  sick;  and  iatroliptea,  who  anointed,  gave 
massage,  bled,  and  dressed  wounds  and  ulcers. 

The  period  prior  to  the  dispersion  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Pythagoras  (q.v.)  (c.500  B.C.)  is  some- 
times called  the  sacred  period  of  medicine.  It  was 
followed  by  the  philosophical  period,  inseparably 
linked  with  the  name  of  Hippocrates  (q.v.) 
( ac.  460-C.357 ) ,  the  first  great  apostle  of  rational 
medicine.  He  classified  diseases  into  epidemic, 
endemic,  and  sporadic;  he  wrote  extensively  on 
surgery  (though  ignorant  of  dissection),  on  ob- 
stetrics, hygiene,  regimen,  and  on  climatic  influ- 
ences; and  his  works  display  an  immense  range 
of  knowledge  and  high  powers  of  description. 

From  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  for  several  cen- 
turies, we  find  medical  beliefs  crvstallizing  about 
several  schools  or  systems.  The  Dogmatic  or 
rationalistic  school  of  Hippocrates,  founded  by 
his  sons,  Thessalus  and  Draco,  and  his  son-in- 
law,  Polybius,  based  its  principles  of  practice 
on  theories  derived  from  known  facts  and  obser- 
vations, and  regarded  maladies  as  units  from 
their  bc^ginning  to  their  termination ;  that  is,  they 
recognized  diseases  as  distinct  entities.  The  Em- 
pirics, on  the  other  hand,  taught  that  remedies 
could  only  be  suggested  by  experience.  Their 
school  was  founded,  according  to  Celsus,  by  Sera- 
pion,  a  pupil  of  Hierophilus,  mentioned  later  in 
this  article.  The  Methodists  occupied  a  position 
somewhere  between  the  Empirics  and  Dogmatists, 
and  the  Eclectics  chose,  or  pretended  to  choose, 
from  each  system  what  suited  them,  and  adhered 
to  none. 

The  philosophic  period  ended  and  the  anatomic 
period  began  with  the  foundation  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Library,  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  by  Ptolemy,  one  of  his  lieutenants. 
This  was  in  B.c.  320,  and  the  centre  of  medical 
thought  and  teaching  was  now  shifted  to  Alex- 
andria. Here  the  Ptolemies  gathered  about  them 
the  learned  men  of  the  day.  Although  Egyptian 
prejudice  was  strong  against  it,  Ptolemy  encour- 
aged dissection  of  the  human  body.  Among  the 
famous  teachers  of  Alexandria  were  Hierophilus 
and  Erasistratus  ( q.v. ) .  The  former  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  first  to  dissect  a  human  body, 
and  between  them  they  made  many  notable  dis- 
coveries concerning  the  structure  of  the  brain, 
eye,  heart,  and  intestinal  canal.  Erasistratus 
died  about  B.C.  280.  During  this  period  medical 
thought  was  practically  divided  into  two  schools, 
the  Dogmatist  and  the  Empiric. 

The  first  native  Roman  writer  on  medicine  was 
Celsus  (q.v.),  bom  at  about  the  time  of  Christ. 
His  work,  De  Medicina^  gives  a  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory of  medicine  up  to  his  time,  and  the  state  in 
which  it  then  existed.  He  followed  the  teachings 
of  Hippocrates  and  exercised  a  dominant  influence 
until  Galen  (q.v.)  (130c201)  totally  supplanted 
him.  Galen  wrote  over  a  hundred  works,  some 
of  them  on  anatomy.  He  described  every  bone 
in  the  human  body,  and  the  functions  of  the 
muscles;  h^  recognized  two  kinds  of  nerves — 
those  of  sensation,  which  he  thought  came  from 
the  brain,  and  those  of  motion,  which  be  believed 
to  originate  in  the  spinal  marrow.  He  divided 
the  body  into  the  cranial,  thoracic,  and  abdominal 
cavities,  whose  proper  envelopes  he  described. 
Vol.  XUI.— 18. 


Galen  strove  to  popularize  the  study  of  anatomy, 
with  but  little  success,  and  with  his  death  came 
the  end  of  the  anatomical  period  and  the  end  for 
several  centuries  of  medical  progress. 

The  first  names  of  any  renown  that  occur  after 
the  death  of  Galen  are  those  of  Oribasius,  Alex- 
ander of  Tralles,  jEtius,  and  Paulus  ^gineta, 
who  flourished  between  the  fourth  and  seventh 
centuries.  They  were  all  zealous  Galenists.  With 
the  death  of  Paulus  the  Greek  school  may  be 
said  to  have  ended,  for  after  his  time  no  works 
of  any  merit  were  written  in  this  language. 

Arabian  medicine  was  an  offspring  of  the 
Greek,  through  the  Nestorian  monks,  who  settled 
in  Persia  and  Arabia  in  the  sixth  century,  and 
established  many  schools  of  learning.  Fragments 
of  the  sect  still  remain  in  these  countries.  By 
the  seventh  century  Arabian  physicians  were  in 
high  repute.  The  earliest  Arabic  writer  on  medi- 
cine was  Ahrum,  who  was  contemporary  with 
Paulus,  but  the  most  celebrated  physicians  of 
this  school  were  Rhazes,  who  lived  in  the  ninth 
century  and  was  the  first  to  describe  smallpox; 
Avicenna  (q.v.),  of  the  eleventh  century,  whose 
Canon  Medicines  embraced  all  that  was  then 
known  of  medicine  and  the  collateral  sciences; 
Albucasis,  whose  works  on  surgery  were  the 
standard  for  several  centuries;  Avenzoar;  and 
Averrogs,  who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century  and 
was  equally  celebrated  as  a  physician  and  a  phi- 
losopher. The  works  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen, 
which,  together  with  those  of  Aristotle,  Plato,  and 
Euclid,  were  translated  into  Arabic  in  the  ninth 
century,  formed  the  basis  of  their  medical  knowl- 
edge; but  the  Arabian  physicians  did  good  ser- 
vice to  medicine  by  introducing  new  articles 
from  the  East  into  the  European  materia  medica, 
for  example,  rhubarb,  cassia,  senna,  and  camphor, 
and  in  making  known  the  first  elements  of  phar- 
maceutical chemistry,  such  as  distillation,  and 
the  methods  of  obtaining  various  metallic  oxides 
and  salts.  During  this  period  that  part  of  Eu- 
rope not  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  was  sub- 
jected to  successive  invasions  of  northern  bar- 
barians, and  medicine,  as  other  arts,  was  at  a 
standstill.  There  was  a  brief  period  of  quiet  during 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  when  medical  practice 
seems  to  have  again  passed  into  ecclesiastical  con- 
trol, and  from  the  ninth  until  the  thirteenth 
century  the  Jews  (who  acquired  their  learning 
from  the  Saracens)  shared  with  the  clergy  the 
art  of  healing. 

Upon  the  decline  of  the  Saracenic  universities 
of  Spain,  which  may  be  dated  from  the  death 
of  AverroSs,  the  best  medical  teaching  was  to 
be  found  in  Italy,  where  the  School  of  Salerno 
became  celebrated.  It  was  gradually  eclipsed  in 
its  turn  by  the  rising  fame  of  other  medical 
schools  at  Bologna,  Vienna,  Paris,  Padua,  and 
elsewhere.  Contemporary  with  Mondino  lived  Gil- 
bert, the  first  English  medical  writer  of  note; 
and  the  prior  century  gave  birth  to  Linacre  (q.v.) , 
who  studied  at  the  Continental  universities  and 
subsequently  founded  the  London  College  of 
Physicians.  It  was  in  the  fifteenth  century 
that  the  sect  of  chemical  physicians  arose,  who 
maintained  that  all  the  phenomena  of  the  living 
body  may  be  explained  by  the  same  chemical 
laws  as  those  which  rule  inorganic  matter.  The 
chemical  school,  with  Paracelsus  (q.v.)  at  their 
head,  did  nothing  to  advance  medicine  except  to 
introduce  into  the  materia  medica  several  valu- 
able metallic  preparations.     During  this  period 


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MEDICINE  DANCE. 


many    new    diseases    were    recognized    and    de- 
scribed. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  study  of  human 
anatomy  was  first  fairly  established  by  the  labors 
of  Vesalius  (q.v.)  ;  and  in  this  century  and  the 
following  we  meet  with  the  names  of  many 
physicians  whose  anatomical  and  physiological 
studies  materially  advanced  medical  science.  This 
was  the  epoch  of  Eustachio  (q.v.),  Fallopio 
(q.v.),  Assellius,  Har>ey  (q.v.),  Rudbeck,  Bar- 
tholin, Glisson,  Sylvius,  Willis,  Bellini,  and 
others.  Ambroise  Par€  ( 15 1 7-90 )  made  important 
additions  to  surgical  knowledge  and  technique. 
The  Cesarian  operation,  which  had  been  known 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  revived. 
Malpighi  (q.v.)  and  Grew  founded  the  cell  doc- 
trine. Besides  many  discoveries  in  minute  anat- 
omy, made  possible  by  the  invention  and  gradual 
improvement  of  the  microscope,  the  materia 
medica  was  enriched  by  the  addition  of  Peruvian 
bark  or  cinchona  by  the  Countess  Chinchon  in 
1632.  The  seventeenth  century  is  also  marked 
by  great  advance  in  obstetrics;  medical  jurispru- 
dence had  its  beginning  about  this  time;  and 
bedside  or  clinical  teaching  was  introduced. 
Chemistry  was  now  becoming  distinct  from  al- 
chemy, and  advancing  to  the  dignity  of  a  science, 
and  an  alliance  between  its  principles  and  those 
of  physiology  was  formed,  which  resulted  in  a 
new  sect  of  chemical  physicians,  quite  distinct, 
however,  from  the  sect  represented  two  centuries 
previously  by  Paracelsus.  These  chemical  phy- 
sicians believed  that  diseases  were  referable  to 
certain  fermentations  which  took  place  in  the 
blood,  and  that  certain  of  these  humors  were 
naturally  acid  and  others  alkaline,  and  that 
when  one  or  the  other  of  these  predominated 
certain  specific  diseases  were  the  result,  which 
were  to  be  removed  by  the  exhibition  of  remedies 
of  an  opposite  nature  to  that  of  the  disease. 
They  were  soon  succeeded  by  the  latro-mathe- 
matical  school,  of  which  •  Borelli,  Sauvages, 
Kneill,  Jurin,  Mead,  and  Friend  were  among  the 
best  known.  Another  sect  was  that  of  the  Vital- 
ists,  which  originated  with  Vau  Helraont,  and 
which,  with  some  modification,  was  adopted  by 
Stahl  and  Hoffmann.  Among  other  physicians 
whose  names  stand  out  prominently  in  the  annals 
of  the  seventeenth  century  are  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  and  Sydenham  (q.v.),  both  Englishmen, 
the  latter  the  greatest  clinical  physician  of  his 
time;  Wharton,  who  discovered  the  submaxillary 
duct;  Schneider,  who  described  the  Schneiderian 
mucous  membrane  of  the  nose;  Stenson,  Peyer, 
Brunner,  Pacchioni,  Havers,  and  Cowper. 

The  most  eminent  teacher  of  medicine  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Boer- 
haave  (q.v.),  elected  to  the  chair  of  medicine  at 
Leyden  in  1709.  Among  the  pupils  of  Boerhaave 
was  Van  Swieten,  whose  comments  on  the  aphor- 
isms of  his  master  formed  a  valuable  collection  of 
practical  observations:  and  Haller  (q.v.),  who 
has  been  called  the  father  of  modern  physiology 
and  who  first  enunciated  the  theory  that  irrita- 
bility and  sensibility  are  specific  properties  of 
muscular  and  nervous  tissues.  Most  of  the  dis- 
tinguished physicians  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  belonged  to  the  Cullenian 
school  of  medicine.  (See  Cullen.)  Cullen's 
views  were  attacked  with  great  acrimony  by  his 
former  assistant,  John  Brown  (q.v.),  who  be- 
came the  founder  of  the  Brunonian  system  of 
medicine.     In  Great  Britain  the  views  of  Brown 


were  regarded  as  too  purely  theoretical,  and  did 
not  attain  any  great  popularity;  but  in  some 
parts  of  the  Continent,  and  especially  in  Italy,, 
they  found  acceptance,  and  became  for  a  con- 
siderable time  the  prevailing  doctrine  in  the 
leading  medical  schools.  Among  the  medical 
curiosities  of  the  later  years  of  this  century  were 
the  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  or  mesmerism 
(q.v.)  and  homoeopathy  (q.v.).  The  latter  was 
founded  by  Hahnemann  (q.v.)  and  served  a  use- 
ful purpose  in  protesting  against  the  enormous- 
dosage  of  medicines  and  the  excessive  blood- 
letting then  in  vogue.  The  eighteenth  century 
witnessed  a  steady  progress  in  all  branches  of 
medicine  and  surgery,  the  social  status  of  the 
practitioner  was  raised,  and  medicine  became  a 
conscientious  vocation  and  not  a  mere  trade.  The 
greatest  single  discovery  of  the  age,  and  that 
which  conferred  the  most  benefit  on  mankind,  was 
vaccination  (see  Jenneb),  and  next  to  this,  per- 
haps, a  reform  in  the  methods  of  treating  the 
insane.  To  supplement  this  outline  of  the  prog- 
ress of  medicine  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
reader  is  recommended  to  consult  the  biographical 
sketches  of  Monro,  the  Hunters,  and  others. 

The  nineteenth  century  was  one  of  epoch-mak- 
ing discoveries,  only  a  few  of  which  can  evea 
be  mentioned  within  the  limits  of  this  arti- 
cle. In  the  early  years  of  the  century  Laennec 
(q.v.)  invented  the  stethoscope  and  thereby  in- 
stituted a  complete  revolution  in  the  methods  of 
physical  diagnosis;  Virchow  (q.v.)  founded  mod- 
ern cellular  pathology;  Pasteur  (q.v.),  by  his 
studies  in  fermentation  and  putrefaction,  prepared 
the  way  for  the  germ  theory  of  disease;  and 
Lister  ( q.v. ) ,  stimulated  by  Pasteur's  discoveries, 
gave  to  surgery  the  antiseptic  treatment  of 
wounds.  Laveran  (q.v.)  in  1880  discovered  the 
Plasmodium  of  malaria  (q.v.)»  and  Koch  (q.v.) 
in  1882  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis.  Since  then 
it  has  been  proved  that  anthrax,  Asiatic  cholera,, 
and  most  of  what  are  called  the  specific  infec- 
tious diseases  are  due  to  minute  vegetable  organ- 
isms. ( See  Bacteria.  )  The  discovery  of  general 
anspsthetics  was  no  less  important  and  remark- 
able. Morton  (q.v.),  of  Boston,  demonstrated  the 
anspsthetic  properties  of  sulphuric  ether  in  1846; 
and  Simpson,  of  Edinburgn,  introduced  chloro- 
form in  1847.  The  introduction  of  cocaine  as  a 
local  anapsthetic  in  1884  by  Roller  made  |>08sible 
the  performance  of  painless  operations  on  the  eye 
and  in  the  nose  and  throat  and  other  parts  of 
the  body.  The  materia  medica  has  been  enriched 
by  the  addition  of  quinine,  morphia,  strychnine, 
iodine  and  the  iodides,  the  bromides,  hydrocyanic 
acid,  and  cod  liver  oil,  and.  more  interesting  than 
these,  of  antitoxic  serums.  (See  Axtitoxin; 
Serum  Therapy.)  Diphtheria  antitoxin  espe- 
cially has  saved  thousands  of  lives.  Among  the 
more  important  instruments  invented  during  the 
nineteenth  century  are  the  ophthalmoscope  and 
the  laryngoscope.  The  X-rays  (q.v.)  have  proved 
•their  worth.  Phototherapy  and  radiotherapy 
(qq.v.)  are  still  in  the  experimental  stage. 
For  a  complete  review  of  the  medical  progress 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  consult  the  Interna- 
tional  year  Book  for  1900.  Consult:  Baas,  His- 
tory of  Medicine  (New  York,  1899)  ;  Park,  An 
Epitome  of  the  History  of  Medieine  (New  York„ 
1899)  ;  and  Bennet,  Diseases  of  the  Bible  (Lon- 
don, 1887). 

MEDICINE  DANCE.    A  name  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  Sun-dance  of  the  Cheyenne  Indians. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEDICINE  DANCE. 


269 


MEDINA. 


The  same  ceremony  among  the  Blackfoot  Indians 
is  spoken  of  as  the  Medicine-lodge.  See  Sun- 
dance and  Cheyenne  Indians. 

MEDICK  (OF.  medique,  from  Lat.  medica, 
from  Gk.  m^^^i  tn^ikS,  median  grass,  from 
UrfiucAt,  Medikoa,  median,  from  M^f,  medos, 
OPers.  Mdda,  Mede),  Medicaao.  A  genus  of 
plants,  natives  of  temperate  and  warm  climates 
of  the  Old  World,  of  the  natural  order  Legumi- 
nos(e,  distinguished  from  the  closely  related 
genus  Trifolium  (clover)  by  the  sickle-shaped 
or  spirally  twisted  legume.  The  species,  which 
are  very  numerous,  are  mostly  annual  and  peren- 
nial herbs  with  leaves  of  three  leaflets  like  those 
of  clover.  A  number  of  them  are  found  in 
Europe,  and  have  also  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States.  The  most  important  species  is 
the  purple  medick,  lucerne,  or  alfalfa  (q.v.)  ; 
other  important  species  are  bur  clover  {Medi- 
cago  denticulata) ,  distributed  in  California  and 
the  grazing  regions  of  the  Southwest;  yellow 
luceroe  (Medicago  falcata),  which  grows  wild 
in  Northern  Europe;  black  medick  {Medicago 
lupulina),  widely  grown  as  a  pasture  plant;  and 
spotted  medick  {Medicago  maculata),  introduced 
into  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States.  They 
are  generally  valuable  as  forage  and  pasture 
plants. 

MISdICO  DE  SU  HONBA,  m&M^kd  d&  8S6 
on'rft,  El  (Sp.,  the  physician  of  his  own  honor). 
One  of  the  strongest  dramas  of  Calderon,  in  which 
a  husband,  Don  Gutti^re,  surprises  his  wife  in  the 
act  of  writing  a  letter  to  the  King's  brother,  who 
had  tried  to  corrupt  her  before  marriage.  Al- 
though the  wife  is  pure,  she  consents  to  a  cruel 
punishment,  and  her  husband  kills  her  by  exces- 
sive blood-letting,  in  order  that  her  death  may 
appear  natural.  Don  Gutti^re  marries  again, 
warning  his  new  wife  that  an  instant's  suspicion 
will  subject  her  to  the  same  fate  as  satisfaction 
for  his  sensitive  conjugal  honor. 

MEDICO  -  PSYCHOLOGICAL  ASSOCIA- 
TION OF  GREAT  BBITAIN  AND  IRE- 
LAND, The.  An  association  founded  in  1841, 
with  headquarters  in  London,  England.  Its  ob- 
jects are  the  study  and  promotion  of  mental 
pathology  and  the  improvement  of  the  treatment 
of  the  insane.  The  membership,  which  is  over 
600,  is  made  up  of  registered  medical  practi- 
tioners and  of  honorary  corresponding  members. 
The  regular  publication  of  the  association  is 
The  Journal  of  Mental  Science. 

MEDILL^,  Joseph  (1823-99).  An  American 
journalist.  He  was  bom  in  New  Brunswick, 
Canada,  but  at  the  age  of  eight  removed  with 
his  parents  to  Massillon,  Ohio.  He  studied  law 
at  Canton,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1846, 
but  in  1849  entered  journalism,  and  took  charge 
of  the  Coshocton  Republican,  a  Free-Soil  paper. 
Two  years  later  he  established  the  Cleveland 
Forest  City,  a  Whig  organ,  but  in  1852  united 
it  with  the  Free  Democrat,  the  new  paper  being 
called  the  Leader.  A  little  later  he  left  the  Whig 
Party,  and  in  1854  was  an  organizer  of  the  Repub- 
lican Party  in  Ohio.  In  1856,  with  two  partners, 
he  bought  the  Chicago  Tribune.  In  1870  he 
helped  frame  a  new  State  constitution  for  Illi- 
nois; in  1871  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
first  Civil  Service  Commission,  and  in  1872  was 
elected  Mayor  of  Chicago.  In  1874  he  became 
chief  proprietor  and  editor-in-chief  of  the  Tribune, 
and  he  continued  in  that  position  until  his  death. 


MEDINA  (Ar.  al-Medinah,  the  city;  or  more 
fully  Medinat  al-Nabi,  the  cit^  of  the  Prophet; 
called  also  Tayyibah,  the  perfumed,  or  al-Mu- 
naiowarah,  the  illumined;  before  the  time  of 
Mohammed,  known  as  Yathrib,  whence  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Ptolemy  as  Jath/rippa).  One  of  the 
sacred  cities  of  Islam^  the  scene  of  Mohammed's 
labors  after  his  flight  from  Mecca  (see  Moham- 
med; Hejira),  and  the  place  of  his  tomb.  It  is 
situated  about  250  miles  north  of  Mecca,  and  140 
north  bv  east  of  the  port  of  Yambu  on  the  Red 
Sea.  The  population  was  estimated  by  Burton  at 
the  time  of  his  visit  (1852)  at  16,000;  a  later 
estimate  places  it  at  40,000.  The  city  originally 
contained  a  large  Aramean  population;  but  in 
the  third  century  a.d.  the  tribes  of  Aus  and 
Khaaraj  emigrated  thither  from  Yemen,  and  gave 
it  an  Arabic  character;  later  they  became  the 
'helpers'  {An^Ar)  of  Mohammed  when  he  fled  from 
Mecca.  Medina  also  contained  a  large  Jew- 
ish population,  who  were  influential  in  the 
early  days  of  Islam,  but  whom  the  Prophet  se- 
verely repressed.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  new 
Mohammedan  |>ower  until  Moawiyah  exchanged 
it  for  Damascus.  It  consists  of  three  principal 
parts — a  town,  a  fort,  and  suburbs  of  about  the 
same  extent  as  the  town  itself,  from  which  they 
are  separated  by  a  wide  space.  Medina  forms 
an  irregular  oval  within  a  walled  inclosure,  35  to 
40  feet  in  height,  and  flanked  by  thirty  towers — a 
fortification  which  renders  the  city  the  chief 
stronghold  of  Hedjaz.  Two  of  its  four  gates,  viz. 
the  Bab  aUJum*ah  (Assembly  Gate,  in  the  east- 
ern wall) ,  and  the  Bab  aMftfri  (Egyptian  Gate) , 
are  massive  buildings  with  double  towers.  The 
streets,  between  fifty  and  sixty  in  number,  are 
narrow  and  paved  only  in  a  few  places.  The 
houses  are  flat-roofed  and  double-storied,  and  are 
built  of  a  basaltic  scoria,  burned  brick,  and  palm- 
wood.  Very  few  public  buildings  of  any  im- 
portance are  to  be  noticed  except  the  mosque, 
erected  near  the  spot  where  Mohammed  died. 
It  is  of  smaller  dimensions  than  that  of 
Mecca,  being  a  parallelogram,  420  feet  long 
and  340  feet  broad,  with  a  spacious  central 
area  called  al-Sahn,  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
peristyle,  with  numerous  rows  of  pillars.  The 
Mausoleum,  or  Hujrah,  itself  behind  the  mosque 
proper,  is  an  irregular  square,  60  to  55  feet  in 
extent,  situated  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
building,  and  separated  from  the  walls  of  the 
mosque  by  a  passage  about  26  feet  broad.  A 
large  gilt  crescent  above  the  *green  dome*  spring- 
ing from  a  series  of  globes,  surmounts  the 
Hujrah,  a  glimpse  into  which  is  only  attainable 
through  a  little  opening,  called  the  Prophet's 
Window;  but  nothing  more  is  visible  to  the  pro- 
fane eye  than  costly  carpets  or  hangings,  with 
three  inscriptions  in  large  gold  letters  stating 
that  behind  them  lie  the  bodies  of  the  Prophet  of 
Allah  and  the  two  caliphs  (Abu  Bekr  and 
Omar),  and  an  empty  tomb  for  Jesus.  These 
curtains,  changed  whenever  worn  out,  or  when 
a  new  Sultan  ascends  the  throne,  are  supposed 
to  cover  a  square  edifice  of  black  marble,  in  the 
midst  of  which  stands  Mohammed's  tomb.  Its 
exact  place  is  indicated  by  a  long,  pearly  rosary 
(Kaukab  al-Durri)  suspended  from  the  curtain. 
The  Prophet's  body  is  supposed  to  lie  (unde- 
cayed)  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  right  aide 
with  the  right  palm  supporting  the  right  cheek, 
the  face  directed  toward  Mecca.  Outside  the 
drapery  is  the  tomb  of  Fatima,  the  daughter  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEDINA. 


270 


HEDlNET  HABU. 


Mohammed.  Close  behind  him  is  placed,  in  the 
same  position,  Abu  Bekr,  and  behind  the  latter 
Omar.  The  fact,  however,  is  that  when  the 
mosque,  which  had  been  struck  by  lightning,  was 
rebuilt  in  892,  three  deep  graves  were  found  in  the 
interior,  filled  only  with  rubbish.  Many  other 
reasons  make  it  more  than  problematic  whether 
the  particular  spot  at  Medina  really  contains 
the  Prophet's  remains.  Of  the  fabulous  treasures 
which  this  sanctuary  once  contained,  little  now 
remains.  As  in  M'^cca,  a  great  number  of 
ecclesiastical  officials  are  attached  in  some  capa- 
city or  other  to  the  mosque,  as  ulemas,  imams, 
khatibs,  etc.;  and  not  only  they,  but  the  towns- 
people in  general,  live  to  a  great  extent  on  the 
pilgrims'  alms,  the  city  having  little  trade.  The 
mosque  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1257,  and  was 
rebuilt  1258-88;  it  was  restored  in  1487  by 
Khaid  Bey,  of  Egypt.  The  city  was  conquered  by 
the  Turkish  sultans  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
It  fell  into  the  power  of  Saud,  the  Wahhabite 
general,  in  1803,  and  was  reconquered  by  Tussun 
Pasha  in  1815.  There  are  few  other  noteworthy 
spots  to  be  mentioned  in  Medina,  save  the  minor 
mosques  of  Abu  Bekr,  Ali,  Omar,  etc.  The  pri- 
vate houses,  however,  surrounded  by  gardens, 
fountains,  etc.,  have  a  very  pleasing  appearance ; 
and  the  city,  although  in  its  decay,  is  yet  busy 
and  agreeable.  A  number  of  medreses,  or  en- 
dowed schools,  represent  what  learning  there  is 
left  in  Medina,  once  famed  for  its  scholars.  As 
is  the  case  with  Mecca,  non-Mohammedans  are 
rigorously  excluded  from  the  sacred  city,  yet  it 
has  been  visited  by  Burckhardt  (1811)  and  Bur- 
ton (1852).  Consult:  Burckhardt,  Travels  in 
Arabia  (London,  1829)  ;  Burton,  Journal  of  a 
Pilgrimage  to  El-Medinah  and  Mecca  (London, 
1855)  ;  Soubhy,  Phlerinage  d  la  Mecque  et  d 
Midine  (Cairo,  1894)  ;  Wellhausen,  Medinah  vor 
dent  Islam f  in  his  Skizzen,  iv.  (Berlin,  1889). 

MEDINA.  A  village  in  Orleans  County,  N. 
Y.,  41  miles  west  of  Rochester  and  equally  dis- 
tant to  the  northeast  from  Buffalo;  on  Oak 
Orchard  Creek,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad  (Map: 
New  York,  B  2).  It  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural 
region  and  derives  good  water  power  from  the 
creek,  where  a  storage  dam  is  being  (1902)  con- 
structed, designed  to  yield  2000  horse-power, 
which  will  be  utilized  to  generate  electricity  for 
industrial  purposes.  There  are  valuable  sand- 
stone quarries,  foundries,  iron  works,  pump 
works,  flouring  mills,  and  manufactories  of  fur- 
niture, shirts,  vinegar,  cigars,  and  extracts. 
Medina  Falls  are  visited  for  their  scenic  inter- 
est. Settled  about  1830,  Medina  was  incor]>or- 
ated  in  1832.  The  present  government  is  admin- 
istered under  a  charter  of  1874,  which,  as  sub- 
sequently amended,  provides  for  a  president,  an- 
nually elected,  and  a  board  of  trustees  who  act 
with  the  executive  in  electing  subordinate  offi- 
cials.   Population,  in  1900,  4716;  in  1905,  5114. 

MEDINA.  The  sister  of  Elissa  and  Perissa, 
in  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene.  She  represents  the 
golden  mean. 

MEDINA,  mA-dg'nA,  Jos6  Maria  (c.l815- 
78).  A  Central  American  politician,  bom  in 
Honduras.  After  acting  as  President  of  Hon- 
duras in  1862  and  1863,  he  was  elected  to  that 
office  in  1864,  1866,  and  1870.  His  administra- 
tion was  fortunate  and  tranquil  until  1871,  when 
war  broke  out  with  Salvador.     Medina  was  de- 


feated and  was  deposed  by  Arias  at  the  head  of 
the  Liberal  Party.  Against  Leiva,  who  became 
President  in  1874,  Medina  revolted  in  1875-76 
and  again  in  1877.  As  a  result  of  the  later  at- 
tempt Medina  was  arrested,  court-martialed,  and 
shot. 

MEDINA  DE  BIO  SECO,  d&  t^6  sfl^k6.  A 
small  town  of  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Valla- 
dolid,  20  miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  that 
name  (Map:  Spain,  C  2).  Here,  on  July  14, 
1808,  a  Spanish  army  of  50,000  was  defeated  by 
12,000  French.' 

MEDINA  SEBIES.  A  subdivision  of  the 
Upper  Silurian  system.  The  rocks  are  conglom- 
erates, sandstones  and  shales.  They  are  abundant 
in  the  Eastern  United  States.  At  Medina,  N.  Y., 
large  quarries  of  building  stone  occur  in  the 
formation.    See  Geology;  Sandstone. 

MEDINA  SIDONIA,  s^-D^nft-A.  A  town  of 
Southern  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Cadiz,  situ- 
ated on  a  steep  eminence,  20  miles  southeast  of 
Cadiz  (Map:  Spain,  C  4).  It  has  a  picturesque 
appearance,  contains  a  beautiful  Gotnic  church 
and  the  ruins  of  a  palace  of  the  dukes  of  Medina 
Sidonia.  It  was  founded  as  a  fort  by  the  Moors. 
Population,  in  1900,  11,003.  The  dukes  of  Me- 
dina Sidonia  played  an  important  part  in  the 
internal  |>olitical  life  of  Spain,  and  to  one  of 
them  was  intrusted  the  command  of  the  Armada 
for  the  invasion  of  England  in  1588.  See  Ab- 
mada. 

MEDINET-EL-FAYXTM,  mc-dg'nSt  el  fl- 
?J?5m'.  The  capital  of  the  Egyptian  Province  of 
Fayum  (q.v.),  situated  on  the  Bahr-Yusuf,  55 
miles  south  of  Cairo  (Map:  Egypt,  C  2).  It  is 
a  well-built  town,  with  an  interesting  mosque  and 
a  fine  bazaar.  The  chief  industry  is  the  manu- 
facturing of  woolens;  there  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  grain,  woolens,  and  roses.  The  town  is 
the  seat  of  an  American  mission.  Population,  id 
1897,  31,262. 

MEDiNET  HABU,  mc-dg'net  haboiJ'.  The 
modem  Arabic  name  of  a  ruined  Coptic  village, 
built  in  early  Christian  times,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Nile  in  about  latitude  25**  50'  N.  It  stood 
around  and  upon  the  ruins  of  a  group  of  temple 
buildings  in  the  western  quarter  of  ancient 
Thebes.  These  ruins  include  a  small  temple  built 
by  Queen  Hatasu  and  King  Thothmes  III.,  with 
additions  by  several  later  monarchs,  and  a  large 
temple  built  after  the  model  of  the  Ramesseum 
(q.v.)  by  Barneses  Ifl.  The  larger  temple  orig- 
inally stood  within  an  inclosure  surrounded  by  a 
wall  of  which  considerable  traces  yet  remain. 
The  main  entrance  to  the  inclosure  is  through 
a  gateway  in  a  massive  pavilion  built  in  imita- 
tion of  a  Syrian  fortress  and  containing  several 
chambers  whose  walls  are  beautifully  decorated 
with  reliefs.  Within  the  inclosure  a  great 
pylon  gate  faces  the  pavilion,  and  gives  en- 
trance to  a  colonnaded  court  115  feet  in  length 
and  about  the  same  in  breadth.  A  second  pylon 
gate  forms  the  entrance  to  a  second  colonnaded 
court  (125  feet  long  and  138  feet  broad)  which 
in  Christian  times  was  converted  into  a  church. 
At  the  upper  end  of  this  court  is  a  terrace  from 
which  a  door  leads  to  the  hypostyle  hall,  sup- 
|>orted  by  twenty-four  columns.  To  the  rear  of 
the  hall  are  two  smaller  halls  and  a  number  of 
chambers,  most  of  which  are  in  a  ruinous  condi- 
tion. 


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MEDITERBANEAH  SEA. 


Close  to  the  temple  of  Rameses  III.  lie  the 
buildings  of  the  smaller  temple.  Between  two 
pylons — the  outer  built  by  Ptolemv  X.,  the  inner 
Dy  Taharka — is  a  small  chapel  (32  feet  long), 
built  by  Nectanebo.  The  inner  pylon  forms  the 
entrance  to  a  courts  at  the  upper  end  of  which 
is  the  temple  built  in  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  by 
Uatasu  and  Thothmes  III.  It  consists  of  a  cham- 
ber surrounded  by  a  colonnaded  portico,  and 
adorned  with  reliefs  and  inscriptions.  To  the 
rear  lie  six  smaller  chambers,  in  one  of  which 
is  a  shrine  for  a  divine  image.  Consult:  De- 
scription de  VEgypte  (Paris,  1809-29);  Wilkin- 
son, Topography  of  Thebes  (London,  1836)  ;  Dtl- 
miehen,  Geschiohte  dea  alten  Aegyptens  (Berlin, 
1878).     See  also  Thebes. 

MBI>ING,ma'ding,08KAB(  1829-1903).  A  Ger- 
man  novelist,  whose  pseudonym  was'Gregor  Sama- 
row.'  He  was  born  in  KSnigsberg,  Prussia, 
studied  law,  and  in  1870  retired  from  the  civil 
service.  From  1873  to  1879  he  lived  in  Berlin, 
and  then  at  Castle  Wohldenberg,  and  in  1900  set- 
tled at  Charlottenberg.  His  novels  deal  mostly 
with  modem  history.  He  wrote,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  'Samarow,'  Um  Scepter  und 
Kronen,  a  cycle  (1872-76)  ;  Die  Romerfahrt  der 
Epigonen  ( 1874 ;  4th  ed.  1887)  ;  Hohen  und  Tiefen 
(1879-80)  ;  Krieg  oder  Frieden  (1897)  ;  and  Ein 
Gespenst  (1902).  He  also  wrote  under  his  own 
name  and  the  pseudonvm  *Leo  Warren.'  ^  More 
purely  historical  and  biographical  are  his  Me- 
moiren  zur  Zeitgeschichte  (1881-84)  ;  Erinnerun- 
gen  aua  der  Zeit  der  Q<irung  und  Kliirung {lSd6)  ; 
and  Au8  vergangenen  Tagen  (1896). 

ME'DIOLA^TXM.    The  Latin  name  of  Milan. 

MEDITEBBANEAN  FEVEB.  See  Malta 
Fever. 

MEDITEBBANEAN  BACE  (Lat.  mediter^ 
raneus,  midland,  from  medius^  middle  +  terra, 
land).  That  portion  of  the  white  or  Caucasian 
division  of  mankind  dwelling  now  or  formerly 
about  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  characterized  by 
long  heads  and  faces,  dark  brown  or  black  hair, 
dark  eyes,  medium  stature,  slender  bodies,  and 
broad  noses.  It  is  called  Iberian  by  English 
ethnologists,  Ligurian  by  the  Italians,  Ibero-In- 
sular  or  Atlanto-Mediterranean  by  Deniker,  and 
Ibero-Pictish  by  Rhys. 

There  are  four  subraces  of  the  Mediterranean 
race.  In  the  southwestern  portion  of  Europe,  in- 
cluding Spain  and  Portugal,  and  moving  onward 
as  far  as  Iceland  and  Scotland,  were  the  Iberians 
(q.v.),  who  left  their  name  on  the  Iberian  penin- 
sula. In  the  middle  projection  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean were  the  Ligurian  subrace,  whose  terri- 
tory stretched  westward  into  Southern  France. 
The  eastern  peninsula  and  the  isles  of  Greece 
were  the  home  of  the  Pelasgians  (q.v.),  who 
moved  northwestward  through  ancient  Illyricum 
into  Italy  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  one 
race  with  the  Hittites  (q.v.)  of  Asia  Minor.  The 
Northeastern  and  North  African  subrace  may  be 
called  in  general  terms  Hamite  (q.v.),  to  which 
belonged  among  others  the  Egyptians  and 
Libyans.  Consult  Sergi,  The  kediterranean 
R<ice  (London,  1901),  with  references  to  his 
numerous  writings  and  the  best  authorities. 

MEDITEBBAKEAN  SEA.  A  great  inland 
sea  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  almost  entire- 
ly inclosed  by  the  continents  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  and  communicating  with  the  Black 
Sea  by  the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and 


the  Bosporus  (Map:  Europe,  D  5).  It  extendu 
from  longitude  6°  21'  W.  to  36°  10'  E.,  a  distance 
of  2320  miles.  Its  breadth  differs  widely  in  differ- 
ent parts,  the  maximum  breadth  being  1080 
miles.  It  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar.  The  southern  or  African 
coast  is  comparatively  smooth  and  unindented. 
The  northern  or  European  coast,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  extremely  broken,  with  several  long 
peninsulas,  deep  bays  and  gulfs,  and  many  isl- 
ands. It  abounds  in  good  harbors,  which  early 
conduced  to  extensive  commerce.  The  Balearic 
Isles,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  Sicily,  Crete,  and  CJyprus 
are  the  largest  islands.  The  Italian  peninsula, 
with  Sicily  and  the  extended  shallows  that  lie 
between  Sicily  and  Tunis,  divide  the  Mediter- 
ranean into  two  parts. 

The  depth  of  the  Mediterranean  differs  greatly 
in  different  parts,  the  maximum  depth  being 
14,400  feet  in  the  eastern  basin  south  of  the 
Morea,  and  12,200  feet  in  the  western  basin  east 
of  Sardinia.  The  depth  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
is  less  than  1000  fathoms,  while  fifty  miles 
outside  the  water  shoals  to  200  fathoms.  The 
specific  gravity  and  salinity  of  the  water  is 
slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  Atlantic,  the 
proportions  being  1.029  to  1.028.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  surface  water  in  summer  is  commonly 
a  few  degrees  higher  than  that  of  the  Atlantic  in 
the  same  latitudes,  and  the  temperature  at  depths 
is  much  higher,  as  is  often  the  case  in  partly 
inclosed  seas.  While  the  temperature  in  the 
greater  depths  of  the  Atlantic  is  very  near  the 
freezing  point,  in  the  Mediterranean  it  reaches 
only  54°  to  56°  F.  In  winter  the  surface  tem- 
peratures do  not  differ  materially.  The  tides  are 
very  slight,  at  most  places  being  only  a  few  inches 
in  height.  In  the  simimer  the  northeast  trades 
blow  over  the  Mediterranean,  while  in  the  winter, 
with  the  shifting  of  the  trades,  the  prevailing 
winds  are  westerly.  Specially  designated  winds 
are  the  Bora,  in  the  Adriatic,  and  the  Sirocco, 
blowing  over  from  the  African  desert. 

The  great  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Meditei- 
ranean  are  few  in  number,  the  principal  ones 
being  the  Ebro,  Rhone,  and  the  Po  from  Europe?, 
and  the  Nile  from  Africa.  Into  the  Black  Sea 
flows  much  more  water,  hence  there  is  a  constant 
current  from  the  Black  Sea  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean. From  the  Atlantic  flows  a  constant  sur- 
face current  into  the  Mediterranean,  due  prob- 
ably to  the  excess  of  evaporation  over  supply  in 
the  latter  body  of  water,  while  there  is  a  lower 
current  flowing  in  the  contrary  direction.  The 
chief  divisions  of  the  Mediterranean  are  known 
as  the  Levantine  Sea  (in  the  east),  the  -^gean 
Sea,  Ionian  Sea,  Adriatic  Sea,  Tyrrhenian  Sea 
(immediately  west  of  the  peninsula  of  Italy), 
and  Balearic  Sea. 

Of  the  European  sea  fishes  over  400  species 
inhabit  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  some  of  which  are 
peculiar  to  it.  It  has  a  greater  number  of 
species  than  the  British  and  Scandinavian  seas, 
but  does  not  nearly  so  much  abound  in  useful 
kinds.  The  sponge,  tunny,  and  sardine  fisheries 
are  important  on  some  parts  of  its  coasts.  It  is 
rich  in  red  coral,  which  is  procured  in  great 
quantity  on  the  coasts  of  Provence,  of  the 
Balearic  Isles,  and  of  Sicily,  but  particularly  on 
the  coasts  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli  in  Africa. 

The  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  are  in 
many  parts  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes.  Be- 
sides the  existing  active  volcanoes  of  Etna,  Vesu- 


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272 


HEDULLABY  SABCOKA. 


vius,  and  Stromboli,  there  are  many  evidences 
of  recent  volcanic  action,  and  instances  have  oc- 
curred of  islands  suddenly  upheaved  by  it,  where 
volcanic  fires  have  appeared  for  a  short  time. 
Consult:  Playfair,  "The  Mediterranean,  Physical 
and  Historical,"  in  Smithsonian  Institution  Re- 
port, 1890  (Washington,  1891);  Smyth,  The 
Mediterranean f  Memoir  Physical,  Historical,  and 
Natural  (London,  1854). 

MEDITEBBANEAN     SUBBEGION.       In 

zoogeography,  that  subdivision  of  the  Palearctic 
Kegion  which  includes  the  basin  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  and  the  south 
coast  of  Asia  as  far  as  the  Indus.  The  Canary, 
Azores,  and  Madeira  islands  are  also  included. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  line  of  moun- 
tains which  extend  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Himalayas,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, the  deserts  of  Northwestern  Africa  and  Cen- 
tral Arabia,  and  east  of  that  by  the  Indian  Ocean. 
It  is  a  region  of  subtropical  warmth,  and  except 
along  the  north  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  is 
largely  treeless,  arid,  and  elevated.  Within  re- 
cent times  the  Mediterranean  has  been  of  much 
less  extent,  enabling  animals  to  pass  freely  across 
its  basin  at  two  or  more  places ;  and  much  of  the 
country  now  barren  was  formerly  wooded.  It  is 
not  surprising  to  find,  therefore,  a  general  simi- 
larity and  great  variety  of  life  throughout  the 
entire  area.  Among  the  possible  indigenes  of  this 
subregion  were  the  horse,  camel,  and  some  other 
now  wholly  domesticated  animals.  Of  the  few 
remaining  or  recently  extinct  mammals  of  the 
larger  sort,  the  Barbary  ape,  fallow  deer,  aoudad, 
moufflon  (of  Sardinia),  and  civets  are  most  prom- 
inent. Several  gazelles  and  antelopes,  which  do 
not  range  south  of  the  Sahara,  the  Asiatic  wild 
ass.  and  many  small  animals  are  peculiar.  Most 
of  the  North  European  birds  pass  across  it  in 
their  migration  to  and  from  their  winter  homes; 
but  it  has  many  resident  species  of  its  own, 
especially  among  the  birds  of  prey  and  the  game 
birds.  See  Distribution  of  Animals  ;  and  con- 
sult the  accompanying  maps,  and  the  authorities 
there  cited. 

MEDJIBIE^  mft-jIdl-A  (Turk,  majidi,  from 
Turk.,  Ar.  majld,  glorious,  from  Ar.  majd,  glory, 
from  majada,  to  be  glorious).  A  Turkish  order 
of  distinction,  first  instituted  in  1852.  The  Order 
of  Medjidie  has  five  classes,  each  difl'ering  in  size, 
the  decoration  on  which  is  a  silver  sun  of  seven 
triple  rays,  the  crescent  and  star  alternating 
with  the  rays.  In  the  centre  of  the  decoration,  on 
a  circle  of  red  enamel,  is  the  legend  signifying 
*zeal,  honor,  and  loyalty,*  and  the  date  1268,  the 
Mohammedan  calendar  year  corresponding  to 
1852.  The  Sultan's  name  is  inscribed  on  a  gold 
field  within  this  circle.  The  first  three  classes  of 
the  order  are  worn  suspended  from  the  neck,  and 
the  fourth  and  fifth  on  the  left  breast.  A  star 
closely  resembling  the  badge  is  worn  on  the  left 
breast  by  the  wearers  of  the  first-class  order, 
and  on  the  right  breast  by  those  of  the  second 
class.  The  ribbon  is  red  with  green  borders.  See 
Plate  of  Orders. 

MEDLAB  (OF.  medler,  mesler,  meslier,  med- 
lar-tree, from  mesle,  mesple,  neple,  Fr.  ndjfle.  It. 
nespila,  medlar-fruit,  from  OHG.  mespila,  nespela, 
Ger.  Mispel,  medlar,  from  Lat.  mespilus,  Gk. 
fUffTiXov,  mespilon,  iMfftrCXri,  mespiU,  medlar; 
probably  connected  ultimately  with  Heb.  shdpH, 
to  be  low),  Mespilus.    A  genus  of  trees  or  shrubs 


of  the  natural  order  Rosacese  sometimes  combined 
with  the  genus  Pyrus  by  botanists.  The  common 
medlar  {Mespilus  or  Pyrus  germanica),  a  large 
shrub  or  small  tree,  spiny  in  k  wild  state,  but 
destitute  of  spines  in  cultivation,  is  a  native  of 
and  in  general  cultivation  in  the  south  of  Europe 
and  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  seldom  seen 
in  America.  It  has  lanceolate  leaves,  not  divided 
nor  serrated,  solitary  large  white  flowers  at  the 
ends  of  small  spurs,  and  somewhat  top-shaped 
fruit,  of  the  size  of  a  small  pear  or  larger,  ac- 
cording to  the  variety.  The  fruit  is  very  astrin- 
gent, even  when  ripe,  and  is  not  eaten  until  its 
tough  pulp  has  bcKiome  soft  and  vinous  by  in- 
cipient decay. 

MEDLEY,  Samuel  (1738-99).  Baptist  pas- 
tor in  Liverpool,  England,  from  1772,  and  favor- 
ite hymn-writer.  In  early  life  he  was  in  the 
navy,  but  was  obliged  to  retire  on  account  of 
wounds  in  1759.  He  then  taught  school,  till  in 
1767  he  became  a  preacher.  Two  of  his  hymns, 
"Oh,  could  I  speak  the  matchless  worth,"  and 
"Awake  my  soui  to  joyful  lays,"  are  well  known. 

M^DOC.     See  Wine. 

fiCEDOWS,  med'oz.  Sir  William  (1738-1813). 
An  English  soldier.  In  1756  he  entered  the  Brit- 
ish Army,  in  which  he  served  for  many  years, 
first  in  Germany,  then  in  the  war  with  the  Amer- 
ican colonies,  in  which  he  commanded  the  Fifty- 
fifth  Regiment.  He  was  soon  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  First  Brigade  of  Grenadiers  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of 
Brandywine  and  in  the  expedition  of  1778  against 
Saint  Lucia.  He  afterwards  lived  in  India  from 
1781  to  1793,  occupied  several  posts  of  responsi- 
bility there,  and  served  as  Governor  of  Madras 
from  1790  to  1792.  His  military  renown  was 
greatly  increased  by  gallant  conduct  at  the  siege 
of  Seringapatam,  and  in  1793  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general was  conferred  upon  him.  For 
some  time  after  his  return  to  England  he  was 
Governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  afterwards, 
as  the  successor  of  Cornwallis,  was  commander- 
in-chief  in  Ireland  (1801-03). 

MEDBANO^  mft-dr&^n6,  Francisco  de.  A 
Spanish  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born  at 
Seville.  It  is  knovyn  that  he  visited  Rome,  but 
no  other  details  of  his  life  are  authenticated.  He 
is  one  of  the  best  of  Spanish  lyric  poets,  and  is 
especially  noted  for  his  odes  in  the  manner  of 
Horace.  His  works  were  first  published  in  the 
Sestinas  of  Pedro  Venegas  de  Saavedra,  a  poet 
of  Seville  (1617).  They  are  reprinted  in  Riva- 
denera's  Bihlioteca  de  * autores  espaHoles,  vols. 
xxxii.,  XXXV.,  and  xlii.   (1854). 

HSJEDTTLIjA  OB'LONGATA.  See  Nervous 
System  and  Brain. 

MEIXniiliABY  BAY  (Lat.  medullaris,  per- 
taining to  marrow,  from  medulla,  marrow).  The 
radiating  vertical  plates  of  tissue  in  stems,  the 
primary  ones  extending  from  the  pith  to  the 
cortex;  also  called  *pith-rays.'  Rays  of  less  ex- 
tent are  called  'secondary.*     See  Wood. 

MEDXTLLABY  SABCCVMA.  One  of  the 
synonyms  for  that  variety  of  cancer  which  is 
also  known  as  encephaloid,  cellular  cancer,  medul- 
lary cancer,  fungus  medullaris,  etc.  It  grows 
more  quickly,  distributes  itself  more  rapidly,  and 
attains  a  more  considerable  bulk  than  any  other 
form  of  cancer,  tumors  of  this  nature  being  often 
as  large  as  a  man's  head,  or  even  larger.     Of 


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all  forms  of  cancer,  it  runs  the  quickest  course, 
soonest  ulcerates,  is  the  most  malignant,  and 
causes  death  in  by  far  the  shortest  time,  often 
destroying  life  in  a  few  weeks,  or,  at  furthest, 
in  a  few  months  after  its  first  appearance,  unless 
it  has  been  removed  by  an  operation  at  an  early 
stage. 

When  it  ulcerates,  fungoid  growths  form  upon 
the  surface;  they  are  extremely  vascular,  and 
bleed  on  the  slightest  provocation.  In  this  state, 
the  disease  has  received  the  name  of  fungus 
hcematodes.    See  Tumor. 

MEDULliA  SPINAIilS.    See  Nervous  Sys- 

TEM  AND  BraIX. 

MfjD'frMy  mA-doom'.  A  village  in  Egypt,  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Nile,  some  40  miles  south 
of  Cairo,  in  about  latitude  29°  30'  N.  Near  it, 
■on  the  edge  of  the  desert,  is  the  pyramid  of  King 
Snefru  (q.v.),  the  first  King  of  the  Fourth  Dy- 
nasty and  the  immediate  predecessor  of  King 
Cheops  (q.v.).  From  a  great  mass  of  rubbish, 
which  covers  its  base,  it  rises  in  three  stages  to 
the  height  of  about  122  feet,  the  upper  stage 
bein^  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  outer  walls 
consist  of  finely  polished  blocks  of  Mokattam 
stone,  beautifully  joined  together.  The  pyramid 
was  opened  in  1881  by  Maspero,  who  discovered 
a  long  passage  leading  from  the  north  face  into 
the  sepulchral  chamber,  which  is  built  upon  the 
surface  of  the  underlying  rock.  The  chamber 
had,  however,  been  robbed  as  early  as  the  time 
of  the  T\ventieth  Dynasty,  and  in  it  were  found 
only  some  broken  fragments  of  the  wooden  coffin 
and  a  wooden  jar.  Flinders  Petrie,  who  later 
made  a  careful  examination  of  the  pyramid, 
found  against  its  eastern  face  a  funerary  chapel 
consisting  of  an  open  court  and  two  small  cham- 
bers. Ancient  visitors  to  the  chapel  had  left 
upon  its  walls  numerous  graffiti,  in  five  of  which 
Snefru  is  mentioned  as  the  King  to  whom  the 
pyramid  was  attributed.  Petrie's  researches 
showed  that  the  present  peculiar  form  of  the 
pyramid  resulted  from  the  removal  of  its  outer 
layers  in  order  to  obtain  stone  for  building  pur- 
poses. 

Near  the  pyramid  are  the  tombs  (mastabas, 
q.v.)  of  a  number  of  high  personages  of  Snefru's 
Court.  The  most  important  of  them  are  the 
mastabas,  richly  adorned  with  mural  paintings^ 
of  Prince  R^-hotep  and  Nofret,  his  wife,  and  of 
Prince  Nofer-ma't  and  his  spouse,  Yetet.  The 
statues  of  R^-hotep  and  Nofret,  found  in  their 
tomb,  are  now  in  the  Museum  of  Cairo.  In  the 
cemetery  of  M^iim  have  been  found  a  number  of 
graves  exhibiting  a  peculiar  mode  of  burial.  The 
bodies  lie  upon  the  left  side,  with  the  face  to- 
ward the  east  and  the  knees  drawn  up;  coffins 
and  the  usual  accessories  of  Egyptian  graves  are 
absent.    Consult  Petrie,  MiMm  (London,  1892). 

MEDUSA.     See  GoRGO. 

MEDUSA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  M^5ou<ro,  Medousa, 
name  of  one  of  the  three  Gorgons,  from  fjk4Sciv^ 
medein,  to  rule).  A  general  name  applied  to  the 
disk-like,  umbrella-shaped  jelly-fish,  with  long 
marginal  feelers,  and  so  called  from  their  re- 
semblance to  the  fabled  Medusa's  head.  (See 
Plate. )  While  the  term  medusa  is  now  generally 
applied  to  the  sexual  free-swimming  adult  stage 
of  any  hydroid,  it  is  particularly  applicable  to 
our  common  North  Atlantic  Aurelia  flavidula  of 
the  class  Scyphozoa  (the  group  formerly  called 
Discophora ) .  .  Another  general  name  is  acaleph. 


Our  most  abundant  medusa  is  Aurelia  flavi- 
dula,  which  late  in  summer  abounds  along  the 
coast  from  New  York  northward.  It  grows  to  the 
diameter  of  from  eight  to  ten  inches,  becoming 
fully  mature  in  August.     Its  rather  tough  jelly- 


FlO.  2.  OASTRULA  OP  AN  AI7BC- 
LIA-LIKB  MEDUSA. 

a,  Primitive  mouth;  b,  ^as- 
tro-vaecular  cavity;  c,  ecto- 
derm; d,  endoderm;  e,  meso- 
derm layer. 


FlO.   1.   AUBELIA  FLAVIDDLA. 

Adult,  natural  size,  seen  from  above. 

like  disk  is  moderately  convex  and  evenly  curved, 
while  four  thick  oral  lobes  depend  from  between 
the  four  large  genital  pouches;  the  edge  of  the 
disk  is  minutely  fringed  to  the  ends  of  the  ten- 
tacles. On  the  fringed  margin  are  eight  eyes, 
each  covered  by  a 
lobule  and  situated  on 
a  peduncle,  and  occu- 
pying as  many  slight 
indentations,  dividing 
the  disk  into  eight 
slightly  marked  lobes. 
The  subdivisions  of 
the  water-vascular  ca- 
nals or  tubes  are  very 
numerous  and  anasto- 
mose at  the  margin  of 
the  disk,  one  of  them 
being  in  direct  com- 
mimication  with  each 
eye-peduncle.  When  in 
motion  the  disk  contracts  and  expands  rhythmic- 
ally, on  the  average  twelve  or  fifteen  times  a 
minute.  On  the  approach  of  danger  the  animal 
sinks  below  the  surface.  Though  it  has  lasso- 
cells,  it  is  not  poisonous  to  bathers,  while  the 
great  Cyanea  arctica  is  very  much  so. 

The  Au  rel  ia 
spawns  in  late 
summer,  the  fe- 
males being  distin- 
guishable by  their 
yellow  ovaries,  the 
corresponding  male 
gland  being  rose- 
ate, while  the  ten- 
tacles of  the  female 
are  shorter  and 
thicker  than  in  the 
males.  Tlie  eggs 
pass  out  of  the  mouth  into  the  sea  along  the 
channeled  arms,  and  in  October  the  ciliated 
gastrula  (Fig.  2)  becomes  pear-shaped  and  at- 
tached to  rocks,  dead  shells,  or  seaweeds,  and 
then  assumes  a  hydra-shaped  Scyphistoma  stage 
(Fig.  3),  with  often  twenty-four  very  long  tenta- 


FiG.  3.   8CTPHIBTOMA  OF  AureH» 

^AViduIa,  AT  DIFFERENT  AOBl. 

Magnified.    (After  Agasaic.  | 


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274 


MEEHAN. 


FlO.    4.    STBOBILA    OP   AU' 

relia  ffavldula. 


cles;  in  this  stage  it  remains  about  eighteen 
months.  Toward  the  end  of  this  period  the  body 
increases  in  size  and  divides  into  a  series  of  cup- 
shaped  disks.  These  saucer-like  disks  are  scal- 
loped on  the  upturned  edge,  tentacles  lead  out, 
and  the  animal  assumes 
the  Strobila  stage  (Fig. 
4).  Finally  the  dis^ 
separate,  the  upper  one 
becomes  detached  and 
witli  the  other  disks 
swims  away  in  the 
Ephyra  form  (Fig.  6). 
When  about  a  fifth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and 
toward  the  middle  or  end 
of  the  summer,  this  young 
medusa  becomes  an  adult 
Aurelia. 

Other  forms  of  greater 
beauty  occur  in  the  Medi- 
terranes^n  and  the  tropics. 
A  much  larger  kind  of  medusa  than  Aurelia, 
Cyanea  arctica,  is  common  on  the  Grand  Banks 
and  off  the  coast  of  Northern  New  England.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  diam- 
eter across  the  disk  of  from 
three  to  even  five  feet, 
though  it  is  produced  from 
a  Scyphistoma  not  more 
than  half  an  inch  in  height. 
Its  tentacles  stream  behind, 
sometimes  to  the  length  of 
several  fathoms,  and  poison 
the  hands  of  fishermen.  Spe- 
Fio.  6.  BPBTRA  OR  BAR-   cics  of  Pclagia  do  not  un- 

ol"^!J?i5fJ'*'''?7?+^;  dergo  an  alteration  of  gen- 
OP  Aurelia.      (After         ?.  /  t>  ^ 

Agassis.)  erations      (see     Pabtheno- 

GENESis),  but  grow  directly 

from  the  eggy  without  passing  through  a  Strobila 

stage. 

For  various  Mediterranean  and  tropical  forms, 
see  Colored  Plate  of  MEDUSiE  and  Siphonophobe. 

MedusflB  shelter  various  kinds  of  animals,  which 
live  as  fellow-boarders  or  commensals,  viz.  tem- 
porary non-attached  parasites.  Some  of  them 
live  in  or  under  the  mouth-cavity  or  between  the 
four  tentacles  of  the  larger  medusae.  Such  is  the 
little  amphipod  crustacean,  Ilyperia,  which  lives 
within  the  mouth,  while  small  fishes,  such  as  the 
butterfish,  swim  under  the  umbrella  of  the  larger 
jelly-fishes,  Cyanea,  etc.,  for  shelter  and  protec- 
tion. Besides  small  animals  of  various  classes, 
the  larger  jelly-fishes  kill  by  means  of  their  net- 
tling organs  small  cuttle-fishes  and  true  fishes, 
the  animals  being  paralyzed  by  the  pricks  of 
the  minute  barbed  darts.  See  C(elentebata  ; 
Ctenophoba  ;  Nematocyst. 

Fossil  Medusa.  Because  of  the  jelly-like 
nature  of  the  body  and  the  absence  of  any  hard 
parts  in  medusae,  these  animals  would  seem  to 
present  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  for  fos- 
silization.  Indeed,  they  are  rarely  found  in  the 
ancient  rocks,  but  there  are  some  noteworthy  ex- 
ceptions, especially  in  the  Cambrian  and  Jurassic 
formations.  Impressions  and  also  what  have  been 
considered  to  be  casts  of  the  medusoid  bodies 
have  been  found  in  rocks  of  the  Lower  Cambrian 
in  both  Sweden  and  North  America.  The  peculiar 
fossil  called  Dactyloidites  found  in  the  green 
roofing  slates  of  Granville.  Washington  County, 
N.  Y.,  is  generally  regarded  as  of  this  nature. 
Fine  impressions  of  jelly-fish  are  found  in  the 


surfaces  of  the  fine-grained  lithographic  lime- 
stones of  Jurassic  age  at  Solenhofen  and  other 
places  in  Bavaria. 

Consult;  Agassiz,  L.,  Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States,  vols,  iii., 
iv.  (Boston,  1862-66)  ;  Agassiz,  A.,  North  Amer- 
ican Acalephs  (Cambridge,  1865)  ;  Haeckel,  Sys- 
tem der  Medusen  (Jena,  1880-81);  id.,  "Report 
on  Medusae,"  in  Challenger  Reports,  vol.  iv.  ( Lon- 
don, 1881);  id.,  "Ueber  fossile  Medusen,"  in 
Zeitschrift  fur  wissenschaftliche  Zoologie,  vols. 
XV.  and  xix.  (Leipzig,  1865-70)  ;  Von  Ammon, 
"Ueber  jurassische  Medusen,"  in  Ahhandlungen 
der  Koniglich  haierischen  Akademie  der  Wis- 
sensohaften,  vol.  xvii.  (Munich,  1883)  ;  Walcott, 
"Fossil  Medusae,"  in  Monographs  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  vol.  xxx.  (Washington, 
1898 ) .    See  Htdboio  ;  Hydbozoa. 

MEDUSA  BONDANINI,  rftn'dA-ng'n*.  A 
noted  marble,  formerly  in  the  Rondanini  Palace 
in  Rome,  acquired  in  1808  by  the  Crown  Prince 
of  Bavaria,  and  now  preserved  in  the  Glyptothek 
at  Munich.  It  is  of  the  later  type  which  repre- 
sents the  Gorgon  not  with  convulsed  features,  but 
with  a  fixed  and  calm  expression. 

Ml^BUSE,  m&'dviz'.  La  (Fr.,  the  Medusa). 
A  French  vessel  sent  by  th^  Government  to  resume 
possession  of  the  colony  of  Senegal,  which  had 
been  restored  by  the  treaties  of  1816.  She  w^as 
wrecked  near  the  African  coast  on  July  2,  1816, 
and  149  persons  took  refuge  on  a  hastily  con- 
structed raft.  After  twelve  days  of  horrible 
suffering,  during  which  the  castaways  were  re- 
duced to  eating  their  companions,  the  fifteen 
survivors  were  rescued  by  the  brig  Argus.  The 
disaster  forms  the  subject  of  a  famous  painting 
by  GC^ricault,  in  the  Louvre,  exhibited  in  the 
Salon  of  1819.  The  picture  represents  the  raft 
just  as  the  brig  appears  on  the  horizon,  and  is 
notable  for  its  intense  realism. 

VCEJyWlN,  Thomas  (1788-1869).  The  biog- 
rapher of  the  poet  Shelley,  bom  at  Horsham,  in 
Sussex,  England,  March  20,  1788.  His  mother, 
Mary,  a  daughter  of  John  Pilfold,  was  first 
cousin  to  Elizabeth  Pilfold,  the  mother  of  Shelley. 
Aledwin  and  Shelley  were  educated  at  Sion  House 
School,  Brentford,  and  they  spent  their  vacations 
together  at  Horsham.  Medwin  entered  the  army, 
and  became  a  lieutenant  in  1813.  With  his  regi- 
ment he  passed  some  time  in  India.  In  1819  he 
retired  on  half  pay  and  soon  auitted  the  service. 
In  1821  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  associated 
intimately  with  Shelley  and  Lord  Byron.  He 
afterwards  led  an  unsettled  life.  He  died  at 
Horsham,  August  2,  1869.  His  Journal  of  the 
Conversations  of  Lord  Byron  (1824)  created  a 
sensation  owing  to  its  personalities.  A  Memoir 
of  Shelley  (1833)  was  afterwards  expanded  into 
The  Life  of  Shelley   (2  vols.,  1847). 

MEEHAN,  me^an,  Thomas  (1826-1901).  An 
American  botanist  and  horticulturist,  bom  at 
Potter's  Bar,  near  London.  In  1847  he  came  to 
America  to  manage  Buist's  nursery  at  Rosedale, 
near  Philadelphia,  and  six  years  later  started 
his  own  nurseries  at  Germantown.  Meehan  was 
prominent  in  Philadelphia,  as  a  member  of  the 
council  and  *father  of  the  small  parks.'  As  a 
vegetable  biologist  he  obtained  great  fame,  espe- 
cially by  his  theory  that  sex  is  determined  by  the 
vitality  of  the  branch  bearing  the  flower.  A 
member  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  and  of  the  American  Association  for  the 


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jULiuaaitN  a  CO  uth  « 


OESMOMEMA  ANNASCTHE,iV&  NATURAL  SIZE, FROM  SOUTH  AMERICA    .  .  I  00CT|(^ 

FLOSCULA   PROM  ETHA.Va  NATURALSIZE, FROM     INDIAN    OCEAN  igitlZeO  Dy  V^H  vJ  W  V  I V^ 


CMRYSAORA    MEDITERRANEA,  •/«   NATURAL  SIZE, FROM   SMYRNA 
CYSTALIA    MONOGASTRICA, MAGNIFIED   FOUR  TIMES. FROM   CEYLON 


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275 


MEGALIGHTHY& 


AdTancement  of  Science,  he  contributed  to  their 
Proceedings;  edited  the  Oardenera*  Monthly 
from  1859  to  1889,  and  Meehan'a  Monthly  from 
1892  to  1901.  He  wrote  a  Handbook  of  Orna- 
mental Trees  (1863),  and  The  Flowers  and  Ferns 
of  the  United  States  (first  series,  1878;  second, 
1880;  third,  1887). 

MTSETC,  Alexander  Beaufobt  (181465).  An 
American  journalist  and  jurist.  He  was  born  in 
Colimibia,  S.  C,  was  a  ^aduate  of  the  University 
of  Alabama,  and,  having  studied  law,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  State  bar  in  1835.  He  served  as 
a  lieutenant  of  volunteers  asainst  the  Seminoles 
in  1836,  and  was  afterwards  Attorney -General 
of  the  State.  He  was  made  county  judge  in 
1842.  In  1853  and  1859  he  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature.  There  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  organizing  and  establishing  the  free-school 
system  in  Alabama.  From  1848  to  1852  he  was 
associate  editor  of  the  Mobile  Register,  He  wrote 
and  published  several  volumes  of  poems  and 
sketches,  besides  compiling  a  history  of  Ala- 
bama. 

MEEK,  Fielding  Bradfobd  (1817-76).  An 
American  geologist  and  paleontologist,  bom  at 
Madison,  Iowa.  In  1848  he  assisted  in  the  geolog- 
ical survey  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota, 
and  after  completing  this  work  was  attached  to 
the  New  York  State  Geological  Survey  under  the 
leadership  of  James  Hall.  He  accompanied  F.  V. 
Hayden  in  1853  on  a  geological  expedition  to 
Dakota.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
was  engaged  in  describing  the  fossil  invertebrates 
collected  by  Government  expeditions.  His  larger 
works  are:  Paleontology  of  the  Upper  Missouri 
( 1865)  ;  Check-List  of  the  Invertebrate  Fossils  of 
iforth  America  (1864)  ;  and  Report  on  the  In- 
vertebrate Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  Fossils  of  the 
Upper  Missouri  Country  (1876). 

MEEKS.  Eugene  (1843—).  An  American 
genre  and  historical  painter,  bom  in  New  York 
City.  He  studied  there  under  Wust,  at  The 
Hague,  and  in  Antwerp  under  Van  Lerius,  De 
Keyser,  and  Bource.  Afterwards  he  settled  in 
Florence,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Florence  Academy  in  1883  with  the  title  of  pro- 
fessor. His  works  include:  "Little  Nell  and 
Her  Grandfather"  (1876)  ;  "Bridal  Chamber  in 
Palazzo  Manzi- Lucca;"  "Gondola  Party — Ven- 
ice;" and  "Fishing  Boats — Venice." 

MEEBAHEy  m&rll^ne.  A  flourishing  indus- 
trial town  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  situated 
27  miles  by  rail  west  of  Chemnitz  (Map:  Ger- 
many, E  3).  It  is  an  important  centre  of  the 
textile  industry,  and  has  a  number  of  manu- 
factories of  woolen  and  semi-woolen  materials, 
spinning  and  dyeing  establishments,  machine  and 
boiler  works,  and  manufactures  of  footwear.  Its 
chief  educational  establishments  are  a  realschule, 
a  school  of  .commerce,  and  a  textile  school.    The 

froducts  of  Meerane  are  extensively  exported  to 
oreign  countries.     Population,  in  1900,  23,797; 
in  1905,  25,011,  chiefly  Protestants. 

MEEB/KAT,  or  SU'BICATE  (Dutch,  sea- 
cat).  A  small,  furry,  diurnal,  vegetable-eating 
and  burrowing  civet  {Suricata  tetradactyla)  of 
South  Africa,  allied  to  the  mongooses.  It  is 
gregarious,  and  a  colony  makes  burrows  close  to- 
gether, like  a  prairie-dog  'town.'  In  captivity 
it  becomes  an  amusing  and  delightful  pet. 

MEEBSCHATTM,  m^r'shftm  (Ger., sea-foam), 
or  Sepiolite.     A  compact,  earthy  mineral  hy- 


drated  magnesium  silicate.  It  is  grayish  whitfr 
or  white  with  a  faint  yellowish  or  reddish  tint. 
It  occurs  in  stratified  earthy  or  alluvial  de- 
posits on  the  plains  of  Eski-Shehr  and  elsewhere 
m  Asia  Minor;  also  in  Greece,  at  Hrubschitz  in 
Moravia,  and  in  Morocco.  The  deposits  in  Asia 
Minor  are  worked  by  pits  and  galleries  at  a 
depth  of  24  to  30  feet.  The  mineral,  when 
brought  to  the  surface,  is  so  soft  as  to  be  easily 
cut  with  a  knife.  It  is  scraped  to  remove  any 
adhering  material,  dried  in  the  sun  for  about  a 
week,  then  again  scraped  and  polished  with  wax. 
Meerschaum  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of 
bowls  for  tobacco  pipes,  and  factories  for  their 
production  exist  in  Austria  and  in  France. 

MEEBUT,  or  MIBAT,  mg'rtit.  The  capital 
of  the  district  and  division  of  Meerut,  Agra,  India, 
39  miles  northeast  of  Delhi,  on  the  Northwestern 
Railway  (Map:  India,  C  3).  The  city  is  irregu- 
larly laid  out  with  narrow,  unclean  streets ;  there 
are  several  mosques  and  temples,  of  which  the 
Jumma  Musjid,  dating  from  1019,  is  the  most 
noteworthy.  The  military  cantonment  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  important  in  India.  The 
first  uprising  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  of  1857  oc- 
curred here.  Population,  in  1891,  119,390;  in 
1901,  118,642. 

MEESy  Abthub  (1850—).  An  American 
musical  conductor,  born  in  Columbus,  Ohio.  He 
was  graduated  from  Concordia  College,  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  and  after  a  course  of  thorough 
preparation  under  native  instructors,  he  studied 
from  1873  to  1876  at  Berlin  under  Kullak,  Weitz- 
mann,  and  Dorn  ( the  latter  for  score-reading  and 
conducting).  He  was  conductor  of  the  Cincin- 
nati May  Festival  Chorus,  assistant  conductor  of 
the  Chicago  Orchestra,  and  then  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  New  York  and  became  the  conductor 
of  important  choral  organizations.  In  1898  he 
was  elected,  on  the  resignation  of  MacDowell,  to 
the  conductorship  of  the  Mendelssohn  Glee  Club. 
He  published  in  1901  Choirs  and  Choral  Music, 
which  has  been  accepted  as  a  standard  authority.. 
A  book  of  piano  studies  has  also  obtained  general 
recognition. 

MEG'ABABaE  (from  Gk.  /Uyas,  megas^ 
great  -f  /SapiJt,  barys,  heavy).  The  practical 
unit  of  pressure  in  the  C.  G.  S.  system ;  it  equals 
one  barie  X  10*.    See  Bakie. 

MECKADAC^YLUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
fi^at,  megaSf  great  -f  WicruXot,  daktylos,  finger) . 
A  Triassic  dinosaur.    See  Anchisaurus. 

HEOJE^BA.    One  of  the  Eumenides. 

MEGKALE^IA^  or  MEGPALEN^IA  (Lat., 
from  Gk.  MeyoXVia,  from  MryaXiJ,  MegaUy  epi- 
thet of  the  Great  Mother,  fem.  sg.  of  ^^ot, 
megas,  great).  A  festival  at  Rome,  instituted 
in  honor  of  Cybele  in  B.C.  204,  when  her  symbol 
was  brought  to  Rome.  The  celebration  included  a 
stately  procession  of  the  eunuch  priests  of  Cybele 
through  the  city  carrying  the  sacred  ensign, 
games  held  on  the  Palatine  and  in  later  times  in 
the  theatres,  and  a  great  carnival.  The  festival 
lasted,  for  seven  days,  April  4th  to  lOth,  and 
were  originally  under  the  charge  of  the  curule 
sedile,  later  of  the  praetor. 

MEGKALICH^THTS.  A  genus  of  fossil  ganoid 
fishes,  characterized  by  their  great  size  and  for- 
midable appearance.  The  body  was  covered  by 
huge  bony  plates,  and  the  teeth  attained  a  length 
of  four  inches  or  more.    The  remains  of  Mega- 


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MEGALOKYX. 


lichthjs  are  found  in  the  Carboniferous  rocks  of 
Europe. 

MEGALITHIG  MONUMENTS  (from  Gk. 
fi^oj,  megas,  great  +  XWoy,  lithos,  stone). 
Gigantic  monuments,  the  materials  of  which  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  industrial  development  were 
huge  imdressed  stones,  and  also  associated  with 
tumuli.  Megalithic  monuments  are  found  in 
both  hemispheres,  and  in  the  progress  of  culture 
they  marked  the  crude  beginnings  of  larger  cooper- 
ative eflfort  as  well  as  of  engineering  and  of  mas- 
sive architecture.  The  most  instructive  limit  as 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  stones  were  set  on 
end  is  furnished  by  one  of  the  Northern  tribes  of 
Hindustan  visited  by  Wurmbrand.  These  people 
are  in  a  region  where  megalithic  monuments  have 
had  a  long  history.  A  slab  weighing  several  tons 
rests  on  a  number  of  stout  poles  laid  parallel  and 
just  far  enough  apart  to  allow  men  to  walk 
between  them.  The  ends  of  these  poles  are  lashed 
to  end  bars  and  a  firm  gridiron  frame  is  made 
beneath  the  slab.  The  whole  mass  is  then  lifted 
by  as  many  men  as  can  get  into  the  framework, 
and  carried  to  the  proper  place,  one  man  beating 
time  for  their  steps.  The  point  of  destination 
reached,  the  framework  is  laid  flat,  the  hole  dug, 
and  the  gridiron  set  upright  by  lifting  with 
the  hands  aided  by  shear  poles,  sliding  props, 
guy  ropes,  and  all  other  labor-saving  devices 
known  to  them.  As  the  angle  between  the  grid- 
iron and  the  earth  increases,  the  labor  of  erection 
decreases,  until  the  slab  is  let  down  carefully  into 
its  resting  place. 

Megalithic  monuments  really  belong  to  two 
classes,  monolithic  and  polylithic.  The  former 
is  a  simple  great  slab  or  boulder  stood  on  end; 
the  latter  consists  of  several  blocks  put  together 
to  form  a  chamber.  The  differences  between  the 
two  classes  is  not  great,  and  there  are  mixed  ex- 
amples where  both  exist  side  by  side. 

Monoliths  receive  different  names  in  the  coun- 
tries where  they  are  found,  and  often  the  same 
name  applies  to  quite  different  things  in  different 
countries.  They  receive  names  also  from  the 
manner  of  grouping.  The  single  great  stone, 
weighing  perhaps  himdreds  of  tons,  set  on  end, 
is  a  menhir;  if  a  number  of  these  stand  in  rows, 
they  become  an  avenue  or  an  alignment;  and  a 
stone  circle  is  a  number  of  menhirs  arranged 
about  a  centre.  The  final  development  of  this 
simple  beginning  is  seen  in  the  Egyptian  obelisk, 
in  the  memorial  column  or  shaft,  or  in  the 
gigantic  statue.  The  enormous  size  of  many  of 
the  rude  monoliths  is  a  matter  of  surprise.  The 
largest  one,  in  Brittany,  at  Lochmariaquer, 
weighs  347  tons.  Thousands  have  been  counted 
in  Brittany  and  other  portions  of  France.  See 
Plate  of  Megalithic  Monuments. 

The  polylithic  monument  also  receives  different 
names  from  its  associations.  If  a  number  of 
stones  are  built  into  a  memorial  pile,  or  over  the 
dead,  it  is  a  *caim ;'  a  tumulus  containing  a  dead 
person  is  in  Ireland  a  *galgal ;'  and  if  a  passage- 
way be  formed  on  one  side  allowing  re^ntrance 
to  a  vault,  it  becomes  a  chambered  *barrow;'  a 
fltone  box  in  a  barrow  to  hold  cinerary  urns  and 
relics  is  a  'cistvaen/  The  typical  composite  mon- 
ument of  great  stones  belonging  to  this  class  is 
the  dolmen  (locally  termed  *quoit*),  a  slab  of 
stone  laid  on  the  top  of  two  or  more  upright 
«labs,  forming  a  burial  chamber  from  which  the 
«arth  has  been  removed  by  the  elements.     The 


word  'cromlech'  was  at  one  time  used  to  denote  a 
dolmen,  as  it  was  originally  covered  with  a 
tumulus  and  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  standing 
stones.  The  term  is  out  of  use  now  in  England, 
but  the  French  apply  it  to  one  of  the  former  ele- 
ments of  the  complete  dolmen,  the  stone  circle. 
The  essential  part  of  all  is  the  stone  box  or 
capsule,  whether  under  ground,  above  ground,  or 
covered  with  a  tumulus. 

The  areas  of  greatest  abundance  of  megalithic 
monuments,  begmning  in  Asia,  are  to  be  found  in 
Burma,  Assam,  and  the  Deccan;  the  Persian  up- 
lands; Asia  Minor,  the  Crimea,  Syria,  Palestine, 
and  Arabia;  across  Northern  Africa  to  the  At- 
lantic, and  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Western  France,  and 
Belgium;  in  the  British  Isles  and  Scandinavia. 
Examples  of  huge  monuments  are  found  in 
Northeastern  Asia  also,  and  around  the  Pacific 
from  New  Zealand  to  Peru  and  Easter  Islands^ 
the  great  wooden  totem  posts  of  the  North 
Pacific  containing  frequently  the  same  motive. 

Stonehenge,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  near  Ames- 
bury,  county  of  Wilts,  Southern  England,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  among  the  megalithic 
monuments  of  the  world,  since  it  not  only  is 
composed  of  immense  pieces,  but  combines  in 
itself  a  number  of  types.  In  the  centre  lies  a 
Sfreat  slab,  15  feet  in  length.  Just  outside  of 
this  are  two  oval  rings,  the  larger  one  made  up 
of  five  pairs  of  trilithons,  which  increase  in  height 
toward  the  west.  The  smaller  oval,  containing 
nineteen  monoliths,  is  tapering  in  form;  outside 
these  ovals  and  inclosing  them  is  a  circle  of 
standing  stones,  not  massive  in  size;  outside  of 
all  is  the  most  interesting  feature  of  Stonehenge, 
a  circle  300  feet  in  circumference,  made  up  of 
immense  standing  stones,  varying  in  height  from 
18  to  22  feet,  some  of  them  six  feet  in  diameter. 
On  the  top  of  them  are  blocks  of  similar  size 
joining  them  and  forming  a  series  of  doorways 
or  trilithons.  On  the  outside  of  this  circle  is  a 
ditch  and  avenue,  in  which  is  a  cromlech,  called 
the  Triar's  Heel.' 

Not  the  least  interesting  feature  about  these 
remains  is  the  veneration  and  folk-lore  that  has 
gathered  around  them.  No  doubt  the  belief  that 
the  ghosts  of  the  dead  hover  about  them  aided  in 
the  preservation  of  many  of  them.  Their  author- 
ship has  puzzled  the  antiquaries  as  well  as  the 
folk,  by  whom  they  were  attributed  to  the 
Druids,  the  Celts,  and  other  historic  peoples. 

Consult:  Meadows-Taylor,  "Descriptions  of 
Cairns,  Cromlechs,  and  Kistvaens,"  in  Transac- 
tions of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  (1862-65)  ; 
Betrand,  "De  la  distribution  des  dolmens  sur 
la  surface  de  la  France,"  in  Revue  Archeo- 
logique,  vol.  x.  (Paris,  1864)  ;  Clarke,  "Stone 
Monuments  of  the  Khasi  Hills,"  in  Journal  of 
the  Anthropological  Institute,  iii.  (London, 
1873)  ;  Broca,  "Les  peuples  blonds  et  les  monu- 
ments m^galithiques."  in  Revue  d* Anthropologic , 
v.  (Paris,  1876)  ;  Bertholon,  "Notice  sur  Indus- 
trie megalithique  en  Tunisie,"  in  Bulletin  de  la 
8ociM6  d* Anthropologic  (Lyons,  1888)  ;  Faid- 
herbe,  "Dolmens  d'Afrique,"  in  Bulletin  de  la 
SociH6  d^Anthropologie  de  Paris,  Ixix.,  Ixx. 
(Paris). 

MEO'ALON^X  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  pi^yas, 
megas f  great  -f  (Jw^,  onyx,  claw).  An  extinct 
edentate  mammal,  allied  to  Megatherium,  found 
in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee.   See  Megatherium. 


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MEGAUTHIC   MONUMENTS 


1.      MERCHANT'S  TABLE"  NEAR  AURAY 


2.      LINES  OF  MENEC, 


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MEGALOPOLI& 


277 


HEGABA. 


HEG'ALOP^OLIS  (Lat.,  from  Ok.  MryaX^iroXif , 
Great  City).  A  town  in  Southwestern  Arcadia^ 
founded  in  B.c.  370,  by  Epaminondas,  who  desired 
to  make  it  the  capital  of  an  Arcadian  con- 
federacy. The  city  was  laid  out  on  a  very  large 
scale,  but  it  by  no  means  fulfilled  expectations. 
It  maintained  its  independence  against  frequent 
Spartan  attacks  until  B.G.  222,  when  it  was  sacked 
by  Cleomenes  III.  Though  rebuilt,  it  never 
seems  to  have  regained  its  importance.  It  was 
the  native  town  of  Philopcemen,  the  great  general 
of  the  Achsean  League,  and  also  of  the  historian 
Polybius.  The  city  was  situated  in  a  fertile 
plain  on  both  banks  of  the  river  Helisson,  near 
its  junction  with  the  Alpheus,  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  about  five  and  one-half  miles 
in  length.  Excavations  which  were  conducted 
on  the  site  bv  the  British  School  at  Athens  from 
1890  to  1893  laid  bare  the  theatre  and  the 
Thersileion,  or  great  hall  where  the  Arcadian 
Assembly  met,  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  river 
the  temple  of  Zeus  Soter,  a  long  colonnade,  and 
foundations  of  other  buildings  adjoining  the 
market-place.  Consult  Excavations  at  Megalop- 
olis (London,  1892). 

MEGPAIiOSAU^US  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
fi^a;,  megaSy  great  -f-  eavpoif  sauros,  lizard).  A 
carnivorous  dinosaur  allied  to  Ceratosaurus 
(q.v.),  found  in  the  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  de- 
posits of  Europe  and  India.  The  North  Ameri- 
can genus  Lselaps  of  Cope  from  the  Cretaceous 
formations  is  probably  identical.  The  animal 
was  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  long  with  a 
medium  sized  head,  the  jaws  of  which  were  pro- 
vided with  formidable  teeth.  The  skeleton  is 
light  and  the  bones  are  partly  hollow.  The  fore 
limbs  are  five-toed  and  small,  and  were  probably 
of  little  use  in  locomotion.  The  hind  limbs,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  large  and  strong,  and  ter- 
minate in  three  toes  armed  by  heavy  claws.  The 
tail  was  long  and  heavy.     See  Cebatosaubus  ; 

DiNOSAUBIA. 

MEGANEUBA,  m6g'ft-na'r&  (Neo-Lat.,  from 
Gk.  fiiyaSy  megas,  great  +  vevpd^  neura,  sinew). 
A  fossil  dragonfly  found  in  the  coal  measure  beds 
of  Commentry,  France.  It  was  perhaps  the 
largest  insect  ever  known,  with  a  body  about 
fifteen  inches  long  and  wings  that  had  a  spread 
of  about  twenty-seven  inches.  It  is  beautifully 
illustrated  and  described  by  Brongniart,  in  Re- 
cherches  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  des  insectes 
fossiles  des  temps  primaires  (2  vols.,  Saint 
Etienne,  1893). 

MEGAPHONE  (from  Gk.  ^ot,  megas,  great 
+  ifxav^,  phonS,  voice,  sound).  A  form  of  speak- 
ing-trumpet used  to  render  the  voice  audible  at 
considerable  distances.  It  consists  of  a  large 
funnel  of  tin  or  papier-mach^,  in  which  the  soimd- 
waves  are  so  reflected  that  they  issue  from  its 
mouth  in  approximately  parallel  directions.  The- 
oretically a  megaphone  of  parabolic  section  would 
act  as  the  best  form  of  megaphone,  especially 
if  the  resonance  of  the  cavity  did  not  affect 
the  propagation  of  sound  by  strengthening  cer- 
tain sounds  and  destroying  others  by  interference. 
(See  Acoustics.)  The  size  and  shape  of  the 
megaphone,  however,  are  so  regulated  that  the 
usual  tones  of  the  voice  undergo  the  largest  pos- 
sible amount  of  strengthening.  For  this  reason 
a  megaphone  to  be  used  with  the  best  effect  by  a 
woman  would  be  different  in  size  from  that  suited 
to  the  deeper  notes  of  a  man's  voice.    The  mega- 


phone has  succeeded  the  old  speaking-trumpet  for 
use  at  sea,  and  is  generally  employed  by  naval 
officers  and  mariners  for  communicating  with  the 
shore  or  with  a  distant  vessel. 

MEGAPODE.     See  Mound  Bibd. 

MEG'APOLEN^IS  (Latinized  form  of  Van 
Mekelenhurg) ,  Johannes  (1603-70).  The  first 
Protestant  missionary  to  the  North  American  In- 
dians. The  first  Patroon,  Van  Rensselaer,  brought 
him  to  this  country  from  Holland  in  1642,  so  that 
he  might  be  a  missionary  to  the  Indians  on  the 
frontier,  near  Albany,  and  in  this  capacity  he 
antedated  John  Eliot  by  several  years.  He 
learned  to  preach  in  the  Mohawk  language  and 
made  converts  among  them.  He  also  befriended 
the  heroic  Jesuit  Fathers,  Jogues,  Bressani,  and 
Poncet.  From  1649  till  his  death,  January  24, 
1670,  he  was  pastor  in  New  Amsterdam,  and  it 
was  he  who  urged  Peter  Stuyvesant  to  surrender 
without  bloodshed  in  1664.  His  Dutch  account 
of  the  Mohawk  Indians  is  translated  in  the  New 
York  Historical  Society's  Collections,  vol.  iii. 
(New  York,  1870). 

HEG^ABA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Miyapa).  The 
capital  of  Megaris  (q.v.),  on  the  Isthmus  be- 
tween the  Peloponnesus  and  Northern  Greece.  It 
was  built  at  the  base  of  two  hills,  Caria  and 
Alcathous,  each  defended  by  a  citadel.  Two 
walls,  built  by  the  Athenians  during  their 
protectorate  over  Megara,  between  B.C.  461  and 
445,  connected  the  city  with  its  harbor,  Nissea. 
In  the  time  of  Pausanias  the  city  contained 
many  temples  and  public  buildings,  but  of  these 
only  very  scanty  traces  are  now  visible,  of 
which  the  most  interesting  are  perhaps  the 
remains  of  the  aqueduct  and  fountain  built  by 
the  Tyrant  Theagenes.  The  origin  of  Megara  is 
lost  in  legend,  but  as  early  as  the  eighth  century 
B.C.  it  was  a  flourishing  commercial  city,  and  sent 
out  many  colonies,  of  which  the  most  famous 
were  Byzantium,  Chalcedon,  and  the  Sicilian 
Megara.  Near  the  end  of  the  seventh  century 
we  find  it  engaged  in  a  fierce  and  protracted 
struggle  with  the  Athenians  for  the  island  of 
Salamis,  of  which  it  long  retained  possession. 
The  government  had  originally  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  Dorian  landed  aristocracy,  from  whom 
it  was  usurped  about  B.C.  620  by  Theagenes, 
who  led  the  popular  faction,  and  established 
himself  as  absolute  ruler  of  the  State.  Upon 
his  expulsion,  soon  after,  a  fierce  contest  took 
place  between  the  democratic  and  the  aristo- 
cratic parties.  After  the  Persian  wars  Megara 
carried  on  hostilities  with  Corinth,  against  which 
she  formed  an  alliance  with  Athens,  B.C.  461. 
Later  the  Athenians  were  compelled  to  surrender 
their  hold  on  the  city,  and  under  a  strict 
oligarchy  it  became  a  member  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  League.  It  was  easily  open  to  the  attacks 
of  the  Athenians,  and  was  by  the  *Megarian 
decree*  of  Pericles  deprived  of  all  markets  in 
Attica.  It  was  frequently  ravaged  during  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  and  almost  captured  at  one 
time  by  the  Athenians  aided  by  the  democratic 
party  within.  After  this  war  the  city  plays 
but  a  small  part  in  history.  A  democratic  form 
of  government  was  reestablished  in  B.C.  357; 
after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  the  city 
passed  under  the  control  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
and  Ptolemy  Soter  successively.  Demetrius,  the 
son  of  Antigonus  Gonatas.  captured  and  nearly 
destroyed   it.    It  waa  afterwards   partially  re- 


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MEGASA. 


278 


HEGATHBBITTM. 


built,  and  finally  surrendered  to  the  Romans 
under  Metellus.  Alone  among  the  cities  of 
Greece,  it  was  not  restored  by  Hadrian;  Alaric 
still  further  reduced  it,  and  in  1687  the  Vene- 
tians completely  destroyed  it  Megara  was  cele- 
brated in  antiquity  as  the  seat  of  the  Megarian 
School  of  Philosophy,  founded  by  Euclid,  a  native 
of  the  city.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
prosperous  Greek  town,  bearing  the  ancient  name, 
with  a  population  of  about  6500. 

MEGABIC  SCHOOL.  A  school  of  Greek 
philosophers,  who,  as  partial  disciples  of  Socrates, 
expanded  one  side  of  their  master's  teaching. 
While  the  Cynic  and  Cyrenaic  schools  develop^ 
his  ethical  teaching,  the  Megaric  devoted  itself 
rather  to  dialectical  investigations.  Their  prin- 
cipal leader  was  Euclid  of  Megara,  who  was 
probably  one  of  the  earliest  disciples  of  Socrates. 
He  united  the  ethical  principle  of  Socrates  with 
the  Eleatic  theory  of  one  immutable  substence. 

MEG^ABIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mryap/t).  In 
ancient  geography,  a  small  district  in  Greece, 
lying  between  the  Corinthian  Gulf  on  the  north 
and  northwest  and  the  Saronic  Gulf  on  the  south- 
east. It  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  Boeotia,  on 
the  northeast  by  Attica,  and  on  the  southwest  by 
the  District  of  Corinth.  The  capital  was  Megara 
(t4  M^apa)  (q.v.). 

MEG'ASPOBAN'GIirM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
/u^af,  megas,  great  +  ffw6pos,  aporos,  seed  -f 
dyyetop,  an^reton,  vessel,  from  47701,  angos,  jar), 
or  Macbospobangium.  The  spore-case  (spo- 
rangium) which  produces  the  megaspores.  For 
example,  the  ovules  are  the  megasporangia  of 
seed-plants.  See  Hetebospory;  Sporanqium; 
Megaspore. 

MEG^ASPOBE  (from  Gk. /a^ot,  megaa,  great 
4-  <rir6po;,  aporoSy  seed).  In  the  higher  plants, 
two  kinds  of  spores  are  produced,  and  the  larger 
ones  are  called  megaspores.  In  their  germina- 
tion they  give  rise  to  the  very  small  female 
plants  (female  gametophytes).  In  seed-plants 
the  megaspore  germinates  within  the  ovule,  and 
has  been  called  the  'embryo-sac*  *Macrospore' 
is  a  synonym.     See  Heterosport  and  Spore. 

MEG'ASFOB'OPHTIiL  (from  Gk.  fx^at, 
megas,  great  -h  cirbpot^  aporoSy  seed  -f-  ^iJXXoi', 
phyllon,  leaf),  or  Macrosporophyll.  In  the 
higher  plants,  the  two  kinds  of  spores,  micro- 
spores and  megaspores,  are  usually  borne  upon 
distinct  leaf -structures  (sporophylls) ,  those  bear- 
ing the  megaspores  being  called  megasporophylls. 
The  carpel  of  flowering  plante  is  a  megasporo- 
phyll.    See  Heterospory;  Sporophyll. 

MEGAS^HENES  (Lat,  from  Gk.  MtyaffBiwrit) 
(flourished  c.300  B.C.)  A  Greek  writer  of  the 
early  Alexandrian  period.  He  was  assigned  by 
Seleucus  Nicator  (B.C.  312-280)  to  the  service 
of  the  Governor  of  Arachosia,  by  whom  he  was 
sent  on  several  diplomatic  missions  to  the  Indian 
King  Sandrocottus.  He  published  a  work  called 
Indica  Clwducd)  in  four  books,  in  which  he  dis- 
cussed the  flora  and  fauna  of  India,  as  well  as 
many  of  the  customs  of  the  Indians.  Like  Herodo- 
tus, Megasthenes  admitted  wonderful  stories  into 
his  narrative,  and  tried  to  identify  foreign  myths 
with  those  of  the  Greeks.  Recent  investigations, 
however,  have  shown  the  general  trustworthiness 
of  the  work,  which  was  the  most  valuable  account 
of  India  possessed  by  Europeans  down  to  the 
time  of  the  establishment  of  the  Bengal  Asiatic 


Society  in  1784.  Diodorus  (ii.  35-42)  gives  an  ab- 
stract of  the  contente  of  the  Indica,  and  there  are 
numerous  fragments  in  Strabo  and  Arrian  which 
have  been  collected  by  Schwanbeck,  Megasthenis. 
Indica  (Bonn,  1846),  and  by  Mailer,  Fraa,  Hist, 
QrcBC,  (Paris,  1841-70),  ii., pp.  397-439,  and  trans- 
lated by  McCrindle,  Ancient  India  as  Described, 
by  Megasthenes  and  Arrian  (Calcutta,  1877). 

MEG'ATHEKiaDJB  (Neo-Lat.,  nom.  pi., 
from  Megatherium,  from  Gk.  uiyas,  megas,  great 
+  Bjlptov,  thMon,  diminutive  of  ^p,  th^,  wild 
beast).  An  American  family  of  edentate  mam- 
mals, of  which  the  genus  Megatherium  is  the- 
type,  comprising  a  number  of  fossil  ground- 
sloths  of  gigantic  size.  It  is  intermediate  be- 
tween the  modem  anteaters  (Myrmecophagid^e) 
and  the  true  sloths  ( Bradypodidse ) ,  and  con- 
tains the  genera  Hapalops,  Hyperleptus,  and 
others  of  the  Santa  Cruz  formation  of  Miocene 
age  in  Patagonia,  and  Megatherium,  Mylodon, 
Megalonyx,  and  Scelidotherium  of  the  Pleisto- 
cene of  North  and  South  America.  See  Meg- 
atherium. 

HEG'ATHE^BIUK  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
uJyas,  megas,  great  -f  thiplop,  th&rion,  diminu- 
tive of  $^p,  tluSr,  wild  beast).  A  gigantic  fossil 
edentate  mammal,  larger  than  a  rhinoceros,, 
which  lived  in  comparatively  recent  geological 
time  in  South  America,  and  of  which  skeleton& 
are  found  in  the  pampean  deposits  (Pleistocene) 
of  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Brazil.  Its  skeleton, 
which  shows  points  of  resemblance  to  both  the 
anteaters  and  sloths,  is  of  very  massive  con- 
struction, indicating  a  most  powerful  animal, 
about  18  feet  in  length.  The  head  was  small, 
the  jaws  of  a  form  to  support  powerful  chewing 
muscles,  and  the  teeth,  of  which  there  are  only 
ten  upper  and  eight  lower  molars,  are  of  a  pris- 
matic form  and  of  such  size  as  must  have 
rendered  them  most  eflfective  grinding  organs. 
The  structure  of  the  forward  portion  of  the 
jaws  shows  the  lips  to  have  been  elongated  and 
prehensile,  and  the  grooved  inside  of  the  lower 
jaw  suggeste  a  poweHul  prehensile  tongue,  which 
served  to  pull  off  the  twigs  and  leaves  upon 
which  the  animal  fed.  The  neck  was  short  and 
strong,  the  trunk  heavy  and  round.  The  leg 
bones  are  extraordinarily  massive  and  of  peculiar 
form.  The  fore  limbs  are  longer  than  the  hind 
limbs,  and  the  form  of  their  joints  indicates 
considerable  flexibility;  they  probably  served 
somewhat  as  arms.  The  very  heavy  nind-limb 
bones  and  the  tail  bones  indicate  that  the  greater 
portion  of  the  weight  of  the  animal  was  borne 
by  these  parte,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  the  favorite  position  of  the  beast  was  that 
of  resting  upon  ite  haimches.  The  surfaces  of 
the  bones  are  provided  with  ridges  and  rough 
places  for  the  attachment  of  powerful  muscles. 
The  size  of  the  animal,  ite  evidently  very  great 
muscular  power,  and  the  structure  of  ite  hind 
quarters,  indicate  that  it  squatted  beside  a  tree 
and  with  ite  mobile  fore  limbs,  the  middle  fingers 
of  which  were  armed  with  strong  claws,  pulled 
down  and  broke  off  the  upper  trunk  and  branches 
from  which  it  derived  its  food.  The  body  of 
the  animal  is  thought  to  have  been  covered  by 
tough  hide  and  coarse  hair.  Megatherium  was 
one  of  the  first  fossil  mammals  described.  A 
nearly  complete  skeleton  was  found  in  1789  near 
Buenos  Ayres  and  sent  to  the  museum  of  Madrid, 
where  it  was  described  and  named  by  Cuvier> 
Megatherium  Americanus. 


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Three  other  allied  genera  are  Scelidotherium, 
Meffalonyx,  and  Mylodon,  all  of  Pleistocene  a^e. 
Of  these,  Scelidotherium,  from  South  America,  in 
the  structure  of  its  skull,  resembles  closely  a 
gigantic  anteater.  Megalonyx,  differing  slightly 
from  Megatherium  in  the  structure  of  its  teeth, 
has  been  found  in  the  cave  deposits  of  Ken- 
tuclcy  and  Tennessee  and  in  the  Pleistocene  beds 
of  Cuba.  The  remaining  form,  Mylodon,  re- 
mains of  which  have  been  found  in  Kentucky 
and  South  America,  is  the  only  member  of  the 
family  Megatheriidse  in  which  the  skin  contains 
■calcareous  plates  similar  to  those  of  the  other 
group  of  gigantic  edentates,  the  Glyptodontids ; 
and  in  Mylodon  these  plates,  though  numerous, 
are  small  and  not  joined  to  each  other.  Consult 
"Woodward,  Ouilinea  of  Vertebrate  Paleontology 
(Cambridge,  1898). 

MEOEBLE,  Ulrich.  See  Abraham -a -Santa- 
Claba. 

MEGGIDDO,  mc-gld'd6.  A  fortified  city  of 
^eat  importance  in  ancient  Syria,  situated  in 
the  Valley  of  Esdraelon,  probably  at  the  modem 
£1-Lejjun.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  Thothmes  III.  (B.C.  1503-1449),  in  the  Amama 
letters  (c.l400  B.C.),  in  a  papyrus  of  the  time 
of  Seti  I.  (B.C.  1356-1347),  and  in  an  inscription 
of  Shishak  (b.c.  960-939),  and  is  also  referred  to 
in  Assyrian  inscriptions.  According  to  Joshua 
xii.  21,  it  was  the  residence  of  a  Canaanitish  king 
at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  invasion.  From 
Judges  i.  27,  it  is  evident  that  it  did  not  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  tribes  invading  the  plain. 
David  possibly  conquered  it.  Solomon  fortified 
it  (I.  Kings,  ix.  15).  King  Ahaziah  of  Judah 
found  a  refuge  there  when  fleeing  before  Jehu 
of  Israel  in  B.C.  843  (II.  Kings  ix.  27).  In  Ro- 
man times  it  was  known  as  Legio,  and  was  an 
important  place.  Jerome  calls  the  Valley  of 
Esdraelon  *the  Plain  of  Megiddo.'  The  'waters 
of  Megiddo,'  mentioned  in  Judges  v.  19,  probably 
refer  to  the  river  Kishon,  the  present  Nahr  el- 
Makatta.  At  Megiddo  King  Josiah  was  over- 
jKJwered  by  Pharaoh  Necho  al>out  B.C.  609.  Con- 
sult: MUller,  Asien  und  Europa  nach  altdgypt- 
ischen  Denkmalem  (Leipzig,  1893)  ;  Buhl,  Oeog- 
raphie  des  alten  Paldstina  (Freiburg,  1896). 

MEG  MEB^BILIES.  A  very  tall,  masculine 
gypsy  woman  in  Scott's  Ouy  Mannering,  She 
was  devoted  in  her  half -crazy  mind  to  the 
Bertrams,  and  died  while  establishing  the  iden- 
tity of  Harry  Bertram,  who  was  kidnaped  in 
childhood.  This  character  in  the  dramatized 
form  of  the  novel  was  a  favorite  rOle  of  Charlotte 
Cuahman. 

MEG^A,  or  MEGHNA.  A  deltaic  estuarj' 
of  Bengal,  British  India,  forming  the  outlet  of 
the  Brahmaputra,  of  the  easternmost  channel 
of  the  Ganges  (qq.v.),  and  of  tributary  streams 
(Map:  India,  F  4).  It  flows  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  by  four  mouths,  which  inclose  three  large 
islands.  It  is  navigable  by  steamers  and  large 
river  craft,  which,  however,  are  often  imperiled 
by  the  tidal  bore,  which  ascends  at  the  rate  of  15 
miles  an  hour,  and  often  attains  over  18  feet  in 
height;  the  river  is  also  subject  to  cyclonic  storm 
waves,  which  at  various  times  have  caused  great 
destruction  of  property  and  loss  of  life. 

MEGBOr.    See  Miohaine. 

MEGBIMS  (OF.,  Fr.  migraine,  It.  migrana, 
emigrana,    from    Lat.    hemicranium,    from    Gk. 


ilfUKpapUiy  hSmikrania,  pain  in  one  side  of  the 
head,  from  iffu-^  h^mi-,  half  +  Kpavlop,  kranionf 
head),  Hyperjeuia,  or  Engobgemeivt.  A  dis- 
ease of  the  horse.  It  is  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing symptoms:  The  animal  when  at  work  reels, 
and  then  either  stands  for  a  minute  dull  and 
stupid,  or  falls  to  the  ground,  lying  for  a  time 
partially  insensible.  The  eyes  are  staring,  breath- 
ing is  hurried  and  stertorous,  and  the  nostrils 
are  widely  dilated.  Occasionally  these '  symp- 
toms are  followed  by  coma,  convulsions,  and 
death.  More  frequently,  however,  the  animal 
gains  relief  in  a  little  while.  The  attacks  come 
on  suddenly,  are  often  periodical,  are  most  fre- 
quent during  hot  weather,  and  when  the  animal 
is  drawing  up  a  hill,  or  exposed  during  heavy 
work  to  the  full  rays  of  a  hot  sun.  Liability 
to  megrims  constitutes  unsoundness,  and  usually 
depends  upon  the  circulation  through  the  brain 
being  temporarily  disturbed  by  the  presence  of 
tumors.  Horses  subject  to  megrims  are  always 
dangerous;  if  driven  at  all,  they  should  be  used 
with  a  breastplate  or  pipe-collar,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent, as  much  as  possible,  pressure  on  the  veins 
carrying  the  blood  from  the  head;  they  should 
be  moderately  and  carefully  fed,  and  during  hot 
weather  have  an  occasional  laxative. 

MEHAt>LA.,  mg-hrd^d  (Lat.  Ad  Median). 
A  small  town  of  Transylvania,  Hungary,  magnifi- 
cently situated  among  the  Carpathians,  six  miles 
west  of  the  frontier  of  Rumania  (Map:  Hun- 
gary, H  4).  It  is  noted  for  its  old  cemetery 
with  Greek  and  Roman  inscriptions,  and  for  its 
Roman  ruins.  In  the  vicinity  are  coal  mines. 
Population,  in  1900,  2497,  mostly  Rumanians. 
About  three  miles  southeast  of  MehAdia  is  the 
bathing  resort  of  Herkulesbad,  with  numerous 
hot  springs  (some  of  them  containing  sulphur), 
ranging  in  temperature  from  106**  to  143**  F., 
which  were  known  to  the  Romans  as  Thermw 
Herculis,  The  place  is  visited  by  about  7000 
guests  annually. 

MEHEMET  ALI,  m&niemSt  ft^A  (1769- 
1849).  Viceroy  of  Egypt.  He  was  born  in  1769 
at  Kavala,  a  little  town  in  Macedonia.  Left 
an  orphan,  he  was  taken  into  the  service  of  a 
captain  of  the  Janizaries.  He  learned  much  of 
military  matters  and  of  intrigue,  made  a  rich 
marriage  in  1787,  and  was  thus  able  to  obtain 
a  commission  as  an  oflicer  in  the  irregular  troops 
of  the  Sultan.  Through  relations  which  he 
formed  with  a  Marseilles  merchant  he  amassed 
wealth  in  trade.  He  received  a  command  in 
Egypt  to  cooperate  with  the  British  against  the 
French  invaders,  and  at  length  became  com- 
mander of  the  Albanian  or  Arnaut  Corps.  In 
1805  he  was  recognized  by  the  Porte  as  Viceroy 
of  Egypt  and  Pasha  of  Three  Tails,  but  was  soon 
involved  in  disputes  with  the  Mamelukes  (q.v.), 
who  had  long  practically  ruled  Egypt.  The 
struggle  was  finally  terminated  in  1811  by  the 
massacre  of  the  greater  number  of  these  at 
Cairo.  The  rest  fled  to  Upper  Egypt,  but  were 
expelled  by  Mehemet  in  the  following  year.  They 
then  took  refuge  in  Nubia,  but  in  1820  he  fol- 
lowed them  there  and  completely  vanquished 
them.  From  1811  to  1818  he  carried  on  war 
against  the  Wahabis  in  Arabia,  who  were  sub- 
jugated by  his  adopted  son,  Ibrahim  Pasha. 
Shortly  after  he  conquered  Kordofan,  added  it  to 
his  dominions,  and  opened  a  great  trade  in  slaves 
from  the  interior  of  Africa.  About  this  time  he 
began  to  reorganize  his  army  on  something  like 


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European  principles,  built  a  fleet,  and  erected 
fortresses,  military  shop-works,  and  arsenals.  He 
sent  a  strong  force  to  assist  the  Sultan  in  sup- 
pressing the  Greek  revolt  in  1824,  but  his  new 
fleet  was  destroyed  at  Navarino  in  1827.  In  1830 
the  Porte  conferred  on  him  the  Government  of 
Crete,  but  this  did  not  satisfy  his  ambition.  He 
determined  to  annex  Syria  to  his  dominions,  and 
in  1831  despatched  an  army  under  Ibrahim 
Pasha,  who  overran  the  country,  defeating  the 
Turks  at  Horas,  July,  1832,  and  by  his  victory 
at  Konieh  (December  20,  1832)  brought  the 
Turkish  Government  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  Rus- 
sia now  stepped  in,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded 
(May  4,  1833)  by  which  Syria  was  handed  over 
to  Mehemet.  Neither  of  the  belligerents  was 
satisfied,  and  Mehemet  continued  to  plot  till  Sul- 
tan Mahmud  II.  declared  war  in  1839  against 
his  dangerous  subject.  At  Nisib,  June  24,  1839, 
the  Turkish  army  was  crushed  by  the  forces  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  but  the  European  powers  again  in- 
terfered, and  Mehemet  was  compelled  to  give  up 
Syria  and  Crete  and  to  content  nimself  with  the 
hereditary  vice- royalty  of  Egypt  (1841).  Me- 
hemet was  at  once  a  remorseless  tyrant  and  an 
able,  progressive  administrator,  and  did  much  to 
develop  Egypt.  He  cleared  his  dominions  of  rob- 
bers, executed  great  public  works,  and  may  be 
said  almost  to  have  introduced  the  cultivation  of 
cotton,  indigo,  and  sugar  into  the  country.  He 
also  established  a  system  of  national  education 
in  Egypt  He  died  August  2,  1849.  See  Egypt. 
MEHEMET  ALI  PASHA,  p&-shr  ( 1827-78) . 
A  Turkish  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Prussia,  and 
his  name  originally  was  Karl  Detroit.  In  1843 
he  ran  away  to  sea  and  embarked  for  Turkey. 
Aali  Pasha,  later  Grand  Vizier,  took  an  interest 
in  him,  and  in  1846  sent  him  to  a  military 
school.  He  received  a  commission  in  the  Otto- 
man army  in  1853,  and  fought  against  Russia. 
In  1865  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  and 
pasha ;  in  1875-76  he  commanded  in  Bosnia,  and 
in  the  war  of  1877-78  against  Russia  he  was  at 
the  head  of  the  Turkish  army  in  Bulgaria.  He 
was  successful  in  his  operations  on  the  River 
Lom  (August- September,  1877),  but  was  after- 
ward forced  back  by  the  enemy.  He  failed  to 
effect  a  junction  with  Suleiman  Pasha  and  was 
superseded  by  the  latter.  He  was  second  plenipo- 
tentiary at  the  Berlin  Congress,  and  on  his  re- 
turn was  sent  to  Albania,  where  he  was  mobbed 
and  killed  by  insurgents  at  Diakova,  September 
.7,  1878. 

MEHEB^IN.  A  small  tribe  of  Iroquoian 
stock,  formerly  living  on  the  lower  course  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Virginia-Carolina 
border.  For  a  long  time  they  were  a  subject  of 
contention  between  the  two  colonies,  each  claim- 
ing them  as  within  her  own  jurisdiction.  They 
were  said  to  have  been  a  remnant  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna or  Conestoga,  who  fled  southward  after 
their  expulsion  from  the  head  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  by  the  Iroquois  about  the  year  1676.  They 
made  some  trouble  during  the  Tuscarora  War  of 
1711-12,  but  soon  afterward  disappear  from 
notice,  having  apparently  been  absorbed  by  that 
tribe  or  by  the  Tutelo. 

HCkHTTL,  mA'vl',  Etienne  Nicholas  (1763- 
1817).  A  French  operatic  composer,  born  at 
Givet.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  organist  of  his 
native  village;  in  1778  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
gained  the  interest  of  Gluck.     After  several  un- 


successful efforts  in  composition  his  Euphrosine 
€t  Corradin  finally  achieved  fame  (1790),  and 
other  compositions  previously  written  were  then 
brought  to  light.  Htraionice  appeared  in  1792; 
and  this  was  followed  by  patriotic  national 
hymns  for  the  Army  of  the  Republic,  entitled  "Le 
chant  du  depart,"  "Le  chant  de  victoire,"  "Le 
chant  du  retour,"  which  won  him  high  popularity. 
Other  works  appeared  in  rapid  succession;  in 
1806  Uthal ;  previously,  Une  folie,  ou  lea  aveugles 
de  Tolede  (1802)  ;  and  in  1807  Joseph,  his  most 
esteemed  composition.  In  1795  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy,  and  also  appointed  an 
inspector  of  the  Conservatory,  which  had  but 
recently  been  established.  His  works  comprise 
every  form  of  music,  but  it  is  wholly  by  his 
operas  that  he  is  known  to  fame.  They  are 
marked  by  dramatic  truth,  noble  melodies,  and, 
though  his  work  constantly  shows  a  lack  of 
thorough  training,  he  was  one  of  the  first  French 
composers  adequately  to  express  the  meaning  of 
the  words  in  music.  Consult  Pougin,  Biographie 
(Paris,  1889). 

MEI^  mfl.  Lev  (or  MAT,  Ltoff)  Alexandbo- 
viTCH  (1822-62).  A  Russian  poet.  He  was  bom 
in  Moscow  and  was  educated  at  the  Institute 
of  Tzarskoi  Selo.  He  attracted  a  great  deal  of 
attention  by  his  drama  Tsarskya  Neveata  (The 
Bride  of  the  Czar)  (1849),  which  was  followed 
by  the  dramas  8ervilia  and  Pskovitianka  (The 
VVoman  of  Pskov).  Besides  publishing  several 
minor  poems  on  classical  and  biblical  subjects, 
he  also  considerably  enriched  Russian  literature 
by  his  translations  from  Milton,  Byron,  Schiller 
{Wallensteins  Lager  and  Demetrius),  Goethe, 
Heine,  B^ranger,  and  Victor  Hugo. 

MEIBOM,  mi'bAm,  Victor  von  (1821-92).  A 
German  jurist,  bom  at  Cassel.  He  studied  law 
at  Marburg  and  Berlin,  and  was  for  several 
years  assistant  judge  at  tribunals  of  Rotenburg 
and  Marburg.  In  1858  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Carman  law  at  the  University  of 
Rostock,  and  from  1866  to  1873  held  a  similar 
appointment  at  Tubingen.  He  then  went  to  Bonn, 
where  he  remained  till  1875,  when  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Empire  in 
Leipzig.  His  chief  work  is  Dcls  deutsche  Pfand- 
recht  (1867),  a  thorough  and  historically  relia- 
ble discussion  of  the  laws  and  regulations  relat- 
ing to  mortgage  before  the  introduction  of  Roman 
law. 

MEIDEBICH,  mI'dgr-lK.  An  industrial  town 
in  the  Rhine  Province,  Prussia,  15  miles  north- 
east of  Krefeld  (Map:  Prussia,  B  3).  It  con- 
tains the  Rhine  Steel  Works,  employing  4300 
persons,  and  a  number  of  other  iron  and  steel 
works,  machine  shops,  phosphate  works,  etc.  In 
the  vicinitv  are  extensive  coal  mines  and  saline 
springs,  "fhe  trade  in  cattle  is  important.  The 
industries  of  Meiderich  date  from  1850 ;  the  place 
became  a  town  in  1894,  and  was  annexed  to  Duis- 
burg  in  1905.  Population,  in  1890,  20,416;  in 
1900,  33,684;  in  1905,  40,822. 

MEIEB,  mi'Sr,  Moritz  Hermann  Eduard 
( 1796-1855) .  A  German  classical  philologist,  born 
at  Glogau.  When  twenty- four  years  of  age  he  be- 
came professor  extraordinarius  at  the  University 
of  Greifswald,  and  in  1824  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor ordinarius  at  Halle,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  Friedrich  August  Wolf,  and 
especially  Wolf*s  great  pupil,  August  Boeckh, 
whose  classic   work  on  the   public   economy  of 


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Athens  appeared  in  1817,  had  a  great  influence 
on  Meier.  His  own  first  important  publication 
dealt  with  a  question  in  the  legal  antiquities  of 
Athens,  Historia  Juris  Attici  de  Bonis  Damna- 
lorum,  etc.  (Berlin,  1819)  ;  but  his  greatest 
work  was  written  in  collaboration  with  G.  F. 
Schoemann,  Der  Aitische  Process  (Berlin,  1824), 
and  was  crowned  by  the  Berlin  Royal  Acad- 
emj-.  This  treatise,  now  revised  by  J.  H. 
Lipsius  (Berlin,  1883-87),  remains  the  standard 
work  on  Athenian  legal  procedure  to  the  present 
day.  Meier  also  prepared  an  edition  of  De- 
mosthenes, Against  Meidias^  and  published  many 
opuscula  on  subjects  relating  to  classical  an- 
tiquity. Much  of  his  energy,  however,  while 
resident  at  Halle,  was  spent  on  editorial  duties, 
as  he  was  an  editor  of  the  Halle  Allgemeine 
Zeitung  for  many  years,  and  also  co-editor  of 
the  Allgemeine  Encyclopddie  der  Wissenschaften 
und  KUnsie  from  1830  to  1855. 

MEIQGS,  m6gz,  Henby  (1811-77).  An  Ameri- 
can contractor.  He  was  born  in  Catskill,  N.  Y., 
was  engaged  in  the  lumber  business  in  1836,  and 
failed  in  the  commercial  crisis  of  1837.  It  was 
not  until  the  outbreak  of  the  gold  excitement  in 
California  that  he  again  became  prosperous.  He 
then  shipped  lumber  in  large  quantities  to  the 
Pacific  Coast,  and  his  trade  so  increased  that  he 
was  encouraged  to  build  a  large  number  of  ves- 
sels. At  length  a  financial  stringency  in  the  San 
Francisco  money  market  drove  him  to  borrowing, 
and  eventually,  his  business  collapsing,  he  fled 
to  South  America.  He  settled  in  Chile  and  en- 
tered into  the  business  of  bridge-building  con- 
tractor. Later  he  devoted  himself  to  railroad 
construction,  and  in  Peru  accomplished  engineer- 
ing works  which  are  objects  of  general  admira- 
tion. He  made  contracts  for  the  construction  of 
six  railroads  in  that  country — one  of  which,  the 
Callao,  Lima  and  Oroya  Railroad,  over  the  Andes, 
ranks  among  the  first  public  works  of  tiie  kind 
in  the  world. 

HCEIQB,  Fort.    See  Fort  Meigs. 

MEI03,  Montgomery  Cunningham  (1816- 
^2).  An  American  soldier  and  military  engineer. 
He  was  bom  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  studied  for  a 
short  time  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1836,  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  became  second  lieutenant  in 
an  artillery  company.  In  1837  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  in  which  he 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1838  and  captain  in  1853. 
From  1836  to  1862  he  was  employed  by  the 
War  Department  on  various  important  engineer- 
ing works.  Between  1852  and  1860  he  super- 
intended the  construction  of  the  Potomac  Aque- 
duct from  the  Great  Falls  in  Maryland  to  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  the  erection  of  the  Capitol  exten- 
sion in  Washington,  the  Post-Office  extension, 
and  the  great  iron  dome  of  the  Capitol.  In  the 
winter  of  1860-61  he  was  engaged  in  placing 
Fort  Jefferson,  Fla.,  in  a  condition  for  defense, 
and  in  April,  1861,  organized  and  conducted  the 
Fort  Pickens  relief  expedition.  On  May  15th 
he  was  appointed  Quartermaster-General  of  the 
United  States  Army,  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  In  this  important  position  he  had  the 
direction  of  the  supply  and  equipment  of  the 
United  States  forces  in  the  field  during  the 
continuance  of  the  war.  Though  generally  sta- 
tioned at  Washington,  he  frequently  made  per- 
sonal inspections  of  the  quartermaster's  depart- 


ments of  the  various  armies  during  siege  and 
field  operations.  On  July  5, 1864,  he  was  brevetted 
major-general  for  'distinguished  and  meritorious 
services  during  the  RelSllion.'  After  the  war 
until  his  retirement  in  1882,  he  was  a  member 
of  many  important  boards  and  commissions  in 
connection  with  the  War  Department.  After 
his  retirement  until  1887  he  was  employed  as 
architect  on  the  construction  of  the  Pension 
Bureau  Building  in  Washington. 

HEIGS,  Return  Jonathan  (1734-1823).  An 
American  soldier  and  pioneer,  bom  in  Middle- 
town,  Conn.  He  joined  the  Continental  troops 
before  Boston  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Lexing- 
ton, and  later  in  the  same  year,  as  a  major  of 
militia,  accompanied  Benedict  Arnold  on  the  lat- 
ter*s  expedition  against  Quebec.  He  became  a 
colonel  in  1777,  and  participated  in  Anthony 
Wayne's  storming  of  Stony  Point  in  1779.  After  the 
close  of  the  war  he  became  interested  in  schemes 
of  Western  colonization,  was  one  of  the  promoters 
of  the  *Ohio  Company,*  and  crossed  the  Al- 
leghanies  himself  in  1788  to  settle  at  Marietta, 
Ohio.  Later  he  was  interested  in  the  Muskingum 
settlement.  In  1794  he  was  commissary-general 
of  the  troops  in  General  Wayne's  expedition 
against  the  Indians,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Fallen  Timbers.  In  1801  he 
was  appointed  Indian  agent,  and  took  charge  of 
the  Cherokee  agency  in  Georgia,  where  he  re- 
mained until  his  death.  His  Journal  of  the 
Expedition  to  Quebec  was  published  in  1864. 

MEIOS,  Return  Jonathan  (1765-1825).  An 
American  politician,  born  in  Middletown,  dJonn., 
son  of  Return  Jonathan  Meigs,  the  elder.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1785,  and  studied  law.  In 
1788  he  removed  with  his  father  to  Ohio  Ter- 
ritory, and  from  1803  to  1804  was  Chief  Justice 
of  tne  State.  He  was  judge  of  the  United 
States  Court  for  Michigan  Territory  in  1807 
and  1808;  served  as  United  States  Senator  from 
Ohio  in  1808-10;  and  from  1810  to  1814  was 
Governor  of  Ohio.  His  services  during  the  War 
of  1812  were  particularly  efficient.  In  1814  he 
was  appointed  Postmaster-General  by  President 
Madison,  and  he  was  continued  in  this  office  until 
1823  by  President  Monroe. 

MEIKTILA,  mlk-t§n&.  A  central  division  of 
Upper  Burma,  comprising  the  districts  of  Meik- 
tila,  Kyauske,  Myingyan,  and  Yamethin.  Area> 
10,854  square  miles.  Population,  in  1901,  994,- 
432.    Capital,  Meiktila. 

HEILHAC,  m&'y&k',  Henri  (1831-97).  A 
French  dramatist,  who  worked  chiefly  in  col- 
laboration with  Ludovic  Hal6vy  (q.v.).  He  was 
bom  .February  23,  1831,  in  Paris,  where  he 
studied  at  the  Lyc6e  Louis-le-Grand.  From 
working  in  a  book  shop  he  turned  to  writing 
for  the  stage.  Satania  and  Oarde-toiy  je  me 
garde,  pleased  the  critics,  who  discerned  Meilhac's 
cleverness  and  technical  knowledge.  He  suc- 
ceeded not  only  in  vaudeville,  but  in  higher  and 
more  delicate  comedy.  It  is,  however,  impos- 
sible to  tell  what  belongs  to  Meilhac  and  what 
to  Hal^vy,  so  well  did  these  two  men  blend  their 
genius.  Meilhac  and  Hal^vy  excelled  in  operetta 
and  opera  boufTe,  as  well  as  in  more  dramatic, 
less  musical  composition.  Together  they  wrote 
Frou-froUy  and  the  librettos  of  La  telle  E6l^ne 
and  Jja  grande  duchesse  for  Offenbach's  music. 
Of  Meilhac's  work  before  1861,  La  vertu  de 
CMimdne  is  most  significant;  of  mat  after  188U 


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HEISSONIEB. 


J)4cor^  (1888)  ;  and  Orasae  fortune  (1896).  He 
was  made  a  member  of  the  French  Acad^nj  in 
1888,  and  died  in  Paris,  July  6,  1897. 

MEINABDUS^  mt-nilr'dys,  Ludwio  Sieg- 
FBIED  ( 1827-96) .  A  German  composer  and  writer 
on  musical  topics,  born  at  Hoolcsiel,  Oldenburg. 
He  studied  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatory,  and  as 
a  pupil  of  Riccius  at  Leipzig,  of  Liszt  at  Weimar, 
and  of  Marx  at  Berlin ;  was  director  of  the  Glogau 
Singakademie  from  1853  to  1865;  and  from  1865 
to  1874  a  professor  in  the  Dresden  Conservatory. 
Subsequently  at  Hamburg,  and  from  1887  at 
Bielefeld,  he  was  a  composer  and  critic.  His 
musical  works  include  the  oratorios  Gideon  and 
Kiinig  8alomo,  the  Wanderlied  for  chorus  and 
wind  instruments,  a  sonata  for  violoncello  and 
pianoforte,  sonatas  for  violin  and  pianoforte,  a 
quintet  and  three  trios  for  pianoforte  and  strings, 
Bongs,  and  pianoforte  music.  He  also  published 
Kulturgeschichtliche  Briefe  Uher  deutsche  Ton- 
kunat  (1872),  and  Mozart,  ein  Kunstlerlehen 
(1882). 

MEINEKH,  mi'ne-ke,  August  (1790-1870). 
A  distinguished  German  philologist.  He  was 
bom  at  Soest,  in  Westphalia,  and  was  educated 
at  Leipzig,  where  he  studied  under  G.  Hermann. 
He  was  director  of  the  Joachimsthal  Gymnasium 
at  Berlin  from  1826  to  1857.  His  numerous 
works,  which  are  chiefly  critical  editions  of  the 
Greek  authors,  include:  Fragmenta  Comicorum 
Orcecorum  (1839-43);  Analecta  Alexandrina 
(1843),  containing  collections  and  admirable 
explanations  of  the  fragments  of  Euphorion, 
Rhianos,  Alexander  iEtolus,  and  others ;  the  lexi- 
con of  Stephanus  Byzantius  (1849)  ;  and  text- 
recensions  of  Strabo(  1852-53)  ;  of  Horace  ( 1834), 
in  which  the  so-called  four-line  strophe  law,  dis- 
covered by  Meineke  and  Lachmann,  is  applied; 
of  StobfiBUs  (1855-64)  ;  of  Athenaeus  (1859)  ;  and 
of  Aristophanes  (1860).  Consult:  Bknke,  Albert 
Meineke  (Leipzig,  1871)  ;  and  Sauppe,  Zur 
Erinnerung  an  Meineke  und  Bekker  (GQttingen, 
1872). 

MEINIKGEN,  mi'ning-en.  The  capital  of  the 
little  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  in  Central  Ger- 
many. It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Werra,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  provincial  courts 
( Map :  Germany,  D  3 ) .  Noteworthy  features  in- 
clude the  home  of  the  Henneberg  Antiquarian 
Society,  the  park  known  as  the  'English  Garden,' 
and  the  parish  church.  The  Meiningen  stock  com- 
pany, which  for  16  years  enjoyed  a  European  rep- 
utation for  the  excellence  of  its  staging  and  acting, 
was  dissolved  in  1890.  Population,  in  1905, 15,945. 

MEISSEN,  ml^sen.  An  interesting  old  town 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  Germany,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  16  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Dresden  (Map:  Germany,  E  3).  It  lies  in 
an  exceptionally  picturesque  region,  and  has  re- 
tained its  ancient  appearance.  Above  the  town 
rises  the  Schlossberg  (160  feet),  with  the  Cathe- 
dral and  the  Albrechtsburg.  The  former,  a  notable 
specimen  of  Gothic  architecture,  was  erected  in 
1260-1450.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  fine  spire  of 
openwork,  contains  many  monuments  and  tombs 
of  Saxon  rulers,  and  a  notable  altar-piece  by  an 
unknown  German  painter.  The  Albrechtsburg. 
an  extensive  castle  erected  in  1471-83  and  oc- 
cupied by  the  electoral,  afterwards  royal,  porce- 
lain factory  from  1710  to  1864,  has  been  restored 
since  1873,  and  some  of  the  halls  have  been  deco- 
rated with  fine  frescoes  by  modem  artists.    The 


most  noteworthy  educational  institution  is  the 
Fttrstenschule  on  the  Afraberg,  founded  in  1543. 
Lessing  and  Gellert  attended  school  here.  There 
are  also  a  *rear  school  and  schools  of  commerce 
and  agriculture. 

Meissen  has  played  a  prominent  part  in  the 
porcelain  industry  of  Saxony.  It  was  here  that 
Bottger  established  in  1710  the  first  porcelain 
factory  in  Europe  and  produced  the  famous 
Meissen  ware.  ( See  Bottqeb  and  Pottery.  )  The 
factory  was  transferred  in  1863  from  the  Al- 
brechtsburg to  Triebischthal,  a  short  distance 
from  Meissen,  and  now  employs  over  700  persons. 
Meissen  has  a  number  of  other  porcelain  manu- 
factories, also  foundries  and  machine  works,  tex- 
tile mills,  and  manufactures  of  sewing  machines, 
pianos,  furniture,  etc.  In  the  vicinity  the  culti- 
vation of  fruit  is  carried  on  extensively.  The 
chief  articles  of  commerce  are  local  manufactures 
of  wine. 

Meissen  was  founded  in  928  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  I.,  and  rose  to  great  importance  as  the 
residence  of  the  margraves  of  Meissen,  the  direct 
ancestors  of  the  present  Royal  House  of  Saxony. 
The  bishops  of  Meissen  had  until  1581  the  rank 
of  princes  of  the  Empire.  Population,  in  1900 
(including  C5lln,  annexed  in  1901),  20,123;  iu 
1905,  32,336,  chiefly  Protestants. 

MEISSEN,  Heinrich  von.  A  German  min- 
nesinger.   See  Frauenlob. 

MEISSNEB,  mIs'nSr,  Alfred  (1822-85).  An 
Austrian  poet,  bom  at  Teplitz,  grandson  of  the 
following.  His  Gedichte  (1845)  attracted  much 
attention,  and  the  lyrical  epic  Ziska  ( 1846)  shows 
the  influence  of  Byron  and  Lenau.  During  a 
stay  in  Paris  he  wrote  his  Revolutionare  Studien 
au8  Paris  (1849).  His  tragedies.  Das  Weib  dea 
Vrias  (1850)  and  Reginald  Armstrong,  oder  die 
Welt  des  Geldes  (1853),  were  not  very  success- 
ful. Better  are  his  novels,  chief  among  which 
are:  Sansara  (1861);  Neuer  Adel  (1861);  and 
Zur  Ehre  Gottes.  The  last  named  is  an  inter- 
esting narrative  of  the  events  which  took  place 
in  Austria  during  the  reactionary  period  of  1850- 
64.  Consult  his  autobiography,  Geschichte 
meines  Lehens    (Teschen,   1884). 

MEISSNEB,  August  Gottlieb  (1753-1807). 
A  German  miscellaneous  writer,  bom  at  Baut-  • 
zen.  He  studied  law  at  Wittenberg  and  Leip- 
zig, and  in  1785  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  belles-lettres  in  the  University  of  Prague. 
For  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  he  was  director 
of  the  Fulda  High  School.  Best  known  of  his 
works  are  his  Skizzen,  a  collection  of  miscel- 
laneous stories,  dialogues,  anecdotes,  and  essays. 
He  also  wrote  several  romances  and  historical 
novels,  such  as  Alcihiades  (1781-88);  Bianca 
Capello  (1785)  ;  and  Epaminondas  (1798). 

HEISSONIEBy  m&'sd'nyA',  Jean  Louis  Er- 
nest (1815-91).  A  French  military  and  genre 
painter,  bom  at  Lyons,  February  21,  1815.  In 
1830  he  went  to  Paris  and  worked  for  a  short 
time  in  the  studio  of  Cogniet,  but  he  received  his 
most  valuable  training  in  art  from  his  study 
of  the  old  masters  in  the  Louvre,  especially  those 
of  the  Dutch  School.  At  first  he  illustrated 
books  and  made  etchings  as  a  means  of  liveli- 
hood. His  first  painting.  "The  Visitors,"  waa 
exhibited  at  the  Salon  in  1836.  In  1843  and 
1848  he  received  first-class  medals  from  the  Salon, 
and  in  the  expositions  of  1855,  1867,  and  1878 
the  grand  medal  of  honor.     In  1848  he  was  cap- 


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MEISTEBSINGEB. 


tain  of  artillery  in  the  National  Quard.  He 
was  with  Napoleon  at  Solferino  in  1850,  and 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  1870  he  was  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  infantry  in  the  National  Guard. 
He  was  made  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in 
1846  and  grand  officer  in  1878;  a  member  of  the 
Institute  of  France  in  1861,  and  president  in 
1876  and  1891.  He  died  in  Paris,  January  31, 
1891. 

His  subjects  are  historical,  military,  and 
scenes  from  everyday  life.  !Many  of  his  pictures 
are  on  small  canvases  and  studies  of  one  or  two 
figures.  His  characters  are  almost  entirelv  men; 
in  very  few  of  his  pictures  do  wcnnen  or  children 
appear.  He  is  the  chief  of  a  school  of  genre 
painters,  among  the  most  prominent  of  whom 
are  his  son,  Jean  Charles  (1848 — ),  and  Detaille 
( q.v. ) .  Every  detail  in  his  pictures  is  as  faith- 
fully and  carefully  studied  and  portrayed  as  if 
it  were  of  sole  importance.  His  coloring  is  fresh 
and  realistic,  and  his  power  over  the  eflfects  of 
light  and  shade  masterly.  He  excels  in  his 
drawing  of  the  horse,  in  his  portrayal  of  action, 
and  in  his  power  to  depict  the  subtlest  shades 
of  expression  on  the  faces  of  his  characters.  Of 
his  military  pictures,  one  of  the  most  famous  is 
"Friedland,  1807"  (1876),  a  large  painting  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.  Other- 
famous  military  pictures  are:  "Cavalry  Charge" 
(1867)  ;  "Napoleon  III.  at  Solferino"  (1864),  in 
the  Luxembourg;  "The  Retreat  from  Moscow;" 
"Napoleon  Overlooking  a  Battle;"  "Napoleon  and 
His  Staff  in  1814"  (1864).  The  Catherine  Loril- 
lard  Wolfe  collection,  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York,  contains  three  pictures  by  Meissonier,  and 
the  Vanderbilt  collection  in  New  York  has  seven. 
In  the  Luxembourg  Museum  are  also  the  "Stand- 
ard Bearer"  (1862)  ;  "Musketeer"  (1862) ;  and  a 
portrait  of  Alexander  Dumas  the  younger.  Among 
bis  best-known  genre  pictures  are:  "La  Rixe" 
( 1866 )  ;  "Ball  Players  at  Antibes ; "  "Amateurs  of 
Painting"  (1843);  **The  Laugher;"  "The  Halt" 
(1869);  "The  Chess  Players"  (1836);  "Throw- 
ing Dice"  (1836)  ;  "Mass  Reading"  (1840)  ;  "The 
Voyage"  and  "The  Farrier"  (1861).  For  his 
biography,  consult:  Claretie  (Paris,  1884)  ;  Lar- 
roumet  (ib.,  1893)  ;  Gr6ard  (ib.,  1897)  ;  and  For- 
mentin,  (ib.,  1901). 

MEISTEBSINOEB,  mls^tlfr-slng-&r.  The 
name  given  to  those  artistic  poets,  usually  not 
of  noble  birth,  who,  as  the  immediate  follow- 
ers of  the  minnesinger,  cultivated  artistic  poetry 
in  contradistinction  from  the  folk  song.  The 
word  meister  (derived,  like  English  'master,' 
from  Latin  magister)  means  a  poet  who  has 
studied,  as  all  laymen  did,  in  church  schools. 
Accordingly  the  meistersingers  ware  distinguished 
from  the  common  minstrels.  They  also  formed 
a  guild  or  caste.  The  meistersingers  were  wont 
to  trace  their  origin  back  to  'the  twelve  old 
masters.'  Various  legends  arose,  explanatory 
of  their  origin.  One  Spangenberg  even  thought 
Moses  was  a  meistersinger.  David,  also,  w^as 
looked  upon  as  a  patron  in  whose  time  hun- 
dreds of  meisters  were  supposed  to  have  taught 
4000  scholars,  and  Solomon  also  was  reckoned 
in.  Furthermore,  the  minnesingers  were  reck- 
oned as  members  of  their  caste,  but,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  were  different  in  many 
ways.  Individual  meistersingers  out  of  modesty 
called  themselves  *lovers  of  art'  (Liehhaher  der 
Kiinst),  and  the  whole  body  of  them  named 
themselves  the  'honorable*  or  'praiseworthy  so- 
Voi*.  XIII.— 19. 


ciety.'  We  may  suppose  that  associations  existed 
as  early  as  1200.  Heinrich  von  Meissen,  called 
Frauenlob,  may  have  had  a  school  of  scmg  at 
Mainz.  We  cannot  be  sure  of  a  regular  school 
till  1460  in  Augsburg.  But  the  meistergesang 
had  flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century  at 
Mainz,  Strassburg,  Colmar,  and  Frankfort;  in 
the  fifteenth,  at  Nuremberg;  later  still  it  flour- 
ished in  Breslau,  Gdrlitz,  and  Danzig.  In  1492 
Strassburg  had  the  first  school  founded  by  writ- 
ten statutes,  and  Nuremberg  had  what  became, 
thanks  to  Richard  Wagner,  best  known  to  this 
generation.  The  last  school  died  out  at  Mem- 
mingen  in  1844. 

Each  school  had  for  the  head  mastersinger  a 
chair  called  der  Kunste  Stuhl  (chair  of  the  arts), 
or,  as  in  Nuremberg,  the  Meisterstuhl  (master's 
chair).  In  England  this  was  called  'the  bard's 
seat.'  Later  the  singer  seems  simply  to  have 
stood  in  the  midst  of  his  hearers.  To  enter  the 
guild  a  candidate  had  to  pass  an  examination 
before  four  markers,  usually  in  a  church.  He 
must  devise  some  new  arrangement  or  a  new 
melody  {Weise)  without  infringing  any  rule. 
One  of  the  markers  determined  whether  the 
theme  was  right,  another  whether  the  versifica- 
tion was  right,  and  the  others  looked  to  rhyme 
and  melody.  One  need  hardly  add  that,  in  a 
school  whose  whole  attention  was  given  to  tech- 
nicalities, the  possible  mistakes  were  limited  by 
set  rules.  The  success  of  a  mastersong  hung 
upon  ite  conformity  with  these  rules.  Indeed,  the 
very  essence  became  a  formula  or  a  series  of 
formulas.  The  Tahulatur  or  tablature,  a  term 
borrowed  from  music,  and  not  found  among  the 
earliest  documents,  signified  a  bit  of  music  writ- 
ten not  with  notes,  but  with  letters  or  figures, 
designed  to  initiate  the  student  into  vocal  or 
instrumental  music.  This  code  had  to  be  mas- 
tered by  whoever  wished  to  be  a  meistersinger. 
In  order  to  teach  scholars  more  easily  the  con- 
tent of  the  code,  it  was  drawn  up  in  short  poems. 
In  fine,  it  was  a  book  of  rules,  the  text-book  of 
the  meistergesang. 

The  school  had  inside  and  outside  members, 
called  by  divers  names.  There  were  patrons, 
servante,  and  masters  or  companions,  as  well  as 
learners  or  apprentices;  often  there  was  a  di- 
rector. Meetings  were  held  on  festivals,  chiefly 
on  Sunday  after  service  and  in  the  church.  Very 
often  the  singers  met  at  an  inn.  Prizes  were 
awarded,  and  those  who  sang  ill  were  fined. 
The  prize  was  sometimes  money,  sometimes  a 
crown,  as  at  Nuremberg  in  the  time  of  Hans 
Sachs.  Flowers  had  also  an  important  part  in 
these  competitions.  Often  in  the  older  days  one 
singer  would  hang  up  a  wreath  as  a  challenge 
and  as  a  reward  for  victory.  Finally  may  be 
mentioned  the  fact  that  the*  meistersinger  often 
wore  a  costume  which  was  not  seldom  motley 
and  which  was  often  sumptuous. 

The  Tahulatur  dealt  with  three  matters:  (1) 
The  kinds  of  poems  and  the  parte  of  a  meisterge- 
sang; (2)  permissible  rhymes ;  (3)  the  mistekea, 
which  are  the  main  business,  and  have  to  do 
(a)  with  errors  of  delivery,  of  melody,  of  struc- 
ture and  of  opinion;  (b)  chiefly,  however,  with 
errors  of  rhyme  or  mangling  of  words  or  caco- 
phony. 

The  various  songs  were  divided  into  three 
strophes,  and  each  strophe  was  divided  into 
two  Stollen  and  a  discant  or  Ahgesang.  Plate 
gives    a   long   list   of   the   various   features   of 


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rhythm  and  rhyme  in  this  complicated  poetry, 
in  all  of  which  we  observe  a  singular  likeness 
to  the  technicalities  invented  or  slavishly  aped 
by  the  lesser,  and  indeed  often  enough  by  the 
better,  poets  two  centuries  earlier  in  Southern 
France.  The  best  feature  of  the  meistersinger*8 
art  was  that  it  throve  among  the  humbler  folk, 
refined  them,  gave  them  a  sense  of  nationality, 
opened  the  way  for  the  artistic  treatment  of 
better  themes,  and  spread  widely  the  love  of 
artistic  music  among  those  who  needed  most  a 
sense  of  form.  Consult:  Grimm,  Ueber  den 
altdeutschen  Meistergeaang  (G5ttingen,  1811); 
Plate,  "Die  Kunstausdrticke  der  Meistersinger," 
in  Strasshurger  Studien,  vol.  iii.  (Strassburg, 
1888)  ;  Martin,  "Urkimdliches  Uber  die  Meister- 
s&nger  zu  Strassburg,"  in  Btraaahurger  Btudien 
(ib.,  1882)  ;  Streinz,  "Der  Meistergesang  in  Mfth- 
ren,"  in  Sievers's  Beitrdge  (Halle,  1894)  ;  Cyria- 
cus  Spangenberg,  Von  der  Muaioa  und  den  Meia- 
teraangemf  written  in  1684,  ed.  by  A.  von  Keller 
(Stuttgart,  1861);  Numberger  Meiaterainger- 
protokolle  1575-1869,  ed.  by  Drescher,  in  Biblio- 
thek  dea  litterariaohen  Vereina  in  Stuttgart 
(Stuttgart,  1898)  ;  Mey,  Der  Meiatergeaang  in 
Oeachichte  und  Kunat  (Leipzig,  1901). 

HEISTEBSINOEB  YON  NttBKBEBO, 
nvrn'b^rK,  Die.  A  musical  comedy  in  three  acts  by 
Richard  Wagner ;  first  produced  in  Munich,  June  21, 
1868.  The  scene  of  the  play  is  Nuremberg  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  Walter  von  Stolzing,  a  young 
knight,  loves  and  is  loved  by  Eva,  the  daughter 
of  the  goldsmith  Pogner.  Her  father,  however, 
has  offered  her  hand  as  a  prize  in  the  forthcom- 
ing meistersinger  tournament,  and  to  avoid  losing 
her,  Walter  determines  to  qualify  for  and  take 
part  in  the  contest.  He  succeeds  in  being  ac- 
cepted as  a  candidate,  and  with  the  help  of  Hans 
Sachs,  the  famous  cobbler  meistersinger,  defeats 
his  rival,  Beckmesser,  and  wins  the  girl.  The 
play  is  indirectly  a  satire  on  Wagner's  critics, 
the  old  and  pedantic  Beckmesser  typifying  the 
worst  elements  of  musical  conservatism,  while 
Walter  represents  Wagner  himself.  See  AtosTEB- 

BINGEB. 

MEITZEN;  mits'en,  August  (1822—).  A 
German  statistician,  bom  in  Breslau  and  edu- 
cated at  Heidelberg  and  Ttibingen.  He  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  Statistical  Bureau,  and 
in  1892  was  made  honorary  professor  of  the 
science  of  statistics  and  of  political  economy  at 
the  University  of  Berlin.  His  contributions  to  the 
science  of  statistics  include:  Die  intemationale 
land-  und  foratwtrtachaftliche  Statiatik  (1873) 
and  Oeachichte,  Theorie  und  Technik  der  ^ta- 
tiatik  (1886) ;  and  he  also  wrote  Die  Mitverant- 
tcortlidhkeit  der  Oebildeten  fUr  daa  Wohl  der 
arbeitenden  Klaaaen   (1876). 

IIEJEBDA,  mftj&^dA,  or  MEJIBDA.  A 
river  of  Northern  Africa.  It  rises  in  the  Great 
Atlas  Mountains  in  Algeria,  and  after  an  east- 
em  and  northeastern  course  of  over  200  miles, 
mainly  through  Tunis,  flows  into  the  Gulf  of 
Tunis  on  the  Mediterranean,  24  miles  north  of 
the  capital.  It  was  the  ancient  Bagradas,  with 
its  mouth  at  Utica,  now  Bu-Chateur,  7  miles  to 
the  south. 

MEJIa,  mft-H§'&,  TomXs  (c.1812-67).  A 
Mexican  general,  an  Indian  by  race.  He  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  war  with  the  United 
States,  and  served  with  Miram(^  (q.v.)  and 
Zuloaga  against  Juarez  in  1858  and  1859.    On 


the  occasion  of  the  French  intervention  he  did 
good  service  on  the  Imperialist  side.  He  was 
present  at  the  siege  of  Quer^taro  in  1867,  was 
captured  with  other  officers  in  Maximilian's  army, 
and  was  with  them  court-martialed  and  shot.  See 
Maximilian. 

])IEJTBa>A.    A  river  of  Northem  Africa.  See 
Mejebda. 

TITEKHTTABISTS,  mSk^-t&r-Ists.  A  congre- 
^tion  of  Armenian  Christians  who  reside  on  the 
island  of  San  Lazaro  at  Venice,  but  have  alsO' 
obtained  a  footing  in  France,  Austria,  Turkey, 
Russia,  and  elsewhere.  They  derive  their  name 
from  Mekhitar  (i.e.  the  Comforter)  Da  Petro 
(bom  1676,  died  1749),  who  in  1701  founded  at 
Constantinople  a  religious  society  for  the  purpose 
of  diffusing  the  knowledge  of  the  old  Armenian 
language  and  literature.  In  1702  the  society 
removed  to  the  Morea,  then  under  the  rule  of 
Venice,  and  founded  a  convent  at  Modon.  Pope 
Clement  XI.  in  1712  confirmed  the  congregation, 
gave  it  the  Benedictine  rule,  and  made  Mekhitar 
its  abbot.  The  war  between  Turkey  and  Venice 
compelled  its  transference  in  1715  to  Venice, 
where,  on  the  island  of  San  Lazaro,  the  Mekhi- 
tarists  held  a  convention  in  1717.  In  1773  a  split 
in  the  conffregation  occurred,  and  a  branch  is  now 
established  in  Vienna.  The  Mekhitarists  acknowl- 
edge the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.  The 
most  useful  occupation  of  the  Venetian  branch  is 
printing  the  classic  writing  of  Armenian  litera- 
ture, including  an  Armenian  translation  of  the 
Bible  (1734)  ;  their  editions  are  imiversally  ad- 
mitted to  be  the  best  and  most  correct.  They 
also  issue  a  journal,  which  is  much  read  through- 
out the  Levant.  Those  in  Vienna  conduct  a  Car- 
man bookstore.  For  the  history  of  those  at 
Venice,  consult :  Bor§,  Le  couvent  de  Saint  Lazare 
d  Veniae,  ou  hiatoire  auccincte  de  Vordre  dea 
M^hitariatea  arnUniena  (Paris,  1837)  ;  also 
Langlois,  Le  couvent  arm^nien  de  Veniae  (Paris, 
1869)  ;  for  those  at  Vienna,  consult  Scherer,  Die 
M echitariaten  in  Wien  (5th  ed.,  Vienna,  1892). 

MEKLONQ,  m&-kl6iig^.  An  important  port 
on  the  south  coast  of  Siam  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Meklong  River,  40  miles  southwest  of  Bangkok 
(Map:  Siam,  D  4).  The  population  is  about 
10,000,  consisting  chiefly  of  Chinese  merchants 
and  Siamese  fishermen. 
MEK^NEZ.  A  city  in  Morocco.  SeeMsQUiNEZ. 
MEKONG,  mftkdng^,  or  CAMBOa>IA.  The 
largest  river  of  Indo-China.  Its  ultimate  source 
has  not  been  ascertained,  but  it  is  supposed  to 
rise  in  the  mountains  of  Central  Tibet,  not  far 
from  the  sources  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang  (Map: 
French  Indo-China,  £  5 ) .  It  flows  in  a  generally 
southeast  direction,  first  through  the  Chinese 
Empire,  where  it  is  generally  called  Lan-tsang, 
and  then  through  Ihdo-China,  where  it  forms  at 
first  the  boundary  between  Burma  and  Toncking, 
then  between  the  latter  and  Siam.  Its  lower 
course  is  through  Cambodia  and  Cochin-China. 
The  course  of  the  Mekong  after  it  enters  Indo- 
China  becomes  very  crooked  and  interrupted  by 
rapids  and  falls,  which  prevent  the  use  of  this 
great  river  as  a  waterway.  It  is  only  for 
the  insignificant  part  of  its  length  below  Khong, 
a  town  in  the  southeastern  comer  of  Siam,  that 
the  river  becomes  navigable.  Here  its  flow  be- 
comes less  turbulent  as  it  enters  its  great  alluvial 
plain.  Finally  it  divides  into  a  number  of  arms, 
forming  a  marshy  delta  which  occupies  almost  the 


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whole  of  Cochin-China,  and  through  which  the 
Mekong  enters  the  China  Sea  after  a  total  flow  of 
about  2800  miles.  At  the  town  of  Pnom  Ponk, 
in  Cambodia^  an  arm  extends  northwestward 
from  the  Mekong  to  the  large  lake  Tonle  Sap, 
which  at  one  time  discharges  into  the  Mekong 
and  at  another  is  fed  by  it. 

ME^LA^  PoMPONius.  A  Latin  writer,  the 
first  to  compose  a  strictly  geographical  work. 
He  was  a  native  of  Spain,  and  is  believed  to  have 
lived  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  but 
nothing  whatever  is  known  concerning  him. 
Mela's  compendium  is  in  three  books,  and  is  en- 
titled De  Situ  Orhis,  The  text  is  greatly  cor- 
rupted, on  account  of  the  abundance  of  proper 
names;  but  the  style  is  good,  and  the  author 
shows  a  very  creditable  diligence  of  research  and 
discrimination  in  the  use  of  his  authorities.  The 
editio  prxnceps  appeared  at  Milan  in  1471,  and 
there  is  an  early  translation  by  Arthur  Crolding 
(London,  1585).  There  are  good  editions  by 
Tzschucke  (Leipzig,  1807),  Parthey  (Berlin, 
1867),  and  Frick  (Leipzig,  1880). 

MEL'ALEtr^CA.  A  genus  of  plants.  See 
Cajeput. 

ITRTiAM^trS  (Lat.,  from  Qk.U^Kiiurwn,  Me- 
lampous).  In  Greek  legend,  the  son  of  Amy- 
thaon;  his  mother  is  said  by  different  authors 
to  be  Aglaia,  Rhodope^  or  Eidomene.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  a  physician  and  prophet,  and  is  said 
to  have  acquired  his  powers  of  divination  from 
Apollo,  who  imparted  to  him  all  the  secrets  of  the 
art  of  medicine.  Melampus  appears  in  two 
groups  of  legends.  In  one  he  and  his  brother 
Bias  came  from  Thessaiy  to  Pyius,  where  Bias 
fell  in  love  with  Pero,  daughter  of  Neleus.  Her 
father,  however,  required  her  suitor  to  bring  to 
him  the  herds  of  Iphiclus.  Melampus  went  on  this 
mission,  was  seized  and  thrown  into  prison,  but 
overheard  the  worms  in  the  beams  predict  the 
speedy  fall  of  the  building.  He  told  his  jailers, 
who  believed,  and  with  him  escaped  before  the 
fall.  The  King,  hearing  of  his  gifts,  secured  his 
aid  in  curing  a  disease  of  long  standing,  and  as 
his  fee  gave  him  the  much-desired  cattle.  He  was 
also  said  to  have  left  Neleus  and  gone  to  Argos, 
where  he  cured  the  Argive  women,  or,  according 
to  others,  the  daughters  of  King  Proetus,  of  mad- 
ness sent  by  Dionysus  or  Hera.  As  a  reward  he 
received  for  himself  the  hand  of  one  of  the  daugh- 
ters, Iphianassa,  and  a  third  of  the  land  of  Argos, 
and  another  third  for  Bias.  Thus  their  descend- 
ants, including  the  prophet  Amphiaratls,  ruled 
%long  with  the  descendants  of  Prcetus.  At  iSgos- 
thena  in  Megaris  Melampus  was  worshiped  as 
a  god,  having  a  temple  and  apparently  games  in 
his  honor. 

KELAKCHOLIA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ftg\ayxo\la, 
black  bile,  from  fJkas,  melas,  black  +  X^Xi^* 
choU^  bile).  A  form  of  insanity  characterized  by 
depression  both  of  emotional  state  and  of  nerve 
functions.  The  essential  feature  of  this  disorder 
is  sadness,  dejection,  despondency.  The  melan- 
choliac  is  gloomy,  full  of  forebodings  and  fearful 
anticipations,  convinced  of  physical  inferiority 
and  of  moral  worth lessness,  and  often  contem- 
plates, even  if  he  does  not  commit,  suicide.  A 
number  of  delusions  arise  in  almost  all  cases. 
He  may  even  commit  murder  to  save  himself  from 
his  own  expected  fate.  Disturbances  of  the  sense 
organs  may  cause  hallucinations  of  smell,  taste, 
and  sight.    In  some  cases,  overwhelmed  by  terror 


or  by  conviction  of  wrongdoing,  the  patient  bums 
or  mutilates  himself  in  a  paroxysm  of  fury  and 
during  a  reduction  of  consciousness.  This  con- 
dition, really  the  outcome  of  terror,  is  called 
melancholic  frenzy.  This  frenzy  occurs  in  alco- 
holics as  a  result  of  the  familiar  hallucinations 
of  frightful  animals,  fires,  and  of  fearful  fore- 
bodings. In  melancholia  there  is  more  apparent 
bodily  disorder  during  the  attack  than  in  mania. 
Constipation^  dryness  of  tongue  and  throat,  ab- 
sence of  appetite,  and  headache  are  prominent. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  melancholia.  Mel- 
ancholia agitata  occurs  when  the  patient  is  active 
and  excited,  restlessly  running  about,  weeping  and 
beseeching  and  wringing  his  nands.  Melancholia 
aitonita  occurs  when  the  patient  is  practically  mo- 
tionless, fastening  his  gaze  on  the  floor,  lethargic 
and  relaxed  with  *frozen  expression.*  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  arouse  the  atonic  melancholiac  to  take 
food,  or  to  answer  questions.  He  must  be  dressed 
and  undressed  by  an  attendant.  Melancholia 
simplex  has  been  described.  Melancholia  sine 
dcliriOf  less  happily  designated  'reasoning  melan- 
cholia,* is  a  form  of  the  disorder  in  which  there 
is  neither  delirium  nor  delusion  nor  hallucina- 
tion. This  is  also  known  as  'affective  melan- 
cholia,* since  the  emotional  or  affective  sphere 
is  chiefly  at  fault. 

There  is  a  preliminary  period  during  which  the 
patient  complains  of  inability  to  fix  his  at- 
tention, faltering  memory,  and  slow  intellection. 
An  attack  of  melancholia  rarely  appears  without 
this  preliminary  period  except  wnen  it  follows 
an  emotional  shock  or  an  exhausting  fever.  An 
attack  of  melancholia  lasts  from  a  few  weeks  to 
about  eight  months  in  most  cases.  Some  attacks 
continue  for  over  a  year.  Accurate  figures  as  to 
the  percentage  of  cases  of  melancholia  to  the 
whole  number  of  insane  cannot  be  reached;  but 
the  proportion  is  about  14  per  cent.  Sixty  per 
cent,  of  melancholiacs  recover.  The  treat- 
ment of  melancholia  consists  in  constant  surveil- 
lance, regular  and  ample  nourishment,  cardiac 
and  general  stimulants,  hygienic  measures,  and 
interesting  occupation.  Travel  benefits  many,  but 
unremitting  vigilance  is  necessary  to  prevent 
accident  or  suicide.    See  Insanitt. 

MELANCHOLY  JAQITES.  A  name  used 
of  J.  J.  Rousseau  because  of  his  morbid  nature, 
and  suggested  by  Jaques  in  Shakespeare's  As 
You  Like  It. 

'UngT.A'iTc^w'i^itQir,  m^-lftok^thon,  Oer,  pron. 
mA-laok'tdn,  Phtltpp  (1497-1660).  The  associ- 
ate of  Luther  in  the  Protestant  Reformation,  and 
the  foremost  teacher  of  his  time,  in  the  words  of 
Hallam,  "far  above  all  others  the  founder  of  gen- 
eral learning  throughout  Europe.**  He  sprang 
from  the  middle  class,  as  did  Luther  from  the 
lower.  His  father  was  an  armorer  in  favor  at 
Court,  his  mother  the  daughter  of  the  burgo- 
master of  Bretten  in  Baden,  where  he  was  born, 
February  6,  1497.  By  the  advice  of  his  grand- 
uncle,  the  learned  Reuchlin,  he  changed  his  fam- 
ily name,  when  he  entered  the  University  of  Hei- 
delberg at  the  age  of  twelve,  from  Schwarzerd 
(*Black  earth*)  into  its  Greek  equivalent, Melanch- 
thon,  a  common  practice  among  scholars.  Having 
taken  the  bachelor*s  degree  when  fourteen,  he 
took  the  master*s  degree  at  Tttbingen  when  seven- 
teen and  at  once  l^gan  to  lecture  on  Terence. 
Vergil,  and  rhetoric ;  when  nineteen  he  published 
an  edition  of  Terence,  which  ran  through  seventy- 
three  editions  in  the  course  of  about  a  century* 


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His  Latin  and  Qreek  grammars  enjoyed  still 
larger  use  even  in  Catholic  schools. 

Most  opportunely  for  Luther,  who  had  posted 
his  theses  the  year  before,  Melanchthon  was  now 
called  to  the  chair  of  Greek  at  Wittenberg,  and  in 
1518  delivered  his  inaugural  upon  "Reform  in 
the  Studies  of  Youth."  Those  who  had  depre- 
ciated him  for  his  boyish  appearance  immediately 
changed  to  admiration.  Tne  next  year  Melanch- 
thon took  the  bachelor's  degree  in  theology,  but 
modestly  declined  the  doctorate.  Never  ordained, 
never  preaching,  he  remained,  like  Calvin,  a  lay 
theologian  to  the  end  of  his  days.  His  lectures 
were  thronged,  sometimes,  as  reported,  to  the 
number  of  two  thousand,  including  even  princes 
and  noblemen. 

From  his  classical  studies,  he  was  drawn  by 
Luther's  urgency  and  the  prevailing  ferment 
into  the  field  of  theology.  By  his  Loci  Com- 
muneSf  i.e.  general  outlines  of  theology,  he  made 
in  1521  his  first  great  contribution  to  the  Refor- 
mation. From  Melanchthon's  architectural  and 
organizing  spirit,  according  lo  Domer's  view,  the 
truth  bom  in  Luther's  heart  received  its  object- 
ive form  and  the  stamp  of  validity.  Equally  im- 
portant was  the  aid  he  gave  to  Luther's  Bible 
work,  in  which  the  accuracy  is  his,  while  its 
idiomatic  force  and  beauty  are  Luther's.  In  1526 
he  became  professor  of  theology  in  name,  as  for 
years  he  had  been  in  fact. 

Among  the  Reformers,  Melanchthon  was  char- 
acteristically the  peacemaker.  The  Augsburg 
Confession,  presented  by  the  Protestants  at  the 
Diet  in  1530,  surprised  even  the  Catholics  by  its 
moderate  tone.  The  tone  was  Melanchthon's,  who 
drafted  it  from  articles  drawn  up  by  Luther.  In 
1531  Melanchthon  published  his  Apology — a  vin- 
dication of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  and  the 
most  learned  of  the  Lutheran  symbols.  After 
this  date  he  wrote  his  name  'Melanthon,'  as  eas- 
ier to  pronounce.  His  irenic  spirit  prompted  him 
to  issue  a  modified  edition  of  the  Confession,  the 
Variata  (1540),  generalizing  specific  statements 
of  the  Lutherans  objectionable  to  the  Calvinists, 
with  the  design  of  removing  impediments  to  the 
union  of  the  two  parties.  But  such  efforts  only 
brought  bitter  trouble  upon  Melanchthon.  He 
had  now  reached  the  limit  of  his  successes,  and 
his  remaining  years  were  darkened  bv  the  failure 
of  his  efforts  for  a  more  ethical  theology,  and 
for  the  union  of  the  Protestant  factions. 

Melanchthon's  treatises  on  ethics,  in  which 
Aristotle  was  his  master,  became  standard  text- 
books. These  ethical  studies  revealed  to  him 
defects  in  his  theological  masterpiece,  the  Loci 
Communes,  which  he  amended  by  successive  re- 
visions in  1535  and  1543.  They  also  occasioned 
a  serious  breach  between  the  Thilippists'  and 
the  strict  Lutherans,  whose  extreme  denial  of 
the  freedom  of  the  will  made  Christian  ethics 
impossible.  Cries  of  heresy  arose,  which  no  ex- 
planations could  still.  Another  breach  was 
caused  by  Melanchthon's  slow  but  sure  change 
from  the  Lutheran  conception  of  the  mode  of 
Christ's  presence  in  the  Lord's  Supper  to  the 
Calvinistic.  A  third  ground  of  odium  was  Me- 
lanchthon's willingness,  for  the  sake  of  avoiding 
civil  war,  to  compromise  with  the  Catholics  by 
securing  tolerance  of  evangelical  doctrine,  but  re- 
taining most  of  the  Roman  ceremonies,  as  *adia- 
phora'  (things  indifferent).  In  the  bitter  contro- 
versy which  ensued  the  Philippists  were  hounded 
as  *knaves,  Samaritans,  and  Baalites.'    Melanch- 


thon's relations  with  Luther  were  strained,  but 
to  the  last  his  gentle  spirit  held  captive  that  fiery 
heart.  He  looked  forward  to  death  as  "escape 
from  the  madness  of  theologians."  His  last 
prayer  was  "that  the  churches  might  be  of  one 
mind  in  Christ."    He  died  April  19,  1560. 

Melanchthon  seems  from  one  point  of  view  to 
have  been  born  betore  his  time,  and  has  been  lonT 
in  coming  to  his  rights.  In  a  period  of  fanatical 
strife,  he  earnestly  strove  to  bring  about  Chris- 
tian unity.  But  on  the  honor-roll  of  the  Refor- 
mation his  is  conspicuously  the  historical,  ju- 
dicial, progressive  spirit.  His  one  great  weak- 
ness was  his  consenting  with  Luther  and  others 
to  the  bigamy  of  Philip  of  Hesse,  and  his  regret 
for  it  threw  him  into  a  dangerous  illness.  De- 
clining invitations  to  other  German  cities,  to 
France,  to  Denmark,  to  England,  he  stood  un- 
flinchingly to  his  post  in  stormy  Wittenberg. 
The  churches  he  found  it  impossible  to  reconcile 
now  unite  in  honoring  him.  Lacking  the  dra- 
matic element  which  draws  the  popular  heart  to 
Luther,  his  blending  of  progress  and  tolerance,  of 
sweetness  and  light,  attracts  the  cultivated  mind. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  Mclauchthon's  works,  includ- 
ing his  correspondence,  fill  volumes  i.-xxviii.  of  the 
Corpus  Reformatorum,  edited  by  Bretschneider 
and  Bindseil  (Halle,  1832-50).  The  Wittenberg 
edition  of  his  works  was  published  in  1562-64. 
His  Loci  Communes,  edited  by  Plitt  (Erlangen, 
1864),  was  reSdited  by  Kolde  (Erlangen,  1890). 
In  German  consult  his  Lehen  und  Wirken,  bv 
Matthes  Altenburg  (1841;  2d  ed.  1846);  his 
Lehen  und  Schriften,  by  C.  Schmidt  (Elberfeld, 
1861).  For  biography  consult  his  Life  (in 
Latin)  by  his  friend  Camerarius  (Leipzig,  1566), 
edited  by  Neander  in  Vita  Quattuor  Re  forma- 
torum  (Berlin,  1846)  ;  also  Krotel's  English 
translation  of  the  Life  by  Ledderhose  (Philadel- 
phia, 1855).  J.  W.  Richards,  Philipp  Melanch- 
thon (New  York,  1898)  is  both  popular  and  ac- 
curate. Valuable  in  special  points  of  view  are: 
Hartfelder,  Philipp  Melanchthon  als  Prceceptor 
Oermanice  (Berlin,  1889)  ;  Herrlinger,  Die  The- 
ologie  lfeZanc/it^on4(  Leipzig,  1878)  ;  Galle,  Char- 
akteristik  Melanchihons  (Halle,  1840).  Volumes 
vi.  and  vii.  of  Schaff's  History  of  the  Christian 
Church  (New  York,  1890)  and  volume  iii.  of 
Schaff's  Creeds  of  Christendom (IfJew  York,  1890) 
contain  much  valuable  biographical  and  theolo- 
gical matter  concerning  Melanchthon. 

MEL'ANB'SIA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^Aat. 
melas,  black  -f  i^of,  n^os.  Island).  A  name 
applied  to  that  division  of  Oceanica  in  which, 
the  inhabitants  have  a  dark  skin,  as  distinguished 
from  those  of  Micronesia  and  Polynesia,  who  are 
much  lighter.  (See  Melanesians. )  It  com- 
prises all  the  islands  lying  between  New  Guinea 
and  the  Fiji  Islands,  and  between  the  Equator  and 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  (Map:  East  Indies,  H 
4).  It  mcludes  the  following  groups:  Admiralty 
Islands,  Bismarck  Archipelago,  Solomon  Islands, 
Santa  Cruz,  New  Hebrides.  New  Caledonia,  Loy- 
alty Islands,  and  Fiji  Islands.  The  last  are 
sometimes  classed  with  the  Polynesian  Islands, 
while  New  Guinea  is  sometimes  included  in  Mel- 
anesia. For  details,  see  the  articles  on  the  sepa- 
rate groups. 

MELANESIANS.  The  natives  of  that  part 
of  Oceanica  known  as  Melanesia  (q.v.).  Some 
authorities  consider  them  physically  and  lin- 
guistically a  compound  of  the  woolly-haired  black 
Papuans,  who  may  have  been  the  aborigines  of 


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MELAKISK. 


Melanesia,  with  the  smooth-haired,  light-colored 
Malays,  who  came  to  the  archipelago  as  adven- 
turers and  immigrants.  Of  all  the  islanders  of 
these  regions  they  present  in  individual  cases  the 
strongest  likeness  to  the  e<juatorial  African 
negro.  Other  scholars  recognize  a  ^Aielanesian 
race/  divided  into  Papuans  and  Melanesiana 
proper,  the  latter  being  taller  and  more  dolichoce- 
phalic than  the  former,  and  ha  vine  generally  the 
large  square  or  lozenge-shaped  face  with  the 
straight  or  retrousa^  nose  of  tne  Melanesian  race. 
The  Melanesian  is  the  most  primitive  form  of 
Oceanic  speech.  The  Melanesians  are  in  general 
sedentary  and  devoted  to  agriculture,  being  only 
occasionally  hunters  and  fishers,  and  they  use 
the  pig  as  a  domestic  animal.  Many  of  the  Mel- 
anesians make  pottery,  an  art  practiced  by 
few  of  the  Polynesians.  They  nave  double 
canoes  and  outriggers,  but  are  not  given,  like  the 
Polynesians,  to  long  voyages.  With  most  of  them 
the  characteristic  dwelling  is  built  on  piles  (see 
Lake-Dwelungs),  and  often  artistically  deco- 
rated, while  communal  houses  are  found  all  over 
the  Melanesian  area.  The  bow  and  arrow 
(sometimes  poisoned)  are  in  use,  with  the  club 
and  spear,  which  lend  themselves  to  ornamenta- 
tion. Some  of  the  hafted  stone  axes  of  the  Mel- 
anesians are  very  fine  specimens  of  their  kind. 
Kava,  the  characteristic  drink  of  the  Polynesians, 
is  absent,  but  betel-chewing  prevails  generally  ex- 
cept in  New  Caledonia.  The  Solomon  Islands 
and  a  few  other  places  still  present  exilmples  of 
cannibalism,  while  head-hunting,  together  with 
the  preservation  of  the  skulls  of  the  dead,  is  well 
known.  Taboo  assumes  in  Melanesia  a  less  clear 
form  than  in  Polynesia,  amounting  to  simple  in- 
terdiction without  the  intervention  of  mysterious 
forces.  Tribes  proper  are  rare  in  Melanesia.  The 
regulation  of  'group  marriages'  is  very  strict. 
Secret  societies  abound,  including  the  famous 
duk-duk  (q.v.),  which  corresponds  in  several  curi- 
ous respects  to  the  modem  club.  The  highest 
development  of  the  Melanesian  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Fiji  Islands,  now  a  British  colony,  the  low- 
est in  some  parts  of  New  Caledonia  and  the  Solo- 
mon Islands.  Consult:  Finsch,  Anthropologische 
ErgehnUse  einer  Reise  in  der  Siidsee  (Berlin, 
1884)  ;  Imhans,  Les  Nouvelles- Hebrides  (Nancy, 
1890)  ;  Guppy,  The  Solomon  Islands  and  Their 
Natives  (Ix)ndon,  1887)  ;  Legrand,  Au  pays  des 
Canaques  (Paris,  1893)  ;  Codrington,  The  Mela- 
nesian Languages  (Oxford,  1886)  ;  id..  The  Mela^ 
nesians :  Studies  in  Their  Anthropology  and  Folk- 
Lore  (ib.,  1891);  Parkinson,  Die  Volkerstamme 
yeu-Pommerns  (Berlin,  1899)  ;  id.,  Im  Bis- 
marcks-Archipel  (Leipzig,  1887)  ;  Haddon,  Head- 
Hunters,  Black,  White,  and  Brown  (London, 
1902)  ;  Oaggin,  Among  the  Man-Eaters:  Fiji  and 
Solomon  Islands  (London,  1900)  ;  Melching, 
Staatenbildung  in  Melanesien  (Leipzig,  1897). 

KEL'ANITDJS  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
melania,  from  Gk.  fteXavta,  blackness,  from  fi4^c, 
melas,  black).  An  extensive  group  of  freshwater 
gastropod  moUusks  characterized  by  the  long 
spiral  shell,  with  the  whorls  more  or  less  knobbed 
or  tuberculated,  ribbed  or  striated,  and  a  homy 
operculum.  The  animal  has  a  broad  foot  or 
creeping  disk,  grooved  in  front;  it  is  ovo- 
viviparous.  The  species  date  from  the  Cre- 
taceous period.  They  live  in  rivers,  and  thef 
tubercles  protect  them  from  injury  in  rapid 
rocky  streams.  The  species  are  distributed 
throughout  North  Africa,  Syria,  China,  India, 


the  Philippine  Islands,  Polynesia,  and  South 
America.  In  the  Southern  United  States,  mostly 
in  a  rough  square  formed  by  the  Tennessee,  the 
Mississippi,  the  Chattahoochee  rivers  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  occur  in  abundance  the  Pleuro- 
cerids,  represented  by  the  genus  lo,  which  were 
formerly  associated  with  the  Melaniidse. 

MET/ANIP^E.  (1)  In  Greek  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Chiron.  Being  about  to  bear  a  child, 
she  fled  to  Mount  Pelion  to  conceal  herself  from 
her  father,  and  was  changed  into  a  mare  by 
Artemis  and  placed  among  the  constellations. 
She  is  also  called  Evippe.  (2)  A  sister  of  Mel* 
eager,  who  died  with  grief  at  her  brother's  fate. 
(3)  A  sister  of  Hippolyte  and  Queen  of  the 
Amazons. 

HEL'ANrP^trS.  In  Greek  mythology,  a 
Theban,  the  slayer  of  Tydeus  in  the  expedition  of 
the  Seven  against  Thebes.  He  was  himself  killed 
by  Amphiaraus. 

HEIiANISM  (from  Gk,  fiiXac,  melas,  black), 
and  ALBINISM  ( from  Lat.  alhus,  white) .  Mel- 
anism is  a  phenomenon  due  to  excess  of  pigment, 
while  albinism  is  due  to  its  absence.  Albinism  is  a 
pathological  condition,  while  melanism  is  usually 
normal.  Melanism  occurs  in  insects,  fishes,  rep- 
tiles, birds,  and  mammals,  and  is  noticeable  in 
man.  While  in  animals  and  man  albinism  is  the 
result  of  disease,  it  may  occur  in  nature  as  a 
sport;  thus  we  have  albino  varieties.  The  ab- 
sence of  pigment  is  normal  in  such  Arctic  animals 
as  the  polar  bear,  the  northern  or  white  owl,  etc. ; 
others  turn  white  in  winter,  as  the  Arctic  fox, 
the  American  varying  hare,  the  ptarmigan,  etc. 
The  change  of  color  m  such  cases  is  apparently 
due  to  cold,  and  is  associated  with  the  develop- 
ment of  numerous  air-bubbles  in  the  hair;  in 
some  cases  there  is  no  loss  of  pigment,  which  is 
merely  concealed  by  the  air-bubbles  (Newbigin). 

In  man  the  dark  races  owe  the  color  of  their 
skin  to  a  black  pigment  deposited  in  the  deeper 
layers  of  the  epidermis,  this  pigment  in  the 
blonde  or  white  race  being  but  slightly  developed. 
As  the  darkest  negroes  inhabit  the  low  torrid 
coast  of  West  Africa,  the  pigmentation  seems  due 
to  light,  heat,  and  moisture  combined.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  cool  damp  climate  of  elevated  or 
mountain  regions  and  of  the  polar  lands  causes 
melanism.  It  is  well  known  that  the  insects, 
more  especially  moths  and  butterflies,  inhabiting 
Alpine  slopes  or  moimtain  regions  are  darker 
than  individuals  of  the  same  species,  or  of  allied 
species,  living  on  the  drier  and  warmer  lowlands. 
Packard  has  called  attention  to  the  melanotic 
moths  on  the  summits  of  the  White  Mountains  of 
New  Hampshire  and  along  the  coast  of  Labrador. 
Leydig  was  the  first,  perhaps,  to  point  out  that 
variation  toward  greater  darkness  of  coloring 
is  connected  with  the  action  of  moisture.  The 
temperature  experiments  of  Weismann,  W.  H. 
Edwards,  and  Merri field  have  proved  that  be- 
sides moisture  and  elevation  cold  is  an  im- 
portant agent  in  excessive  pigmentation,  at  least, 
of  Lepidoptera  and  beetles.  But  melanism  is 
not  entirely  confined  to  northern  animals.  The 
black  leopard  of  Southern  Asia  is  a  melanotic 
variety  or  sport  of  the  common  leopard.  The 
varying  hare  is  infrequently  melanistic. 

The  prevailing  coloring  matters  in  the  pigments 
of  mammals  are  the  dull-colored  melanins.  It 
has  been  thought  that  in  mammals  the  pigment 
is  directly  derived  from  the  hsemoglobin  of  the 


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288 


KELBOXTBKE. 


blood.  Floyd,  however,  has  shown  that  the  skin 
of  the  negro  contains  about  twice  as  much  iron 
as  the  white  skin,  apparently  due  to  the  proteid 
present  in  the  pigment  granules. 

Bibliography.  Newbigin,  Color  in  Nature 
(London,  1898)  ;  Del^pine,  "Origin  of  Melanin," 
in  Journal  of  Physiology y  vol.  xi.  (1890). 

MEL^ANITE  (from  Gk.  /UXas,  melas,  black). 
See  Garnet. 

MEL'ANOBBHOE^A  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
^af,  melas,  black  +  foid^  rhoia,  a  flowing).  A 
genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Anacardia- 
cese.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  black  varnish 
tree  (Melanorrhaea  usitata)  of  Burma  and  the 
northeast  of  India,  called  Theet-see  or  Ziisi  in 
Burma,  and  Khew,  in  Manipur,  attaining  a  height 
of  100  feet,  with  large,  leathery,  simple,  entire, 
deciduous  leaves,  and  axillary  panicles  of  flowers. 
It  is  much  valued  as  a  varnish  for  painting  ves- 
sels intended  to  contain  liquids,  and  also  as  a 
size-glue  in  gilding.    See  Varnish  Tree. 

MELAPHYBE.     See  Basalt. 

MELAZZO,  mA-mt'sd.    See  Milazzo. 

MEI/BA,  Nellie  (1861 — ).  An  Australian 
operatic  soprano.  Her  family  name  is  Mitchell, 
and  Melba  is  an  adaptation  from  Melbourne,  in 
which  city  she  was  born.  She  studied  under 
Marchesi,  and  made  her  first  public  appearance 
as  Gilda  in  Rigoletto  at  Brussels  in  1887.  A  bril- 
liant coloratura  singer,  she  became  known  and 
admired  in  every  great  city  of  the  world,  being 
especially  successful  in  grand  opera  in  America. 
Her  first  appearance  in  this  country  was  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York,  in  1893,  in 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor.  She  gained  unusual  dis- 
tinction in  the  rAles  of  Ophelia,  Nedda,  Juliette, 
Lucia,  and  Elisabeth. 

MELBOtTBNE,  m&l^tlm.  The  capital  of 
Victoria,  Australia,  and  the  temporary  capital 
of  the  commonwealth,  situated  chiefly  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Yarra,  which  river  finds  its  out- 
let a  few  miles  from  the  city  in  Hobson's  Bay 
(Map:  Victoria,  E  6).  The  bay  is  the  northern 
bend  of  the  spacious  inlet  known  as  Port  Phillip, 
the  entrance  of  which  is  40  miles  south  of  the 
city,  near  the  southernmost  extremity  of  the 
continent.  Melbourne  occupies  a  high  rank 
among  British  colonial  ports,  and  is  the  second 
important  trading  town  of  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere. Melbourne  is  connected  with  all  State 
lines  of  railway,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  system. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  and 
of  a  Protestant  bishop,  and  the  seat  of  various 
consuls,  including  a  United  States  consul-gen- 
eral. The  city  is  laid  out  with  straight,  wide, 
and  regular  streets,  wood-blocked  or  macadam- 
ized, and  supplied  with  gas,  electric  lighting, 
street  tramways,  and  fresh  water.  It  has  been 
said  that  Melbourne's  public  buildings  are  finer 
than  those  of  any  other  city  of  the  same  size  in 
any  part  of  the  world.  Among  the  most  notable 
must  be  mentioned  the  magnificent  Houses  of 
Parliament  (now  used  by  the  Federal  Legisla- 
ture), with  its  library  of  over  52,000  volumes; 
the  Treasury;  the  Law  Courts;  the  building  as- 
sembling within  its  walls:  (  1)  the  Public  Li- 
brary of  300,000  volumes,  (2)  the  National  Gal- 
lery, (3)  the  Technological  Museum,  and  (4) 
the  Sculpture  Gallery;  the  Post  Office;  offices  of 
the  Mining,  Lands  and  other  Government  De- 
partments, the  Customs  House;   the  Mint;   the 


Treasury;  the  University,  with  its  fine  attached 
museum,  its  magnificent  Wilson  Hall  and  affi- 
liated Trinity,  Ormond,  and  Queen's  Colleges; 
the  Town  Hall,  with  its  grand  organ,  and  its  as- 
sembly room;  the  Stock  Exchange;  the  Exhibi- 
tion Building  in  the  Carlton  Gardens,  in  which 
the  Commonwealth's  first  Parliament  was  inaug- 
urated by  the  present  Prince  of  Wales  in  the 
presence  of  an  illustrious  and  representative 
gathering;  the  Produce  Markets;  the  Eastern 
Market;  the  Fire  Brigade  Station;  the  City 
Baths ;  the  London  Bank  of  Australia ;  the  Banks 
of  Australasia,  Victoria,  and  New  Zealand;  the 
Colonial,  the  English,  Scottish,  and  Australian, 
and  the  Commercial  Banks;  the  National  Mutual 
Life  Office;  the  Equitable  Life  Assurance  Society 
of  the  United  States  of  America;  the  Western, 
the  Queen  Victoria,  and  the  Fish,  Cattle  and 
Hay  Markets;  St.  Patrick's  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral;  St.  Paul's  Anglican  Cathedral;  the 
Scot's,  the  Wesley,  the  Independent,  and  the 
Baptist  Churches,  and  six  theatres  and  numerous 
amusement  halls.  There  are  many  parks  and 
pleasure  grounds  in  Melbourne  and  its  suburbs, 
a  beautiful  Government  domain,  and  botanical 
and  zodlogical  gardens,  and  cricket  and  football 
grounds.  The  Governor-General's  and  State  Gov- 
ernor's residences  are  here;  the  Commonwealth 
headquarters'  barracks;  an  observatory  and  a 
meteorological  station;  numerous  schools  for  sec- 
ondary education,  including  the  famous  Scotch 
College;  and  the  institutions  of  many  learned 
and  scientific  and  literary  societies. 

Melbourne  is  a  manufacturing  city  in  the  wid- 
est sense.  Its  suburbs  include  eight  proclaimed 
cities,  and  contain  altogether  426,125  inhabitants. 
The  entrance  to  Port  Phillip,  which  is  only  two 
miles  wide,  is  formed  by  two  projecting  and 
strongly  fortified  promontories,  called  the  Heads. 
Vessels  drawing  22  feet  reach  Melbourne  at  ordi- 
nary tides.  There  are  two  dry  docks  at  Mel- 
bourne, and  the  splendid  Alfred  Graving  Dock  at 
Williamstown.  The  chief  exports  are  gold,  sil- 
ver, wool,  hides,  cattle,  and  sheep.  Six-sevenths 
of  the  commerce  of  the  State  is  carried  on  by 
Melbourne.  For  further  information  regarding 
trade,  etc.,  see  Victoria. 

Melbourne  was  first  colonized  in  1835,  and  re- 
ceived its  name  in  1837  from  Sir  Richard  Bourke, 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales,  who  founded  it, 
and  named  it  after  Lord  Melbourne,  then  British 
Prime  Minister.  It  became  the  see  of  a  bishop  in 
1847,  and  in  1851  the  capital  of  the  newly  formed 
colony  of  Victoria.  The  discoveiy  of  gold  in 
Victoria  in  1851  gave  an  extraordinary  impetus 
to  the  material  prosperity  of  Melbourne.  The 
Australian  centenary  was  commemorated  at 
Melbourne  in  1888  by  an  international  exhibi- 
tion. The  first  Federal  Parliament  of  the  Aus- 
tralian Commonwealth  was  opened  in  the  Ex- 
hibition buildings  on  Wednesday,  May  9,  1901, 
by  the  present  Prince  of  Wales,  Melbourne  being 
chosen  as  the  temporary  capital  pending  the  choice  ' 
of  a  seat  on  federal  territory  in  New  South  Wales. 
Population  of  Melbourne  proper  (1901),  67,- 
881,  including  suburbs,  493,956;  estimated 
December  31,  1905,  city  99,880;  including 
suburbs,  511,900.  Consult  Finn,  Chronicles  of 
Early  Melbourne  (Melbourne,  1889)  ;  Gordon 
and  Gotch,  Australian  Handbook  (1906)  ;  Labil- 
liere,  Early  History  of  the  Colony  of  Victoria 
(I^ndon,  1800-81 )  ;  and  Early  Days  of  Melbourne 
(Melbourne,  1857). 


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MBLCHES^^Jg 


M 


XEIiBOXTBNE,  WnxiAic  Lahb^  second  Vis* 
<$ount  (1779-1848).  An  English  statesman.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  graduated  in  1796,  and  at  Glas- 
^w  (1799),  where  he  studied  jurisprudence  and 
politics  under  Millar.  One  year  after  his  ad- 
mission to  the  bar  (1804)  he  entered  the  House 
of  Conmsons  for  Leominster  and  joined  the  Whig 
opposition,  under  the  leadership  of  Charles  Jamet 


MBLCHEBS,  Paulus  (1813-95).  A  German 
cardinal.  He  was  born  at  MOnster,  Westphalia. 
In  1841  he  was  ordained  priest  and  in  1857  was 
made  Bishop  of  Osnabrttck.  In  1865  he  was  nomi- 
nated Archbishop  of  Cologne  by  Pius  IX.  At  the 
Vatican  Council  Melchers  at  first  opposed  the 
doctrine  of  infallibility,  but  afterwarcb  acknowl- 
edged it,  when  the  majority  decided  in  favor  of  it. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Kulturkampf, 


Fox.    As  a  consequence  of  his  favoring  Catholic    and  thereby  freouently  came  in  conflict  with  the 
emancipation,    he    lost   his    seat    in    1812,    but    Government  authorities,  and  was  removed  from 


when  he  returned,  a  few  years  later,  he  came  back 
a  follower  of  Canning,  and  in  1827  accepted  the 
chief  secretaryship  of  Ireland  in  Canning's  Gov- 
•ernment.  In  1828  the  death  of  his  father  trans- 
ferred him  to  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1830  he 
accepted  the  seals  of  the  home  office  in  the  Gov- 
•emment  of  Earl  Grey,  but  his  administration 
was  by  no  means  popular  or  successful.  In  July, 
1834,  Earl  Grey  retired  and  William  IV.  sent  for 
Melbourne.  In  November,  however,  on  a  slight 
pretext,    the    King,    who    had    become    entirely 


office  in  1876.  He  became  cardinal  in  1885.  He 
wrote:  Fine  Untertceiaung  fur  das  heilige  Altar- 
sakrament  (1878);  Die  katholische  Lehre  de$ 
Berrn  ( 1883 )  ;  and  Das  Leben  der  allerseligsten 
Jungfrau  und  Oottesmutter  (1884). 

MELCHIADES,  mel-kl^A-dSz.    See  Miltiades. 

MELCHITES,  mSl^ts  (MGk.  MeXx^nrt,  Mel- 
ohitfy,  from  Syr.  malkayS,  royal,  from  melek, 
king) .  Originally  a  nickname  given  by  the  Mono- 
physites  in  the  Fifth  Century  to  the  Christians 


:alienated  from  the  Whigs  and  Melbourne,  invited  ^ho  remained  orthodox  in  the  patriarchates  of 

Sir  Robert  Peel  to  form  a  Conservative  Ministry.  i?^?*^®™»  Alexandria,  and  Antioch.     Since  the 

On  Peers  arrival  in  England  he  dissolved  Parlia-  Thirteenth  Century,  however,  the  name  has  been 

ment  and  appealed  to  the  country,  but  was  defeat-  ^P?''^^  to  the  Christians  of  Eastern  rite  in  Syria 

ed;  the  new  Commons,  resenting  the  interference  JS,"^  Egypt  who  are  m  communion  with  Rome. 

K>f  the  King,  made  Peel's  task  an  impossible  one,  so  t^^^J^^^t,^^  *  patriarchate  of  their  own,  tak- 

early  in  1835  Melbourne  again  becaW^First  Lord  ^«  '^  title  from  Antioch,  since  1744.     Besides 

of  the  Treasury  and  Premiir.    On  the  accession  of  P^^^scus,  there  are  twelve  other  dioceses  subject 

Queen  Victorik  in  1837,  it  became  the  duty  of  ^.  ^"   *5*^^"*fAn^^  ^^"^^^   ^21  S""*   ^ 

Melbourne  to  instinct  the  yo^g^  KxtciTs^lT^^^^              SeeE^sxEB. 

various  duties  of  her  high  station.    In  1841  his  ****"'»  '  v>«xax«.o. 

Government  was  succeeded  by  that  of  Sir  Robert  MBLCHIZBDBK,  or  MELCHISEDEC,  m«l- 

Peel.     Henceforward  Melbourne  took  little  part  klz'^dCk   (Heb.  Malki-fedelp,  king  of  righteous- 

in  public  affairs.    His  administrations  advocated  ness).    A  personage  introduced  in  Gen.  xiv.  18, 

reform  of  Church  tithes,  in  both  England  and  »»  *^ng  of  Salem'  and  'priest  of  the  most  high 

Ireland,    of    municipal    corporations,    taxation,  God.'     This  chapter,  while  probably  resting  on 

•criminal  law,  postal  rates  and  education,  yet  he  *^°*®  obscure  reminiscences  in  which  Babylonian 

himself   cared   little   for   reform.     He   married  history  ^as  been  brought  into  artificial  connec- 

(1805)   a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Bessborough,  **on  with  tribal  quarrels  in  Eastern  Palestine,  is 

who,  under  the  title  of  Lady  Caroline  Lamb,  regarded  by  many  scholars  as  a  late  production  in 


attained  some  celebrity  as  a  novel-writer  and  a 
•correspondent  of  Lord  Byron.  Consuxc :  Torrens, 
Memoirs  of  Lord  Melbourne  (London,  1875); 
Sanders,  Lord  Melbourne's  Papers  (London, 
1889) ;  Hayward,  "Essay  on  Lord  Melbourne,"  in 
K/elebrated  Statesmen  and  Writers. 

MELCHEBS,  mSlK^drs,  Gabi  J.  ( I860—) .  An 
American  painter,  bom  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  a 
pupil  of  the  Dtlsseldorf  Art  Academy,  of  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris,  and  of  Lefebvre 
and  Boulanger.  He  early  made  a  specialty  of 
Dutch  peasant  life.  At  the  Paris  Salon  he  was 
awarded  a  gold  medal  in  1886  and  a  medal  of 
honor  in  1889.  He  also  received  gold  medals  in 
Amsterdam,  Mmich,  Vienna,  Dre^en,  and  Ant- 
werp, and  at  Buffalo  in  1901  and  at  Saint  Louis 
in  1904.  Among  his  chief  works  are:  '*Mater- 
nity,"  in  the  Paris  Luxembourg;  **The  Family" 
National  Gallery  in  Berlin;  "The  Ship  Builder," 
Royal  Gallery,  Dresden;  "Dutch  Skaters,"  Phila- 
delphia Fine  Arts  Gallery;  "Sailor  and  his  Sweet- 
heart," Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburg.  His  works 
also  include  much  mural  decoration,  notably 
■**Peace  and  War,"  in  the  Congressional  Library 
at  Washington;   and  many  portraits.     He  was 


the  manner  of  the  post-exilic  Midrash — i.e.  a  half 
homiletical  and  half  l^endary  elaboration  of  an 
historical  tradition.  The  narrative  states  that 
after  Abraham's  return  from  the  successful  pur- 
suit of  Chedorlaomer  (q.v.),  King  of  Elam,  and 
his  allies,  which  he  had  undertaken  in  order  to 
rescue  Lot,  he  was  met  by  Melchizedek;  the  lat- 
ter offered  the  patriarch  bread  and  wine  and 
blessed  him;  wnereupon  Abraham  gave  Mel- 
chizedek tithes  from  the  spoil.  The  Midrashie 
character  of  the  story  is  made  evident  by  the 
names,  which  are  symbolical.  Salem — ^probably 
a  disguise  for  Jerusalem,  which,  as  the  Tell  el- 
Armama  tablets  show,  is  to  be  interpreted  as 
Ur-Salim  (*city  of  Salim') — signifies  'peace'  and 
Melchizedek  means  'king  of  righteousness.'  In 
the  Haggada  he  is  identified  with  Shem;  the 
reference  to  Melchizedek  in  Psalm  ex.  4  is  late  and 
obscure,  but  points  to  other  conceptions  current 
about  this  mysterious  personage.  In  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  (vi.  20;  vii.  1-21)  he  is  taken  as 
typifying  Christ  Various  other  views  arose 
with  regard  to  Melchizedek.  A  small  sect  in  the 
Fourth  Century  called  after  his  name,  Melchize- 
dekians,  taught  that  he  was  a  power  or  incarna- 
tion of  God  greater  even  than  Christ.   Epiphanius 


-elected  an  officer  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honor,  gays  that  some  in  his  day  believed  that  Melchize- 

and  an  associate  of  the  New  York  National  Acad-  ^ek  was  the  Son  of  God  in  human  form.    It  is  of 

•emy  of  Design.    At  Saint  Louis  in  1904  he  had  a  gome  importance  to  note,  as  throwing  perhaps 

remarkable  picture  of  a  young  Dutch  girl  in  her  gome  light  on  the  origin  of  the  'Melchizedek'  tra- 

^rst  communion  costume.  dition,  that  in  his  famous  code,  King  Hammurabi 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ineT^TTTTTCTngy, 


290 


jBkEidJuHJ^m 


fq.v.)  of  Babylon  gives  himself  the  title  *King  of 
Righteousness,*  as  the  lawyer  of  his  people. 

MSLCHTHAIf,  m6lK^tal,  Abnold  von.  A 
legendary  hero  of  the  Swiss  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence against  Austria  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  He  was  called  Melchthal 
from  the  village  of  his  birth  in  the  Canton  of 
Unterwalden,  but  his  name  was  Arnold  an  der 
Halden.  Arnold  killed  the  servant  of  an  Aus- 
trian bailiff,  who  had  come  to  Melchthal  to  seize 
the  oxen  of  Melchthal's  father,  a  well-to-do  pro- 
prietor in  Unterwalden.  In  revenge,  the  Aus- 
trian put  out  his  father's  eyes.  When  Melch- 
thal heard  of  his  father's  blindness,  he  met  his 
friends  Ftirst,  of  the  Canton  of  Uri,  and  Stauf- 
facher,  of  the  Canton  of  Schwyz,  on  the  banks  of 
Lake  Lucerne,  and  all  three  took  an  oath  to  do 
all  in  their  power  to  liberate  the  three  cantons 
from  Austrian  rule.  This  was  in  1307,  and  the 
next  year  the  mountaineers  of  the  three  cantons 
successfully  waged  war  against  the  Austrians. 
The  story  is  presumably  a  myth.  It  is  found  in 
the  Chronicon  Helveticum  of  .^idius  Tschudi 
(1605-72). 

MELCOMBE,  m^l^ihn,  Geobge  Bubb  Dod- 
INGTON,  Baron.     See  Dodington. 

MELOOMBE  BEGIS  AND  WEYMOUTH, 
m^l^tkm  rfe'jls  find  wft'mtith.  A  seaport  of  Eng- 
land.   See  Weymouth.  < 

MELDE^KTtrS,  Rupertus.  The  real  or  more 
probably  pseudonymous  author  of  the  Paramesia 
Votiva,  pro  Pace  Ecclesug,  ad  Theologoa  Au- 
guatancB  Confesaionis,  which  appeared  in  Ger- 
many about  1630,  without  place  of  publication 
or  date.  It  is  a  plea  to  the  Lutheran  theologians 
to  lay  aside  their  acrimonious  controversy. 

MEL'EA'aEB(Lat.,fromGk.  MeUaypoc,  Mele- 
agros).  In  Greek  legend,  the  hero  of  the  Caly- 
donian  boar-hunt.  In  the  earliest  known  form 
of  the  legend,  which  is  found  in  the  Iliads  he  is 
the  son  of  (Eneus,  King  of  JBtolia,  and  Althsea, 
daughter  of  Thestius.  When  the  Calydonian 
boar  (q.v.)  laid  waste  the  land,  he  gathered  a 
band  of  heroes,  and,  after  a  hard  struggle  and 
much  loss  of  life,  slew  the  monster.  A  strife 
arose  between  the  ^tolians  and  Curetes  over  the 
spoils  of  the  hunt,  in  which  Meleager  led  his 
people  to  victory,  until  he  killed  his  mother's 
trothers.  Althaea  then  cursed  her  son  and  prayed 
the  Furies  and  gods  of  the  lower  world  to  pun- 
ish him.  The  hero  in  anger  withdrew  from  the 
fight,  and.  knowing  his  fate,  refused  to  return, 
until  the  Curetes  had  actually  stormed  the  town, 
when  he  yielded  to  the  prayers  of  his  wife  and 
went  forth  to  save  his  people,  and  met  his  death, 
seemingly  at  the  hand  of  Apollo.  A  later  and 
more  popular  version  introauced  many  altera- 
tions. When  Meleager  was  seven  days  old  the 
Fates  told  his  mother  that  the  child  would  live 
till  a  brand  then  on  the  hearth  should  be  con- 
sumed. Althsea  thereupon  quenched  the  brand, 
and  put  it  in  a  chest.  Later,  on  the  news  of  the 
death  of  her  brothers,  she,  in  her  grief  and  rage, 
put  the  brand  again  upon  the  fire,  and  the  hero 
at  once  wasted  away.  This  story  appears  in  an 
Ode  of  Bacchylides.  Later  still,  new  features 
were  introduced.  The  hunt  brought  together 
many  heroes,  and  among  them  the  wild  Arcadian 
maiden  Atalanta  (q.v.),  with  whom  Meleager 
fell  in  love.  She  first  wounded  the  boar,  and 
received  from  her  lover  the  head  and  hide.  These 
the  sons  of  Thestius,  in  their  jealousy,  took  from 


her,  and  were  killed  by  their  nephew,  whereupon 
Althaea  consumed  the  brand,  Althsea  was  said 
to  have  killed  herself  in  remorse,  while  the  lam- 
entations of  his  sisters  and  the  women  of  Pleu- 
ron  so  moved  the  gods  that  they  changed  them  into 
guinea-hens  (^Aeayp/cJf f ) ,  with  the  exception  of 
the  two  sisters,  Deianira,  later  the  wife  of  Hercu- 
les, and  Gorge.  This  story  seems  due  to  Sophocles. 

The  C&lydonian  Hunt  was  a  favorite  subject 
with  the  vase-painters  from  early  times,  and  was 
also  taken  by  the  great  artist  Scopas  as  the  sub- 
ject for  one  of  the  pediments  of  the  temple  of 
Athena  Alea  at  Tegea.  Fragments  of  these  sculp- 
tures are  now  in  Athens.  A  statue  of  Meleager, 
copied  from  a  work  of  Scopas,  is  now  in  the  Vati- 
can at  Rome,  and  a  finer  copy  of  the  head  and 
torso  in  the  Fogg  Art  Museum  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. 

MELEAQEB  (flourished  c.60  B.C.).  A  Greek 
philosopher  and  epigrammatist,  bom  at  Gadara 
m  Syria.  He  compiled  the  first  known  Greek 
anthology,  a  collection  called  the  Garland  (2r^- 
4tavoc)t  which  contained  epigrams  by  40  authors, 
as  well  as  130  epigrams  of  his  own,  mostly  of 
an  erotic  character.  These  are  preserved  in  the 
later  collection  of  Constantinus  Cephalas,  known 
as  the  Palatine  Anthology  (q.v.).  Consult:  Sy- 
monds,  Studies  of  the  Oreek  Poets  (London, 
1893),  c.  21;  Guvrg,  M^legre  de  Oadara  (Paris, 
1894);  Radinger,  Meleagros  (Innsbruck,  1895); 
Pomeroy,  Meleager,  etc.    (London,   1895). 

MELEAQEB,  House  op.  A  large  house  in 
Pompeii,  so  called  from  a  picture  of  Meleager  and 
Atalanta  which  it  contains.  Its  walls  bear  nu- 
merous frescoes  and  a  number  are  now  preserved 
in  the  Naples  Museum.  The  oecus  was  in  the 
Corinthian  style,  with  a  colonnade  about  the 
sides  and  a  vaulted  central  portion. 

MELEAQEB^  Statue  of.  A  celebrated 
marble  in  the  Vatican,  representing  the  hero 
with  his  dog  and  a  boar's  head.  The  statue  be- 
longs to  the  Imperial  period  and  was  found  near 
the  Porta  Portese  at  Rome  about  1500. 

MEL'EA^GBIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  fu^eay pic,  sort 
of  guinea-fowl,  named  after  MeA^oypoc,  Meleagros, 
Meleager).  The  genus  of  the  pheasant  family 
that  contains  the  American  turkey  (q.v.)  ;  but 
the  term  belonged  originally  to  one  of  the  guinea- 
fowls  (q.v.). 

MELEGNANO,  mft'lft-nytt^nd  (formerly  if  art- 
gnano).  A  town  of  Northern  Italy,  10  miles 
southeast  of  Milan,  with  a  population  (1901) 
of  6666  inhabitants.  It  is  famous  as  the  scene 
of  a  great  victory  won  by  Francis  I.  of  France 
over  the  Swiss  and  Milanese,  September  13-14, 
1815.  The  defeat  at  Melegnano  did  much  to 
destroy  the  prestige  of  the  Swiss  pikemen,  who 
for  a  long  time  had  enjoyed  the  reputation  of 
being  the  best  soldiers  in  Europe.  Francis  ac- 
cepted the  honor  of  knighthood  on  the  field  from 
the  Chevalier  Bayard.  After  the  battle  Francis 
I.  made  a  treaty  with  the  Swiss,  which  lasted 
until  the  French  Revolution.  A  second  battle 
was  fought  here  June  8,  1859,  between  a  French 
force  of  16,000  men,  under  Marshal  Baraguay 
d'Hilliers,  and  a  somewhat  larger  body  of  Aus- 
trian troops,  the  latter  being  routed. 

MELEGITETTA  (mgr«-g6t'tA)  PEPPEB. 
See  Grains  of  Paradise;  Guinea  Pepper. 

MELEMA^  meWmk,  Tito.  In  George  Eliot's 
Romola,  a  pleasure-loving  and  unprincipled  young 
Greek,  the  husband  of  Romola. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


HELENA  ELPIS. 


291 


MEIX 


HELENA  EI/PLS.  A  pseudonym  of  Esp^ 
ranee  Ton  Schwartz  (q.v.). 

MELEHDEZ  VALDES,  mft-lftn'd&th  v&l- 
das',  Juan  (1754-1817).  A  Spanish  poet,  bora 
at  Ribera  del  Fresno,  in  Estremadura,  March  11, 
1754.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  and  began  his 
poetical  career  with  some  compositions  in  the 
manner  of  Lobo^  but  soon  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  elder  Moratin  and  other  members 
of  the  so-called  French  school  of  writers.  In 
1780  he  won  the  prize  of  the  Spanish  Academj 
for  an  ode.  Coming  to  Madrid  in  1781,  Melendez 
there  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  minister  and  au- 
thor, Jovellanos,  who  appointed  him  to  a  chair 
at  the  University  of  Salamanca.  In  this  intel- 
lectual centre  he  became  the  chief  figure  of  the 
Salamancan  circle  of  lyric  poets,  who  played  an 
important  part  in  the  regeneration  of  Spanish 
literary  production.  With  his  comedy.  Las  hodds 
de  Camacho,  he  won  a  prize  offered  by  the  city 
of  Madrid  in  1784;  but- the  play  failed  on  the 
stage.  The  next  year  he  published  his  first  vol- 
ume of  collected  poems,  which  marked  a  decided 
improvement  over  the  methods  both  of  contempo- 
raries and  of  most  lyric  poets  who  had  written 
since  the  aiglo  de  oro,  Melendez  now  entered 
upon  a  political  career  that  was  to  lead  to  his 
ruin.  At  his  own  request,  he  was  made  a  judge 
'  of  the  court  of  Saragossa  in  1789;  two  years 
later  he  was  promoted  to  the  chancery  of  Valla- 
dolid;  and  in  1707  he  was  given  a  post  at  the 
royal  Court.  In  1798  Me1endez*s  constant 
friend,  Jovellanos,  fell  from  favor  and  the 
former  was  involved  in  his  ruin.  He  was  exiled 
for  a  while,  but  in  1802  he  was  allowed  to 
settle  in  Salamanca.  He  identified  himself  with 
the  endeavors  of  the  Napoleonic  Government  in 
Spain.  Serving  this  cause,  he  incurred  the 
hatred  which  his  coimtrymen  felt  for  the  Afrance- 
sados,  and  on  several  occasions  he  nearly  lost  his 
life  at  the  hands  of  the  excited  populace.  With 
the  end  of  Joseph  Bonaparte's  rule,  he  had  to 
leave  Spain,  ana,  going  into  exile  in  France,  he 
died  at  Mont  pel  Her,  May  24,  1817.  During  this 
last  period  of  exile  he  prepared  a  final  edition 
of  his  lyrics,  which  did  not  appear,  however, 
until  1820.  Melendez  was  one  of  the  few  genuine 
poets  thai  Spain  produced  during  the  decadent 
period  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Consult  the  life 
of  Melendez  by  Quintana,  prefixed  to  the  edition 
of  his  poems  of  Madrid  (1820),  and  also  pub- 
lished with  Quin tana's  prose  works  in  volume 
xix.  of  the  Bihlioteca  de  autores  espaHoles;  and 
see,  also,  the  edition  of  his  poems  in  the  Bih- 
lioteca, vol.  Ixiii.,  and  E.  M6rim6e's  essay  on  him 
in  the  Revue  hiapanique,  vol.  i. 

MELETItrS,  mMg'shl-tis  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
IffAi^tof).  Bishop  of  Lycopolis  in  the  Thebais 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  and  found- 
er of  the  sect  of  the  Meletians.  According  to 
Epiphanius,  during  the  persecution  under  Diocle- 
tian and  Maximinus,  many  Christians  were  led 
through  torture  to  renounce  their  faith;  after- 
wards repenting  of  their  sin,  they  repaired  to 
the  bishops  to  receive  absolution,  and  to  be  recon- 
ciled to  the  Church.  Peter,  Archbishop  of  Alex- 
andria, was  willing  to  receive  the  backsliders, 
on  their  doing  penance,  but  Meletius  refused  to 
have  any  intercourse  with  them  until  the  close 
of  the  persecution.  This  caused  a  schism,  and 
Meletius  became  the  leader  of  the  disaffected. 
He  traveled  through  the  patriarchate,  ordaining 
and  excommunicating  according  to  his  own  will, 


obtaining  many  followers,  and  disregarding  the 
protest  of  the  Egyptian  bishops.  This  proselyting 
tour  was  extended  to  Palestine.  But  in  325  the 
Council  of  Nicsea  checked  his  career,  compelling 
him  to  remain  at  Lycopolis  as  a  mere  titular 
bishop  without  active  jurisdiction.  He  died  soon 
after  this.  The  Meletians  afterwards  allied 
themselves  with  the  Arians  against  Athanasius, 
continuing,  however,  a  distinct  sect  until  the 
fifth  century. 

MELETItrS  OP  Antioch  (T-381).  A  famous 
Greek  ecclesiastic.  He  was  born  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century  at  Melitene  in  Armenia 
Minor.  His  first  important  appointment  was  to 
the  bishopric  of  Sebaste,  but  he  soon  resigned  this 
and  retired  to  Beraea  (Aleppo)  in  Syria.  In  360 
he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Antioch.  Tftie  Church  in 
that  city  was  rent  in  twain  by  the  Arian  con- 
troversy, but  Meletius,  whose  position  was  not 
well  understood,  was  accepted  by  both  parties. 
He  was  generally  respected  for  his  virtues  and 
the  Arians  believed  him  on  their  side.  He  dis- 
appointed  their  expectations,  however,  and  the 
dispute  raged  more  fiercely  than  ever.  Meletius 
was  several  times  banished  and  recalled.  The 
Council  of  Alexandria  sent  representatives  to 
Antioch  to  settle  the  dispute,  but  Lucifer  (q.v.) 
of  Cagliari  by  his  hot-headed  advocacy  of  th€f 
orthodox  cause  defeated  the  plan.  Meletius 
died  at  an  advanced  age,  while  presiding  over  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  in  381.  His  body 
was  taken  to  Antioch  and  buried  with  great 
honor.  His  funeral  oration  was  pronoimced  by 
Gregory  of  Nyssa.  A  part  of  the  inaugural  dis- 
course of  Meletius  at  Antioch  is  printed  in  the 
fifth  volume  of  Galland's  Bibliotheca  Patrum 
(Venice,  1766-81). 

MELFI,  mCl'fA.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Potenza,  Italy,  41  miles  south  of  Foggia 
(Map:  Italy,  K  7).  It  is  situated  on  one  of 
the  old  craters  of  the  extinct  volcano  Monte  Vul- 
ture. The  frequent  earthquake  disturbances  to 
which  it  has  been  subjected  have  destroyed  most 
of  its  ancient  buildings;  the  cathedral,  dating 
from  1155,  and  the  castle  in  which  the  Norman 
rulers  lived,  alone  remain,  both  having  under- 
gone modem  restoration.  The  soil  of  the  vicinity 
is  extremely  fertile,  and  produces  grain,  wine, 
and  olives.  Melfi  is  a  very  ancient  city,  and  is 
mentioned  as  early  as  the  fourth  century.  It  was 
the  capital  of  Apulia  at  the  time  of  the  Norman 
occupation;  was  pillaged  by  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa  in  1167;  and  in  1528  was  captured  by  the 
French  general  Lautrec,  who  put  to  death  thou- 
sands of  its  inhabitants.  Population,  in  1901 
(commune),  14,649. 

HELGABEJO,  mel'gftrft'Hd,  Mariano  (1818- 
72).  A  Bolivian  revolutionist.  He  was  bom  of 
illegitimate  parentage  at  Cochabamba,  and  was 
poorly  educated,  but  rose  rapidly  in  the  army 
and  soon  became  a  power  in  politics.  In  1865 
he  became  President,  after  deposing  Achft,  and 
held  this  post  through  six  stormy  years,  in  which 
he  defeated  Belzd,  head  of  the  insurgents  (1866), 
joined  the  alliance  against  Spain,  and  attempted 
lo  settle  the  Chilean  boundary.  He  was  deposed 
in  1871  by  a  revolution  under  the  leadership  of 
Augustin  Morales,  who  succeeded  to  the  presi- 
dency. Melgarejo  fled  to  Peru  and  was  there 
killed  in  a  brawl  with  Sanchez,  his  son-in-law. 

MELI,  mfl1«,  Giovanni  (1740-1815).  An 
Italian  poet,  born  at  Palermo,  Sicilv.  He  studied 
and   practiced  medicine,  and   in   1787   was  ap- 


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292 


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pointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  University 
of  Palermo.  Meli  wrote  a  number  of  canzonet  te, 
odes,  and  episrams,  many  of  them  Sicilian  dia- 
lect, and  made  collections  of  Sicilian  proverbs. 
Especial  mention  may  be  made  of  his  Buoolica, 
the  Fata  galante,  the  Origini  di  lu  mannu,  the 
mock-heroic  Don  Chiaciotti  e  Sanciu  Panza,  and 
the  Favole  morali,  in  virtue  of  which  he  may  be 
styled  a  Sicilian  La  Fontaine.  His  Poesie  are 
included  in  the  Pamaso  siciliano  (Palermo, 
(1874).  Consult:  Natoli,  Giovanni  Meli,  Studio 
critico  (Palermo,  1883) ;  Sanctis,  "Giovanni 
Meli,"  in  his  Nuovi  aaggi  critici, 

MEXIA'CE2Ei  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pL,  from  meUa, 
from  Gk.  fuXia,  ash-tree;  so  called  because  the 
leaves  resemble  those  of  the  ash).  A  natural 
order  of  mostly  tropical  dicotyledonous  trees  and 
shrubs,  containing  about  40  genera  and  600 
species,  natives  of  warm  climates.  Many  of 
the  species  possess  bitter,  astringent,  and  tonic 
properties ;  some  are  used  in  medicine ;  the  seeds 
of  some  yield  useful  oil;  some  are  poisonous; 
some  yield  pleasant  fruits ;  and  the  wood  of  some 
is  valuable.  (See  Carapa.)  The  cape  ash 
{Ekebergia  capensis)  deserves  notice  among  the 
timber  trees  of  this  order.  It  has  a  trunk  two 
feet  in  diameter,  and  yields  excellent  tough  tim- 
ber, useful  for  many  purposes.  Melia  Azedaraoh, 
a  tree  about  forty  feet  high,  with  large  bipinnate 
leaves  and  large  spikes  of  fragrant  flowers,  a 
native  of  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  has 
long  been  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  is  now  common  in  Cali- 
fornia and  the  Southern  United  States.  The  fruit 
is  of  the  size  of  a  cherry,  somewhat  elongated, 
pale  yellow,  containing  a  brown  nut.  The  nuts 
are  bored  and  strung  for  beads  in  Roman  Cath- 
olic countries,  whence  the  tree  is  often  called 
bead  tree.  It  is  also  known  as  the  pride  of 
India,  and  is  sometimes  erroneously  called  Per- 
sian lilac.  The  fruit  is  sweetish,  and  not  poison- 
ous, although  generally  reputed  so.  The  bark 
of  the  root,  which  is  bitter  and  nauseous,  is  used 
as  an  anthelmintic.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit  of 
the  neem  tree  or  margosa  tree  (Melia  Azadi- 
rachta)  yields  a  bitter  fixed  oil.  The  mahogany 
and  Spanish  cedar  are  both  members  of  this  or- 
der. The  chief  genera  arc  Odrela,  Sweitenia, 
Carapa,  and  Melia. 

MEL1B(E/A  (Lat.,  from  Qk.  MeA/j3o<a,  Meli- 
hoia) .  ( 1 )  A  daughter  of  Oceanus,  and  mother, 
by  Pelasgus,  of  Lycaon.  (2)  One  of  the  daugh- 
ters of  Niobe. 

MELIBCEtrS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MeAi/3otoc  ¥ eK- 
hoios) .    A  shepherd  in  the  first  eclogue  of  Vergil. 

MELIBCEUS,  Tau:  of.  A  prose  tale  in  Chafu- 
cer*s  Canterbury  Tales,  taken  probably  from  the 
Livre  de  Melib^e  et  de  Dame  Prudence,  a  French 
rendering  of  Albertano  da  Brescia's  Latin  work, 
Liber  Consolationis  et  Concilii, 

MEL'ICEB^ES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  'MeXucipTtfc, 
Melikert^s).  Son  of  Ino  (q.v.),  who  leaped  with 
him  (or  his  dead  body)  into  the  sea.  Thereupon 
both  were  changed  to  gods,  Ino  to  Leucothea,  and 
Melicertes  to  Palaemon,  who  was  the  guardian  of 
tempest-tossed  ships.  He  was  worshiped  at  Cor- 
inth, especially  in  connection  with  the  Isthmian 
games.  It  is  said  that  the  name  is  the  Greek 
transcription  of  the  Semitic  Melkart(or  Moloch), 
meaning  'the  king,'  and  thus  a  Phoenician  origin 
of  the  cult  has  been  assumed.  The  Greeks  seem 
rather  to  have  identified  Hercules  with  the  Tyr- 


ian  Melkarth,  and  if  Melicertes  is  derived  from 
the  Phoenician  word,  it  is  more  probable  that  it 
is  the  title  which  Phoenicians  gave  to  the  Greek 
divinity,  misunderstood  as  a  proper  name  by  the 
Greek  worshipers. 

MELIC  QBASS  (from  Neo-Lat.  Melica,  from 
It.  melica,  great  millet,  from  Lat.  mel,  honey; 
connected  with  Gk.  fiiXt,  meli,  Goth,  melip, 
honey,  OHG.  mili-ton,  AS.  mile-d^aw,  Eng. 
mildew,  literally  honeydew),  Melica,  A  genus 
of  grasses  of  which  nearly  half  of  the  species 
(al^ut  30)  occur  in  the  United  States.  The 
others  are  found  in  temperate  climates.  They 
are  perennials  of  small  economic  importance,  with 
soft  flat  leaves  and  rather  large  spikelets  in  open 
or  dense  panicles.  Melica  uniflora  is  a  common 
species  growing  in  woods  in  Great  Britain  and 
Europe,  and  Melica  mutica  and  Melica  diffusa  in 
similar  situations  in  the  United  States.  Most 
of  the  American  species  are  found  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  westward. 

lIEL'IGOCrCA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiiXi,  meli, 
honey  -|-  k6kko^,  kokkos,  berry).  A  genus  of 
trees  or  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Sapinda- 
ceae,  embracing  five  or  six  species,  one  of  which, 
Melicoooa  bijuga,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies, 
where  it  is  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  known  as  the 
honey,  berry,  Jamaica  bullace  plum,  and  genip. 
It  is  from  20  to  40  feet  high.  The  fruit  is  about 
the  size  and  shape  of  a  plum,  yellow  or  green  in 
color,  with  a  very  agreeable  flavor.  It  has  been 
successfully  grown  in  southern  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia. The  seeds  are  roasted  and  eaten  like 
chestnuts.  Other  species  of  Melicocca  yield  eat- 
able fruits. 

MELIKOFF^  m6l'yl-kdf,  LoRis.  A  Russian 
soldier  and  statesman.    See  Lobis-Meijkoff. 

MELTTilTE  (from  Lat.  mel,  honey),  or  Honet 
Stone.  A  complex  mineral  silicate  of  sodium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  aluminum,  and  iron.  It 
crystallizes  in  the  tetragonal  system,  has  a  vitre- 
ous lustre,  and  is  white  or  of  light  shades  of 
yellow,  green,  brown,  and  red  in  color.  It  occurs 
In  various  igneous  rocks,  certain  varieties  of 
which  are  known  as  melilite  basalts.  Melilite 
is  found  in  Wtirttemberg,  Germany,  in  Italy,  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  and  in  several  localities  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  also  produced  in  furnace 
slags.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a  group  of 
minerals  including  gehlenite. 

"MXJjILLA,  mft-l§Oy&.  A  Spanish  presidio  on 
the  north  coast  of  Morocco  (Map:  Africa,  D  1). 
It  is  built  on  a  rocky  peninsula  extending  into 
the  Mediterranean  and  ending  in  the  Cape  of  Tres 
Forcas.  It  is  protected  on  the  land  side  by  a 
circle  of  forts,  and  a  citadel  commands  the 
harbor,  which  in  1902  was  opened  as  a  port  of 
commerce.  The  population  in  1900  was  10,182, 
including  the  Spanish  garrison.  Melilla  was  oc- 
cupied without  resistance  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1496.  The  Kabyles  have  made  several  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  to  capture  it,  the  last  being  made  in 
1893,  after  which  a  neutral  zone  was  established 
outside  the  fortifications. 

MEL^ILOT,  Melilotus  (Neo-Lat.,  from  OF. 
melilot,  Ft.  mililot,  from  Lat.  melilotos,  from 
Gk.  fieyiXuTo^y  melilotos,  fuXl?MTov,  melildton,  a 
kind  of  clover,  from  fU2.i,  meli,  honey  -\-  ?.ut6c, 
Idtos,  lotus).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
Leguminosse,  natives  of  the  (5ld  World  and  wide- 
ly disseminated.  The  species  have  upright  stems, 
bear  trifoliate  leaves  resembling  those  of  alfalfa, 


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293 


HELLO. 


and  small  white  or  yellow  flowers  from  early 
summer  until  frost.  They  often  take  possession 
of  waste  f^TOund,  especially  if  composed  largely  of 
clay.  All  the  species  contain  an  ethereal  oil 
known  as  cumarin,  which  gives  them  a  strong, 
peculiar,  sweetish  odor,  especially  when  drying. 
The  white  melilot  {Melilotus  alba),  also  known 
as  sweet,  Bokhara,  or  tree  clover,  is  a  common 
weedy  biennial  from  three  to  six  feet  high,  which 
is  cultivated  as  a  honey  plant,  and  also  to  some 
extent  for  forage.  For  plowing  under  as  green 
manure  it  is  of  some  importance,  especially  upon 
lieavy  soil.  Its  roots  perforate  the  substratum, 
and  when  they  decay  leave  drainage  tubes.  In. 
this  way  it  may  be  used  two  or  more  years  before 
being  turned  under  as  green  manure.  Another 
species  which  has  become  naturalized  in  the 
United  States  is  the  common  yellow  melilot 
{Melilotus  officinalis),  an  annual  growing  two 
to  three  feet  high  and  occurring  in  swamps  and 
ivet  meadows.  Its  flowers  are  used  in  the  manu- 
iacture  of  perfumery.  The  blue  melilot  {Meli- 
lotus ocerulea  or  Trigonella  coerulea),  a  native 
of  Northern  Africa,  is  cultivated  in  Europe,  and 
was  formerly  much  used  in  medicine  as  an 
anodyne. 

Melilotus  is  used  for  pasturage  and  for  hay. 
The  green  crop,  cut  when  in  bloom,  has  the  fol- 
lowing average  percentage  composition:  water, 
76.5;  protein,  2.8;  fat,  0.4;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
12.1;  crude  fibre,  6.6;  and  ash,  1.6.  Melilotus 
must  be  cured  with  care,  as  too  much  sun  causes 
shedding  of  the  leaves.  At  first  animals  com- 
monly refuse  to  eat  it,  but  later  become  used  to 
it;  its  hay  is  generally  used  for  home  consump- 
tion. It  is  not  as  salable  as  other  kinds  of 
leguminous  hay. 

MTJTiTNE,  mA'lto^,  Pfeux  Jules  (1838—). 
A  French  statesman.  He  was  bom  at  Remire- 
mont,  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  in  1860  was  ad- 
mitt^  to  the  bar.  His  earliest  political  activity . 
"was  in  the  democratic  opposition  to  the  Empire. 
In  1871  he  refused  an  election  to  the  Commune, 
l>ut  in  the  following  year  was  returned  to  the 
National  Assembly,  where  he  upheld  Thiers  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Republican  Union.  For 
a  few  months  in  1876  and  1877,  he  was  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  in  Jules  Simon's  Cabinet,  and 
in  1880  made  himself  prominent  by  his  able 
Advocacy  of  the  policy  of  protection.  Eight 
years  afterwards,  as  president  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  M61ine  carried  through  his  great 
protective  measure  which  went  into  force  in  1892. 
M^line  refused  to  form  a  Ministry  in  1893; 
xmdertook  the  management  of  the  R4puhlique 
Franoaise,  which  he  carried  on  until  1896;  and 
in  the  winter  of  1894  was  reelected  president  of 
the  Chamber.  In  1896  he  was  made  Prime 
Minister  and  aeain  took  the  portfolio  of  Agri- 
culture, which  ne  had  held  under  Ferry  from 
1883  to  1885.  The  May  elections  of  1898  forced 
the  Cabinet  out,  however,  and  M4line  returned  to 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  There  he  acted  as  the 
leader  of  the  Conservative  branch  of  the  Repub- 
lican Party  in  opposition  to  the  Radical  wing 
which,  with  the  aid  of  the  Socialists,  had  come 
into  power  under  Waldeck-Rousseau. 

MEL^INITE.    See  Explosives. 

MELTS^A  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fdhafia^song, 
irom  fuXisiiv^  melizein^  to  sing,  from  id'Xo^y 
vtelos,  song).  A  term  applied  in  modem  music 
to  melodic  groups  of  notes  executed  upon  one 


syllable  of  a  word.  It  is  particularly  employed 
to  give  Oriental  color.  The  songs  of  Rubinstein 
dealing  with  Oriental  subjects  (Der  Asra), 
Verdi's  A%da,  and  Goldmark's  Kdnigin  von  Saha 
ofl'er  fine  examples  of  melismatic  writing. 
MELISSA.    A  genus  of  plants.    See  Balm. 

MELISSA.  ( 1 )  In  Greek  mythology,  a  nymph 
by  whom  the  use  of  honey  was  said  to  have  been 
discovered,  whence  bees  were  called  fikJuaaai.  The 
actual  derivation  is  from  fd^i,  honey.  (2)  The 
daughter  of  Procles  and  wife  of  Periander,  who 
killed  her  by  a  blow  while  she  was  with  child. 
(3)  In  Arloeto's  Orlando  fuHosOy  a  kindly  fairy 
who  protects  Rogero  and  Bradamant. 

MEI/ITA.    The  Latin  name  of  Malta  (q.v.). 

MEI/ITO  (Lat,  from  Gk.  MeX/rcw,  Melitdn). 
Bishop  of  Sardis,  in  the  second  half  of  the  second 
century.  He  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  as  an 
upholder  of  Catholic  orthodoxy,  and  is  known  to 
have  written  many  works,  only  fragments  of 
which  are  extant.  Among  those  mentioned  by 
Eusebius  are  an  Apologia  addressed  to  Aurelius 
concerning  the  paschal  controversy,  and  Eclogcg, 
containing  the  catalogue  of  'the  books  of  the  Old 
Covenant.'  Consult:  Otto,  Corpus  Apologetarum 
Christianarum  Sceculi  Becundi,  vol.  ix.  (Jena, 
1842-72) ;  Harnack,  Texte  und  Untersuchungen, 
vol.  1.  (Leipzig,  1882)  ;  and  the  translation  in  the 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  vol.  viii. 

MELITOPOL,  mh'l^Wp6\'j\  A  town  in  the 
Government  of  Taurida,  South  Russia,  situated 
on  the  river  Molotchna,  150  miles  north-north- 
east of  Simferopol  (Map:  Russia,  G  5).  It  has  a 
gynmasium  and  a  realschule  and  carries  on  some 
trade  in  agricultural  products  and  salt.  It  was 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury.   Population,  in  1897,  16,120. 

MEI/KAKTH.  A  Phoenician  divinity  identi- 
fied with  the  Greek  Melicertes.  He  was  the  god 
of  Tyre,  where  he  had  a  magnificent  temple.  He 
represents  the  old  Chaldean  sun-hero,  and  in  his 
adventures,  strength,  and  labors  appears  as  the 
original  type  of  Hercules. 

MELIfO^  mftHd,  Custodio  Jos£  de  (c.l845- 
1902).  A  Brazilian  admiral,  of  whose  early  life 
little  is  known.  For  his  services  to  the  republi- 
can cause  in  1889,  he  was  made  admiral  and  Min- 
ister of  Marine.  But  in  1893,  siding  with  the 
Federals  and  the  navy  against  the  Administration 
and  the  arm^,  and  fearing  Peixoto's  reflection,  he 
seized  practically  the  whole  navy  and  undertook 
the  blockade  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  bombardment 
was  stopped  by  the  Powers,  especially  the  United 
States  of  America.  Mello  left  the  fieet,  estab- 
lished a  provisional  government  in  Santa  Cata- 
rina,  and  captured  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  But  a 
quarrel  with  Saraiva  made  success  impossible, 
and  hearing  that  the  navy  had  surrendered  to  the 
new  fieet  bought  by  Peixoto,  Mello  gave  himself 
up  to  the  Argentinian  authorities  in  April,  1894. 
Mello's  alleged  purpose  throughout  had  been 
merely  to  purify  the  R^rpublic,  but  in  1901  he 
was  suspected  of  a  prominent  part  in  an  imperial 
plot,  and  was  arrested  and  confined  in  the  island 
of  (ilobras. 

MELLO,  or  MELO,  Francisco  Mangel  dk 
(1611-66).  A  Portuguese  poet  and  historian, 
bom  at  Lisbon  of  a  noble  family,  and  there 
trained  by  the  Jesuits.  He  became  an  army 
officer,  first  serving  with  the  Spanish  fieet,  and 


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294 


MELODY. 


then  in  the  Portuguese  service  when  his  na- 
tive country  asserted  its  independence.  Despite 
his  loyalty,  he  was  imprisoned  by  order  of 
John  I  v.,  and,  after  an  incarceration  that  lasted 
from  1644  to  1653,  he  was  banished  to  Brazil. 
There  he  remained  six  years,  until  the  death  of 
the  monarch  permitted  his  return  to  Portugal. 
Hello  is  one  of  the  best  Portuguese  poets  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  commendably  free  from  most 
of  the  mannerisms  of  the  time.  His  numerous  po- 
etical compositions,  collected  under  the  title  of 
Muaaa  de  Melodino,  fall  into  two  divisions,  of 
which  the  first  comprises  his  Spanish  verse,  and 
the  second — bearing  the  sub-title  of  As  aegundaa 
ires  musaa — ^his  Portuguese  poems.  These  latter 
reveal  him  as  a  true  poet  and  are  not  without 
popular  and  patriotic  elements.  Of  Hello's  other 
works  in  Portuguese  may  be  mentioned  certain 

Srose  compositions:  the  Hospital  das  Lettraa,  a 
iaiogue  containing  much  sound  literary  criti- 
cism; the  Dialogps  apoloffoes;  and  the  Carta  de 
guia  de  caeados  ( 1651 ) ,  in  which  the  author  gives 
a  picture  of  Portuguese  family  life  of  the  period. 
Not  the  least  meritorious  of  Mello's  productions 
is  the  historical  work,  Historia  de  lea  movimien- 
t08,  separa/yidn,  y  guerra  de  Cataluna  (1645), 
which  is  in  Spanish.  An  historical  treatise  in 
Portuguese  is  the  Epanaphoraa  de  varia  historia 
portugueza  (1660).  Consult:  the  Ohras  metri- 
cos  de  D.  Francisco  Manoel  and  his  Ohra^  in 
general  (Lyons,  1665)  ;  the  Fidalgo  Aprendiz 
in  the  Musas,  and  also  separately  in  1676  (cf. 
T.  Braga's  essay  on  it  in  his  Theatro  Portuguez 
no  seculo  XVII.,  1870-71)  ;  P.  Chasles,  Voyages 
d*un  critique  (Paris,1869)  ;  Branco  in  the  edition 
of  the  Carta  de  guia  de  casados  (Oporto,  1873). 

MELLONI,  mfel-lo'nft,  Hacedonio  (1798- 
1854).  An  Italian  experimental  physicist,  famous 
for  his  researches  on  the  subject  of  radiant  heat. 
He  was  bom  in  Parma.  In  1824  he  was  called  to 
the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Parma;  and  afterwards  he  was  appointed  by 
the  King  of  Naples  director  of  the  meteorological 
observatory  on  Hount  Vesuvius.  He  discovered  the 
existence  of  heat  in  lunar  light,  and  the  results  of 
his  investigations  of  invisible  heat — i.e.  heat  emit- 
ted by  bodies  at  a  lower  temperature  than  that  at 
which  they  become  incandescent — ^have  formed 
contributions  of  the  utmost  importance  to  phys- 
ics. He  published  numerous  memoirs  on  various 
topics  in  natural  philosophy,  and  the  volume  La 
thermochrose,  ou  la  coloration  calorifique  (1850). 

HELMOTH,  CouBTNEY.  The  pen-name  of  the 
English  miscellaneous  writer,  Samuel  Jackson 
Pratt  (q.v.). 

MELODEON.  The  early  American  organ,  in 
which  an  exhaust  or  suction  bellows  draws  the 
air  inward  through  the  reeds.  About  1836  J. 
Carhart  made  a  number  of  improvements  in  the 
melodeon,  and  upon  the  application  of  still  fur- 
ther inventions  by  E.  P.  Needham  and  E.  Hamlin 
the  instrument  became  widely  popular.  The 
supply  of  wind  for  the  reeds  is  obtained  by  means 
of  a  pair  of  treadles,  worked  by  the  performer, 
and  the  reeds  themselves  are  controlled  by  stops 
and  slider  mechanism.  The  tone  of  the  instru- 
ment has  been  steadily  improved,  and  now  suc- 
cessfully imitates  a  number  of  orchestral  in- 
struments.    See  Harmonium;  Organ. 

MELODRAMA  (from  Gk.  fii^oc,  melos,  song 
+  Spdfia^  drama,  action,  play).  Properly  a  half- 
musical  drama,  or  a  dramatic  performance  in 


which  the  dialogue  is  interspersed  with  music. 
Rousseau's  Pygmalion  is  commonly  cited  as  the 
first  French  melodrama,  and  some  of  the  earlier 
English  operas  are  of  this  type.  In  Italy,  how- 
ever, th6  name  was  first  applied  to  the  opera, 
by  its  inventor,  Ottavio  Rinuccini,  near  the  end 
■of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  Germany  the  term 
has  been  particularly  used  to  designate  a  decla- 
mation with  instrumental  accompaniment  (aa 
distinguished  from  the  recitative,  which  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  regular  opera,  q.v.).  The  ob- 
ject of  the  music  is  to  intensify  the  emotions 
evoked  by  the  spoken  words,  which  may  be  a 
poem  like  Schiller's  Lied  von  der  Olocke,  or  a 
regular  drama;  but  the  esthetic  value  of  the 
practice  has  been  much  disputed,  and  it  has 
almost  fallen  into  disuse  in  serious  works.  Our 
present  use  of  the  word  melodrama  appears  to 
have  originated  in  France,  where,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  came  to  be 
applied  to  the  style  of  popular  tragedy  in  which 
were  presented  the  conventional  types  of  sta^ 
villains,  persecuted  innocent  heroines  and  their 
kind,  along  with  elements  of  comedy  as  well  as 
of  music  and  dancing,  and  with  a  regularly 
happy  ending  in  deference  to  well-known  popular 
preferences  in  this  respect. 

MELODY  (Lat.  melodia,  Gk.  fie?i<t>6ia,  from 
fdXo^,  melos,  song  -|-  ^M^,  6d^,  son^).  A  suc- 
cession of  tones  constituting  a  musical  phrase. 
That  this  succession  be  pleasing  is  not  absolutely 
essential.  Whereas  harmony  considers  all  the 
tones  sounded  simultaneously  in  the  various 
voices  or  parts,  melody  primarily  considers  the 
various  tones  of  only  a  single  voice  or  part,  i.e. 
in  relation  to  every  preceding  or  succeeding  tone. 
Broadly  speaking,  it  has  been  stated  that  a 
melody  rising  in  pitch  corresponds  to  the  more 
violent  emotions,  such  as  determination,  desire, 
longing,  striving;  while  a  melody  falling  in 
pitch  corresponds  to  the  more  passive  states,  as 
resignation,  contemplation,  sadness.  But  in 
reality  a  melody  can  never  be  considered  abso- 
lutely by  itself.  The  character  of  every  musical 
phrase  is  determined  by  a  combination  of  three 
vital  and  fundamental  elements,  melody,  har- 
mony, and  rhythm,  each  of  which  affects  the 
others.  This  is  easily  seen  by  examining  any 
of  Wagner's  leading  motives,  where  the  same 
melodic  phrase  is  rendered  capable  of  great  emo- 
tional variety  by  changes  in  the  harmonic  or 
rhythmic  elements.  In  fact,  the  same  succes- 
sion of  notes  may  sound  noble  or  trivial,  accord- 
ing to  the  choice  of  refined  or  commonplace 
harmonies  supporting  it.  There  is  an  endless 
variety  in  the  succession  of  musical  tones  form- 
ing a  melody;  some  being  so  easily  intelligible 
that  even  people  of  little  musical  taste  can  dis- 
tinguish them,  as  is  the  case  with  some  popular 
dance  forms.  The  terra  melody  is  by  no  means 
synonymous  with  cantilena,  as  many  seem  to 
think.  The  former  term  is  infinitely  broader 
than  the  latter.  No  special  course  in  melody  is 
given  in  conservatories,  although  in  recent  years 
several  theoretical  treatises  on  the  subject  have 
appeared.  The  pupil  almost  unconsciously  ac- 
quires the  practical  elements  of  melodic  forma- 
tions while  pursuing  the  study  of  harmony  and 
the  higher  forms  of  composition. 

Upon  any  harmonic  basis  a  practically  endless 
number  of  melodies  may  be  written,  and,  vice 
versa,  all  melodies  can  be  reduced  to  a  simple 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MELODY. 


295 


MELON. 


harmonic  basis.  To  illustrate  this  let  us  take 
the  opening  theme  of  the  famous  andante  of 
Beethoven's  Fifth  Symphony.  The  harmonic  plan 
is  as  follows: 


Upon  this  basis  Beethoven  wrote  the  melody 
originally  in  this  form: 


When  he  came  to  write  the  full  score  the  mas- 
ter felt  that  his  theme  was  commonplace.  By 
retaining  the  harmonic  basis  and  only  altering 
the  mel^ic  intervals  the  following  noble  melody, 
such  as  we  know  it,  arose: 


of  equal  value.  And  vice  versa,  all  melodies  can 
be  reduced  to  a  monotonous  succession  of  inter- 
vals. It  is  the  composer's  individual  genius  that 
imparts  its  character  to  each  melody.  Within 
recent  years  several  theorists  have  attempted  a 
scientific  exposition  of  the  principles  of  melodic 
formations  with  practical  hints  toward  their 
invention.  Among  the  best  works  of  this-  kind 
are:  Bussler,  Elementarmelodik  (Berlin,  1879); 
Riemann,  Neue  Schule  der  Melodik  (Hamburg, 
1883). 

MELOQBAPH  (from  Gk.  fieXoypd^,  melo- 
graphoa,  song-writing,  from  fUXoc,  melos,  song 
+  yp6^iv,  graphein,  to  write).  A  mechanical 
device  for  making  a  record  of  music  as  it  is 
played  on  a  pianoforte.  It  is  supposed  to  repro- 
duce on  paper,  by  means  of  characters,  all  the 
notes  struck  on  the  keyboard  (with  their  dura- 


The  following  is  a  reduction  to  the  simplest  tion),  so  that  there  may  be  a  readable  record 
harmonic  basis  of  the  principal  themes  of  the  of  any  music  which  a  player  may  improvise, 
well-known  Sonata  op.  53  (Waldstein) :  Since    1747    numerous    melographs    have    been 


Comparing  this  with  the  original,  it  will  be 
seen  how  Beethoven  constructs  his  melody.  The 
reader  should  examine  in  the  score  the  successive 
melodic  changes  which  the  theme  of  the  third  ex- 
ample imdergoes  in  the  course  of  the  movement. 
Wagner  in  the  Prelude  to  Die  Meiatersinger  re- 
duces the  Mastersinger's  motive  and  the  second 
theme  from  Walter's  Prize  Song  to  a  common 
harmonic  basis  (slightly  different  from  that  of 
either  of  the  themes  in  its  original  form),  and 
thus  is  enabled  to  make  both  themes  resound 
simultaneously  on  different  instruments.  (Piano 
score,  p.  7. )  Without  making  the  slightest  altera- 
tion in  Bach's  C  major  prelude  from  the  Well- 
tempered  Clavichord,  Gounod  writes  an  addition- 
al melody  to  the  harmonic  basis,  which  has  be- 
come famous  as  Gounod's  Ave  Maria, 

The  following  examples  show  how  a  mere  suc- 
cession of  intervals  can  be  changed  by  the  in- 
fusion of  the  rhythmic  element  into  a  distinctive 
melody.  In  Wagenseil's  book,  Von  der  Meister- 
singer  holdseligen  Kunst,  we  find  the  following 
two  tunes  of  prize-crowned  master-songs : 
(ft)  n  (»» 


Both   these   simple   tunes   Wagner   uses   in   the 
Processional  March  of  Die  Meistersinger,  where 
they  occur  in  these  forms : 
(ft) 


patented,  but  with  the  exception  of  Fenby*s  'elec- 
tric melograph'  or  'phonautograph'  none  haa 
given  lasting  satisfaction.  In  the  phonautograph 
under  each  key  is  placed  a  stud;  when  the  key 
is  depressed  an  electric  connection  is  formed, 
and  the  particular  note  struck,  and  its  duration, 
are  recorded  on  paper. 

MELOIDiE,  m4-l5^-d6.  A  family  of  moder- 
ate-sized beetles,  with  the  head  c(Mistructed  behind 
the  eyes,  the  prothorax  at  its  hinder  edge  nar- 
rower than  the  elytra,  the  legs  long,  with  front 
haunches  large  and  conical,  the  feet  with  the  last 
segment  but  one  not  bilobed,  and  the  claws  split 
to  the  base.  The  larvae  of  several  undergo  meta^ 
morphosis,  as  explained  under  Metamorphosis; 
and  most  of  the  species  exude  an  odorous  oil,  high- 
ly serviceable  in  medicine.  ( See  Blister  Beetle.  ) 
Consult:  Le  Conte,  "Synopsis  of  the  Meloids  of 
the  United  States,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Natural  Science,  vol.  vi.  ( Philadelphia^ 
1853)  ;  Horn,  "Revision  .  .  .  Meloids  of  the 
United  States,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  vol.  xiii.  (Philadelphia, 
1873)  ;  Horn,  "Studies  Among  the  Meloidae,"  in 
Transactions  of  the  American  Entomological  So* 
ciety  (Philadelphia,  1885). 

MELON  (OF.  melon,  millon,  Fr.  melon,  from 
Lat.  melo,  for  melopepo,  from  Gk.  iifj'konkirijv, 
mdlopepdn,  melon,  from    fi^Xov^  m^lon,  apple  -f- 


eto. 


etc. 


All   melody  can  be  conceived  as  a   rhythmic    irknuv^  pep6n,  melon,  so  called  from  the  shape), 
evolution  from  a  succession  of  intervals  in  notes    A  name  given  to  the  fruit  of  Cucumis  Melo  and 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MELON. 


296 


HELO& 


Citrulltts  vulgaris  of  the  family  Cucurbitacese. 
See  Muskmelon;  Watebmelon. 

MEIiOK  CATEBPILLAB  MOTH.  See 
Melon  Insects. 

MELON  INSECTS.  Most  of  the  insects 
which  attack  melons  also  feed  upon  certain  other 
cucurbitaceous  plants.  Thus  the  squash  vine 
borer  {Melittia  ceto)  also  bores  in  the  stems  of 
melons.  The  striped  squash  beetle  {Diahrotica 
vittata)  also  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  melons,  as 
does  the  cucumber  flea-beetle  {Crepidodera  cu^ 
cumeris).  The  melon  caterpillar  {Margaronia 
hgalinata)  is  a  widely  distributed  insect  found 
through  the  greater  part  of  North  and  South 
America,  and  is  particularly  destructive  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  United  States.  The  cater- 
pillars of  the  first  generation  feed  upon  the 
leaves,  and  those  of  the  second  generation  eat 
into  the  fruit  of  melons,  cucumbers,  and  pump- 
kins. The  wings  of  this  moth  are  pearly-white 
with  a  peculiar  iridescence,  are  bordered  with 
black,  and  measure  about  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip. 
A  similar  and  closely  related  caterpillar,  the 
larva  of  Margaronia  nitidalis,  also  feeds  in  the 
fruit  of  melons  and  cucumbers.  Poisoning  the 
foliage  with  some  arsenical  mixture  to  destroy 
the  larvae  of  the  first  generation  is  the  standard 
remedy.  The  melon  plant-louse  is  perhaps  the 
most  destructive  insect  enemy  of  this  plant.  This 
insect  has  a  wide  range  of  food  plants,  but  is  an 
especial  enemy  of  melons,  and  feeds  on  the  under 
sides  of  the  leaves.  Under-spraying  with  a  kero- 
sene-soap emulsion  is  the  only  remedy  in  large 
fields,  but  in  small  gardens  carbon  disulphide 
may  be  used  under  inverted  tubs  or  paper  cover- 
ings.   See  Colored  Plate  of  Moths,  American. 

MELONITES,  m«'6-nn§z  (Neo-Lat.  nom. 
pi.,  from  Gk.  //j^Xov,  m€lon,  apple).  A  fossil  sea- 
urchin  found  in  the  Sub-Carboniferous  rocks  of 
North  America  and  Europe.  The  test  is  melon- 
shaped  with  vertical  grooves,  is  four^  to  six 
inches  in  diameter,  and  made  up  of  numerous 
thick  hexagonal  or  pentagonal  plates  that  are 
regularly  arranged  in  vertical  series  and  that 
are  covered  by  minute  tubercles  and  small  needle- 
like spines.  Large  slabs  of  limestone  on  the 
surfaces  of  which  are  several  finely  preserved 
specimens  of  this  sea-urchin,  have  been  obtained 
from    the   vicinity   of    Saint   Louis,    Mo.      See 

ECHINODERMATA ;    SeA-URCHIN. 

MELOPLASTI^  mft'16'plAst'  (from  Gk.  fii>^, 
tneloSt  song  -|-  ir^darrfc,  plastis,  molder,  from 
nXdaaeiv,  plassein,  to  form ) .  A  peculiar  method 
of  teaching  children  the  rudiments  of  music,  orig- 
inated by  Pierre  Galin  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  order  not  to  confuse  the 
beginner  with  the  various  musical  characters, 
Galin  nsed  a  slate  with  only  the  five  lines  of  the 
staff  drawn  upon  it.  He  then  sang  fanuliar  airs 
to  his  pupils;  but  instead  of  singing  words  he 
used  the  syllables  do,  re,  twt,  etc.,  at  the  same 
time  pointing  out  the  place  of  each  note  upon  the 
staff.  Rhythm  he  taught  by  means  of  a  double 
metronome  which  marked  the  beginning  of  a 
measure  as  well  as  each  beat  within  that  measure. 

ME^OS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  M^?^),  or  MiLO. 
The  southwestenimost  island  of  the  Cyclades  in 
the  Grecian  Archipelago,  or  .^gean  Sea,  about 
70  miles  northeast  of  Crete,  and  65  miles  east  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  It  is  14  miles  long  and  8  broad, 
and  has  on  its  northern  coast  one  of  the  best 


and  safest  natural  harbors  in  the  Levant.  The 
island  is  crescent-shaped  and  seems  to  be  part  of 
the  rim  of  the  crater  of  an  old  volcano.  The 
highest  eminence  is  Mount  Saint  Elias  (2539 
feet),  in  the  southwestern  part.  The  island 
shows  many  traces  of  its  volcanic  character,  and 
contains  hot  mineral  springs  and  considerable 
deposits  of  sulphur.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
produces  good  crops  of  grain,  as  well  as  wine 
and  oil.  The  chief  town  is  Plaka,  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  island  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
capital,  Melos,  of  which  extensive  remains  are  to 
be  seen.  Near  the  sea  the  ground  is  marshy,  and 
the  air  is  unwholesome  m  summer.  In  pre- 
historic times  the  island  seems  to  have  been 
of  some  importance,  on  account  of  the  obsidian, 
used  in  the  Stone  Age  for  knives  and  arrow- 
heads. The  chief  settlement  was  on  the  northeast 
coast  near  the  modern  Phylakopi,  where  are  re- 
mains of  three  successive  towns,  extending  from 
the  Stone  Age  to  the  end  of  the  Mycensean  pe- 
riod. There  are  traditions  of  Phoenician  occupa- 
tion at  a  later  time,  but  during  the  classical 
period  Melos  was  inhabited  by  Dorians,  and  dur- 
ing the  Peloponnesian  War  was  one  of  the  few 
islands  not  in  the  Athenian  League.  Though  the 
inhabitants  were  willing  to  remain  neutral,  the 
Athenians  in  B.C.  416  seized  the  island,  killed 
the  men  and  sold  the  women  and  children  into 
slavery.  With  the  fall  of  Athens,  however,  the 
Athenian  colonists  were  expelled  and  the  former 
inhabitants  brought  back  so  far  as  possible. 
Melos  fell  successively  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans,  the  Byzantine  emperors,  Venice, 
and  the  Turks;  it  is  now  a  part  of  Greece.  Dur- 
ing the  later  classical  period  the  island  evidently 
enjoyed  considerable  prosperity  and  was  enriched 
with  many  works  of  art,  some  of  which  have  been 
recovered  from  time  to  time.  Notable  among 
these  are  the  fine  "Poseidon"  in  the  National  Mu- 
seum at  Athens,  and  especially  the  "Venus  of 
Milo,"  discovered  in  1820  by  a  peasant,  and  now 
one  of  the  chief  treasures  of  the  Louvre.  From 
1896  to  1899  excavations  were  conducted  on  the 
island  bv  the  British  School  at  Athens,  which 
led  to  tne  discovery  of  the  hall  of  the  *Myst«' 
or  'Initiated,'  and  some  foundations  at  the 
site  of  the  ancient  capital,  near  the  modem  vil- 
lage of  Klima  on  the  great  bay.  The  chief  re- 
sult, however,  was  the  recovery  of  the  prehistoric 
settlements  at  Phylakopi,  with  a  wealth  of  early 
pottery  and  some  very  interesting  frescoes.  The 
preliminary  reports  may  be  found  in  the  Annual 
of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  vols,  ii.-v.  (Lon- 
don, 1897-1900)  and  The  Journal  of  Hellenio 
BtudieSy  vols,  xvi.-xix.  (London,  1896-99).  A 
complete  publication  is  promised  shortly. 

MELOS  (Neo-Lat..  from  Gk.  fi^^,  song). 
A  musical  term  denoting  the  continuity  of  the 
melodic  outline  in  any  single  movement  of  a 
composition.  A  symphonic  movement,  lor  in- 
stance, consists  of  several  themes  complete  in 
themselves.  In  the  movement,  however,  they  do 
not  appear  as  so  many  independent  musical 
phrases  with  a  full  cadence,  but  follow  one  an- 
other in  a  certain  order,  one  leading  either  direct- 
ly or  by  means  of  a  transition  passage  into  the 
next — so  that  their  connection,  unbroken  by  any 
full  cadence,  forms  a  continuous  melodic  chain 
from  the  first  bar  to  the  last.  This  chain  or  ag- 
gregate of  melodic  phrases  constitutes  the  melos 
of  the  movement.  The  term  melos  was  first  used 
in  this  sense  by  Wagner  in  his  theoretical  works. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MELOS. 


297 


HELTING-POINT. 


Every  act  of  his  musical  dramas  resembles  a 
symphonic  movement  in  so  much  that  the  me- 
lodic outline  is  never  interrupted  by  a  full  ca- 
dence. The  leading  motives  are  treated  and  de- 
veloped exactly  like  the  themes  in  a  symphony. 
Wagner  is,  therefore,  justified  in  speaking  of 
his  *endle88  melody.*  In  the  opera  every  number 
closes  with  a  full  cadence.  An  act  consists, 
therefore,  of  a  collection  of  several  numbers,  each 
complete  in  itself,  having  no  connection  whatever 
with  the  preceding  or  following  number.  Al- 
though each  number  has  its  melos,  the  act  can 
have  none,  and  consequently  no  artistic  unity,  be- 
cause the  fundamental  principle  of  unity  is  con- 
tinuity. See  also  Leitmotiv;  Musical  Dbama; 
Recitative. 

ULELXySA.    A  Chilean  plant.     See  Madia. 

MELOZZO  DA  FOBLi.  mft-l6t'86  d&  tdr-l^. 
An  Italian  painter  of  the  nfteenth  century.  See 
FoRL),  Melozzo  da. 

MELPOMENE,  m^l-pdm^d-n^  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  MeATTo/i^,  the  Singing  One,  pres.  part,  of 
liiXneaBai,  melpesthai,  to  sing).  In  Grecian 
mythology,  one  of  the  Nine  Muses.  When  the 
individual  muses  were  assigned  specific  functions, 
Melpomene  was  called  the  muse  of  tragedy.  In 
ancient  art  she  was  represented  with  a  mask  in 
her  right  hand  and  a  roll  of  a  part  of  a  play  in 
her  left.    See  Muses. 

MEI/BOSE.  A  city,  including  the  villages  of 
Melrose  Highlands,  Fells,  and  Wyoming,  in  Mid- 
dlesex County,  Mass.,  seven  miles  north  of  Bos- 
ton; on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  E  3).  It  is  an  attractive  and 
popular  residential  suburb  of  Boston,  has  a  pub- 
lic library  and  a  public  park,  and  engages  in  some 
manufacturing,  the  principal  products  being  rub- 
ber boots  and  shoes.  Prominent  features  of  in- 
terest are  Middlesex  Fells,  a  State  reservation 
of  1800  acres,  and  a  large  natural  reservoir,  Spot 
Pond.  The  government  is  administered,  under 
the  charter  of  1900,  by  a  mayor  annually  elected, 
and  a  board  of  aldermen,  one-third  of  whose 
members  are  elected  at  large.  The  board  elects 
the  city  clerk,  treasurer,  auditor,  and  collector, 
and  confirms  the  executive's  nominations  of  other 
subordinate  officials.  The  school  board  is  inde- 
pendently chosen  by  popular  vote.  Population, 
1000,  12,062;  1905,  14,295.  Melrose  was  settled 
probably  as  early  as  1633,  and  formed  a  part  of 
Charlestown  until  1649,  and  of  Maiden  from 
1649  until  Melrose  was  incorporated  in  1650.  In 
1900  it  received  a  city  charter.  Consult  Drake, 
History  of  Middlesex  County  (Boston,  1880) 
and  Goss,  History  of  Melrose  (Melrose,  1902). 

MELBOSE.  A  village  of  Roxburghshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  Tweed,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Eildon  Hills,  29  miles  southeast  of  Edinburgh 
(Map:  Scotland,  F  4).  Population,  in  1901, 
2195.  It  is  noted  for  the  remains  of  its  Cister- 
cian abbey,  celebrated  in  history  and  literature, 
and  one  of  the*  finest  of  Gothic  ruins.  Its 
erection  dates  from  1326,  after  the  destruction 
by  the  English  in  1322  of  the  Abbey  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  built  by  David  I.  between  1126  and  1146 
at  Old  Melrose  on  a  promontory  overlooking  the 
river  two  miles  to  the  northeast.  The  abbey  was 
built  from  a  fund  supplied  by  King  Robert  iBruce 
and  his  son  David  II.  and  was  not  finished  until 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  much 
mutilated  and  despoiled  by  the  English  in  1385 


and  in  1545.  The  present  remains  are  the  major 
portions  of  the  abbey  church,  thp  choir,  the 
transept,  part  of  the  nave,  and  the  southern 
aisle  with  its  eight  small  chapels,  and  fragments 
of  the  cloister,  a  square  of  150  feet.  The  church 
is  258  feet  lonff,  width  of  transept  137  feet» 
height  of  central  square  tower  84  feet.  It  is  a 
composite  of  late  flamboyant  Gothic  architec- 
ture, rich  in  the  elaborate  ornamentation  of  that 
style,  traceried  windows,  shafts,  capitals,  vault- 
ings, and  flying  buttresses  being  its  distinctive 
features.  Abbotsford  (q.v.),  the  home  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  is  about  three  miles  south  of  Mel- 
rose Abbey. 

MELTING-POINT.  The  temperature  at 
which  a  given  substance  passes  from  the  solid 
into  the  liquid  state.  Different  substances  gen-^ 
erally  have  diff'erent  melting-points.  Thus, 
mercury  if  solidified  by  cold  would  melt  at  a 
temperature  of  40°  below  0**  C.  ( — 40"  F.)  ;  ice 
melts  at  0**  C.  (32"  F.)  ;  sulphur  at  115"  C. 
(239"  F.)  ;  tin  at  230"  C.  (446"  F.)  ;  lead  at 
324"  C.  (615"  F.);  zinc  at  418"  C.  (784"  F.)  ; 
aluminum  at  727"  C.  (1341"  F.)  ;  silver  at  968" 
C.  (1774"  F.);  gold  at  1072"  C.  (1862"  F.) ; 
copper  at  1082"  C.  (1980"  F.) ;  pure  iron  at 
1704"  C.  (3099"  F.);  platinum  at  1777"  C. 
(3231"  F.)  ;  etc.  The  presence  of  more  or  less, 
impurity  in  a  given 
substance  generally 
causes  a  corresponding 
depression  of  its  melt- 
ing-point, and  hence 
the  latter  is  often  de- 
termined when  it  is 
required  to  ascertain 
whether  a  given  sub- 
stance, especially  a 
carbon  compound  of 
known  melting-point 
is  perfectly  pure.  Such 
determinations  may  be 
convenientty  carried 
out  by  means  of  the 
apparatus  shown  in 
the  accompanying  fig- 
ure. 

The  apparatus  con- 
sists of  anr  ordinary 
round-bottomed  fiask 
of  about  250  cubic 
centimeters  capacity, 
with  the  greater  part 
of  the  neck  cut  off ;  in 
this  is  an  ordinary 
test-tube  widened  in 
one  place  so  as  to  be 
readily  held  by  the 
fiask  without  touching  its  bottom ;  both  contain,  to- 
about  the  same  level,  some  liquid  (say,  strong  sul- 
phuric acid)  that  may  be  heated  to  a  somewhat 
high  temperature  without  boiling.  To  carry  out  a 
determination,  a  small  amount  of  the  given  sub- 
stance is  introduced  into  a  capillary  tube  of 
glass,  the  latter  is  tied  on  to  a  thermometer  so 
that  the  substance  is  very  near  the  mercury  bulb, 
the  thermometer  with  the  capillary  tube  is  im- 
mersed in  the  liquid  of  the  test-tube,  the  tem- 
perature is  allowed  to  rise  very  slowly,  and  the 
point  is  carefully  noted  at  which  the  contents  ot 
the  capillary  tube  begin  to  change  color  and  be- 
come transparent.  For  very  precise  determina- 
tions, however,  this  method  cannot  be  employed.. 


MBLTING-POINT    APPARATUS. 


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HELUSINA. 


Instead,  the  investigator  uses  much  larger  quan- 
tities of  substance,  reduces  the  latter  to  a  fine 
powder,  and  immerses  the  thermometer  directly 
into  it.  While  it  is  known  that  different  modi- 
fications of  one  and  the  same  chemical  sub- 
stance may  have  different  melting-points,  and 
hence  the  melting-point  cannot  be  considered  as 
strictly  characteristic  of  a  ^iven  chemical  spe- 
cies, it  is  so  easy  to  determine  with  great  pre- 
cision, that  it  is  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
useful  constants  and  is  very  frequently  em- 
ployed by  chemists  for  the  purpose  of  identify- 
mg  substances,  and  as  already  mentioned  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  their  purity.  Further,  in  spite 
of  but  too  many  exceptions,  certain  interesting 
relations  have  been  shown  beyond  doubt  to  exist 
between  the  melting-points  of  organic  substances 
and  their  molecular  weights  and  constitution. 
See  article  Boilinq-Point. 

Under  Fbeezing-Point  that  point  has  been 
defined  with  reference  to  the  vapor-tension  of 
the  given  substance  in  the  solid  and  liquid 
states.  The  same  definition,  and  for  precisely  the 
same  reasons,  is  of  course  applicable  to  the  melt- 
ing-point. For  the  'latent  heat  of  fusion,'  see 
Fi^xziNO  Mixtures  and  Heat. 

Influence  of  External  Pressure  on  Melt- 
iNG-PoiNTS.  Strictly  speaking,  the  melting-point 
of  a  solid  substance,  just  as  the  boiling-point 
(q.v.)  of  a  liquid,  depends  upon  the  external 
pressure.  In  the  case  of  the  melting-point,  how- 
ever, the  influence  exercised  by  the  external 
pressure  is  so  very  slight  that  it  may  generally 
be  safely  left  out  of  account  altogether.  The 
subject  was  first  theoretically  investigated,  from 
the  standpoint  of  thermodynamics,  by  James 
Thomson,  who  found  that  for  a  given  substance 
the  change  of  melting-temperature  caused  by  an 
increase  of  one  atmosphere  in  pressure  must  be 
represented  by  the  formula, 

T(V  — VQ 
r 
where  T  denotes  the  melting-point  (on  the  abso- 
lute scale,  i.e.  the  centigraae  temperature  in- 
creased by  273)  corresponding  to  some  given  pres- 
sure; V  denotes  the  volume  occupied  by  one 
gram  of  the  liquid  substance  at  the  melting-tem- 
perature; V  denotes  the  volume  occupied  by  the 
solid  substance  at  the  same  temperature;  and  r 
denotes  the  mechanical  equivalent  (in  terms  of 
'liter-atmospheres')  of  the  heat  absorbed,  at 
the  same  temperature,  during  the  melting  of  one 
gram  of  the  substance.  (By  a  'liter-atmosphere' 
is  meant  the  minimum  mechanical  work  required 
to  cause  a  diminution  of  one  liter  in  any  volume, 
against  the  constant  resistance  of  a  pressure  of 
one  atmosphere.)  It  will  be  observed  that  if 
V  is  greater  than  V,  i.e.  if  the  melting  is  accom- 
panied by  an  increase  in  volume,  the  above  expres- 
sion is  positive,  and  hence  an  increase  of  pres- 
sure causes  the  melting-temperature  to  rise.  On 
the  contrary,  if  V  is  greater  than  V,  the  ex- 
pression is  negative,  and  hence  an  increase  of 
pressure  causes  the  melting- temperature  to  fall. 
These  theoretical  results  are  in  perfect  agree- 
ment with  experimental  observation.  In  the  case 
of  ice,  melting  is  accompanied  by  a  contraction 
in  volume,  i.e.  V  is  greater  than  V,  and  the 
above  formula  leads  to  the  result  that  while  un- 
der normal  atmospheric  pressure  ice  melts  at 
0**  C.  (32"  F.),  the  melting-point  under  a  pres- 
sure of  two  atmospheres  would  be  — 0.0077"  C. 


(31.0861"  F.).  As  far  back  as  1851  WiUiam 
Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin)  obtained  practically  the 
same  result  by  direct  observation,  and  the  for- 
mula has  since  been  found  to  hold  similarly  good 
in  the  case  of  all  substances  examined. 

Eutectic  Mixtures.  It  was  shown  in  the 
article  Freezino-Point  that  if  a  solution  happens 
to  be  saturated  at  its  freezing-point,  the  solid 
gradually  separating  out  by  freezing  and  the 
liquid  remaining  unfrozen  cannot  but  have  the 
same  composition,  and  hence  the  freezing- tem- 
perature must  remain  constant.  It  is  perfectly 
obvious  that  the  solid  mixture  thus  obtained 
must  entirely  melt  at  the  same  constant  tem- 
perature. Mixtures  of  salts  thus  obtained  from 
solutions  are  termed  'cryohydrates.'  More  gen- 
erally, and  whatever  its  origin,  a  mechanical  mix- 
ture that  melts  at  a  constant  temperature  lower 
than  that  of  any  other  mixture  of  the  same  sub- 
stances, is  termed  a  'eutectic  mixture.'  Follow- 
ing are  a  few  examples  of  eutectic  alloys:  an 
alloy  containing  55.58  per  cent,  of  bismuth  and 
44.42  per  cent,  of  lead  melts  at  the  constant  tem- 
perature of  122.7"  C.  (252.86"  F.) ;  an  alloy  of 
46.70  per  cent,  of  bismuth  and  53.30  per  cent, 
of  tin  melts  at  133"  C.  (271.4"  F.)  ;  an  alloy  of 
69.19  per  cent,  of  bismuth  and  40.81  per  cent,  of 
cadmium  melts  at  144"  C.  (291.2"  F.)  ;  an  alloy 
of  92.86  per  cent,  of  bismuth  and  7.15  per  cent, 
of  zinc  melts  at  248"  C.  (478.4"  F.)  ;  an  alloy  of 
47.76  per  cent,  of  bismuth,  18.39  per  cent,  lead, 
13.31  per  cent,  of  cadmium,  and  20.00  per  cent,  of 
tin  melts  at  71"  C.  (159.8"  F.).  See  Freezing- 
PoiNT;  Fusible  Metals. 

ICELTON-MOWBBAY;  m^Vton  m^brft.  A 
market-town  in  Leicestershire,  England,  16  miles 
northeast  of  Leicester,  on  the  Eye,  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Wreak  (Map:  England,  F  4) .  Stil- 
ton cheese  and  pork,  pies  are  extensively  made  for 
the  London,  Manchester,  and  Leeds  markets.  It 
has  large  quarries  of  iron  ore,  and  smelting  fur- 
naces, and  an  important  cattle  market.  It  is  the 
Midlands  'metropolis  of  fox-hunting,'  with  numer- 
ous hunting  seats,  and  in  the  winter  is  crowded 
with  sportsmen.  It  is  a  very  ancient  town  and 
in  1644  was  the  scene  of  a  defeat  and  slaughter 
of  the  Parliamentarians.  Population,  in  1891, 
6392;  in  1901,7500. 

MELT7N,  me-l5N'.  An  ancient  town  of 
France;  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Seine- 
et-Mame;  built  on  an  island  and  on  both  banks 
of  the  Seine,  28  miles  southeast  of  Paris  (Map: 
France,  N.,  H  4) .  The  town  is  an  important  rail- 
road centre.  The  manufactures  are  carriages,  cot- 
ton and  woolen  goods,  earthenware,  and  choco- 
late; and  there  is  trade  in  grain,  flour,  cattle, 
and  fowls.  Population,  in  1^1,  13,059.  Melun 
was  taken  five  times  during  the  ninth  century  by 
the  Northmen.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  1419,  and  was  held  by  them  for  ten  years. 

HEL'USI^A.  A  powerful  water  fairy,  half 
woman  and  half  fish,  in  French  folklore.  She 
became  the  wife  of  Count  Raymond  of  Poitiers 
and  built  a  castle  which  from  her  own  name  was 
called  Lusinia,  the  present  Lusignan.  When  her 
husband  surprised  her  in  her  double  form  in  the 
bath  she  disappeared.  When  the  death  of  a 
member  of  the  family  or  of  the  King  of  France 
was  about  to  occur  she  appeared  in  a  high  tower 
of  the  castle,  in  mourning  garments,  and  an- 
nounced the  approaching  event  by  three  shrill 
cries.     The  legend  was  used  in   1387  by  Jean 


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MELUSINA. 


299 


MELVILLE. 


d'Arras  as  the  basis  of  a  romance,  which  was 
rendered  into  French  verse  by  Conedoette  in 
1401,  and  in  translations  and  other  forms  made 
the  character  of  Melusina  famous.  Consult  Koh- 
ler,  Der  Ursprung  der  Melusinensage  (Leipziir, 
1895). 

ISJEI/VTJU,  MELvnjc,  or  Melviixe,  Sir  James, 
of  Hallhill  (1636-1617).  A  Scotch  soldier,  diplo- 
mat,  and  historical  writer.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  Sir  John  Melvil  of  Melville  of  Raith,  Scotland, 
who  was  convicted  and  executed  at  Stirling  on 
charges  of  high  treason  on  account  of  his  devo- 
tion to  the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Young 
Melvil  was  sent  to  France  and  became  page  of 
honor  to  the  Bishop  of  Valence,  and  was  after- 
wards attached  to  tne  service  of  Constable  Mont- 
morenci.  Under  him  he  saw  his  first  military 
service  in  Flanders  in  1553,  and  in  1557  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Saint  Quentin. 
Two  years  after  he  obtained  his  release  and  was 
dispatched  to  Scotland  on  a  secret  mission.  Dur- 
ing his  absence  occurred  the  tournament  in  which 
Montmorenci  killed  Henry  II.;  and  at  Melvil's 
return  he  judged  it  best  to  turn  his  steps  toward 
Germany,  where  he  was  employed  by  the  Elector 
Palatine.  While  on  a  visit  to  France  in  1561  he 
met  Queen  Mary  of  Scotland,  to  whom  he  tendered 
his  allegiance  and  sword.  In  1564  he  returned 
to  his  native  land  and  presented  himself  to  Mary 
at  Perth.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  sent  to 
England,  as  ambassador  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Again  in  1566  he  was  sent  to  England  to  bear 
the  news  of  the  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  Scottish 
throne.  He  adhered  to  the  Queen  so  long  as 
there  appeared  to  be  any  hope  of  her  ultimate 
success,  but  after  she  was  committed  to  Loch- 
leven  Castle^  was  sent  by  the  nobles  to  offer  the 
regency  to  the  Earl  of  Murray.  During  Morton's 
regency  he  retired  from  Court,  but  when  James 
b^an  to  reign,  was  received  with  favor.  He  was 
knighted  and  appointed  Privy  Councilor  and  Gen- 
tleman of  the  Bedchamber  to  Queen  Anne.  On 
James's  accession  to  the  English  throne,  Melvil 
retired  into  private  life  and  died  at  Hallhill, 
November  13,  1617.  The  Memoirs  of  Sir  James 
Melvil  of  Hallhill;  Containing  an  Impartial 
Account  of  the  Most  Remarkable  Affairs  of  State 
During  the  Last  Age,  etc.,  accidentally  discovered 
in  Edinburgh  Castle  in  1660,  were  published  in 
1683  by  his  grandson,  George  Scott,  but  in  an 
incomplete  form.  An  accurate  edition  was 
printed  in  1827-33  at  Edinburgh,  by  the  Ban- 
natyne  Club,  and  is  of  great  historic  value. 

MEL^VILLE,  or  MELVILL,  Andbew  (1545- 
1622) .  A  Scottish  reformer.  He  was  bom  August 
1,  1545,  at  Baldovie,  near  Montrose,  Forfarshire. 
He  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  Mont- 
rose, whence  he  removed  in  his  fourteenth  year  to 
the  University  of  Saint  Andrews.  Here  he  re- 
mained four  years,  and  then  proceeded  to  Paris, 
where  he  continued  his  studies  for  two  years.  In 
1666  he  was  chosen  regent  in  the  College  of  Saint 
Marceon,  Poitiers,  whither  he  had  gone  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  law.  From  Poitiers  he  proceeded 
to  Geneva,  where,  by  the  influence  of  his  friend 
Beza,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  humanity 
in  the  academy.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1574, 
and  was.  in  the  course  of  the  same  year,  ap- 
pointed principal  of  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
In  1580  Melville  was  chosen  principal  of  Saint 
Mary's  College,  Saint  Andrews.  In  1582  he 
preached  the  opening  sermon  before  the  General 
Vol.  XIII.— 20. 


Assembly,  and  boldly  "inveighed  against  the 
bloody  Imife  of  absolute  authority,  whereby  men 
intended  to  pull  the  crown  off  Christ's  head,  and 
to  wring  the  sceptre  out  of  his  hand."  The  As- 
sembly applauded  his  intrepidity,  drew  up  a  re- 
monstrance in  a  similar  spirit,  and  appointed 
Melville  and  others  to  present  it.  In  1584  Melville 
was  summoned  before  the  Privy  Council.  He 
maintained  that  whatever  a  preacher  might  say  in 
the  pulpit,  even  if  it  should  be  called  treason,  he 
was  not  bound  to  answer  for  in  a  civil  court, 
imtil  he  had  been  first  tried  in  a  church  court. 
For  this  denial  of  secular  jurisdiction  he  was 
condemned  to  imprisonment,  but  escap^  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  remained  till  the  downfall  of 
Arran  in  the  following  year.  After  an  absence 
of  twenty  months  he  returned  to  Scotland  and  re- 
sumed his  office  at  Saint  Andrews.  In  1606  Mel- 
ville was  called  to  England  to  attend  the  famous 
conference  at  Hampton  Court.  Having  ridiculed 
the  service  in  the  chapel  royal  in  a  Latin  epi- 
gram, he  was  twice  summoned  before  the  English 
Privy  Council,  and  on  the  second  occasion  his 
temper  gave  way,  and  he  broke  out  into  a  torrent 
of  invective  against  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury for  encouraging  popery  and  superstition, 
profaning  the  Sabbath,  etc.  The  King  imme- 
diately sent  him  to  the  Tower,  where  he  re- 
mained for  more  than  four  years.  In  1611  he 
was  released  on  the  solicitation  of  the  Duke  of 
Bouillon,  who  wanted  his  services  as  a  professor 
in  his  university  at  Sedan  in  France.  Melville 
died  in  London,  in  1622,  but  neither* the  exact 
date  of  his  death  nor  the  events  of  his  last  years 
are  ascertained.  He  published  much  in  prose  and 
verse,  in  Latin  and  English.  Consult  his  Life  by 
McCrie  (2  vols.,  London,  1819;  revised  ed.  1856). 

MELVILLE,  George  John  Whyte  (1821- 
78).  An  English  author.  He  was  bom  near 
Saint  Andrews,  Scotland,  and  entered  the  army  in 
1839.  In  1846  he  became  captain  in  the  Cold- 
stream Guards,  and  during  the  Crimean  War 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Turkish  cavalry. 
Melville  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  fashionable  novel  of  the  high-life  sporting 
variety.  In  describing  the  hunting  field  he 
arouseid  much  interest,  as  shown  by  the  popu- 
larity of  his  score  or  more  of  novels  from  Kate 
Coventry  in  1856  to  Black  hut  Comely  in  1878. 

MELVILLE,.  George  Wallace  (1841  —  ). 
An  American  naval  engineer,  bom  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  educated  in  New  York  and  at  the 
Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute,  and  entered  the 
United  States  Navy  as  an  engineer  in  1861. 
Among  his  contributions  to  the  building  up  of 
the  new  navy  are  his  designs  for  the  triple  screw 
machinery  for  the  two  cruisers  Columbia  and 
Minneapolis.  Melville  sailed  in  1879  under  Lieu- 
tenant De  Long  on  the  ill-fated  Jeannette  expedi- 
tion to  discover  a  northeast  passage  across  the 
Polar  Sea.  After  the  loss  of  the  Jeannette  he 
brought  to  safety  the  crew  of  his  own  boat,  and 
subsequently  conducted  the  search  which  dis- 
covered the  Jeannette  records  and  the  bodies  of 
De  Long  and  his  companions.  This  experience 
he  described  in  his  In  the  Lena  Delta  (1885). 
He  was  afterwards  a  member  of  the  Greely  Re- 
lief Expedition  (1884).  He  was  appointed  chief 
engineer  in  1881,  engineer-in-chief  in  1887,  rear- 
admiral  in  1899,  and  retired  in  1903. 

MELVILLE,  Herman  (1819-91).  An  Ameri- 
can novelist,  bora  in  New  York  City,  and  note- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MELVHiLB. 


800 


MEMBBAJTE. 


worthy  for  his  stories  of  the  sea.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Albany  Classical  School,  and  in  New 
York  City,  and  went  to  sea  in  1837  in  a  merchant 
vessel  bound  for  Liverpool.  In  1841  he  rounded 
Cape  Horn  on  a  whaling  cruise,  and  was  so  ill- 
treated  that  in  the  next  year  he  and  a  companion 
made  their  escape  from  the  ship  and  were  taken 
captives  by  the  Typees,  a  warlike  tribe  of  Nu- 
kaniva,  one  of  the  Marquesas  Islands.  His  com- 
panion soon  escaped  and  Melville  was  finally  res- 
cued after  four  months  by  the  crew  of  an  Aus- 
tralian whaler.  He  spent  the  next  two  years 
(1842-44)  in  and  about  the  Pacific  Islands,  and 
on  his  return  to  New  York  told  the  story^  of  his 
experiences  at  sea  and  his  romantic  captivity  in 
Typee,  a  Peep  at  Polynesian  Life  During  a  Four 
Months*  Residence  in  a  Valley  of  the  Marquesas 
(1846),  which  enjoyed  a  sensational  and  not 
undeserved  success.  In  1847  Melville  married 
the  daughter  of  Chief  Justice  Lemuel  Shaw  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1850  he  moved  with  his  fam- 
ily to  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and  returned  in  1863  to 
New  York,  where  he  occupied  a  place  in  the 
custom-house  continuously  from  1866  till  1885, 
when  because  of  failing  health  he  resigned.  The 
period  of  his  popularity  is  embraced  in  the  years 
1846-52,  and  was  one  of  rapid  production  of  such 
stories  as  Omoo  (1847);  Mardi  (1849);  Red- 
hum,  His  First  Voyage  (1849)  ;  White  Jacket,  or 
the  World  in  a  Man  of  War  (1850),  in  which  the 
horrors  of  flogging  in  the  navy  were  so  graphi- 
cally set  forth  that  the  abolition  of  the  practice 
soon  followed;  Moby  Dick,  or  the  White  Whale 
(1851)  ;  and  Pierre,  or  the  Ambiguities  (1852). 
After  1852  he  published  three  other  volumes  of 
fiction,  Israel  Potter,  His  Fifty  Tear»  of  Exile 
(1855);  Piazza  Tales  (1856);  and  The  Confi- 
dence Man  (1857);  and  later  several  books  of 
poems,  lyric  and  epic,  such  as  Battle  Pieces  and 
Aspects  of  the  War  ( 1866) ;  Clarel,  a  Pilgrimage 
in  the  Holy  Land  (1876)  ;  John  Marr  and  Other 
Sailors  ( 1888 )  ;  and  Timoleon  ( 1891 ) .  His 
Typee,  Omoo,  Moby  Dick,  and  White  Jacket  were 
recited  in  1892  with  an  introduction  by  Arthur 
Stedman. 

MELVnXE,.  or  MELVILL,  Jakes  (1556- 
1614).  A  Scottish  reformer,  nephew  of  Andrew. 
He  was  bom  at  Mayton,  near  Montrose,  July  26, 
1556;  graduated  B.A.  at  Saint  Andrews  in  1571 ; 
became  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  was  a  zeal- 
ous defender  and  assistant  of  his  uncle.  He  was 
Jrofessor  at  Glasgow  (1575-80);  at  Saint  An- 
rews  ( 1580-84)  ;  neld  various  ecclesiastical  posi- 
tions, and  was  much  respected  and  employed  by 
James  VI.  till  his  courageous  opposition  to  the 
King's  schemes  in  behalf  of  episcopacy  after  he 
became  King  of  England  cost  him  his  favor.  He 
died  at  Berwick,  January  13,  1614.  His  published 
works  include  prose  and  poetry,  but  his  title  to 
fame  rests  upon  his  diary  (1556-1610),  printed 
by  the  Woodrow  Society  (Edinburgh,  1842). 

MELVII#LE,  Viscount.  A  British  states- 
man.   See  DuNDAS.  Henry. 

MELVILLE  ISLAND.  One  of  the  Parry 
Islands  of  Arctic  North  America,  situated  in 
latitude  74**  to  77*  N.,  north  of  Melville  Sound 
and  between  Bathurst  and  Prince  Patrick's  Isl- 
ands, the  latter  being  the  westernmost  island  of 
the  group  (Map:  North  America,  D  2).  Melville 
Island  is  very  irregular  in  outline,  200  miles 
long  and  about  100  miles  broad;  it  is  of  car- 
boniferous  lime  and   sandstone   formation,   and 


contains  coal-beds.    It  was  discovered  by  Parry 
in  1819. 

MELVILLE  PENINSULA.  A  projection  of 
the  north  shore  of  North  America,  extending: 
north  of  Hudson  Bay,  and  belonging  to  the 
Canadian  Territory  of  Keewatin  (Map:  North 
America,  F  3).  It  is  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  Rae  Isthmus,  and  bounded  on  the  west 
by  Committee  Bay.  It  is  separated  from  Cock- 
burn  Island  on  the  north  by  Fury  and  Hecla 
Strait,  from  Baffin  Land  on  the  east  by  Fox 
Channel,  and  from  Southampton  Island  on  the 
south  by  Frozen  Strait. 

MELVILLE  SOUND.  One  of  the  numerous 
passages  between  the  islands  of  Arctic  North 
America  (Map:  North  America,  E  2).  It  lies 
between  Melville  Island  on  the  north  and  Prince 
Albert  Land  on  the  south,  end  extends  from 
Prince  of  Wales  Island  in  the  east,  where  it- 
communicates  through  Barrow  Strait  and  Lan- 
caster Sound  with  Baffin  Bay,  to  Banks  Land  in 
the  west,  where  Banks  Strait  opens  into  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean.  Its  length  is  225  miles;  its  southern 
shore  is  still  largely  unknown,  but  its  width  is . 
from  50  to  about  175  miles. 

MEMBEBED  (from  member,  OP.,  Fr.  mem- 
bre,  from  Lat.  membrum,  limb).  A  term  in 
heraldry  applied  to  a  bird  having  its  beak  and 
legs  of  a  different  color  from  its  body;  it  is  then 
said  to  be  merabered  of  that  color. 

MEMBBA^A  PU'PILLA^BIS  (Lat.,  pupil- 
lary membrane).  The  name  given  to  a  very  thin 
membrane  which  closes  or  covers  the  central 
aperture  of  the  iris  in  the  foetus  during  an  early 
period  of  gestation;  it  begins  to  disappear  in  the 
seventh  month. 

MEMBRANE  (Lat.  membrana,  from  mem' 
brum,  limb)  in  Anatomy.  The  term  applied  to 
designate  those  textures  of  the  animal  body  which 
are  arranged  in  the  form  of  lamlnse,  and  cover 
organs,  or  line  the  interior  of  cavities,  or  take 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  walls  of  canals  or 
tubes.  The  structure  and  special  uses  of  some 
of  the  most  important  of  the  animal  membranes 
are  noticed  in  separate  articles,  such  as  Mucous 
Membbane,  Sebous  Membbane,  etc.;  and  the 
membranes  in  which  the  foetus  is  inclosed— com- 
monly called  the  foetal  membranes — are  described 
in  the  article  Placenta.  The  membranes  which 
cover  and  protect  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are 
commonly  termed  meninges,  from  the  Greek  word 
meninx,  a  membrane.  Simple  membranes  are  of 
three  kinds,  mucous,  serous,  and  fibrous.  Mucous 
membranes  line  the  cavities  which  communicate 
externally  with  the  skin,  as  the  mouth,  intestinal 
canal,  genito-urinary  passages,  internal  surface 
of  the  eyelids,  and  the  ramifications  of  the 
respiratory  passages,  the  Eustachian  tubes,  and 
middle  ear.  Mucous  membrane  has  three  lavers: 
a  fibro-vascular  layer,  composed  of  bloocl-ves- 
sels,  nerves,  and  connective  tissue,  which  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  tissue  beneath  and  interlacing 
with  it;  a  more  superficial  layer,  called  base- 
ment membrane,  which  is  described  as  structure- 
less, and  upon  which  rests  the  superficial  layer, 
or  epithelium,  the  latter  presenting  a  variety 
of  structure  in  different  parts  of  the  body.  This 
membrane  is  at  times  elevated  into  papillae  or 
villi,  or  else  depressed  in  the  form  of  glands. 
The  mucous  membranes  secrete  mucus  to  lubri- 
cate the  various  passages,  and  also  other  fiuids » 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEMBRANE. 


301 


MEMMINGEN. 


for  special  physiological  purposes.  The  saliva, 
the  gastric  and  pancreatic  juices  which  aid  di- 
gestion are  examples  of  special  secretions.  The 
serous  membranes  are  of  two  kinds:  those  lining 
visceral  cavities,  such  as  the  pericardium,  pleurae, 
and  peritoneum;  and  those  lining  joint  cavities 
(synovial  membranes).  The  third  species  of  sim- 
ple membrane  of  Bichat  is  the  fibrous,  divided 
into  two  sections:  enveloping  aponeuroses,  the 
fibrous  capsules  of  joints  and  the  sheaths  of 
tendons;  and  the  enveloping  membrane  of  bone, 
the  periosteum,  the  dura  mater  (the  internal 
periosteum  of  the  skull),  the  fibrous  membrane 
of  the  spleen  and  of  other  glandular  organs.  See 
Spleen. 

MEMBBANOLOOY  (from  Lat.  memhrana, 
membrane  -f-  Gk.  -?/)yia.  -logiUy  account,  from 
Xiyeiv,  legein,  to  say).  The  study  of  the  part 
of  anatomy  relating  to  membranes.  See  Mem- 
brane. 

MEMBB^,  mAN'brA^  Zenobius  (1645-87). 
An  early  missionary  to  Canada,  bom  at  Ba- 
paume,  France.  He  became  a  recollet  of  the 
Franciscan  Order,  and  went  as  a  missionary  to 
Canada  in  1675;  accompanied  La  Salle  upon 
his  expedition  to  the  Mississippi  in  1679,  stop- 
ping at  Fort  CrfeveccBur,  on  Lake  Peoria,  where, 
with  Father  Gabriel  de  la  Kibourde,  he  conducted 
a  mission  among  the  Illinois  until  driven  by  the 
Iroquois  to  the  Jesuit  settlement  at  Green  Bay. 
He  descended  the  Mississippi  with  La  Salle  in 
1682,  and  returned  the  same  year  to  France, 
where  he  published  an  account  of  the  expedition. 
After  acting  for  a  time  as  warden  of  a  convent  at 
Bapaume,  he  came  again  to  America  with  La 
Salle  in  his  final  expedition  by  sea  to  Texas  in 
1684,  and  remained  in  Fort  Saint  Louis,  where, 
with  his  companions,  he  was  massacred  by  the 
Indians.  CJonsult  Shea,  Discovery  and  Explora- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  Valley  (New  York,  1852). 

MEMEL,  ma^mel.  A  river  emptying  into  the 
Baltic.     See  Niemen. 

MEMEL.  A  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  Province 
of  East  Prussia,  the  most  northern  town  of  Ger- 
many and  an  important  seaport,  situated  near 
the  Russian  border  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Dange  into  the  northern  end  of  the  Kurisches 
Haff,  58  miles  by  rail  north-northwest  of  Tilsit 
(Map:  Prussia,  J  1).  It  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor protected  by  two  lighthouses  and  a  fort,  and 
is  of  great  importance  in  the  Baltic  lumber  trade. 
The  logs,  sawed  in  the  local  mills,  are  brought 
down  from  the  forests  of  Russia  by  the  K5nig- 
Wilhelm  Canal  and  by  the  Niemen,  here  known 
as  the  Memel.  Memel  is  the  seat  of  a  con- 
siderable transit  trade  in  agricultural  products 
imported  from  Lithuania,  as  well  as  in  coal, 
petroleum,  herrings,  chemicals,  etc.  The  local 
manufactures  consist  of  machinery,  chemicals, 
etc.  The  educational  institutions  include  a  gym- 
nasium, a  seminary  for  teachers,  and  a  school 
of  navigation.  Memel  was  founded  in  1252  by  the 
Teutonic  Order.  It  joined  the  Hanseatic  League 
in  1254  and  soon  rose  to  a  position  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  It  was  held  by  the 
Swedes  for  some  time  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  was  the  residence  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.,  after  the  battle  of  Jena  in  1807.  Here 
also,  in  1807,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
between  England  and  Prussia.  Population,  in 
1890,  19,282;  in  1905,  20,685,  chiefly  Protestants. 


MEMLING,  mgm^Ing,  Hans  (c.1430-94). 
An  eminent  painter  of  the  early  Flemish  school, 
which  may  be  said  to  have  attained  in  his  works 
the  highest  delicacy  of  artistic  development.  He 
was  bom  at  Momlingen,  near  Aschaflfenburg, 
Bavaria,  and  appears  permanently  established  at 
Bruges  in  1478,  but  was  probably  active  there  a 
few  years  earlier.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rogier  van 
der  Weyden  at  Brussels,  but  his  work  bears  little 
resemblance  to  that  master,  whom  he  surpasses. 
His  style  is  more  akin  to  that  of  Jan  van  Eyck. 

Memling's  works,  of  which  a  large  number  sur- 
vive, may  be  best  studied  at  Bruges.  In  the  Hos- 
pital of  Saint  John  are  the  following:  "The 
Epiphany"  (1479),  representing  the  adoration 
of  the  Magi,  and  the  "Presentation  in  the  Tem- 
ple," the  best  example  of  the  master's  early 
manner ;  a  triptych  called  the  "Marriage  of  Saint 
Catharine;"  the  portrait  of  "Catharine  Moreel" 
(1480);  a  diptych  (1487)  with  the  Madonna, 
and  on  the  other  wing  the  donor,  Martin  van 
Nieuwenhoven,  the  best  of  Memling's  portraits; 
and  the  "Shrine  of  Saint  Ursula"  (1489),  a 
reliquary  in  the  shape  of  a  Gothic  chapel.  Its 
fourteen  scenes  are  the  master's  finest  achieve- 
ment, being  remarkable  for  the  freedom  and 
grace  with  which  he  treated  groups  and  figures 
of  small  proportions.  A  triptych  (1484)  with 
"Saint  Christopher  and  the  Infant  Christ"  in 
the  centre,  in  the  Museum  at  Bruges,  also  ranks- 
high  among  his  works.  The  Museum  at  Brussels- 
contains  a  fine  "Crucifixion;"  and  that  of  Ant- 
werp possesses  "Christ  as  King  of  Heaven,"  a 
large  triptych,  purchased  in  1896  for  240,000 
francs.  Other  authentic  pictures  of  Memling 
are:  A  triptych,  containing  more  than  two  hun- 
dred figures,  the  centre  occupied  by  the  Cruci- 
fixion (1491),  in  the  Cathedral  at  LUbeck;  the 
"Seven  Joys  of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  Pinakothek, 
Munich;  the  "Seven  Sorrows  of  the  Virgin,"  in 
the  Gallery  of  Turin;  the  "Madonnas,"  in  the 
Ufllzi,  Florence,  the  Louvre,  the  Berlin  Museum,, 
apd  the  National  Gallery,  London ;  a  large  altar- 
piece  with  the  "Last  Judgment"  (1467),  in  the 
Church  of  Saint  Mary  at  Danzig.  Examples  of 
his  portraits  are  in  the  galleries  of  Brussels,  Ant- 
werp, Frankfort,  and  Florence. 

Consult:  Michiels,  Memling,  sa  vie  et  ses  ou- 
vrages  (Verviers,  1883)  ;  Wauters,  Sept  Etudes 
pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  de  Hans  Memlinc  (Brus- 
sels, 1894)  ;  Kaemmerer,  Memling  (Bielefeld, 
1899)  ;  and  Weale,  Hans  Memlinc  (London, 
1901)  ;  also  Bock,  Memling-Studien  ( Dttsseldorf , 
1900),  and  Gaederiz,  Der  Altarschrein  von  H. 
Memling  im  Dom  zu  LUbeck  (Leipzig,  1901). 

MEMMINOEN,  m$m^mlng-en.  An  ancient 
town  of  the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria,  Germany,  situ- 
ated near  the  right  bank  of  the  Iller,  33  miles  by 
rail  south -southeast  of  Ulm  (Map:  Bavaria,  D 
5).  It  is  still  partly  surrounded  with  walls,  and 
its  principal  church  has  fine  late  Gothic  choir- 
stalls  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
Roman  Catholic  church  with  its  fine  altar-pieces, 
the  fifteenth-century  Renaissance  Rathaus,  and 
the  FuggerhaUj  in  which  Wallenstein  received  his 
dismissal  from  the  ccnnmand  of  the  army  in  1630, 
are  also  noteworthy.  The  educational  institutions 
of  the  town  include  a  realschule,  a  seminary  for 
teachers,  a  theatre,  and  a  library.  There  is  an 
important  collection  of  archives.  Memmingen 
manufactures  woolens  and  linen,  cordage,  vari- 
ous kinds  of  machinery,  leather,  soap,  etc.,  and 
trades  in  agricultural  products,  wool,  and  live 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


TifEMirrNQEar. 


802 


MEMKONITTM. 


stock.  The  town  is  first  mentioned  in  1010  and 
became  a  free  city  of  the  Empire  in  1286.  It  was 
a  member  of  the  Schmalkaldic  League ;  it  became 
Bavarian  in  1802.    Population,  in  1905,  11,620. 

MEMMTKQEB,  mSm^mln-j^r,  Ohbistopheb 
GusTAVUS  (1803-88).  An  American  political 
leader,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Confederate  States.  He  was  born 
in  WUrttemberg,  Germany,  but  was  broucht  at  an 
early  age  to  South  Carolina  by  his  mother,  who 
died  not  long  after  their  arrival.  He  was  for  a 
time  in  an  orphan  asylum  in  Charleston,  and  was 
then  adopted  by  Thomas  Bennett,  afterwards 
Governor.  Memminger  graduated  from  South 
Carolina  College  in  1820,  studied  law,  and  prac- 
ticed in  Charleston.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Cal- 
houn, and  in  1832  wrote  the  Book  of  Nullifioa' 
Hon,  a  satire  in  biblical  style  upon  that  leader's 
favorite  doctrine.  He  was  for  many  years  a  mem- 
ber of  the  State  Legislature,  and  for  nearly 
twenty  years  was  the  head  of  the  finance  com- 
mittee. In  January,  1860,  he  was  sent  as  a 
special  commissioner  to  Virginia  in  order  to 
induce  that  State  to  enter  a  scheme  for  obtaining 
redress  of  Southern  grievances.  Some  months 
later  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  convention 
which  declared  that  the  connection  of  South 
Carolina  with  the  United  States  was  dissolved. 
Upon  the  formation  of  the  Confederacy,  he  was 
made  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  which  office  he 
held  until  June,  1864,  when  he  resigned.  He  was 
responsible  for  the  disastrous  financial  policy  of 
the  Confederate  Government.  For  an  account  of 
his  administration,  consult  Schwab,  The  Confed- 
erate States  of  America,  1861-65:  A  Financial 
and  Industrial  History  of  the  South  During  the 
Civil  War  (New  York,  1901). 

ICEM^ON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Uiuvijv).  In 
Greek  legend,  a  son  of  Tithonus  ana  Eos  (the 
davTi ) ,  King  of  the  Ethiopians,  who  led  an  army 
to  aid  Priam,  King  of  Troy.  Clad  in  armor 
made  by  Hephaestus  (or  Vulcan),  he  made  great 
slaughter  among  the  Greeks,  and  finally  killed 
Antilochus,  who  was  defending  his  father,  Nestor. 
Over  the  body  of  Antilochus  he  met  Achilles  and 
fell  before  him.  His  mother  obtained  from  Zeus 
his  immortality,  and  his  body,  or,  in  another 
story,  his  ashes  were  carried  to  his  native  coun- 
try. The  river  Paphlagonius  was  said  to  flow 
blood  yearly  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death.  His 
comrades  were  changed  to  birds,  and  it  was  said 
they  returned  yearly  from  the  south  and  fought 
around  the  funeral  mound  erected  for  their  leader 
at  Troy.  In  the  earlier  writers  Memnon  leads 
his  forces  from  the  extreme  East,  or  Assyria; 
later  the  native  land  was  sought  in  Syria,  and 
not  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  was  it  localized  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia. 
Memnonia  were  said  to  exist  at  Susa  in  Persia, 
and  at  Abydos  and  Thebes  in  Egypt.  Indeed,  in 
Ptolemaic  times  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  at 
Thebes  was  the  Memnon ium,  as  the  east  was 
Diospolis.  Near  by  are  two  colossal  statues  of 
King  Amenhotep  III.  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty, 
the  southern  one  of  which  was  said  to  give  forth 
a  sound  when  struck  by  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun, 
a  sound  probably  due  to  the  sudden  expansion  of 
the  sandstone  conglomerate  from  which  the 
statue  is  hewn.  Strabo  (c.20  B.C.)  does  not 
mention  the  name  of  Memnon  in  describing  this 
phenomenon,  but  early  in  the  first  century  of  our 
era  the  story  gained  currency  that  the  statue 


represented  Memnon,  who  thus  greeted  his  mother 
in  the  morning.  From  the  time  of  the  Flavian 
emperors  to  that  of  Septimius  Severus,  the  world 
seems  to  have  been  fond  of  visiting  this  place, 
and  the  sides  of  the  figure  are  covered  with  names 
and  verses  referring  to  the  legend.  Among  the 
visitors  were  Hadrian  and  his  wife,  Sabina,  in 
A.D.  130.  At  some  time  before  Strabo's  visit,  the 
upper  part  of  the  statue  had  been  overthrown  by 
an  earthquake  (popular  tradition  said  by  Cam- 
byses),  and  when  it  was  rebuilt  by  Severus  the 
sounds  ceased. 

In  art  the  combat  of  Memnon  and  Achilles  in 
presence  of  Eos  and  Thetis,  and  the  removal  of 
the  body  of  Memnon  by  his  mother  or  by  sleep 
and  death,  were  favorite  subjects  with  the  Attic 
vase  painters.  Consult:  Jacobs,  Ueher  die 
Oraher  des  Memnon  (1830)  ;  Thirlwall,  in  Philo- 
logical Museum  (Cambridge,  1832) ;  Letronne, 
"La  statue  vocale  de  Memnon,"  in  M4moires  de 
rinstitut  Royal  de  France  (Paris,  1833);  Cur- 
zon,  in  Edinburgh  Review  (1886). 

MEMKO^KITTM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  VLmv6vtov), 
The  name  applied  in  Ptolemaic  times  to  an 
Egyptian  temple  about  8^  miles  from  the  Nile, 
near  Abydos.  The  geographer  Strabo  ( c.30  B.C. ) 
mentions  it  with  admiration  and  compares  it 
with  the  celebrated  Labyrinth  (q.v.).  In  1859 
Mariette,  with  the  financial  aid  of  the  Egyptian 
Government,  cleared  away  the  sand  and  rubbish 
which  covered  the  building  and  made  it  accessible 
to  visitors  and  students.  The  temple,  begun  by 
Seti  I.,  and  completed  by  his  son,  Rameses  II., 
was  dedicated  to  the  gods  of  Abydos  and  to  the 
manes  of  Seti  and  of  his  predecessors  on  the 
throne  of  Egypt.  Among  the  numerous  reliefs 
that  adorn  its  walls  are  some  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  Egyptian  sculpture.  A  wing  run- 
ning at  right  angles  to  the  rear  of  the  main 
building,  which  abuts  upon  a  rocky  hill,  gives  the 
ground  plan  of  the  structure  the  form  of  the 
letter  L.  Of  the  two  courts  which  gave  entrance 
to  the  temple,  the  first  with  its  pylon  and  walls 
is  completely  destroyed,  and  only  a  portion  of 
the  wall  of  the  second  court  remains.  At  the 
upper  end  of  this  court  is  a  portico  with  twelve 
sculptured  columns;  its  rear  wall  was  originally 
pierced  by  seven  doors,  corresponding  to  the 
seven  chapels  within  the  temple,  out  six  of  these 
doors  were  walled  up  by  Rameses  II.,  and  only 
the  central  door  was  left  open.  Upon  the  wall  is 
an  inscription  of  Rameses,  in  ninety-five  vertical 
lines,  describing  the  completion  and  dedication 
of  the  building.  The  central  door  gives  entrance 
to  a  wide  hall,  its  roof  supported  by  twenty-four 
columns,  and  from  the  rear  of  this  hall  seven 
doors  lead  to  a  second  hall  containing  thirty-six 
columns  arranged  in  three  parallel  rows.  The 
last  row  stands  upon  a  raised  platform,  and  its 
twelve  columns  have  been  left  without  capitals 
in  order  to  bring  their  tops  on  a  level  with  the 
tops  of  the  other  two  rows.  Both  halls  are  richly 
adorned  with  reliefs  representing  Seti  and 
Rameses  paying  worship  to  various  divinities. 
The  raised  platform  at  the  back  of  the  second 
hall  forms  a  sort  of  portico,  and  upon  this  open 
seven  chapels  devoted  respectively  to  the  deities 
Horus,  Isis,  Osiris,  Ammon,  Harmachis,  and  Ptah, 
and  to  King  Seti  himself.  The  chapel  of  Ammon 
occupies  the  centre.  A  door  at  the  back  of  the 
chapel  of  Osiris  gives  access  to  a  covered  portico 
supported  bv  ten  columns,  having  on  the  right 
three    additional    chapels    dedicated    to    Horus, 


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Osiris,  and  Isis,  and  on  the  left  a  small  vestibule 
leading  to  three  small  chambers.  The  reliefs  on 
the  walls  of  the  chapels  represent  ceremonies  in 
honor  of  the  respective  gods.  The  wing,  which 
runs  to  the  southeast  at  right  angles  to  the  rear 
of  the  main  structure,  contains  a  number  of 
chambers,  but  many  of  them  are  in  a  bad  state 
of  preservation.  The  most  important  is  a  long 
gallery  known  as  the  Gallery  of  Kings.  On  the 
right  wall  of  this  room  are  depicted  King  Seti  I. 
and  his  son  Rameses  adoring  their  royal  an- 
cestors whose  cartouches  are  inscribed  in  two 
long  lines.  The  list  contains  the  names  of  sev- 
enty-six kings  of  Egypt,  beginning  with  Menes 
(q.v.)  and  ending  witn  Seti  I.  (q.v.),  but  it  is 
far  from  complete.  It  does  not  contain  the  names 
of  monarchs  regarded  as  illegitimate  or  unim- 
portant, and  it  omits  all  the  rulers  from  the 
Thirteenth  to  the  Seventeenth  Dynasty.  Copies  of 
the  list  are  to  be  found  in  Meyer,  Oeackichte  des 
alien  Aegyptens  (Berlin,  1887),  and  in  Flinders 
Petrie,  A  History  of  Egypt  (New  York,  1897). 
Similar  lists  exist  at  Kamak  and  at  Sakkaran 
(q.v.).  Consult:  Mariette,  Abydos  (Paris,  1869- 
80)  ;  The  Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt  (London, 
1877) ;  Baedeker,  Aegypten  (4th  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1897). 

MEM'OK A BTTi^IA  (Lat.,  memorable  things). 
Something  worthy  of  being  remembered  or  noted 
down,  especially  the  Latin  title  of  Xenophon's 
Memoirs  of  Socrates. 

MEMOBY  (OF.  memorie,  memore,  memoire, 
Fr.  m^moire,  from  Lat.  memoria,  from  memor, 
mindful ;  connected  with  Gk.  fiepfupoc,  mermeros, 
anxious,  Skt.  smar,  to  remember).  The  con- 
scious representation  of  past  experience.  To  say 
that  a  man  has  'a  good  memory'  means  that  he  is 
able  to  recall  past  events  fully  and  accurately. 
The  term  is  also  used,  more  broadly  and  loosely, 
to  include  the  capacity  of  retention.  Thus  mem- 
ory is  figuratively  called  a  storehouse.  This  im- 
plies that  *within  memory'  are  preserved  bits  of 
experience  which  may  reappear  in  consciousness 
from  time  to  time  in  the  form  of  recollections. 
It  is  well  to  keep  distinct  the  terms  retention, 
which  properly  considered  is  a  physiological  fact, 
a  matter  of  cerebral  mechanics,  and  conscious 
representation,  or  recollection — memory  in  the 
strictly  psychological  sense. 

Recollection  involves  no  new  or  peculiar  men- 
tal processes.  The  core  of  a  recollection  or  *a 
memory,*  as  it  may  be  called,  is  the  'memory- 
idea.'  This  may  appear  either  as  an  image — 
visual,  auditory,  tactual,  etc.  (see  Imagination) 
— or  as  a  word  or  a  series  of  words.  The  thing 
that  brands  the  image  or  word  as  a  memory-idea 
is  its  reference.  One  may  have  the  visual  image 
of  a  castle,  which  is  no  particular  castle ;  or  of  a 
pin,  which  is  no  particular  pin ;  this  is  merely  a 
mental  image  without  a  setting:  or  one  may  have 
a  visual  image  of  a  recent  event  which  comes  to 
mind  as  'a-part-of-yesterday*  or  *a-thing-that-oc- 
curred-last-spring.*  The  latter  images  refer  to 
the  past  as  *my  own  past.'  They  bear  the  marks 
of  private  ownership.  The  only  way  in  which 
the  memory-idea  is  unique  Is,  then,  in  its  func- 
tion, its  office  in  joining  items  of  experience 
which  have  different  temporal  localization.  In- 
termediate steps  between  the  perception  and  the 
memory-idea  are  furnished  by  ( 1 )  the  after- 
image (q.v.)  ;  (2)  the  memory  after-image  (i.e. 
the  event  that  persists  in  'standing  before  the 
mind'  after  the  external  stimulus  has  ceased  to 


act,  as  Lady  Macbeth's  horror  of  the  King's 
blood) ;  and  (3)  the  feeling  that  'I  have  known 
this  thing  before;'  finally  comes  (4)  the  free 
memory-idea.  The  'reference'  in  the  memory- 
image  is  given,  first,  by  the  setting,  i.e.  by  the 
associations  which  cluster  around  the  idea;  sec- 
ondly, by  the  degree  of  clearness  and  stability  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  image;  and,  thirdly,  by 
the  'at  home'  mood  or  the  mood  of  familiarity 
(see  Familiakity)  which  attaches  to  whatever 
'fits  in'  with  one's  own  list  of  experiences.  The 
verbal  memory- image  or  idea  came  in,  of  course, 
after  the  acquisition  of  lan^age;  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  more  direct  'intuitional'  images 
of  sense  also  appeared  quite  late  in  the  life- 
series.  The  complete  disjunction  of  'present'  and 
'past'  demands  an  advanced  stage  of  mental  de- 
velopment. 

Memory  is  intimately  related  to  recognition 
(q.v.).  Indeed,  one  often  says  to  an  acquaint- 
ance "I  remember  you;"  meaning  that  the  ac- 
quaintance is  recognized,  that  his  face  is  famil- 
iar. But  recognition  need  not  imply  a  reference 
to  a  definite  past  at  all;  it  may  rest  simply  on 
the  feeling  of  familiarity  that  is  aroused  by  tito 
meeting.  Recognition  starts  from  a  present  per- 
ception; memory  or  recollection  from  an  image 
or  idea. 

Recollection  is  either  active  or  passive.  The 
effort  to  'call  up'  a  name  or  a  situation  in  which 
a  known  event  occurred  is  an  instance  of  active 
recollection;  whereas,  in  passive  recollection, 
memories  'come  of  themselves,'  as  in  the  case  of 
a  reverie  or  in  the  successive  appearance  of  the 
words  and  music  of  a  remembiered  song.  The 
former  demands  active  attention,  the  latter  pas- 
sive. Almost  any  phase  of  consciousness  may 
initiate  recollection;  the  perception  of  a  color 
may  do  it,  or  that  of  a  sound,  or  a  shiver  of  cold, 
a  feeling,  a  'bracing  effort,'  etc.  See  Associa- 
tion OF  Ideas  for  the  incentives  to  recollection. 

Retention  rests  upon  some  modification  of  the 
cortex  during  excitation.  The  most  acceptable 
theory  of  retention  is  the  theory  of  'functional 
dispositions'  (Wundt).  Excitation  so  disposes 
nerve  elements  (probably  in  their  molecular  ar- 
rangement) that  their  functions  are  more  or  less 
permanently  altered.  In  this  manner,  a  reSxcita- 
tion  'renews*  a  function  which  has  already  been 
impressed  upon  the  nervous  substance.  The  con- 
cept of  physical  memory  has  been  extended  to 
cover  all  changes  in  organic  matter  which  outlast 
the  operation  of  their  causes.  It  is  thus  made 
synonymous  with  physiological  habit.     See  Habit. 

Experiment  has  attacked  most  of  the  major 
problems  of  memory  within  the  last  fifteen  years. 
Three  general  methods  have  been  used:  (1)  re- 
production: the  observer  'reproduces,'  e.g.  a  line 
of  poetry  or  a  tone  that  he  has  heard  previously ; 
(2)  recognition:  e.g.  a  color  is  shown  twice  in 
succession,  and  the  observer  reports  whether  he 
recognizes  it  the  second  time  as  the  same  color 
or  whether  it  looks  'lighter'  or  'greener'  or 
'paler* ;  ( 3 )  comparison :  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
memory-image,  which  is  compared  with  a  similar 
perception.  The  first  important  work  was  done 
by  H.  Ebbinghaus  in  1885  under  the  first  method. 
Series  of  'nonsense-syllables*  (e.g.  bul,  rom,  cil) 
were  read  over  and  over,  and  then  an  attempt  was 
made  to  write  them  from  memory.  The  investi- 
gator found  that  as  the  interval  between  learning 
and  reproducing  was  gradually  lengthened,  the 
amount  remembered  fell  off  at  first  rapidly  and 


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HEMFHI& 


then  more  and  more  slowly.  The  influence  of 
length  of  series,  order,  repetition,  rhythm,  etc., 
was  also  studied.  Ebbinghaus's  methcnl  has  been 
repeated  with  many  modifications.  Other  subjects 
related  to  memory  which  have  been  investigated 
are  the  character  of  the  stimulus,  combination 
of  sense  modalities,  association  and  arrangement, 
the  effects  of  disease,  of  age,  race,  and  individual 
differences.    The  present  tendency  is  away  from 


C 


f ASTBOW'l  nifOlT  APPAKATUI. 

From  Titchener,  Experimental  Ptychology. 

(Series  of  colore  or  letters  are  exposed,  to  be  memorised  by 

the  obserrer.) 

quantitative  determinations  of  capacity  and  to- 
ward a  qualitative  analysis  of  the  memorial  con- 
sciousness. The  part  played  by  feeling  and  mood, 
and  the  characteristics  of  the  image,  are,  e.g., 
attracting  more  attention  than  the  answer  to  the 
question,  "How  much  can  one  remember  of  an 
event  after  an  interval  of  an  hour  or  a  day  ?" 

There  are,  i.e.,  auditory,  visual,  tactual,  gusta- 
tory "memories,"  and  not  one  single  "memory." 
The  manner  in  which  these  memories  are  com- 
bined in  a  single  mind  is  known  as  the  individ- 
ual's "memory  type"  or  "ideational  type."  There 
are  four  chief  memory  types;  visual  (predomi- 
nance of  "picture-ideas"),  auditory  (predomi- 
nance of  "sound-ideas"),  tactual  or  motor  (pre- 
dominance of  "touch"  and  "strain-ideas"),  and 
a  mixed  type  in  which  the  various  sense  memories 
are  more  or  less  evenly  balanced.  When  "object- 
images"  pass  into  "word-images"  three  subtypes 
are  formed:  verbal-visual,  verbal-auditory,  and 
verbal-tactual ;  i.e.,  words  are  seen,  heard,  or  felt 
in  the  throat.  In  most  minds  there  are  several 
memories,  with  one  (usually  the  visual)  appear- 
ing in  excess  of  the  others.    See  Imagination. 

The  systematic  attempt  to  improve  the  eflS- 
ciency  of  memory  is  known  as  the  art  of  mne- 
monicSf  which  is  said  to  have  originated  with  the 
Greek  poet  Simonides.  Most  mnemonic  devices 
include  the  formation  of  artificial  associations 
as  an  aid  to  recollection.  A  common  device  for 
remembering  dates,  e.cr.,  is  the  association  of  the 
digits  with  letters.    Then  the  letters  correspond- 


ing to  the  figures  in  a  date  are  brought  together 
in  a  word  which  is  associated,  in  turn,  with  the 
event  whose  date  is  to  be  retained. 

Memory  is  subject  to  many  disturbances  or 
'diseases,'  most  of  which  fall  under  the  head  of 
amnesia,  or  *loss  of  memory.*  Amnesia  may  be 
either  general  or  partial.  In  general  amnesia,  a 
greater  part  of  memory  disappears,  (1)  tempo- 
rarily, as  in  epilepsy,  or  (2)  periodically,  as  in 
altered  personality,  or  (3)  progressively  (e.g. 
proper  names  are  forgotten  before  adjectives  and 
verbs).  Partial  amnesia  covers  loss  of  memory 
for  colors,  sounds,  numbers,  proper  names,  etc. 
(See  Aphasia).  A  less  frequent  disorder  of 
memory  is  hypermnesia,  or  exaltation  of  memory. 
A  person's  general  memory,  or  his  memory  for  a 
language  or  for  some  event  of  his  childhood,  is 
remarkably  clarified.  Finally  come  illusions  of 
naemory,  or  paramnesias,  in  which  the  subject  be- 
lieves that  a  new  experience  has  been  passed 
through  before  (illusion  of  familiarity),  or  as- 
signs to  a  recent  date  experiences  which  have  oc- 
curred at  a  remote  time. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Kfilpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology 
(London  and  New  York,  1896) ;  Titchener, 
Primer  of  Psychology  (New  York  and  London, 
1000);  Fuller,  Art  of  Memory  (Saint  Paul, 
1898)  ;  Wundt,  Physiologische  Psychologie  (Leip- 
zig, 1902-3);  Ebbinghaus,  XJeher  das  Oe- 
ddohtniss  (Leipzig,  1885)  ;  Sully,  Human  Mind 
(London,  1892);  Hering,  Ueber  das  Oedachtniss 
als  eine  allgemeine  Function  der  organischen 
Materie  (2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1876);  Ferrier,  Func- 
tions of  the  Brain  (2d  ed.,  New  York,  1886)  ; 
Ribot,  Diseases  of  Memory  (New  York,  1882) ; 
Galton,  Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  (London, 
1883)  ;  James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New 
York,  1890)  ;  Fechner,  Elemente  der  Psychophy- 
sik  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1889). 

MEMPHIS.  A  city  of  ancient  Egypt,  situ- 
ated about  12  miles  south  of  modern  Cairo,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  (Map:  Egypt,  £  3). 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Menes,  the  first 
historical  King  of  ancient  Egypt,  but  this  is  as 
little  probable  as  the  statement  in  Herodotus 
that  Menes  gained  the  ground  for  building  Mem- 
phis by  diking  off  the  Nile.  King  Uchoreus, 
whom  Diodorus  calls  the  founder  of  Memphis, 
cannot  be  identified.  It  is  certain  that  a  city 
called  *the  White  Wall*  stood  on  the  spot  from 
prehistoric  times;  this  name  {Leukon  Teichos) 
was  still  attached  to  the  citadel  and  the  neighbor- 
ing quarter  of  Memphis  in  the  Greek  epoch.  The 
kings  of  the  Fourth  to  the  Sixth  Dynasty  built 
their  residences  not  very  far  from  Memphis,  and 
their  pyramids  are  in  the  vicinity,  but  Memphis 
proper  received  its  name  and  importance  from  the 
second  King  of  the  Sixth  Dynasty  ( Pepy  or  Apopi 
I.),  who  built  his  pyramid  and  residence  not  far 
west  of  the  small  ancient  city  of  *the  White 
Wall.'  The  name  of  that  pyramid,  Men-nofer, 
*good  abode,*  extended  to  the  whole  city,  and,  cor- 
rupted to  Menfe,  came  down  to  the  classical 
writers.  In  the  seventh  century  B.C.  the  Assyri- 
ans called  the  city  Mempi;  in  the  Bible  the 
name  has  been  corrupted  to  Moph  and  Noph. 
Memphis,  which  had  a  very  favorable  situation, 
near  the  head  of  the  Delta,  became  the  capital  of 
Egypt.  In  later  times,  several  dynasties  preferred 
other  capitals,  but  Memphis  always  remained  at 
least  the  second  capital  of  Egypt,  and  the  second 
city  of  the  land  in  wealth  and  population.  The 
conquests    by    the    Ethiopians,    Assyrians,    and 


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Persians  do  not  seem  to  have  affected  it 
much,  and  the  writers  of  the  earlier  Roman 
period  still  describe  it  as  filled  with  temples  and 
palaces  of  amazing  size  and  beauty,  the  Iseum, 
the  Serapeum,  and  others.  The  decline  of  the 
city  was  rapid  after  the  Arab  conquest  (at  which 
time  it  was  still  the  seat  of  a  Governor),  when 
Fostat  (Old  Cairo)  was  erected  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Fostat  ajid  subsequently  Cairo  were  built 
of  stones  taken  from  the  deserted  buildings  of 
Memphis,  and  thus  it  came  about  that  the  ancient 
city  entirely  disappeared.  The  only  remarkable 
monuments  left  there  at  present  are  the  two 
colossal  statues  of  Rameses  II.  (originally  42 
feet  high),  lying  on  the  mound  near  the  modem 
village  of  Mit-IUhlneh,  and  marking  the  entrance 
to  the  principal  and  earliest  temple  of  Memphis, 
that  of  Ptah  (Greek  Hephsestus),  and  the  centre 
of  the  'White  Wall.'  Abd-ul-LatIf,  as  late  as  the 
thirteenth  century  a.d.,  found  remarkable  ruins 
on  the  site  of  old  Memphis.  The  insignificant 
rubbish-mounds  (of  Mit-Kahtneh,  Bedrash^n,  £n- 
nagtztyeh,  etc.)  extend  three  or  four  miles  from 
north  to  south.  The  classical  writers  give  very 
exaggerated  accounts  of  the  size  of  the  city.  The 
immense  necropolis  west  of  it,  including  the  pyra- 
mids and  tombs  of  Saqqara,  still  bears  testi- 
mony, however,  to  the  former  importance  of  Mem- 
phis. The  principal  god  of  the  city  was  Ptah,  the 
'master  craftsman'  among  the  gods,  who  was 
believed  to  have  formed  the  world;  afterwards 
the  conception  of  this  deity  was  called  Ptah- 
Sokar  (a  combination  of  Ptah  and  Sokar,  the 
god  of  the  western  suburb),  embodied  in  the 
Apis  bull  and  others.  The  numerous  Phoenician 
merchants  had  a  quarter  of  their  own  with  a 
temple  of  Astarte.  Consult:  Description  de 
VEgypte,  vol.  v.  (Paris,  1820-30)  ;  Lepsius,  Denk- 
m&ler  aus  Aegypten  und  Aethiopien  (Berlin, 
1849-58) ;  Mariette,  Le  86rap^m  de  Memphis 
(Paris,  1882) ;  Dttmichen,  Karie  dea  Btodtge- 
hietea  von  Memphis  (Leipzig,  1805).  See  also 
Egypt. 

MEMPHIS.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Scotland  (Ik)unty,  Mo.,  45  miles  west. of  Keokuk, 
Iowa;  on  the  (Chicago,  Burlington  and  Qulncy 
Railroad  (Map:  Missouri,  D  1).  It  is  a  ship- 
ping centre  of  some  importance  for  the  adjacent 
farming  and  stock-raising  distriet.  There  are 
deposits  of  coal  in  the  vicinity.  Population,  in 
1900,  2196;  in  1906  (local  cen.),  2300. 

MEMPHIS.  The  largest  city  of  Tennessee 
and  the  county-seat  of  Shelby  County,  situated 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  454  miles  below  Saint 
Louis  and  818  miles  above  New  Orleans  (Map: 
Tennessee,  B  5).  It  has  exceptional  railway 
facilities,  being  on  the  line  of  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral, the  Frisco  System,  the  Missouri  Pacific,  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville,  the  Nashville,  Chatta- 
nooga and  Saint  Louis,  the  Rock  I^and,  the 
Southern,  the  Saint  Louis  Southwestern,  the 
Saint  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern,  and 
the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  city  rises  on  the  Chickasaw  Bluffs,  40  feet 
above  high  water;  a  broad  levee  overlooks  the 
river,  and  there  are  stone-paved  wharves.  It  is 
laid  out  with  broad,  regular,  well  paved  and 
shaded  streets  and  has  handsome  residences  and 
substantial  business  buildings.  In  the  heart  of 
the  city  is  a  public  park  filled  with  magnificent 
old  trees.  In  all,  there  are  about  1000  acres 
of  public  parks  of  great  natural  beauty.    Among 


the  notable  structures  are  the  United  States  dhift- 
tom  House,  two  seventeen-story  trust  and  bank 
buildings,  Cotton  Exchange,  Cossitt  Library 
building.  Hospital  Medical  College,  Lyceum  The- 
atre, Grand  Opera  House,  Auditorium,  Odd  Fel- 
lows' building  and  Masonic  Temple,  Gayoso 
Hotel,  Scimitar  (newspaper)  building,  Equitable 
building,  and  the  Porter,  Randolph,  Lowenstein, 
Southern  Express,  Napoleon  Hill,  and  Woman's 
buildings.  There  are  in  Memphis  a  marine  hos- 
pital, a  large  city  hospital,  and  Saint  Joseph's 
Hospital ;  and  its  educational  institutions  include 
ttie  Christian  Brothers*  College  (Roman  Cath- 
olic), opened  in  1871;  the  Memphis  Hospital 
Medical  College,  I^  Moyne  Normal  Institute, 
and  Hannibal  Medical  College,  the  last  two  for 
colored  students;  besides  several  private  second- 
ary institutions  and  the  schools  of  the  publie 
school  system,  in  which  are  enrolled  about  11,000 
pupils.  The  Goodwyn  Institute  and  the  0>llege 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  are  (1906)  in  proc- 
ess of  erection.  In  addition  to  the  public  li- 
brary and  those  in  connection  with  the  educational 
•institutions,  there  are  Bar  and  Law,  and  Odd 
Fellows'  libraries.  A  steel  railroad  bridge  across 
the  Mississippi,  consisting  of  five  spans  and 
nearly  1900  feet  in  length,  was  opened  in  1892; 
and  the  city  has  two  fine  race  tracks.  Five  miles 
distant  is  a  National  Cemetery,  in  which  are 
14,039  graves,  8822  of  unknown  dead. 

Its  facilities  for  transportation  by  water  and 
rail  have  made  Memphis  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant commercial  and  manufacturing  centres  in 
the  South.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  cotton  mar- 
kets in  the  United  States,  and  carries  on  a  large 
wholesale  and  jobbing  trade  in  groceries,  dry 
goods,  foodstuffs,  shoes,  hardware,  and  agricul- 
tural implements.  Its  industrial  interests  are 
undergoing  remarkable  development,  the  city  be- 
ing noted  particularly  for  its  wood-working  in- 
dustries, chiefly  of  hard  wood,  and  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cottonseed  products.  There  are  large 
cottonseed  oil  mills,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
car  works,  furniture  factories,  flour  and  grist 
mills,  saw  and  planing  mills,  carriage  and  wagon 
shops,  clothing;:  factories,  saddlery  and  harness 
factories,  brick  and  tile  plants,  confectionery  and 
cracker  factories,  tobacco  and  cigar  fatories,  pat- 
ent medicine  works,  cold  storage  fibre  plants  for 
the  manufacture  of  pulp  for  paper  mills,  and 
many  other  establishments. 

Memphis  spends  annually  in  maintenance  and 
operation  about  $1,000,000,  the  principal  items  of 
expenditure  being:  for  the  fire  department,  $127,- 
500;  for  the  police  department  (including 
amounts  for  police  courts,  jails,  reformatories, 
etc.),  $100,000;  for  the  health  department  (in- 
cluding garbage  removal,  crematories,  etc.), 
$100,000;  for  charitable  institutions,  $100,000; 
for  schools,  $80,000 ;  for  municipal  lighting,  $60,- 
000.  Population,  1850,  8841;  1860,  22,623;  1880, 
33.592;  1890,  64,495;  1900,  102,320,  including 
5100  persons  of  foreign  birth  and  49,900  negroes. 
The  local  estimate  in  1905  was  175,000. 

On  the  site  of  Memphis,  forts  were  built  by 
the  French  (1698)  and  by  the  Spaniards  (1794), 
but  no  regular  settlement  was  made  until  1819, 
when  a  small  company  arrived  under  the  auspices 
of  Andrew  Jackson,  John  Overton,  and  James 
Winchester,  proprietors  of  the  land  in  this  vicin- 
ity. In  1826  the  settlement,  with  a  population  of 
500,  was  incorporated  as  a  town,  and  in  1849, 
South  Memphis  having  been  just  annexed,  a  city 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEMPHIS. 


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MENAI  STBAIT. 


charter  was  secured.  On  June  6,  1862,  a  Confed- 
erate fleet  under  Commodore  Montgomery  was 
defeated  near  Memphis  by  a  Federal  fleet  under 
Commodore  Davis,  and  Memphis  was  thereafter 
until  the  close  of  the  war  held  by  the  Federal 
forces,  though  in  August,  1864,  the  Confederate 
General  Forrest  raided  it  and  carried  oflT  several 
hundred  prisoners.  In  1879,  on  account  of  the 
city's  inability  to  meet  its  financial  obligations, 
its  charter  was  revoked,  and  until  1891,  when  it 
was  reincorporated,  Memphis  was  merely  the 
Taxing  District  of  Shelby  County,'  governed  by 
three  commissioners  and  a  board  of  public  works. 
Yellow  fever  epidemics  occurred  in  1855,  1867, 
1873,  1878,  and  1879,  those  in  1873  and  1878 
being  especially  disastrous.  Since  1880,  however, 
the  cit^  has  built  210  miles  of  Waring  sewers; 
and  this  improvement  in  the  sewerage  system, 
together  with  the  discovery  of  pure  artesian 
water,  has  resulted  materially  in  improving  the 
healthfulness  of  the  city.  Consult :  Keating  and 
Vedder,  History  of  the  City  of  Memphis  (Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  1888)  ;  Davis,  History  of  the  City  of 
Memphis   (Memphis,  1873). 

MEMPHIS,  Ancient  and  Pbimttive  Obdeb 
OF.    See  Masons,  Free. 

MEM^HBEMA^OOO.  A  lake  situated  in  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  and  extending  seven 
miles  into  Vermont  (Map:  Quebec,  D  5).  It  has 
an  elongated,  irregular  shape,  is  30  miles  long  by 
from  2  to  5  miles  wide,  and  discharges  its  waters 
northeastward  through  the  Magog  River  into  the 
Saint  Francis.  Along  the  west  shore  is  a  range  of 
mountains,  reaching  a  height  (in  "Owl's  Head") 
of  about  3000  feet;  the  lake  is  noted  for  its 
picturesque  scenery.  It  is  a  favorite  summer 
resort;  numerous  handsome  villas  dot  its  shores, 
and  in  summer  a  steamer  runs  from  Newport, 
Vt.,  at  the  south  end,  to  the  Canadian  village  of 
Magog  at  the  northern  extremity. 

ME'NA.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Polk 
0)unty,  Ark.,  84  miles  oouth  of  Fort  Smith,  on 
the  Kansas  City  Southern  Railroad  (Map: 
Arkansas,  A3).  It  has  a  public  library  and  St. 
Joseph's  Academy.  It  is  a  popular  summer  re- 
sort. Among  its  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  lumber  and  the  shipment  of  fruit  and  cotton. 
Pop.,  in  1900,  3423;  in  1905  (local  est.),  6000. 

MENA,  mft'nA,  Juan  de  (c.1411-56).  A 
Spanish  poet,  bom  at  Cordova.  He  studied  at 
Salamanca  and  afterwards  went  to  Rome.  He 
was  secretary  to  King  John  II.  of  Castile,  and 
Court  historian.  His  principal  work  is  El  lahe- 
rinto  (1496),  a  poem  modeled  on  the  Divine 
Comedy,  which  is  also  called  Las  tres  cientas, 
from  the  original  number  of  its  verses — 300. 

MENABBEA,  ma'na-brfi'&,  Luioi  Federigo, 
Count  ( 1809-96).  An  Italian  general  and  states- 
man. He  was  born  at  Chamb^ry,  in  Savoy,  and 
was  educated  for  an  engineer.  On  completing 
his  studies  he  entered  the  Sardinian  army  as 
lieutenant  in  the  engineer  corps,  but  was  soon 
called  to  a  professorship  of  applied  mathematics 
in  the  military  academy  and  at  the  University 
of  Turin.  In  1848  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  captain,  served  in  the  war  against 
Austria,  and  was  then  employed  on  diplomatic 
business.  During  the  war  of  1859,  Menabrea 
acted  as  chief  of  staff  in  the  Sardinian  array. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  by  the  French 
and  the  handing  over  of  Savoy  to  France,  he  left 
the   province   to   retain   his   Italian  citizenship, 


and  was  created  a  Senator  by  Victor  Emmanuel, 
and  made  chief  of  the  Department  of  Engineers. 
In  1860  he  became  a  lieutenant-general,  and 
was  director  of  the  siege  operations  against 
Gaeta,  where  the  King  of  Naples  had  taken 
refuge.  It  surrendered  after  a  three  months' 
siege,  for  which  success  he  was  made  a  count. 
In  1861  he  succeeded  Ricasoli  as  Minister  of 
Marine,  to  which  he  added  in  1862  the  duties  of 
Minister  of  Public  Works.  He  assisted  in  fram- 
ing the  Treaty  of  Prague  in  1866,  which  gave 
Venice  to  Italy.  He  was  called  in  1867,  on  the 
retirement  of  Rattazzi,  to  form  a  new  Cabinet. 
He  continued  to  carry  on  the  (jrovemment  until 
near  the  close  of  1869,  and  in  the  two  years  of  his 
Premiership  did  much  for  Italian  stability,  both 
at  home  and  abroad.  After  resigning,  Menabrea 
was  appointed  Italian  Ambassador  to  London 
(1876)  and  Paris .  (1882).  He  remained  at 
Paris  for  ten  years.    He  died  at  Chamb^ry,  May 

25,  1896.  Among  the  works  he  wrote  are: 
Etudes  sur  la  sMe  de  Lagrange  (Turin,  1844- 
47)  ;  Le  ginie  italien  dans  la  campagne  d'Ancdne 
et  de  la  Basse-Italie  (Paris,  1866)  ;  R^puhlique 
et  monarchie  dans  Vitat  actuel  de  la  France  ( ib., 
1871). 

MENACTCANITE.     See  Ilhenite. 

^  MENADO,  mft-nrd6.  The  capital  of  the 
Dutch  Residency  of  Menado,  in  Northern  Celebes. 
It  is  situated  near  the  extremity  of  the  north- 
eastern peninsula  of  the  island,  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Tondano  (Map:  East  Indies,  F  4).  It 
has  an  ethnological  museum  and  is  defended  by 
the  old  Fort  Amsterdam.  Its  unsafe  roadstead 
detracts  greatly  from  its  commercial  importance. 
Population,  in  1895,  8996,  including  over  500 
Europeans. 

MENJSCHMI,  nv^n^^m^.  One  of  the  best 
comedies  of  Plautus,  so  called  from  the  twin 
brothers  whose  resemblance  to  each  other  and  the 
amusing  situations  arising  from  their  confusion 
form  the  plot  of  the  play.  The  comedy  is  one  of 
the  earliest  preserved  plays  of  Plautus.  It  sug- 
gested in  part  the  plot  of  Shakespeare's  Comedy 
of  Errors.  William  Warner  translated  the  com- 
edy into  English  in  1595. 

MiiNAOE,  rak'nlkzh',  Gilles  de  (^gidius 
Men AOius)  (1613-92).  A  French  lexicographer 
and  linguist,  born  at  Angers.  Disliking  the  pro- 
fession of  an  advocate,  he  renounced  it,  entered 
the  Church,  and  fixed  his  residence  in  the  Con- 
vent of  Notre  Dame.  His  Dictionnaire  etymolo- 
gique,  ou  Origines  de  la  langue  franoaise  (Paris, 
1660-94;  best  ed.  by  Jault,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1760), 
and  his  Origini  delta  lingua  italiana  (1669)  are 
erudite  and  valuable  works. 

MENAGERIE.     See  Zoological  Park. 

MENAI  im^nl)  STRAIT.  The  channel 
which  separates  the  island  of  Anglesey  from  the 
mainland  of  Wales  (Map:  England,  B  3).  It  is 
13  miles  long  and  varies  in  width  from  about  250 
yards  to  two  miles,  widening  out  north  of  Bangor 
into  Beaumaris  Bay.  Navigation  of  it  is  hazard- 
ous, but  the  strait  is  nevertheless  much  used  by 
vessels  under  100  tons  in  order  to  save  time.  At 
the  entrance  of  the  strait  the  tides  sometimes 
rise  to  a  height  of  30  feet,  and  the  ordinary 
neap-tide  rises  from  10  to  12  feet.  The  strait 
is  spanned  by  a  suspension  bridge,  built  in  1819- 

26,  and  by  the  Britannia  Bridge. 


Digitized  by 


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MENAJL 


807 


MEKCIUa 


miHAM,  xnA-nam'.  The  chief  river  of  Siam. 
It  rises  in  the  northwestern  part  of  that  country, 
and  flows  southward,  emptying  by  several  arms 
into  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  after  a  course  of  about 
700  miles,  or  900  miles  if  its  length  is  measured 
from  the  source  of  its  large  tributary,  the  Mei 
Ping  (Map:  Siam,  D  4).  The  Menam  is  nav- 
igable for  laree  steamers  to  Bangkok,  15  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  for  small  vessels  for  about 
260  miles.  The  river  divides  itself  several  times 
by  arms  rejoining  farther  down,  and  from  June 
to  November  it  overflows  a  large  part  of  the  sur- 
roimdiiu[  country,  leaving  an  alluvial  deposit  of 
extraordinary  fertility. 

MENANa>EB  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  UhavdpoCj 
Menandroa)  (B.c.  342-C.291).  One  of  the  greatest 
poets  of  the  Attic  New  Comedy,  bom  at  Athens 
of  a  distinguished  family.  By  his  imcle,  Alexis, 
the  eminent  poet  of  the  Middle  (Domedy,  he  was 
initiated  into  the  dramatist's  art;  his  philosoph- 
ical education  he  received  from  association  with 
Theophrastus  and  Epicurus.  He  was  handsome 
and  fond  of  luxury.  The  greater  part  of  his 
time  he  spent  at  his  villa  in  the  Peirseus  with  his 
1>eloved  Glycera.  When  Ptolemy  Soter  gave  him 
a  flattering  invitation  to  his  Court,  Menander 
declined,  preferring  his  native  city  and  easy  in- 
dependence to  royal  favor.  About  b.c.  291  he 
was  drowned  while  swimming  in  the  harbor  of  the 
Peirseus.  Menander  is  said  to  have  won  a  vic- 
tory on  the  comic  stage  at  the  age  of  twenty-one. 
Yet  during  his  lifetime  he  was  less  a  favorite 
than  his  contemporary  Philemon  (q.v.).  Of  his 
105  or  108  plays  but  eight  won  the  highest  place. 
After  his  death,  however,  he  became  the  favorite 
above  all  other  comic  poets  of  his  time,  and  was 
much  read  and  quoted  far  into  the  Christian  Era. 
We  are  unfortunately  obliged  to  form  our  opin- 
ions of  his  comedies  chiefly  from  the  adaptations 
of  them  by  Plautus  and  Terence.  According  to 
ancient  critics  he  was  distinguished  for  his  wit, 
the  refinement  and  perfection  of  his  language, 
and  his  ingenious  plots.  Over  a  thousand  frag- 
mente  of  his  plays  remain  and  a  considerable  col- 
lection of  gnomes  attributed  to  him.  The  latter 
collection  nas,  however,  sufTered  greatly  from 
additions.  The  fragmente  are  best  published  by 
Kock,  Comicorum  Atticum  Fragmenta,  vol.  iii. 
(Leipzig,  1888).  Two  leaves  of  papyrus  contain- 
ing new  fragmente  were  published  by  Nicole,  Le 
laborateur  de  M^nandre  (Basle,  1898),  by  Gren- 
fell  and  Hunt  (Oxford,  1898). 

MENANDEB.  A  powerful  Graeco-Bactrian 
King,  who  ruled  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century  B.C.  Strabo  refers  to  some  of  his  con- 
queste  and  Plutarch  records  that  on  his  death, 
B.C.  116,  various  towns  contended  for  the  honor 
of  cherishing  his  ashes.  The  large  number 
of  coins  that  bear  his  name  and  the  wide- 
extended  territory  over  which  they  are  found 
seem  to  point  to  a  long  reign  and  to  a  domain  of 
considerable  influence.  He  appears  in  Buddhistic 
literature  as  Mil inda  (q.v.). 

]SCEKANT,  mc-nfiN',  Joachim  (1820-1899). 
A  French  Orientelist,  bom  at  Cherbourg.  He 
showed  great  skill  in  deciphering  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  and  on  account  of  his  valuable  con- 
tribntions  to  Assyrian  literature  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions.  His 
numerous  writings  include :  EwpoaS  des  Moments 
de  la  grammaire  assyrienne  (1868)  ;  Jnscriptiona 
a$9yrienne8  des  briqu€»  de  Bahylone  (1860) ;  Les 


^criturea  cunHformea  (1860-64);  and  Lemons 
d*4pigrapkie  aaayrienne  profesa^ea  aux  lihrea  de 
la  Sorhonne  (1873).  He  also  published  a  collec- 
tion of  texte  translated  by  Assyriologiste :  An- 
nalea  de»  rota  d'Aaayrie  (1874),  and  Bahylone  et 
la  Chdld4e  (1875). 

HEN^APHON,  or  Camilia's  Alarm  to 
Slumbering  Euphues  in  His  Melancholie  Cell 
AT  Sii£XEDRA.  A  story  by  Robert  Greene  pub- 
lished under  the  title  Arcadia  in  1689,  the  year 
before  the  publication  of  Sidney's  Arcadia,  It 
contains  some  of  the  author's  finest  poems. 

HrkNARJ),  mA'nftr',  Michel  Branamoub 
(1805-56).  A  pioneer,  bom  of  French  parentage 
at  Laprairie,  Lower  Canada.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  the  service  of  a  fur-trading  company 
at  Detroit,  and  afterwards  went  to  Missouri  as 
an  Indian  trader  for  his  uncle.  He  became  a 
chief  of  the  Shawnee  Indians,  and  gained  much 
influence  over  other  tribes.  About  the  year  1833 
he  went  to  Texas,  and  engaged  in  trading  with 
the  Mexicans  and  Indians.  Owing  to  his  influ- 
ence over  the  Indians,  he  was  able,  upon  the  re- 
volt of  the  Texans,  to  prevent  the  Indians  from 
assisting  the  Mexicans.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  that  declared  Texas  independent,  and 
afterwards  served  in  the  Congress  of  that  State. 
In  1836  he  bought  a  square  league  of  land  that 
included  most  of  the  site  of  the  present  city  of 
Galveston,  and  became  in  effect  the  founder  of 
that  city. 

MENASH^A.  A  city  in  Winnebago  County, 
Wis.,  93  miles  by  rail  north  by  west  of  Mil- 
waukee; on  Lake  Winnebago,  at  ite  outlet  into 
the  Fox  River,  on  the  United  States  Grovernment 
Canal  of  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  River  Improve- 
ment, and  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul,  and  the  Wis- 
consin (jentral  railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin,  E  4). 
It  has  a  public  library,  and  there  are  paper  mills, 
a  woodenware  factory,  flour,  saw,  and  woolen 
mills,  machine  shops,  brick  yards,  and  manufac- 
tories of  lumber  producte.  Lake  Winnebago  is 
a  popular  summer  resort.  Settled  in  1847,  Me- 
nasha  was  incorporated  first  in  1874.  The  present 
government  is  administered  under  a  charter  of 
1892,  which  provides  for  a  mayor  and  a  imicam- 
eral  council.  The  city  owns  its  water-works  and 
lighting  plant.    Pop.,  1900,  5589;  1906,  5960. 

MENCIUS,  m^n^shtis  (Latinized  form  of 
Chinese  MfiNO-TSE  or  MCng-tse)  (c.37 1-287  B.C.) . 
A  Chinese  sage,  ranking  next  after  Confucius  in 
the  estimation  of  the  Chinese.  He  was  bom  about 
B.C.  371  ( 108  years  after  the  death  of  Confucius) , 
in  the  small  Principality  of  Tsow  in  the  Province 
of  Shan-tung,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  birth- 
place of  Confucius.  As  a  youth  he  was  known  as 
M^ng  K*o.  His  father  died  when  the  future 
philosopher  was  only  three  years  old.  The  widow 
gave  the  fatherless  boy  every  attention,  and  in 
due  course  he  went  to  school,  but  does  not  seem 
at  first  to  have  been  specially  diligent  or  enthu- 
siastic in  his  studies.  It  is  said  that  he  studied 
later  with  the  disciples  of  Tsztl-tse — the  grand- 
son of  Confucius — and  from  them  learned  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Master,  of  whom  he  became  an 
enthusiastic  admirer.  When  he  was  forty  he  ap- 
peared as  a  public  teacher  with  a  large  following 
of  disciples.  Like  Confucius,  he  moved  about 
from  State  to  Stete,  inculcating,  expounding,  and 
amplifying  the  Confucian  teaching.  He  was  more 
courageous  and  outspoken  than  Confucius,  and 


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hendelSeef. 


was  fearless  in  following  his  teachings  to  their 
logical  consequences.  He  taught  Uiat  man's 
nature  is  good,  though  it  may  appear  other- 
wise, and  that  all  his  vices  and  all  his  mis- 
fortunes are  due  to  evil  influences  from  without. 
Humanity,  righteousness,  propriety,  and  knowl- 
edge are  as  natural  to  man  as  his  four  limbs. 
What  is  wanted  is  a  return  to  this  original  good- 
ness, and  this  can  be  accomplished  only  by  the 
rectification  of  the  heart.  He  laid  special  stress 
on  humanity  and  righteousness,  one  the  comple- 
ment of  the  other,  as  the  two  main  elements  in 
man's  moral  being,  humanity  representing  the 
fullness  of  virtue  in  the  individual,  and  right- 
eousness the  due  observance  of  all  man  owes  to 
his  fellow  men.  "Humanity  is  internal,"  he 
says;  "righteousness  external."  "There  has  never 
been  a  man  trained  to  humanity  who  neglected 
his  parents;  nor  one  who,  having  been  trained 
to  righteousness,  made  his  sovereign  an  after 
consideration."  In  politics  he  taught  that  gov- 
ernment is  from  God,  but  is  for  the  people,  whose 
welfare  is  of  supreme  importance;  and  he  em- 
phatically inculcated  the  application  of  these 
two  principles — Humanity  and  Righteousness — 
to  the  conduct  of  rulers.  And  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  indicate  the  duty  of  the  subject  in 
regard  to  the  'removal'  of  oppressive  rulers 
or  wicked  men  in  high  places,  when  asked 
if  a  subject  might  put  his  sovereign  to  death. 
^'He  who  outrages  tne  humanity  proper  to  his 
nature,"  he  said,  "is  called  a  robber;  he  who 
outrages  righteousness  is  called  a  ruffian.  The 
robber  and  the  ruffian  we  call  a  mere  fellow.  I 
have  heard  of  the  cutting  off  of  Chow  Sin  [the 
ferocious  tyrant  of  the  Shang  dynasty,  B.C. 
1123],  but  I  have  not  heard  in  his  case  of  putting 
a  sovereign  to  death;" — only  a  cruel  monster,  a 
mere  fellow. 

Mencius  died  at  eighty-four,  after  passing  the 
last  fifteen  years  of  his  life  in  retirement,  during 
which  he  edited  the  Book  of  History  and  the  Book 
of  Poetry,  and  prepared  with  the  aid  of  some 
of  his  disciples  a  record  of  his  sayings  and  of 
his  conversations  with  the  Princes — a  fact  which 
may  account  for  their  greater  fullness  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  Confucius.  It  is  the  last  of 
the  Four  Books  which  form  the  basis  of  the  Con- 
fucian philosophy.  He  was  buried  near  the 
present  Tsow  liien,  in  Shan-tung,  where  there  is 
a  temple  in  his  honor,  and  where  his  descendants 
still  dwell.  It  was  not  till  the  second  century 
A.D.  that  his  writings  were  fully  studied  and  ap- 
preciated. In  1083  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Tsow;  in  1088  he  was  admitted  into  the  Temple 
of  Confucius  as  an  Associate,  and  titles  were 
conferred  on  his  father  and  mother. 

BiBUOGRAPHY.  Legge,  Chinese  Classics,  vol.  ii. 
(London  and  Hong  Kong,  1861),  containing  the 
Chinese  text  of  the  Mencian  discourses,  with  a 
translation  in  English,  Critical  Notes,  Prolego- 
mena, and  a  Life;  R6musat,  Nouveaux  mdlangcs 
asiaiiques,  vol.  ii.  (Paris,  1829)  ;  Faber,  Eine 
Stoat slehre  auf  ethisoher  Orundlage,  oder  Lehr- 
hegriff  des  chinesischen  Philosophen  Menciua 
(Elberfeld,  1877),  or  Hutchinson's  translation. 
The  Mind  of  Mencius  (London  and  Hong  Kong, 
1880)  ;  Johnson,  "China."  vol.  ii.,  in  Oriental 
Religions  and  Their  Relation  to  Universal  Re- 
ligion (Boston,  1878)  ;  and  Watters,  A  Guide  to 
ihe  Tablets  in  a  Temple  of  Confucius  (Shanghai, 
1879). 


WBJSTDASA  DE  NETBA,  m&n-da'nyft  d& 
na'6-rA,  Alvabo  (1541-96).  A  Spanish  navi- 
gator, born  in  Saragossa.  He  went  to  Peru  in 
1566,  and  had  resided  some  time  at  Lima  when 
his  uncle.  Lope  Garcia  de  Castro,  the  Viceroy 
of  the  country,  in  1567  put  him  in  command  of 
an  expedition  for  purposes  of  discovery  among 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Among  his  discoveries 
was  that  of  a  group  of  islands  which  he  named 
Solomon  Islands,  in  the  belief  that  here  Solomon 
obtained  the  gold  used  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem. Returning  to  Lima  in  1568,  he  circulated 
reports  of  the  wealth  of  these  islands,  which  led, 
twenty-seven  years  later,  to  an  expedition  for 
their  colonization,  of  which  he  took  the  command. 
Sailing  from  Callao  April  11,  1595,  he  discovered 
another  group  of  islands,  which  he  named  the 
Marquesas,  after  the  wife  of  the  Viceroy  of 
Peru,  the  Marchioness  Mendoza.  Other  groups 
of  islands  were  visited,  but  Mendafia  died  with- 
out having  reached  the  end  of  his  voyage.  Men- 
dafia's  narrative  of  his  expeditions  is  in  the 
National  Library  at  Paris.  This,  with  other  con- 
temporary accounts  of  the  expedition,  is  trans- 
lated in  the  Hakluyt  Society  volume  for  1901, 
edited  by  Lord  Amherst  of  Hackney. 

ICENDA&A  ISLAin)S.  See  Mabquesas 
Islands. 

MENDE,  mILNd.  A  town  of  Southern  France, 
capital  of  thsr  Department  of  Loz^re.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lot,  110  miles 
southwest  of  Lyons,  and  at  the  foot  of  a  cliff 
rising  1000  feet  above  the  town  (Map:  France, 
S.,  H  4).  It  has  a  cathedral  founded  in  the  four- 
teenth and  rebuilt  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
with  two  towers,  280  and  210  feet  high. 
In  front  of  it  stands  a  bronze  statue  of  Pope 
Urban  V.,  a  native  of  the  town.  The  town  has 
also  a  communal  college  and  a  library.  The 
chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  textiles. 
Population,  in  1901,  6261;  of  commune,  7319. 

]CEKa>EL,  Gbeoob  Johann  (1822-84).  An 
Austrian  botanist.  He  was  bom  in  Austrian 
Silesia  in  Heinzendorf,  near  Odrau,  and  in  1843 
entered  the  Augustinian  Koniginkloster  at 
Briinn.  He  became  a  priest  in  1847;  studied  at 
Vienna;  returned  to  the  cloister  in  1853;  taught 
at  Brtinn  and  became  abbot.  His  experiments 
in  hybridization,  reprinted  under  the  title 
Versuche  Uher  Pfianzenhyhriden  (in  an  English 
translation  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Horti- 
cultural Society,  xxvi.,  1901),  were  originally 
made  public  in  1865.  They  dealt  especially  with 
experiments  on  Pisum  and  Hieracium  made  in  his 
cloister  garden;  advanced  the  idea  of  heterogy- 
gous  form ;  attempted  to  show,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, the  ratio  of  dominants,  cross-breeds,  and 
recessives ;  and  after  thirty- five  years  of  obscurity 
attracted  the  attention  of  biologists  after  their 
rediscovery  and  confirmation  by  De  Vries,  Cor- 
rens,  and  Tschermak.  Consult  Bateson,  MendeVs 
Principles  of  Heredity  (Cambridge,  Eng.,  1902). 

MENI>ELi:EFF,  myfin'de-lg'yM,  Dimitbi 
IvANOvrrcH  (1834-1907).  A  Russian  chemist, 
born  in  Tobolsk,  Siberia.  He  graduated  from  the 
local  gymnasium,  and  in  1850  entered  the  Insti- 
tute of  Pedagogy  of  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  sciences. 
In  1856  he  was  appointed  docent  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Saint  Petersburg,  and  in  1859-61  he 
worked  in  Heidelberg  and  published  a  monograph 
On  the  Capillarity  of  Oases.    Shortly  afterwards 


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309 


MENDELSSOHN-BABTHOLDY. 


he  published  his  Organic  Chemistry.  He  was 
made  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Saint  Peters- 
burg Institute  of  Technology  in  1863,  and  three 
years  later  at  the  imiversity.  In  1871-76  he 
made  extensive  studies  on  the  compression  of 
gases,  embodied  in  his  On  the  Elasticity  of  Oases. 
In  1876  he  was  commissioned  by  the  authorities 
to  study  the  petroleum  industry  in  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Caucasus.  His  work  on  Aqueous  Solu- 
tions (1886)  was  received  by  chemists  as  a 
notable  contribution  to  experimental  chemistry, 
although  his  ^theory  of  solutions,'  according  to 
which  solvents  invariably  form  definite  or  *in- 
definite'  chemical  compounds  with  the  substances 
dissolved  in  them,  has  been  strongly  criticised  by 
physical  chemists  of  the  modem  German  schools. 
As  member  of  the  Council  of  Commerce  and  In- 
dustries, Mendel4eff  became  the  champion  of  pro- 
tection of  home  industries,  and  the  policy  of 
Russia  in  that  direction  dates  practically  from 
the  publication  of  his  Tariff  Elucidated  (1890). 
He  worked  out  the  formula  for  the  pyrocollodial 
smokeless  powder,  serviceable  for  all  firearms, 
when  Russia  undertook  to  rearm  her  forces.  In 
1803  he  was  made  conservator  of  weights  and 
measures  in  the  new  Chamber  of  Weights  and 
Measures  established  in  the  Department  of 
Finance. 

His  Elements  of  Chemistry  (1868-70,  6th  ed., 
Saint  Petersburg,  1889)  is  a  standard  work  and 
has  been  translated  into  English,  German,  and 
French.  In  it  he  first  set  forth  the  theory  later 
embodied  in  La  loi  p&riodique  des  6Uments  chi- 
miques  (Paris,  1879),  now  known  as  the  periodic 
law  (q.v.),  in  the  following  formula:  "The 
properties  of  the  elements,  as  well  as  the  forms 
and  properties  of  their  compounds,  are  in  periodic 
dependence  on,  or  form  a  periodic  function  of,  the 
atomic  weights  of  the  elements."  This  law  en- 
abled Mendel^fT  to  foretell  the  existence  and 
even  the  properties  of  several  unknown  elements, 
which  have  since  been  actually  discovered. 

Mendel^fTs  scientific  contributions,  dealing 
mostly  with  physical  chemistry,  and  numbering  up- 
ward of  150,  have  appeared  in  German  and  French 
8«ientific  periodicals.  Consult  T.  E.  Thorpe,  Es- 
says in  Historical  Chemistry   (London,  1894). 

MENDEL'S  LAW.  See  Htbbiditt  and 
Hebeditt. 

MENDELSSOHN^  mtoMel-sOn,  Moses  ( 1729- 
86) .  A  German  philosopher  of  Jewish  parentage. 
He  was  bom  September  6,  1729,  at  Dessau.  From 
his  father,  a  schoolmaster  and  scribe,  he  received 
his  first  education;  and  in  his  thirteenth  year 
proceeded  to  Berlin,  where,  amid  very  indigent 
circumstances,  he  contrived  to  learn  Latin  and 
modem  languages,  and  to  apply  himself  to  the 
study  of  philosophy.  After  many  years  of  com- 
parative poverty  he  became  part  heir  to  a  rich 
silk  manufacturer,  whose  children  he  had 
educated.  The  intimate  friend  of  men  like  Les- 
sing — ^whose  Nathan  der  Weise  had  its  prototype 
in  him — Sulzer,  and  Nicolai,  he  contributed  in  a 
vast  degree  to  the  mitigation  of  the  brutal  preju- 
dices against  the  Jews.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
broadened  the  outlook  of  his  own  co-religionists. 
He  died  January  4, 1786.  His  principal  works  are : 
PopCf  ein  Metaphysiker  (with  Lessing)  (1755)  ; 
Brief e  Uher  die  Empfindnngen  (1755)  ;  Ueher  die 
Evidenz  in  den  metaphysischen  Wissenschaften ; 
Phadon,  oder  Uher  die  Unsterblichkeit  der  Seele 
(1767);  Jerusalem,  oder  Uher  religiose  Macht 
und   Judenthum    (1783);    and    Morgenstunden 


(1785).  His  works  have  been  collected  and  edited 
by  G.  B.  Mendelssohn  (7  vols.,  Leipzig,  1843- 
45).  Consult:  Hensel,  Die  Familie  Mendelssohn 
(9th  ed.,  Berlin,  1898;  Eng.  trans.  London, 
1882)  ;  Kayserling,  Moses  Mendelssohn  (Leipzig, 
1882) ;.  Ritter,  Mendelssohn  und  Lessing  (Ber- 
lin, 1886)  ;  Dessauer,  Der  deutsche  Plato  (ib., 
1879).  His  philosophy  was  of  a  rather  super- 
ficial popular  sort,  whose  aim  was  to  find  good 
reason  for  opinions  currently  regarded  as  cor- 
rect. 

MENDELSSOHN -BABTHOLDY,  m&iMel- 
sOn-bftr-tdl'dl,  Felix  (1809-47).  A  famous  Ger-  ' 
man  composer.  He  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  Febru- 
ary 3,  1809,  the  son  of  Abraham  Mendelssohn  and 
Leah  Salomon.  The  latter*s  brother,  after  embrac- 
ing Christianitv,  assumed  the  name  Bartholdy, 
which  the  Mendelssohns  then  added  to  their  fam- 
ily name.  The  family  was  wealthy  and  highly 
refined.  Felix's  grandfather  was  the  celebrated 
Moses  Mendelssohn  (q.v.).  His  children  were 
brought  up  in  the  Protestant  faith.  Felix  re- 
ceived piano  instruction  first  from  his  mother; 
afterwards  Ludwig  Berger  became  his  teacher. 
His  instructor  in  counterpoint  and  musical  com- 
position was  Zelter;  and  the  finishing  touches  to 
his  skill  as  a  pianist  were  g^ven  by  Moscheles. 
His  eldest  sister,  Fanny,  shared  this  instruction. 

Mendelssohn  began  to  compose  before  he  was 
twelve  years  of  age,  and  also  showed  great  taste 
in  drawing,  and  was  rapid,  yet  accurate,  in  his 
general  studies.  Notwithstanding  his  remark- 
able achievements  for  one  so  young,  his  education 
continued  on  broad  lines.  Much  of  the  charm 
which  he  exerted  through  life  was  due  to  his 
combining  with  musical  genius  the  tastes  of  a 
man  of  high  culture.  When  eleven  years  old  he 
paid  a  visit  to  Goethe,  who  was  delighted  not 
only  with  his  musical  accomplishments,  but  with 
his  modesty  and  refinement. 

The  home  of  the  Mendelssohns  was  the  centre 
of  a  cultured  circle.  At  the  Sunday  concerts 
which  were  given  there  the  most  eminent  people 
residing  or  visiting  in  Berlin  were  met — ^musi- 
cians like  Weber,  Spohr,  Paganini,  Liszt,  Schu- 
mann; painters  like  Ingres,  Vemet,  Verboeck- 
hoven,  Kaulbach;  singers  like  Lablache,  Grisi, 
Pasta;  and  in  addition  to  these,  actors,  sculptors, 
poets,  and  scientists,  among  the  latter  the  Hum- 
boldts,  Bunsen,  and  Jakob  Grimm.  One  can 
imagine  the  rich  life  which  unfolded  itself  within 
such  a  circle,  and  its  influence  upon  Felix's 
development.  One  of  the  intimates  of  the  circle 
was  Hensel,  the  portrait  painter,  who  married 
Fanny,  herself  scarcely  inferior  to  Felix  at  the 
piano.  Notwithstanding  his  pronounced  musical 
gifts,  Felix's  father,  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
he  was  acting  wisely  in  the  choice  of  a  musical 
career,  took  him  in  1825  to  Cherubini  in  Paris. 
After  examining  several  of  the  boy's  composi- 
tions, Cherubini  gave  an  affirmative  answer.  In 
the  same  year  Mendelssohn  composed  his  octet 
(Opus  20).  In  February,  1827,  his  Midsummer 
NighVs  Dream  overture  was  played  at  Stettin, 
and  was  received  with  great  applause.  April  of 
the  same  year  saw  the  production  of  his  opera. 
The  Wedding  of  Camacho,  in  Berlin,  but  it  was 
not  a  success. 

In  1828  he  composed  his  overture  to  Goethe's 
poem,  A  Calm  Sea  and  a  Happy  Voyage;  and  a 
letter  from  Fanny,  December  8,  1828,  to  his 
friend,  the  poet  Klingemann,  refers  to  his  com- 
position of  Songs  Without  Words.    One  of  Men- 


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MENDELSSOHN-BABTHOLDY. 


810 


MEKDENHAIiL. 


deflssohni's  finest  achievements,  the  first  perform- 
ance since  Bach's  death  of  the  Saint  Matthew 
Passion,  took  place  in  Berlin  in  1829.  The  great- 
est difficulties  had  to  be  overcome,  not  the  least 
being  the  indifference  of  musicians  and  public, 
but  Mendelssohn  brought  the  affair  to  a  tri- 
umphant issue,  and  thus  gave  the  first  impetus 
to  the  great  Bach  revival  through  which  that 
composer  at  last  obtained  due  recognition.  In 
April,  1829,  Mendelssohn  made  the  first  of  sev- 
eral visits  to  England,  where  his  former  teacher, 
Moscheles,  was  settled.  He  was  well  received 
socially,  and  his  concert  appearances   both   as 

eianist  and  composer  were  highly  successful. 
[e  made  a  tour  of  Scotland  and  visited  the 
Hebrides.  During  a  visit  to  the  ruined  palace  of 
Holyrood,  with  its  traditions  of  Queen  Mary, 
he  hit  upon  the  beginning  of  his  Scotch  Sym- 
phony;  and  his  trip  to  the  islands  inspired  his 
Hebrides  or  FingaVs  Cave  overture.  The  germ 
of  his  Reformation  Symphony  also  dates  from 
this  time.  The  Scotch  Symphony,  however,  was 
not  completed  until  many  years  later,  having 
its  first  performance  in  Leipzig  in  March,  1842, 
and  in  London  at  a  Philharmonic  concert  in  June 
of  the  same  year. 

In  1830  he  declined  an  offered  professorship  of 
music  in  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  traveled  to  Italy.  In  Rome  he 
began  one  of  his  most  important  works,  the  can- 
tata to  Goethe's  First  Walpurgis  Night,  and  in  a 
letter  to  Fanny,  dated  from  Rome,  in  February, 
1831,  he  writes  that  the  Italian  Symphony  is 
making  great  progress.  After  various  travels,  in- 
cluding visits  to  Paris  and  London,  where  his 
appearances  again  were  highly  successful,  he  ac- 
cepted an  invitation  to  conduct  a  music  festival 
at  Dttsseldorf.  This  led  to  his  taking,  in  1833, 
the  post  of  musical  director  of  the  city,  where  he 
remained,  quickening  the  musical  life  of  the  place 
and  engaging  in  the  composition  of  the  greater 
part  of  his  oratorio  of  Sadni  Paul,  until  1836, 
when  he  became  conductor  of  the  famous  Gewand- 
haus  concerts  in  Leipzig.  Here  his  activity  was 
of  the  utmost  importance.  He  not  only  brought 
the  orchestra  to  a  high  state  of  perfection,  but  he 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  founding  of  the 
Leipzig  Conservatory. 

His  oratorio  of  Saint  Paul  was  brought  out 
at  the  Lower  Rhenish  Musical  Festival  ( q.v. ) ,  at 
Dttsseldorf,  under  his  own  direction,  in  May, 
1836.  In  1837  he  married  C^cile  Jean-Renaud, 
the  daughter  of  a  French  clergyman  in  Frank- 
fort. Their  union  was  a  most  happy  one.  Dur- 
ing his  incumbency  at  Leipzig  he  made  frequent 
tours,  and  in  1841  went,  at  the  invitation  of 
Frederick  William  IV.,  to  Berlin,  and  at  his 
instigation  composed  the  music  to  (Edipus, 
(Edipus  ColonoSf  and  Antigone;  Athalie;  and  the 
rest  of  his  music  to  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  Late  in  1842  he  returned  to  Leipzig. 
Previously  during  that  year  he  had  visited  Eng- 
land for  the  seventh  time,  and  by  invitation  had 
played  for  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Prince  Consort 
at  Buckingham  Palace.  In  1844  he  was  again 
in  England,  and  in  August,  1846,  brought  out 
with  overwhelming  success  at  the  Birmingham 
festival  his  oratorio  Elijah,  In  1847  the  sudden 
death  of  his  beloved  sister  Fanny  came  as  a 
great  shock  to  him,  and  his  system,  weakened 
by  overwork,  succumbed.  In  September,  in 
Leipzig,  while  listening  to  his  own  recently  com- 
posed Night  Song,  he  swooned  away.     Nervous 


prostration  followed,  and  on  November  4th  he 
died. 

Probably  no  composer  ever  was  so  fGted  during 
his  lifetime  or  lost  so  much  ground  after  his 
death  as  Mendelssohn.  He  was  the  idol  of 
the  public  and  a  large  circle  of  friends.  In. 
England  his  popularity  amounted  to  a  Men- 
delssohn worship.  His  music,  polished  like  him- 
self, perfect  in  form,  melodious,  easily  under- 
stood, and  not  too  difficult  technically,  imme- 
diately became  popular  in  concert  and  drawing 
rooms.  It  presented  no  problems  and  solved 
none.  He  was,  as  a  rule,  a  rapid  producer;  the 
music  to  Antigone  was  composed  in  eleven  days. 
But  the  very  quality  which  made  his  music 
attain  such  immediate  popularity,  a  certain  su- 
perficial prettiness,  has  caused  much  of  it  to 
be  laid  aside.  His  oratories  still  are  given,  and 
the  Elijah  especially  holds  its  own;  the  violin 
concerto  is  an  admirable  composition;  the  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream  overture  has  fairylike 
grace;  certain  Songs  Without  Words  and  the 
Variaiions  sMeuses  have  a  definite  value  in  the 
pianoforte  curriculum;  and  several  of  his  choral 
works  are  highly  valued.     But  the  bulk  of  his 

Eroduct  is  less  and  less  heard  of.  As  a  conductor 
is  attitude  toward  new  departures  was  not 
friendly.  Wagner's  Tannhduser  overture  he 
played  at  a  Gewandhaus  concert  'as  a  warning 
example.'  But  for  Bach  and  the  appreciation  of 
Beethoven's  later  works  he  did  much. 

Consult:  Lampadius,  Life  of  Mendelssohn 
(English  translation  by  Gage,  London,  1876),, 
a  standard  work;  Rockstro,  Mendelssohn,  "Great 
Musicians  Series"  (London,  1890),  an  excellent 
short  life;  Hensel,  The  Mendelssohn  Family, 
1729-1847,  from  Letters  and  Journals  (English 
trans,  by  Carl  Klingemann,  New  York,  1881); 
Barbedette,  Mendelssohn,  Sa  vie  et  ses  oeuvres 
(Paris,  1868)  ;  Reissmann,  Mendelssohn,  sein 
Leben  und  seine  Werke  (Berlin,  1867)  ;  Hadden^ 
Life  of  Mendelssohn  ( London,  1903 )  ;  Wolff,  Men- 
delssohn (Berlin,  1906)  ;  Hiller,  Mendelssohn, 
Letters  and  Recollections  (London,  1874). 

MENDELSSOHN     SCHaLABSHIP.       The 

most  valuable  musical  prize  in  Great  Britain, 
which  entitles  its  holder  to  a  course  of  study 
abroad.  The  movement  for  founding  such  a 
scholarship  began  in  1848,  when  the  proceeds 
from  a  performance  of  Elijah  were  set  aside  for 
the  purpose.  In  1856  the  first  scholar,  Arthur 
Sullivan,  was  elected.  The  capital  has  been 
gradually  added  to  until  the  annuity  now  con- 
sists of  about  five  hundred  dollars.  There  is 
also  a  Mendelssohn  scholarship  in  Berlin,  whose 
value  is  about  seven  hundred  and  twenty  dollars, 
half  of  which  is  awarded  to  composers  and  half 
to  virtuosos. 

HENDENEEALIiy  m^nMen-hftl,  Thomas  Cob- 
win  (1841 — ).  An  American  physicist,  bom 
near  Hanoverton,  Ohio.  He  received  a  common 
school  education,  became  professor  of  physics 
and  mechanics  in  the  Ohio  State  Universify  in 
1873,  and  in  1878  accepted  the  chair  of  physics 
in  the  Imperial  University  at  Tokio,  Japan.  His 
labors  there  were  later  incorporated  into  the 
Government  meteorological  system;  and  he  was 
also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Tokio  Seis- 
mological  Society.  He  returned  to  Ohio  in  1881, 
perfected  the  Ohio  State  weather  service,  and  in 
1884  was  called  to  the  United  States  Signal  Ser- 
vice   at   Washington.     In    1886    he    was   made 


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president  of  the  Rose  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.;  in  1889  he  became  superin- 
tendent of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey;  and  in  1894-1901  was  president  of  the 
Polytechnic  Institute  at  Worcester,  Mass.  He 
has  made  several  important  contributions  to 
physical  science,  and  is  the  author  of  A  Century 
of  Electricity  (1887). 

MENDEBES,  mfinM^r-ez.  The  modern  name 
of  the  Mfleander  (q.v.),  a  river  of  Asia  Minor. 

MENOisS,  mftN'dAs^  Catulle  (1841—).  A 
French  poet,  novelist,  and  playwright,  bom  in 
Bordeaux.  He  founded  (1859)  the  Revue  Fan- 
taisiste,  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  "Parnas- 
sian" poetic  group.  His  Ponies  appeared  in  1872. 
Among  his  novels  are  Le  roi  vierge  (1880)  ;  Me- 
phistophela  (1890);  Oog  (1896).  Among  his 
plavs  are:  La  femme  de  taharin  (1887)  ;  Medie 
( 1898 )  ;  Scarron  ( 1904 )  ;  Olatigny  ( 1906 )  ;  Sainte- 
Thir^e  (1906).  He  wrote  librettos  for  Hahn*s 
Carmelite  (1902);  Erlanger's  Le  fila  de  VMoile 
( 1904)  ;  and  Massend's  Ariane  ( 1906)  ;  and  pub- 
lished Le  mouvement  poMique,  1867-1900  (1903). 

MENBEB  LEAI.,  m&nM&sh  Ift-ftK,  Jost  da 
SiLVA  (1818-86).  A  Portuguese  dramatist  and 
diplomat,  born  at  Lisbon.  He  produced  a  num- 
ber of  plays  which  have  been  very  successful.  The 
following  are  the  best:  Os  doua  renegado8 
(1839);  Egaa  Moniz  (1861);  Madre  8ilva 
(1847) ;  A  pohre  das  ruinas  (1846)  ;  Os  homens 
de  marmore  ( 1854)  ;  Os  homens  de  vidro  ( 1855)  ; 
Pedro  (1857);  A  escala  social  (1858);  and 
especially  the  comedies  0  tio  AndrS  que  vem  do 
Brazil  (1855),  and  Receita  para  ourar  saudades 
(1857).  He  was  a  member  of  the  Portuguese 
Academy  (1846)  and  director  of  the  National 
Library. 

MENDES-PINTO,  m&NMesh-p€N^td,  Febnao. 
See  Pinto,  FesnAo  Mendes. 

MENDIBXJBXTy  m^'d^Bi^rJSS,  Maihtel  de 
(1805-85).  A  Peruvian  historian,  bom  at  Lima. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  San  Marcos; 
entered  public  life  in  1819  as  a  clerk;  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  of  1821  joined 
the  patriot  forces.  He  was  captured  by  the 
Spanish  troops,  but  was  released  at  the  end 
of  the  war,  and  held  various  posts  under  the 
Peruvian  Government.  His  great  collection  of 
materials  for  a  history  of  Peru  was  published 
as  a  Diccionario  histdrico-hiogrdfico  del  Per^ 
(1874  sqq.),  which,  although  complete  only  for 
the  early  and  colonial  peric^,  is  a  most  valuable 
work. 

MENDICANCY  (from  mendicant,  from  Lat. 
mendicans,  pres.  part,  of  mendicarcy  to  beg,  from 
mendicusy  poor).  The  practice  of  begging.  A 
beggar  is  one  who  seeks  to  get  his  living,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  by  soliciting  alms.  The  word 
beggar  is  probably  derived  from  the  Beghards,  a 
religious  order  of  the  Middle  Ages  corresponding 
to  a  similar  order  among  women,  the  B^guines 
(q.v.).  Small  communities  of  the  B^guines  still 
exist  in  Belgium. 

In  primitive  societies  beggars  have  little  chance 
for  existence.  Whenever  and  wherever  a  sur- 
plus results  from  labor,  there  appears  a  class 
of  the  economically  unfit  ready  and  anxious  to 
live  as  parasites  on  the  labor  of  others.  If, 
through  the  influence  of  religion  or  other  causes, 
almsgiving  comes  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  virtue, 
mendicants  will  rapidly  increase.    Such  a  condi- 


tion existed  in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
beggars  became  so  numerous  that  they  threatened 
to  overrun  the  Continent.  The  Church  inculcated 
almsgiving  and  emphasized  it  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  future  happiness.  The  great  success  of 
the  orders  of  the  *beggin^  friars,'  the  Francis- 
cans, Dominicans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustinians 
encouraged  begging  among  the  laity.  Meantime 
there  was  a  gradual  development  of  monasteries, 
hospitals,  guilds,  and  private  benevolence,  entirely 
independent  of  each  other,  yet  all  giving  alms, 
and  this  without  any  thought  of  investigation  as 
to  the  worthiness  of  the  recipient. 

In  1349  England  began  to  forbid  begging. 
France  followed  in  1350,  and  later  some  of  the 
German  towns,  as  Esslingen  (1384)  and  Bnins- 
wick  ( 1400) .  Such  legislation  was  of  little  effect. 
During  the  fifteenth  century  the  idea  gradually 
gained  ground  that  the  able-bodied  poor  must 
be  set  at  work.  The  adoption  of  this  view  in- 
volved the  overthrow  of  the  old  theory  of  alms- 
giving, and  it  was  steadily  opposed  by  the  Church. 

The  sixteenth  century  marks  a  great  change. 
Luther  said  that  one  of  the  most  crying  ne^ 
of  Christian  countries  was  the  prohibition  of 
begging,  and  measures  to  this  effect  introduced 
in  the  'Regulation  of  a  Common  Chest*  became 
the  basis  for  subsequent  reforms.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  Zwingli,  Zurich  prohibited  begging  in 
1525.  The  Catholic  Vives  wrote  De  Suhventione 
Pauperum  (Bruges,  1526),  which  led  to  the 
breakdown  of  the  old  system  in  Catholic  Euro]>e, 
in  the  North  at  least,  for  in  Spain,  through  the 
influence  of  the  Dominican  monk  Soto,  the  pro- 
hibition was  not  decreed,  and  Italy  has  only 
partially  forbidden  the  custom. 

Germany  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War  made 
more  stringent  regulations,  but  the  various 
States  were  not  in  harmony,  and  the  root  of  the 
evil  was  not  reached.  Frankfort  (1620),  Anhalt 
1770),  Hesse  (1777),  forbade  begging  entirely. 
Hamburg  followed  in  1788  and  forbade  also 
gifts  to  beggars.  Here  was  introduced  more 
effective  investigation  of  the  individual  cases,  and 
other  cities  copied  the  plan.  By  1791  it  is  re- 
ported that  open  begging  had  been  stopped.  The 
general  German  law  is  that  vagabonds  (Land- 
streicher,  best  translated  tramps)  may  be  im- 
prisoned. Beggars,  those  who  ask  alms  either 
m  person  or  through  letters,  may  be  put  to  hard 
work.  In  some  of  the  States  appeals  for  assist- 
ance may  not  be  published  in  the  papers  without 
special  permission.  Bavaria  made  a  statistical 
investigation  of  mendicancy  between  1870  and 
1880  which  showed  that  some  20,000  persons  were 
convicted  each  year.  In  Saxony  between  1880 
and  1887  of  those  convicted  47  per  cent,  were 
Saxons,  42.7  from  other  German  States,  and  10.3 
foreigners.  In  many  towns  there  is  a  Verein 
gegen  Verarmung  und  Bettelei. 

France  forbade  mendicancy  in  1566,  but  the 
efforts  made  to  enforce  the  law  were  ineffective. 
In  1627  it  was  ordered  that  beggars  be  impressed 
into  the  navy.  Later,  beggars  were  commanded 
to  leave  Pans  under  penalty  of  being  sent  to  the 
galleys.*  After  the  Revolution,  however,  penal 
colonies,  d^pOts  de  mendicity,  were  established. 

Italy  prohibited  begging  in  1865.  but  local 
authorities  may  issue  permits  (permissi  di  men- 
dicare),  and  begging,  licensed  or  not,  abounds, 
particularly  in  the  southern  provinces. 

The  practice  has  also  been  prohibited  in  other 
countries — Denmark  (1789,  1803,  1860),  Norway 


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(1863),  Russia  (1864),  Sweden  (1885).  In  Mo- 
hammedan lands,  where  almsgiving  is  still  a 
religious  obligation,  beggars  abound. 

England  in  1536  decreed  that  an  able-bodied 
beggar  should  be  whipped  for  the  first  offense, 
have  his  ears  cropped  for  the  second,  and  be 
executed  as  a  felon  and  common  enemy  for  the 
third.  In  1547  he  was  to  be  branded  and  become 
the  slave  of  any  one  who  would  care  for  him 
for  two  years.  In  the  act  of  1536  'conmion  and 
open  doles'  were  prohibited,  and  the  parish  au- 
thorities instructed  to  care  for  the  worthy  poor. 
The  civic  authorities  were  still  trying  various 
schemes.  Oxford  had  four  *bedells  of  the  beggars' 
who  "took  a  ward  every  Friday  to  gather  the 
devotion  of  the  houses,"  and  on  other  days,  "daily 
the  streets  to  walk,  to  look  what  otheV  beggars 
or  vagabonds  do  come  into  the  city  and  then  to 
give  notice  to  the  constables."  In  Southampton 
in  1540  a  'master  of  beggars'  with  a  silver  gilt 
badge  and  small  annual  fee  is  mentioned.  York 
(1538)  decided  that  "from  henceforth  no  Head- 
beggars  shall  be  chosen,"  and  by  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  the  other  towns  had  followed 
her  example.  In  1562  compulsory  labor  was 
made  possible.  In  1601  came  the  famous  poor 
law  of  Elizabeth  (43  Eliz.,  c.  2)  which  em- 
phasized the  necessity  for  work;  1676  marked 
the  establishment  of  the  first  workhouse  at  Bris- 
tol, and  with  these  changes  the  modem  system 
is  inaugurated.  Yet  begging  was  not  abolished, 
and  in  Scotland  (see  The  Antiqtiaryf  Walter 
Scott)  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  *Bedesmen*  or  *Blue  Gowns'  were  licensed. 
The  present  English  law  is  that  of  1824.  Habit- 
ual begging  is  a  criminal  offense,  punishable  in 
a  summary  manner,  that  is,  without  trial  by 
jury.  ( See  Vagrant.  )  For  the  first  offense  one 
may  be  committed  as  *idle  and  disorderly'  to 
one  month  at  hard  labor;  for  the  second  offense 
as  a  *rogue  and  vagabond'  for  three  months;  for 
a  third  as  an  incorrigible  vagabond'  for  one 
year.  One  who  solicits  charitable  contributions 
bv  lying  letters,  false  writings,  or  any  other 
eneat,  is  liable  to  punishment  for  obtaining  money 
under  false  pretenses  (q.v.).  If  begging  be  ac- 
companied by  threats  of  violence,  it  may  subject 
the  offender  to  punishment  for  robbery  (q.v.). 

In  the  United  States  mendicancy  has  been 
looked  upon  as  bad,  and  is  generally  forbidden. 
The  laws  have  been  very  leniently  enforced,  and 
in  many  places  are  almost  dead  letters.  Only 
one  State,  Massachusetts,  has  provided  a  farm 
colony  to  which  beggars  may  be  sent  and  made 
to  work.  In  some  cities  energetic  steps  are  being 
taken  to  make  begging  unprofitable,  and  special 
attention  is  being  paid  to  parents  who  send  young 
children  out  to  beg,  or  who  cover  their  begging 
by  pretense  of  selling  odds  and  ends. 

The  experience  of  all  countries  has  shown 
that  mendicancy  will  thrive  wherever  indis- 
criminate almsgiving  prevails.  In  modem  society 
it  may  practically  be  stopped  if  steps  are  taken 
to  care  properly  for  the  worthy  poor  and  to 
compel  others  to  work  or  else  go  hungry. 

For  an  account  of  the  general  development  of 
ihe  care  of  the  poor,  see  Paxtperism.  See,  also, 
Chabity  Organization  Society;  Tramps;  So- 
cial Debtor  Classes. 

Consult:  Ribton-Turaer,  History  of  Vagrants 
and  Vagrancy  (London,  1887)  ;  Luther,  Book  of 
Beggars y  Eng.  trans.  (London,  1860)  ;  Hender- 
son, Dependents y  Defectives,  Delinquents  (Boston, 


1901).  ABhley,  English  Economic  History  (New 
York,  1893);  Ratzinger,  Geschichte  der  kirch- 
lichen  Armenpflege  (2  ed.,  Freiburg  im  B.,  1884)  ; 
Reitzenstein,  Die  Armengesctzgebung  Frankreichs 
(Leipzig,  1881)  ;  BShmert,  Sdchsische  Bettler-und 
Vagahundenstatistik  von  1880-87  (Dresden^ 
1888)  ;  Lammers,  Die  Bettelplags  (Berlin,  1879)  ; 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Conference  of  Chari- 
ties and  Correction  (Boston),  yearly  reports  of 
Charity  Organization  Societies;  Hugo,  Notre 
Dame  de  Paris,  and  Reade,  The  Cloister  and  the 
Hearth  J  contain  accounts  of  the  organizations  of 
beggars;  Ehrle,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Ar- 
menpflege (Freiburg,  1881). 

MENDOCINO,  men'dA-se^nd,  Cape.  See  Cape 
Mendocino. 

MENDOTA.  A  city  in  La  Salle  County,  111., 
83  miles  west  of  Chicago,  on  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington and  Quincy,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
Saint  Paul,  and  the  Illinois  Central  railroads 
(Map:  Illinois,  C  2).  It  has  a  public  library^ 
and  manufactories  of  machinery,  agricultural 
implements,  etc.  Population,  in  1890,  3542;  in 
1900,  3736. 

MENDOZA,  m$nd(/sA.  A  province  of  Ar- 
gentina, situated  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Republic,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Province  of  San  Juan,  on  the  east  by  San  Luis^ 
on  the  south  and  southeast  by  the  territories 
of  El  Pampa  and  Neguen,  and  on  the  west  by 
Chile  (Map:  Argentina,  D  10).  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  56,517  square  miles.  With  the 
exception  of  the  portion  adjoining  the  Andes,  the 
surface  of  the  province  is  practically  occupied 
by  an  extensive  plain  mostly  sandy  and  only 
indiflferently  fertile.  The  western  portion  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  slope  of  the  Andes  Range,  which 
rises  on  the  boundary  to  a  height  of  over  22,000 
feet  in  Mount  Aconcagua.  Several  lofty  passes 
lead  from  the  province  into  Chile.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  province  are  engaged  chiefly  in  agri- 
culture and  stock-raising,  and  cattle,  hides,  and 
wool  are  among  the  chief  exports.  Wheat,  com^ 
and  lucerne  are  the  chief  agricultural  products, 
but  vine-culture  and  the  production  of  wine  have 
of  late  become  an  important  industry.  Owing  to 
the  dry  climate  and  the  scarcity  of  water,  artifi- 
cial irrigation  is  usually  necessary.  The  mineral 
deposits  of  Mendoza  are  of  importance,  but  min> 
ing  is  still  in  a  backward  state.  Population,  in 
1895, 116,136;  in  1905,  165,725.  Capital,  Mendoza. 

MENDOZA.  The  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Mendoza,  Argentina,  situated  at  the  east- 
em  base  of  the  Andes,  160  miles  east  of  Val- 
paraiso, on  the  railroad  between  that  city  and 
Buenos  Ayres  (Map:  Argentina,  D  10).  The 
town  has  a  national  college,  an  agricultural  in- 
stitute, normal  schools  for  both  sexes,  and  a 
street  railway.  Population,  in  1904,  35,314. 
Mendoza  was  founded  in  1560.  It  was  the  scene 
of  a  terrible  earthquake  in  1861,  which  destroyed 
the  city  and  killed  10,000  people. 

MENDOZA,  m^n-do'thA,  Anna  de.  Princess 
of  Eboli.     See  Eboli. 

MENDOZAy  Antonio  de,  Count  of  Tendilla 
(c.  1485-1552).  A  Spanish  administrator,  born 
in  Granada.  He  was  a  member  of  an  illustrious 
family  and  became  a  great  favorite  with  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  Constant  quarrels  in  New 
Spain  between  the  Governor,  the  nobility,  and 
the  Audiencia  (the  commission  representing  the 
Emperor)  led  to  the  determination  to  appoint  in. 


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each  territory  a  personal  representative  of  the 
Emperor's  authority,  and  Mendoza  was  appointed 
the  first  Viceroy  of  Mexico.  He  arrived  there  in 
1535.  With  him  he  brought  a  printing  press  on 
which  was  printed  the  next  year  La  eaoala  de 
San  Juan  Climoca,  the  first  book  printed  in 
Mexico.  A  mint  was  established  the  same 
year,  schools  and  hospitals  were  built,  and  a 
college  was  founded.  The  breed  of  sheep  was 
improved,  silk  culture  was  encouraged,  and  better 
methods  of  agriculture  were  introduced.  In  1542 
a  formidable  insurrection  of  the  Indians  was 
suppressed.  An  expedition  under  Vasquez  de 
Coronado  was  sent  to  discover  the  mythical  city 
of  Cibola  and  the  no  less  mythical  Quivira,  and 
explored  much  of  what  is  now  New  Mexico  and 
Colorado.  Mendoza  was  not  able  to  carry  into  ef- 
fect the  prohibition  of  further  enslavement  of  the 
Indians,  but  succeeded  better  than  might  have 
been  expected.  In  1550  he  was  appointed  Vice- 
roy of  Peru.  He  was  an  amiable  out  dignified 
and  just  man,  a  striking  contrast  to  many  of  the 
Spanish  rulers. 

HENDOZA,  Diego  Huictado  de  (1503-75). 
A  Spanish  statesman  and  man  of  letters,  bom 
at  Granada.  Trained  at  Salamanca  for  the 
Church,  he  entered  instead  upon  a  military  career 
and  passed  Ui rough  the  Italian  campaigns  of 
Charles  V.  The  latter  sent  him  as  Ambi^sador 
to  Venice,  whence  he  passed  (in  1547)  to  Siena  as 
the  Imperial  Governor.  He  had  (in  1545)  repre- 
sented his  Imperial  master  at  the  Council  of  Trent ; 
and  in  1549  he  went  to  Rome  to  carry  out  Charles's 
policy  of  bullying  the  Papacy.  In  1654  he  re- 
turned to  Spain.  As  a  poet  Mendoza  has  left 
compositions  in  the  older  conventional  Spanish 
manner,  and  some  that  show  the  influence  of  his 
classical  attainmento;  he  gained  greatest  repute 
in  his  own  time,  however,  as  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  movement  which  accomplished  the  Italian- 
izing of  Spanish  lyric  poetry.  Mendoza's  prose 
work  of  the  most  importance  is  his  (hierra  de 
Granada,  dealing  witn  an  insurrection  of  the 
Moors.  His  acquaintance  with  Arabic  equipped 
him  admirably  for  the  performance  of  this  his- 
torical task,  but  his  outepoken  honesty  prevented 
the  appearance  of  a  complete  edition  of  the  work 
until  1730,  for  the  editions  of  Madrid  ( 1610)  and 
Lisbon  (1627)  are  defective.  Consult  his  verse 
in  vol.  xxxii.  of  tiie  Bihlioteca  de  autores  espa- 
rioles,  and,  in  vol.  xxi,  of  that  same  collection,  an 
edition  of  the  Ouerra  de  Chranada;  J.  D.  Fesen- 
mair,  D.  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  ein  spanisoher 
Humanist  des  ISten  Jahrhunderts  (Munich, 
1882)  ;  Foulch6-Delbosc,  in  the  Revue  Hispanique 
i.,  101,  and  ii.,  208. 

KENDOZA,  Inigo  IkSpez  de.  Marquis  de 
Santillana.  See  Santillana  Inigo  Ij6fez  de 
Mendoza,  Marqu^  de. 

MENDOZA,  Juan  GoNzixEZ  de  (c.l540- 
1617).  A  Spanish  prelate,  bom  at  Toledo.  He 
joined  the  army,  but  after  some  years  resigned 
to  enter  the  Order  of  Saint  Augustine.  In  1580 
he  was  sent  by  Philip  II.  to  China,  where  he 
spent  three  years  in  gaining  information  as  to 
the  politics,  commerce,  and  customs  of  the  coun- 
try. He  spent  two  years  in  Mexico  before  return- 
ing to  Spain.  He  was  afterwards  Bishop  of  the 
Lipari  Islands,  of  Chiapas,  and  of  Popayfin, 
where  he  died.  He  published  an  account  of  his 
observations  in  CJhina  in  a  work  entitled  Historia 
de  las  eosas  mda  notables,  ritoa  y  costumhrea  del 


gran  reyno  de  la  China,  An  English  translation 
appeared  in  1588,  and  was  reprinted  by  the 
Hakluyt  Society  in  185354. 

MENDOZA,  Pedbo  de  (c.1487-1537).  A 
Spanish  explorer.  He  was  of  a  noble  family 
high  in  the  favor  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  In 
1529  he  offered  to  explore  South  America  at  his 
own  expense  and  esteblish  colonies.  He  was  made 
military  Governor  of  all  the  territory  between 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan, and  the  Emperor  gave  2000  ducats  and 
advanced  2000  more  on  the  condition  that  within 
two  years  Mendoza  should  transport  one  thou- 
sand colonists,  build  roads  into  the  interior,  and 
build  three  forts.  He  was  to  have  half  the  treas- 
ure of  the  chiefs  killed  and  nine-tenths  of  the 
ransom.  The  office  of  Governor  was  also  made 
hereditary.  In  1534  with  a  considerable  fleet  he 
set  sail,  but  a  terrible  tempest  scattered  it  off 
the  coast  of  Brazil.  Here  his  lieutenant,  Osorio, 
was  assassinated,  according  to  some  authorities 
bv  the  orders  of  Mendoza  himself.  He  sailed  up 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  founded  Buenos  Ayres  in 
1535.  Pestilence  broke  out,  and  the  natives  be- 
came unfriendly.  His  brother  Diego,  who  led  a 
force  against  the  hostile  tribes,  was  killed  with 
three-fourths  of  his  men.  A  general  conspiracy 
of  the  natives  was  formed,  and  the  city  was  cap- 
tured and  burned.  Another  brother,  Gonzalo,  ar- 
rived with  reSnforcemente  and  founded  the  city 
of  Asunci6n  in  Paraguay  in  1536.  Mendoza,  dis- 
appointed and  broken  in  health,  embarked  for 
Spain,  but  died  a  maniac  during  the  voyage,  in 
1537. 

MEN'EDEaCCTS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^tvii^uoi) 
(  7-C.277  B.C.).  A  Greek  philosopher,  a  native  of 
Eretria.  According  to  some  authorities,  he 
studied  under  Plato;  according  to  others,  under 
Stilpo  at  Megara.  He  founded  the  Eretrian  School 
of  philosophy,  and  was  also  one  of  the  leading 
men  in  the  political  affairs  of  his  State.  All  that 
is  known  of  the  philosophy  of  Menedemus  is  that 
it  closely  resembled  that  of  the  Megarian  School. 

ICEN'ELAnjS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  UeviUo^), 
In  ancient  Greek  legend,  a  King  of  Lacedsemon,  the 
yoimger  brother  of  Agamemnon  and  husband  of 
the  famous  Helen.  The  abduction  of  his  wife  by 
Paris  is  represented  as  the  cause  of  the  Trojan 
War.  In  the  Iliad  he  appears  most  prominently 
in  the  duel  with  Paris,  when  the  life  of  the 
latter  is  saved  only  by  the  divine  interposition  of 
Aphrodite,  and  in  the  battle  over  the  body  of 
Patroclus,  where  he  is  one  of  the  foremost  com- 
batants, and  eventually  carries  the  corpse  from 
the  field.  Aftffr  the  capture  of  Troy  he  slew 
Deiphobus,  who  had  wedded  Helen  after  the 
death  of  Paris,  and  in  some  versions  intended  to 
kill  his  wife,  but  was  disarmed  by  her  beauty. 
After  the  fall  of  Troy  he  sailed  with  Helen  for 
his  own  land;  but  his  fleet  was  scattered  by  a 
storm,  and  he  wandered  for  eight  years  about  the 
coasts  of  Cyprus,  Phcenicia,  Egypt,  and  Libya. 
After  his  return  he  lived  at  Sparta  with  his  wife, 
Helen,  in  great  happiness.  Both  ^fenelaus  and 
Helen  were  worshiped  as  gods  at  Therapne,  near 
Sparta,  and  it  is  probable  that  here,  as  so  com- 
monly in  Grecian  heroic  myths,  we  have  two 
local  deities  who  have  been  reduced  to  hero  and 
heroine. 

MENELAXTS.  A  Greek  mathematician,  who 
lived  c.lOO  a.d.  He  wrote  a  book  on  the  calcula- 
tion of  chords,  not  now  extant,  and  a  work  in  three 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MENELATTS. 


814 


MENEPTAH. 


books,  under  the  title  Sphcerica,  The  latter,  al- 
though not  now  extant  in  Greek,  is  known  in  Ara- 
bic and  Hebrew,  and  in  several  Latin  translations. 
It  is  a  treatise  on  spherical  triangles,  with  respect 
not  to  their  solution,  but  to  their  geometric 
properties.  One  of  the  most  interesting  proposi- 
tions is  that  concerning  a  spherical  triangle  cut 
by  a  transversal,  the  corresponding  proposition 
for  plane  triangles  being  stated  as  a  lemma.  This 
theorem,  known  by  the  name  of  Menelaus,  as- 
serts that  if  the  lines  of  the  three  sides  of  a 
triangle  be  cut  bv  a  transversal,  the  product  of 
three  segments  which  have  no  common  extremity 
is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  other  three.  For 
spherical  triangles  *the  chords  of  three  segments 
doubled*  replaces  'three  segments.*  The  proposi- 
tion was  often  called  in  the  Middle  Ages  the 
regula  sex  quantitatutn, 

MEN^ELEK,  or,  more  correctly,  Meniuck 
(1844 — ).  A  King  of  Abyssinia,  bom  in  Anko- 
bar,  where  his  father,  Ailu  Malakoth,  was  crown 
prince  of  the  Kingdom  of  Shoa.  After  his  fath- 
er's death  in  1856,  Menelek  was  for  ten  years 
interned  in  Gojam  by  his  father's  rival,  Theodore, 
who  attempted  to  make  peace  with  him  by  giving 
him  his  daughter  to  wife.  But  in  1865  he  es- 
caped to  Shoa,  where  he  managed  to  establish  him- 
self, thanks  to  England's  interference  in  Abyssinia, 
and  as  King  (or  Ras)  of  Shoa  had  little  trouble 
in  defeating  the  son  of  John,  Ras  of  Tigr^,  in 
1889  and  in  coming  to  the  Abyssinian  throne,  to 
which  he  claimed  a  family  right  by  his  descent 
from  King  Solomon.  For  the  most  part  friendly 
to  European  civilization,  Menelek  was  in  many 
respects  a  savage.  But  he  showed  remarkable 
ability  in  bringing  his  army  to  a  high  pitch  of 
boldness.  England's  intervention  between  Italy 
and  Abyssinia  had  already  checked  an  open  break, 
but  when  Italy  claimed  a  protectorate  by  the 
Treaty  of  Uchali,  Menelek  protested  in  1893,  and 
in  1896  by  the  victory  at  Adowa  forced  Italy  to 
sign  the  Peace  of  Addis  Abeba,  thus  giving  up  all 
claim  to  a  protectorate.  He  came  to  a  complete 
understanding  with  Great  Britain  in  1898.  See 
Abyssinia. 

MENENDEZ  DE  AVILES,  mft-nftn^dAth  d& 
a'vMas',  Pedbo  (1519-74).  The  founder  of 
Saint  Augustine,  Fla,  He  was  bom  at  Avi- 
l^s,  in  Asturias,  Spain.  Philip  II.  placed  him 
in  command  of  the  fleet  which  escorted  the 
treasure  vessels  to  and  from  the  West  Indies. 
Securing  a  grant  of  Florida  with  the  title  of 
Adelantado  or  Governor,  he  set  sail,  June  29, 
1665,  with  nineteen  vessels  carrying  fifteen  hun- 
dred settlers,  with  orders  to  occupy  the  country 
and  expel  the  French,  who  were  making  this  their 
headquarters  for  privateering.  On  Saint  Augus- 
tine's day,  August  28th,  Menendez  discovered 
the  harbor,  on  whose  shores,  on  September  6th, 
he  began  to  build  a  fort,  around  which  the  present 
city  of  that  name  has  grown  up.  Here  the  French 
Huguenots  under  Ribaut  (q.v.)  attacked  him,  but 
a  hurricane  drove  them  off,  and  before  they  could 
return  to  their  settlement  at  Fort  Caroline  on 
the  Saint  John's  River,  Menendez  attacked  that 
post  and  massacred  one  hundred  and  forty- two  of 
the  garrison.  The  French  fleet  meanwhile  had 
been  wrecked,  and  the  crews  were  forced  to  sur- 
render to  Menendez,  who  put  a  hundred  and 
eighty  of  them  to  death.  In  1567  Menendez  re- 
turned to  Spain,  and  during  his  absence,  in  April, 
1668,  his  colony  was  attacked  by  a  French  fleet 


under  Dominique  de  Gourges,  who  hanged  a  num- 
ber of  Spaniards.  Meanwhile  Menendez  had  al- 
ready started  back,  sailing  from  San  Lucas  on 
March  13th  with  supplies  and  reinforcements,  with 
which  he  re^tablished  Saint  Augustine.  He  had 
been  appointed  Governor  of  Cuba,  and  his  efforts 
during  the  next  few  years  were  mainly  devoted 
to  that  island  and  the  gulf  mainland.  In  1670 
he  sent  an  expedition  to  the  Chesapeake,  which 
ascended  the  Fotomac  and  built  a  chapel  on  the 
Rappahannock,  where  the  party  were  killed  by 
the  Indians.  In  1672  Menendez  revisited  Florida 
and  went  on  to  the  Chesapeake,  where  he  cap- 
tured several  Indians  supposed  to  have  taken 
part  in  the  massacre  of  his  colony  two  years 
previously,  and  hanged  them.  Philip  II.  soon 
after  this  recalled  him  to  Spain,  where  he  died  at 
Santander,  September  17,  1574. 

MENENDEZ  Y  PELAYO,  mA-nAn'dAth  6 
pA-la'y6,  Mabcelino  (1856—).  A  Spanish 
man  of  letters,  bom  in  the  District  of  Santander, 
November  3,  1856;  he  studied  there  and  at  the 
universities  of  Barcelona  and  Madrid.  When  but 
twenty-two  years  old  he  was  appointed  to  a  chair 
of  philosophy  and  letters  in  the  University  of 
Madrid,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  was 
admitted  into  the  Spanish  Academy.  He  relin- 
quished his  chair  at  the  university  after  more 
tnan  twenty  years'  service  to  become  director 
of  the  Biblioteca  Nacional.  Menendez  y  Pelayo 
is  a  humanist  in  letters  and  one  of  the  most 
capable  critics  that  Europe  has  produced  in 
modem  times.  His  works  are  as  remarkable  for 
their  finish  of  form  as  they  are  for  solidity  of 
content,  and  give  ample  proof  of  the  author's 
patriotism  and  respect  for  the  institutions  and 
traditions  of  his  country.  Menendez  j  Pelayo'a 
literary  activity  began  with  the  Eatudtoa  criticoM 
sohre  escritores  montaiieaes  (Santander,  1876), 
and  the  treatise,  Horacio  en  EspaHa  (2d  ed. 
Madrid,  1886).  The  volume  Calderdn  y  au  teatro 
(Madrid,  1881)  contains  lectures  delivered  upon 
the  occasion  of  the  centenary  of  the  great  dram- 
atist. Various  essays  that  had  done  duty  as 
prefaces  to  books  or  as  critiques  were  gathered 
together  into  the  volume  entitled  Eatudioa  de 
critica  literaria  (Madrid,  1884).  Religious  dis- 
cussions play  no  small  part  in  the  noteworthy 
Hiatoria  de  loe  heterodowoa  eapanolea  (1880-81), 
and  his  Aesthetically  critical  temperament  is 
nowhere  better  exhibited  than  in  the  series  of 
volumes  constituting  the  Hiatoria  de  laa  ideaa 
eatSticaa  en  Eapaiia  (1884-91).  His  verse  is 
graceful,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  collection  Odaa, 
epiatolas  y  tragediaa  (1883).  He  edited  an  an- 
thology of  Spanish  verse,  11  volumes,  by  1905. 

MENEPTAH,  or  MERNEPTAH  (Egyp- 
tian Meri-en-Ptah,  'Beloved  of  Ptah';  Lat.  Am- 
enephthea;  Gk.\\.fxtiep€4>0ts»  Ammenephthia),  A  king 
of  Egypt,  the  son  and  successor  of  Rameses  II. 
(q.v.).  He  reigned  for  some  twenty  years  about 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  B.C.,  and,  in 
the  fifth  year  of  his  reign,  repelled  a  formidable 
invasion  of  Libyans  and  pirates.  He  built 
largely  at  Tanis,  and  left  monuments  in  various 
parts  of  Egypt.  Formerly  there  seemed  to  be 
good  grounds  for  identifying  this  King  with  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  but  an  inscription,  dis- 
covered in  1896,  mentions  Israel  as  settled  in 
Palestine  in  the  fifth  year  of  Meneptah's  reign, 
and  the  identification  is  thereiore  impossible. 
The  text  of  this  interesting  inscription,  which 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MENEPTAH. 


815 


MENHADEN. 


contains  the  only  mention  of  Israel  to  be  found 
on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  was  published  with 
a  German  translation  by  Spiegelberg,  in  the 
Zeitschrift  fUr  cgyptisohe  Sprachef  vol.  xzxiv. 
(Leipzig,  1896),  under  the  title  **Der  Sieges- 
hymnus  des  Memeptah  auf  der  Flinders  Petrie 
Stele."  The  mummy  of  Meneptah  was  found  at 
Thebes  in  1898,  and  is  now  in  the  Museum  of 
Cairo.  Consult  Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt  (New 
York,  1902).     See  also  Eotft. 

KENES,  me^nez  (Egyptian  Meni;  Gk.  Mi(f, 
Men,  Mi^yi/f,  MSnes).  A  king  of  Egypt  whom 
the  Egyptians  regarded  as  their  first  histori- 
cal monarch.  His  name  invariably  stands  at 
the  head  of  all  monumental  lists  of  Egyptian 
kings,  but  little  is  known  in  regard  to  him. 
According  to  Manetho  he  was  a  native  of  This, 
and  reigned  for  sixty-two  years.  Herodotus  and 
other  Greek  writers  attribute  to  him  the  founda- 
tion of  Memphis,  and  relate  many  other  fables 
concerning  him.  In  modern  times  certain  schol- 
ars have  believed  that  he  was  the  Pharaoh  who 
united  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  under  a  single 
monarchy,  but  recent  discoveries  indicate  that 
the  imion  took  place  at  an  earlier  date.  At  pres- 
ent there  is  a  tendency  to  identify  Menes  with 
an  early  king  of  whom  many  small  memorials 
have  been  found  near  This.  Two  large  tombs — 
one  at  Naggadah,  near  Ooptos,  the  other  near 
Abydos — are  filled  with  objects  bearing  the  name 
of  this  King.  The  reading  of  the  name  is,  how- 
ever, not  altogether  certain,  and  the  proposed 
identification  is  therefore  doubtful.  Consult: 
Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt  (New  York,  1902) ; 
Sitzungsheriohte  der  Berliner  Akademie  der  Wis- 
senschaften  ( Berlin,  1897 ) ;  Revue  Critique 
(Paris,  1897);  Zeitschrift  fur  ogyptische 
Sprache,  vol.  xxxvi.  (Leipzig,  1898).  See  also 
Egypt. 

MEKFI,  mSn^f^.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Girgenti,  Sicily,  30  miles  south  by  east  of  Mar- 
sala (Map:  Italy,  H  10).  It  exports  com,  bar- 
ley, cotton,  and  wine.  The  quarries  of  the  vicin- 
ity are  supposed  to  have  furnished  the  building 
material  for  the  temples  of  ancient  Selinus. 
Population,  in  1901    (commune),  10,281. 

MENGKEB,  Kabl  (1840—).  An  Austrian 
economist,  bom  at  Neu-Sandez,  in  Ckilicia.  He 
studied  law  and  political  science  in  Vienna  and 
Prague,  and  in  1873  became  professor  of  political 
economy  at  the  University  of  Vienna.  Since  1900 
he  has  been  a  member  of  the  Austrian  House  of 
Peers.  He  was  the  leader  of  a  reaction  a^nst 
the  historical  method  in  economics,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  prominent  leaders  of  the  so-called 
Austrian  school  of  political  economy.  His  most 
important  work,  from  a  theoretical  standpoint, 
is  GrundsUtze  der  Volkswirtschaftslehre  (1871). 
Other  important  works  of  his  are:  Untersuohun- 
gen  uher  die  Methode  der  Soziahoissenschaften 
und  der  politischen  Oekonomie  inshesondere 
(1883)  ;  Die  Irrtiimer  des  Historismus  in  der 
deutschen  Nationalokonomie  (1884);  and  Bei- 
trage  zur  WUhrungsfrage  in  Oesterreich-Ungam 
(1892). 

HENCHS,  mgngs,  Raphael  (1728-79).  A  Ger- 
man historical  and  portrait  painter.  He  was 
bom  at  Aussig,  Bohemia,  March  12,  1728,  the 
son  of  Ismael  Mengs,  a  miniature  painter  of  some 
repute,  who  in  1741  took  him  to  Rome.  On  his 
return  to  Dresden  in  1744  he  was  appointed  Court 
painter  by  the  Elector  Augustus  III.,  who  per- 
Vol.  XUL— 21. 


mitted  him  to  continue  his  studies  at  Rome» 
There  he  painted  the  first  of  his  larger  compo- 
sitions, a  **Holy  Family,"  now  in  the  Gallery 
of  Vienna,  and  of  additional  interest  because 
the  model  for  the  Mad<mna  was  Marguerita 
Guazzi,  a  beautiful  peasant  girl  whom  he  mar- 
ried, and  for  whose  sake  he  embraced  Catholi- 
cism. The  financial  distress  occasioned  by  the 
Seven  Years'  War  caused  his  pension  to  be 
stopped,  and  he  was  in  distress  at  Rome,  but  his 
fortune  turned  when  the  Duke  of  Northiunberland 
employed  him  to  paint  a  copy  of  Raphael's 
"School  of  Athens."  In  1754  he  was  made  direc- 
tor of  the  new  Art  Academy  on  the  Capitol;  in 
1767  he  painted  the  ceiling *in  San  Eusebio,  and 
soon  after  the  '^ount  Parnassus''  in  the  Villa 
Albani. 

On  a  visit  to  Naples  he  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  King,  who,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne 
of  Spain  as  Charles  III.,  invited  Mengs  to  Madrid. 
During  this  first  sojourn  at  Madrid  (1761-69) 
he  executed  several  frescoes  in  the  royal  palace, 
of  which  "Aurora  and  the  Four  Seasons"  is  the 
best.  Intrigues  against  him  and  feeble  health 
caused  his  return  to  Italy,  but  he  was  summoned 
back  to  Madrid  in  1772  to  complete  his  work  in 
the  royal  palace.  He  painted  there  the  "Apothe- 
osis of  Trajan,"  his  most  important  fresco,  and 
the  "Temple  of  Fame."  In  1776  he  returned 
to  Rome,  where  he  died,  June  29,  1779. 

His  fresco  paintings  are  superior  to  his  can- 
vases. Good  examples  of  the  latter  are  a  "Na- 
tivity" in  Madrid,  and  an  "Annunciation"  in 
the  Vienna  Gallery.  Menss  was  an  eclectic  who 
endeavored  to  blend  the  beauty  of  anti(|ue  art 
with  that  of  the  great  Italian  masters.  Living  at 
a  time  of  extreme  degradation  in  art,  he  com- 
manded great  admiration  by  his  skill  in  composi- 
tion and  his  thorough  knowledge  of  technical 
processes.  He  exercised  a  profound  influence 
upon  his  contemporaries,  and  trained  numerous 
pupils.  Consult  Woermann,  Ismael  und  Raphael 
Meng»  (Leipzig,  1893). 

"MBNOh-TSZEy  meng'tsft'.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Yun-nan,  China,  situated  amid  mountains 
at  an  elevation  of  about  4600  feet,  about  40  miles 
from  the  frontier  of  Tongking  (Map:  China,  B 
7).  It  is  a  well  built  city  with  traces  of  its 
splendor  and  importance  before  the  Taiping  Re- 
bellion. It  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  in 
1889  in  accordance  with  the  French  Treaty  of 
Tien-tsin  of  1886.  The  trade  is  mostly  transit 
and  with  Hong  Kong.  The  merchandise  is  trans- 
ported by  the  Red  Kiver  as  far  as  Man-has,  a 
village  on  the  left  side  of  the  river  about  40  miles 
from  Meng-teze,  and  from  there  is  carried  by 
coolies  and  pack  animals  inland.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  tin  from  the  adjacent  mines  and  opium; 
textiles  and  tobacco  are  imported.  The  total 
trade  amounted  in  1905  to  over  $7,600,000.  Meng- 
tsze  is  connected  by  telegraph  lines  with  Yun-nan» 
fu  and  the  frontier  of  Tongking.  The  French 
Government  has  obtained  a  concession  for  the 
construction  of  a  railway  line  from  Lao-kai  on 
the  frontier  to  Yun-nan-fu  via  Meng-tsze.  Popu- 
lation, about  12,000. 

MENHADEN,  mgn-ha'den  (corrupted  from 
Narragansett  Indian  munnawhattea^tg,  fertilizer ; 
in  allusion  to  its  use  as  a  fertilizer  in  the  corn- 
fields) .  A  small  fish  {Brevoortia  tyrannus) ,  close- 
ly related  to  the  shad  (q.v.),  which  is  caught  in 
great  quantities  on  our  eastern  coast  during  the 


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816 


MENINGITIS. 


summer  months.  Its  length  varies  from  12  to  18' 
inches;  the  color  of  the  upper  parts  is  greenish 
brown  with  a  black  spot  on  the  shoulder,  the 
belly  silvery,  and  the  whole  surface  iridescent. 
The  flesh  is  not  highly  esteemed  as  food  and  is 
very  full  of  small  bones ;  but  it  is  rich  in  oil  and 
nitrogen. 

Economic  Uses.  The  menhaden  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  valuable  of  American  sea- 
fishes,  and  its  catching  and  utilization  give  oc- 
cupation to  a  laree  amount  of  capital  and  number 
of  men  and  vessels.  (See  Fisheries.)  It  is  ex- 
tremely irregular  in  its  movements  and  num- 
bers, migrating  into  deep  water  or  to  warm  lati- 
tudes on  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  and  re- 
appearing north  of  Gape  Hatteras  with  advancing 
warm  weather.  In  some  years  it  has  been  ex- 
tremely numerous  as  far  north  as  Nova  Scotia; 
while  there  have  been  periods  when  the  fish 
seemed  to  have  forsaken  America  altogether.  It 
appears  along  shore  in  schools,  which  may  con- 
tain a  million  or  two  of  fishes,  swimming  near 
the  surface.  With  ordinary  care  such  a  school 
may  be  surrounded  by  a  net,  operated  from  two 
row-boats,  and  then  hauled  to  the  ship's  side, 
where  the  net  is  pursed  and  the  fish  are  dipped, 
out  and  thrown  into  the  hold.  A  catch  of  half 
a  million  is  not  unusual.  Formerly  small  sail- 
ing vessels  were  altogether  used,  but  since  about 
1875  high-powered,  tug-like  steamers  have  most- 
ly replaced  them.  All  along  the  shore  from  the 
Carolinas  to  eastern  Maine  are  'factories'  where 
these  loads  of  menhaden  are  sold.  Their  bodies 
yield  oil  of  a  superior  sort,  useful  for  every 
purpose  to  which  any  fish  or  whale  oil  may  b>e 
applied.  This  is  obtained  by  boiling  and  press- 
ing. (See  Oil.)  ^  From  the  residue  is  made  a 
nutritious  animal*  food  called  'fish  meal,'  and  a 
highly  nitrogenous  ingredient  of  artificial  guanos. 
In  early  times,  following  the  example  of  the  In- 
dians, the  fish  themselves  used  to  be  spread  upon 
the  farms  near  shore,  and  plowed  into  the  soil; 
but  it  was  foimd  that  apaix  from  the  extremely 
disagreeable  taint  this  gave  to  the  air  of  the 
whole  region,  the  soil  was  injured  by  saturation 
with  oil. 

Great  quantities  of  menhaden  are  also  used  aa 
bait  in  the  Banks  fisheries ;  are  sold  fresh  in  the 
markets,  very  cheaply;  and  are  salted  for  do- 
mestic use  or  to  be  exported  to  the  West  Indies ; 
and  the  young  are  extensively  canned  in  oil  as 
'American  sardines'  and  'shadines.'  The  fish 
has,  however,  a  still  higher  economic  value  in 
serving  as  the  food  of  oSier  fishes  important  to 

us.  It  itself  sub- 
sists mainly  upon 
minute  vegetable 
material  con- 

flflH-LOnSV  OP  THE  MENHADBK.  talncd         lu         tho 

A  degraded  entoraoatracan  para-  mud  of  bays  and 
Bite  {LerDeonema  radiata);  the  -^fi.  ohnrps  and 
'rooted*  head  is  at  the  right  ?®"^   snores,    ana 

IS  enormously  fec- 
und. Every  predaceous  animal  in  the  sea  eats 
menhaden.  Goode  estimated  that  the  total  num- 
ber of  menhaden  devoured  by  fishes  annually 
could  only  be  counted  by  millions  of  millions; 
and  he  declared  that  were  the  menhaden  to  dis- 
appear three-fourths  of  the  value  of  the  Ameri- 
can fisheries  would  instantly  vanish. 

The  menhaden  is  known  by  an  extraordinary 
number  of  different  names:  as  'pogy/  in  Maine; 
*bony  fish'  in  eastern  Connecticut;  'white  fish'  in 
western  Long  Island  Sound;  *bunker,*  a  shorten- 


ing of  'mossbunker*  (q.v.),  about  New  York  and. 
New  Jersey;  *bugfish*  or  'bughead'  in  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays,  referring  to  a  parasitic 
crustacean  ( see  Parasite,  Animal) in  the  mouths 
of  the  southern  menhaden;  and  farther  south  as 
*fatback,*  'yellowtail,'  and  'savega' — the  last  the 
Portuguese  term  in  South  America.  The  men- 
haden of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  a  variety  locally 
called  'alewife,*  'herring,*  etc. ;  and  other  varieties 
extend  the  range  of  the  species  to  Brazil. 

BiBUOQBAPHY.  Goode,  "The  Menhaden,"  aiL 
elaborate  memoir,  in  Report  of  the  United  States- 
Fish  Commission,  part  v.  (Washin^n,  1877); 
and  a  more  condensed  accoimt  in  Fishing  Indus- 
tries, sec.  i.  (Washin^n,  1884).  For  a  pictur- 
esque account  of  catching  menhaden,  see  "Around 
the  Peconics,"  in  Harper's  Magazine,  vol.  Ivii. 
(New  York,  1881).  See  Plate  of  Hebrino  and 
Shad. 

ICESlNf  me-n&N^  A  frontier  town  of  West 
Flanders,  Belgium,  situated  30  miles  southwest, 
of  Ghent,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lys,  which  here 
forms  the  French  boundary  (Map:  Belgium,  B 
4).  It  has  a  handsome  church,  a  seminary, 
manufactures  of  lace  and  cotton  textiles,  and  a 
famous  old  brewery.  It  was  formerly  fortified, 
but  its  works  have  been  demolished.  Population, 
in  1890,  13,700;  in  1900,  19,312;  in  1904,  19,377. 

MEN'INGI^nS.  An  inflammation  of  the 
meninges,  the  membranes  covering  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord.  These  are  three  in  number :  the  pia 
mater,  lying  in  contact  with  the  substance  of  the 
brain  and  cord;  the  dura  mater,  lining  the  cra- 
nial cavity  and  spinal  canal;  and  the  arachnoid, 
a  delicate  web-like  structure  lying  between  the 
pia  and  dura.  The  term  meningitis  is  specifical- 
ly applied  to  an  inflammation  of  the  pia  mater  of 
the  brain,  described  in  this  article  under  the: 
heading  of  Cerebral  Meningitis,  Inflammation  of 
the  dura,  whether  of  the  brain  or  cord,  is  called 
pachymeningitis,  and  of  the  pia,  leptomeningitis. 
The  term  arachnitis  was  formerly  used  on  the 
supposition  that  the  arachnoid  might  be  the  seat 
of  an  independent  inflammatory  process,  but  this 
is  no  longer  believed  to  be  possible.  An  inflam- 
mation involving  the  meninges  of  both  the  brain 
and  cord  is  termed  cerebrospinal  meningitis. 
For  convenience  of  description  the  subject  may 
be  arranged  under  the  following  heads:  Pachy- 
meningitis, involving  the  dura  of  the  brain  and 
cord ;  cerebral  meningitis,  of  which  two  forms  are 
recognized:  tubercular  and  simple;  spinal  men- 
ingitis, and  epidemic  cerebro-spinal  meningitis. 

Pachymeningitis.  The  dura  becomes  inflamed 
on  its  outer  surface  from  injuries,  or  by  extension 
from  adjacent  structures.  In  the  head  a  common 
cause  is  suppurative  disease  of  the  middle  ear  (see 
£ab,  section  Diseases),  and  in  the  spinal  dura 
a  very  frequent  cause  is  caries  of  the  vertebrae. 
The  internal  surface  of  the  dura  is  the  seat  of  a 
peculiar  hemorrhagic  inflammation,  hsematoma  of 
the  dura  mater,  characterized  by  the  formation 
of  adventitious  membranes,  which  appear  to  be 
repetitions  of  the  arachnoid,  having  blood-vessels 
which  rupture,  the  extra vasated  blood  collecting  in 
the  form  of  cysts  containing  from  an  ounce  to  a 
pound  of  blood.  The  symptoms  of  this  hemor- 
rhagic form  of  pachymeningitis  are  primarily 
those  of  inflammation  and  secondarily  due  to 
pressure.  There  is  some  fever,  irregularity  of 
the  pulse,  headache,  giddiness,  somnolence,  gradu- 
ally deepening  to  coma ;  and  there  may  be  twitch- 


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MENINGITIS. 


Ing  and  convulsions,  followed  by  muscular  weak- 
ness and  paralysis.  The  disease  affects  the  dura 
of  both  brain  and  cord,  but  the  symptoms  refer- 
able to  the  latter  are  often  overshadowed  by  the 
cerebral  effects.  The  diagnosis  is  very  difficult 
and  the  termination  almost  invariably  fatal. 
The  case  may  be  treated  as  one  of  apoplexy 
(q.v.),  but  nothing  materially  alters  the  course 
of  the  affection.  A  chronic  hypertrophic  form 
of  internal  pachymeningitis  occurs  in  the  spinal 
dura,  producing  an  extensive  thickening  of  the 
membrane.  This  in  turn  causes  severe  compres- 
sion of  the  cord  and  spinal  nerve-roots.  After  a 
first  stage  of  shooting  pains  along  the  course  of 
the  nerves  affected,  with  muscular  twitchings 
and  spasms,  there  gradually  supervene  anaes- 
thesia, paralysis,  and  atrophy.  As  the  compres- 
sion increases,  paraplegia,  secondary  degenera- 
tion, and  rigidity  of  the  paralyzed  parts  appear. 
This  form  of  pachymeningitis  is  due  to  syphilis, 
alcoholism,  or  injury,  and  is  thought  by  some 
writers  to  follow  the  hemorrhagic  K>rm.  Treat- 
ment consists  of  counterirritation  over  the  spine, 
with  remedies  for  the  pain  and  spasms.  When 
the  trouble  is  syphilitic  great  improvement  may 
be  derived  from  mercurials  and  potassium  iodide. 

Cerebral  Meningitis.  Acute  inflammation  of 
the  pia  mater  of  the  brain  occurs  chiefly  in  two 
forms — tubercular,  and  simple  or  purulent.  The 
arachnoid  takes  part,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
in  the  inflammatory  process. 

Tubercular  tneninffitis  occurs  at  all  ages,  but 
is  more  common  in  children  than  in  adults.  The 
disease  is  caused  by  the  bacillus  tuberculosis  &nd  is 
usually  secondary  to  a  tuberculous  process  in 
some  other  portion  of  the  body,  for  example,  pul- 
monary phtnisis,  hip-joint  disease^  or  caries  of 
the  spme.  Primary  cases  are  said  to  occur,  but 
it  is  usually  found  after  death  that  caseous 
tubercular  glands,  or  other  latent  or  previously 
unrecognized  forms  of  tubercular  infection,  are 
present.  The  characteristic  lesions  of  the  dis- 
ease are  found  in  the  pia  mater  at  the'  base  of  the 
brain,  or  over  the  optic  chiasm,  crura,  or  pons. 
Tubercles  are  deposited  along  the  vessels  of  the 
pia,  which  becomes  thickened,  opaque,  and  studded 
with  grayish  white  granules.  There  is  an  exuda- 
tion of  lymph,  gray  or  grayish  yellow,  but  rare- 
ly purulent,  into  the  meshes  of  the  membrane  in 
the  same  portions  in  which  the  tubercles  exist 
and  extending  along  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  and  the 
middle  cerebral  arfiry.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
hemispheres  is  only  slightly  affected,  so  that  the 
disease  is  sometimes  called  basilar  meningitis. 
The  ventricles  are  generally  distended  with  fluid 
(whence  the  old  name,  acute  hydrocephalus), 
clear,  milky,  or  even  bloody.  The  symptoms  of 
tubercular  meningitis  are  very  complex,  and  a 
case  fully  developed  presents  a  painful  clinical 
picture,  particularly  in  children.  The  onset  of 
the  disease  is  often  preceded  by  a  period  of  gen- 
eral ill  health.  The  child  is  peevish,  irritable, 
and  experiences  a  complete  change  of  disposition, 
together  with  loss  of  appetite  and  constipation. 
The  flrst  or  irritative  stage  then  sets  in  sud- 
denly, with  a  convulsion,  or  more  commonly  with 
vomiting,  headache,  and  fever.  The  headache  is 
severe  and  continuous,  and  the  child  moans  and 
occasionally  utters  a  sharp  cry — ^the  so-called 
•hydrocephalic  cry.'  Sometimes  the  patient 
screams  until  utterly  exhausted  and  has  to  be 
kept  under  the  influence  of  powerful  sedatives 
all  the  time.    There  is  moderate  fever  and  exces- 


sive sensitiveness  to  light  and  sound.  In  the 
second  period  of  the  disease,  the  stage  of  de- 
pression, the  irritative  symptoms  subside.  The 
child  no  longer  complains  of  headache,  but  is 
dull  and  apathetic,  drowsy  or  slightly  delirious. 
Pulse  and  respiration  are  irregular,  and  fever 
continues.  The  head  is  retracted  and  the  neck 
stiff.  If  the  finger-nail  is  drawn  across  the  skin 
of  the  forehead  or  abdomen  a  broad  red  streak 
appears,  the  Uche  c6r6brale,  which  may  last  for 
five  minutes.  In  the  last  or  paralytic  stage,  all 
these  symptoms  are  intensified;  the  drowsiness 
increases  to  coma;  paralysis  of  various  parta  of 
the  body  occurs,  and  death  takes  place  in  from  ten 
days  to  three  weeks  after  the  onset  of  pronounced 
symptoms.  Few  cases  recover.  Treatment  is 
entirely  symptomatic  and  palliative.  An  ice  cap 
is  put  upon  the  head,  and  sedatives  are  given  in- 
ternally. 

Simple  acute  meningitis  is  as  a  rule  purulent 
or  suppurative.  It  may  be  caused  by  inflamma- 
tion of  neighboring  tissues,  e.g.  otitis,  suppura- 
tive phlebitis,  or  abscess  of  the  brain;  or  may 
occur  as  a  complication  of  pyemia,  septicsemia, 
malignant  endocarditis,  or  the  specific  fevers,  par- 
ticularly smallpox,  typhoid,  and  scarlatina.  The 
pia  mater  and  arachnoid  become  infiltrated  with 
purulent  material,  and  the  brain  beneath  them  is 
commonly  softened.  The  symptoms  resemble  in  a 
general  way  those  of  the  tubercular  form  just  de- 
scribed, but  the  onset  and  course  of  the  malady 
are  mueh  more  rapid.  When  simple  meningitis 
occurs  in  the  course  of  other  acute  illnesses,  its 
features  may  be  masked  to  a  certain  extent,  but 
in  other  cases  the  symptoms  begin  acutely  with  a 
chill,  severe  pain  in  the  head,  and  vomiting,  and 
the  case  passes  on  to  convulsions,  paralysis, 
coma,  and  death,  as  in  the  tubercular  form.  A 
fatal  termination  is  the  rule,  but  some  recoveries 
occur  after  a  long  period  of  convalescence. 

Spinal  Meningitis.  The  membranes  of  the 
spinal  cord  may  be  affected  separately,  but  it  is 
common  for  inflammation  to  spread  from  one  to 
the  others.  Inflammati(m  of  the  dura,  pachy- 
meningitis, has  already  been  described.  Acute 
leptomeningitis,  or  acute  spinal  meningitis  as  it 
is  called,  involving  the  pia,  is  often  of  obscure 
origin,  but  is  known  to  be  due  to  exposure  to 
cold,  sunstroke,  and  injuries  to  the  spine;  and 
it  sometimes  complicates  pneumonia,  scarlatina, 
typhoid  fever,  ana  septicemia.  Not  infrequently 
a  tubercular  inflammation  accompanies  a  like 
process  in  the  cerebral  pia  mater.  The  attack 
begins  with  the  usual  symptoms  of  meningeal 
inflammation,  namely,  vomiting,  chill,  fever,  and 
pain.  The  pain  is  in  the  back;  it  may  be  local 
or  general,  and  it  is  increased  by  movement  or 
pressure.  There  are  also  shooting  paroxysmal 
pains  radiating  along  the  course  of  the  nerves 
arising  in  the  affected  area,  and  extreme  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  skin  and  muscles  to  which  those 
nerves  are  distributed.  Irritation  of  the  anterior 
nerve-roots  leads  to  spasms  of  the  muscles,  pro- 
ducing rigidity  of  the  spine  with  sometimes  ex- 
treme arching  (opisthotonos).  In  addition  there 
is  the  usual  accompaniment  of  fever.  After  a  few 
days  the  S3rmptoms  of  irritation  give  way  to 
paralysis  and  insensibility,  and  the  disease  either 
proves  fatal  from  exhaustion  and  failure  of  the 
respiratory  muscles  or  lapses  into  a  chronic 
condition  with  wasting  and  shortening  of  the 
muscles.  Some  patients  recover  after  several 
months,  while  others  ultimately  die  from  bed- 


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MENINGITIS. 


eores,  or  from  renal  or  vesical  complications.  In 
this  form  of  meningitis  the  pia  mater  is  reddened 
and  congested  and  small  hemorrhages  may  occur. 
An  exudation,  at  first  grayish  in  color,  but 
later  purulent  and  yellow  or  greenish-yellow, 
takes  place  into  the  meshes  or  upon  the  surface  of 
the  pia,  and  the  spinal  fluid  is  rendered  turbid 
and  opaque.  The  mflammatory  process  may  ex- 
tend to  the  substance  of  the  spinal  cord  (causing 
myelitis),  or  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  dura 
mater,  involving  of  course  the  arachnoid  and 
gluing  the  three  membranes  together.  Treat- 
ment comprises  rest  in  bed,  upon  the  side  or 
face,  active  purgation,  and  cups  or  leeches  along 
the  spine,  followed  by  the  application  of  ice.  In- 
ternally drugs  are  given  to  relieve  pain  and 
diminish  sensibility.  In  the  chronic  stage  coun- 
terirritants  are  applied  along  the  spine,  and  mer- 
curials or  iodides  are  administered.  During  con- 
valescence tonics,  massage,  cold  douches,  and 
the  electric  current  are  of  great  service. 

Chronic  leptomeningitia  may  be  a  continuation 
of  the  acute  form  or  it  may  be  chronic  from  the 
beginning,  and  has  been  attributed  to  cold  and 
exposure,  syphilis,  chronic  alcoholism,  and  in- 
jury. It  often  occurs  in  connection  with  de- 
generative processes  of  the  cord  itself.  The  con- 
dition is  one  of  gradual  thickening  of  the  pia 
mater  with  compression  and  atrophy  of  the  nerve- 
roots.  The  symptoms  are  the  same  as  in  the 
acute  form,  with  the  difference  that  they  come 
on  gradually  and  there  is  no  fever.  Muscular 
spasm  and  rigidity  are  less  marked. 

Epidemic  Cerebbg-Spinal  Meningitis  has 
been  known  only  since  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  being  first  recognized  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland.  It  made  its  first  appearance  in 
America  in  Massachusetts  in  1802.  Many  severe 
epidemics  have  since  occurred  both  in  Europe 
and  America.  The  disease  visited  Ireland  in  a 
very  fatal  form  in  1846  and  again  in  1866-68.  It 
is  a  specific  infectious  disease  due  to  a  micro- 
organism, perhaps  the  diplocoocua  intracellularia, 
although  this  is  not  definitely  settled.  Very  lit- 
tle is  taiown  of  the  causes  which  favor  its  trans- 
mission. The  disease  is  not  directly  contagious 
from  man  to  man,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  virus  may  be  transmitted  through  one  of 
the  lower  animals.  Epidemics  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  winter  and  spring.  Any  conditions 
which  produce  bodily  or  mental  depression  pre- 
dispose to  the  disease,  and  it  has  assumed  its 
most  fatal  type  during  times  of  famine  and 
among  squalid  tenement  dwellers  or  soldiers 
in  crowded  barracks.  The  chants  observed  in 
the  meninges  are  those  cjharacteristic  of  a  wide- 
spread and  severe  leptomeningitis ;  the  pia  mater 
is  intensely  congested  and  its  blood  vessels  di- 
lated. Pus  and  lymph  are  abundant  on  the  con- 
vex surface  of  the  brain,  along  the  large  blood 
vessels,  and  in  the  fissures.  The  ventricles  contain 
turbid  serum  or  pus.  Small  hemorrhages  and 
sometimes  abscesses  are  found  in  the  cortex  of 
the  brain.  There  is  in  addition  congestion  of  the 
lungs,  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys.  Several  clinical 
varieties  of  the  affection  have  been  noted  and 
the  course  and  symptoms  vary  remarkably  in  the 
different  types.  In  the  malignant  or  fulminant 
type,  the  disease  may  prove  fatal  in  a  few  hours. 
The  abortive  type  presents  only  a  few  symptoms 
and  is  characterized  by  rapid  recovery.  Remit- 
tent and  intermittent  forms  are  recognized  in 
which  the  fever  is  lower  or  entirely  absent  for 


two  or  three  days,  and  there  is  a  form  that  much 
resembles  typhoid  fever.  The  average  duration 
of  the  disease  is  three  or  four  weeks,  and  the 
mortality  from  30  to  70  per  cent,  in  the  different 
epidemics.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  ex- 
tent of  tissue  involved,  the  symptoms  are  very 
nimtierous  and  diverse.  No  single  set  of  symp- 
toms occurs  in  all  cases.  In  some  there  is  an 
indefinite  premonitory  stage,  with  malaise, 
nausea,  and  headache;  but  usually  the  onset  is 
sudden,  with  a  chill,  severe  headache,  vomiting, 
pains  in  the  back  and  limbs,  and  fever.  With  . 
these  manifestations  come  stiffness  of  the  muscles 
of  the  neck  and  back,  so  that  the  head  is  re- 
tracted and  the  back  arched.  There  are  also 
pains  in  the  lower  extremities  and  hyperesthesia 
of  the  skin.  In  addition  to  these  symptoms  due 
to  irritation  of  the  spinal  nerve-roots,  there  are 
others  referable  to  implication  of  the  cranial 
nerves.  These  are  in  different  cases,  drooping  of 
the  eyelids  (ptosis),  squint,  contraction,  dilata- 
tion, or  inequality  of  the  pupils,  or  spasms  of  the 
facial  muscles.  Conjunctivitis  or  suppuration 
of  the  eyeball  or  ear  may  occur  and  the  sense  of 
smell  is  impaired.  Unlike  most  specific  fevers, 
the  temperature  runs  a  very  irrc^^lar  course. 
An  important  feature  of  the  disease  is  the  oc- 
currence in  many  cases  of  a  herpetic  eruption  or 
petechial  or  purpuric  spots,  whence  the  names 
'spotted  fever^  and  'petechial  fever.'  ^Recovery  is 
apt  to  be  marked  by  the  occurrence  of  many  dis- 
agreeable sequels.  Deafness  is  common  and  sight 
is  often  impaired.  Chronic  hydrocephalus  with 
headache,  muscular  weakness,  and  mental  de- 
ficiency occurs  in  a  few  instances.  Treatment  is 
symptomatic.  The  iodides  are  supposed  to  limit 
the  exudate.  Lumbar  puncture  may  relieve  head- 
ache and  delirium.  Consult:  Koplik,  Diseases  of 
Infancy  and  Childhood  (Philadelphia  and  New 
York,  1906). 

Cerbbbo-Spinal  Meningitis.  A  non-contagious 
disease  of  varying  and  poorly  defined  symptoms, 
affecting  horses,  mules,  and  other  domestic  ani- 
mals, which  is  most  frequent  and  has  been  most 
studied  in  horses.  The  most  serious  outbreaks 
have  occurred  in  the  United  States,  England, 
Saxony,  Hungary,  and  Russia.  Symptoms, — ^The 
disease  is  often  preceded  by  digestive  disturb- 
ances. It  begins  suddenly  with  chills  and  signs 
of  meningitis.  After  a  short  period  of  cerebral 
excitement  the  animal  becomes  abnormally  sleepy, 
is  indifferent  to  surroundings,  and  rests  its  head 
against  any  convenient  object.  At  intervals 
there  is  noticeable  dizziness,  accompanied  by 
muscular  trembling,  grinding  of  the  teeth,  and 
falling  fits.  When  the  animal  is  forced  to  move 
it  staggers  around  in  circles.  There  are  no  con- 
stant post-mortem  lesions  in  the  vital  organs, 
the  most  important  alterations  being  found  in 
the  membranes  of  the  brain.  According  to  Sie- 
damgrotzky  and  Schlegel,  the  disease  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  specific  micrococcus  in  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system,  an  opinion  that  many  in- 
vestigators are  inclined  to  deny  entirely,  attrib- 
uting the  trouble  to  digestive  flisturbances 
produced  by  improper  or  unwholesome  fodder. 
An  outbreak  of  the  disease  occurred  in  Mary- 
land, and  acquired  the  name  of  *new  horse  dis- 
ease.* An  investigation  indicated  the  probability 
that  it  was  due  to  moldy  fodder.  Musty  oats, 
musty  blade  fodder,  and  decayed  com  silage  have 
been  suspected  of  causing  the  disease.  After 
making  a  study  of  an  outbreak  of  the  disease 


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MENKONITES. 


in.  1900^  Pearemi  produced  the  disease  experi- 
mentally in  horses  by  feeding  moldy  com  silage. 

For  further  study  of  the  problem,  consult: 
Delatoare  Experiment  Station  Reports  for  1891, 
1892,  1893,  and  1895  (Newark,  1891,  1892,  1893, 
1895)  ;  Delatoare  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
No,  4S  (Newark,  1899)  ;  Maryland  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No,  53  (College  Park,  1898)  ; 
Indiana  Experiment  Station  Report  for  1837 
(Lafayette,  1897). 

M^HIPPiE,  m&'nd'pA^  A  political  satire  in 
prose  and  verse,  published  in  France  in  1594, 
directed  against  the  Catholic  League  and  in  favor 
of  political  religious  toleration.  The  name  is 
borrowed  from  the  Satira  Menippea  of  the  Roman 
satiric  poet  Varro,  who  had  taken  as  a  model 
the  Greek  C3mic  Menippus,  Diogenes's  pupil.  Its 
full  title  was  De  la  vertu  du  Catholicon 
d'Espagne  et  de  la  tenue  dee  State  de  Paris, 
It  was  the  joint  work  of  Leroy,  Gillot,  Passerat, 
Rapin,  Chrestien,  Pithou,  and  Durant,  chiefly 
lawyers.  It  ostensibly  reports  an  assembly  of 
the  States  at  Paris,  with  a  satirical  introduction 
and  a  burlesque  close,  and  is  the  best  travesty 
of  its  kind  in  any  language  before  Butler's  Hudi- 
brae  (1663).  Its  political  effect  was  immediate 
and  lasting.  The  M^nipp^e  is  well  edited  by 
Labitte  (1801).  For  a  clear  analysis  of  this 
satire,  consult  Suchier  and  Birch-Hirschfeld,  Ch- 
schickte  der  franzosischen  Litteratur  (Leipzig, 
1900). 

MENIP^TTS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.UhiTrnoc)  (c.250 
B.C.).  A  Greek  philosopher  of  the  Cynic  School, 
born  at  Gadara,  in  Syria.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  slave  by  birth,  and  to  have  acquired  con- 
siderable wealth,  the  loss  of  which  caused  him  to 
hang  himself.  His  writings,  now  completely  lost, 
were  a  medley  of  prose  and  verse  in  which  he 
satirized  the  follies  of  men,  particularly  of  phi- 
losophers. These  were  the  model  for  Varro's 
Menippean  Satires,  as  well  as  for  satires  of 
Heleager  and  Lucian.    See  M'^nipf^e. 

MEN^OSI^ftONS  (14921559).  The  found- 
er of  the  later  school  of  Anabaptists  (q.v.)  in 
Holland,  from  whom  the  Mennonites  (q.v.)  take 
their  name.  He  was  bom  at  Witmarsum,  in 
Friesland,  in  1492;  took  orders  in  1516;  and 
was  a  priest  in  his  native  place  from  1531  to 
1536.  The  study  of  the  New  Testament,  how- 
ever, excited  grave  doubt  in  his  mind  regarding 
the  truth  both  of  the  doctrine  and  constitution 
of  the  CJhurch,  and  in  1536  he  withdrew  from 
it  altogether.  He  attached  himself  to  the  party 
of  the  Anabaptists,  was  rebaptized  at  Leeuwar- 
den,  and  in  1537  was  appointed  a  teacher  and 
bishop  in  the  university  of  what  was  then  known 
as  the  Old  Evangelical  or  Waldensian  Church 
at  Groningen.  Henceforth  his  great  endeavor 
was  to  organize  and  unite  the  scattered  members 
of  the  Anabaptist  sect  in  Holland  and  Germany. 
With  this  design  he  spent  much  time  in  travel- 
ing; but  Friesland  was  his  chief  residence  until 
persecution  compelled  him  to  flee.  Finally  he 
settled  in  Oldesloe,  in  Holstein,  where  he  was 
allowed  to  establish  a  printing  press  for  the 
diffusion  of  his  religious  opinions.  Here  he 
died,  January  13,  1559.  He  was  a  man  of  ear- 
nest and  spiritual  nature,  with  no  trace  about 
him  of  the  wild  fanaticism  of  the  earlier  Ana- 
baptists. His  book  of  doctrine,  Elements  of  the 
True  Christian  Faith,  was  published  in  Dutch 
in  1539.     His  works  in  English  translation  are 


published  by  the  Mennonite  Publishing  Society 
at  Elkhart,  Ind. 

MENKONITES.     A  denomination  of  evan* 

felical  Protestant  Christians  which  arose  in 
witzerland  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,  but  took  its 
name  from  Menno  Simons,  who  was  the  leader 
of  the  sect  in  Holland.  The  beginning  of  the  sect 
was  in  a  congregation  formed  in  Zurich  in  1525 
by  Conrad  Grebel  and  his  associates,  Manz  and 
Blaurock.  Stress  was  laid  upon  discipline  rather 
than  dogma;  abstinence  from  the  vanities  of  the 
world  was  imposed;  and  (the  State  being  re- 
garded as  unchristian)  the  principle  of  refusing 
to  participate  in  civic  duties,  to  bear  arms,  and 
to  take  oaths  was  upheld.  The  movement  hepm 
at  Zurich  extended  tnrough  Switzerland  and  into 
Southem  Germany  and  Austria.  The  attitude 
of  its  adherents  toward  the  State  exposed  them 
to  persecution,  which  continued  in  Switzerland 
through  the  whole  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  and 
provoked  emigrations  into  Moravia  and  Holland. 
The  Anabaptists  (q.v.)  were  active  in  West- 
phalia at  the  same  time,  and,  professing  some  of 
the  same  views  with  Grebel's  followers,  gave 
occasion  for  the  introduction  of  heresies  and 
troubles.  After  the  Anabaptist  disaster  at  MUn- 
ster,  Menno  Simons  (q.v.)  became  a  leader 
among  the  followers  of  Grebel,  and  placed  their 
movement  upon  a  sounder  footing.  He  organized 
congregations  in  Northern  Germany  and  Holland, 
and  by  virtue  of  his  piety,  discretion,  and  ability, 
made  such  an  impression  upon  the  body  that, 
although  he  was  not  its  founder,  his  name  be- 
came identified  with  it.  The  Mennonites,  like  the 
Waldenses,  were  lovers  of  peace.  The  Mennonite 
Confession  of  Faith,  in  eighteen  articles,  was 
adopted  in  Holland  in  1632.  It  embodies  the 
usual  evangelical  doctrines  concerning  God,  the 
fall  of  man,  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  re- 
pentance, and  baptism,  and  contains  articles 
relating  to  discipline  and  conduct.  The  view 
taken  of  the  Lord's  Supper  accords  with  that  of 
Zwingli.  In  the  United  States  the  sacrament  is 
observed  twice  a  year,  usually  in  the  spring  and 
fall,  the  communicants  having  been  previously 
examined  concerning  their  spiritual  condition. 
The  rite  of  foot- washing  (q.v.)  is  observed  in 
connection  with  it.  Baptism,  which  is  only  upon 
confession  of  faith,  is  administered  by  pouring. 
After  baptism  the  kiss  of  peace  is  given  by  the 
minister,  or  by  a  representative  sister,  if  the 
convert  is  a  woman.  Correct  discipline  and 
rectitude  are  considered  more  important  ele- 
ments in  the  Christian  life  than  learning  and 
the  elaboration  of  doctrinal  points.  Divorce  is 
condemned,  except  for  adultery.  The  bearing 
of  arms  and  taking  of  oaths  are  regarded  as 
wrong,  and  the  holding  of  offices  under  the 
State  is  not  encouraged.  The  Church  polity  is 
congregational,  with  bishops,  priests  or  elders, 
and  deacons. 

The  Mennonite  CJhurch  has  been  divided  in 
both  Holland  and  Switzerland.  The  different 
branches  in  Holland  were  reunited  in  1801.  A 
division  took  place  in  Switzerland  in  1620  be- 
tween the  Upland  and  Lowland  Mennonites  when 
Jacob  Amen,  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  held  that  ex- 
communication of  one  party  dissolved  the  mar- 
riage tie,  and  proscribed  the  use  of  buttons  and 
the  trimming  of  the  beard.  Traces  of  this  sepa- 
ration are  found  in  the  United  States  and  Cana- 
da in  the  Amish  congregations. 


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MENNONITES. 


The  first  settlement  of  Mennonites  in  the 
United  States  was  made  in  1683,  when  immi- 
grants induced  by  William  Penn*8  oflfer  of  reli- 
gious liberty,  settled  in  Pennsylvania  and  built 
a  church  in  Germantown,  on  a  spot  still  occupied 
by  a  Mennonite  meeting  house.  Another  con- 
siderable immigration  has  taken  place  from 
Southern  Russia  since  1871,  the  immigrants 
establishing  colonies  in  the  United  States  (Min- 
nesota, Dakota,  and  Kansas),  and  Canada.  So 
far  as  it  is  possible  to  ascertain,  the  Mennonites 
have  (1905)  in  the  United  States  60,953  com- 
municants, with  1200  ministers  and  757  churches. 
They  are  divided  among  twelve  branches,  which 
differ  on  points  of  doctrine,  ritual,  and  discipline, 
or  in  historical  origin. 

I.  The  oldest  and  largest  of  these  branches  is 
The  Mennonite  Chubch,  the  members  of  which 
are  represented  in  seventeen  States,  but  most 
largely  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  Their  289 
churches,  with  430  ministers  and  23,169  com- 
municants, are  for  the  most  part  affiliated  with 
some  of  the  twelve  district  organizations,  but  a 
few  of  them  are  independent.  A  publishing 
house  is  established  at  Elkhart,  Ind.,  where  a 
semi-monthly  newspaper  in  English,  the  Herald 
of  Truthf  a  weekly  journal  in  German,  the  Men' 
nonitiache  Rundschau,  Sunday-school  and  chil- 
dren's periodicals,  Mennonite  historical  and  doc- 
trinal works,  and  other  books,  are  published. 

II.  The  Bbuederhoef  Mennonite  Chubch 
traces  its  origin  to  Jacob  Huter,  who  was  burnt 
at  the  stake  at  Innsbruck,  Tyrol,  in  1636.  It 
was  at  one  time  represented  by  24  communities 
in  Moravia,  whence  they  were  driven  to  Hun- 
gary. They  removed  to  Rumania  in  1767,  and 
two  years  afterwards  to  Russia,  and  finally,  in 
1874,  to  the  United  States,  where  they  settled 
in  South  Dakota.  They  live  under  the  com- 
munal system.  Their  language  is  German,  and 
their  books,  preserved  in  manuscript,  including 
their  history  {Oemeinde-Oeachichtshuck) ,  are  in 
that  tongue.  Their  5  congregations  have  352 
communicant  members  and  are  served  by  9 
ministers. 

III.  The  Amish  Mennonite  Chubch  originat- 
ed in  the  division  already  mentioned,  which  took 
place  in  Switzerland  in  1620,  and  represents  the 
Oberland  Mennonites,  or  followers  of  Jacob  Amen, 
of  the  Bernese  Alps,  after  whom  it  is  named. 
It  is  second  in  importance  among  Mennonite  bod- 
ies in  the  United  States,  and  has  280  ministers, 
126  churches,  and  13,580  communicants,  being 
most  largely  represented  in  Illinois,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Ohio.  A  settlement  of  Amish  Men- 
nonites was  formed  in  1824  in  Wilraot  Township, 
Ontario,  where  land  was  bought  for  the  purpose 
by  Christian  Nafziger,  of  Munich.  Five  congre- 
gations have  grown  up  from  it,  to  which  329 
families  are  attached. 

IV.  The  Old  Amish  Mennonite  Chubch  is 
the  result  of  a  separation  from  the  Amish  body 
which  took  place  about  1865  over  questions  con- 
cerning forms  of  worship  and  methods  of  Church 
work,  the  separatists  protesting  against  certain 
steps  which  they  regarded  as  innovations,  and 
insisting  upon  a  strict  adherence  to  the  ancient 
forms  and  practices.  They  have  2438  members, 
with  75  ministers  and  25  churches,  and  are 
strongest  in  Indiana  and  Ohio. 

V.  The  Apostolic  Mennonite  Chubch  is  a 
branch  derived  from  the  Amish,  which  came  to 
the  United  States  by  immigration  from  Europe 


about  1840.  The  discipline  is  less  strict  than 
in  the  other  Amish  branches.  Two  churches  are 
mentioned,  both  in  Ohio,  with  2  ministers  and 
209  members. 

VI.  The  Refobmed  Mennonite  Chubch  orig- 
inated in  1812,  under  the  leadership  of  John 
Herr,  who  protested  against  laxity  in  the  Men- 
nonite Church,  and  insisted  upon  the  preserva- 
tion of  purity  in  teaching  and  the  maintenance 
of  exact  discipline.  Its  adherents  are  strict  in 
the  observance  of  the  old  ways  and  in  their  dis- 
cipline, and  do  not  as  a  rule  hold  fellowship 
with  other  denominations.  They  have  1680  mem- 
bers, about  half  of  them  being  in  Pennsylvania, 
with  43  ministers  and  34  churches. 

VII.  The  Genebal  Confebence  Mennonite 
Ohubch  has  adopted  modem  views  and  practices 
to  a  larger  extent  than  most  of  the  other 
branches.  It  originated  as  a  result  of  proceed- 
ings which  were  instituted  in  1848  in  Pennsyl- 
vania against  a  minister,  John  Oberholtzer,  who 
was  charged  with  attempting  to  introduce  new 
teachings  and  practices.  Oberholtzer  and  his 
sympathizers  withdrew  and  formed  a  body  called 
the  New  Mennonites.  This  body  united  with 
churches  whose  members  had  come  frcmi  Grermany 
and  settled  in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  and  a  Greneral 
Conference  was  formed,  with  three  districts — 
eastern,  central,  and  western.  A  new  constitu- 
tion, described  as  being  evangelical  in  tone, 
was  adopted  in  1898.  The  number  of  members 
is  10,682,  with  140  ministers  and  77  churches. 

VIII.  The  Chubch  of  God  in  Chbist  was 
founded  in  1859,  under  the  leading  of  John 
Haldeman,  who  believed  himself  inspired  with 
the  spirit  of  prophecy.  It  inculcates  a  strict 
adherence  to  the  teachings  of  the  founders  of  the 
Mennonite  Church.  The  estimate  of  its  num- 
bers gives  it  18  ministers,  18  churches,  and  449 
meml^rs. 

IX.  The  Old,  or  Wisleb,  Mennonites  repre- 
sent a  separation  from  the  Mennonite  Church 
in  Indiana  which  took  place  about  1870  by  those 
who  opposed  the  introduction  of  Sunday  schools, 
evening  meetings,  and  other  new  features.  The 
first  conference  of  this  division  was  held  in  1898. 
They  number  603  members,  with  17  ministers  and 
15  churches. 

X.  Die  Bundes  Confebenz  deb  Mennoniten 
BbIjdebgemeinde  originated  in  Russia  about 
1840,  and  was  brought  to  the  United  States  by 
immigrant  adherents  between  1873  and  1876.  It 
practices  baptism  by  immersion,  and  attaches 
special  importance  to  evidences  of  conversion. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  Mennonite 
bodies  in  missionary  enterprise,  and  has  mis- 
sionaries in  China,  Africa,  and  India.  Its  17 
churches  have  3036  members  and  are  served  by 
45  ministers. 

XI.  The  Defenseless  Mennonites  are  like- 
wise distinguished  by  the  stress  they  lay  upon 
the  necessity  of  conversion  and  regeneration,  and 
represent  a  separation  from  the  Amish,  which 
was  led  by  Henry  Egli.  They  have  1126  mem- 
bers in  11  churches,  with  20  ministers. 

XII.  The  Chubch  of  the  Mennonite  Bbeth- 
BEN  IN  Chbist  is  the  most  recent  in  organiza^ 
tion  of  the  Mennonite  bodies,  having  been  formed 
about  1880.  The  Brethren  are  open  communion- 
ists,  and  administer  baptism  in  any  of  the  usual 
forms.  They  have  138  churches,  121  ministers, 
and  3629  members,  in  eight  States  of  the  Union, 
and  churches  in  Canada. 


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MENNONITES. 


821 


MENSHIXOFF. 


The  larger  Mennonite  branches  have  in  recent 
years  displayed  increased  activity  in  missionary 
enterprise,  in  consequence  of  Which  they  have 
enjoyed  a  greater  relative  prosperity.  A  general 
tendency  has  been  observed  toward  a  closer  draw- 
ing together  of  the  different  branches.  This  was 
exemplified  in  an  effort  which  was  made  in  1898 
to  secure  the  holding  of  a  General  Conference 
of  the  Mennonite  and  Amish  district  conferences, 
and  in  the  cooperation  of  all  the  bodies  with  the 
Home  and  Foreign  Relief  Commission  at  Elk- 
hart, for  famine  relief  in  India,  for  the  education 
•of  the  famine  orphans,  and  for  the  support  of  the 
missionaries  among  them. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Periodicals :  Mennonitische 
Rundschau,  weekly  (Elkhart,  Ind.) ;  Herald 
of  Truth,  weekly  (ib.) ;  Christlioher  Bundes' 
hote,  weekly  (Berne,  Ind.) ;  Oemeindeshote  und 
Waisenheim,  monthly  (Hillsboro,  Kan.)  ;  Ziona 
Bote,  weekly  (Medford,  Okla.)  ;  the  Mennonite, 
monthly  (Quakertown,  Pa. ) .  The  Oospel  Banner, 
weekly,  and  the  Evangeliuma  Panier,  semi- 
monthly (Berlin,  Ontario),  represent  the  Men- 
nonite Brethren  in  Christ.  Literature:  Blau- 
pet  ten  Cate,  Oeschiedeniaa  der  Doopsgezinden 
(Amsterdam,  1839-47)  ;  Starck,  Oeschichte  der 
Taufe  und  der  Taufgesinnfen  (Leipzig,  1789)  ; 
Brons,  Uraprung,  Entwiekelung  und  Schickaale 
der  Taufgeainnten  (2d  ed.,  Norden,  1891).  Con- 
sult also  the  article  "Mennoniten,"  by  Hauck, 
in  the  Hauck-Herzog  Realencyclop&die^  vol.  x., 
i^hich  has  full  bibliography.  In  English,  con- 
sult: Menno  Simons's  complete  works,  and  The 
Mennonitea:  Their  Hiatory,  Faith,  and  Practice, 
published  by  the  Mennonite  Publishing  House,  at 
Elkhart,  Ind.;  Martin,  The  Mennonitea  (Phila- 
delphia, 1883) ;  Krehbiel,  The  Hiatory  of  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  Mennonitea  of  North  America 
(Saint  Louis,  1895)  ;  Pennypacker,  Hiatorical 
and  Oeographioal  Bketchea  (Philadelphia,  1883), 
the  first  half  of  which  relates  to  the  history  of 
the  Mennonites;  Richardson,  "A  Day  with  the 
Pennsylvania  Amish,"  in  the  Outlook,  vol.  1x1. 
(1899),  pp.  781-86. 

KEN'OBBAN^GHXTS.  A  genus  of  lar^ 
newts,  of  the  familv  Proteids,  represented  m 
the  United  States  only  by  the  mud-puppy  (q.v.). 

MENOMINEE,  m^ndm^-n6  (Wild-rice  men, 
«o  called  because  of  their  great  use  of  the  wild 
rice  which  grows  abundantly  in  their  country). 
A  considerable  Algonquian  tribe,  formerly  ranging 
over  northern  Wisconsin  and  the  adjacent  Upper 
Michigan,  chiefly  along  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  and  now  gathered  with  the  Stockbridge 
upon  a  reservation  near  Green  Bay,  Wis.  In 
their  general  characteristics  they  resemble  the 
Ojibwa,  but  they  speak  a  distinct  language. 
Prench  missionaries  established  a  mission  among 
them  in  1670,  and  they  remained  faithful  to  the 
French  interest  until  the  end.  They  aided  the 
English  in  the  •  Revolution  and  in  the  War  of 
1812,  and  fought  under  Tecumseh  dunn|^  the 
latter  struggle.  In  1901  they  numbered  1390. 
Consult  Hofl'man,  The  Menominee  (Fourteenth 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
Washington,  1896). 

MENOMINEE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Menominee  County,  Mich.,  51  miles  northeast 
of  Green  Bay,  Wis.,  and  opposite  Marinette,  Wis., 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  three  bridges.  It 
is  situated  on  Green  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Menominee  River,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 


western, the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Pauf, 
and  the  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  railroads  (Map: 
Michigan,  B  3) .  It  is  also  the  western  terminus  of 
the  car  ferry  of  the  Ann  Arbor  Railroad.  One  of 
the  greatest  lumber-shipping  ports  in  the  United 
States,  Menominee  has  numerous  saw  and  planing 
mills  with  a  large  output,  and  manufactories  of 
electrical  appliances,  telephones,  shoes,  paper, 
steam  boilers,  heavy  machinery,  boxes,  beet  sugar, 
etc  The  city  possesses  a  public  library  of  about 
7000  voliunes  and  a  fine  high  school  building. 
Menominee,  first  incorporated  in  1883,  is  gov- 
erned under  a  charter  of  1905  which  provides 
for  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a  unicameral 
council  which  elects  most  of  the  administrative 
officials,  only  the  supervisor,  city  treasurer,  and 
justice  of  the  peace  being  chosen  by  popular 
election.  Louis  Chappieu,  a  trader,  settled  here 
in  1799;  but  the  ci<y  really  dates  from  1832, 
when  the  first  mill  was  built  here.  Population, 
in  1900,  12,818;  in  1904,  11,096. 

MENOMONIE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Dunn  County,  Wis.,  69  miles  bv  rail  east  of 
Saint  Paul,  Minn.;  on  the  Red  Cedar  River,  and 
on  the  Northwestern  Line  and  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  Saint  Paul  railroads  (Map:  Wis- 
consin, B  4).  It  has  a  fine  memorial  library  of 
8000  volumes,  the  Stout  Manual  Training  School, 
a  oountv  normal  school,  and  a  county  agricul- 
tural school.  The  Ihmn  County  Asylum  is  near 
the  city.  The  industrial  interests  are  repre- 
sented by  brick  yards,  foimdries  and  machine 
shops,  carriage  and  wagon  works,  etc.;  and  the 
commercial  interests  by  a  large  trade  in  lumber, 
brick,  fiour,  wheat,  and  fur.  Population,  in 
1900,  6655;  in  1905,  5473. 

MEN'OPOME.    The  hellbender  (q.v.). 

MENPES,  mSn^pgs,  Mobtimeb  (1859 — ).  An 
English  artist,  bom  at  Adelaide,  in  South  Austra- 
lia. He  was  educated  at  Port  Adelaide  and  went 
to  London  when  nineteen  years  old.  There  he 
studied  at  South  Kensington,  and  then  went  to 
Pont  Aven  in  Brittany,  where  he  remained  three 
years.  In  1880  some  of  his  etchings  were  exhib- 
ited at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1885  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Society  of  British  Artists. 
Two  years  afterwards  he  went  to  Japan,  and  in 
1888  he  exhibited  his  Japanese  drawings  and 
pictures  at  Dowdeswell's  in  London.  He  invented 
a  process  of  painting  in  water  color  by  which  he 
attained  uncommon  brilliancy  of  effect.  His 
large  dry  point,  "The  Officers  of  the  Archers  of 
Saint  Adrian,"  after  Hals,  was  succeeded  by  a 
series  of  etchings.  He  also  revived  the  art  of 
printing  in  color  from  etched  plates.  In  later 
years  he  turned  his  attention  to  portraiture  on  a 
small  scale,  where  his  skill  as  a  draughtsman, 
and  in  the  art  of  etching  in  color,  and  This  indi- 
vidual style  were  effectively  shown.  He  wrote 
Whi8tl€r\a  I  Knew  Him  (1904);  Rembrandt 
(1905);   India    (1906),  with  Mrs.   F.  A.   Steel. 

MENSHIX0F7,  or  MENTCHIKOFF,  mte^- 
shi-kdf,  ALEXAifDEB  Banilovitch  ( 1672-1729,  or 
1730).  A  Russian  field-marshal  and  Minister  of 
State.  He  was  bom  at  Moscow,  November  16, 
1672,  in  humble  circumstances,  and  was  a  baker's 
apprentice.  His  intelligent  countenance  attracted 
the  notice  of  General  Lefort,  through  whose 
patronage  he  was  taken  into  the  service  of  Peter 
the  Great.  He  discovered  a  conspiracy  among  the 
Streltsi  (q.v.)  and  his  rapid  promotion  was  se- 
cured.   He  accompanied  Peter  in  his  travels  to 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MENSHIXOFr. 


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MJBNSXm^BLE  MT7SIC. 


Holland  and  England,  and  on  the  death  of  Lef ort 
became  the  Czar's  chief  adviser.  Menshikoff 
showed  ^ual  ability  as  a  general  and  as  a  diplo- 
matist; and  although  totally  uneducated  he  did 
much  to  promote  the  education  of  the  people, 
and  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
On  October  30,  1706,  he  defeated  the  Swedes  at 
Kalisz;  he  contributed  to  some  of  the  Czar's 
other  victories^  was  made  a  field-marshal  on  the 
field  of  Poltava,  1709,  and  after  the  battle  com- 
pelled Lewenhaupt  to  capitulate  with  a  great 
part  of  the  Swedish  army.  In  1710  he  took  Riga; 
in  1712  he  led  the  Russian  troops  into  Pomerania 
and  Holstein,  and  in  1713  took  Stettin,  but  gave 
it  up  to  Prussia  contrary  to  the  will  of  the  Czar. 
This  and  his  avarice  so  displeased  Peter  that 
Menshikoff  was  court-martialed  and  condemned 
to  death,  but  he  was  pardoned  on  payment  of  a 
heavy^  fine.  During  the  reign  of  Catharine  I.  he 
regained  his  influence  at  Court,  and  after  her 
death  governed  Russia  with  almost  absolute  au- 
thority in  the  name  of  Peter  II.  His  daughter 
was  about  to  marry  the  young  Czar,  when  Menshi- 
koff was  overthrown  by  Dolgoruki  and  banished 
to  Siberia,  September,  1727.  His  estates  and 
treasures  were  confiscated. 

MENSHIKOFF,  or  KENTCHIKOFF,  Alex- 
ANDEB  Sebgeyevitch,  Prince  (1787-1869).  A 
Russian  general,  the  great-grandson  of  Alexander 
Danilovitch  Menshikoff.  He  was  bom  September 
11,  1787,  and  participated  in  the  campaigns  of 
1812  to  1815  against  Napoleon.  In  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  of  1828-29  he  took  Anapa  and 
Varna.  In  1836  he  became  Minister  of  Marine, 
and  did  much  to  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the 
Russian  Navy.  In  1863  he  was  sent  as  Envoy 
Extraordinary  to  Constantinople,  where  his  over- 
bearing demeanor  produced  the  rupture  which 
resulted  in  the  Crimean  War.  During  this  war 
he  became  prominent  as  defender  of  Sebastopol, 
where  he  snowed  the  greatest  energy  imtil  his 
retirement  on  account  of  ill  health  in  March, 
1855.    He  died  at  Saint  Petersburg,  May  2,  1869. 

KENSES,  m^n^sSz.     See  Menstruation. 

MENSTRUATION.  The  discharge  of  bloody 
fluid  which  issues  every  month  from  the  genera- 
tive organs  of  the  human  female  during  the 
period  in  which  she  is  capable  of  procreation. 

The  first  appearance  of  this  discharge,  to  which 
are  applied  the  terms  menses  and  oatamenia,  is 
a  decided  indication  of  the  arrival  of  the  period 
of  commencing  womanhood,  and  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  an  enlargement  of  the  mammary 
glands,  a  growth  of  the  external  genitals,  an  in- 
crease of  hair  upon  the  mons  Veneris,  and  an  ac- 
cession of  reserve,  thoughtfulness,  and  maturity. 
Menstruation  usually  commences  between  the 
fourteenth  and  the  sixteenth  years,  and  termi- 
nates between  the  forty-eighth  and  fifty-second 
years.  The  cessation  of  the  menstrual  flow  is 
called  menopause. '  The  interval  which  most  com- 
monly elapses  between  the  successive  appearances 
of  the  discharge  is  about  four  weeks,  although 
it  is  oftener  snorter;  and  the  duration  of  the 
flow  is  usually  three  or  four  days,  but  is  liable 
to  great  variations.  The  first  appearance  of  the 
discharge  is  usually  preceded  and  accompanied 
by  pain  in  the  loins  and  headache,  malaise,  de- 
pression, and  restlessness,  and  in  many  women 
these  symptoms  invariably  accompany  the  dis- 
charge. As  a  general  rule  there  is  no  menstrual 
flow  during  pregnancy  and  lactation,   and   its 


cessation  is  one  of  the  first  signs  that  concep- 
tion has  taken  place. 

In  robust  young  girls  who  have  lived  an  out- 
door life  there  is  no  disturbance  experienced  at 
the  appearance  of  the  menses.  In  many  others, 
however,  there  is  considerable  nervous  excite- 
ment, consisting  of  irritability,  emotion,  de- 
pression, flushing,  and  throbbing  of  the  head. 
Difficult  and  painful  menstruation  is  called  dys- 
menorrhoea.  During  such  nervous  manifesta- 
tions the  girl  should  be  treated  as  an  invalid, 
and  studies  should  not  be  persistently  prose- 
cuted. Avoidance  of  drains  upon  physical  and 
mental  powers  should  be  enjoined,  and  abundant 
daily  outdoor  life  should  be  secured. 

MENSTTBABLE  MUSIC  (Lat.  mensurahilis, 
measurable,  from  mensura,  measure).  Strictly 
speaking,  all  music  written  in  notes  that  have 
a  deflnite  time-value.  In  a  specific  sense  the  term 
is  applied  to  the  music  written  between  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  and  the  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, before  the  invention  of  the  line  dividing 
a  composition  into  bars.  Before  the  twelfth 
century  the  choral  note  of  the  plain  chant  indi- 
cated only  the  pitch.  The  duration  of  each  note 
was  left  to  the  individual  singer,  and  arbitrarily 
determined  by  the  rhythm  of  the  text.  As  long 
as  music  was  sung  in  unison  this  system  an- 
swered all  practical  purposes.  But  with  the  in- 
troduction of  harmony  and  the  development  of 
polyphonic  music,  employing  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent voices,  an  imperative  need  made  itself 
felt  to  fix  the  duration  of  the  individual  note. 
Mensurable  music,  therefore,  borrowed  the  forms 
of  the  notes  as  used  in  the  plain  chant.  These 
were :  the  large  {maxima  or  duplex  longa),  ^  ; 
the  long  {longa\  ^ ;  the  brove  (bretns),  ■ ; 
and    the   semibreve   {semihrevis),   ♦.      To    these 

were  added  the  minim  {minima),  4>  ^^^  semi- 
minim  {semiminima)y  4.  For  nearly  three 
hundred  years  the  notes  were  written  in  this 
form.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  black  notes  were  gradually  supplanted  by^ 

the  white  or  open  notes  :  tnj,    Q,    | — |-    O, 
For  the  smaller  notes  both  the  black  and  whi 

forms  continued  in  use  :  semiminim,  ^  or  4.  ; 

croraa  or  fusa,   ^  ot  ^;  semicroma  or  semifusa, 

or  ^.  Even  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury rounded  notes  were  substituted  for  the 
square  ones  in  writing  music.  But  it  was  not 
until  1700  that  the  round  forms  were  generally 
adopted  by  music  printers. 

Out  of  reverence  for  the  Trinity  triple  time 
was  regarded  as  perfect  time,  whereas  duple  time 
was  imperfect,  A  division  of  a  note  into  three 
of  the  next  smaller  kind  was  mensura  perfecta; 
into  two  of  the  smaller  kind,  mensura  imperfecta. 
This  division  was  indicated  by  certain  signs,  but 
a  sharp  distinction  was  made  between  the  di- 
vision of  a  long  into  breves,  or  of  a  breve  into 
semibreves.  These  signs  were  placed  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  composition.  -The  division  of  a 
large  into  longs  or  of  a  long  into  breves  was 
known  as  modus;  of  a  breve  into  semibreves  as 
tempus;  of  a  semibreve  into  minims  as  prolatio. 
The  modus  itself  was  further  distinguished  as 
modus  major  (division  of  a  large  into  longs) 
and  modus  minor  (division  of  a  long  into 
breves).  A  still  further  subdivision  of  both  the 
modus   major   and    minor   was    into    perfeciu9 


k 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MENSUBABLE  MUSXC. 


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MENSUBABLE  MTTSIC. 


(triple  time)  s^d  imperfeotua  (duple).  Tempus 
was  thus  also  subdivided  into  perfectum  and 
imperfeotumj  whereas  in  the  case  of  prolatio 
this  division  was  designated  as  major  and  minor. 
The  following  table  ^ves  a  complete  view  of  this 
system  with  the  various  signatures: 


Alteratio  was  the  doubling  of  the  time-value  of 
the  second  of  two  notes  of  the  same  kind  when  a 
tripartite  note  of  the  next  larger  kind  followed. 
Generally  the  two  smaller  notes  stood  between 
two  of  the  larger  kind,  or  were  separated  from 
the  following  notes  of  equal  or  smaller  value  by 


Modus  major  perfectus, 
Modus  major  imperfectus, 
Modus  minor  perfectus. 
Modus  minor  imperfectus, . 
Tempus  perfectum,   .    .    • 
Tempus  imperfectum,    .    . 
Prolatio  major,     .... 
Prolatio  minor,     .... 


The  sign  of  the  modtts  major  was  the  same  for 
the  perfectua  and  imperfectus.  The  following 
sign  for  the  modus  minor  determined  the  modus 
major.  If  the  sign  Itil  was  followed  by  III  or 
III,  it  was  modus  major  perfeetus;  if  followed 
by  II  or  1 1 ,  it  was  modus  major  imperfectus.  The 
length  of  the  vertical  bars  had  reference  to  the 
modus  minor,  the  long  bars  indicating  the  per- 
fectus,  the  short  ones  the  imperfectus.  The  num- 
ber of  vertical  bars  referred  to  the  division  of 
the  large  into  two  or  three  longs.  The  prolatio 
sign  appeared  only  in  connection  with  the  tempus 
sign.  Thus  O  meant  tempus  perfectum,  pro- 
latio  major;  (^  tempus  imperfectum,  prolatio 
major.  If  the  tempus  sign  appeared  without  a 
dot  it  always  meant  that  prolatio  minor  was  un- 
derstood. The  following  table  will  make  this 
clear: 


Modns  mi^or  perfectns. 
Modus  mluor  perfectaa. 
Tempos  perfectam. 
Prolatio  miOor. 

Modus  major  perfectns. 
Modas  minor  Imperfectus. 
Tempos  perfectam. 
Prolatio  minor. 


1 

=  8tq. 

=  2^  . 

\n 

=  8W. 
=  2W. 

11' 

IIMI 

1  PA 

=  8o. 

0 

1 » 

=  20, 

c 

1  o 

=  3<^. 

•  within 

Tempus  sign. 

1  o 

=  2<^. 

no  dot. 

a  punctum  divisionis.  Thus  in  tempus  perfectunt 
(0»  tripartite)  |SS|  OO  |5SI|  would  be  expressed 
in  moaem  notation    (values   reduced  one-half) 

An  important  factor  in  the  theory  of  mensur- 
able music  was  the  color  of  the  notes.  The 
ordinary  note  was  black.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a  red  note  (notula  rubra)  was  used.  Origi- 
nally this  red  note  was  used  instead  of  signa- 
tures to  denote  a  change  from  perfectio  to  im- 
perfectio  or  vice  versa.  Soon  it  was  definitely 
used  to  indicate  imperfectio  only.  For  want  of 
red  color,  it  was  often  left  open  or  white  (notula 
alba ) ,  and  during  the  fifteenth  century  the  white 
note  had  the  same  meaning  as  the  red  note  of 
the  fourteenth.  When  finally  the  white  notes, 
were  generally  adopted  (during  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries),  imperfectio  was  denoted 
by  the  black  note  (notula  nigra). 

(  Modos  mi^or  imperCectris. 
J  Modos  minor  perfectns. 
)  Tempns  impeneotom. 
( Prolatio  major. 


The  time-value  of  the  different  notes  as  fixed 
by  these  signs  or  signatures  was  known  as  the 
integer  valor  notarum.  But  these  fundamental 
values  could  be  changed  by  means  of  augment  a- 
tio,  diminutio,  and  proportio,  Diminutio  reduced 
the  value  of  the  notes  in  triple  time  to  one-third, 
in  duple  time  to  one-half  of  the  original  value. 
It  was  indicated  by  a  vertical  line  through  the 
signature  (()  d,  or  by  aflftxinp  a  number  to  the 
tempus  sign  Q  2,  or  Q  3.  Time  indicated  thus 
always  denoted  a  lively  tempo,  corresponding  to 
the  modem  allegro.  Augmentatio  signified  the 
restoration  of  the  integer  valor  of  notes  reduced 
by  diminutio.  It  was  indicated  by  writing  the 
ordinary  sign  of  the  integer  valor  Q  (  .  A 
change  of  the  integer  valor  by  means  of  fractions 
was  known  as  proportio.  Thus  -f-  meant  that  the 
time  was  to  be  accelerated,  so  that  three  breves 
now  had  the  same  duration  as  one  breve  of  in- 
teger valor.  But  4  meant  the  opposite,  viz.  that 
the  time  was  to  be  retarded,  so  that  one  breve 
now  had  the  same  duration  as  three  breves  of  the 
integer  valor.  A  special  kind  of  proportio  was 
that  indicated  by  •},  known  as  hemiolia. 


(  Modos  major  tmperfectns. 
J  Modns  minor  imperfectns. 
l  Tempns  imperfectnm. 
(  Prolatio  minor. 


A  group  of  two  or  more  notes  to  be  sung  on 
one  syllable  was  called  ligatura.  When  only 
two  notes  were  given  to  one  syllable,  they  were 
written  as  one  and  called  figura  ohliqua. 


In  ligatures  of  more  than  two  notes  the  time- 
value  of  the  individual  notes  was  not  deter-^ 
mined  from  their  actual  shape  but  from  their 
position.  The  value  of  the  first  note  could  be 
a  breve  or  a  long.  In  the  former  case  the  term 
proprietas,  in  the  latter  improprietas,  was  ap- 
plied. If  the  second  note  was  lower  than  the 
first,  proprietas  was  indicated  by  a  vertical  line 
( Cauda)   downward  on  the  left  side  of  the  first 

note  :    fy     ;  if  the  second  note  was  higher,  the 

Cauda  was  wanting,  pf^.  In  both  cases  the 
first  note  is  breve.  Improprietas  was  indicated 
by  adding  the  cauda  to  the  first  note  if  the  sec- 
ond was  higher,  and  omitting  it  if  the  second  was. 

lower:  R:^,  c^.  Here  both  first  notes  are 
longs.  ' 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KENSUBABLE  KUSIC.  824  MENTAL  CONSTITXJTION. 

Out  of  this  system  of  notation  our  modem  that  the  volume  of  a  rectangular  parallelepiped 

system  of  notation  has  been  gradually  evolved,  or  prism  is  found  bv  multiplying  together  the 

Consult:  H.  Milller,  Eine  Abhandlung  Uber  Men-  length,  breadth,  and  thickness;  and  of  the  oblique 

suralmusik  (Leipzig,  1886);  H.  Bellermann,  Z)i«  parallelepiped,  prism,  or  cylinder,  by  multiply- 

Menauralnoten  und  Taktzeiohen  dea  15  und  16  ing  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height. 
Jahrhunderts  (Berlin,  1906).  As  in  case  of  the  circle,  so  in  the  mensuration 

MENSTTBATION     (Lat.    menauratio,    from  of  the  cylinder,  cone,  and  sphere,  the  theory  of 

mensurare,  to  measure,  from  mensural  measure,  limits    (see  Limits,  Theory  of)    is  applied  in 

from  metiri,  to  measure).     A  branch  of  applied  connection  with  the  circumscribed  and  inscribed 

mathematics  dealing  with  the  calculation  of  lines,  figures.    The  following  formulas  of  mensuration 

angles,    surfaces,    and   volumes   from   measured  will  be  found  convenient: 

Abbrevlatione:    &,  bane:  A,  altitude ;  r,  radian;  a,  area;  c,  circnmferenoe ;  p,  perimeter;  5,  slant  height;  Ff  Yolnme} 
m,  mid-eectlou ;  a,  the  number  of  radians  in  an  angle. 

Parallelogram a  =  bh. 

Triangle a  =  \bh. 

Trapezoid a  =  J  (6  +  60  A. 

Parallelepiped v  =  bh. 

Prism. V  =6A. 

Lateral  area,  right  prism a=^ph, 

Prismatoid v  =^h(b  -}-6'-}-4m). 

Pyramid v  =  ibh] 

Lateral  area,  regular  pyramid a  =  J  p.  

Frustum  of  pyramid , v  =  4  a  (6  4-  6'  +  Vbb% 

Lateral  area,  frustum  of  regular  pyramid o  =  I  (p  +  p')  «• 

Bight  circular  cylinder t?  =  6A  =  t  HA. 

Lateral  area a  =  cA  -=-  2  x  rA. 

Right  circular  cone v  =  4  6A  =  J  x  r*A. 

Lateral  area a  s=  t  C8 -=-  r  re. 

Frustum  of  right  circular  cone v  =  I  x  A  (ri*  +  r,*  -|-  r^  rj. 

Sphere v  =  |xr»,  o  =  4xr*. 

Lune a  =  2  o  r*. 

Spherical  polygon a  =  a  r*. 

Zone o  =  2  X  rA. 

Spherical  segment v  =  4  x  A  [8  (fi'  +  r,»)  +  A']. 

Spherical  sector t;  =  ixr*A  =  J6r. 

Circle c  =2  X  r,  a  =  Tr'f  arcs^a'r. 

•data.  The  metrical  relations  between  lines  and  For  the  mensuration  of  geometric  solids,  con- 
angles  are  computed  chiefly  by  the  principles  of  suit  HolzmUller,  Elemente  der  Stereomatrie  (2 
trigonometry   (q.v.).     The  mensuration  of  com-  vols.,  Leipzig,  1900). 

mon   surfaces   and  volumes,  however,   can   gen-  -mr-D-KTm  a -r    /vwamrmTrnrr/m       rp,       .     •    i 

€rally  be  effected  by  the  principles  of  geometry.  ,^^5^-^.  CONSTITUTION.      The    typiail 

For  the  purposes  of  either  direct  me^urement  character  which  serves  to  give  the  mind  its  unity 

or  computation  a  unit  is  necessary.    The  straight  ^'^^  mdividual  significance     Mental  constitution 

line  is  measured  by  direct  comparisons  with  some  *»  determined,  first  of  all,  by  the  manner  of  the 

linear  unit,  as  the  inch,  foot,  or  yard.     But  in  assemblmg  of  the  elements  which  go  to  make  up 

measuring  a  surface  or  a  volume  it  is  unneces-  conscioi^ness.      Eveiy    normal    mind   comprises 

sary  to  apply  an  actual  square  or  cubic  unit,  or  manifold  elements  and  diverging  tendencies— sen- 

even  to  divide  the  magnitudes  into  such  squares  ^^^'^""^^^     !f ''T'*  volitions— which     ordinarily 

or  cubes.    It  is  only  necessary  to  measure  ^rtain  l""^^.  together  to  form  its  bent  or  habitual  way. 

of  its  boundary  lines  or  dimensions,  and  from  By  dint  of  natural  proclivities,  due  to  inheritance 

these  measurements  to  calculate  the  contents  in  or  environment,  it  achieves  a  kind  of  integrity 

terms  of  the  appropriate  unit;  e.g.  if  c  inches  ^^^  social  effectiveness  which  we  recognize  as 

and  b  inches  are  the  lengths  of  the  adjacent  sides  personality;  a  mmd  is  thus,  as  we  say,  well  or- 

of  a  rectangle,  its  area  is  a-b-  1  square  inch  =  ganized,   operating   to   consistent   and   coherent 

ab  square  inch ;  i.e.  the  number  of  square  unite  ends.     Not  infrequently,  however,  minds  are  de- 

of  area  in  a  rectangle  is  equal  to  the  product  Acient  in  organization.     The  weak-willed,  inat- 

of  two  numbers  which  represent  its  base  and  tentive  person  suffers  from  lack  of  cohesion  of 

altitude,  measured  bv  the  same  linear  unit.    The  mentel  elements ;   his  intereste  vary  with  each 

areas  of  other  figures  are  found  from  this  by  suggestion  that  comes  to  him  through  perception 

the  aid  of  certain  relations  or  properties  of  those  or  bodily  feeling;  he  is  never  certain  of  his  in- 

figures;    for  instance,  the  area  of  a  parallelo-  tentions,  never  constent  in  his  attitude  toward 

^am  is  the  same  as  the  area  of  a  rectangle  hav-  things,  never  thoroughly  self-possessed.     On  the 

Ing  the  same  base  and  altitude,  and  is  therefore  other  hand,  there  are  minds  in  which  the  inter- 

-equal   to   the  base   multiplied  by  the   altitude,  nal  suggestion  is  so  powerful  as  to  dull  percep- 

As  a  triangle  is  half  of  a  parallelogram  of  the  tion  to  all  not  falling  within  a  certein  field  of 

same  base  and  the  same  altitude,  ite  area  is  one-  interest,  so  destroying  the  mind's  pliancy  and 

half  the  product  of  its  base  and  altitude.    Certain  powers   of   adaptation.     Such   minds   have,   we 

quadrilaterals   and   polygons    are   measured   by  say,  strong  prepossessions;  they  are  biased,  nar- 

dividing  them  into  triangles,  the  area  of  each  row;   in  extreme   form   they  are  afflicted  with 

of  which  is  separately  calculated.    (For  the  area  fixed  ideas  and  monomania.     A  third  type  of 

of  the  circle,  see  Circle.)     By  reasoning  similar  aberrant  constitution  is  foimd  in  bi-centred  or 

to  that  employed  in  the  case  of  areas,  it  is  shown  multi-centred     minds.      Here    the    personality 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MENTAL  CONSTrDUTION. 


825 


MENTAL  PBOCESS. 


breaks  up  into  two  or  more  selves,  or  cores  of 
interest,  about  each  of  which  gather  elements  con- 
genial to  itself.  Such  personalities  are  usually 
deficient  in  stability  and  in  breadth  and  rich- 
ness of  mental  content.  They  exist  incipiently  in 
the  normal  mind,  and  where  the  transf ornmtion  is 
gradual  result  in  healthy  alterations  of  character 
and  in  the  broadening  of  intelligence;  in  a  more 
lively  form,  though  still  subject  to  the  domina- 
tion of  one  supreme  self,  they  may  give  the  dra- 
matic creations  of  the  novelist;  but  in  extreme 
cases  they  result  in  exaggerated  transpositions  of 
thought  and  feeling,  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
insanity. 

Apart  from  these  more  general  variations, 
minds  are  characterized  by  differences  in  the 
form  and  trend  of  their  presentations.  One  per- 
son, for  example,  thinks  largely  in  visual  images ; 
another's  thought  takes  shape  in  internal  conver- 
sations; while  yet  another  is  more  keenly  con- 
scious of  his  attitude  toward  things,  the  way  he 
will  act  in  their  presence  or  the  way  he  imagines 
that  they  feel.  Again,  presentations  in  the  same 
field  of  sensation  may  vary  in  character,  different 
minds  having  different  and  typical  modes  of 
perception;  so  a  landscape  always  appeals  to 
the  artist  aesthetically,  to  the  agriculturist  or 
promoter  by  its  practical  possibilities.  This  is 
not  due  merely  to  difference  of  interest,  but  to 
an  actual  variation  in  the  character  of  the  presen- 
tation. The  variation  appears  again  in  powers 
of  memory  and  imagination,  where  there  is  al- 
ways in  evidence  a  natural  selection  of  elements 
due  to  the  mind's  aptitude.  Herein  lies  the 
chief  factor  of  individuality,  the  mind's  com- 
plexion or  characteristic  style  of  thought  and 
feeling,  serving  to  throw  it  into  relief  against 
that  background  of  qualities  common  to  all  con- 
sciousness which  in  mankind  we  term  human 
nature. 

MENTALITY  OF  INSECTS.  See  section  on 
Social  Insects  imder  Insect;  also  Instinct. 

MENTAL  PATHOLOGY.  The  science  of 
abnormal  mental  process.  The  intimate  depen- 
dence of  consciousness  upon  the  functioning  of 
the  central  nervous  system  enables  us  to  approach 
the  investigation  of  morbid  mental  conditions 
from  the  vantage  ground  of  physiology.  The 
brain,  which  is  the  substrate  of  mind,  may,  like 
any  other  organ  of  the  body,  exhibit  (1)  de- 
fects— i.e.  lack  of  some  structure— or  (2)  ab- 
normality of  function,  whether  it  be  (a)  tem- 
porary— i.e.  a  disorder — or  (6)  permanent — i.e. 
a  disease.  'Defectives'  are,  then,  persons  who 
suffer,  congenitally  or  from  early  childhood,  from 
the  absence  of  some  group  or  groups  of  mental 
elements  in  consequence  of  some  underlying 
structural  gap  in  the  nervous  system;  they  are 
the  blind,  the  deaf,  the  paralytic,  etc.  The  cases 
of  Laura  Bridgman  and  Helen  Keller,  the  blind 
deaf-mutes,  are  typical.  From  careful  reports  of 
their  educational  progress,  and  from  special 
psychological  and  neurological  examination  of 
their  mental  and  physiological  organization,  val- 
uable data  have  been  secured.  Temporary  dis- 
turbances of  normal  mental  functioning  are  af- 
forded in  the  consciousness  of  dreams  (extreme 
inattention),  hypnosis  (extreme  attention),  and 
the  intoxication  of  various  drugs.  Frequent  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  examine  mind  as  spe- 
cific phases  of  it  are  rendered  ansesthetic  or 
hyperaesthetic  in  these  ways.    Hashish   (extract 


of  Cannabis  Indica),  e.g.,  greatly  magnifies  our 
consciousness  of  duration  and  extent,  and  also 
induces  visual  hallucination.  Chronic  mental 
derangement  is  exemplified  by  the  various  forms 
of  insanity — mania,  melancholia,  dementia,  gen- 
eral paresis,  etc. — the  extended  investigation  of 
which  by  competent  alienists  has  thrown  much 
light  upon  the  nature  of  the  more  complicated 
mental  processes. 

Abnormal  mental  types  are,  as  one  writer  puts 
it,  "psychological  experiments  made  for  us  by 
Nature  herself."  Especially  is  this  true  when 
the  infirmity  is  isolated,  when  a  single  group  of 
mental  processes — e.g.  a  sense  department — is 
either  entirely  lacking  or  extraordinarily  empha- 
sized. Such  a  state  of  affairs  simplifies  matters 
for  the  psychologist.  He  is  able  to  find  out  the 
relative  value  of  the  group  concerned  in  the  nor- 
mally organized  mind,  and,  as  a  consequence,  to 
proceed  more  successfully  with  the  analysis  of 
the  adult  human  consciousness.  (See  Psychol- 
OQY. )  Take,  for  example,  cases  of  the  amesthesia 
of  particular  internal  organs  which  lie  beyond 
that  experimental  control  which  is  of  supreme 
importance  in  the  laboratory  investigation  of  the 
external  sense  organs.  Evidence  of  this  sort  has 
been  of  weight  in  referring  the  sensation  of  gid- 
diness to  the  semicircular  canals  of  the  internal 
ear.  (See  Static  Sense.)  From  observations  of 
senile  dementia  Hughlings  Jackson  has  estab- 
lished the  law  that,  in  the  gradual  loss  of  mem- 
ory with  advancing  age,  the  latest  mental  stuff, 
that  acquired  with  most  difficulty,  first  decays. 
The  successive  stages  of  dissolution  consequent 
upon  the  inroads  of  cerebral  deterioration  re- 
trace the  steps  of  evolution.  The  various  types 
of  aphasia  (q.v.)  have  been  of  great  assistance 
in  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  cortical 
localization  of  function,  as  well  as  in  the  more 
strictly  psychological  problems  of  apperception 
(q.v.)  and  language. 

BiBUOGBAPHY.  Lcwis,  Mental  Diseases:  Path- 
ological Aspects  of  Insanity  (London,  1889)  ; 
Hall,  Mind,  iv.  (1879,  149);  Maudsley,  The 
Pathology  of  Mind  (London,  1879)  ;  Mercier. 
Sanity  and  Insanity  (London,  1890)  ;  Binet,  The 
Psychology  of  Reasoning,  Based  upon  Experi- 
mental Researches  in  Hypnotism  (Eng.  trans., 
Chicago,  1899)  ;  Ribot,  Les  maladies  de  la  m^- 
moire  (Paris,  1891)  ;  Diseases  of  the  Will  (Eng. 
trans.,  (]Jhicago,  1894)  ;  Diseases  of  Personality 
(Eng.  trans.,  Chicago,  1894);  Sully,  The  Hu- 
man Mind,  i.,  19,  74,  ii.,  320f.  (London,  1892)  ; 
Titchener,  An  Outline  of  Psychology  (New  York, 
1902). 

MENTAL  PBOCESS.  A  phrase  employed 
by  modem  psychology  in  two  nearly  related 
meanings.  (1)  In  the  first  place,  it  is  tending 
to  replace  the  older  static  conception  of  *mind' 
(q.v.).  Stout,  e.g.,  defines  psychology  as  "the 
positive  science  of  mental  process,"  in  preference 
to  speaking  of  it  as  the  'science  of  mind,*  and 
James  declares  that  "the  first  fact  for  us  as 
psychologists  is  [not  that  mind  exists,  but]  that 
thinking  of  some  sort  goes  on.  .  .  .  If  we 
could  say  in  English  4t  thinks,'  as  we  say  'it 
rains*  or  *it  blows,'  we  should  be  stating  the 
fact  most  simply.'*  (2)  But  not  only  is  mind,  as 
a  whole,  a  'stream'  of  thought  and  feeling;  each* 
separate  element  of  mind  or  mental  formation 
that  our  analysis  teases  out  of  the  total  con- 
sciousness is  itself  a  process.     Every  sensation 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KEKTAL  PB0CE8S. 


8:26 


MESTONE. 


rises,  poises,  falls,  in  its  own  characteristic  way; 
even  the  idea,  the  mental  'thing*  par  ewcellence, 
is  termed  by  Wundt  a  Variable  process,'  and 
such  formations  as  emotion  and  volition  bear  the 
mark  of  process  stamped  upon  them.  Meaning 
(q.v.)  and  mode  of  connection  (see  Fusion;  Im- 
pulse) are  stable,  but  the  'stuff'  of  which  mind 
is  made  is  essentially  process  and  not  being. 
Consult:  Wundt,  Essays  (Leipzig,  1906);  Phi- 
losophisohe  Studien,  vi.,  x.  (Leipzig,  1891,  1894) ; 
James,  Principles  of  Psychology,  vol.  i.  (New 
York,  1890);  Stout,  Analytic  Psychology  (Lon- 
don, 1896) ;  Titchener,  An  Outline  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1902). 

MENTAL  SCIENCE.  The  name  given  to  a 
philosophical  or  religious  system  which,  as  ex- 
plained by  one  of  its  adherents,  aims  at  the  pre- 
vention of  disease,  rather  than  its  cure,  by  awak- 
ening in  the  individual  the  inherent  but  dormant 
spiritual  forces  through  the  medium  of  its  litera- 
ture, lecture  courses,  and  by  auto-suggestion. 
It  contends  that  no  system  of  cure  can  rid  the 
world  of  discord  and  disease;  that  the  various 
systems  of  medication,  ranging  from  the  incanta- 
tion of  the  barbarian  to  mind  healing  or  faith 
cure,  are  simply  compatible  with  the  different 
temperaments  of  humanity.  A  materialistic 
nature  demands  'things'  as  antidotes  for  dis- 
cord, while  a  metaphysical  temperament  demands 
'thoughts'  as  a  mode  of  cure.  Mental  Science 
looks  upon  all  schemes  of  cure  as  temporary 
expedients  only  to  bridge  over  a  defect  in  man's 
estimation  of  himself.  It  maintains  that  the 
phenomenal  world  is  the  differentiation  of  the 
infinite  mind  of  humanity,  ranging  from  an  atom 
to  immensity  and  from  a  molecule  to  man.  It 
contends  that  man  does  not  live  in  a  physical 
world,  but  rather  in  a  physical  phase  of  con- 
sciousness, and  that  to  transcend  mentally  the 
plane  of  human  consciousness  to  that  of  the 
spiritual  would  dissolve  the  hiunan  or  physical 
misconception  of  life  and  being.  It  argues  that 
since  each  individual  thinks  for  himself  alone, 
he  must  be  just  what  he  thinks  he  is,  for  he  is 
the  one  who  thinks  it.  Therefore  each  lives, 
moves,  and  has  his  being  in  an  environment  com- 
patible with  the  status  of  his  own  mind. 

Mental  Science  has  niunerous  subdivisions, 
known  in  part  as  'Divine  Science,'  'Spiritual 
Science,'  'Metaphysical  Science,*  'Spiritual  Eth- 
ics,' and  other  titles.  It  differs  from  Christian 
Science  (q.v.),  which  is  an  organized  church 
with  government,  tenets,  etc.,  and  which  teaches 
the  practical  application  of  the  Christ  Mind 
healing  to  all  forms  of  disease.  Attempts  to 
organize  the  Mental  Scientists  have  met  with 
persistent  defeat,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of 
organizing  a  body  of  individualists.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  numerical  strength  of  Mental  Science 
is  upward  of  1,000,000  adherents  in  the  United 
States,  under  the  various  titles  mentioned. 

MENTANA,  mi^-Wnk.  A  village  in  Italy, 
13  miles  northeast  of  Rome,  with  2401  inhabit- 
ants in  1901.  It  is  noted  as  the  place  where, 
on  November  3,  1867,  Garibaldi  was  defeated  by 
Papal  and  French  troops  while  attempting  to 
seize  Rome  and  thus  complete  the  unity  of  Italy. 
On  November  25,  1877,  a  monument  was  erected 
in  honor  of  the  adherents  of  Garibaldi,  who  was 
taken  prisoner  in  this  battle.    See  Gabibaldi. 

MENTEL  (or  Menteun),  Johani^s 
(c.1410-78).    A  German  printer  of  the  fifteenth 


century,  the  first  to  establish  a  press  at  Strass- 
burg.  To  him  the  invention  of  printing  wa» 
once  attributed  by  many.  The  erroneous  charac- 
ter of  any  such  assertion  was  very  clearly  demon- 
strated by  Von  der  Linde  in  the  results  of  hi* 
investigation  of  the  early  history  of  printing  in. 
his  Outenberg   (Stuttgart,  1878). 

MEN^TEBy  SoPHiB  (1848—).  A  German 
pianist,  bom  at  Munich,  in  which  city  she  subse- 
miently  studied  under  Schdnchen,  Lebert,  and 
Niest,  making  her  d6but  in  1863.  She  met  with 
extraordinary  success,  particularly  at  Frankfort,, 
where,  in  1867,  Tausig  (q.v.)  secured  her  as  a 
pupil.  Two  years  later  she  won  the  good-will  of 
Liszt,  who  became  one  of  her  stanchest  friends. 
She  made  many  tours  and  had  many  famoua 
pupils,  and  finally  retired  to  her  home.  Castle- 
Itter,  in  the  Tyrol.  Meanwhile  she  had  become 
known  as  a  remarkable  virtuoso,  and  besidea 
her  appointments  as  Court  pianist  to  the  Prince- 
of  HohenzoUern  and  the  Emperor  of  Austria, 
she  served  for  a  time  on  the  faculty  of  the  Saint 
Petersburg  Conservatory.  In  1872  she  married 
the  'cellist  Popper,  from  whom  she  was  subse- 
quently divorced    (1886). 

MENTEUBy  mftN'tSr',  Le  (Fr.,  The  Liar). 
A  comedy  by  Comeille  (1644),  modeled  after 
Alarc6n's  Verdad  sospechosa.  The  leading  char- 
acters are  Dorante,  whose  propensity  gives  the 
play  its  name  and  involves  the  hero  in  numer- 
ous complications;  G^ronte,  his  credulous  old 
father  and  his  dupe ;  and  Cliton,  his  shrewd,  wit- 
ty valet.  The  play  is  Comeille's  best  comedy,, 
and  the  most  important  before  the  appearance 
of  Moli^re.  It  was  followed  by  the  Suite  du- 
menteur,  modeled  on  Lope  de  Vega's  Amar  sin 
saber  d  quien,  and  not  ha\ing  the  successful  qual- 
ities of  the  original  comedy. 

MENTHOL,  mSn^thdl  (from  Lat.  menthay. 
mint),  CioHjaOH.  A  colorless  crystalline  sub- 
stance obtained  from  official  oil  of  peppermint, 
or  from  Japanese  or  Chinese  oil  of  peppermint* 
It  has  the  odor  of  peppermint,  and  produces  in 
the  mouth  a  sensation  of  cold.  It  is  but  sparing- 
ly soluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  in  considerable 
quantities  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  other 
organic  liquids.  It  is  often  used  as  a  remedy  for 
neuralgic  neadache.  In  a  solution  of  ten  parts 
of  alcohol  to  one  of  menthol,  or  in  the  solid  form 
of  a  pencil,  it  usually  gives  immediate,  though 
not  always  complete,  relief,  when  applied  to  the 
seat  of  pain. 

MENTONE,  men-tO^nft,  Fr.  MENTON, 
mftN'tON'.  A  seaport  town  in  the  Department  of 
Alpes-Maritimes,  France,  on  the  Mediterranean,. 
19  miles  northeast  of  Nice  by  rail  (Map:  France, 
0  8).  It  is  situated  on  two  small  bays  known 
respectively  as  Bale  de  I'Ouest  and  Baie  de 
Garavan,  divided  by  a  point  of  land  from  which 
juts  the  breakwater  inclosing  the  harbor.  On  the 
north  is  a  sheltering  range  of  loftv  mountains,, 
the  lower  slopes  of  which  are  covered  with  orange,, 
lemon,  and  olive  groves,  and  dotted  with  pic- 
turesque villas  and  elegant  residences.  The  in- 
closed situation  of  the  town,  dry  and  equable 
climate,  and  other  natural  advanti^^s  make  Men- 
tone  one  of  the  most  popular  of  invalid  resorta 
on  the  Riviera.  The  old  portion  of  the  town  re- 
tains a  mediaeval  aspect,  with  its  narrow,  winding 
streets;  the  newer  portion  is  regularly  laid  out 
and  clean.  The  prominent  buildings  are  the 
churches  of  Saint  Michel  (seventeenth  century) 


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HEPHISTOPHELEa 


and  of  the  Conception;  the  Hdtel  de  Ville  has  an 
interesting  museum  of  prehistoric  relics.  Other 
notable  features  are  the  Jardin  Public  and  the 
Promenade  du  Midi.  The  chief  point  of  interest, 
however,  is  in  the  grottoes  of  Baouss^  Rousse 
near  by,  in  Italian  territory,  where  Riviere 
discovered  relics  of  very  ancient  human  occupa- 
tion and  skeletons  of  a  later  race  in  the  debris. 
Nine  skeletons  in  all  were  found,  and  with  them 
pierced  shells  and  milk  teeth  of  deer,  formerly 
portions  of  personal  ornaments;  but  more  sur- 
prising is  the  fact  that  the  bones  were  painted 
^ith  red  ochre.  In  the  general  stratum  beneath 
occurred  stone  implements  of  Paleolithic  type. 
This  fact,  and  the  entire  absence  of  implements 
of  bone,  piercad  shells,  and  teeth  of  deer  from  the 
lower  beds,  leaves  the  impression  of  two  periods 
of  occupation.  Mentone  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  fruit  and  olive  oil.  Pop.  ( 1901),  8917.  After 
belonging  for  500  years  to  Monaco,  the  town  re- 
volted in  1848,  and  attached  itself  to  Sardinia. 
With  the  cession  of  Nice 'to  France  in  1861,  Men- 
tone  came  under  French  rule,  the  Prince  of  Mon- 
aco ceding  his  rights  to  France  for  4,000,000 
francs.  Consult:  Mortillet,  Le  pr^historique 
(Paris,  1900),  and  Bulletins  de  la  8oci4U  d'An- 
ihropologie  de  PariSy  ser.  4,  vol.  ix.  (Paris,  1898). 

MENTOB  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  (M^rrwp).  The  son 
of  Alcimus  of  Ithaca,  the  trusted  friend  of 
Ulysses,  who,  on  setting  out  for  Troy,  left  to 
him  the  charge  of  his  household  and  the  educar 
tion  of  Telemachus.  His  name  has  become  pro- 
verbial for  a  wise  guide  and  counselor. 

KENTANTHES,  mSnl-fin^thez.  A  genus  of 
plants.     See  Buckbean. 

MENZALEHy  mto-za^e.  Lake.  A  lagoon  on 
the  northeastern  coast  of  Egypt,  extending  from 
the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile  to  the  Suez 
Canal,  and  separated  from  the  Mediterranean  by 
narrow  sand  bars  ( Map :  Egypt,  F  1 ) .  It  is  30 
miles  in  length  by  about  20  miles  in  average 
breadth,  is  very  shallow,  and  studded  with  low 
islands,  on  one  of  which  are  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Tennesus.  The  lagoon  has  valu- 
able fisheries,  besides  producing  much  salt. 

MENZEL^  men'tsel,  Adolf  von  (1815-1905). 
A  German  historical  and  genre  painter,  illus- 
trator, and  lithographer,  one  of  the  leading  paint- 
ers of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  bom  at 
Breslau,  December  8,  1815,  and  as  a  lad  as- 
sisted his  father,  a  lithographer,  in  his  work. 
To  give  him  opportunity  for  study,  the  family 
removed  to  Berlin  in  1830,  but  he  soon  relin- 
quished as  unprofitable  the  ordinary  routine  of 
training  at  the  Academy,  and  may  truly  be  called 
self-taught.  His  father's  death  in  1831  threw  the 
support  of  the  family  upon  his  shoulders,  and  he 
woTKed  hard  at  lithographic  commissions.  In  1833 
he  executed  for  the  publisher  Sachse  "The  Artist's 
Earthly  Pilgrimage,"  a  series  of  ten  drawings 
in  pen  and  ink  illustrating  Goethe's  poem, 
**Kttnstler's  Erdenwallen,"  which  attracted  im- 
mediate attention.  Among  his  other  efforts  in 
lithography,  the  "Essays  on  Stone  with  Brush 
and  Scraper,"  in  which  he  produced  effects  re- 
sembling mezzotinting,  are  of  especial  interest 
as  a  novel  departure,  in  which  for  a  long  time 
be  had  no  imitator  or  rival.  The  real  beginning 
of  Menzel's  triumphs  was  the  year  1839,  when  he 
began  the  illustration  of  Kugler's  History  of 
Frederick  the.  Great,  a  task  occupying  three 
years.     These  four  hundred  designs,  drawn  in 


pencil  on  wood  and  reproduced  in  fac-simile, 
brought  him  royal  and  popular  favor,  and  gave  a 
new  impetus  to  the  art  of  wood  engraving  in 
Germany.  Menzel  began  to  paint  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  without  formal  instruction. 

Of  his  paintings  the  best  known  are  the  epi- 
sodes from  the  history  of  the  great  Prussian 
monarch.  These  include:  The  **Round  Table  of 
Frederick  the  Great  at  Sans  Souci"  (1850),  and 
the  "Flute  Concert"  (1852),  both  in  the  Na- 
tional Grallery,  Berlin;  "Frederick  the  Great 
Traveling"  (1854),  Ravens  Gallery,  Berlin; 
"Frederick  and  His  Men  at  Hochkirch"  (1856), 
in  the  Royal  Palace  at  Potsdam.  He  appears 
as  the  painter-historian  of  the  modem  Hohen- 
zollem  in  another  series,  of  which  the  "Corona- 
tion of  King  William  I.  at  K(inigsberg,"  in  the 
Royal  Palace,  Berlin,  and  "Departure  of  the  King 
for  the  Seat  of  War  in  1870"  (1871),  in  the 
National  Gallery,  Berlin,  are  the  most  conspicu- 
ous examples.  Among  a  great  variety  of  genre 
pictures,  the  "Modem  CJyclops"  (1875,  National 
Gallery,  Berlin),  representing  the  interior  of  a 
rolling  mill  in  Silesia,  is  a  sterling  piece  of  real- 
istic characterization  and  of  masterly  light  ef- 
fects. Remarkable  for  this  latter  quality,  as  well 
as  for  its  keen  satire,  is  "The  Ball  Supper" 
(1879),  and  a  later  noteworthy  example  is  the 
"Camival  Moming"  (1885),  in  the  National  Gal- 
lery, Berlin.  Besides  various  other  honors  be- 
stowed upon  him,  Menzel  was  made  a  Privy 
Councilor  in  1895,  and  received  the  Order  of  the 
Black  Eagle,  conferring  hereditary  nobility,  in 
1899.  For  his  biography,  consult:  Sondermann 
(Magdeburg,  1895),  and  Knackfuss  (Bielefeld, 
1897);  also  Jordan,  Das  Werk  Adolf  Menzels 
(Munich,  1895)  ;  Waldstein,  in  Magazine  of  Art 
(London,  1884  and  1901);  von  Tschudi,  Adolf 
von  Menzel:  Ahhildungen  seiner  Gemdlde  und 
Studien  (Munich,  1905). 

HCENZEL,  Wolfgang  (1798-1873).  A  Ger- 
man historian  and  critic,  bom  at  Waldenburg, 
Silesia,  June  21,  1798.  He  studied  at  Jena  and 
Bonn,  became  an  ardent  disciple  of  Jahn  (q.v.) 
and  the  Turner  movement,  taught  (1820-24)  at 
Aarau,  in  Switzerland,  and  from  1825  lived  as  a 
man  of  letters  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  edited  the 
Litteraturhlatt  (1826-48;  again  in  1852).  From 
1830  to  1838  he  belonged  to  the  Wttrttemberg 
Diet.  Unsuccessful  in  politics,  he  gave  himself 
up  to  literature,  assailed  Goethe,  and  was  him- 
self mercilessly  attacked  by  Heine  and  others. 
His  popular  Oeschichte  der  Deutschen  came  out 
in  1824-25;  Die  Qeschichte  Europas,  1789-18Uy 
in  1853.  His  strongly  monarchical  tendencies  de- 
velop in  other  histories.  He  composed  the  dra- 
matic fairy  tales  RUhezahl  (1829)  and  Narcissus 
(1830),  and  an  historical  novel.  Furore  (1851). 
His  Deutsche  Litteratur  ( 1828)  can  be  studied  in 
Specimens  of  Foreign  Literature  (Boston,  1840). 
Consult  also  his  autobiographical  DenkwUrdig- 
keiten  (Bielefeld,  1876). 

KENZEUNS^  men'ts«l-Insk^  A  town  of 
eastern  Russia  in  the  government  of  Ufa,  situ- 
ated on  a  branch  of  the  Kama,  125  miles  north- 
west of  Ufa.  Important  fairs  are  held  here,  in 
which  miscellaneous  goods  are  sold  to  the  value 
of  $2,000,000  annually.  Population,  in  1897, 
7542. 

MEPHISTOPH^LES  (forrterly  also  Me- 
phostophilus,  Mephostophilis ;  of  uncertain  deri- 
vation, but  perhaps  most  plausibly  explained  as 


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MEBCANTILE  AGENCY. 


Gk.  /AiJ,  m^,  not  +  ^«f,  ph6i,  light  +  4>CKin, 
philosy  loving) .  One  of  the  seven  chief  devils  in 
the  old  demonology,  the  second  of  the  fallen 
archangels,  and  the  most  powerful  of  the  infernal 
legions  after  Satan.  He  figures  in  the  old  legend 
of  Dr.  Faustus,  and  in  Marlowe's  play  of  that 
name,  as  the  familiar  spirit  of  that  renowned 
magician,  and  his  name  was  commonly  used  as 
a  term  of  jocular  reproach.  To  modern  readers 
he  is  chiefly  known  as  the  cold,  scoffing,  relent- 
less fiend  of  Goethe's  Faust, 

KEP^EL.  A  town  in  the  Netherlands,  situ- 
ated on  the  Meppeler  Diep,  16  miles  northeast 
of  Zwolle  (Map:  Netherlands,  £  2).  It  is  an 
important  centre  for  the  butter  trade,  and  has 
calico  and  canvas  manufactures.    Population,  in 

1889,  8866;  in  1900,  10,154;  in  1903,  10,470. 

MEQiriNEZ,  mek^-n^,  or  MEE^NEZ.  A 
noted  town  of  Morocco,  Africa,  situated  in  a 
moimtainous  region  over  30  miles  southwest  of 
Fez  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  It  is  still  one  of  the 
finest  cities  of  Morocco,  although  it  has  greatly 
declined  since  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it 
had  attained  unusual  magnificence  imder  the 
Sultan  Muley  Ismail.  It  is  surroimded  by  exten- 
sive olive  groves,  and  has  a  fine  mosque  which 
is  visited  by  pilgrims,  and  a  palace  of  the  Sultan, 
who  occasionally  visits  the  town  in  the  summer. 
It  is  of  little  commercial  or  industrial  impor- 
tance, its  chief  manufactures  being  earthenware 
and  leather  goods.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  from  25,000  to  50,000. 

MERAN,  mft-rftn'.  A  famous  health  resort 
in  Tyrol,  Austria,  situated  on  the  Passer,  about 
42  miles  south-southwest  of  Innsbruck  (Map: 
Austria,  B  3 ) .  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Kttchel- 
berg,  at  an  altitude  of  about  1000  feet,  and  is 
noted  for  its  salubrious  and  moderate  climate. 
The  vicinity  abounds  in  picturesque  old  castles 
and  chateaux,  and  fine  promenades  extend  along 
both  banks  of  the  Passer.  The  principal  street, 
Unter  den  Lauben,  flanked  with  arcades,  con- 
tains the  fifteenth-century  burg — ^the  former 
residence  of  the  counts  of  Tyrol,  and  now  in  its 
restored  condition  serving  as  a  museum.  The 
season  lasts  from  the  beginning  of  fall  to  the 
end  of  spring,  and  the  annual  number  of  patients 
exceeds  10,000.  Meran  is  provided  with  several 
churches,  schools,  and  a  theatre.  On  the  north- 
western side  of  the  Ktichelberg  is  the  remarkable 
old  castle  of  Tyrol,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  coimts 
of  Tyrol,  and  now  in  a  half-ruined  condition.  The 
chateau  of  Lebenberg,  south  of  Meran,  is  also  of 
no  little  interest.  Meran  is  first  mentioned  as 
Mairania  in  857.  It  became  a  town  at  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  was  until  1490  the 
residence  of  the  counts  of  Tyrol.   Population,  in 

1890,  7176;  in  1900,  9284. 

MERAN,  AoNES  OF.    See  Agnes  of  Mebait. 

MEBCADANTE,  mftrlcA-dan'tA,  Francesco 
Saverio  (1797-1870).  A  celebrated  Italian 
musician,  born  at  Altamura.  He  studied  the 
violin  and  the  flute  under  Zingarelli  at  the  Con- 
servatory San  Sebastiano  at  Naples,  but  soon 
turned  nis  attention  to  compositions  for  the 
voice.  In  1818  he  produced  a  grand  cantata,  en- 
titled Tj*union€  delle  helix  artiy  which  was  per- 
formed at  the  Teatro  Fondo,  and  which  met  with 
a  very  favoraWe  reception.  This  led  to  an  en- 
gagement at  the  Teatro  San  Carlo,  where  his  first 
opera,  L'apoteosi  d'Ercole  (1819),  was  well  re- 


ceived. In  1833  he  was  appointed  chapelmaster 
at  the  Cathedral  of  Novara,  and  in  1836  his  opera 
/  hriganti  was  performed  in  Paris  with  an  ex- 
traordinary cast,  which  consisted  of  Rubini» 
Tamburino,  Lablache,  and  Grisi.  He  was  made 
director  of  the  royal  conservatory  at  Naples  in 
1840,  but  became  totally  blind  in  1862.  He  com- 
posed many  masses,  and  much  Church  music.  He 
died  at  Naples. 

MEBCANTILE  AaENCY.  <'An  institution 
which,  for  a  subscription  price,  agrees  to  collect 
information  as  to  the  financial  condition  and  re- 
sponsibility of  business  men  and  to  transmit  the 
same  to  its  subscribers."  At  times  it  also  un- 
dertakes the  collection  of  debts  for  its  cus- 
tomers. It  originated  in  the  United  States,  dur- 
ing the  period  of  depression  following  the  panic 
of  1837,  and  its  avowed  object  was  to  uphold,, 
extend,  and  render  safe  and  profitable  to  all  con- 
cerned the  great  credit  system  which  had  grown 
up  with  the  increase  of  commerce.  The  first  mer- 
cantile agency  was  established  in  New  York  dur- 
ing the  year  1841  by  Lewis  Tappan,  and  was 
followed  the  next  year  by  a  similar  agency  un- 
der the  control  of  Woodward  and  Dusenbury. 

While  originally  established  for  tiie  purpose 
of  answering  questions  about  the  financial  stand- 
ing of  particular  persons,  the  scope  of  the 
agency  has  been  extended,  until  its  records  con- 
tain the  financial  ratings  of  nearly  every  business, 
man  in  the  country.  In  addition  to  the  general 
agencies,  such  as  Dun  &  Co.  and  the  Bradstreet 
Company,  there  are  many  special  aj^ncies  which 
confine  themselves  to  particular  lines  of  trade. 
By  the  general  agencies  the  country  is  divided 
into  districts,  in  each  of  which  is  a  managing 
agent  with  various  correspondents  in  the  several 
localities.  If  a  subscriber  wishes  more  minute 
or  more  recent  information  than  that  contained 
in  the  agency's  periodical  reports,  he  asks  for 
and  receives  a  special  report  brought  down  to 
date. 

While  a  mercantile  agency  is  employed  by  its 
subscribers  to  do  certain  things  for  them,  it  is 
not  in  the  strict  sense  their  agent  (q.v.)  in  these 
transactions;  it  is  rather  an  independent  con- 
tractor. It  engages  to  accomplish  a  stipu- 
lated result,  but  is  entirely  free  to  accomplish 
this  in  its  own  way  and  with  its  own  instrumen- 
talities. If,  in  obtaining  and  publishing  infor- 
mation, it  does  a  legal  wrong  to  third  persons,  it 
is  responsible  therefor,  but  its  employers  are  not. 
A  statement  made  to  a  subscriber  asking  for  it  is 
generally  held  to  be  conditionally  privileged,  but 
when  made  to  other  subscribers  who  have  no 
interest  in  the  information  it  is  not  privileged. 
In  a  case  of  the  former  kind  the  plaintiff  would 
be  obliged,  therefore,  to  prove  actual  malice,  or 
malice  in  fact,  to  sustain  an  action  for  libel, 
slander,  or  the  like,  on  the  part  of  the  agency; 
but  in  the  latter  case  he  would  not. 

A  subscriber  who  is  misled  to  his  injury  by 
acting  upon  false  information  supplied  by  the 
agency  is  generally  entitled  to  damages  agaiiHA 
it.  Most  agencies,  however,  require  their  pa- 
trons to  agree  that  the  agency  shall  not  be  re- 
sponsible for  any  loss  caused  by  the  neglect  of 
any  of  its  servants,  clerks,  attorneys,  or  employees 
in  procuring,  collecting,  and  comraunicatinflr  in- 
formation. Such  agreements  have  been  upheld  by 
several  courts.  If,  however,  after  correct  infor- 
mation has  been  received  by  the  agency,  a  blunder 
is   made   by   its   managers   in   printing   it,   th» 


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MEBCANTILISM. 


agency  should  be  held  liable,  and  such  a  decision 
was  made  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. When  a  business  man  makes  false  state- 
ments about  his  financial  condition  to  a  mercan- 
tile agency,  and  this  is  commimicated  to  a  third 
party  who  acts  upon  it  to  his  injury,  the  third 
party  has  as  good  cause  of  action  in  deceit  (q.v.) 
against  the  business  man  as  though  the  state- 
ment had  been  made  directly  to  him.  Consult: 
Errant,  The  Lata  Relating  to  Mercantile  Agencies 
(Philadelphia,  1889)  ;  Reinhard,  A  Treatise  on 
the  Lata  of  Agency  (Indianapolis,  1992). 

MEBCANTILE  AaENT.  In  the  absence  of 
a  statutory  definition,  specifically  one  who  acts 
as  agent  for  another  in  important  commercial 
transactions.  It  does  not  include  a  mere  ser- 
vant, care-taker,  or  a  merchant's  clerk  or  sales- 
man, or  a  common  carrier.  The  present  Factors 
Act  in  England  (52  and  53  Vict.  c.  45  §  1)  de- 
fines the  term  as  an  "agent  having  in  the  cus- 
tomary course  of  his  business  as  such  agent  au- 
thority either  to  sell  goods,  or  to  consign  goods 
for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or  to  buy  goods,  or  to 
raise  money  in  the  security  of  goods."  This  is  the 
signification  in  which  the  term  is  most  frequent- 
ly used  in  current  law  literature. 

HEBCANTHiE  LAW.  A  term  which,  at 
present,  covers  a  rather  indefinite  domain  in 
English  law.  It  is  ordinarily  applied  to  a  group 
of  topics,  more  or  less  closely  related,  and  having 
this  element  in  common,  that  they  have  origi- 
nated in,  or  been  greatly  modified  by,  the  usages 
and  customs  of  merchants.  The  legal  rules  gov- 
erning these  various  topics  do  not  form  a  sepa- 
rate and  independent  branch  of  jurisprudence: 
they  cannot  be  called  with  accuracy  a  distinct 
and  homogeneous  body  of  law.  In  the  leading 
English  treatise  on  this  subject  mercantile  law 
is  viewed  as  comprising:  partnership,  joint-stock 
companies,  agency,  negotiable  paper,  contracts 
with  earners,  insurance,  sale,  bottomry  and  re- 
spondentia, debt,  guaranty,  stoppage  in  transit, 
ben,  and  bankruptey. 

Much  of  the  law  upon  these  subjects  is  of  an- 
cient origin,  coming  to  us  from  the  Roman  civil 
law  and  later  codes.  For  a  discussion  of  this 
early  development,  see  Law  Merchant.  For  the 
law  upon  the  various  subjects  included  under 
the  term  mercantile  law,  such  as  partnership, 
lien,  etc.,  see  those  titles  in  the  vocabulary.  Con- 
sult the  authorities  cited  under  Law  Mebchant, 
and  the  titles  Partnebship  ;  Lien  ;  etc. 

MEBCANTILIS1C  The  system  of  economic 
policy  evolved  by  the  European  States  after  the 
decay  of  the  feudal  system.  In  essence  it  repre- 
sented a  transition  from  local  and  territorial  to 
national  economy.  In  the  earlier  period  each 
town  had  regulated  industry  in  the  exclusive 
interest  of  its  own  inhabitants,  treating  the  citi- 
zens of  other  towns  as  aliens  who  could  trade 
in  the  town  only  after  submitting  to  such  re- 
strictions as  the  town  government  chose  to  im- 
pose. It  was  the  purpose  of  the  mercantilist 
statesmen  to  break  down  the  barriers  to  internal 
intercourse,  and  to  unite  the  State  in  a  single 
economic  organism  in  rivalry  with  other  States. 

The  practical  measures  by  which  the  mercan- 
tilist statesmen  sought  to  attain  national  power 
were:  (1)  the  accumulation  within  the  State 
of  a  large  amount  of  the  precious  metals;  (2)  the 
encouragement  of  agriculture;  (3)  the  develop- 
ment of  manufactures ;  and  ( 4 )  the  creation  of  a 


mercantile  marine.  In  the  writings  of  the  ex- 
ponents of  mercantilist  doctrine  especial  emphasis 
was  devoted  to  the  acquisition  of  treasure.  The 
European  States  were  rapidly  passing  from  an 
economic  order  in  which  payments  in  kind  pre- 
vailed to  an  economy  based  upon  money  trans- 
actions, and  as  a  consequence  the  great  impor- 
tance of  a  sufiicient  stock  of  the  precious  metals 
occupied  a  large  share  of  the  attention  of  states- 
men. In  the  earlier  mercantile  period  an  efi'ort 
had  been  made  to  prevent  the  exportation  of  bul- 
lion altogether.  Later  it  came  to  be  recognized 
that  bullion  sent  abroad  in  the  way  of  exchange 
might  result  in  an  ultimate  increase  in  the  stock 
of  bullion  at  home.  Statesmen  then  concentrated 
their  attention  upon  securing  a  favorable  balance 
of  trade.  One  way  of  attaining  this  end  was 
to  encourage  the  exportation  of  finished  com- 
modities and  the  importation  of  raw  materials, 
since  in  this  way  a  greater  value  would  be  ex- 
ported  than   imported. 

Manufactures  were  encouraged  because  they 
furnished  materials  for  commerce,  helping  there- 
by to  secure  the  so-called  favorable  balance  of 
trade.  Agriculture  also  took  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion, and  was  encouraged  as  a  source  of  abim- 
dance  of  raw  material.  The  growth  of  popula- 
tion was  desired  in  order  to  have  an  ample  sup- 
ply of  cheap  labor  power.  Cheap  agricultural 
products  and  cheap  labor  were  aims,  and  herein 
we  see  a  difference  between  mercantilism  and 
modem  protectionism,  the  avowed  claims  of 
which  are  high  prices  for  the  products  and  high 
wages  for  labor.  In  England  the  earlier  prohibi- 
tion of  exportation  of  grain,  which  had  been  cal- 
culated to  favor  the  consumer,  w€is  succeeded  by 
prohibition  of  importation  when  prices  fell  below 
a  certain  figure,  in  order  that  tillage  might  be 
uniformly  profitable.  Manufactures  were  stimu- 
lated by  high  duties,  or  even  by  prohibition  of 
imports,  and  by  numerous  sumptuary  laws  favor- 
ing domestic  manufactures.  The  aim  here  was 
twofold:  to  attain  national  economic  indepen- 
dence and  to  prevent  the  export  of  bullion  in  pay- 
ment for  foreign  goods.  Finally,  the  encourage- 
ment of  shipping  was  naturally  regarded  as  of 
the  greatest  consequence  at  the  time,  since  the 
new  trade  with  America  and  the  Orient  rapidly 
enriched  the  nations  which  controlled  it.  For  the 
mercantilist  navigation  policy,  see  Naviqatiow 
Laws. 

Mercantilism  as  a  definite  policy  first  appears 
in  English  history  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century;  not  much  later  it  was  also  the  settled 
policy  of  France.  In  England  it  reached  its 
height  under  Elizabeth ;  in  France  under  Colbert 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  From  that  time  pure 
mercantilism  rapidly  decayed,  degenerating  into 
a  complicated  system  of  discriminating  duties 
designed  to  favor  private  interests  instead  of 
those  of  the  State  as  a  whole.  It  was  mercan- 
tilism of  this  kind  against  which  Adam  Smith 
directed  his  criticisms,  which  prejudiced  economic 
writers  for  a  century  against  the  system.  Re- 
cent historical  investigations  have,  however,  dem- 
onstrated that  at  its  best  mercantilism  repre- 
sented a  great  advance  in  economic  policy,  and 
that  it  was  effective  in  bringing  about  national 
unity  and  independence.  See  International 
Trade;  Protection;  Balance  of  Trade;  Physi- 
ocrats; Navigation  Laws. 

BiBLiooRAPHY.  Perhaps  the  best  presentation 
of  a  moderate  mercantilism  by  an  advocate  is 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MEBCANTILISM. 


880 


MEBCENABIEa 


that  found  in  Sir  James  Steuart's  Inquiry  into 
the  Principles  of  Political  Economy  (London. 
1767).  For  the  older  critical  attitude  toward 
mercantilism,  consult  Adam  Smith,  Wealth  of 
Nations,  book  iv.  By  far  the  best  statement  of 
the  modem  view  is  Schmoller's  Mercantile  Sys- 
tem (Eng.  trans..  New  York,  1896). 

KEBCAP^ANS  (from  Lat.  mercurius,  mer- 
cury, quicksilver  -f  captans,'  pres.  part,  of  cap- 
tare,  frequentative  of  capere,  to  take;  so  called 
as  absorbing  mercury).  A  class  of  carbon  com- 
pounds analogous  to  the  alcohols.  The  latter  are 
defined  as  compounds  containing  one  or  more  OH 

(hydroxyl)  groups  directly  combined  with  hydro- 
carbon groups  like  methyl  (CJH,),  ethyl  (CA)f 
etc.  Similarly,  the  mercaptans  may  be  defined  as 
compounds  containing  one  or  more  SH  (sulphur 
and  hydrogen)  groups  directly  combined  with 
hydrocarbon  groups.  Thus,  methyl  alcohol  has 
the  constitution  CHjOH,  methyl  mercaptan  the 
constitution  dSsSH ;  ethyl  alcohol  has  the  consti- 
tution CaHjOH,  ethyl  mercaptan  the  constitu- 
tion C^eSH;  etc.  The  following  are  the  two 
principal  methods  used  in  preparing  mercaptans: 

(1)  by  the  action  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
potassium  sulpho-hydrate  (KSH)  upon  halogen 
derivatives  of  the  hydrocarbons  (CHaCl,  C^bCI, 
etc.)  ;  (2)  by  distilling  an  aqueous  solution  of 
potassium  sulpho-hydrate  with  salts  of  acids  like 
the  well-known  ethyl-sulphuric  acid.  Thus  methyl 
mercaptan  may  be  prepared  according  to  either 
of  the  following  reactions : 

I.     C?H,C1  -f  KSH  =  CH.SH  +  KCl. 

Methjl  PotaBslam    Methyl     Potaseinm 
chloride     8uIpho>   mercaptan     chloride 
hydrate 

/OCH, 
n.    SO,  +  KSH  =  CHjSH  +  K,S04 

\0K 
Pot€uwlum     Potassium      Methyl        Potassium 
methyl-  sulpho-      mercaptan      sulphate 

sulphate        hydrate 

Most  mercaptans  are  liquid,  though  some  exist, 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  in  the  solid  state.  The 
liquid  mercaptans  are  much  more  volatile  than 
the  corresponding  alcohols.  They  are  only  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water,  but  mix  freely  with  alco- 
hol or  ether.  Their  most  characteristic  property, 
however,  is  their  exceedingly  offensive  odor,  by 
which,  according  to  Emil  Fischer  and  Penzoldt, 
a  quantity  of  ethyl  mercaptan  can  be  detected 
that  is  250  times  more  minute  than  the  smallest 
amount  of  sodium  that  can  be  revealed  by  the 
spectroscope.  The  hydrogen  of  the  SH  group 
of  a  mercaptan  can  be  replaced  by  metals.  The 
resulting  substances,  called  *mercaptide8,'  are  de- 
composed by  acids,  but — ^unlike  the  alcoholates 
(see  Alcohols) — they  are  unaffected  by  pure 
water.  The  ethyl  mercaptide  of  mercury  is 
formed  according  to  the  following  equation: 
20^.SH  -f  HgO*=  ( CAS )  ^g  -f  H,0 

Ethyl        Mercuric         Mercuric         Water 
mercaptan      oxide         mercaptide 

The  first  mercaptan  ever  prepared  was  ethyl  mer- 
captan, which  was  obtained  oy  Zeise  in  1833.  It 
is  now  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
Bulphonal  ( q.v. ) ,  a  well-known  hypnotic. 

KEBCAP^IDES.     See  Mebcaptans. 

MEBCA'TOBy  Gerabdus  (Latinized  form  of 
Gebhabd  Kremer)  (1512-94).  A  Flemish  mathe- 
matician and  geographer,  bom  in  Rupelmonde. 
.He  took  his  degree  in  philosophy  at  the  Univer- 


sity of  Louvain,  and  later  made  a  profound 
study  of  the  sciences  of  geography  and  mathe- 
matics. In  1559  he  was  appointed  cosmographer 
to  the  Duke  of  Jttlich  and  Cleves.  His  name  is 
perpetuated  bv  the  projection  used  in  nautical 
maps,  in  which  the  meridians  are  represented  by 
parallel  lines,  and  parallels  of  latitude  by 
straight  lines  intersectmg  the  meridians  at  right 
angles.  The  projection,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  applied  to  nautical  maps  by  Edward  Wright. 
Besides  a  large  number  of  maps,  Mercator  com- 
piled series  of  geographical  taoles,  Tahuks  Oeo- 
graphuxB  ad  Mentem  Ptolem€Bi  Restitutes  ( 1578) . 
He  also  wrote  a  Harmonia  Evangeliorum 
(1592);  and  a  work  entitled  Atlas,  sive  Cos- 
mographiooB  Meditatione^  de  Fabtica  Mundi 
( 1594),  which  was  placed  on  the  Index  Expurga- 
torius. 

XEBCATOB  (properly  Kaufmanic),  Nioo- 
LAUS  (c.1620-87).  A  German  mathematician, 
astronomer,  and  engineer,  bom  at  Cismar  in  the 
Duchy  of  Holstein.  He  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  (Dopenhagen  and  Rostock,  and  in 
1660  or  thereabouts  went  to  London,  where  he 
became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, then  newly  founded.  Subsequently  he  pro- 
ceeded to  France,  where  he  was  appointed  hy- 
draulic engineer  to  direct  the  construction  of  the 
Versailles  fountains.  Owing  to  his  refusal  to  ac- 
cept the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  the  sum  agreed 
upon  as  payment  for  this  work  was  withheld,  and 
this  fact  is  said  to  have  hastened  his  death.  He 
is  credited  with  the  discovery  of  several  methods 
of  calculation,  in  astronomy  and  higher  mathe- 
matics. His  publications  include,  besides  con- 
tributions to  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Society,  Cosmographia  (1651);  As- 
tronomia  Sphctrica  (1651);  Rationes  Mathe- 
matiocB  Suhductce  (1653);  and  Logarithmo- 
technia  (1668-74).  Consult:  Kaestner,  Oeschichte 
der  Mathematik  (Gdttingen,  1796-1800)  ;  Mon- 
tucla,  Histoire  des  math^matiques  (Paris,  1799- 
1802). 

MEBCATOB'S  PBOJECTION.  See  Chart; 
Map;  Mercator,  Gerardus;  Navigation;  Sail- 
ings. 

MEBCEDES,  m^r-sft^Dfts.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Buenos  Ayres,  Argentina,  situated  on  the 
Pacific  Railroad,  36  miles  west  of  Buenos  Ayres 
(Map:  Argentina,  F  10).  It  is  a  flourishing 
town  in  a  rich  sheep-raising  region,  has  a  col- 
lege, a  public  libraiy,  and  several  steam-mills 
and  soap  factories.  Population,  about  10,000. 
It  was  founded  as  a  military  station  in  1779,  and 
has  been  settled  largely  by  Irish  immigrants. 

MEBCEN ABIES  (Lat.  mercenarius,  hireling, 
from  merceSf  wages,  from  merere,  to  gain,  de- 
serve ;  connected  with  Gk.  fulpeadai,  meiresthai, 
to  share,  divide).  Hired  soldiers,  usually  for- 
eigners in  the  country  for  which  they  fight. 
They  existed  from  the  earliest  times.  In  the 
early  Greek  republics  there  was  no  standing 
army  or  mercenary  force,  but  the  citizens  them- 
selves formed  a  national  militia.  In  Persia,  how- 
ever, there  were  large  numbers  of  Greek  merce- 
naries, and  they  appear  to  have  played  the  same 
part  which  in  later  centuries  the  Swiss  did 
in  Western  Europe.  The  first  Grecian  State 
which  used  mercenaries  in  large  numbers  was 
Athens,  and  other  Greek  States  soon  followed 
this  example,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War  there  were  a  large  number  of  men  in 


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KEBCEBIZED  COTTON. 


Greece  whose  profession  was  war,  and  who 
fought  regardless  of  the  cause.  In  Rome  merce- 
nary troops  were  long  used  merely  as  auxiliaries, 
but  about  the  fourth  century  after  Christ  the 
army  began  to  assume  the  characteristics  of  a 
mercenary  force,  being  composed  largely  of  Ger- 
mans, who  finally  overthrew  the  Western  Em- 
pire. In  the  Byzantine  Empire  nearly  all  the 
troops  were  mercenaries. 

But  the  golden  age  of  mercenaries  was  in 
Western  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  the 
beginning  of  the  modern  era.  In  the  early  Middle 
Ages  armies  were  recruited  by  a  feudal  levy, 
but  when  wars  came  to  be  waged  on  a  larger 
scale  in  the  eleventh  century,  the  forty  days  per 
year  which  the  vassal  had  to  serve  proved  in- 
sufficient, and  instead  the  King  or  feudal  lord 
preferred  to  commute  the  service  of  the  vassal 
for  a  money  payment  and  hire  soldiers  instead. 
In  England,  it  is  true,  mercenaries  were  rare, 
though  they  did  form  one  of  the  grievances 
against  John  and  Henry  III.  The  reason  for 
their  scarcity  in  England  was  that  there  war- 
fare consisted  to  a  great  extent  in  border  raids, 
for  which  the  feudal  levy  or  local  militia  was 
ample.  On  the  Continent  circumstances  were  dif- 
ferent, and  kings  with  a  wide  and  scattered  em- 
pire, like  Henry  II.  of  England,  who  pos- 
sessed a  large  part  of  France,  were  compelled 
to  employ  mercenaries  of  all  kinds.  At  first  it 
was  common  to  buy  their  services  by  a  gift  of 
land,  but  by  the  twelfth  century  money  became 
more  common,  and  Norman  knights,  Genoese 
bowmen,  and  Flemish  pikemen  were  frequently 
hired  for  pay.  A  fuller  development  was  reached 
in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  appearance  of 
the  condottiere  system,  in  which  some  noted  chief 
collected  an  army  of  free  companions,  and  sold 
his  force  as  a  whole.  The  first  of  these  was 
Roger  de  Flor,  who  waged  war  successfully 
against  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Andronicus  II. 
(See  Catalan  Gband  Company.)  It  was  to 
this  type  that  the  various  noted  Italian  adven- 
turers* belonged.  The  character  of  Italian  civi- 
lization was  of  a  kind  to  give  impetus  to  the  rise 
of  a  mercenary  force,  for  the  inhabitants  of  the 
many  commercial  city  States  were  unwarlike  and 
at  the  same  time  engaged  in  numerous  petty 
quarrels.  Frequently,  however,  the  mercenaries 
turned  their  arms  against  the  city  which  had 
hired  them,  or  aided  in  imposing  a  tyrant  upon 
the  city,  who  then  rewarded  the  company  from  the 
spoils.  Thus  arose  in  Milan  the  rule  of  the  Vis- 
conti,  in  Verona  that  of  the  Scala,  in  Ferrara 
that  of  the  Este,  in  Rimini  that  of  the  Malatesta. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Italian 
mercenary  met  a  dangerous  rival  in  the  Swiss 
pikeman.  Switzerland  was  too  small  and  poor  to 
support  all  of  its  hardy  sons,  and  they  were 
sold  in  large  numbers,  usually  by  the  canton 
itself,  to  some  warlike  prince.  After  the  battle  of 
Melegnano  in  1515,  they  formed  a  valuable  con- 
tingent in  the  French  armies  until  the  French 
Revolution.  All  parties  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  used  mercenaries  to  the  exclusion  of  nearly 
all  other  troops,  and  to  this  fact  is  partly  due 
the  terrible  devastation  which  was  caused.  In 
the  American  Revolution  Great  Britain  used 
Hessian  mercenaries  to  fight  against  the  colonists, 
it  being  common  for  some  of  the  smaller  princes 
to  sell  their  subjects  in  this  fashion.  The  use 
of  mercenaries  on  the  Continent  ended  with  the 
French  Revolution,  their  place  being  taken  by 
Vol.  XIII.— 22. 


national    standing   armies.      See    BBABAN96NS; 
CoNDOTTiKBi;  Feee  Lanoe;  Swiss  Guabd. 

MEBCEBy  Fort.    See  Fort  Merger. 

KEB/CEB,  Henry  Chapman  (1856—).  An 
American  anthropologist  and  archsologist,  bom 
at  Doylestown,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  Harvard, 
where  he  graduated  in  1879.  He  made  special 
studies  of  the  relations  of  extinct  animals  to 
primeval  man  in  North  America,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  mylodon,  peccary,  and  sloth ; 
made  valuable  discoveries  of  fossil  carnivora  in 
the  Port  Kennedy  (Pa.)  bone  cave;  and  explored 
the  caverns  of  Yucatan.  After  research  on  the 
Pennsylvania  Dutch  pottery  manufactures  he 
perfected  a  preparation  for  mural  tiles.  Mercer 
wrote:  Lenape  Btone  (1886) ;  Bill  Caves  of  Yuoa- 
tan  (1896)  ;  The  Antiquity  of  Man  in  the  Delor 
ware  Valley  (1897);  and  Tools  of  the  Nation 
Maker  (1897). 

KEBCEBy  Hugh  (1720-77).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  bom  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland ;  was 
educated  at  the  university  there;  entered  the 
medical  profession,  and  served  as  assistant  sur- 
geon under  Prince  Charles  Edward  in  1745.  The 
rebellion  having  failed,  he  emigrated  to  America 
in  1747,  and  settled  as  a  physician  near  the  site 
of  the  present  Mercersburg,  Pa.  He  served  as 
captain  imder  Braddock  in  1755,  and  was  so  se- 
verely wounded  in  the  battle  near  Fort  Duquesne 
that  he  could  not  keep  pace  with  the  other  fugi- 
tives, and  spent  several  weeks  in  solitary  wander- 
ing, before  he  finally  reached  Fort  Cumberland, 
100  miles  away.  In  1758  he  was  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant-colonel,  accompanied  General 
Forbes  to  Fort  Duquesne,  now  Pittsburg,  and 
commanded  that  post  for  some  time.  Afterwards 
he  settled  at  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  and  on  the 
approach  of  the  Revolution  took  sides  with  the 
patriot  party.  He  organized  and  drilled  the 
militia  of  Virginia  in  1775,.  and  the  minute  men 
in  1776,  and  at  Washington's  request  on  June  5, 
1776,  was  made  a  brigadier-general  by  Congress. 
He  commanded  a  column  in  the  attack  on  Tren- 
ton, and  led  the  advance  in  the  night  march  on 
Princeton,  which  he  had  himself  advised.  While 
rallying  his  temporarily  disorganized  troops  early 
in  the  engagement  at  Princeton  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  after  a  stubborn  hand-to-hand  confiict 
in  which  he  refused  all  quarter,  and  on  January 
12  he  died^  in  a  neighboring  farm-house.  A  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  was  erected  at  Laurel  Hill 
CJemetery,  Philadelphia,  in  1840. 

MEBCEBIZED  COTTON.  Cotton  that  has 
been  treated  by  a  chemical  process  which  imparts 
a  permanent  silky  lustre  to  the  fabric,  yarn,  or 
thread.  About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury John  Mercer,  an  English  chemist,  discov- 
ered that  caustic  soda  or  caustic  potash  had  a 
remarkable  effect  upon  the^cellulese  structure  of 
the  cotton  fibre,  changing  its  physical  and  chemi- 
cal nature,  causing  it  to  shrink  and  become  i 
thicker  and  softer,  and  increasing  its  affinity 
for  dyes.  No  practical  xise  was  made  of  the  dis- 
covery because  the  process  shrunk  the  material 
so  badly.  Toward  tne  close  of  the  last  century, 
it  was  discovered  that  by  treating  the  cloth 
under  tension  the  shrinkage  is  obviated  and  the 
material  assumes  a  glossy  appearance,  like  silk. 
This  effect  is  due  to  the  chan^d  structure  of  the 
fibres,  which  under  the  action  of  the  mercerizing 
treatment  while  under  tension  become  straight 
translucent  tubes  with  a  small  round  central 


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MEBCEBIZED  COTTON. 


882 


MEBCHANTS'  COXIBTa 


opening  instead  of  the  spiral  collapsed  and  flat- 
tened tube  of  the  cotton  fibre.  The  lustre  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  surface  becomes  smooth  and 
reflects  light  like  the  silk  fibre.  Consult  Gardner, 
Die  Mercerization  der  Baumtoolle  (Berlin,  1898). 
miB^CEBSBirBO.  A  borough  in  Franklin 
County,  Pa.,  73  miles  southwest  of  Harrisburg; 
on  a  branch  of  the  Cumberland  Valley  Railroad 
(Map:  Pennsylvania,  F  8).  It  was  formerly  a 
noted  educational  centre  as  the  seat  of  institu- 
tions under  the  control  of  the  Reformed  Church 
in  the  United  States  (German).  It  now  has  the 
well-known  Mercersburg  Academy.  The  princi- 
pal interests  are  agriculture  and  leather  manu- 
facture. Mercersburg,  originally  called  Black 
Town,  was  incorporated  first  in  1831.  It  was  the 
home  of  President  James  Buchanan.  In  1901 
the  limits  of  the  borough  were  extended,  consid- 
erably increasing  the  population.  Population, 
1900,  956;  1906  (local  est.),  1260. 

MEBCEBSBima  THEOLOGY.  The  name 
of  a  system  of  views  emanating  from  the  the- 
ological seminary  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  formerly  located  at  Mercersburg,  Pa. 
(now  at  Lancaster),  and  chiefly  defended  by 
Prof.  J.  W.  Nevin  (q.v.).  He  insisted  upon  the 
true  unity  of  the  person  of  Christ,  and  the  gen- 
uinely human  character  of  His  life.  The  person 
of  Christ  was  made  central  in  the  system. 
Christ  is  united  with  generic  humanity,  which 
develops  itself  by  an  inward  force  in  the  Church. 
Thus  the  Church  has  a  true  theanthropic  char- 
acter. Emphasis  was  also  laid  upon  the  objec- 
tive operation  of  the  sacraments.  Consult  Nevin's 
principal  work,  Mystical  Presence  (Philadelphia, 
1846),  and  his  Life  by  Theodore  Appel  (Phila- 
delphia, 1889). 

MEBCEB  UNIVEBSITY.  A  Baptist  uni- 
versity at  Macon,  Ga.,  founded  in  1838.  In  1906-7 
it  had  a  faculty  of  47,  and  a  student  enrollment 
of  222  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  50  in  the 
Law  Department,  and  30  in  Pharmacy.  The  li- 
brary contained  15,000  volumes.  Its  endowment 
was  $293,000,  and  its  income  $20,000.  The 
grounds  and  buildings  were  valued  at  $225,000. 

KEBCHANTABLE  ARTICLE.  (3ne  that  is 
salable  in  the  market  under  the  name  which  it 
bears  in  the  contract  relating  to  it.  Frequently 
a  contract  of  sale  expressly  provides  that  the 
article  to  be  delivered  shall  be  merchantable; 
but  even  in  the  absence  of  such  a  statement,  a 
contract  for  the  sale  of  goods  by  description,  as 
for  the  sale  of  sugar,  or  wheat,  or  coal,  implies 
an  undertaking  by  the  seller  to  supply  a  mer- 
chantable article.  The  buyer  is  not  entitled  to  a 
perfect  article,  but  he  is  entitled  to  one  that  is 
salable  under  its  contract  name.  If  the  contract 
is  for  a  quantity  of  J^anila  sugar,  the  buyer  can- 
not insist  upon  absolutely  pure  sugar,  but  he  can 
reject  sugar  that  is  adulterated  to  such  an  extent 
as  not  to  pass  in  market  as  salable  Manila 
sugar.  Where  the  term  'merchantable'  is  used  in 
the  contract,  either  party  may  show  that  it 
bears  a  peculiar  meaning  in  that  locality.  Ckm- 
sult  the  authorities  referred  to  under  Sale,  sec- 
tion Sale  of  Personal  Property, 

MEBCHANT  OP  VENICE,  The.  A  com- 
edy by  Shakespeare,  produced  probably  in  1597, 
printed  in  1600.  The  earliest  version  was  proba- 
bly that  by  Henslowe,  in  1594,  under  the  title 
**The  Venesyon  Comedy."     The  incidents  of  the 


play  are  drawn  from  many  sources.  The  story 
of  the  pound  of  flesh  is  very  ancient;  Shake- 
speare took  the  story  of  Bassanio  no  doubt  from 
the  counterpart  in  the  ''Adventures  of  Gianetto" 
in  Fiorentino's  "II  Pecorone,"  written  in  1378, 
but  printed  in  1558;  and  possibly  from  a  similar 
tale  in  the  "(jlesta  Romanorum,"  which  contained 
as  well  the  story  of  the  choice  of  three  caskets, 
a  popular  mediaeval  tale.  He  may  have  beeo 
indebted  to  the  lost  play  "The  Jew,"  mentioned 
by  S.  Gosson  in  his  "School  of  Abuse,"  1579; 
Iwt  certainly  was  influenced  by  Marlowe's  "Jew 
of  Malta."  The  character  of  Shylock  was  drawn 
in  part  at  least  from  **The  Orator"  by  Silvayn; 
while  the  story  of  Antonio  and  Shylock  waa  fore- 
shadowed in  "Three  Ladies  of  London,"  by  Robert 
Wilson,  1584. 

KEBCHANTS,  Custom  of.  See  Law  Mer- 
chant. 

MEBCHANTS  ADVEKTUBBBS.  An  Eng- 
lish company  organized  in  late  mediaeval  times 
for  carrying  on  foreign  trade.  Its  constituticm 
was  that  of  a  regulated  company  ( q.v. ) ,  any  one 
having  a  right  to  join  in  the  trade  upon  payment 
of  a  fine  and  agreement  to  submit  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  company.  The  date  of  its  incorpora- 
tion is  not  known,  but  privileges  were  granted 
to  it  by  the  Count  of  Flanders  as  early  as. the 
fourteenth  century.  The  principal  business  of 
the  company  was  the  export  of  cloth;  and  it 
exacted  regular  contributions  from  all  persons 
who  exported  cloth  to  countries  covered  by  its 
privileges.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  chief 
work  in  extending  English  foreign  trade  was  per- 
formed by  this  company.  When  the  Portuguese 
made  Antwerp  the  aepot  for  Oriental  wares,  the 
Merchants  Adventurers  grew  rapidly  in  wealth, 
since  their  goods  could  find  a  ready  sale  for  the 
Eastern  trade.  In  the  same  century  the  com- 
pany began  a  long  war  with  the  traders  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  (q.v.),  who  were  infringing 
upon  their  monopoly  of  the  export  of  woolen 
goods.  The  Hanseatic  traders  were  at  first  pro- 
tected by  the  Crown,  but  finally  were  driven 
from  England  by  a  decree  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
With  the  siege  and  capture  of  Antwerp  by  the 
Spaniards  ( 1584-85),  the  Merchants  Adventurers 
had  to  find  new  centres  for  carrying  on  their  for- 
eign trade,  and  finally  settled  in  Hamburg,  be- 
coming kno\ni  as  the  Hamburg  Company.  Much 
of  the  historical  importance  of  the  Merchants 
Adventurers  lies  in  the  fact  that  their  organiza- 
tion served  as  a  model  for  the  great  foreign  trad- 
ing companies  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.    See  Regulated  Companies. 

BiBLioGBAPHT.  For  a  brief  account  of  the 
Merchants  Adventurers,  see  article  "Adventu- 
rers, Merchants,"  in  Palgrave,  Dictionary  of  Po- 
litical Economy  (London,  1894).  A  more  ex- 
tended discussion  will  be  found  in  Lingelbach, 
The  Merchant  Adventurers  of  England  (Phila- 
delphia, 1903). 

MEBCHANTS'  COXTBTS.  Certain  courts 
which  arose  out  of  the  guild  merchant,  by  the 
practice  of  the  guild  brethren  assuming  to  do 
justice  at  their  'morning  speeches,*  or  periodical 
meetings  of  the  society.  They  first  assumed  to 
decide  cases  of  inheritance  and  succession,  the 
right  of  a  member  of  a  guild  being  treated  as  an 
object  of  ownership.  Then,  besides  these  matters, 
they  assumed  jurisdiction  over  actions  of  debt, 
covenant,  and  trespass,  and  such  other  matters 


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MEBCIEB  DE  LA  BIVliiBIL 


as  they  could  enforce  by  their  decrees.  These  ju- 
dicial functions  of  the  guild  merchant  became  well 
established,  in  some  cases  at  least,  as  early  as 
the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century;  and  the  mer- 
chants' courts  exercised  a  large  influence  upon 
the  economic  and  corporative  growth  of  the 
municipalities  where  they  existed  both  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  Continent.  These  old  courts  dis- 
appeared with  the  disappearance  of  the  guild  mer- 
chant, which  was  superseded  by  the  aggregate  of 
the  crafts;  but  the  business  customs  that  they 
recognized  and  helped  to  establish  became  the 
source  of  a  large  part  of  the  mercantile  usages 
and  laws  of  to-day.  See  further  under  Law 
Mebchant,  and  consult  the  authorities  there  re- 
ferred to. 

MEBCHANT'S  TALE,  The.  One  of  Chau- 
cer's Canterbury  tales.  The  story  is  the  be- 
trayal of  an  old  husband  by  a  yoimg  wife. 
Tyrwhitt  thinks  it  was  taken  from  a  Latin  fable 
by  Adolphe  of  1315,  but  the  story  with  the 
incident  of  the  pear-tree  is  found  in  many 
sources.  It  forms  the  seventh  of  the  "Fables  of 
Alfonce,"  added  by  Caxton  to  his  edition  of 
jEsop,  1484,  and  is  found  in  "Behar  Damish," 
composed  in  1650,  though  the  story,  evidently  of 
Oriental  origin,  is  far  older.  Boccaccio  and 
Chaucer  may  have  drawn  it  from  the  "Commedia 
Lydiae."  An  account  of  these  sources  is  found 
in  the  Chaucer  Society  publications  under  "Ori- 
gins and  Analogues"  of  the  Tales.  Pope  used 
the  tale  as  a  basis  for  his  "January  and  May." 

JCEBCIA,  m^r^shA.  An  ancient  Anglo-Saxon 
kingdom,  which  extended  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Trent  from  the  North  Sea  to  Wales.  It  owed 
its  origin  to  the  fusion  of  many  smaller  States, 
though  the  chief  portion  was  conquered  by  An- 
gles late  in  the  sixth  century.  The  name  Mer- 
cians signifies  *men  of  the  march,*  for  they  were 
settled  along  the  moorlands,  which  for  centuries 
remained  the  borderland  between  Angle  and 
Welshman.  The  Kingdom  was  of  little  importance 
until  the  accession  of  Penda  in  626,  who  rapidly 
attained  a  supremacy  over  the  other  kingdoms 
after  his  victory  over  the  powerful  Edwin  (q.v.), 
the  Deiran  Kmg,  at  Hatfield  (or  Heathfield) 
in  633.  In  656,  however,  Penda  was  de- 
feated and  slain  by  Oswin  of  Northumberland 
at  Winwaed,  and  for  the  time  being  Mercian  su- 
premacy came  to  an  end.  It  recovered  gradually 
under  Wulfhere  (658-675),  who  was  the  first 
Christian  King  of  Mercia,  and  attained  its  high- 
est development  in  the  eighth  century,  especially 
under  vEthelbald  (716-757)  and  Offa  (757-796). 
After  the  death  of  the  latter  the  Kingdom  rapidly 
declined,  and  in  828  it  was  merged  in  the  realm 
of  Egbert  (q.v.)  of  Wessex.  Consult  Green,  The 
Making  of  England  (New  York,  1882).  See 
Heptabcht. 

MEBClii,  mftr'syA',  Antonin  (1845—).  A 
French  sculptor,  bom  at  Toulouse.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Jouffroy  and  Falgui^re,  and  shows  much  of  his 
latter  master's  technical  perfection.  He  won  the 
Prix  de  Rome  in  1868,  and  sent  from  Rome  his 
"David  Vainqueur"  (1872),  now  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg. Other  works  by  this  sculptor  are: 
"Gloria  Victis"  (1874),  now  in  the  Place  Mon- 
tholon;  "David  avant  le  combat"  (1876)  ;  "Le 
gCnie  des  arts"  (1877),  for  the  entrance  to  the 
Tuileries;  the  "Quand  mSme"  (1882),  at  Bel- 
fort;  and  busts  of  Gambetta  and  Michelet.  He 
erected  the  tombs  of  Thiers  and  Michelet  at 


Pdre-Lachaise,  and  the  monument  to  Gounod  iof 
the  Park  Monceau.  One  of  his  most  celebrated 
works  is  the  statue  of  Napoleon  on  the  VendOme 
Column. 

MEBdEBy  mar'sy&^  Honob£  (1840-94).  A 
Canadian  political  leader.  He  was  bom  at  Saint 
Athanase,  Quebec;  was  educated  at  the  Jesuits' 
College,  Montreal;  studied  law,  and  in  1867  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1862-64,  as  editor  of  Le 
Courrier  de  Saint-Hyaointhe,  he  for  some  time 
advocated  liberal  principles.  In  1871  he  was 
elected  to  the  Commons  from  Rouville,  in  1879  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly,  and  in  the  same  year 
became  Solicitor-General.  In  1883  he  was  selected 
to  lead  the  Liberal  oppositicHi  in  the  Assembly, 
but  later  founded  a  party  of  his  own  by  combin- 
ing Liberals  and  Clericals,  and  in  1887  became 
Premier. 

MEBdEB,  Louis  Chables  Antoine  (1744- 
1812).  A  French  engineer,  bom  at  Melun.  He 
entered  the  French  naval  service  about  1760,  but 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  got 
permission  to  join  the  Patriot  forces  as  a  volun- 
teer, and  served  imder  d'Estaing  and  Lafayette. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  reentered  the  French 
service,  but  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  fled  to  Lou- 
isiana, where  in  1803  Napoleon  employed  him  to 
draw  up  plans  for  the  protection  of  the  Gulf 
Coast.  Later  Mercier  explored  the  country  as 
far  as  Oregon  and  California.  In  1808  he  re- 
turned to  France,  where  he  published  M^moire 
8ur  lea  vapeura  de  Vatmoaph^e  le  long  du  coura 
du  Miaaiaaippi  (1808)  ;  Carte  du  haaain  du  Mia- 
aiaaippi  (1808)  ;  Syatdme  hydrographique  de  la 
Louiaiane  (1809)  ;  Carte  du  delta  du  Miaaiaaippi 
(1810);  Etudea  topographiquea,  g^ographiquea, 
hydrographiqu€8y  g^ologiquea  et  g4oddaiquea  aur 
la  Louiaiane  (1811)  ;  and  Tableau  du  climat  de 
la  Louiaiane,  et  de  aon  influence  aur  lea  Europ^ena 
et  lea  Cr^olea  (1812). 

MEBCIEB,  Louis  S^ibastieit  (1740-1814). 
A  French  author,  bom  in  Paris.  At  first  he 
wrote  novels,  some  of  which,  especially  L^homme 
aauvage  (1767),  were  widely  read.  After  having 
written  some  dramas,  which  were  severely  criti- 
cised, he  published  an  Eaaai  aur  Vart  dramatique 
(1773),  in  which  he  contended  that  the  dramas 
of  Racine  and  Corneillc  had  ceased  to  be  of  any 
interest  to  the  French  theatre.  Mercier  wished 
to  see  Diderot's  theories  realized  on  the  boards; 
he  wished  to  see  life  portrayed  more  faithfully. 
It  was  after  a  prolonged  struggle  that  Mercier 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  his  dramas,  L'/iaW- 
tant  de  la  Guadeloupe,  La  brouette  du  vinaigrier, 
and  Le  d^aerteur,  played  on  the  Parisian  stage, 
where  they  were  enthusiastically  received.  In 
his  essay  L^an  24^0,  rive  a'il  fut  jamaia,  pub- 
lished in  1770,  he  sketches  out  a  programme 
of  political  and  social  reforms.  His  Tableau  de 
Paria  (1781),  in  which  the  vices  and  lawlessness 
of  the  Parisian  aristocracy  are  described,  gave 
so  much  offense  that  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
France.  His  other  books  include:  Le  nouveau 
Paria  (1800),  and  Hiatoire  de  France  depuia 
Clovia  juaqu^OAi  r^gne  de  Louia  XV L  (1802). 
Mercier  was  a  member  of  the  (invention,  in 
which  he  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.,  and 
of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 

MEBCIEB  DE  LA  BIVLEBE,  mftr'syA^  de 
Ik  r^'vyftr^,  Paul  Pierre  ( 1720-1794) .  A  French 
economist.  In  1758  he  became  Intendant  of 
Martinique,  where  he  attempted  to  apply  the 


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HEBCXTBY. 


free-trade  notions  of  the  Physiocratic  School. 
He  returned  to  France  in  1767,  and  published 
L'Ordre  naturel  et  easentiel  des  aoMt^s  poU- 
iiquea,  pronounced  by  Adam  Smith  to  be  the  best 
expoeiticMi  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Physiocrats. 
This  work  was  received  with  extravagant  ap- 
plause, and  gained  for  him  an  invitation  to  the 
Court  of  Catharine  II.  of  Russia.  He  published 
several  other  works,  which  do  not,  however,  rise 
above  mediocrity. 

KEBCK,  mdrk,  Johann  Heinbich  (1741- 
91 ) .  A  German  author  and  critic,  bom  at  Darm- 
stadt and  educated  at  Giessen.  His  influence  on 
German  literature  was  the  result  of  his  critical 
ability,  but  chiefly  through  his  early  recognition 
and  encouragement  of  6roethe,  his  intimate  friend- 
ship with  Herder,  Wieland,  Forster,  and  Lichten- 
berff,  and  the  prominent  part  he  took  in  Wie- 
land's  Merkur,  the  Frankfurter  gelehrte  Anzeigen, 
and  Nicolai's  Allgemeine  deutache  Bibliothek,  In 
business  ventures  and  in  his  domestic  relations  he 
was  unfortunate,  his  mind  became  affected,  and 
in  1791  he  committed  suicide.  His  correspond- 
ence, printed  at  Darmstadt  (1835-38)  and  at 
Leipzig  (1848),  and  a  selection  from  his  crit- 
iques, edited  by  Stahr  (1840),  alone  remain  as 
evidences  of  his  literary  ability.  Consult  Zim- 
mermann,  Johann  Heinrich  Merck  (Frankfort, 
1871). 

KEB^CIJB,  James  (1842-96).  An  American 
military  officer  and  scientist.  He  was  bom  at 
Tonawanda,  Pa.,  and,  after  graduation  at  West 
Point,  was  assistant  engineer  on  the  survey  of 
the  Northern  and  Northwestern  lakes.  In  1867 
he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of  natural 
and  experimental  philosophy  at  West  Point  He 
likewise  engaged  in  different  river  and  harbor 
improvements,  notably  at  Hell  Gate,  and  was 
professor  of  civil  and  military  engineering  at 
West  Point  from  1884  until  his  death.  He  re- 
vised and  enlarged  Mahan's  Permanent  Fartifioa- 
Hon  (1887)  and  wrote  Elements  of  the  Art  ef 
War  (1888)  and  Military  Mines,  Blasting,  and 
Demolitions  (1892). 

MEBCUBIC  CHLOBIDE,  or  Corrosive  Sub- 
UMATE,  HgClj.  One  of  the  two  known  com- 
pounds of  mercury  and  chlorine,  the  other,  which 
contains  a  smaller  proportion  of  chlorine,  being 
described  under  Calomel.  Mercuric  chloride 
may  be  prepared  by  heating  a  mixture  of  mer- 
curic sulphate  and  common  salt  with  man- 
ganese dioxide,  and  collecting  the  sublimate  in  a 
suitable  receiver.  The  manganese  dioxide  re- 
mains behind  unchanged,  its  presence  being  de- 
sirable only  in  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
calomel  along  with  mercuric  chloride.  Corrosive 
sublimate  is  moderately  and  very  slowly  soluble 
in  water,  but  is  quite  soluble  in  ordinary  alcohol, 
which  dieaolves  about  one-third  of  its  weight  of 
the  sublimate.  Mercuric  chloride  is  a  violent 
poison,  the  symptoms  of  acute  poisoning  being 
painful  gastro- intestinal  irritation,  vomiting,  and 
diarrhoea.  A  moderate  amount  of  white  of  egg 
forms  a  good  antidote.  Besides,  milk  and  flour 
should  be  given,  and  vomiting  should  be  induced 
bv  mustard  and  lukewarm  water,  or  by  irritating 
the  fauces.  In  small  quantities  mercuric  chlo- 
ride is  administered  internally,  either  by  the 
mouth  or  hypodermatically,  as  a  remedy  for 
syphilis,  mercury  salts  being  especially  valuable 
in  the  primary  and  secondary  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease. Externally  mercuric  chloride  is  exten- 
tively  used  as  an  antiseptic  and  as  an  antipara- 


sitic, the  maximum  strength  of  solutions  thus 
employed  being  about  one  part  of  the  sublimate 
to  one  thousand  parts  of  water.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  powerful  antiseptics  known. 

MEBCTDBIC  CYANIDK  See  Htdrocyanio 
Acid. 

MEBCUBOTJS  CHLOBIDE.     See  Calomel. 

MEBOXTBY    (Lat.    Mercurius,   Gk.    'Epfieai^, 
Hermeais,  hence  'Ep/t^f,  Herm^,  Doric    *Ep/*df,   - 
Hermas) .    The  Latin  name  for  one  of  the  Olym- 
pian divinities  of  Greece  and  Rome,  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  Hermes. 

Greece.  According  to  the  common  Greek  leg- 
end Hermes  was  the  son  of  Zeiis  and  Maia,  who 
bore  him  on  Mount  Cyllene  in  Arcadia^  Imme- 
diately after  his  birth  he  went  forth  and  stole 
the  cattle  of  Apollo,  dragging  them  backward  to 
his  cave.  When  accused  he  stoutly  denied  the 
theft  even  before  Zeus,  and  when  convicted  suc- 
ceeded in  pacifying  his  brother  by  the  gift  of  the 
lyre,  whicn  he  had  been  led  to  invent  from  dis- 
covering a  tortoise-shell  in  which  only  the  dried 
sinews  remained.  In  the  Odyssey  and  later, 
Hermes  is  the  messenger  of  the  gods — their  her- 
ald (K^pvf),  of  supernatural  swiftness,  often 
with  wings  on  his  shoes  and  cap,  and  carrying 
a  magic  rod  (the  later  caduoeus,  q.v.).  With 
this  rod  he  duirms  men  to  sleep  and  wakes  them. 
He  also  appears  in  the  latest  stages  of  epic  poetry 
and  throughout  classical  antiquity  as  Hermes 
Psychopompos,  who  conducts  the  souls  of  the 
dead  to  the  lower  world,  where  he  intrusts  them 
to  Charon,  who  ferries  them  over  the  Styx.  He 
was  also  the  herdsman's  god,  being  especially 
worshiped  to  secure  increase  of  the  flocks.  And 
from  this  function  perhaps  arises  connection  with  * 
the  ram  and  calf,  both  of  which  are  associated 
with  him  in  cult  and  art.  Travelers  looked  to 
him  for  guidance  and  help  on  their  journeys,  and 
traders  venerated  him  as  one  who  could  incfeas*  ^ 
their  gains,  for  he  was  the  god  of  good  luck  and 
'windfalls.*  He  was  also  the  patron  of  thieves; 
perhaps  originally  of  cattle-raiders.  He  was  also 
honored  in  the  palaestra  and  gymnasium,  where 
his  statues  were  erected,  as  the  guardian  and 
favorer  of  manly  sports.  In  later  times  he  ap* 
pears  frequently  as  a  god  of  eloquence  and  per- 
suasion. 

Perhaps  his  most  common  appearance  in  the 
Greek  world,  certainly  in  Attica,  was  as  the  god 
of  roads  and  boundaries.  Square  pillars,  called 
hernuB,  were  common  as  guide-posts  and  bound- 
ary marks.  Thev  usually  bore  the  head  of  the 
god,  and  a  phallus,  and  on  them,  as  a  sacred 
place,  food  was  sometimes  left  for  needy  wan- 
derers. The  pillar  seems  the  essential  and  orig- 
inal sign  of  the  god,  and  perhaps  even  earlier 
the  god  was  present  in  cairns  or  heaps  of  stones, 
which  were  called  hermcea.  The  worship  of 
Hermes  therefore  shows  a  mixture  of  elements  in 
which  conceptions  of  a  heavenly  god  are  com- 
bined with  worship  of  rude  stones.  The  name  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  explained,  for  its  etymo- 
logical identity  with  Saram^as  or  Sarama,  the 
dog  of  the  gods  of  Indian  mythology,  is  by  no 
means  certain,  and  any  other  connection  in  the 
conception  is  hard  to  see.  It  is  possible  that 
ipfM,  a  *mound*  or  'cairn,'  is  at  the  basis  of  the 
name,  and  that  the  pile  of  stones  in  the  pasture 
or  on  the  xoAd  is  the  dwelling  place  of  the  god 
who  protects  the  herds  and  the  wayfarer.  Many 
of  his  functions,  however,  agree  well  with  the 


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MEBCXIBY. 


theoiy  of  Roscher,  that  Hermes  is  a  wind-god. 
This  explains  his  position  as  swift  messenger  of 
the  gods,  and  as  guide  of  the  souls,  for  tcind  and 
soul  are  closely  connected  in  the  primitive  con- 
ceptions. The  variety  and  apparent  lack  of  con- 
nection in  his  functions  would  find  easy  explana- 
tion in  the  union  of  divinities  originally  separate. 

In  art  the  types  of  Hermes  show  a  marked 
change  in  the  course  of  time.  At  first  he  is  a 
bearded  man,  with  the  'petasus'  or  broad-brimmed 
hat,  winged  shoes,  and  his  herald's  staff.  Later 
the  type  becomes  distinctly  youthful  and  vigor- 
ous, sometimes  with  short-girded  tunic  and  cloak, 
but  with  the  figure  often  nude,  or  but  lightly 
draped.  The  most  famous  extant  statue  of 
Hermes  is  the  beautiful  figure  at  Olympia,  repre- 
senting the  god  holding  the  infant  Dionysus,  the 
work  of  Praxiteles.  See  illustration  with  Polt- 
CLrrus. 

Rome.  Mercurius  was  brought  to  Rome  from 
the  Greeks  of  Southern  Italy,  as  the  god  of 
merchants  and  trade,  and  this  always  remained 
his  character  in  the  Roman  religion,  as  his  at- 
tributes of  the  purse  and  caduceus  plainly  show. 
The  literature  of  course  presents  him  in  all  his 
varied  Greek  activities,  but  these  are  absent  for 
the  most  part  from  the  inscriptions.  As  the 
Roman  traders  penetrated  to  the  north,  they 
identified  with  their  tutelary  god  the  Celtic 
Esus,  and  even  found  grounds  for  regarding  the 
Germanic  Wotan  as  the  same  divinity. 

Egypt.  Another  divinity  identified  with 
Hermes  was  the  Egyptian  god  Dhouti  or  Thoth 
(called  Thout  ( h )  or  ThOt  by  Greek  writers ) ,  and 
in  this  case  the  resemblance  is  more  striking. 
Originally  Thoth  was  the  local  god  of  Chmtinu, 
the  Greek  Hermopolis  (q.v.),  and  is  usually 
represented  in  the  form  of,  or  with  the  head 
of,  an  ibis.  Before  historic  times,  however, 
he  had  become  a  moon  god,  worshiped  through- 
out Egypt,  and  he  plays  an  important  part  in 
Egyptian  mythology  as  the  assistant  of  the  stm 

§Ki  in  his  fight  against  hostile  powers.  (See 
OBUS. )  He  was  the  inventor  of  writing  and  the 
scribe  of  the  gods.  A  euhemeristic  Phoenician 
tale  represents  him  as  a  man  of  ancient  times, 
who  invented  letters  and  communicated  his  dis- 
covery to  his  ELing,  Thamus.  Thoth  was  the 
judge  who  decided  between  Osiris  (or  Horus) 
and  Set,  and  he  assisted  as  recorder  at  the 
judgment  of  the  dead.  (See  Dead,  Judgment  of 
the)  .  He  was  the  patron  of  learning  and  the  in- 
ventor of  all  sciences,  including  especially  as- 
tronomy and  medicine.  His  sacred  animals  were 
the  ibis  and  the  c3mocephalus.  On  Thoth  as 
Hermes  Trismegistus  and  on  his  writings,  see 
Hermetic. 

Other  (Ik)UNTBiES.  According  to  Greek  ac- 
counts, Taaut  would  seem  to  have  been  the  Phoe- 
nician Hermes,  the  inventor  of  letters  and 
sciences;  but  this  is  only  a  late  importation  of 
Egyptian  ideas,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  name  of 
the  deity,  and  from  the  fact  that  he  is  called 
a  son  of  Misor  or  Egypt.  Sumes,  a  name  of 
obscure  etymology,  is  given  as  the  Punic  name 
of  Hermes.  Among  the  Babylonians,  Nabd  the 
god  of  Borsippa,  worshiped  in  the  planet  Mer- 
cury, corresponded  to  Hermes  in  many  of  his  at- 
tributes. The  later  Arabs  relate  many  fables 
about  Hermes,  stating,  for  example,  that  Hermes 
Trismegistus  once  lived  at  Calovaz  in  Chaldsea, 
but  these  stories  are  all  worthless  distortions  o^ 
Tery  late  Greek  traditions- 


Ck)nsult  Roscher,  Hermes  der  Wind-Oott  (Leip- 
zig, 1878). 

HEBCXTBY.  The  planet  nearest  the  sun.  Its 
mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  36,000,000  miles, 
its  periodic  time  88  days,  its  diameter  3030 
miles,  mass  ^  of  the  earth's;  density  0.67, 
that  of  earth  being  unity.  Since  Mercury  is  an 
inferior  planet,  it  is  seen  alternately  east  and 
west  of  tne  sun,  at  an  apparent  angular  distance 
never  exceeding  29^,  and  its  apparent  motion  in 
the  orbit  is  at  times  retrograde.  When  a  change 
in  the  apparent  motion  takes  place  it  appears  for 
a  short  time  stationary.  During  the  year  Mer- 
cury is  morning  star  in  the  east  three  times  and 
evening  star  in  the  west  three  times.  Owing  to 
its  nearness  to  the  sun«  it  is  never  above  the 
horizon  more  than  about  two  hours  after  sun- 
set or  the  same  time  before  sunrise.  On  this 
account,  and  from  its  small  apparent  size  {5" 
to  IS''  angular  diameter),  it  is  seldom  distinctly 
observable  by  the  naked  eye.  It  is  said  that 
(Ik)pemicus  was  never  able  to  see  it.  It  is  veiy 
difficult  to  observe  any  markings  on  Mercury's 
surface,  and  there  is  consequently  much  doubt 
as  to  the  period  of  revolution  on  its  axis.  In 
1889  Schiaparelli  (q.v.)  announced  that  he  had 
been  able  to  fix  this  period  at  88  days,  in  precise 
accord  with  the  period  of  the  planet's  revolution 
around  the  sun.  If  this  be  correct  (and  it  has 
received  some  confirmation  from  the  observations 
of  Lowell),  Mercuiy  always  turns  the  same  side 
toward  the  sun.  This  imdecided  question  con- 
ceming  the  rotation  time  of  Mercury  is  of  much 
importance  in  theoretical  astronomy.  See  Solas 
System;  Pianbts. 

MEBCUBY,  or  Quioksilveb.  A  metallic  ele- 
ment that  has  been  known  since  ancient  times. 
As  early  as  b.o.  300  Theophrastus  mentions 
'liquid  silver,'  which  he  says  is  obtained  by  rub- 
bing cinnabar  with  vinegar  in  a  copper  vessel. 
Dioscorides  describes  the  production  of  mercury 
by  subliming  cinnabar  with  charcoal  in  an  iron 
pot.  Pliny  gave  it  the  name  of  hydrargyrum 
when  so  obtained,  while  native  mercury  he  called 
argentum  vivum.  Mercury  was  extensively  stud- 
ied by  the  alchemists,  who  believed  that  it  was 
one  of  the  component  parts  of  all  metals,  and 
they  were  familiar  with  the  method  of  purifying 
it  by  distillation.  Many  of  the  alchemists  and 
iatrochemists  considered  mercury  a  metal;  but 
this  was  disputed,  and  even  as  late  as  1736  some 
chemists  contended  that  it  was  a  semi-metal. 
Not  imtil  1759,  when  Braune  foimd  it  possible 
to  solidify  it  by  exposure  to  a  freezing-mixture, 
was  its  metallic  nature  established  beyond  dis- 
pute. 

Mercury  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  the 
metallic  state  principally  disseminated  through 
its  native  sulphide.  It  is  also  found  alloyed 
with  silver,  with  gold,  and  with  platinum,  but  in 
small  quantities  only.  Its  principal  ore  is  the 
sulphide  or  cinnabar,  but  it  also  occurs  in  small 
quantities  in  combination  with  seleniiun,  as  iie* 
mannite  and  onofrite,  and  with  chlorine,  as 
calomel.  The  ores  of  mercury  are  not  widely 
distributed  in  nature,  there  being  but  few  dis- 
tricts where  extensive  mining  operations  are  car- 
ried on.  In  the  United  States  the  most  impor- 
tant deposits  are  those  of  New  Almaden  and 
New  Idri,  Cal.;  Lane  County,  Ore.;  and  Ter- 
lingua,  Tex.  The  California  mines  have  been 
/or  a  Jong  time  the  chief  domestic  source  of  mer« 


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886 


MEBCXIBY. 


dury,  producing  about  1000  tons  of  metal  an- 
nually. The  mines  of  Terlingua  have  not  been 
developed  sufficiently  to  test  their  value.  In 
foreign  countries  mercury  is  produced  in  Mexico 
Spain,  Italy,  Austria,  Russia,  Australia,  and 
China.  Spam  is  now  second  to  the  United  States 
among  the  mercury  producing  countries.  In 
1904  the  production  of  the  different  countries 
was  as  follows:  United  States,  1188  tons;  Spain, 
1020  tons;  Austria,  536  tons;  Russia,  393  tons; 
Italy,  355  tons;  total,  3492  tons,  valued  at 
$4,090,097. 

Mercury  (symbol,  Hg;  atomic  weight,  200) 
Is  a  silver-white  liquid  metal  that  solidifies  at 
—  40*  C.  (—40*  F.),  and,  while  slightly  volatile 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  boils  at  about  360*  C. 
(648*  F.).  Its  specific  gravity  at  0*  C.  (32*  F.) 
is  13.59.  Its  principal  uses  are  in  the  separation 
of  gold  and  silver  from  their  ores,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  vermilion,  in  medicine,  in  various 
chemical  and  physical  operations,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  alloys,  etc.  It  dissolves  and  possibly 
combines  chemically  with  nearly  all  of  the  metal- 
lic elements  to  form  alloys  termed  'amalgams' 
(q.v.).  With  oxygen  it  forms  two  oxides,  of 
which  the  mercurous  oxide  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  caustic  alkalies  on  mercurous  salts, 
while  the  mercuric  oxide  (*red  oxide  of  mer- 
cury,' or  'red  precipitate')  is  formed  by  pro- 
longed heating  of  mercury  in  air.  The  latter 
oxide  is  used  in  medicine  and  as  an  oxidizing 
agent  in  chemical  operations.  Corresponding  to 
the  two  oxides,  mercury  forms  two  series  of  com- 
pounds, which  are  Imown  as  mercurous  and 
mercuric  salts.  Among  these,  one  of  the  most 
important  is  the  mercuric  sulphide  found  native 
as  cinnabar,  and  when  prepared  artificially  is  the 
red  pigment  known  as  vermilion  (q.v.).  The 
two  chlorides  are  important  commercial  salts, 
and  of  these  the  mercurous  chloride,  or  calomel 
(q.v.),  occurs  native;  the  artificial  product  is 
used  largely  in  medicine  to  stimulate  torpidity 
of  the  liver.  The  mercuric  chloride,  or  corrosive 
sublimate,  finds  extensive  use  in  medicine  as  an 
antiseptic,  and  is  extensively  used  for  the  preser- 
vation of  skins  and  natural -history  specimens. 
Mercuric  ammonium  chloride  is  a  white  powder 
that  is  extensively  used  in  medicine,  under  the 
name  of  white  precipitate,  especially  in  the  form 
of  ointment.  Metallic  mercury  and  its  salts  are 
poisonous,  and  chronic  mercurial  poisoning  is 
common  among  those  who  habitually  work  with 
the  metal.  When  taken  internally,  salivation, 
ulcers  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth, 
and  ultimately  paralysis,  result.  The  usual 
antidotes  are  albumen,  milk,  and  flour  and  water. 
See  also  Hydbiodic  Acid;  Htdeocyanic  Acid. 

Metallubot.  Practically  the  only  ore  which 
is  regularly  worked  for  mercury  is  cinnabar, which 
contains  86  per  cent,  of  mercury  and  14  per  cent,  of 
sulphur.  Mercury  may  be  extracted  from  cinnabar 
in  several  ways,  but  two  methods  only  are  used 
upon  a  large  scale.  They  are  ( I )  extraction  by 
heating  the  ore  in  furnaces  having  a  free  supply 
of  air,  and  (2)  extraction  by  heating  the  ore  with 
lime  or  iron  in  retorts,  air  being  excluded.  In 
both  methods  the  chemical  reactions  take  place 
at  temperatures  above  the  boiling  point  of  mer- 
cury, so  that  the  latter  is  volatilized  and  has  to 
be  condensed.  Heating  the  cinnabar  with  access 
of  air  is  a  process  performed  in  shaft,  reverbera- 
tory,  or  shelf  furnaces,  and  is  preferred  to  me- 
thods using  lime  or  iron,  inasmuch  as  it  is  more 


economical  and  less  dangerous  to  the  workmen. 
The  leading  objection  to  this  method  is  the  dilu- 
tion of  the  mercurial  vapors  by  sulphur  dioxide, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  the  products  of  combus- 
tion. For  these  reasons  it  is  rather  difficult  to 
condense  the  mercury,  and  therefore  there  are 
losses  of  the  metal  through  incomplete  condensa- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  where  the  mercury  is 
extracted  by  heating  the  cinnabar  with  lime  or 
iron  in  retorts,  the  mercurial  vapors  are  in  a 
condensed  form  because  no  air  is  allowed  to  enter 
the  retorts.  These  vapors  are  condensed  so  that 
with  a  high  grade  of  ore  the  output  is  somewhat 
greater  than  by  the  first  process.  On  account  of 
the  greater  expense  of  labor  and  fuel,  and  the 
unheal thfulness  of  the  process  due  to  the  escape 
of  mercurial  vapors  in  emptying  the  retorts,  the 
process  is  less  frequently  employed. 

The  extraction  of  mercury  with  contact  of  air 
consists  in  heating  cinnabar  with  an  excess  of 
air  to  a  high  temperature.  The  heating  is  usu- 
ally accomplished  in  shaft  or  reverberatory 
furnaces,  from  which  the  gases  pass  into  the  con- 
densers, consisting  of  a  series  of  tubes  and  cham- 
bers, and  are  there  cooled  until  the  mercurial 
gases  condense  into  metallic  mercury,  while  the 
other  gases  escape.  The  process  requires  great 
care  to  prevent  the  loss  of  mercury  and  danger 
of  salivation  to  the  workmen.  Mercury  is  trans- 
ported in  wrought-iron  flasks  closed  by  a  screw 
stopper,  each  flask  holding  about  76  pounds  of 
metal.  Sheepskin  bags  are  also  used  for  this 
purpose.  Consult:  Schnabel,  Handbook  of 
Metallurgy  (New  York,  1898);  Egleston,  Metal- 
lurgy of  Silver,  Oold,  and  Mercury  (New  York, 
1890)  ;  Becker,  "Quicksilver  Ore  Deposits,"  Min- 
eral Resources  of  the  United  States  (1892); 
Newland,  Mineral  Industry  (annual,  1903)  ; 
Becker,  "Quicksilver  Deposits  of  the  Pacific 
Slope,"  Monograph  IS:  United  States  Geological 
Survey  ( 1888)  ;  Phillips,  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal  (Jan.  28,  1904). 

MEBCUBY,  Medicinal  Uses  op.  The  twenty- 
one  official  preparations  of  hydrargyrum,  or  mer- 
cury, may  be  classified  as  follows:  (1)  Prepara- 
tions of  mercury,  including  mercury  with  chalk, 
blue  mass,  mercurial  ointment,  and  two  plasters 
of  mercury;  (2)  the  chlorides  of  mercury  and 
their  preparations,  including  calomel,  corrosive 
sublimate,  and  others;  (3)  the  oxides  and  their 
preparations,  including  the  red  precipitate  and 
others;  (4)  the  iodides  and  their  preparations, 
including  the  red  iodide,  the  yellow  iodide,  and 
others;  (6)  add  combinations  and  their  prepara- 
tions ^  including  the  solution  of  mercuric  nitrate 
and  others;  (6)  cyanide  of  mercury;  and  (7) 
the  triturations.  Besides  the  official  prepara- 
tions, the  following  unofficial  preparations  are 
well  known :  Yellow  solution  of  mercury  ( 'yellow 
wash*),  black  lotion  of  mercury  ( 'black  wash*), 
and  red  ointment  of  mercuric  nitrate  (*brown 
citrine  ointment'). 

Mercury  is  purgative,  alterative,  and  tonic,  and 
promotes  the  flow  of  bile.  Some  of  its  prepara- 
tions are  corrosive,  some  are  caustic,  some  are 
poisonous.  In  small  quantities  some  of  the  mer- 
curials are  tonic,  while  in  large  quantities  they 
cause  'poverty  of  the  blood,*  diminishing  the 
number  of  the  red  corpuscles,  reducing  nutrition, 
and  impairing  digestion,  finally  causing  waste  of 
tissue.  Long-continued  exhibition  of  mercury 
causes  a  cachectic  condition  termed  hydrargyrism. 


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837 


MEBEDITH. 


Mercury  stimulates  glands  to  a  production  of 
an  increased  amount  of  secretion.  Hydrargyrism, 
cominonly  called  'salivation'  from  one  of  its 
symptoms,  consists  of  foetid  breath,  swollen  and 
spongy  gums,  with  a  blue  marginal  line,  sore 
mouth,  swollen  and  tender  tongue,  excessive  pro- 
duction of  saliva,  loss  of  appetite,  diarrhoea,  and 
fever. 

Mercury  is  used  in  syphilis,  tonsillitis  and 
other  glandular  affections,  gastritis,  dysentery, 
gastric  ulcer,  early  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  typhoid 
fever,  diphtheria,  Asiatic  cholera,  pneumonia, 
gastro-enteric  disturbances,  conjunctivitis,  en- 
larged thyroid,  and  enlarged  spleen. 

Bichloride  of  mercury  is  very  largely  used  as 
■an  antiseptic.  It  is  irritant  and  corrosive,  and 
in  toxic  doses  causes  severe  gastro-intestinal  irri- 
tation, nausea,  vomiting,  suppression  of  urine, 
bloody  diarrhoea,  convulsions,  and  collapse.  It 
is,  however,  a  very  safe  and  valuable  internal 
remedy  in  proper  dosage.  It  occurs  in  heavy, 
colorless  crystals,  with  sharp  metallic  taste  and 
acid  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  2  parts  of  boiling 
water,  3  of  alcohol,  and  16  of  water.  Its  symbol 
is  HgCl,.  It  is  used  locally  as  a  parasiticide 
in  a  solution  of  1  part  in  250  parts  of  water, 
and  as  a  general  surgical  antiseptic  in  a  solu- 
tion of  1  part  to  1000  of  water,  or  1  to  2000, 
sometimes  1  part  to  5000  of  water.  In  these 
•dilutions  it  is  an  efficient  antiseptic  for  cleansing 
wounds,  moistening  gauze  dressings,  injecting 
into  cavities,  etc.  See  the  articles  Antidote 
and  Toxicology. 

MEBCTJBY,  Dog's  {Mercurialis),  A  small 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Euphor- 
biaceee.  The  common  dog's  mercury  ( Mercurialis 
perennis),  common  in  woods  and  shrubby  places 
in  Europe,  has  a  simple  stem  about  a  foot  high, 
rough  ovate  leaves,  and  axillary  loose  spikes  of 
.greenish  flowers.  It  turns  a  glaucous  black  in 
drying.  The  root,  which  is  very  poisonous,  con- 
tains two  coloring  substances,  one  blue  and  the 
other  carmine.  The  mercury  mentioned  by  some 
writers  as  a  pot  herb  is  not  this  plant,  but 
<^henopodium  Bonus- HenricM8,  Annual  dog's  mer- 
cury {Mercurialis  annua)  is  eaten  in  Germany 
as  spinach. 

MEBCTTTIO,  m$r-kii'shI5.  A  character  in 
Shakespeare's  Romeo  and  Juliet,  the  kinsman  of 
the  Prince  of  Verona  and  friend  to  Romeo.  He 
is  killed  in  a  quarrel  with  Tybalt. 

MEBCY,  Fathebs  of.  A  religious  congrega- 
tion of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  founded  by 
Jean-Baptiste  Rauzan  (1757-1847),  a  zealous 
French  priest,  immediately  after  the  restoration 
of  Louis  XVIII.,  whose  chaplain  he  was.  Its 
•constitution  was  approved  by  the  Pope  in  1834, 
under  the  title  of  "Society  of  the  Priests  of 
Mercy."  The  members  devoted  themselves  to 
mission  preaching  and  works  of  charity.  Mgr. 
de  Forbin-Janson,  Bishop  of  Nancy,  brought  two 
of  them  to  America  in  1839,  and  houses  were 
established  in  New  York  and  Saint  Augustine, 
Florida.  The  fathers  of  the  society  still  care  for 
the  French  population  of  New  York,  and  have 
also  a  church  in  Brooklyn.  In  1903  the  mother- 
house  in  Paris  was  closed  by  the  Government 
under  the  Associations  Law,  and  the  headquar- 
-ters  were  accordingly  transferred  to  Rome.  Con- 
sult Delaporte,  Vie  de  Jean-Baptiste  Rauzan 
<  Paris,  1857). 


MEBCY,  Sistebs  of,  or  Order  of  Our  Ladt 
OF  Mercy.  A  Roman  Catholic  religious  commu- 
nity founded  in  Dublin  in  1827.  They  are  of  two 
classes,  choir  sisters  and  lay  sisters,  the  choir 
sisters  being  occupied  with  the  visitation  of  the 
sick  and  prisoners,  the  care  of  poor  and  virtuous 
girls,  and  other  charities;  the  lay  sisters  being 
employed  in  the  domestic  occupations  of  the  con- 
vent. Each  community  is  independent  of  the 
rest  of  the  Order,  being  subject  only  to  the  bish- 
ops. The  origin  of  the  Order  was  due  to  Miss 
Catharine  McAuley,  of  Dublin,  who,  bom  of 
Roman  Catholic  parents  and  left  an  orphan,  hav- 
ing been  educated  a  Protestant,  joined  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  and  devoted  her  life  and 
ample  fortune  to  the  service  of  the  poor.  The 
Order  has  been  introduced  into  many  parts  of 
Ireland,  England,  Scotland,  and  America.  After 
a  preliminary  preparation  of  six  months,  candi- 
dates assume  the  white  veil  and  become  novices. 
The  novitiate  lasts  two  years.  Their  vows  bind 
them  to  poverty,  celibacy,  obedience,  and  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  poor.  In  the  United  States 
their  first,  now  the  mother,  house  was  opened  in 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  1843,  and  they  are  now  very 
widespread  and  have  sixty-five  convents.  Con- 
sult Leaves  from  the  Annals  of  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy  (3  vols.,  New  York,  1881). 

MEBCY  SEAT.  The  ordinary  translation  of 
the  Hebrew  ^appore^Ti  ( Ex.  xxv.  17  sqq.),  signify- 
ing the  'covering*  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  (q.v. ) . 
It  was  made  entirely  of  gold,  and  surmoimted 
at  the  two  ends  by  two  figures,  called  cherubim, 
also  made  of  gold.  The  kapporeth  appears  to 
have  been  a  movable  cover  to  the  ark,  resting 
above  it  like  a  roof.  The  cherubim  covered  this 
kapporeth  with  their  wings.    See  Cherub. 

MEB  DE  aLACE,  mftr  de  glAs  (Fr.,  Sea  of 
Ice).  One  of  the  largest  and  most  interesting  of 
the  Alpine  glaciers.  It  lies  on  the  northern  slope 
of  Mont  Blanc,  and  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
three  branches  known  as  the  Glacier  du  G^ant,  the  - 
Glacier  du  Lechaud,  and  the  Glacier  du  Taldfre. 
Its  extreme  length  is  about  9  miles,  and  in  all  it 
covers  an  area  of  16  square  miles.  The  rate  of 
flow,  compared  with  other  glaciers  of  the  Alps,  is 
very  rapid,  the  average  advance  during  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn  months  being  about  two  feet 
per  day.  The  Mer  de  Glace  is  noted  for  its 
beautiful  scenery,  and  is  one  of  the  favorite  tour- 
ist resorts  in  the  Alps.  It  is  most  easily  reached 
from  the  village  of  Chamonix,  near  which  it 
debouches  into  the  valley  as  the  Glacier  des  Blois 
and  gives  rise  to  the  Arveyron  River.  See 
Glacier;  Mont  Blanc;  and  Illustration  accom- 
panying CHAMOiaX. 

MEBEDITH,  George  (1828—).  A  distin- 
guished English  novelist  and  poet.  He  was  bom 
in  Hampshire,  February  12,  1828,  and  received 
part  of  his  early  education  in  Germany — a  land 
whose  influence,  especially  through  its  poetry 
and  music,  is  perceptible  in  his  writings.  On 
returning  to  England  he  studied  law  for  a  while, 
but  soon  abandoned  it,  as  his  literary  genius 
began  to  make  itself  felt.  His  first  published 
poem,  "Chillian wallah,"  appeared  when  he  was 
only  twenty-one,  in  Chambers's  Journal  (July, 
1849).  He  married  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Love 
Peacock  (q.v.),  and  it  was  to  Peacock  that  he 
dedicated  his  first  volume  of  poems  (1851). 
Original  and  unique  as  Meredith's  novels  are.  it 
is  possible  to  trace  in  them  an  inheritance  from^ 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ICEBEDITH. 


888 


MEBEDITH. 


the  dilettante,  whimsical  work  of  his  father-in- 
law.  After  The  Shaving  of  Shagpat,  ^an  Arabian 
entertainment'  (1866),  and  Farina,  a  bit  of 
German  fairy-lore  ( 1857 ) ,  he  published  his  first 
novel  in  1859 — strange  as  it  now  seems  to  asso- 
ciate the  two  dates,  the  year  of  the  publication 
of  George  Eliot's  first  novel,  Adam  Bede,  This 
book,  The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel,  which  many 
of  his  admirers  think  he  has  never  surpassed,  is, 
almost  as  much  as  Rousseau's  Emile,  a  formal 
treatise  on  methods  of  education,  and  at  the 
same  time  contaiite  some  of  his  most  beautiful 
passages  in  its  tender  love-episodes.  Evan  Har- 
rington (1861)  was  a  more  purely  humorous 
treatment  of  the  pisychological  problems  in- 
volved in  the  great  question  whether  a  tailor 
could  be  a  gentleman.  A  year  later  appeared 
Modem  Love,  and  Poems  of  the  English  Road- 
side, The  splendid  sonnet-seauence.  Modem  Love, 
is  now  recognized  as  probably  its  author's  high- 
est and  most  durable  achievement  in  the  poetic 
form;  but  at  the  time  it  was  severely  criticised, 
especially  by  the  Spectator,  in  which  Swinburne 
replied  with  a  fervid  eulogy.  Among  the  few 
accessible  biographical  data,  the  close  associa- 
tion of  three  of  the  foremost  writers  of  the  cen- 
tury is  worth  mentioning;  for  a  short  time  in 

1863,  after  the  first  two  had  lost  their  wives, 
Meredith,  Rossetti,  and  Swinburne  shared  a  house 
in  Cheyne  Walk,  Chelsea.  Emilia  in  England 
(afterwards  called  Sandra  Belloni)  came  out  in 

1864,  and  the  next  year  Rhoda  Fleming,  as  a 
story  the  simplest  and  the  best  told  from  an 
artistic  point  of  view ;  a  savage  onslaught  on  the 
idols  of  fatuous  respectabili^,  a  digging  down 
to  the  elemental  and  primitive  passions.  When 
the  war  between  Austria  and  Italy  broke  out  in 
1866,  Meredith,  who  had  already  done  consider- 
able work  in  journalism,  went  out  as  the  corre- 
spondent of  the  Morning  Post.  He  turned  to 
good  account  the  knowledge  of  Italy  thus  gained 
and  his  sympathy  with  Mazzini  and  the  cause 
of  Italian  independence  in  his  next  book,  Vittoria, 
a  sequel  to  Emilia  in  England  (1867).  For 
some  thirty  years  he  acted  as  literary  adviser  to 
the  publishing  house  of  Chapman  &  Hall,  and 
helped  many  a  young  author  by  his  wise  and 
kindly  criticism.  Thomas  Hardy,  in  particular, 
has  said  that  he  would  probably  never  have  per- 
severed in  the  path  of  literature  without  the 
encouragement  which  Meredith  gave  him  when 
he  submitted  his  first  manuscript.  Meanwhile 
Meredith  was  going  on  steadily  with  his  own 
work.  In  1871  he  brought  out  The  Adventures  of 
Harry  Richmond,  a  fascinating  romantic  novel, 
which  is  recommended  to  beginners  as  easier 
reading  than  the  metaphysical,  subtle,  enigmatic 
style  of  his  later  books.  It  had  undombtedly  no 
small  influence  on  younger  writers,  and  the  class 
of  romantic  stories  at  the  head  of  which  stands 
Prince  Otto  may  be  clearly  derived  from  it. 
Beauchamp's  Career  (1876)  is  largely  occupied 
with  English  politics.  While  standing  aloof  as 
usual  from  questions  of  actual  detail,  Meredith 
allowed  his  philosophic  liberalism  to  be  seen 
almost  distinctly,  though  he  did  not  declare  for 
either  side.  After  two  short  but  brilliant  studies 
in  comedy,  The  House  on  the  Beach  and  The  Case 
of  General  Ople  and  Lady  Camper  (1877),  he 
made,  in  The  Egoist  (1879),  a  pitiless  analysis 
of  the  selfishness  innate  in  humanity  as  a  whole. 
In  its  central  figure.  Sir  Willoughby  Patteme, 
the  abstract  egoist  takes  on   final  shape  and 


becomes  typical.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  of 
Meredith  generally  that,  unlike  most  psychologi- 
cal novelists,  he  sives  us  a  psychology  of  types, 
not  of  individuals.  Next  came  The  Tale  of 
Chloe  (1879);  The  Tragic  Comedians  (1880), 
recounting  in  the  guise  of  fiction  a  decisive 
episode  in  the  life  of  Ferdinand  Lassalle,  the  Ger- 
man Social-Democrat;  and  another  volume  of 
verse,  Poems  and  Lyrics  of  the  Joy  of  Earth 
(1883).  All  this  time,  in  spite  of  such  a  bulk 
of  admirable  work,  and  though  recognized  by 
an  increasing  niunber  of  cultivated  people,  Mere- 
dith had  remained  strangely  imknoun  to  the 
public  at  large — in  this  like  Browning,  with 
whom  in  many  ways  his  genius  had  strong 
affinities.  The  publication  of  Diana  of  the  Cross- 
ways  (1885),  partly,  perhaps,  because  its  central 
episode  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  an  actual 
occurrence  in  English  political  life  of  a  genera- 
tion earlier,  made  a  general  impression.  From 
this  time  he  came  more  and  inore  to  be  recog- 
nized as  the  head  of  the  profession  of  letters  in 
England.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Brit- 
ish Society  of  Authors  on  the  death  of  Tennyson 
in  1892 ;  and  his  appearance  as  the  guest  of  honor 
at  the  meetin^^  of  the  Omar  Khayyam  Chib  (an 
organization  mcluding  many  of  the  best-known 
men  of  letters)  in  1895  was  an  event  of  singular 
interest,  from  the  universal  homage  paid  to  him, 
as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  he  then  made  what 
he  called  Jiis  first  public  speech.  Three  more 
novels  remain  to  be  mentioned:  One  of  Our  Con- 
querors  (1891),  Lord  Ormont  and  His  Aminta 
(1894),  and  The  Amazing  Marriage  (1895),  as 
well  as  three  notable  volumes  of  verse.  Ballads 
and  Poems  of  Tragic  Life  (1887),  A  Reading  of 
Earth  (1888),  and  The  Empty  Purse  (1892). 
His  poems,  like  his  novels,  will  probably  never 
be  popular;  and  for  the  same  reason,  that  they 
require  too  much  thought  on  the  part  of  the 
reader.  Yet  as  a  poet  he  has  many  remarkable 
achievements  to  his  credit,  and  none  more  signal 
than  the  expression  of  a  perfect  understandings 
of  nature — ^nature  as  she  is  in  herself,  not,  as. 
with  Byron  and  so  many  others,  the  mere  refiex 
of  the  poet's  temperament  and  moods. 

His  fiction  is  characteristic  of  an  age  of  analy- 
sis and  introspection,  when  every  art  must  take 
accoimt  of  the  results  of  psychology  and  meta- 
physics. He  is  before  all  things  a  student  of  life. 
His  attitude,  as  illuminated  by  the  Essay  on 
Comedy  (1877),  is  not  unlike  that  of  his  own 
Adrian  Harley  in  Feverel;  with  an  amused  but 
not  unkindly  cynicism  he  stands  off  and  watches 
his  characters  act  on  each  other  as  deliberately, 
as  inevitably,  and  often  through  situations  a» 
apparency  unimportant  as  in  life.  He  shows 
us  the  progress  from  act  to  act  of  dramas  subtly 
philosophical,  in  the  manner  of  Hamlet.  We  are 
reminded  of  Shakespeare  again  as  we  think  of 
one  of  Meredith's  strongest  points — his  gallery 
of  fair  women,  types  of  the  best  in  their  age,  for 
parallels  to  which  we  are  driven  to  recur  U> 
Beatrice  and  Rosalind  and  Portia. 

His  style  is  frequently  obscure — ^not  because 
he  cannot  write  simply,  for  (like  Browning 
again )  he  can  give  us  "English  as  ripe  and  sound 
and  unaffected  as  the  heart  could  wish."  His 
aim,  however,  is  not  simplicity;  it  is  to  pack  as 
much  thought  as  possible  into  a  phrase,  to  say 
only  what  is  worth  saying,  and  to  say  it  in 
terms  charged  to  the  fullest  with  significance. 
The  final  verdict  of  his  contemporaries,  slowly 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEBEDITH. 


889 


MEBQES. 


though  it  was  reached,  is  justified  by  his  unques- 
tion^  intellectual  eminence.  Consult:  Le  Qal- 
lienne,  George  Meredith:  Some  Characterisiioa 
(3d*  ed.,  London,  1900;  essays  by  Henley,  in 
Vietos  and  Reviews  (ib.,  1890) ;  by  Brownell, 
in  Victorian  Prose  Masters  ( New  York,  1901 ) ; 
Cross,  The  Development  of  the  English  Novel 
(New  York,  1899) ;  Abbott,  Browning  and  Mere- 
dith: Some  Points  of  Similarity  (Boston,  1904), 
and  monograph  by  Chesterton  (1905). 

MEBEDITH,  Louisa  Anne  (n^  Twamley) 
(1812-95).  An  Australian  writer,  bom  at  Bir- 
mingham, England.  Chiefly  educated  by  her  ac- 
complished mother,  at  an  early  age  she  wrote 
verse  and  practiced  art  with  success.  In  1833 
she  published  an  octavo  volume  of  Poems  with  Il- 
lustrations. She  continued  to  write,  and  in  1839 
married  her  cousin,  Charles  Meredith,  and  ac- 
companied him  on  his  return  to  Australia.  Her 
Notes  and  Sketches  of  New  South  Wales  was 
followed  by  My  Home  in  Tasmania  and  many 
other  notable  works.  In  1860  appeared  Some  of 
my  Bush  Friends  in  Tasmania,  a  large  and  elabo- 
rate work  on  the  flora  of  the  colony.  Poems  and 
novels  followed.  The  Tasmanian  Government 
granted  her  a  pension  of  £100  a  year.  She  re- 
ceived numerous  prize  medals  for  botanical 
drawings  of  Tasmanian  subjects,  at  the  Exhibi- 
tion of  London,  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  Cal- 
cutta. Her  first  volume  of  verse  appeared  in 
1833,  and  her  last,  Orandmama*s  Verse-Book  for 
Young  Australia,  in  1878. 

MEBEDITHy  Owen.  The  pseudonym  of  Lord 
Lytton.    See  Lytton,  Edwabd  Robebt  Bulweb. 

HTCTIBPITH,  Solomon  (1810-75).  An  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  politician,  bom  in  Guilford 
County,  N.  C.  He  removed  to  Indiana  in  1830, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  was  made 
colonel  of  the  Sixty-ninth  Indiana  Volimteers.  He 
participated  in  many  of  the  most  desperate  bat- 
tles fought  by  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  be- 
came the  commander  of  the  famous  Iron  Brigade. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  retired  with  the 
brevet  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers. 

MBBBDITH,  Sir  Wiluam  Ralph  (1840—). 
A  Canadian  jurist  and  politician,  born  in  Middle- 
sex County,  Ontario,  of  Irish  descent.  He  was 
educated  m  London,  Ont.,  and  at  the  Toronto 
University,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1861,  was 
'made  Chief  Justice  of  Common  Pleas  in  1894,  and 
was  knighted  two  years  afterwards.  His  political 
ciiAreer  began  in  1872,  when  he  was  elected  a 
member  for  London  of  the  Provincial  House,  and 
in  six  years  he  became  leader  of  the  Liberal- 
Conservative  opposition.  Equally  noted  as  a 
judge  and  a  parliamentary  orator.  Sir  William 
was  also  a  member  of  the  Toronto  University 
Senate  (1895),  and  in  1894  was  made  Chief 
Justice  of  Common  Pleas,  Toronto. 

MEBESy  m§rz,  Francis  ( 1565-1647 ) .  An  Eng- 
lish author  and  teacher.  He  was  educated  at 
Pembroke  C!k>llege,  Cambridge,  graduating  B.A.  in 
1587,  and  M.A.  in  1591.  By  1597  he  was  living 
in  London,  where  he  ^ined  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  contemporary  literature.  In  1602  he  be- 
came rector  of  Wing  in  Rutland,  and  subse- 
quently opened  a  school.  He  died  at  Wing,  Jan- 
uary 29,  1647.  His  Palladis  Tamia,  Wits  Treas- 
ury ( 1598) ,  gives  an  account  of  Marlowe's  death 
and  an  estimate  of  Shakespeare.  After  mention- 
ing twelve  of  Shakespeare's  plays  and  the  "sugred 
sonnets  among  his  private  friends/'  Meres  says. 


"The  muses  would  speak  Shakespeare's  fine  filed 
phrase,  if  they  could  speak  English."  The  im- 
portant sections  dealing  with  Elizabethan  litera- 
ture were  reprinted  in  Shakspere  Allusion  Books, 
New  Shakspere  Society  (London,  1874) ;  and  by 
Arber  in  the  English  Oamer,  vol.  ii.  (London, 
1879). 

MEBOAN^EB  (Neo-Lat,  from  Lat.  mergus, 
diver  +  anser,  goose).  A  small  subfamily  of 
ducks,  Mergine,  having  a  slender,  straight,  much 
compressed  bill,  hook^  at  the  tip,  and  notched 
at  the  edges,  almost  as  if  furnished  with  teeth. 
Their  other  anatomical  peculiarities  are  like 
those  of  the  sea-ducks.  Tney  feed  largely  upon 
fish,  which  they  are  said  to  pursue  and  capture 
under  water.  Most  of  the  species  have  little  food 
value,  but  the  hooded  merganser  ( Lophodytes  ou- 
cullatus)is  said  to  feed  upon  roots  and  seeds,  and 
is  thus  a  palatable  table  duck.  The  males  are^ 
black  and  white,  with  a  large,  circular  crest,  giv- 
ing them  a  peculiar  and  striking  appearance;  the 
adult  female  also  has  a  crest,  but  it  is  small, 
grayish-brown,  tinged  with  cinnamon.  ( See  Plate- 
of  North  American  Wild  Ducks.)  The  hooded 
mer^nser  is  the  smallest  of  the  North  American, 
species,  only  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length.  The 
other  two  species,  the  goosander  (Merganser 
Amerioanus)  and  the  red-breasted  merganser  or 
shelldrake  ( if er^an«er  serrator),  are  much  larger, 
nearly  or  quite  two  feet  long,  and  have  no  true 
crest,  though  the  feathers  of  the  crown  may  be 
somewhat  lengthened.  The  hooded  and  red- 
breasted  mergansers  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts, 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  while  the  goosander 
is  replaced  in  Europe  by  a  very  closely  allied 
species  {Merganser  merganser).  All  of  these 
species  breed  in  the  northern  portions  of  their 
range  and  winter  southward  almost  to  the  tropics. 
About  half  a  dozen  other  mergansers  are  known^ 
one  or  two  of  which  are  South  American. 

HEBOEB.  (1)  In  the  law  of  real  property, 
the  union  of  a  lesser  with  a  greater  estate  in  the 
same  property  in  the  same  person,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  leiaser  estate  is  obliterated  by  the 
larger  estate.  Thus,  if  one  is  a  tenant  for  years 
or  for  life  of  real  estate,  and  the  estate  of  his  land- 
lord or  the  reversioner  in  fee  comes  to  him  either 
by  descent  or  purchase,  the  tenancy  is  extin- 
guished in  the  larger  estate,  and  the  tenant  be- 
comes owner  in  fee.  If,  however,  there  be  an 
intermediate  estate,  merger  is  prevented.  Thus, 
if  one  be  in  possession  of  property  as  tenant  for 
years,  with  remainder  to  another  for  life,  and 
remainder  to  a  third  in  fee,  there  will  be  no- 
merger  if  the  fee  remainderman  convey  his 
estate  to  the  tenant  for  years;  but  if  the  owner 
of  the  life  estate  convey  to  the  tenant  for  years,, 
or  vice  versa,  the  tenancy  for  years  will  merge 
in  the  life  estate.  Courts  of  equity  will  in  many 
cases,  where  justice  requires  it,  in  effect  prevent 
merger  by  compelling  the  owner  of  the  estate  to 
hold  the  property  as  though  the  two  estates  were 
distinct.  Thus,  for  example,  if  a  tenant  of  real 
estate  in  his  own  right  purchased  the  reversion 
as  trustee  for  another,  a  court  of  equity  would 
compel  him  to  continue  to  collect  the  rents  from 
himself  as  tenant  and  to  account  to  the  bene- 
ficiary for  them  as  trustee  of  the  reversion.  In 
the  same  manner  when  the  legal  estate  in  prop- 
erty becomes  vested  in  one  having  an  equitable 
claim  with  reference  to  the  property,  or  an 
equitable  estate  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEBQEB. 


840 


imfeitrnA. 


equitable  becomes  merged  in  the  legal  estate  un- 
less kept  alive  for  the  purpose  of  furthering 
justice,  when  equity  will  treat  the  two  interests 
as  distinct  notwithstanding  the  merger.  Consult 
the  authorities  referred  to  under  Trusts;  Most- 

«AGE. 

(2)  The  term  is  also  applied  in  the  law  of 
contracts  when  it  is  held  that  the  acceptance  of 
a  higher  security  or  obligation  in  lieu  of  a 
lower  extinguishes  the  lower.  Thus  rights  upon 
contract  are  merged  in  a  judgment  secured  in 
an  action  upon  the  contract.  A  simple  debt 
merges  in  a  promissory  notcf  given  in  its  stead, 
and  both  merge  into  a  bond  or  obligation  under 
seal  given  in  their  place. 

(3)  The  lerm  is  also  in  use  in  the  criminal  law  ^ 
to  denote  both  the  inclusion  of  a  lesser  crime  ^ 
in  a  greater  and  the  sinking  of  private  wrongs  in 
public  wrongs  or  crimes.  Many  greater  crimes 
include  lesser  crimes;  as  an  assault  in  commit- 
ting robbery  or  homicide.  The  State  may  prose- 
cute and  punish  either  the  greater  or  the  lesser 
offense,  but  of  course  not  both,  since  that  would 
be  putting  a  man  twice  in  jeopardy  for  the  lesser 
offense.  In  England,  where  criminal  prosecutions 
are  usually  conducted  by  private  persons,  when- 
ever a  tort  is  also  a  crime,  the  private  wrong  is 
postponed  to  or  merged  in  the  public  wrong,  so 
that  the  injured  party  has  no  private  remedy 
until  after  the  conviction  and  punishment  of  the 
criminal.  This  does  not  hold  in  the  United  States. 
Consult  the  authorities  given  under  Tort. 

( 4 )  By  extension  the  term  "merger"  is  now  ap- 
plied to  denote  the  consolidation  of  the  control  of 
two  or  more  corporations  in  a  single  corpora- 
tion by  means  of  issuing  the  stock  in  exchange 
for  a  majority  of  the  stock  of  the  several  cor- 
porations to  be  controlled.  The  several  corpora- 
tions to  be  controlled  are  then  said  to  be  merged 
in  the  single  corporation  holding  their  stock. 
The  United  States  Supreme  Court  decided  that 
The  Northern  Securities  Company  formed  to  hold 
the  stock  of  the  Great  Northern  and  Northern 
Pacific  Railway  companies  was  an  illegal  com- 
bination in  restraint  of  interstate  commerce.  See 
Restraint  of  Trade,  Contracts  in. 

MEBaxn,  mfir-gg'.  The  capital  of  the  Mergui 
Archipelago  (q.v.). 

MEBOXn  ABCMLPELAQO.  A  group  of  isl- 
ands in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  forming  part  of  the 
district  of  the  same  name  in  the  Burmese  division 
of  Tenasserim  and  scattered  along  the  north- 
western shore  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  (Map: 
Asia,  J  7).  The  islands  are  rocky  and  moun- 
tainous, some  of  them  rising  to  3000  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  are  noted  for  their  varied  and  pic- 
turesque scenery.  They  are  inhabited  by  a  race 
-called  Selungs,  who  subsist  mainly  by  pearl-fish- 
ing and  by  collecting  and  selling  edible  birds' 
nests.  Tin  mines  are  worked  in  the  south.  Area 
of  district,  9789  square  miles;  population,  in 
1901,  88,667.  Mergui,  the  capital  of  the  district, 
with  a  heterogeneous  population  of  10,000  in- 
habitants, is  situated  on  an  island  at  the  chief 
outlet  of  the  Tenasserim  River  in  the  Bay  of 
Bengal. 

MEBIAN,  mfl'r^ftn,  Maria  Sibylla  (1647- 
1717).  A  German  painter  and  naturalist,  bom 
in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  daughter  of  the  en- 
graver Matthftus  Merian.  In  1665  she  married 
Johann  Andreas  Graff,  a  painter,  and  removed  to 
Nuremberg.    Though  she  was  skillful  in  painting 


fruits  and  flowers,  her  taste  led  her  particularly 
to  natural  history.  Her  exquisite  taiste,  as  well 
as  the  great  precision  which  characterized  her 
artistic  work  in  botany  and  entomology,  gaiMd 
for  her  a  high  reputation  in  the  scientific  world 
of  the  time.  In  1679  she  published  an  excellent 
work  on  caterpillars,  entitled  Erucarum  Ortaa, 
AUmentum  et  Paradoxa  Metamorphosis,  In  1698 
she  went  to  South  America  and  devoted  herself 
to  research  on  the  natural  history  of  Dutch 
Guiana,  the  result  of  which  appeared  in 
her  Metamorphosis  Insectorum  Surinamensium 
( 1705) .  There  are  two  volumes  of  her  drawings 
in  the  British  Museum,  one  of  the  insects  of 
Europe,  the  other  of  those  of  Dutch  Guiana. 
There  are  collections  in  Saint  Petersburg,  Am- 
sterdam, and  Frankfort. 

ULEBIAN,  Matthaus,  called  The  Eldeb 
(1593-1650).  A  Swiss  engraver.  He  was  bom 
at  Basel,  and  afterwards  lived  in  Paris  and 
Frankfort.  He  began  in  1640  the  famous  Zeiller's 
Topographia,  presenting  perspective  views  of  Eu- 
ropean cities,  towns,  and  castles  which  were 
drawn,  engraved,  and  described  by  himself.  The 
work,  which  is  regarded  as  extremely  valuable, 
was  continued  after  his  death.  For  his  biography, 
consult  Eckardt  (Basel,  1887). 

Vi&BLlBA,  ma^r«-D&.  The  capital  of  the  State 
of  Los  Andes,  Venezuela,  situated  about  60 
miles  south  of  Lake  Maracaibo,  on  a  plateau 
5500  feet  above  sea-level  ( Map :  Venezuela  C  2 ) . 
Its  climate  is  cool  and  moist,  the  temperature 
averaging  6-1**  Fahr.  It  has  a  new  cathedral,  and 
one  of  the  two  universities  of  the  Republic.  Its 
chief  manufactures  are  carpets,  cotton  and 
woolen  goods;  it  exports  coflree  and  preserved 
fmits.  Population,  about  11,000.  M^rida  was 
foimded  in  1558  by  Juan  Rodrigeuz  Saurez.  It 
has  suffered  much  from  earthquakes,  notably  in 
1812  and  1894. 

HC&BJDA.  The  capital  of  Yucatan,  Mexico, 
situated  on  a  barren  plain  in  the  northwestern 

gart  of  the  peninsula,  25  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
lexico  (Map:  Mexico,  0  7).  The  town  is  regu- 
larly built,  with  fine  streets,  squares,  and  panes, 
and  has  a  university,  a  cathedral  built  in  1598, 
a  Government  palace,  a  museum,  various  second- 
ary schools,  and  a  hospital.  Ainong  its  manu- 
factures are  straw  hats,  cotton  goods,  soap,  and 
leather,  while  great  quantities  of  sisal  grass  are 
exported  from  here  to  the  United  States,  as  well 
as  brandy,  sugar,  hides,  indigo,  and  salt.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  43,630.  M^rida  was  founded  iw ' 
1542  by  Montejo,  the  conqueror  of  Yucatan. 

M£BIDA.  a  small  town  of  Southwestern 
Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Badajoz,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Guadiana,  30  miles  east  of 
Badajoz  (Map:  Spain,  B  3).  It  is  now  an  in- 
significant town,  but  contains  numerous  evidences 
of  its  ancient  greatness.  Among  these  are  the 
remains  of  the  Roman  walls  with  five  gates  still 
preserved,  a  triumphal  arch  erected  by  Trajan, 
the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  and  of  a  Roman 
circus  built  to  accommodate  20,000  spectators, 
some  remains  of  a  temple  of  Diana,  ana  parts  of 
an  old  reservoir  and  of  two  Roman  aqueducts,  as 
well  as  numerous  columns,  statues,  and  minor 
ruins.  There  is  also  a  magnificent  Roman  stone 
bridge  crossing  the  Guadiana  by  64  arches  and 
nearly  3000  feet  long.  M^rida  was  founded  as 
a  colony  for  Roman  veterans  {emeriti)^  and 
called  A.ugMsta  Emerita,  whence  the  present  name 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEBIDA. 


841 


IfERTDTAN  CIBCIiE. 


is  derived.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Lusitania,  and  later  became  the  seat  of 
the  Visigoth ic  archbishops.  It  remained  an  im- 
portant town  during  the  time  of  the  Moorish 
domination  until  it  was  captured  by  Alfonso  IX. 
in  1228.    Its  population  in  1900  was  9124. 

MEBODEN.  A  city  in  New  Haven  County, 
Conn.,  18  miles  north-northeast  of  New  Haven, 
and  the  same  distance  south-southwest  of  Hart- 
ford; on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hart- 
ford Railroad  (Map:  Connecticut,  D  3).  It  is 
picturesquely  situated,  overlooked  by  the  Hang- 
ing Hills  on  the  northwest,  and  is  drained  by 
Harbor  Brook.  Meriden  is  one  of  the  most  pros- 
perous industrial  centres  in  New  England. 
Among  its  manufactures  are  silver  and  plated 
ware,  hardware,  cutlery,  steel  pens,  bronzes, 
brass  castings,  fire-arms,  organs,  self-playing  at- 
tachments for  pianos  and  organs,  glassware,  cut 
glass,  curtain  fixtures,  electrical  goods,  gas,  elec- 
tric, and  kerosene  fixtures,  screws,  vises,  and  ma- 
chinery. The  city  has  the  Connecticut  School  for 
Boys  (Reform),  Meriden  Hospital,  Curtis  Home 
for  Orphan  Children  and  Aged  Women,  and  the 
handsome  Curtis  Memorial  Library.  Hubbard 
Park  is  a  beautiful  natural  reservation  of  900 
acres,  within  the  limits  of  which  are  the  Hanging 
Hills,  the  highest  point  rising  1000  feet  above 
sea  level.    Another  attraction  is  Lake  Merimere. 

The  government,  under  a  charter  of  1897,  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years;  a  bi- 
cameral council;  and  administrative  officials,  ap- 
pointed or  elected  as  follows j  by  the  mayor — 
Doards  of  apportionment  and  taxation,  public 
works,  and  pnolice,  fire,  and  park  commissioners; 
by  the  coimcil — tax-collector,  plumbing  inspector, 
fire  marshal,  boiler  inspector,  health  officer,  and 
board  of  compensation ;  by  the  people — clerk, 
treasurer,  auditor,  and  sheriffs.  The  city  owns 
and  operates  its  water- works.  Population,  1900, 
24.296;  1906  (local  cen.),  28,695.  From  1725 
until  incorporated  in  1806  as  a  town  under  its 
present  name,  Meriden  was  a  parish  of  Walling- 
ford.  In  1867  it  was  chartered  as  a  city.  Consult 
Perkins,  Historical  Sketches  of  Meriden  (West 
Meriden,  1849);  Curtiss  and  Gillespie,  Centert' 
nial  History  of  Meriden  (1906). 

MEBIIXIAN  (Lat  meridianus,  relating  to 
midday,  from  meridies,  for  *medidieSj  midday, 
from  mediuSy  middle  -f  dies^  day).  Any  great 
circle  of  a  sphere  passing  through  its  poles.  A 
terrestrial  meridian  is  the  intersection  of  the 
earth's  surface  made  by  a  plane  passing  through 
the  poles.  A  celestial  meridian  is  a  great  circle 
of  the  celestial  sphere  passing  through  the  ce- 
lestial poles.  The  prime  meridian  is  the  one 
from  which  longitude  is  measured.  The  mag- 
netic meridian  at  any  point  is  the  horizontal 
direction  at  the  point  of  a  freely  suspended 
compass  needle  undisturbed  by  influences  other 
than  the  earth's  magnetic  force.  To  distin- 
guish the  terrestrial  or  geographical  merid- 
ian from  the  magnetic,  the  former  is  called  the 
true  meridian,  as  its  direction  is  that  of  true 
north  or  south.  It  is  evident  from  the  explana- 
tion given  that  the  so-called  magnetic  meridian  is 
not  a  great  circle  of  the  earth,  but  merely  a 
direction  at  a  particular  point.  The  line  joining 
the  points  of  equal  variation  are  not  therefore 
coincident  with  the  magnetic  meridian;  they  are 
called  isogonic  lines,  and,  owing  to  the  non-uni- 
form  character   of   the   earth's  magnetic   force, 


these  lines  are  very  irregular  curves.  See  Mebid- 
IAN  CiBCLE;  Meridian  Measurement. 

MEBIDIAN.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Lauderdale  County,  Miss.,  96  miles  east  of  Jack- 
son ;  on  the  Queen  and  Crescent  Route,  the  South- 
em,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroads  (Map: 
Mississippi,  H  6).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Meridian 
Female  College  (Methodist  Episcopal),  opened 
in  1869,  the  Meredian  Male  College,  the  Meridian 
Academy  (Methodist  Episcopal  &uth),  and  Lin- 
coln School  (Congregational),  the  last  two  for 
colored  students.  iRie  city  has  an  extensive 
trade,  and  is  the  most  important  manufacturing 
centre  in  the  State.  Its  industries,  represented 
by  railroad  machine  shops,  cotton  mills,  cotton- 
seed-oil mills,  lumber  mills,  etc.,  had,  by  the  cen- 
sus of  1900,  a  production  valued  at  nearly  $3,- 
000,000.  In  March  1905  a  tornado  destroyed  a 
large  portion  of  the  business  section.  Meridian 
was  an  important  confederate  railway  centre 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  in  February,  1864, 
General  Sherman  was  sent  against  it.  Arriving 
on  the  14th,  he  remained  unmolested  until  the 
20th,  destroying  the  railroads  in  the  vicinity,  also 
the  large  storehouses  and  many  residences.  Pop., 
1900,  14,050;  1906  (local  est.),  26,000. 

MEBIDIAN*  CIBCLE.  An  instrument  used 
for  determining  the  meridian  altitude  or  zenith 
distance  of  a  star.  It  consists  of  an  astronomical 
telescope  firmly  fixed  to  a  graduated  circle,  which 
moves  about  a  horizontal  axis,  resting  on  a  pair 
of  very  solid  supports.  In  the  common  focus  of 
the  eye-piece  and  object-glass  of  the  telescope  is 
a  system  of  fixed  cross-wires  (spider  lines  are 
generally  used  for  the  purpose),  one  being  hori- 
zontal, and  five  or  more  vertical,  with  equal 
spaces  between.  An  imaginary  line  passing 
through  the  optical  centre  of  the  object-glass  and 
the  intersection  of  the  horizontal  and  middle  ver- 
tical wires  is  called  the  line  of  collimation  of 
the  telescope,  and,  when  the  instrument  is  in  per- 
fect adjustment,  this  line  moves  in  the  plane  of 
the  meridian.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  fixed 
wires  there  is  a  movable  one,  called  a  micrometer 
wire,  which  is  moved  by  means  of  a  screw,  re- 
maining always  parallel  to  the  fixed  horizontal 
wire.  If  the  instrument  is  in  perfect  adjustment, 
and  if  the  image  of  a  star,  while  passing  across 
the  middle  vertical  wire  in  the  field  of  view,  is 
at  the  same  time  bisected  by  the  fixed  horizontal 
wire,  the  star  is  at  that  moment  in  the  line  of 
collimation  of  the  telescope.  It  is  therefore  at 
that  moment  in  the  meridian,  and  its  meridian 
zenith  distance  is  the  angle  through  which  the 
circle  would  have  been  turned  from  the  position 
it  had  when  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  tele- 
scope pointed  to  the  zenith.  There  is  a  fixed 
pointer,  for  the  purpose  of  approximately  read- 
ing the  instrument.  If  the  instrument  was  ad- 
justed so  that  the  pointer  was  opposite  the  zero 
point  of  the  circle,  when  the  line  of  collimation 
of  the  telescope  pointed  to  the  zenith,  the  arc 
measured  on  the  circle  between  these  two  posi- 
tions of  the  instrument  is  the  meridian  zenith 
distance  of  the  star. 

Great  nicety  is  required  in  reading  the  instru- 
ment ;  i.e.  in  determining  exactly  the  arc  through 
which  the  circle  has  moved  in  bringing  the  tele- 
scope from  the  vertical  to  any  other  position. 
The  rim  is  usually  graduated  at  intervals  of  five 
minutes;  and  the  eye  could  determine  only  the 
division  nearest  to  the  fixed  index.  But  by  means 
of  a  reading  microscope  or  micrometer   (q.v.), 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MERTDTAN  CIBCLE. 


842 


"M^TtTMlkVL^ 


fixed  opposite  to  the  rim,  the  portion  of  the  in- 
terval to  the  nearest  division  on  the  rim  can  be 
read  to  seconds.  There  are  sometimes  six  such 
microscopes  fixed  opposite  different  points  of  the 
rim;  and  the  reading  of  the  instrument  is  the 
mean  of  the  readings  of  all  the  microscopes.  This 
tends  to  eliminate  errors  arising  from  imperfect 
graduation  and  errors  of  observation.  If  the 
instrument  is  properly  adjusted,  the  zero  point 
of  the  circle  will  be  opposite  the  fixed  pomter 
when  the  line  of  coUimation  of  the  telescope 
points  to  the  zenith.  In  practice,  however,  this 
18  not  always  accurately,  or  even  approximately, 
the  case,  and  is  really  of  no  consequence,  as  the 
final  result  of  eveiy  observation  is  the  difference 
between  two  readings.  It  is  evident  that  the 
difference  between  any  two  readings  of  the  instru- 
ment will  represent  the  anffle  through  which  the 
line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  moves  in  pass- 
ing from  one  position  to  the  other.  It  remains  to 
show  how  a  fixed  point,  viz.  the  nadir  (q.v.),  is 
observed,  and  then  now  an  observation  is  taken  of 
the  star  itself  on  its  meridian  passage.  It  must 
be  explained  here  that  the  fixed  horizontal  wire 
in  the  eye-piece  of  the  telescope,  in  the  instru- 
ment as  now  used,  is  only  an  imaginary  line, 
which  determines  the  line  of  collimation  of  the 
telescope.  It  coincides  with  the  position  of  the 
micrometer  wire  when  the  screw-head  of  the 
micrometer  marks  zero. 

To  observe  the  nadir,  a  trough  of  mercury  is 
placed  underneath  the  instrument,  and  the  tele- 
scope is  turned  so  as  to  look  vertically  down- 
ward into  it.  An  image  of  the  system  of  cross- 
wires  which  is  in  the  common  focus  of  the  object- 
glass  and  eye-piece  will  be  reflected  back  again 
to  nearly  the  same  focus.  Looking  into  the  tele- 
scope, the  observer  now  adjusts  it  by  means  of  a 
slow-motion  screw  till  the  reflected  image  of  the 
horizontal  wire  coincides  with  the  real  one.  The 
final  adjustment  is  perhaps  most  delicately  ef- 
fected by  turning  the  screw-head  of  the  microme- 
ter which  moves  the  wire  itself.  When  they 
coincide,  the  line  joining  the  centre  of  the  object- 
glass  of  the*  telescope  with  the  intersection  be- 
tween the  middle  vertical  and  horizontal  micro- 
metric  wire  will  be  vertical.  For  that  position 
of  the  movable  wire,  the  circle  now  gives  the 
exact  nadir  reading,  which  differs  180"  from  the 
true  zenith  reading. 

Again,  to  observe  a  star  in  the  meridian,  the 
instrument  is  previously  adjusted  so  that  the 
star,  in  passing  the  meridian,  shall  pass  over  the 
field  of  view  of  the  telescope.  As  the  image  of 
the  star  approaches  the  centre  of  the  field,  the  ob- 
server adjusts  the  telescope  by  the  slow-motion 
screw,  so  as  very  nearly  to  bring  the  image  of  the 
star  to  the  horizontal  wire.  Finally,  just  as 
the  star  passes  the  middle  vertical  wire,  he 
bisects  the  image  of  the  star  with  the  hori- 
zontal wire  bv  a  touch  of  the  micrometer  screw- 
head.  The  circle  being  now  clamped  (or  made 
fast),  the  reading  is  determined  as  before  by 
reading  the  pointer  and  microscopes,  and  adding 
or  subtracting,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  reading 
of  the  micrometer.  This  reading  now  subtracted 
from  the  zenith  reading  gives  the  meridian  zenith 
^stance  of  the  star;  and  this,  again,  subtracted 
from  90",  gives  ite  meridian  altitude  above  the 
horizon.     Se  Transit  Instrument. 

MEBIDIAN  MEASTTBEMENT.  The  deter- 
mination  of  the  form  and  size  of  the  earth  from 
the  measurement  of  a  meridional  arc  has  been  a 


favorite  problem  with  mathematicians  from  the 
earliest  times,  but  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  their  operations  were  not  carried 
on  with  exactness  sufficient  to  render  their  con- 
clusions of  much  value.  Since  that  time,  how- 
ever, geodesy  has  progressed  so  rapidly,  owing  to 
the  invention  of  more  accurate  instrumente  and 
the  discovery  of  new  methods,  that  the  measure- 
ment of  the  meridian  can  now  be  performed  with 
very  high  precision.  The  modus  operandi  is  as 
follows:  Two  stetions,  having  nearly  the  same 
longitude,  are  chosen;  their  latitude  and  longi- 
tude are  accurately  determined  (the  error  of  a 
single  second  in  latitude  introduces  a  consider- 
able error  into  the  result),  and  the  direction  of 
the  meridian  to  be  measured  ascerteined;  then  & 
base  line  is  measured  with  the  greatest  accuracy^ 
as  an  error  here  generally  becomes  increased  at 
every  subsequent  step;  and  then,  by  the  method 
known  as  triangulation  (q.v.),  the  length  of  the 
arc  of  the  meridian  conteined  between  the  paral- 
lels of  latitude  of  the  two  stations  is  ascertained. 
As  the  previously  found  latitudes  of  ite  two  ex- 
tremities give  the  number  of  degrees  it  contains, 
the  average  length  of  a  degree  of  this  arc  can 
be  at  once  determined;  and  also,  on  certein  as- 
sumptions as  to  the  earth's  form,  the  length  of 
the  whole  meridional  circumference  of  the  earth. 
This  operation  of  meridian  measurement  has  been 
performed  at  different  times  on  a  great  many 
arcs  lying  between  latitude  68"  N.  and  latitude 
38^  S.,  and  the  resulte  show  a  steady  though 
irregular  increase  in  the  length  of  the  degree  of 
latitude  as  the  latitude  increases.  On  the  sup- 
position that  the  law  of  increase  holds  good  to 
the  poles,  the  length  of  every  tenth  degree  of 
latitude  up  to  70*^  is  as  follows: 


DBOBBB  or  LATITUDB 

Length  of  degree  in  English 

OO 

S62.766 

IV* 

302,868 

aoo 

863,188 

80O 

868,679 

iff* 

864.284 

60*» 

864.i»9 

«0o 

366.636 

70O 

366.033 

This  teble  is  calculated  on  the  theory  that 
the  earth  is  not  spherical,  as  in  that  case  the 
length  of  all  degrees  of  latitude  would  be  alike^ 
but  of  a  more  or  less  spheroidal  form,  that  is, 
having  ite  curvature  becoming  less  and  less  as 
we  go  from  the  extremity  of  ite  greater  or  equa- 
torial diameter  to  the  lesser  or  polar  axis.  See 
Eabth;  Degbee  of  Latitude. 

Meridional  Pabts.  In  preparing  a  chart 
(q.v.)  upon  Mercator's  projection,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  relative  proportion  between  the 
lengths  of  meridians  and  parallels  at  any  point,, 
the  former  must  be  increased  in  length.  The 
lengths  of  small  portions  of  the  meridians  thus 
increased  are  called  meridional  partSy  and  tebles 
giving  the  lengths  at  different  latitudes  are  piv- 
pared  for  use  in  constructing  charte. 

IS&SJXkE^  m&'r6'mA^  Pbospeb  (1803-70). 
A  French  novelist,  historian,  dramatist,  and 
critic,  bom  in  Paris,  September  28,  1803.  He 
studied  law,  which  he  never  practiced;  he  held 
various  offices  in  the  civil  service,  became,  in 
1831,  inspector  of  archseological  and  historical 
monuments  of  France,  an  Academician  in  1844, 
and  a  Senator  of  the  Empire  in  1853.    His  re- 


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848 


MEBIVALE. 


ports  of  professional  researches  were  the  basis 
of  four  volumes:  Dans  le  midi  de  la  France 
(1836);  Dans  VOuest  (1836);  En  Auvergne  et 
Limousin  (1838);  En  Corse  (1840).  To  this 
science  he  contributed  also  Monuments  histo- 
riques  (1843) ;  Peintures  de  VEglise  Saint-Savin 
(1844);  and  to  history  a  monograph  on  Don 
JPedro  de  Castille  (1843),  Les  fauw  D4m4trius 
(1854),  and  a  volume  of  miscellaneous  Essaies 
(1855).  He  is  best  known,  however,  for  his 
:fiction,  narrative  and  dramatic,  Thidtre  de  Clara 
Oazul  (1825),  a  pretended  translation  from  the 
Spanish  and  an  ironical  toying  with  Romanti- 
cism ;  La  Guzla  ( 1827 ) ,  a  pretended  translation 
of  lUyrian  songs;  La  Jacquerie  (1828),  dramatic 
scenes  from  the  Peasants'  War  of  1358 ;  a  similar 
but  far  finer  historic  study.  La  chronique  du 
rbgne  de  Charles  IX.  ( 1829) ,  of  which  the  massa- 
cre of  Saint  Bartholomew's  forms  the  central 
scene;  Colomha  (1840),  his  most  popular  novel, 
a  story  of  Corsica;  Carmen  (1847),  a  Spanish 
gypsy  romance  and  subject  of  a  popular  opera 
by  Bizet,  and  three  volumes  of  short  stories  of 
remarkable  polish  and  artistic  effect,  but  hard, 
ironical,  and  sometimes  cynically  pessimistic. 
M6rimte  was,  before  Maupassant,  an  unap- 
proached  master  of  stylistic  restraint  and  con- 
cision. He  chooses  exotic  scenes,  a  material  and 
moral  life  alike  foreign  to  his  readers,  but  he 
never  fails  to  produce  the  illusion  of  reality 
even  when  he  crosses  the  border  of  the  super- 
natural. Although  impassive  in  his  writing, 
Hgrimto  was  in  private  life  characterized  by 
tender  and  devoted  friendships,  of  which  his 
Lett  res  d  une  inconnue  (1873),  trans,  in  the 
**Bric  ft  Brae  Series,"  ed.  by  Stoddard,  vol.  iii., 
New  York,  1874;  the  Lettres  d  une  autre  incon- 
nue (1875) ;  the  Lettres  d  Panizzi  (1881) ;  and 
Une  correspondance  in4dite  (1896),  are  most  in- 
teresting and  beautiful  monuments.  They  show 
H^rim^  gracious,  affectionate,  loyal,  capable  of 
even  a  romantic  idealism.  M4rim^  died  at 
Cannes,  September  23,  1870.  Consult:  Filon, 
MMm4e  et  scs  amis  (Paris,  1894) ;  Haussonville, 
M4rim4e  (ib.,  1888) ;  Tourneux,  Prosper  M^rim^e, 
ses  portraits,  ses  dessins,  etc.  (ib.,  1879)  ;  and 
l^aguet,  XlX^me  siicle  (ib.,  1894). 

MEBINO.    See  Sheep. 

MEBIOK^TH.  A  county  of  Wales,  bounded 
west  by  Cardigan  Bay,  and  north  by  the  counties 
of  Carnarvon  and  Denbigh  (Map:  Wales,  C  4). 
Area,  659  square  miles.  Merioneth  is  the  most 
mountainous  county  in  Wales,  and  laree  tracts 
are  unfit  for  profitable  cultivation.  Slate  and 
limestone  are  largely  quarried,  and  lead  and  cop- 
per are  mined.  Woolens  and  flannels  are  manu< 
factured.  Capital,  Dolgelly  (q.v.).  Population, 
in  1891,  48,859;  in  1901,  48,852. 

MEB^STEM  (irre^lar  formation  from  Gk. 
/tepurr^f,  meristoSf  divided,  from  ^p/feiv,  meri- 
zein,  to  divide,  from  fUpos,  meros^  part).  The 
region  of  actively  dividing  undifferentiated  cells. 
See  Histology. 

MEBIT,  Order  of.  An  order  instituted  in 
London,  June  26,  1902,  by  King  Edward  VII., 
with  the  object  of  conferring  distinction  on  per- 
sons who  have  gained  prominence  in  military, 
scientific,  artistic,  and  professional  circles.  The 
Order  consists  of  the  sovereign  and  the  members 
and  is  not  conferred  as  a  reward  for  political 
services.  Members  of  the  order  are  accorded 
precedence  immediately  after  the  Order  of  the 


Bath  and  before  the  other  orders  of  knighthood. 
On  January  1,  1906,  there  were  fifteen  members, 
comprising^  as  representatives  of  the  army.  Lords 
Roberts,  Wolseley,  Kitchener,  and  White;  of  the 
navy,  Admirals  Seymour  and  Fisher;  of  science. 
Lords  Raylei^h  and  Kelvin  and  Sir  William  Hug- 
gins;  of  medicine.  Lord  Lister;  of  literature  and 
history,  John  Morley,  R.  C.  Jebb,  and  C^rge 
Meredith;  of  painting,  L.  Alma-Tadema,  and  W. 
Holman-Hunt. 

MEBIT  SYSTEM,  The.  The  merit  system, 
as  the  name  implies,  looks  toward  the  appointment 
of  men  to  office  because  of  their  competency, 
and  not  because  of  their  political  opinions.  The 
fitness  of  the  candidate  is  determined  by  his 
ability  to  pass  a  written  competitive  examination, 
given  by  a  commission  of  examiners.  The  an- 
swers submitted  by  candidates  must  be  unsigned, 
so  as  to  obviate  the  possibility  of  favoritism  on 
the  part  of  the  examiners.  A  list  is  made  of  the 
successful  candidates,  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  merit  as  shown  by  the  results  of  the  exami- 
nation. Appointments  must  be  made  from  this 
eligible  list  in  the  order  of  rank  unless  good 
cause  can  be  shown  why  one  of  higher  rank  should 
be  set  aside  for  one  standing  lower  on  the  list. 
A  common  objection  to  the  merit  system  is  that 
it  does  not  give  an  adequate  test  of  a  man's  real 
capacity  to  administer  the  office  to  which  he  seeks 
appointment.  This  is  in  a  measure  true,  though 
more  and  more  the  civil  service  examiners  are 
coming  to  lay  stress  upon  experience  and  prac- 
tical ^owledge.  Inasmuch  as  the  merit  system 
makes  it  mpre  difficult  for  the  ordinary  political 
heeler  to  secure  lucrative  offices  because  of  his 
vote-getting  ability,  the  system  must  be  recog- 
nized as  a  power  for  good.  Thoush  it  does  not 
inevitably  lead  to  the  choice  of  the  most  com- 
petent, it  does  very  effectually  exclude  the  abso- 
lutely unfit.    See  Civil-Sebvioe  Reform. 

MEBIVALE,  mer^-vAl,  Charizs  (1808-93). 
An  English  historian,  best  known  by  his  work  on 
the  Roman  Empire.  He  was  bom  March  8, 
1808,  the  son  of  John  Herman  Meri  vale,  a  well- 
known  minor  poet.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Haileybury  College,  and  Saint  John's  College, 
Cambridge.     He  took  his  degree  at  the  latter 

{>lace  in  1830,  and  was  successively  scholar,  fel- 
ow,  and  tutor.  During  all  this  time  he  was  in- 
terested especially  in  Roman  history,  and  between 
1850  and  1864  wrote  his  well-known  History 
of  the  Romans  Under  the  Empire,  which  deals 
with  the  period  between  the  rise  of  the  Gracchi 
and  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  first 
part  of  the  work  was  especially  popular,  and  was 
published  in  popular  form  under  the  title  of 
The  Fall  of  the  Roman  Republic.  The  merit  of 
this  history  was  great  in  its  day,  but  more  re* 
cent  investigation,  especially  the  study  of  epig- 
raphy, has  controverted  many  of  Merivale  s 
views.  In  1869  he  became  dean  of  Ely,  though 
he  had  only  a  slight  interest  in  strictly  ecclesi- 
astical questions  and  disputes.  He  continued  to 
publish  various  studies  on  Roman  history,  among 
which  may  be  noted  General  History  of  Rome 
from  the  Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  Fail  of 
Augustulus  (1876).  He  died  December  27,  1893. 
Consult  Autobiography  and  Letters,  edited  by  his 
daughter,  Judith  Anne  Merivale  (London,  1899). 

MEBIVALE,  Herman  (1806-74).  An  Eng- 
lish political  economist  and  author,  bom  at 
Dawlish,    Devonshire.     He   was   a   brother   of 


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ICEBIVAIiE. 


844 


Charles,  the  historian,  studied  at  Harrow,  and 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in  1827. 
In  1832  he  was  called  to  the  bar  of  the  Inner 
Temple.  From  1837  to  1842  he  was  professor  of 
political  economy  at  Oxford,  delivering  while 
there  a  valuable  series  of  Lectures  on  Colonization 
and  the  Colonies  (1841).  Appointed  Assistant 
Under-Secretary   ojf   State   for   the   Colonies   in 

1847,  he  became  permanent  Under-Secretary  in 

1848.  He  was  transferred  in  1859  to  the  Under- 
Secretaryship  for  India,  and  continued  in  that 
office  until  his  death.  His  further  Works — and 
none  of  his  books,  it  is  said,  well  represents  him 
— include  Historical  Studies  (1865)  and  Me- 
moirs of  Sir  Philip  Francis  ( 1867 ) . 

KEBIVAIiE^  John  Hebican  (1779-1884). 
An  English  scholar,  translator,  and  poet.  He  was 
bom  in  Exeter,  studied  at  Saint  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1804. 
He  contributed  largely  to  Bland's  Collections 
from  the  Greek  Anthology,  published  in  1813, 
and  himself  brought  out  a  second  edition  in  1833. 
From  1831  to  his  death  he  held  the  office  of 
Commissioner  of  Bankruptcy.  Among  his  further 
literary  works  may  be  mentioned  Poems,  Orig- 
inal and  Translated  (1841),  and  Minor  Poems  of 
Schiller  (1844). 

MEBTWBTH'BB,  Lee  (1862—).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  author,  bom  at  Columbus,  Miss. 
After  a  study  of  the  law  he  practiced  his  profes- 
sion at  Saint  Louis,  and  was  appointed  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  write  a  report  on  the 
condition  of  the  laboring  classes  in  Europe.  Sub- 
sequently, as  a  special  agent  of  the  Department 
of  the  Interior,  he  was  active  in  collecting  sta- 
tistics regarding  labor  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
and  the  United  States.  This  post  he  resigned  to 
accept  that  of  Labor  Commissioner  of  Missouri. 
He  made  himself  known  by  his  report  on  the  cor- 
poration (or  *truck')  store  svstem,  by  which 
miners  in  Missouri  were  provided  with  supplies, 
at  exorbitant  figures,  as  a  substitute  for  the  regu- 
lar wages,  and  he  introduced  into  the  Legisla- 
ture of  the  State  a  bill  which  put  an  end  to  this 
system.  Later  he  studied  European  prisons,  and 
upon  his  return  to  the  United  States  resumed  the 
practice  of  law  in  Saint  Louis.  His  publications 
include :  A  Tramp  Trip :  How  to  See  Europe  on 
Fifty  Cents  a  Day  (1887),  describing  a  pedes- 
trian journey  taken  by  him  from  Gibraltar  to  the 
Bosporus  in  1885-86;  and  Afloat  and  Ashore 
on  the  Mediterranean  (1892). 

MEBKEL,  m^r^el,  Adolf  (1836-96).  A  Cer- 
man  jurist,  bom  in  Mainz,  and  educated  at  Gies- 
sen  and  Heidelberg.  He  became  docent  at  Gies- 
sen  in  1862  and  professor  in  1867,  and  was  suc- 
cessively appointed  professor  at  Prague  (1868), 
at  Vienna  (1872),  and  at  Strassburg  (1874). 
He  contributed  largely  to  Holtzendorff's  Hand- 
huch  des  deutschen  Strafrechts  and  Encyklopddie 
der  Rechtstoissenschaft  and  wrote  Zur  Lehre  vom 
fortgesetzten  Verhrechen  (1862)  ;  Kriminalis- 
tische  Ahhandlungen  (1867);  Juristische  Ency- 
klopddie (1885)  ;  Lehrhuch  des  deutschen  Straf- 
rechts (1889);  Vergeltungsidee  und  Zweck- 
gedanke  im  Strafrecht  ( 1892 ; )  and  other  essays 
on  criminal  law. 

MERLE  (OF.,  Fr.  merle,  from  Lat.  merula, 
blackbird).  The  common  European  blackbird 
(Turdus  merula),  a  thrush  closely  allied  to  the 
American  robin,  the  male  of  which  is  uniformly 
black,   while   the   female   is   dusky  olive-brown 


above  and  reddish-brown  below.  The  species  is 
migratory  except  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  is  one  of  the  most  familiar  of  the 
summer  birds  of  Europe,  coming  about  all  gar- 
dens and  roadsides,  and  making  its  rude  nest  in 
bushes  and  hedgerows;  the  eggs  are  bluish-green 
freckled  with  brown.  This  is  one  of  the  finest 
of  European  son^ters,  and  is  frequently  kept  in 
cages  and  aviaries.  The  genus  is  a  large  one» 
with  numerous  species  in  the  Orient,  Australia, 
and  South  America.  Compare  Blaokbibd; 
Thkush. 

MERLE  D'AUBIGK^,  mftrl  d6'b4'nyA^  Jean 
Henri  (1794-1872).  A  Swiss  historian.  He  was. 
bom  at  Eaux-Vives,  a  suburb  of  Geneva,  in  Swit- 
zerland, August  16,  1794;  studied  there  and  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1818  became  pastor  of  the  French 
Protestant  Church  in  Hamburg.  Thence,  after  a 
residence  of  five  years,  he  proceeded  to  Brussels. 
In  1831  he  returned  to  Geneva  and  took  part 
in  the  institution  of  a  new  college  for  the  propa- 
gation of  orthodox  theology,  in  which  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Church  history.  His  His- 
toire  de  la  reformation  au  seizi&me  Steele  gave 
him  a  wide  reputation.  It  is,  however,  marred 
by  partisanship  and  misleading  and  uncritical 
use  of  authorities.  The  first  part,  that  on 
the  Reformation  in  the  time  of  Luther  (Paris, 
1835-47,  4  vols.;  best  ed.  of  the  Eng.  trans.^ 
Edinburgh,  1853,  5  vols.,  the  last  volume  on  the 
English  Reformation),  was  vastly  more  popular 
than  the  second  part,  that  on  the  Reformation 
in  the  time  of  Calvin  (1862-78,  8  vols.;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1863-78,  8  vols.).  His  other 
writings,  mostly  historical,  are  of  less  account. 
He  died  at  (3reneva,  October  21,  1872.  Consult  his 
Life  by  Bonnet  (Paris,  1874). 

MERLET,  mftr'lA',  Lucien  Victob  Claude 
(1827 — ).  A  French  antiquary,  born  at  Vannes. 
He  studied  paleography,  and  in  1851  became 
head  of  the  departmental  archives  of  Eure-et- 
Loir.  He  edited  many  chartularies  and  ecclesi- 
astical registers  and  published :  Histoire  des  rela- 
tions des  Hurons  et  des  Ahnaquis  du  Canada  avec 
NotreDame  de  Chartres  (1858)  ;  Robert  de  Oal- 
lardon,  scenes  de  la  vie  f^odale  au  Xlll^me  sidcle 
(1858)  ;  Dictionnaire  topographique  du  diparte- 
ment  d*Eure-et-Loir  (1861);  De  Vinstruction 
primaire  en  Eure-et-Loir  avant  1789  (1878); 
and  Dictionnaire  des  noms  vulgaires  des  habi- 
tants de  diverses  locality  de  la  France  ( 1883) . 

MERLIN.  The  name  of  an  ancient  British 
prophet  and  magician,  who  flourished,  according 
to  the  romancers,  during  the  decline  of  the  native 
British  power  in  its  contest  with  the  Saxon  in- 
vaders. The  earliest  traces  of  him  are  found  in 
the  Historia  Britonum,  ascribed  to  a  certain 
Nennius  (about  800).  He  there  appears  as  a 
prophetic  child  under  the  name  Ambrosius,  and  is 
confounded  with  Aurelius  Ambrosius,  to  whom 
Vortigem  surrenders  Mount  Heremus  ( Snow- 
don).  He  next  appears  in  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth's Vita  Merlini,  afterwards  incorporated  in 
the  Historia  Regum  Britannia!  (about  1139), 
where  he  is  called  Merlin  Ambrosius,  or  simply 
Merlin.  GeoflTrey  expanded  the  narrative  of  Nen- 
nius, evidently  employing  for  the  purpose  tradi- 
tions concerning  a  Cambrian  or  Welsh  bard 
known  in  Welsh  legend  as  Myrddin.  According 
to  Geoffrey,  Merlin  lived  in  the  fifth  century,  and 
was  sprung  from  the  intercourse  of  a  demon  and 
a  Welsh  princess.    Merlin  displayed  miraculous 


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MEBLIN. 


845 


MSBMAID. 


Sowers  Irom  infancy.  He  is  made  to  predict  the 
istory  of  Britain  down  to  Geoffrey's  own  time. 
From  Geoffrey  and  other  sources  was  built  up 
the  French  prose  romance  of  Merlin  (thirteenth 
century).  Versions  of  this  romance  were  made 
in  Italian,  Spanish,  German,  and  English;  and 
parts  of  it  were  embodied  in  Malory's  Morte 
d* Arthur  (1485).  A  collection  of  prophecies  at- 
tributed to  him  appeared  in  French  (Paris, 
1498),  in  English  (London,  1529  and  1533),  and 
in  Latin  (Venice,  1554)  ;  and  their  existence  is 
traceable  as  far  back  as  the  thirteenth  century. 
Besides  this  Cambrian  Merlin  ( Merlin  Ambrosius) 
there  is  the  Strathclyde  Merlin,  called  Merlin  the 
Wyllt,  or  Merlin  Caledonius.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  the  sixth  century,  a  contemporary 
of  Saint  Kentigem,  Bishop  of  Glasgow.  His 
grave  is  still  shown  at  Drummelzier  on  the 
Tweed,  where,  in  attempting  to  escape  across  the 
river  from  a  band  of  hostile  rustics,  he  was  im- 
paled on  a  hidden  stake.  A  metrical  life  of  him, 
extending  to  more  than  1500  lines,  professedly 
based  on  Armoric  materials,  and  incorrectly  as- 
cribed to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  was  published 
by  the  Roxburghe  Club  in  1833.  His  prophecies, 
published  at  Edinburgh  in  1615,  contain  those 
ascribed  to  the  Cambrian  Merlin.  Consult: 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  Historia  Regum  Britan- 
nicB,  edited  by  A.  Schulz  (Halle,  1854)  ;  Mer- 
liftf  roman  en  prose  du  Xlll^me  sUclCf  ed.  by 
Paris  and  Ulrich,  Society  des  Anciens  Textes 
(Paris,  1886)  ;  Merlin,  or  the  Early  History  of 
King  Arthur:  A  Prose  Romance  (about  1450-60), 
ed.  by  WTieatley,  Early  English  Text  Society 
(London,  1865-99)  ;  Malory,  Morte  d^ Arthur;  and 
Tennyson,  Idylls  of  the  King, 

MEB^IiIN  (OF.  esmerillon,  emerillon,  Fr. 
&mer%llony  merlin,  augmentative  form  from  ML. 
smerilluSf  smerlus,  merlin,  probably  from  Lat. 
merula,  blackbird).  The  smallest  of  Old  World 
falcons  {Falco  cesalon),  scarcely  exceeding  a 
blackbird  in  size,  but  very  bold  and  powerful.  It 
is  bluish  ash  in  color  above;  reddish  yellow  on 
the  breast  and  belly,  with  longitudinal  dark 
spots,  the  throat  of  the  adult  male  white.  It 
builds  its  nest  on  the  ground,  and  is  fond  of 
localities  where  large  stones  are  plentiful,  whence 
it  is  often  called  'stone  falcon.'  It  is  common  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  was 
of  great  repute  in  the  days  of  falconry.  The 
merlin  is  represented  in  North  America  by  the 
pigeon-hawk  (q.v.). 

MEBLIN  DE  DOITAI,  mftr'lftN'  de  d(55'A', 
Phillipb  Antoine,  Count  (1754-1838).  A  French 
politician  and  jurist.  He  was  bom  at  Arleux  and 
studied  at  the  College  of  Anchin.  He  began  his 
career  by  practicing  law  at  Douai,  whence  the 
second  part  of  his  name.  In  1775  he  became  ad- 
vocate at  the  Parlement  of  Flanders,  where  he 
soon  acquired  reputation  as  an  able  lawyer.  His 
frequent  contributions  to  the  law  dictionary,  then 
appearing  under  the  title  R^ertoire  universel  et 
raisonn4  de  jurisprudence,  increased  his  reputa- 
tion and  established  his  authority  as  a  juris- 
consult. After  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Assem- 
bly, where  he  attracted  much  attention  by  his 
report  on  the  bill  of  April  4,  1789,  abolishing  the 
feudal  system.  In  1795  he  became  Minister  of 
Justice,  and  kept  this  post  till  January  18.  1799. 
After  the  coup  d'etat  oif  the  Eighteenth  Brumaire 
be  took  the  office  of  procureur-gen6ral  at  the 


Court  of  Cassation,  and  Napoleon  made  him 
Councilor  of  State  in  1808,  and  two  years 
afterwards  created  him  Count.  By  a  royal  ordi- 
nance of  July  24,  1815,  he  was  expelled  from 
France.  On  his  return  to  France  in  1830  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Science.  He  is  the  author  of  Recueit 
alphah^tique  des  questions  de  droit  qui  se  pr6- 
sentent  le  plus  friquemment  dans  les  trihunauoff^ 
(1810-27). 

MEBLIKO  OOCCAJO,  m^r-le'nd  k6-k&^yd^ 
otherwise  known  as  Teofilo  Folengo,  his  real 
name  (1491-1544).  One  of  the  principal  maca- 
ronic poets  of  the  sixteenth  century.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Benedictine  Order,  and  while  a  monk  he  wrote 
Latin  verses  in  the  style  of  Vergil.  About  1515- 
he  forsook  monastic  life  and  wandered  about 
the  country  with  a  young  woman  of  good  family,. 
Girolama  Dieda,  often  in  great  poverty,  for  he- 
had  no  resource  but  his  poetic  talent.  His  first 
publication  was  Merlini  Coccaii  Macarononicon 
(Venice,  1517  and  1521),  which  relates  the  ad- 
ventures of  a  fictitious  hero  named  Baldus.  This, 
poem  is  written  in  macaronic  verse,  which  Fo- 
lengo was  the  first  to  use  with  success.  Coarse 
though  it  was,  it  contained  much  genuine  poetry 
and  it  became  very  popular.  Like  the  later  Or- 
landino,  an  Italian  poem  in  octaves  dealing  with 
adventures  of  the  youthful  Roland,  the  work  was 
a  parody  on  the  heroic  epic  as  written  by 
Ariosto.  Ruing  his  wayward  career,  Folengo- 
returned  to  his  Order.  About  this  time  appears 
the  macaronic  Chaos  del  tripperino,  an  autobio- 
graphical account  of  his  errors  and  repentance 
( 1527) .  He  seems  to  have  devoted  the  rest  of  his 
life  to  the  production  of  religious  works  only,, 
such  as  the  Palermitana  o  umanitd  di  Cristo  and 
the  play  Atto  della  pinta.  For  editions  of  his 
works,  consult:  Le  opere  maccheroniche  di  Mer- 
lino  Coccaio,  edited  by  Portioli  (Mantua,  1882- 
89)  ;  Marzo,  Drammatiche  rappresentazioni,  vols, 
i.-ii.  (Palermo,  1876),  which  contains  the  AttO' 
della  pinta  and  the  Palermitana;  Raccolta  dei 
ptii  oelehri  poemi  eroicomici  italiani,  vol.  i.  (Mi- 
lan, 1841),  which  contains  Orlandino;  Luzio, 
Nuove  ricerche  sul  Folengo  (Turin,  1880)  ; 
Schneegans,  Oeschichte  der  grotesken  Satire 
(Strassburg,  1894)  ;  Zumbini,  "H  Folengo  pre- 
cursore  del  Cfervantes,"  in  Studi  di  letteratura 
italiana  (Florence,  1894). 

MEBLOK  (Fr.  merlon,  It.  merlo;  perhaps 
connected  with  Lat.  mcerus,  murus,  wall).  la 
fortification,  the  portion  of  the  parapet  between 
two  embrasures. 

MEBHAID  (from  mere,  AS.  mere,  Goth. 
marei,  OHG.  mari,  Ger.  Meer,  Olr.,  Gael,  muir^ 
OCHiurch  Slav,  morye,  Lat.  mare,  sea  +  maid, 
A8,  nuBgp,  Goth,  magaps,  OHG.  magad,  Ger. 
Magd,  maid).  An  imaginary  inhabitant  of  the 
sea.  The  upper  parts  of  mermaids  are  repre- 
sented as  resembling  those  of  beautiful  women, 
while  the  body  terminates  in  a  tail  like  that  of 
a  fish.  The  merman  is  also  heard  of,  but  less 
frequently.  The  commonest  representation  of  the 
mermaid  pictures  her  as  holding  in  her  hand  a 
mirror,  while  in  the  act  of  combing  her  hair. 
There  is  an  evident  affinity  between  the  stories 
concerning  mermaids  and  those  concerning  the 
sirens  and  tritons,  perhaps  also  the  nereids,  of 
the  ancients.  The  probability  is  that  these  stories 


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MEBMAID.  346 

have  originated  in  the  appearance  of  Beals,  wal- 
ruses, and  the  herbivorous  cetacea. 

MEBIfATT),  The.  A  famous  London  club, 
the  foundation  of  which  is  ascribed  to  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.  Its  members  included  Jonson,  Beau- 
mont, Fletcher,  Selden,  and  Carew.  Shakespeare 
also  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  it.  The  meeting 
place  was  the  old  Mermaid  Tavern  on  Bread 
Street. 

MEBMAID'S  GLOVE.  A  local  English 
name  applied  to  a  sponse  (Halichondria  ocuUiia) 
bften  cast  ashore  on  the  coast  of  Great  Britain 
and  Northeastern  America.  Its  branches  are 
somewhat  finger-shaped,  giving  to  the  entire  ani- 
mal a  rude  glove-like  appearance.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  a  social  polyp,  Alcyonium  digi- 
tatum,  more  aptly  and  commonly  called  'dead- 
man's  fingers.' 

MEBMAID'S  HEAD.  The  popular  British 
name  for  a  spatangoid  sea-urchin  {Amphidetus 
<}ordatu8), 

MEBICAIB'S  PUBSE.  A  shark's  egg-case. 
See  Ray. 

MEBMILLOD,  m^r'm^'W,  Gaspabd  (1824- 
•92).  A  Swiss  Catholic  prelate,  whose  ecclesi- 
astical history  is  largely  the  story  of  the  quarrel 
between  the  radical  Government  of  Geneva  in  the 
seventies  and  the  Holy  See.  He  was  bom  in 
Carouge,  studied  in  a  Jesuit  college  at  Freiburg, 
and  took  holy  orders  in  1847.  He  immediately 
sprang  into  prominence  as  an  impassioned  orator 
and  a  leader  of  the  Ultramontanists,  in  whose 
behalf  he  founded  L'Ohservateur  Catkolique  and 
the  Annates  Catholiques.  In  1864  he  was  ap- 
pointed Vicar-General  of  Geneva,  and  in  1865  re- 
ceived full  episcopal  powers  in  the  canton.  In 
the  struggle  precipitated  by  this  action,  the 
■Genevan  Government  acted  with  great  bitterness, 
and  in  1873  exiled  him.  An  attempt  on  the 
Pope's  part  in  1879  to  restore  him  was  unsuc- 
cessful, as  the  brief  forming  the  Canton  of  Geneva 
into  an  apostolic  vicarate  was  still  in  force;  but 
in  1883  Mermillod  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Lausanne  and  Creneva,  and  the  distasteful  title 
was  thus  abrogated  and  the  decree  of  exile  con- 
sequently withdrawn.  He  was  made  a  cardinal 
in  1890.  His  collected  works,  sermons,  lives  of 
the  saints,  and  political  pamphlets,  were  pub- 
lished in  Paris  and  Lyons  in  1893.  Consult 
Lesur  and  Boumand,  Le  Cardinal  Mermillod  (Ab- 
beville, 1895). 

HEBODACHy  m^rd-dftk,  or  Bel-Mebodach. 
The  name  of  a  Babylonian-Assyrian  deity,  who 
is  general Iv  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament  as 
Bel  (i.e.  ^lord')  or  Bel-Merodach.  The  Baby- 
lonian form  of  the  name  is  Maruduk  or  Marduk. 
Originally  merely  the  patron  deity  of  the  city  of 
Babylon,  he  became  the  head  of  the  Babylonian 
Pantheon,  as  Babylon  grew  to  be  the  capital  of 
a  great  kingdom.  In  virtue  of  this  preeminent  posi- 
tion, he  usurped  the  rites  of  older  gods,  who  in 
-earlier  periods  of  Mesopotamian  history  had  been 
flupreme,  notably  the  chief  god  of  Nippur,  known 
as  Bel  of  Nippur  or  simply  Bel.  Hence  the 
references  to  him  in  the  Old  Testament  as  Bel  or 
Bel-Merodach,  and,  in  the  Babylonian  religious 
literature,  the  substitution  of  Marduk  by  the 
Babylonian  theologians  in  hymns  and  myths 
which  originally  spoke  of  Bel.  By  virtue  of  thin 
process,  Marduk  becomes  the  creator  of  mankind 
as  well  as  the  god  who  brings  order  into  the  uni- 


MEBOH. 

verse  by  his  conquest  of  the  monster  Tiamat.  This 
story  of  Marduk  and  Tiamat  became  known  to 
the  Hebrews,  among  whom  it  gave  birth  to  such 
conceptions  as  Leviathan  (q.v.),  and  plays  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Apocalyptic  literature.  In 
the  legend  of  Saint  George  and  the  dragon  we 
have  another  transformation  of  the  Marduk  and 
Tiamat  myth.  Marduk  appears  originally  to 
have  been  a  solar  god,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
gods,  his  nature  is  not  'single,'  and  hence  he 
appears  also  in  the  literature  as  a  storm  god.  In 
the  artificial  astronomical  system  of  the  Baby- 
lonian scholars,  which  identified  the  chief  deities 
with  the  great  stars,  Marduk  is  identical  with 
the  planet  Jupiter  of  the  Romans.  As  the  head 
of  tne  Pantheon  he  receives  such  titles  as  'King 
of  the  Gods,'  'King  of  Heaven  and  Earth,*  *the 
supreme  god,'  and  the  like.  The  chief  temple  of 
Marduk  stood  in  the  city  of  Babylon  and  was 
known  as  £-sag-ila  (i.e.  'the  lofty  house').  It 
is  now  being  explored  by  a  German  expedition. 
Consult:  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria, especially  chaps,  viii.  and  xxi.  (Boston, 
1898) ;  Zimmem,  Keilinschriften  und  das  Alte 
Testament,  pp.  370-96  (Berlin,  1902). 

XilBODE,  mA'r6d^  Fban^is  Xavier  Mabie 
Fb£d£ric  Ghislain,  Count  de  (1820-1874).  A 
Roman  Catholic  prelate.  He  was  born  at  Brus- 
sels, a  grand-nepnew  of  Lafayette.  He  entered 
the  Belgian  army  and  took  part  in  the  Algerian 
campaign.  In  1874  he  began  the  study  of  the- 
ology at  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1850.  Pius  IX.  made  him  his 
chamberlain,  and  canon  of  Saint  Peter's.  In 
1860  he  was  appointed  temporary  Minister  of 
War,  and  recruited,  chiefly  from  foreigners,  a 
Pontifical  army.  In  1865  he  went  out  of  office 
in  consequence  of  a  dispute  with  Cardinal  An- 
tonelli.  The  next  year  he  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Mytilene  and  Papal  Almoner.  In 
1869  he  resisted  the  declaration  of  the  doctrine 
of  Papal  infallibility;  but  he  acquiesced  in  the 
final  enunciation  of  it  by  the  Ecumenical  Council. 
Consult  his  Life  by  Besson  (Paris,  1886). 

MEBOE,  mer'd-e  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mep6i7). 
The  second  capital  of  ancient  Ethiopia  (q.v.), 
dominant  from  the  reign  of  King  Ergamenes 
(about  B.C.  250),  and  the  only  residence  of  the 
kings  after  the  downfall  of  Napata  (q.v.).  As 
Berua,  it  is  mentioned  as  early  as  B.C.  500;  the 
extensive  ruins  (described  by  Cailliaud,  and 
finely  illustrated  in  Lepsius,  Denkm^ler,  part  v.) 
are  situated  at  a  place  now  called  B^rawieh. 
Consult:  Cailliaud,  Voyage  d  M4ro€  (Paris, 
1823-27)  ;  Lepsius,  Letters  from  Egypt,  Ethiopia, 
and  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai  (London,  1853). 

HE^BOH,  Watebs  of.  The  scene  of  the  great 
battle  between  the  Hebrews  under  Joshua  and 
the  allied  kings  of  Canaan  (Josh.  xi.).  The 
Waters  of  Merom  are  commonly  identified  with 
the  more  northern  of  the  two  lakes  through  which 
the  Jordan  flows  in  its  course  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
although  the  identification  is  not  free  from  diffi- 
culty and  is  disputed.  This  lake  is  now  called 
Huleh,  or  more  fully  Baheiret  el-Huleh,  'the  little 
lake  of  Huleh.'  It  is  triangular  in  shape ;  at  its 
base,  toward  the  north,  the  Jordan  enters  and 
flows  out  again  from  its  apex  toward  the  south 
on  its  descent  to  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  falling 
rains  and  melting  snows  periodically  increase  its 
size,  but  its  average  length  is  about  three  and 
one-half  miles,  and  its  width  at  the  broadest 


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MEBOM. 


847 


MEBOYINGIANS. 


point  about  three;  its  depth  is  10  to  16  feet 
Josephus  calls  the  lake  Semechonitis  {WarSy  iii.- 
X.  7),  and  the  region  about  it  Ulatha  (Antiquir 
tieSy  XV.,  X.  3).  The  district,  which  is  verj'  fer- 
tile, i»  inhabited  by  Arab».  Consult  Maogregor, 
The  Rob  Roy  on^  the  Jordmn^  (New  Yorlw,  1970). 

TEROyg,  m&r^-p&  ( 1 )  A  sister  of  PhaSthon 
and  one  of  the  Heliades.  (2)  One  of  the  Pleiades, 
the  wife  of  Sl^phiis  and  mother  of  Glaucus.  (3) 
The  daughter  of  Cypselus  and  wife  of  the  Mes- 
senian  King  Oesphontes.  All  her  sons  except 
^pytus  were  killed  when  her  brother-in-law, 
Polyphontes,  seiaed  the  kingdom,  ^pytus  fled, 
and  when  he  had  grown  up  returned  and  put 
Polyphontes  to  death. 

idbBOPB^  noA'r^p^  A  tragedy  by  Voltaire 
(1743). 

KBKOV^DA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /t^r,  me- 
ros,  a  part,  a  segment  -f  irwJt,  irod6t,  pous,  podo8, 
a  foot).  The  name  given  by  Packard  to  a  phy- 
lum or  general  group  of  arthropodous  animals 
comprising  three  claams,  i.e.  the  diplopod  Myria- 
poda  (q.v.)  or  ^thousand-legs/  the  Pauropoda, 
and  the  Symphyla.  It  is  equivalent  to  the 
Traoheata  progoneata  of  Pocock.  In  the  typical 
forms  (Diplopoda)  the  second  pair  of  mouth- 
appendages,  corresponding  to  the  mandibles  of 
insects,  are  very  different  in  structure  and  com- 
posed of  three  segments,  since  all  the  head  and 
thoracic  appendages  are  made  up  of  several 
joints,  hence  the  name  Meropoday  or  jointed-legs. 
In  this  phylum  all  the  forms  agree  in  having 
the  genital  outlets  situated  a  little  behind  the 
head;  i.e.  in  diplopods  and  pauropods  in  the 
third  segment  behind  the  head,  while  in  the 
Symphyla  ( Scolopendrella )  the  single  opening  is 
in  the  fourth  segment  from  the  head.  The  young 
on  hatching  differ  from  those  of  centipedes  ( Chi- 
lopoda)  in  having  but  three  pairs  of  legs,  but  tm- 
like  those  of  insects,  either  the  third  o)r  the  sec- 
ond trunk-segment  in  diplopods  is  footlese.  See 
Centipedb;  Mybiafoda. 

KBB'OSTOH^ATA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  /xipn,  meros,  part  -f-  ffrbfuk^  atomay  mouth ) . 
A  class  of  Arthropoda,  standing  next  above  the 
Trilobites  and  immediately  below  the  Arachnida, 
these  three  classes  forming  a  series  by  them- 
selves  and  distinct  from  the  Crustacea.  They  are 
represented  by  the  king-crab  (q.v.),  or  Limulus, 
the  sole  surviving  member  of  the  class.  The 
meroetomes  are  subdivided  into  three  orders: 
the  Eurypteriday  represented  by  Eurypterus;  the 
Synziphosuray  of  which  three  Paleozoic  families 
are  die  types;  and,  third,  the  XiphosurUy  type 
Limulus.  The  class  chiefly  differs  from  Trilo- 
bites in  having  appendages  of  two  types,  those 
of  the  head  being  single,  those  of  the  abdomen 
being  biramous;  in  t^ing  provided  with  book- 
gills,  attached  to  the  broad  abdominal  legs,  which 
arc  fused  together  at  the  base,  the  head  appen- 
dages often  ending  in  a  forceps,  while  they  dif- 
fer from  the  Arachnida  in  breathing  by  gills, 
all  the  forms  being  marine,  in  the  nature  of  the 
appendages,  the  brain,  the  nervous  cord  envel- 
oped by  arteries,  and  by  the  reproductive  organs. 
The  earliest  forms  are  the  Eurypterida.  The 
typical  genus  Eurypterus,  unlike  the  king- 
crab,  probably  actively  swarm  nearer  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea.  The  species  are  found  fossil 
in  rocks  of  Cambrian  to  Permian  age.  The  form 
of  the  body  is  somewhat  like  that  of  a  scorpion, 
though  flatter  and  of  larger  size.     A  quadrate 

Tou  XIII.— 28. 


headpiece  or  cephalothorax  with  rounded  front 
comers  bears  two  large  reniform  compound  eyes, 
between  which  are  two  small  eye  spots  or  ocelli. 
The  abdominal  portion  consists  of  twelve  seg^ 
ments  that  taper  posteriorly  and  ase  terminated 
by  a  strong,  slmrp  spine  or  telson.  The  structiune 
of  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body  is  quite  similar 
to  that  of  the  horse-shoe  crab. 

The  eurypterids  appeared  first  in  the  Potosi 
Cambrian  limestones  of  Missouri.  At  the  end 
of  the  Silurian  period  geographic  conditions 
seem  to  have  favored  their  development,  for  they 
eiq)anded  rapidly  and  became  the  dominant  types 
of  the  fauna  of  the  inclosed  basins  in  which 
were  deposited  the  shallow  water  passage  beds 
between  the  Silurian 
and  Devonian  forma- 
tions. They  appear  in 
great  numbers  in  the 
water  limestones  or 
cement  rocks  of  New 
York  State,  and  in 
beds  of  equivalent  age 
and  similar  character 
in  Great  Britain  and 
the  Baltic  Provinces; 
also  in  the  coal  meas- 
ures of  Carboniferous 
age  in  Pennsylvania, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  in 
Europe,  where  they 
are  associated  with 
the  fossil  remains  of 

a    swamp    fauna   and  «„»„..«.„.,„  «.„«.»«. 

flora.  The  last  member  ■'^»^^^««»^«  "«««»• 

of  the  genus  is  known  from  Permian  ftesh-water 
beds  of  Portugal.  The  genus  seems  to  have  been 
first  a  marine  shallow- water  organism  and  to 
have  changed  its  habitat  through  brackish  and 
possibly  to  fresh  water  in  succeeding  geological 
periods.  Several  allied  genera  are  found  asso- 
ciated with  the  remains  of  Eurypterus;  of  these 
Pterygotus,  Slimonia,  and  Stylonurus  are  the 
most  important.     See  the  articles  King-Cbab; 

XiPHOSUBA. 

Btbuogbaput.  Zittell,  Texi-Book  of  Paleon^ 
tology,  trans,  by  Eastman  (New  York,  1900)  ; 
Woodward,  Afono^apfc  of  the  British  Fossil  Crus- 
tacea of  the  Order  Merostxymaia  ( Palaontological 
Society,  London,  1866-78)  ;  Packard,  "On  the 
Carboniferous  Xiphosurous  Fauna  of  North 
America,"  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences y  vol.  iii.  (Washington,  1886)  ; 
with  the  writings  of  De  Kay,  Hall,  Huxley,  Salt- 
er, Peach,  and  Laurie. 

mCB'OVIK^aiANa  The  first  dynasty  of 
the  Prankish  Kings  in  Gaul.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  Merovaeus,  the  reputed  grandfather  of 
the  great  Prankish  King  Clovis  (q.v.),  who  in 
486  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  dominion  in  (jraul. 
Clovis  on  his  death  divided  his  kingdom  among 
his  four  sons,  one  of  whom,  Clotaire  I.,  reunited 
them  under  his  own  sway,  in  558.  On  his  death, 
in  561,  the  Kingdom  was  again  divided  into  four 
parts — Aquitaine,  Burgundy,  Neustria,  and  Aus- 
trasia.  His  grandson,  Clotaire  II.,  again  reunited 
them  in  613.  Later  there  were  again  three  States, 
Neustria,  Austrasia,  and  Burgundy,  which  were 
united  in  687.  The  power  of  the  Merovingian 
kings  was  finally  reduced  to  a  shadow,  the  real 
power  having  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  major 
domus  (q.v.).  The  dynasty  of  the  Merovingians 
terminated  with  the  deposition  of  Childeric  IIL 


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by  Pepin  the  Short  (q.v.)  in  762,  and  gave  place 
to  that  of  the  Carolingians(q.v.).  (See  Franks.) 
The  chief  authority  for  the  earlier  parts  of  the 
history  of  the  Merovingians  is  Gregory  of  Tours. 
Consult:  Thierry,  R^cita  des  temps  mdrovingiens 
(Paris,  1840)  ;  Richter,  Annalen  dea  frankischen 
Reicha  (Halle,  1873);  Sergeant,  The  f'ranks 
(New  York,  1898). 

MEB'BIAMy  Augustus  Chapman  (1843-95). 
An  eminent  classical  scholar,  bom  at  Locust 
Grove,  N.  Y.  In  1866  he  graduated  with  the 
highest  honors  from  Columbia  College,  and  from 
1868  imtil  his  death  he  was  connected  with  his 
alma  mater  as  tutor,  adjunct  professor  of  Greek, 
and  professor  of  Greek  archeology  and  epig- 
raphy. He  was  director  of  the  American  School 
of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens,  1887-88,  during 
which  year  important  excavations  were  carried 
on.  He  died  January  19,  1895,  while  on  a  visit 
to  Athens,  and  was  buried  there.  His  chief  pub- 
lications are:  The  Phceacians  of  Homer  (New 
York,  1880) ;  The  Greek  and  Latin  Inscriptions 
on  the  Obelisk  Crab  in  Central  Park  (1883); 
The  Sixth  and  Seventh  Books  of  Herodotus  (New 
York,  1885)  ;  The  Law  Code  of  Qortyna  in  Crete 
(New  York,  1886). 

MBKBIA]^  CuNTON  Habt  (1855—).  An 
American  biologist,  born  in  New  York  City  and 
educated  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of 
Yale  (1877)  and  the  New  York  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons.  He  served  as  naturalist  to 
the  Hayden  Survey  in  1872;  was  appointed  as- 
sistant of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission 
in  1875,  and  head  of  the  Biological  Survey  in 
1885;  and  acted  as  one  of  the  Bering  Sea  Com- 
missioners in  1891  and  as  head  of  various  expedi- 
tions. He  developed  the  Biological  Survey  as 
a  bureau  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  edited  a  long  and  important 
series  of  publications  relating  to  the  fauna  of 
North  America,  in  the  classification  of  which  he 
became  a  leading  authority.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are:  The  Birds  of  Connecticut 
(1877);  Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks  (1882- 
84)  ;  Biological  Reconnaissance  of  Idaho  (1891)  ; 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in  North  America 
(1892)  ;  Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Death  Valley 
Expedition  (1893)  ;  Temperature  Control  of  Dis^ 
tribution  of  Animals  and  Plants  (1894);  and 
many  pamphlets  relating  to  American  zo(5logy. 

MEBBIAH,  Plobence.  See  Bailey,  Flor- 
ence Merbl^m. 

MEBBIAM,  Henry  Clay  (1837—).  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  Maine.  He  graduated 
at  Colby  College  ( Waterville,  Maine) ,  studied  law, 
entered  the  United  States  Array  in  1862  as  cap- 
tain in  the  Twentieth  Maine  Volunteer  Infantry, 
resigned  in  1863,  and  in  the  same  year  was  ap- 
pointed captain  in  the  Eightieth  United  States 
colored  troops.  He  served  until  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  from  1863  with  colored  troops,  was 
brevetted  colonel  of  volunteers  for  faithful  and 
meritorious  services  during  the  campaign  against 
Mobile  and  its  defenses,  and  in  1865  led  the  final 
attack  on  Fort  Blakely,  Ala.,  with  the  Seventy- 
third  United  States  colored  infantry.  In  1866  he 
became  major  in  the  Thirty-eighth  United  States 
Infantry,  in  1885  colonel  of  the  Seventh  Infantry, 
and  in  1897  brigadier-general.  As  commander 
of  the  departments  of  Columbia  and  California 
in  1898  he  organized  and  forwarded  troops  for 
the   Philippines    expedition.     He   became    com- 


mander of  the  Department  of  Colorado  in  1900, 
and  was  retired  in  1901.  The  Merriam  infantry 
pack  was  invented  by  him. 

XEB^nX.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Lincoln  County,  Wis.,  201  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Milwaukee ;  on  the  Wisconsin  River,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Rail- 
road (Map:  Wisconsin,  D  3).  It  has  broad  and 
well-paved  streets,  and  has  the  T.  B.  Scott  Public 
Library  occupying  a  fine  building,  a  commodious 
opera  house,  a  well  equipped  high  school,  and  a 
handsome  court-house.  The  surrounding  country 
possesses  valuable  hardwood  timber,  and  there 
are  important  manufactories,  producing  sawed 
lumber,  shingles,  laths,  sashes,  doors  and  blinds, 
and  pulp  and  paper  mills.  Settled  in  1875,  Mer- 
rill was  incorporated  five  years  later.  The  gov- 
ernment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  biennially  elected, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  Population,  1900, 
8537;  1905,  9167. 

MEBBHX,  Frederick  James  Hamilton 
(1861 — ).  An  American  geologist,  bom  in  New 
York  City.  He  graduated  at  the  Columbia  School 
of  Mines  in  1885,  received  his  Ph.D.  there  five 
years  afterwards,  held  a  fellowship  in  geology  at 
Columbia  College  (1886-90),  and  was  assistant 
in  the  New  Jersey  Geological  Survey  (1885-89). 
From  1890  to  1893  he  was  assistant  geologist  for 
New  York  State.  He  was  director  of  the  Now 
York  State  Museum  in  1894-1904,  and  was  in 
charge  of  the  New  York  exhibit  at  the  Columbian 
Exposition  in  Chicago  in  1893.  He  was  a  member 
of  numerous  scientific  societies,  to  whose  bul- 
letins and  to  other  periodicals  he  contributed 
special  articles,  and  in  1898  he  was  made  State 
Geologist  for  New  York.  To  the  bulletin  of  the 
New  York  State  Museum  he  contributed  Salt  and 
Gypsum  Industries  in  New  York  (1893)  ;  Mineral 
Resources  of  New  York  (1896)  ;  Road  Materials 
and  Road  Building  in  New  York   (1897). 

MEBBILL,  George  Perkins  (1854—).  An 
American  geologist,  born  at  Auburn,  Me.  After 
graduating  at  the  Maine  State  College  (1879) 
he  was  assistant  in  chemistry  at  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Conn.  (1879-80).  In  1880  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  curator  at  the  National  Mu- 
seum. He  also  served  as  professor  of  geology  and 
mineralogy  at  the  Corcoran  Scientific  School  of 
Columbian  University,  Washington,  D.  C.(1893)  ; 
and  was  appointed  head  curator  of  the  depart- 
ment of  geology  at  the  National  Museum,  Wash- 
ington, in  1897.  His  chief  publications  are: 
Stones  for  Building  and  Decorations^  Handbooks 
for  the  Department  of  Geology,  United  States 
National  Museum,  and  a  Report  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  (1890). 

MEBBILL,  Lewis  (1834-96).  An  American 
soldier,  born  at  New  Berlin,  Pa.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1855,  was  assigned  to  duty  with 
the  First  Dragoons,  and  served  in  Missouri,  in 
Kansas  Territory,  and  with  the  Utah  expedition. 
In  1861,  as  colonel  and  chief  of  staff  to  John  C. 
Fremont,  he  organized  Merrill's  Horse  to  oppose 
guerrillas  in  Missouri,  and  later  commanded  the 
Department  of  Saint  Louis,  and  then  that  of 
Northern  Missouri.  In  1864  he  was  commander 
of  the  cavalry  bureau  at  Saint  Louis  and  took 
part  in  the  engagements  at  Franklin,  Mo.  The 
next  year  he  was  sent  aefainst  guerrillas  in  north- 
ern iCieorgia  and  Alabama,  and  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general.  After  various  Western  assign- 
ments he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  military 


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district  in  South  Carolina  with  orders  to  hreak 
up  the  Ku  Klux  Klan  (q.v.).  From  1871  to  1873 
he  succeeded  in  this  so  well  that  when  similar 
conditions  arose  in  the  Red  River  District  of 
Louisiana  he  was  made  commander  there  in 
1875,  remaining  until  the  following  year. 

MEBBTLL,  Selah  (1837 — ).  An  American 
Congregationalist  clergyman,  born  in  Canton  Cen- 
tre, Conn.  After  studying  theology  at  the  Yale 
Divinity  School  he  was  ordained  in  1864.  During 
the  last  year  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  chaplain 
of  the  Forty-ninth  United  States  colored  infantry, 
and  in  1868  went  to  Germany,  where  he  studied 
two  years.  In  1874-77  he  was  in  Palestine  as 
archseoI(^st  of  the  American  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Society,  and  in  1882  became  United  States 
consul  at  Jerusalem.  While  there  he  made  im- 
portant explorations  and  excavations  to  discover 
the  second  wall  of  Jerusalem  and  determine  the 
site  of  Calvary.  He  was  again  consul  in  1891-94, 
and  was  reappointed  in  1898.  He  taught  at  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary  in  1872  and  1879, 
and  became  curator  of  the  Biblical  Museum  there. 
His  works  include:  E(ut  of  the  Jordan  (1881  and 
1883);  Galilee  in  the  Time  of  Christ  (1881); 
Greek  Inaoriptions  Collected  in  the  Years  1875-77 
in  the  Country  East  of  the  Jordan  (1885)  ;  and 
parts  of  Picturesque  Palestine  (1882-83). 

MEBBHX,  Stephen  Mason  (1825-1905).  A 
Methodist  Episcopal  bishop,  born  in  Jefferson 
County,  Ohio.  He  entered  the  ministry  in  Ohio 
in  1846,  was  editor  of  the  Western  Christian 
Advocate  (1868-72),  and  in  1872  was  elected 
bishop.  He  retired  in  1904.  His  chief  works 
are:  Christian  Baptism  (1876);  Hell  (1878); 
Second  Coming  of  Christ  (1879);  Aspects  of 
Christian  Experience  (1882);  Methodist  Law 
{ 1885  et  seq. ) ;  Mary  of  Nazareth  and  Her  Family 
{ 1895 )  ;  Atonement  ( 1901 )  ;  Sanctiflcation  ( 1901 ) . 

METtTlTTiTi,  William  Emeby  (1837-91).  An 
American  soldier  and  military  engineer.  He 
was  bom  at  Fort  Howard,  Wis.;  graduated  first 
in  his  class  at  West  Point  in  1859,  and  from 
September,    1860,  to  Julv,    1861,  was  assistant 

Erofessor  of  engineering  tnere.  In  the  Civil  War 
e  served  as  assistant  engineer  in  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  during  the  Peninsular  campaign  and 
in  the  Northern  Virginia  campaign;  was  superin- 
tending engineer  at  Newport  and  Covington,  Ky., 
at  the  time  of  the  threatened  Confederate  attack 
in  September  and  October,  1862;  was  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  forces  in  Kentucky  from  October, 
1862,  to  May,  1863,  and  of  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  from  August  to  September,  1863, 
and  again  from  January  to  June,  1865;  partici- 
pated in  the  invasion  of  (Georgia  from  May  to 
June,  1864;  and  from  July,  1864,  to  September, 
1865,  commanded,  as  colonel,  a  regiment  of  'vet- 
eran volunteer*  engineers  which  was  charged  with 
the  erection  of  defenses  along  the  military  rail- 
roads in  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  northern  Ala- 
bama, and  at  Chattanooga,  Tenn.  During  the 
war  he  received  the  successive  brevets  of  captain, 
major,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel  for  gal- 
lant services.  In  March,  1867,  he  was  raised  to 
the  regular  rank  of  major  and  in  February,  1883, 
to  that  of  lieutenant-colonel.  From  1867  to  1870 
he  was  chief  engineer  on  the  staff  of  General 
Sherman,  then  commanding  the  Military  Division 
of  the  Missouri,  and  thereafter  until  his  death  he 
was  engaged  on  engineering  work  for  the  Gov- 
ernment.     In    1889   he   represented   the   United 


States  Engineer  Corps  at  the  International 
Congress  of  Engineers  at  Paris.  He  published: 
Iron  Truss  Bridges  for  Railroads  (1870)  and 
Improvement  of  Non-Tidal  Rivers  (1881). 

MEB^BIMAC.  A  river  of  New  Hampshire 
and  Massachusetts.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  Winnipiseogee  and  Pemigewasset,  the  former 
being  the  outlet  of  the  lake  of  that  name,  and 
the  latter  rising  in  the  White  Mountains  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  E  2).  It  flows  southward  until 
it  enters  Massachusetts,  when  it  turns  eastward 
and  empties  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  Newbury- 
port.  Its  length,  including  the  Pemigewasset^  is 
183  miles,  and  its  chief  importance  is  the  water- 
power  which  it  furnishes  to  the  manufacturing 
cities  of  Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  Manchester. 

MEKKTMAC,  The.  (1)  A  United  States 
frigate,  sunk  with  other  vessels  when  the  Federal 
Government  abandoned  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard 
in  1861,  and  reconstructed  as  a  Confederate  iron- 
clad. She  was  then  renamed  the  Virginia,  After 
destroying  the  Congress  and  the  Cumberland  at 
Newport  News  on  March  8,  1862,  she  met  the 
Monitor  in  Hampton  Roads  on  March  9,  and  after 
a  contest  of  four  hours  was  obliged  to  withdraw. 
She  was  destroyed  when  the  Norfolk  yard  was 
evacuated  by  the  Confederates  on  May  11,  1862. 
See  Hampton  Roads  and  Monitob. 

(2)  A  collier  accompanying  the  United  States 
fleet  investing  Santiago  de  Cuba,  in  1898.  To 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  Spanish  fleet  she  was 
sunk  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  on  June  3  by 
Lieutenant  Richmond  P.  Hobson,  who,  after  ac- 
complishing his  perilous  feat,  was  captured  by 
the  Spaniards  and  held  prisoner  until  July  6. 

MEB^IMAN,  Henby  Seton.  The  pseudo- 
nym of  the  English  novelist  Hugh  S.  Scott  (q.v.) . 

MEBBIMAN,  Mansfield  (1848—).  An 
American  civil  engineer,  bom  at  Southington, 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  of  Yale  University  in  1871,  was  assistant 
in  the  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers  in  1872- 
73,  and  instructor  in  civil  engineering  at  the 
Sheffield  School  from  1875  to  1878.  In  1878  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  civil  engineering  in 
Lehigh  University.  From  1880  to  1885  he  was 
also  assistant  on  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey.  His  researches  in  connection 
with  hydraulics,  bridges,  strength  of  materials, 
and  pure  mathematics  are  important.  His  chief 
publications,  widely  used  as  standard  text-books, 
are:  Method  of  Least  Squares  (1884;  8th  ed. 
1901);  Mechanics  of  Materials  (1885;  10th  ed., 
1906);  Treatise  on  Hydraulics   (8th  ed.,  1903). 

MEB^ITT,  Wesley  (1836 — ).  An  American 
soldier,  prominent  in  the  Civil  War  and  the 
Spanish- American  War.  He  was  born  in  New 
York  City,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1860, 
was  assigned  as  second  lieutenant  of  the  Second 
Dragoons  in  January,  1861,  acted  as  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Cooke  from  February  to  Sep- 
tember, 1862,  and  in  April,  1862,  was  promoted 
to  be  captain.  He  participated  in  Stoneraan's 
famous  raid  toward  Richmond  in  April -May, 
1863;  commanded  the  reserve  cavalry  brigade 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  the  battle  of 
Gettysburg  and  in  the  Richmond  campaign  from 
April  to  August,  1864;  and  commanded  a  cavalry 
division  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  campaign 
under  Sheridan  from  August,  1864,  to  March, 
1805,   and  in  the   final  Richmond  campaign   of 


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lAaidi^ABnl,  1865.  On  April  1,  1865,  h«  wm 
psttinoted  ta  be  m»jov-geiieral  of  voliuteevs.  He 
acted  «a  chief  ol  cavahy  of  th«  lailitary  divisiaa 
of  the  dovthwesi  liom  Jum  9,  to  July  17^  186d^ 
and  commanded  the  cavalry  in  the  Department  of 
Texa9  from  Jtily  28  to  November  8,  1865.  In 
July,  1866,  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  in 
the  Regular  Army.  He  then  served  on  frontier 
duty  at  various  statioas  for  several  years,  waa 
promoted  to  be  colonel  of  the  Fifth  Cavalry, 
t/uiy  r,  1876,  and  in  the  same  year  served  against 
the  Indiana  in  Wyoming  and  Dakota.  From  1882 
iM  1887  he  was  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  and  in  April,  1887,  he 
wae  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general.  He  be- 
€an3e  a  major-general  in  April,  1899;  was  in 
command  of  the  Department  of  the  East  in  1897- 
f9 ',  was  plaoed  in  command  of  the  United  States 
f«vi!e»  in  the  Philip^^e  Islands  (q.v.)  in  May, 
1898;  and  later  m  the  amne  year  was  sum' 
nMned  to  Paris  to  aseiet  the  American  IP&aea 
ConnuissioBers  there.  In  June,  1900,  he  wa» 
jetia^ed  from  active  serv  ice. 

XEBVr,  RoBEBT  (1755-98).  An  EnglieA 
poet,  born  in  London.  He  studied  at  Christ 
College,  Cambridge,  and  began  the  study  of  law, 
but  wae  never  called  to  the  bar.  Merry  traveled 
extensively  throughout  Europe,  and  in  Florence 
was  made  a  member  of  the  so^alled  Delia  Crus- 
oan  Circle.  He  wrote  much  for  the  Florence  Mia- 
wllany,  and  after  hi&  return  to  England  pub- 
Uehed  reams  of  atfected  and  grandiloquent  verse 
over  the  signature  Delia  Crusca.  He  also  wrote 
a  number  of  incoherent  dramas,  including:  JLor- 
eTusa  ( 1791 )  ;  The  Magician  No  Conjurer  ( 1792)  ; 
and  The  Abbey  of  liit.  Augustine  (1797).  From 
1 796  he  resided  in  the  United  States. 

laXJBaLY,  Whlliaij:  Walteb  (1835—).  Reo^ 
tor  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxiord.  He  was  bom 
in  Worcestershire;  educated  at  Cheltenham  Cob- 
lege  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  gained 
the  Chancellor's  prize  for  a  Latin  essay  in  1858» 
He  was  elected  fellow  and  tutor  of  Lincoln. 
College  in  1859,  and  rector  in  1884;  was  pre^ 
sented  to  the  Vicarage  of  All  Saints^  Oxford,  ia 
1801;  was  appointed  one  of  the  select  preachers 
to  tile  university  in  1878-79,  and  again  in  1889; 
was  elected  public  orator  in  the  university  in 
1880.  He  was  prominent  in  teaching  and  examin- 
ing in  the  imiversity.  He  was  for  many  years 
engaged  in  the  preparation  of  editions  of  the 
classical  authors  to  be  published  by  the  Clarendon 
Press,  Oxford.  Of  these,  have  so  far  appeared: 
Homer's  Odyssey  (books  i.  to  xii.,  second  edition, 
1880 ;  books  xiii.  to  xxiv.,  loth  thousand,  1901 )  ;. 
and  a  series  of  the  plays  of  Aristophanes,  begim 
in  1879.  Another  work  in  classical  literature  is 
on  The  Greek  Dialects   (1875). 

HEBBY  DEL  VAL,  Raphael  (1865--).  A 
Homan  Catholic  ecclesiastic  bom  in  London,  where 
his  father  resided  ae  Spanish  ambassador,  and 
educated  partly  in  England.  In  1888  he  took  or- 
ders, in  1892  was  made  papal  chamberlain,  and 
in  1897  prelate  of  the  papal  households  He  rep- 
resented  the  Vatican  at  the  jubilee  of  Queen 
Victoria  and  the  coronation  of  Edward  VII.,  and 
was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to  Canada;  in  1900 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Nic»a  in  partibus; 
was  secretary  of  the  conclave  which  in  August^ 
1903,  elected  Pius  VII.  pope;  and  in  October 
succeeded  Cardinal  Rampolla  as  papal  secretary 
of  State.  In  the  conduct  of  this  important  office 
he  was  criticised  for  adopting  an  aggressive 
policy   which   helped  to  intensify  the   strained 


vekrtjons  betweea  the  Curia  ttmd  the  Frsadk 
government.  1b  November,  1903,  he  was  cveafied 
a  eavddnaL 

MEBBY  DEVIL  OF  EDMONTOB,.  Tbe. 
An  anonymous  comedy  acted  ia  1607  and  printed 
in  1608.  It  has  been  attributed  on  sli^i  evi- 
dence to  Dhrayton  by  Coxeter,  and  also  ascribed 
to  Shakfflpeare.  Flfeay  thinks  the  play,  originany 
called  8ir  John  Oldoastle,  was  written  by  Dray- 
ton for  the  Chamberlain's  Men  before  1597,  and 
that  the  prose  story  of  the  same  title  by  T:  B., 
1608,  is  not  to  be  identified  with  the  play.  It 
was  very  popular;  Jonson  remarks  that  it  waa 
the  **dear  delight  of  the  public."  Allusions  to 
it  are  found  in  Grim,  the  Collier  of  Croyden, 
and  probabfy  in  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor  as  welL 

IfXSBT  mVGUkinX-  An  old  popular  nam« 
ol  Eagluid,  in  whieh  the  word  merry  hae  ita 
eariy  meaning  of  'pkasant.' 

MSBXT  MnfABCR,  The.  A  nickname  of 
King  Charles  II.  of  England. 

mSBBT  XO'CnSTT.  The  name  of  a  settlement 
made  by  Thomas  Morton  within  the  limits  of 
the  present  Quiocy,  Mass.  See  M<>ftTON,  Thomas* 

MEBJtT  WZTSS  (MT  WlBXSOm,  Ths.  A 
comedy  by  Shakespeare,  produced  probably  in 
1597,  printed  complete  in  1623.  An  imperfect 
copy,  entitled  Sir  John  Falstaff  amd  the  Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor,  wae  printed  by  Thomae  Creede 
in  1602,  bearing  evident  marks  of  haste.  The 
play  was  made  for  a  Court  performance,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  written  at  Queen  Elizabeth's 
command,  to  show  Falstaff  in  love.  Some  in^ 
cidents  of  the  plot  are  taken  from-  two  tales  in 
Straparola^s  Notti  Piaoevoli;  from  Tarleton's 
The-  Lovers  of  Pisa  in  his  Netces  Out  of  Fur- 
gatforie;  from  Brainlord's  "Fishwife's  Tale"  in 
Westicard  for  Smelts.  The  buok-baaket  found 
in  the  tale  of  Buciolo  in  Fiorentino*s  Pecorone 
is  in  the  comedy  the  basket  of  soiled  linen  in 
which  Falstaff  hides.  It  is  notably  a  play  of 
middle-class  people,  and,  like  Much  Ado  About 
Nothing,  is  mostly  prose.  A  version  called  The 
Comical  Oallant  was  made  in  1702  by  John 
Dennis,  who  is  one  authority  for  Elizabeth's 
connection  with  the  play.  Axiother  is  Howe  in 
1709. 

IClEBflCSEXD^  m8r^sh£t.  A  town'  of  Germany. 
See  Ohijos. 


iBBITBOy  m&r^ae-b9CrK.  A  town  in  the 
Frovinoe  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  situated  on  the 
Saale,  about  20  miles  west-northwest  of  Leip- 
zig (Map:  Prussia,  D  3).  It  is  ancient  in  ap- 
pearance. It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  begun  in 
the  eleventh  and  finished  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. The  Gothic  castle^  the  former  residence  of 
the  bishops,  is  now  used  as  an  administration- 
building.  Other  interesting  buildings  are  the 
Rathaus,  the  new  assembly  liouse,  and  the  chap- 
ter house.  The  gymnasium,  founded  in  1575,  is 
the  chief  educational  institution.  Merseburg 
manufactures  machinery,  leather,  iron  products, 
toys,  textiles,  etc.  It  is  considered  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  of  Germany.  As  early  as  the  ninth 
century  it  was  the  residence  of  the  counts  of 
Merseburg.  During  the  tenths  eleventh,  and 
twelfth  centuries  it  was  the  favorite  residenoe 
of  the  German  emperors  and  the  seat  of  many 
diets.  Aferseburg  was  the  seat  of  an  important 
bishopric  in  the  Middle  Ages.  With  the  intro* 
duction  of  Protestantism  the  see  passed  to  Sax- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HEB6SBUBG. 


851 


MEBTOir  COLLEGE. 


mry.  ItB  fairs  were  also  of  great  importaaoe. 
Near  Merseburg  the  German  King,  Heniy  the 
Fowler,  won  a  great  victory  over  the  HsiQgBrians 
in  #33.  Population,  in  1890,  17,669;  in  1900,  19,- 
119;  in  1905,  £O«024,  chiefly  Proteatantfi. 

KEBaSlTNE,  mftr'ste^  Makk  (156g-l«48). 
A  Fresieh  theologiaii  and  seholar,  h&m  at  La 
Soultitee  (Maine),  fie  studied  at  the  Ckill^e 
of  La  Fl^cbe,  where  he  had  as  a  lei  low  ]»upil 
fifln6  Descartes,  with  whom  he  always  main- 
tained a  dose  friendship.  In  1611  he  became 
«  Minin  Friar.  Afterwards  he  taught  philos- 
ophy at  Nevers  from  1614  to  1620,  and  sub- 
seqiiently  lived  principally  in  Paris.  He  was 
the  Parisian  representative  of  his  friend  Des- 
cartes while  the  latter  was  in  Holland.  After- 
wards his  studies  grew  more  scientific,  and  he 
pvblidied  a  number  of  treatises  4ni  astronomv 
and  mathematics.  He  also  wrote  Sarmofide  unt- 
verselU,  contenant  la  th^orie  et  la  prmtigue  de 
la  musigtte  (1636),  And  a  Latin  epitome  of 
it,  Harmofvioorum  lAbri  XII,  (1636).  From 
these  we  learn  much  of  the  condition  of  music 
in  the  seventeenth  eentury,  and  his  own  dis- 
coveries in  the  phenomena  of  vihratioa. 

HEB13EF.  A  river  of  England,  separating 
the  counties  of  Caster  and  Lancaster  (Map: 
En^and,  D  3).  It  enters  the  Irish  Sea  by  a 
wide  estuary  forming  the  Lrverpool  Ckamnel. 
This  dbannel  is  dee^  and  navigable  lor  several 
mike  above  Liverpool.  By  means  of  a  ship  canal, 
whi<^  follows  for  some  distance  the  course  of 
the  river,  navigation  can  be  continued  to  Mao- 
Chester  and  beyond.    See  Live&pool. 

MSBSIITA,  m^Y'%^iA\  A  sea|>ort  town  in 
ilie  Vilayet  of  Adaaa,  Asia  Minor,  situate  J  on 
the  southern  coasit,  41%  miles  by  rail  west-south- 
west of  Adana  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia«  F  4). 
It  is  well  bwiit  and  snrrouBded  by  fine  gardens. 
The  harbor,  an  open  roadstead,  is  aot  veiy  deep, 
aad  steamers  usually  anchor  a  long  dietanes 
from  the  town.  Its  commerce  amounted  to  nearly 
$9/>90,000  in  1905.  The  United  States  is  rep- 
resented br  a  consular  a^nt.  Mereina  is  of 
reoent  origin ;  its  population  is  estimated  at  oi^er 
12,900,  about  one-half  OhristiaA. 

WBiSMfSfSy  mftr'sCK^,  Luc  Ouvieb  (lB4fe~). 
A  Fren<fli  painter,  bom  in  Paris.  He  studied 
under  CSiassevent  and  Pils,  and  was  awarded  the 
Prix  de  Kome  in  1869.  He  obtained  a  'first-class 
medal  at  the  Paris  EKposition  of  1889.  His 
worics  are  on  historical  and  religious  subjects, 

Sainted  with  peculiar  charm,  and  his  drawings 
ave  the  same  delicate,  almost  tender,  quality. 
KotaUe  pictures  are  the  two  episodes  from  the 
life  of  Saint  Louis,  for  the  Palais  de  Justice  in 
Paris,    "Saint    Isidore,"    and    the    "Eepose    in 

Egypt- 

MEBTHTB  TYDUL^  m&^th§r  tTdMl.  A 
mannfacturing  town  in  Glamorganshire,  South 
Wales,  sorrounded  hy  lofty  hills  and  built  on 
tiic  river  Taff,  about  500  feet  above  sea-level,  24 
miles  from  Cardiff  (Map:  England,  €  5).  Mer- 
thyr  Tydfil  is  the  seat  of  fiie  iron  trade  of  South 
Wales,  amd  contains  large  collieries,  celebrated 
for  the  excellence  of  steam  coal,  the  exports 
ctf  which  are  considerable.  The  town  has  greatly 
imiiroved  since  1850;  it  owns  handsome  public 
hsildiiigs,  a  good  water  sufiply,  and  two  profit- 
able sewage  farms,  and  maintains  two  infections 
iiiwiasc  iKwpitafe.  Piofwlation,  in  1801,  7700;  in 
1991,  59,000;  in  1901,  d9,9i9. 


KES9X>jr,  mer^ton,  Walisb  bb  ( ?-l£77).  An 
English  prelate,  founder  of  Merton  OaUe^e,  Ox- 
ford. He  was  educated  an  the  prsoiy  at  Mfirtoa, 
Surrey,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 
Henry  III.  raised  him  in  1261  to  Uie  kffd  ckaA- 
cellorship,  from  whic&  offioe  he  was  deposed  in 
1363  by  the  barons  under  Simon  -de  Montlort. 
He  returned  to  that  offioe  ia  1272,  b«t  in  1274 
resigned  to  accept  an  appointment  to  the  See 
of  fiodiester.  He  founded  at  Basingstolce  a  hos- 
pital for  superannuated  dergymen  and  travefers 
in  distress ;  but  is  best  known  as  the  founder  of 
Merton  College,  Oxford,  which  was  completed  in 
1274.  'Diis  was  originaHj  designed,  it  would 
appear,  to  be  for  th«  education  of  the  secular 
clergy,  and  offered  courses  in  philosophy,  the 
liberal  arts,  and  theology — tn  arie^  dialectioa,  ot 
theologia,  as  the  Rochester  chronicles  express  it. 
It  became  the  model  of  subsequent  foundatiom 
at  both  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  was  tfena 
the  basis  of  the  coHegiate  system  peculiar  to 
these  two  English  universities. 

MERVOir  aUiLBOE.  The  oldest  <;oliefie  of 
he  type  in  Oxford,  aiid  the  juodel  of  all 
later  secular  colleges,  im.  both  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. It  was  &r9t  founded  as  the  House  of 
the  Scholars  of  Merton,  ia  1262  <nr  1264,  by 
Waiter  de  Merton  <q.v.).  The  original  'endow- 
ment  consisted  of  Ms  manor  honse  and  estate 
at  Maiden,  Surrey;  the  inoome  from  which  was 
to  go  to  the  sug^tort  ctf  scholars  in  Oxford,  the 
estate  being  managed  by  a  resident  warden  and 
%ii«thren.'  By  various  changes  between  1264 
and  1274,  t^e  scholars  were  moved  f  ron  a  i^Mited 
houae  to  their  own  property,  Merton  Hall,  Ac- 
quired for  them  by  the  founder,  and  were  pnt 
in  charge  first  ^  a  sub-warden,  then  of  the  war- 
den hin^elf,  who  had  come  up  from  Surrey.  The 
DMmber  of  scholars,  who  had  been  originally  con- 
fined to  the  members  of  the  fouuler's  family,  warn 
increaaed,  and  the  collegiate  idea  of  the  founda- 
tion was  orystaUioed  in  the  statutes  of  1274. 
The  addition  of  a  system  of  eccleaiasdeal  patron- 
age, the  arrangement  of  the  buildings,  iuid  the 
plan,  aiae,  and  beauty  of  the  chapel,  in  addition 
to  the  scheme  of  the  statutes,  had  great  influence 
on  later  foundations.  The  college  has  suffered 
various  changes  since  its  estahHshment,  the  last 
of  which  was  its  absorption  of  Saint  Alban  Hall 
in  1882.  liiere  were,  in  1905,  a  warden,  nine- 
teen fellows,  three  honorary  fellows,  thirty-five 
scholars  and  exhibitioners,  four  lecturers, 
two  chaj>lains,  college  officers,  and.  In  all, 
some  one  Imndred  and  fifty  underffluduates. 
The  buildings  are  among  the  most  interest- 
ing in  Oxford,  compriaing,  as  Al\ey  dc^  a,  con- 
siderable part  dating  from  the  thirteenth  oentury. 
Here  Henrietta  Maria  occupied  the  warden** 
apartanents^  wliile  Charies  L's  Court  was  held  at 
Oiford.  Again,  in  1665,  the  year  -qf  the  plague, 
Charles  II.  moved  his  Court  hither,  and  hia 
Queen  occupied  the  lodgings  formerly  used  by 
Henrietta  Maria.  The  chapel,  though  not  com- 
pleted, is  of  cathedral  sise,  but  has  no  tranaep4>. 
Among  the  worthies  of  Merton  may  be  mentioned 
Harvey,  the  denwnstrator  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  Bishops  Patteson  and  Jewell,  An- 
thony Wood,  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  Sir  Richard 
Steele,  and  Sir  H.  Savile.  Consult  Henderson, 
•*Merton  College,"  in  University  of  Owford  Od- 
lege  Hiateries  (Oxford,  1902) .    See  Oxfobd  Um- 

TEB8ITT. 


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Google 


HEBXT. 


852 


MESA. 


KEBXT,  mSi^TTSS,  A  fabulous  mountain  in 
Hindu  mythology,  the  abode  of  the  gods.  It  is 
supposed  to  stand  at  the  centre  of  the  world, 
and  it  towers  to  a  height  of  80,000  leagues;  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  revolve  about  its  summit. 
Regarded  as  a  terrestrial  mountain,  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  located  somewhere  to  the 
north  of  the  Himalayas. 

MEBV^  m$rf.  A  region  in  Central  Asia  now 
forming  a  district  in  the  Russian  Trans-Caspian 
province,  a  short  distance  from  the  northeastern 
corner  of  Persia  (Map:  Asia,  Central,  H  3).  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  about  49,000  square  miles. 
The  northern  and  larger  part  is  a  vast  sandy 
plain  with  very  little  vegetation.  The  southern 
part  is  more  elevated  and  watered  by  the  Mur- 
ghab  and  its  tributaries.  The  summers  are  long 
and  hot,  and  the  annual  average  temperature  is 
from  about  67"  to  60**,  ranging  from  — 6**  to 
113**.  The  precipitation  is  very  meagre,  espe- 
cially in  the  northern  part.  The  chief  occupation 
of  the  inhabitants  is  agriculture,  which  is  made 
possible  only  by  irrigation.  Unirrigated  regions 
are  utilized  to  some  extent  for  stock-raising  by 
the  nomadic  tribes.  The  chief  centre  of  agri- 
culture is  the  oasis  of  Merv,  to  which  the  name 
was  formerly  confined.  The  water  for  irrigation 
is  supplied  by  the  Murghab  and  a  few  of  its 
tributaries.  Wheat  and  rye  are  the  chief  cereals 
raised  in  the  irrigated  portions  of  the  territory. 
Transportation  is  effected  principally  by  the  use 
of  pack  animals,  although  the  territory  is  crossed 
by  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway  line.  Near  the 
railway  line  are  the  Imperial  estates  of  Murghab, 
with  extensive  irrigation  works.  The  population 
of  the  district  was  119,332  in  1897,  composed, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  Russian  Jews  and 
Persians,  of  Tekke  Turkomans,  divided  into  a 
number  of  clans.  A  considerable  porticm  of  them 
are  nomadic.    They  all  profess  Islam. 

The  capital  of  the  district,  known  as  New 
Merv,  is  situated  on  the  Murghab  and  the  Trans- 
Caspian  Railway.  It  has  a  number  of  schools, 
churches,  a  meteorological  observatory,  and  some 
trade.  Population,  in  1897,  8727,  consisting  of 
Russians,  Turkomans,  Armenians,  Persians,  and 
Jews.  About  25  miles  east  of  New  Merv  are  the 
ruins  of  three  cities,  of  which  one,  existing  in 
the  time  of  Strabo,  was,  according  to  that  his- 
torian, of  great  extent  and  importance. 

Merv  is  a  very  ancient  settlement,  its  name 
(Mouru)  being  mentioned  in  the  Zend-Avesta. 
It  once  formed  a  satrapy  of  the  Persian  Empire. 
An  archbishopric  of  the  Nestorian  Church  existed 
there  as  early  as  the  fifth  century.  Occupied  by 
the  Arabs  in  the  seventh  century,  the  city  of 
Merv  became  the  capital  of  Khorasan  and  a  great 
intellectual  centre,  rising  to  still  greater  im- 
portance in  the  eleventh  century  while  under  the 
rule  of  the  Seljuks.  The  prosperity  of  Merv 
came  to  an  end  with  the  invasion  of  the  Turko- 
mans about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 
The  district  was  almost  entirely  depopulated  by 
the  Mongols  under  Tula!  in  1221.  At  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Timur,  and  after  a  short  occupation  by  the 
I'zbeka  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
was  taken  by  the  Persians,  under  whose  rule 
it  remained  until  1787,  when  it  was  occupied 
and  later  entirely  devastated  by  the  Bokharians. 
About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
was  invaded  by  the  Tekke  Turkomans,  who  be- 


came the  ruling  race.    In  1884  Merv  was  annexed 
by  Russia. 

MERX,  m&rks,  Aoalbebt  (1838—).  A  Ger- 
man theologian  and  Orientalist.  He  was  bom 
at  Bleicherode,  near  Nordhausen,  and  studied 
at  Marburg,  Halle,  and  Berlin.  From  1865  to 
1876  he  was  professor  of  Semitic  philology  and 
theology  at  different  universities.  In  the  latter 
year  he  took  the  chair  of  theology  at  Heidelberg. 
He  belongs  to  the  school  of  liberal  theologians, 
who  fully  acknowledge  the  right  of  unrestricted 
criticism  of  the  Scriptures.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Das  Oedicht  von  Hioh  (1871)  ;  Die 
Saadjanische  Uebersetzung  des  Hohenliedes  ins 
Arahische  (1883);  the  **Historia  Artis  Gram- 
matics apud  Syros,"  in  Abhandlungen  fur  Kunde 
des  Morgenlandes  (Leipzig,  1889)  ;  and  Idee 
und  Orundlinien  einer  allgemeinen  Oeachichte  der 
Mystik  (1893). 

HiXYy  m&'r^,  Joseph  (1798-1866).  A 
French  satirical  poet,  bom  January  21,  1798,  in 
Aygalades  (Bouches-du-Rhdne).  In  1824  he  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  aroused  attention  through  a 
political  satire.  La  VilUliade,  lea  J^suites  (1826), 
oy  some  Bonapartist  poems,  and  by  work  on  a 
satirical  journal  N^^sis,  Later  he  wrote  dra- 
mas, romances,  and  novels  remarkable  for  their 
exotic  descriptions  of  lands  M^ry  had  never  seen. 
Of  his  once  very  popular  stories,  H^a  (1843) 
and  Nouvellee  nouvelles  (1853)  are  sufficiently 
typical.  M6ry  died  in  Paris,  June  17,  1866. 
Consult  Claudin,  M^,  aa  vie  intime  (Paris, 
1866). 

H^BYOK,  mftr'yftN',  Charles  (1821-68).  A 
French  etcher,  bom  in  Paris.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Naval  School  in  Brest,  and  afterwards 
rose  to  the  position  of  lieutenant  in  the  Navy. 
After  making  a  voyage  around  the  world  ( 1845) , 
he  was  compelled  by  failing  health  to  take  up 
etching,  which  he  studied  at  Paris,  achieving 
the  highest  success  in  this  art.  Though  strong 
and  precise,  his  execution  is  of  rare  delicacy,  and 
his  art  is  highly  imaginative.  After  a  few  years 
a  mental  malady  developed,  and  during  his  sec- 
ond visit  to  the  asylum  at  Charenton  he  died. 
Of  his  etchings  the  best  known  are  the  series  of 
twenty-three  plates,  Eaux-fortes  sur  Paris  ( 1850- 
64),  most  of  which  represent  old  Paris,  then 
rapidly  disappearing  under  the  improvements 
of  Haussmann.  Consult :  Wedmore,  M^on  and 
M&ryon^s  Paris  (London,  1879)  ;  Bouvenne,  ]Vote« 
et  Souvenirs  sur  Charles  M^on  (Paris,  1883)  : 
Burty,  L*(Euvre  de  Charles  M^on,  translated  by 
Huish   (London,  1879). 

MESA,  mft^sA.  A  Spanish  word  meaning 
'table*  (cf.  Latin  fnensa)j  and  used  especially  in 
the  Southwestern  United  States  to  designate  the 
small,  isolated  plateaus,  usually  rising  abruptly 
from  the  surrounding  plains,  which  are  found 
scattered  over  the  region  traversed  by  the  Colo- 
rado River.  The  mesas  are  remnants  of  an 
ancient  plain  which  in  a  former  geological  age 
was  uplifted  from  the  ocean-bottom  to  a  height 
of  several  thousand  feet.  This  plain  was  cut 
down  by  erosion  to  its  present  level  except  where 
a  hard  superficial  rock  protected  the  underlying 
soft  strata;  such  places  were  left  as  isolated 
blocks  with  steeply  escarped  sides.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  mesas  are  the  Mesa  Encantada 
and  the  Mesa  Verde. 

The  Mesa  Encantada  or  Enchanted  Mesa,  called 
by  the  Indians  Katzimo,  is  situated  near  the 


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MESA. 


858 


MESENTEBY. 


village  of  Acoma  in  west  central  New  Mexico. 
It  is  a  perpendicular  sandstone  rock  rising 
from  a  grassy  plain.  It  is  of  elongated  shape, 
2050  feet  long  and  from  100  to  350  feet  wide. 
Above  a  sloping  talus,  100  to  200  feet  in  height, 
towers  the  perpendicular  wall  to  a  height  of  430 
feet  above  the  plain.  The  summit  is  nearly  level, 
and  consists  of  a  hard  rock  very  much  weathered 
and  supporting  a  few  stunted  cedars.  The  rock 
is  held  in  superstitious  awe  by  the  neighboring 
Acoma  Indians,  and  a  tradition  is  current  amonff 
them  that  their  remote  ancestors  once  inhabited 
the  summit.  The  rock  had  never  been  ascended 
by  white  men  until  Professor  Libbey  scaled  it 
in  the  summer  of  1896.  He  and  F.  W.  Hodge, 
who  ascended  it  in  1897,  found  an  artificial  stone 
monument  and  numerous  fragments  of  pottery 
and  some  stone  implements. 

The  Mesa  Verde  is  situated  in  the  extreme 
southwestern  comer  of  Colorado,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mancos  River.  It  is  a  plateau  IB 
miles  lone  and  8  miles  wide.  Its  talus  is  300  to 
500  feet  nigh,  above  which  rises  a  precipitous 
wall  of  yellow  sandstone  150  to  300  feet  farther, 
the  top  of  the  mesa  being  400  to  800  feet  above 
the  plain.  It  derives  its  name  {Verde  =  *green') 
from  the  fact  that  its  entire  upper  surface  is 
covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  oeaars  and  pifion 
trees.  The  summit  is  more  accessible  than  that 
of  the  Encantada,  being  intersected  by  the  numer- 
ous ramifications  of  a  cafion  which  opens  into 
that  of  the  Mancos  River.  The  rock  walls  of  the 
Mesa  Verde  are  interrupted  by  numerous  hori- 
zontal ledges  occupied  by  the  ruins  of  ancient 
cliff  dwelflngs,  some  in  a  remarkable  state  of 
preservation.  Large  numbers  of  stone  imple- 
ments, pot-sherds,  and  some  mummies  have  been 
found  among  the  ruins.  Consult  Nordenskj51d, 
The  Cliff-Dioellers  of  the  Mesa  Verde,  translated 
by  Morgan  (Stockholm,  1893) .  See  Cuff  Dwell- 
ers. 

MESAGNE,  mA-stt^nyA.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Lecce,  Southern  Italy,  situated  about  10 
miles  by  rail  southwest  of  Brindisi  (Map:  Italy, 
M  7 ) .  It  is  an  ancient  town,  picturesquely  situ- 
ated in  a  fertile  region,  producing  oil,  wine, 
grain,  and  fruit.  Peculation  (commune),  in 
1901,  12,105. 

MESCALA,   mAskaa&,   or  MEXGALA.     A 

river  of  Mexico,  rising  in  the  State  of  Tlaxcala, 
60  miles  east  of  Mexico  City.  Its  general  course 
is  westerly,  bending  southward  shortly  before 
empt3ring  into  the  Gulf  of  Lower  California  at 
the  port  of  Zacatula.  It  is  known  in  the  first 
part  of  its  course  as  the  Atoyac,  and  in  its  lower 
course,  where  it  serves  as  the  boundary  line 
between  the  States  of  Guerrero  and  Michoacdn, 
as  the  Rio  de  las  Balsas.  The  current  is  exceed- 
ingly swift,  and  the  river  is  not  navigable,  but  it 
furnishes  power  to  a  number  of  textile  and  other 
mills. 

MESGALEBO,  mA'skft-lfi^r6.  A  small  Atha- 
pascan tribe.  They  receive  their  name  from  their 
use  of  mescal  bread  prepared  from  the  maguey 
root  by  roasting  under  cover  until  it  softens  into 
a  white,  sticky,  and  sweetish  mass,  which  is  said 
to  be  extremely  nutritious.  They  formerly  ranged 
over  the  arid  Pecos  and  Staked  Plain  region  of 
Texas  and  New  Mexico,  and  were  constantly  at 
war  with  the  Ute  and  Navaho,  while  maintaining 
a  precarious  friendship  with  the  Kiowa  and 
Comanche.     They  lived  entirely  by  hunting  and 


depredation  upon  the  frontier  settlements  of 
Texas  and  Mexico,  in  company  with  other  roving 
tribes,  and  were  distinguished  for  their  warlike 
and  cruel  disposition.  Their  shelters  were  mere 
wikiups  of  boughs;  they  planted  nothing  and 
went  nearly  naked.  Since  about  1865  they  have 
been  confined  upon  a  reservation  in  southeastern 
New  Mexico,  shut  in  by  moimtains  and  well  sup- 
plied with  timber  and  water,  where  they  are  now 
making  some  advance  in  farming,  stock-raising, 
and  civilization,  although  still  greatly  addicted 
to  tisvnn,  a  sort  of  sour  beer  manufactured  from 
com.  In  1855  they  were  estimated  at  about  750. 
They  number  now  470. 

MESDAG^  mfisMao,  Hendrik  Willem  (1831- 
1905).  A  Dutch  marine  painter,  bom  in  Gronin- 
gen.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Alma-Tadema  in  Brus- 
sels, and  afterwards  lived  at  The  Hague.  He  is 
one  of  the  best  of  modern  Dutch  marine  painters. 
His  style  is  naturalistic,  and  his  work  is  charac- 
terized by  breadth,  atmospheric  effect,  and  sober 
color.  His  pictures  include:  "Sunrise  on  the 
Shores  of  Holland,''  in  the  Rotterdam  Museum; 
"Return  of  the  Fishing  Boat"  (1875),  in  The 
Hague  Museum;  "Evening;"  and  "Seashore" 
(1889).  He  received  a  gold  medal  and  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1889. 

MES'EMBBYA^CEJS!^  AizoACEiE  or  Ficoideje 
(Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /teo^/u/Sp^  mes^mhria,  mid- 
day, from  fid^ot,  mesoa,  middle  +  ^/*^p«,  hSmera, 
day;  so  called  because  the  flowers  of  many 
species  open  only  during  midday).  An  order  of 
dicotyledonous  succulent  herbs  or  shrubs.  As 
defined  b^  some  botanists,  it  includes  the  orders 
Tetragoniacett,  Sesuviaceae,  etc.  Of  the  more  re- 
stricted Mesembryacete  about  400  species  are 
known,  embraced  by  eighteen  or  twenty  genera,  a 
few  of  which  are  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
some  of  America.  The  greater  number  belong 
to  South  Africa  and  the  ^uth  Sea  Islands.  The 
perianth  is  usually  5-parted;  stamens  5  or 
many;  ovary  3-celled  with  numerous  ovules. 
The  leaves  of  some  species,  when  burned,  yield 
soda  in  great  abundance.  Large  quantities  of 
barilla  are  made  from  them  in  the  Canary 
Islands,  in  Spain,  and  in  Egypt.  The  seeds  of 
some,  as  the  ice  plant  ( Mesemhryanthemum  crya- 
tallinum),  and  of  Meaemhryanthemum  geniculi- 
floruni,  are  ground  into  flour  to  make  bread. 
Meaemhryanthemum  geniculiflorum  is  used  as  a 
pot-herb  in  Africa.  The  fruit  of  Meaemhryan- 
themum edule  (known  as  Hottentot's  fig)  is 
eaten  in  South  Africa,  and  that  of  Meaemhryan- 
themum cpquilaterale  (pig's-faces)  in  Austra- 
lia. Meaemhryanthemum  anatomicum  is  called 
kou  by  the  Hottentots,  who  beat  and  twist  up  the 
whole  plant,  allow  it  to  ferment,  and  chew  it  like 
tobacco.  When  nearly  fermented  it  is  narcotic 
and  intoxicating.  Some  species  of  Mesemhryan- 
themum are  common  annuals  in  flower  gardens. 
The  principal  genera  are  Mollugo,  Sesuvium, 
Aizoon,  and  Mesemhryanthemum. 

MESEN",  ma'zyfen.  A  river  in  Russia.  See 
Mezen. 

MESENTEBY  and  its  Diseases.  The  mes- 
entery derives  its  name  from  being  connected  to 
the  middle  portion  (Gr.  /Uaov,)  of  the  small 
intestine  (J^vrepov),  It  is  a  broad  fold  of  peri- 
toneum (the  great  serous  membrane  of  the  abdo- 
men), surrounding  the  jejunum  and  ileum,  and 
attached  posteriorly  to  the  vertebral  column.  Its 
breadth    between    the    intestinal    and    vertebral 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


854 


borders  is  about  four  inches;  its  attaohment  to 
the  vertebral  oolomn  is  about  six  inches  in 
length,  and  its  intestinal  border  extends  from 
the  duodennm  to  the  «id  of  the  small  intestine. 
It  serves  to  retain  the  small  intestines  in  their 
place,  while  it  at  the  same  time  allows  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  movement,  and  it  contains  be- 
tween its  layers  the  mesenteric  vessels,  the  lacteal 
vessels,  and  mesenteric  glands.  These  glands  are 
100  to  150  in  number,  and  are  about  the  size  of 
an  almond.  They  exert  an  organicing  action  on 
the  contents  of  the  lacteals,  the  chyle  being  more 
abundant  in  flbrine  and  in  corpuscles  after  it 
has  passed  through  them.  The  most  important 
affection  of  these  organs  is  their  tubercular 
degeneration,  which  gives  rise  to  the  disease 
known  as  tahea  mesentericaf  a  disease  most  com- 
mon in  childhood,  but  confined  to  no  period  of 
life.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  is  asso- 
ciated with  odier  results  of  tubercular  infection, 
such  as  pulmonary  consumption,  tubercular  peri- 
tonitis, caries  of  the  spine,  rickets,  etc.;  but 
sometimes  the  mesenteric  glands  seem  almost  ex- 
clusively affected,  in  which  case  the  disease  be- 
comes sufficiently  distinct  to  allow  of  easy  detec- 
tion. The  leading  symptoms  are  those  of  early 
tuberculosis,  with  loss  of  color  and  flesh,  derange- 
ment of  the  digestive  organs  (constipation  or 
diarrhoBa,  and  occasional  vomiting) ,  a  steady  pain 
in  the  region  of  the  navel,  increased  by  pressure; 
but  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  symptom  is 
tumefaction  and  hardness  of  the  abdomen,  with 
general  emaciation.  The  enlarged  glands  can 
sometimes  be  detected  by  a  careful  examination 
with  the  hand,  especially  in  advanced  oases.    The 

Progress  of  the  disease  is  generally  slo<w,  but  at 
^ngth  hectic  fever  sets  in,  the  emaciation  becomes 
extreme,  dropsical  effusion  appears,  and  the  pa- 
tient dies  exhausted,  if  not  cut  off  by  the  access 
of  some  acute  inflammation. 

The  treatment  mainly  consists  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  cod-liver  oil,  iodide  of  potassium,  and 
laxatives.  When  the  disease  has  advanced  to  a 
considerable  extent,  medicines  are  of  little  use, 
except  to  palliate  some  of  the  more  urgent  symp- 
toms. 

Independently  of  the  disease  that  has  just  been 
noticed,  inflammation  of  these  glands  is  by  no 
means  uncommon  when  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  small  intestine  is  ulcerated,  as,  for  example, 
in  typhoid  or  enteric  fever. 

The  mesentery  may  be  the  site  of  hemorrhages, 
as  in  aneurism  or  some  infectious  diseases,  as 
smallpox;  of  emboUsm  or  thrombosis;  of  cysts 
or  of  tumors. 

ME^HA  (Heb.  M^aha').  King  of  Moab  dur- 
ing ilie  reigns  of  Ahab  and  his  sons,  Ahaciah 
and  Jehoram,  kings  of  Israel  (II.  Kings  iii.  4,  5). 
.Either  on  the  death  of  Ahab  (according  to  the 
biblical  acooimt,  1.  c),  or  while  the  latter  was 
still  reigning  (according  to  the  Moabite  stone), 
Mesha  shook  off  the  yoke  of  Israel  and  freed  him- 
self from  the  heavy  tribute  imposed  upon  him. 
Subsequently,  however,  Jehoram  secured  the  aid 
of  Jehoshaphat,  King  of  Judah,  his  father's  ally, 
or  vassal,  and  the  united  armies  of  the  two  kings 
were  joined  bv  the  forces  of  the  King  of  Edom.  The 
Moabites  were  defeated,  and  the  King  took  refuge 
in  Kir-haraseth,  his  last  stronghold  (II.  Kings  iii. 
6-25).  Having  in  vain  attempted  to  force  his 
way  through  the  besieging  army,  he  withdrew  to 
the  wall  of  the  city,  and  in  the  sight  of  the 
allied   host   offered   up   his    first-bom    son    and 


successor  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  to  Chemeriu 
the  national  god  of  the  Moabites.  The  biblicu 
narrative  suggests  ( ib.  26-27 ) ,  though  in  a  vagu* 
way,  that  Chemosh  turned  to  the  succor  of 
Mesha;  at  all  events,  the  Moabites  remained  mas- 
ters of  the  situation,  and  the  attempt  to  reduce 
them  to  subjection  failed,  though  their  land  suf- 
fered much  m  the  struggle.  See  MoABrra:  SroavE. 
XBBHEI>,  mfeh^ed.     A  city  of  Persia.     See 

MXSUHBD. 


>y  mteh^dd,  or  ITBSinrj)  Cajutal 
of  ths  Province  of  Kborasan,  Persia,  attuated 
on  an  elevated  plain  in  the  extreme  northeastern 
part  of  the  country  (^lap:  Persia,  G  3).  It 
owes  its  chief  importance  to  the  fact  that  it 
contains  the  tomb  of  the  Im&m  Rixa,  a  son  of 
AH,  the  foimder  of  the  Shiites.  The  tomb  is 
contained  in  a  mosque  which  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  buildings  in  the  East,  richly  orna- 
mented with  gold,  silver,  and  marble.  It  is 
visited  annually  by  more  than  10(1,000  pilgrims. 
The  city  is  also  the  oentre  ol  several  important 
caravan  routes,  and  had  a  very  extensive  transit 
trade  with  India  and  Central  Asia,  which,  how- 
ever, has  greatly  decreased  siuoe  the  comj^etian 
of  the  Russian  railroad  from  the  Caspian  Sea 
to  Samarkand  and  the  adoption  of  adverse  cus- 
toms regulations  by  the  Russian  authorities. 
The  tow^n  still  manufactures  and  exports  fine 
silks,  carpets,  shawls,  and  sword-blades.  Popu- 
lation, about    00,080. 

H'MBH  H  ff.P-HOflgnr,  m^sb^d  h6-sin^  A 
town  of  Asiatic  Turkey.    See  'Sjebbesljl. 

MES^MUB,  Fbaxz,  or  Frtedbich-Antoit 
(1733-1816).  A  physician  and  founder  of  the 
doctrine  of  animal  magnetism,  or  mesmerism, 
(q.v.),  bom  at  Iznang.  on  Lake  Constance.  He 
studied  at  Vienna,  and  there  took  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  medicine  in  1766.  About  1772  he 
began,  along  with  Father  Hell,  to  investigate  the 
curative  powers  of  the  magnet,  and  was  led  to 
adopt  the  opinion  that  there  exists  a  power 
similar  to  magnetism,  which  exercises  an  extnuir- 
dinary  influence  on  the  Iniman  body.  This  be 
called  animal  magnetism,  and  published  an  ac- 
count of  his  discovery  and  of  its  medicinal  value 
in  1775.  Honors  were  conferred  upon  him  in 
Germany.  In  1778  he  went  to  Paris,  whore  he 
attracted  much  attention  and  made  a  fortune  by 
his  famous  magnetic  cures.  His  system  obtained 
the  support  of  members  of  the  medical  profession, 
as  well  as  of  others ;  but  he  refused  an  offer  of  an 
annual  pension  of  20.000  livres  (about  $4000) 
to  reveal  his  secret;  and  this,  combined  with 
other  circumstances,  gave  rise  to  suspicion,  and 
induced  the  Government  to  appoint  a  commission, 
composed  of  physicians  and  scientists,  whose  re- 
port was  imfavorable  to  him.  He  now  fell  into 
disrepute,  and  after  a  visit  to  England  retired  to 
Meersburg,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
complete  obscurity. 

WEBXEBIBUL  The  name  of  the  process  by 
which,  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
FranE  Mesmer,  promulgator  of  the  doctrine 
of  'animal  magnetism,'  induced  the  so-called 
mesmeric  trance  or  sleep.  Since  Mesmer^s  day 
the  subject  has  been  transferred  from  the  domain 
of  charlatanism  to  that  of  scientific  research. 
The  mesmeric  trance  is  identical  with  the  condi- 
tion known  to-day  as  ^induced  sornnanibuiism.'  or 
•hypnotism,*  or  the  •hypnotic  state;*  it  has  pre- 
sented to  the  observer  manv  highly  interesting 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


S55 


JCBfiOPHTTB. 


phanamena.  In  persons  who  are  favorably  dis- 
posed lor  pasainf  kilo  the  h3rp]Lotic  state,  the 
conditkn  is  easily  induced  by  weak,  long-oon- 
tinned,  and  uniform  stimnlation  of  the  nerves 
either  of  sight,  of  touch,  or  of  hearing.  This 
state  is,  on  the  oantrary,  almost  always  easily 
capable  of  being  terminated  by  some  strong  or 
suddenly  vaiying  stimulation  of  the  same  nerves. 
The  scientific  study  of  the  phenomena  presented 
liy  hypnotised  persons  is  of  great  interest  and 
importance;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  indeed  if  the 
^stematic  induction  of  such  a  state  can  ever  be 
lued  as  a  legitimate  or  potent  means  lor  curing 
disease,  or  even  lor  the  alleviation  of  certain 
distressing  symptoms.  The  investigations  that 
have  been  niade  of  recent  years  are  far  frcmi 
being  decisive  in  favor  of  the  method  as  a 
remedial  agent,  especially  when  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  actual  harm  which  may  result  from 
its  induction  in  some  nervous  and  impressionable 
persons.  Now  and  then  a  minor  operation  may 
be  done  under  the  influence  of  hypnotism,  or  l^ 
its  aid  a  fixed  idea  may  be  removed  and  a  delu- 
sion dispelled.  Under  ordinary  circumstances, 
however,  the  number  of  those  susceptible  to  its 
influence  is  so  small  that  its  general  use  is  im- 
possible. In  hysteria,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  most 
decidedly  a  two-edged  weapon,  and  the  patient 
may  emeige  from  hypnosis  instituted  for  a  minor 
difficulty  and  go  into  severe  hysterical  convul- 
sions. One  delusion  may  be  removed,  but  another 
and  a  more  serious  one  may  be  implanted  in  its 
stead.  For  obvious  reasons,  women  should  never 
be  hypnotized  without  reliable  witnesses,  and  the 
public  use  of  hypnotism  can  only  appeal  to  the 
morbid.  Hypnotism  tends  to  destroy  self-reli- 
ance and  to  make  patients  imaginative,  weak- 
minded,  and  neurasthenic.  Suggestion  (q.v.)  is  a 
mighty  aid  to  the  physician,  and  without  produc- 
ing hypnosis,  positive  and  intelligent  assertion 
can  accomplish  all  that  is  likely  to  he  done  by  hyp- 
notism short  of  the  somnambulistic  stage.  A 
fair  realization  of  the  part  suggestion  plays  in 
therapeutics  is  one  of  the  recent  achievements 
of  the   most  xnrogressive  medical    minds.     See 

HyPWOTISM  ;       SpIEITUAUSM  ;       SOMNAMBUULBM  ; 

Suggestion. 

ME8HX  (m§n)  IjOBD.  In  English  law,  a 
landlord  who  is  himself  tenant  to  some  superior 
lord.  The  lord  of  a  manor  containing  freehold 
lands  which  are  held  of  him  in  fee,  and  who  in 
his  turn  holds  his  lands  of  the  Crown,  answers 
that  description  at  the  present  time ;  the  superior 
lord,  in  this  case  the  King,  being  the  lord  para- 
moimt.    Bee  Fee  ;  Feudalism  ;  Texube. 

XXBNX  P&0CBS8.  All  writs,  process,  or 
orders  made  or  issued  in  an  action  between  its 
commencement  by  original  writ,  summons,  or 
other  primwry  process  and  the  final  process  by 
which  the  judgment  of  the  court  is  enforced. 
This  term  is  not  employed  under  modem  practice 
acts,  as  such  process  is  now  included  in  that 
covered  by  the  term  interlocutory  orders.  See 
the  articles  Exboution;  Judgment;  Summons; 
Warr. 

KBiKE  PBOFITB.  The  reasonable  value 
of  the  use  and  occupation  of  real  property  dur- 
ing the  period  in  which  a  trespasser  remains  in 
possession,  and  which  may  be  recovered  by  the 
true  owner  when  he  is  restored  to  possession. 
The  mesne  profits  are  estimated  by  taking  the 
fair  and  reasonable  net  rental  value  of  the  prem- 


ises between  the  original  entry  by  the  tie^MMiser 
and  the  restoration  of  the  owner  in  posseseion, 
and  deducting  therefrom  all  reasonable  and  nec- 
essary expenses  for  repairs  and  improvements  in- 
curred by  the  trespasser,  aoad  the  amount  of  any 
taxes  or  assessments  paid  by  him.  See  DAMaoms ; 
Ejkctbaent. 


I'OHUrPUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiiaoc, 
mesoa,  middle  -f  ftrtrof,  hijypoe,  horse).  A  name 
sometimes  applied  to  one  ctf  the  fossil  horses  of 
Miocene  age.     See  Hobbe,  Fossil. 

KEB^OLITE  (from  Gk.  fiitroc,  meaos^  middle 
+  XiOog,  lithos,  stone).  A  hydrated  sodium- 
calcium-aluminum  silicate  that  is  intermediate 
in  composition  between  natrolite  and  scolecite, 
and  apparently  crystallizes  in  the  monodinic 
and  triclinic  systems.  It  occurs  crystallized,  in 
fibrous  masses,  and  sometimes  massive,  with  a 
vitreous  lustre,  and  in  color  is  white  or  of  light 
shades  of  gray  or  yellow.  Mesolite  is  found  in 
amygdaloid  and  other  volcanic  rocks,  especially  in 
Iceland,  Scotland,  in  Pennsylvania  ana  Colorado 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  Nova  Scotia. 

KESOLONOHI,  mSs'^-lOo^gd.  A  town  of 
GsEEOE.    See  Missolorgihi. 

JCEBOKEBO  Y  BOKANOB,  m&'sd-n&^r6  d 
r6-mtt'nds,  Kamon  de  ( 1603-82) .  A  Spanish  essay- 
ist, bom  at  Madrid.  lie  entered  first  upon  a  mer- 
cantile career,  and  while  thus  engaged  he  collect- 
ed the  material  for  his  Manual  de  Madrid,  As 
a  journalist  he  collaborated  on  the  Cartas  Eapa- 
Holas,  and  in  1836  he  established  the  Semanario 
Pintoresco  Espanol,  which  he  continued  to  direct 
until  1842.  The  best  of  his  essays  are  to  be 
found  in  the  volumes  entitled  Eacenas  mairi- 
tenses  and  Memorias  de  un  ^etmtHn.  Those  con- 
tained in  the  former  collection  give  faithful  pic- 
tures of  older  Madrid,  and  therefore  have  a  de- 
oided  antiquarian  value;  those  inohided  in  the 
Memorias  present  much  matter  that  is  now  very 
useful  to  an  understanding  of  the  political, 
social,  and  literary  aspects  of  the  time.  Consult 
the  edition  of  his  Obras  (Madrid,  1681). 

MEfiTVJiTJL  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /iArot,  meaas^ 
middle  4-  6wv^,  onyx,  nail).  A  fossil  creodont 
mammal  found  in  the  fresh-water  Eocene  for- 
mations of  Wyoming  and  New  Mexico.  A  com- 
plete skeleton  has  l^en  mounted  in  the  museum 
of  Princeton  University.  It  shows  the  animal 
to  have  had  a  large  head,  with  strong  jaws  and 
stout  teeth  which  were  able  to  crush  bones.  The 
body  is  more  bulky  in  front  and  smaller  and 
weaker  behind,  with  a  remarkably  long  and  pow- 
erful tail.  It  resembled  in  some  superficial  re- 
spects the  modern  Tasmanian  wolf. 

JOfiSOPHnxatrS  FIIANT  (from  Gk.  fU(Toc^ 
mesoSy  middle  +  ^tXof ,  pTUlos,  dear,  from  ^/^Zv, 
phileiHy  to  love).  An  objectionable  term  for 
plants  which  grow  in  intermediate  conditions. 
Mesophytic  is  preferable.     See  Mesophyte. 

JCES^OPHYIX  ( from  Gk.  fiieo^t  meaos,  mid- 
dle +  ^?>hnff  phyllon,  leaf).  The  tissue  of  the 
foliage  leaf  which  is  bounded  by  the  two  epider- 
mal layers  and  which  the  veins  traverse.  The 
mesophyll  cells  for  the  most  part  contain  chloro- 
phyll (the  green  pigment),  and  are  the  nutritive 
cells  of  the  leaf.    See  Leaf. 

JCES^OiPHYTB  (from  Gk.  fdaoc,  -mesos,  mid- 
dle -f-  0i/r6y,  phutonf  growth,  plant) .  A  name  given 
to  plants  which  grow  naturally  in  conditions  of 


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MESOPHYTK 


356 


MESOZOIC  EBA. 


intermediate  soil  moisture.  The  term  is  thus  in 
contrast  with  hydrophyte  and  xerophyte  (qq.v.). 
To  this  group  belong  the  most  common  plants  of 
the  forest  and  grass  lands  of  equable  climates. 
Cultivated  areas  with  very  few  exceptions  are 
mesophytic.  Hydrophytes  and  xerophytes,  then, 
may  thus  be  regarded  as  extremes,  the  one  adapt- 
ed to  an  extreme  of  moisture,  the  other  of  dry- 
ness. On  account  of  the  almost  uniformly  favor- 
able conditions,  mesophytes  are  able  to  survive 
without  any  striking  adaptations  such  as  are 
to  be  found  among  xerophytes  and  hydrophytes. 
However,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  remarkably 
plastic  hydrophytes,  they  exhibit  maximum  plas- 
ticity. It  is  perhaps  not  surprising  that  plas- 
ticity is  found  developed  to  a  high  degree  among 
them,  the  sequence  of  periods  of  extreme  mois- 
ture or  extreme  dryness  tending  to  fix  adapta- 
bility. The  vegetation  of  mesophytic  areas  is 
much  more  dense  than  that  in  xerophytic  or  even 
in  hydrophytic  regions,  and  there  is  a  far  great- 
er wealth  of  species.  The  struggle  for  existence 
is  thus  more  keen,  and  fewer  representatives  of 
the  various  species  may  be  found,  while  a  xer- 
ophytic or  hydrophytic  plant  society  may  often 
be  characterized  by  the  dominance  of  one  or  two 
species.  The  keen  competition  which  exists  in 
mesophytic  regions  may  perhaps  account  for  the 
survival  of  forms  with  a  high  degree  of  plas- 
ticity. Another  feature  of  mesophytic  conditions 
is  the  richness  of  the  soil,  which  doubtless  ac- 
counts for  the  great  diversity  of  plant  forms, 
and  for  luxuriance  which  here  reaches  its  climax 
in  the  plant  world.  The  various  mesophytic  so- 
cieties are  treated  under  the  following  heads: 
Forest;  Pbaibie;  Meadow;  and  Pastube. 

MES'OPOTA^MIA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  fuaono- 
rafiia,  sc.  yrj,  gS,  country,  coimtry  between  the 
rivers,  from  fiico^t  mesoSy  middle  4*  iroraftSc, 
potamos,  river).  In  the  widest  sense,  all  the 
country  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers 
from  Armenia  to  the  Persian  Gulf;  in  a  nar- 
rower and  more  common  usage,  the  northern 
part  of  this  territory,  called  to-day  by  the  Arab 
name  EWezirah  (the  Island  Peninsula),  the 
southern  portion  (Babylonia)  being  known  as 
Irak  Ardbi.  In  the  Old  Testament  this  territory 
is  called  Aratn  'Saharayim  (the  Aram  of  the 
Two  Rivers),  of  which  the  Greek  name  is  prob- 
ably a  translation ;  and  Paddan  Aram  (the  Plain 
of  Aram).  The  name,  in  the  form  Nahrima,  is 
found  in  Egyptian  inscriptions  and  in  the  Amar- 
na  letters,  though  limited  to  the  northwestern 
district  between  the  Tigris  and  Belik.  In  the 
earliest  times  Mesopotamia  seems  to  have  been 
under  native  rulers,  and  to  have  developed  a  civil- 
ization of  its  own  which  may  have  been  the 
source  of  many  features  commonly  attributed  to 
the  Assyrians.  About  B.C.  1300  Rammannirari  I. 
made  it  a  part  of  Assyria.  Aramseans  from  the 
south  invaded  the  land  and  settled  there  in  the 
course  of  the  Semitic  migrations  of  the  succeeding 
centuries.  In  B.C.  538  it  passed  under  Persian 
rule,  and  later  belonged  successively  to  the  Mace- 
donian, Syrian,  and  Parthian  empires.  The  Ro- 
mans made  it  a  province.  In  363  Jovian  sur- 
rendered most  of  it  to  Persia.  In  the  seventh 
century  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the  caliphs. 
After  1056  much  of  the  land  was  ruled  by  petty 
Seljukian  sultans.  These  were  in  turn  con- 
quered by  the  Mongols,  who  captured  Ba^ad  in 
1268  and  put  the  Caliph  to  death.    The  Osmanlis 


began  their  conquest  early  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  in  1638  the  land  passed  completely 
into  their  power.  At  present  the  population 
is  mainly  Arab;  most  of  the  tribes  are  as  inde- 
pendent of  the  Turkish  Government  as  their 
brethren  in  Central  Arabia,  though  the  country 
is  nominallv  divided  between  several  Turkish 
vilayets.  There  are  a  few  Kurds  in  the  north, 
and  a  small  number  of  Armenian  and  Syrian 
Christians.  The  land  is  hilly  in  the  north,  but 
low  and  sandy  to  the  south.  After  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  the  chief  rivers  are  the  Khabur, 
Jaghjagha,  and  Belik.  Bitumen  is  common,  and 
a  few  petroleum  wells  are  found.  The  most  im- 
portant towns  are  Urfa,  Mardin,  Nesibin,  Mosul, 
Ed-Deir,  and  Rakka.  In  early  times,  when  a 
good  irrigation  system  was  maintained,  the  land 
was  fertile,  populous,  and  the  home  of  an  advanced 
civilization.  Owing  to  its  situation,  it  was  open 
to  influences  from  both  the  east  and  the  west, 
from  Babylonia  and  Asia  Minor.  Perhaps  its 
most  prosperous  time  was  under  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  rule,  but  in  the  early  Christian  cen- 
turies it  contained  important  cities,  such  as 
Edessa  and  Nisibis.  To-day  it  is  desert  except 
along  the  banks  of  the  natural  watercourses.  Con- 
sult: Oppert,  Expedition  scientifique  en  M^sopo- 
tamie  (Paris,  1856-59);  Lady  Anne  Blunt,  The 
Bedouin  Tribes  of  the  Euphrates  (London,  1880) ; 
Sachau,  Reise  in  Syrien  und  Mesopotamia  (Leip- 
zig, 1883);  Oppenheim,  Vom  Mittelmeer  zum 
persischen  Golf  (Berlin,  1899);  Strange,  Lands 
of  the  Eastern  Caliphate  (Cambridge,  England, 
1906).    See  Asstbia;    Babylonia. 

KES'OZCXA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
fiiffott  mesos,  middle  +  ^ov,  z6on,  animal). 
A  group  of  animals  regarded  as  intermediate 
between  the  Protozoa  and  Metazoa.  The  name 
was  proposed  in  1876  by  E.  van  Beneden  for  a 
group  of  filiform  bodies  living  in  the  liquid 
bathing  the  *spongy  bodies'  or  venous  appendages 
(kidneys)  of  cephalopods.  They  resemble  Infuso- 
ria, but  are  two-layered,  and  pass  in  their  develop- 
ment through  a  gastrula  stage.  They  were  named 
Dicyema  by  KoUiker,  who,  with  others,  consid- 
ered them  as  parasitic  worms.  Van  Beneden  re- 
garded these  forms  as  constituting  the  type  of  a 
distinct  branch  or  phylum  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. These  mesozoans  are  represented  by  two 
types  of  individuals,  differing  externally;  one 
(*nematogene*)  producing  vermiform  embryos, 
the  other  form  ( *rhombogene* )  infusoriform 
(but  many-celled)  young.  Packard  suggested 
that  Dicyema  and  allies  may  be  degenerate  para- 
sitic platyhelminths  derived  originally  from 
some  low  cestoid  or  trematode  worm.  Parker 
and  Haswell  (1897)  treat  of  them  in  an  ap- 
pendix to  the  Coelenterata,  and  state  that  it  has 
been  proposed  to  call  them  the  Planuloidea,  from 
the  resemblance  which  they  bear  to  the  planula 
larva  of  the  coelenterates.  Sedgwick  [Tewt-Booh 
of  Zoology,  1898)  is  inclined  to  regard  them  as 
allied  to  the  Trematoda,  to  the  miracidium  larva 
of  which  he  asserts  "they  do  present  some  consid- 
erable resemblance."  Consult  Lankester  (edi- 
tor), A  Treatise  in  Zoology,  Part  TV.  (London 
and  New  York,   1903). 

MES'OZO^C  EBA.  One  of  the  main  divis- 
ions of  geologic  time,  following  the  Paleozoic  era 
and  preceding  the  Cenozoic  era.  It  is  subdi- 
vided into  the  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Cretaceous 
periods.     See  Geology. 


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MESPELBBONN. 


357 


MESSA  DI  VOCE. 


MESPELBBONN,  Julius  Echteb  von.  See 
Julius  £chteb  von  Mespelbbonn. 

MESQT7ITE  (mes-ke^t&)  OBASS  (Sp.  mez- 
quite;  probably  of  Mexican  origin).  A  name  ap- 
plied to  a  number  of  low-growing  tufted  grasses 
that  occur  in  greater  or  less  abundance  upon  the 
extensive  ranges  of  the  western  and  southwestern 
parts  of  the  United  States.  Species  of  Aristida 
and  Bouteloua  are  among  the  mesquite  grasses. 
Curly  mesquite  is  Hilaria  cenchroidea.  It  forms 
a  dense  sward  with  leafy  stems  a  few  inches  to 
a  foot  high.  It  matures  standing,  as  do  the  other 
species,  and  is  excellent  fodder  until  rotted  by 
the  winter  rains.  While  valuable  for  grazing,  it 
is  too  low  growing  to  be  cut  for  hay. 

MESQUITE  TBEE  {Proaopia  juliflora).  A 
shrub  or  tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Leguminosffi,  found  from  central  Texas  to  east- 
em  California,  and  southward  through  Mexico 
and  Central  America  to  Chile  and  Argentina, 
and  also  in  Jamaica.  It  is  also  known  as  honey 
locust,  honey  pod,  algaroba,  and  has  been  intro- 
duced in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where  it  is  highly 
prized  for  its  timber,  shade,  and  for  its  pods, 
which  are  an  important  stock  food.  In  the 
United  States  the  tree  attains  its  best  develop- 
ment in  the  valleys  of  western  Texas,  New  Mexi- 
co, and  Arizona.  In  some  places  it  is  the  only 
tree.  According  to  its  surroundings,  the  mes- 
quite varies  from  a  straggling,  spiny  shrub  to  a 
widely  branched  tree  50  feet  high  and  3  feet  in 
diameter,  the  latter  size  being  attained  in  rich 
valleys,  where  water  is  available  to  the  deeply 
penetrating  roots.  When  once  established  it 
withstands  extreme  heat  and  drought.  The  wood 
is  exceedingly  durable,  and  is  much  used  for 
posts,  house  foundations,  and  similar  structures. 


MB8QUITE  TBRB. 

as  well  as  for  fuel.  The  leaves,  which  are  eaten 
by  stock,  have  about  the  same  composition  as 
alfalfa  hay.  The  pods,  which  grow  in  clusters 
of  from  2  to  10,  and  are  from  4  to  8  inches 
long,  are  slender,  white  or  yellow,  contain  a 
number  of  small  hard  seeds,  and  are  rich  in 
sugar,  on  which  account  they  are  eagerly  eaten 
by  cattle,  horses,  and  mules.  When  eaten  with- 
out preparation,  much  of  the  nutritive  value  is 
lost,  since  the  seeds  are  voided  without  being 
digested;  but  when  gathered,  dried,  and  ground. 


their  value  is  greatly  increased,  since  the  nitro- 
genous beans  are  saved.  Two  forms  of  gum  are 
produced  by  the  mesquite  tree.  One,  resembling 
gum  arable,  exudes  as  small  clear  or  amber-col- 
ored drops  from  the  trunks.  It  makes  an  excel- 
lent mucilage,  and  has  been  employed  in  laun- 
dries and  for  confectionery.  The  other,  ob- 
tained from  wounds  in  the  trunks,  occurs  in  black, 
brittle,  larger  masses.  It  contains  as  much  as 
20  per  cent,  of  tannin,  and  with  some  form  of 
iron  is  used  by  the  Mexicans  as  a  black  dye- 
stuff.  During  the  flowering  period,  which  lasts 
for  about  two  months,  the  trees  are  visited  by 
bees  for  the  abundant  nectar,  which  makes  a 
clear  honey  of  very  agreeable  flavor.  Mexicans 
make  a  cathartic  by  pounding  the  inner  bark  in 
water  and  adding  salt  to  the  mixture.  A  second 
species,  Proaopia  puheacena,  is  known  as  the 
screw  bean  or  curly  mesquite.  It  is  a  shrub  or 
small  tree  growing  in  situations  similar  to  the 
previous  one.  Its  pods  are  spirally  curled  into 
close  rigid  cylinders.  The  uses  of  this  species 
are  very  similar  to  those  described  above. 

MESS  (OF.  mea,  Fr.  meto,  It.  meaao,  meaaa, 
course  at  table,  from  Lat.  miaaua,  past  part,  of 
mittere,  to  send).  A  military  and  naval  term 
originally  signifying  a  dish  or  portion  of  food, 
but  now  used  in  the  sense  of  a  number  or  asso- 
ciation of  officers  or  men  taking  their  meals  to- 
gether. The  officers'  mess  of  an  army  post  in 
the  United  States  Army  can  only  be  established, 
or  have  quarters  assigned  for  such  purpose,  when 
a  majority  of  its  officers,  who  must  be  not  less 
than  three  in  number,  unite  in  a  mess.  When- 
ever possible  the  enlisted  men  mess  together  by 
companies.  An  officer  appointed  by  the  post 
commander  has  charge  of  the  general  mess  affairs, 
makes  necessary  purchases,  and  cares  for  the 
mess  fund. 

The  system  of  messing,  as  regards  the  soldier, 
is  practically  the  same  throughout  Europe,  vary- 
ing in  comfort  and  food  according  to  the  country 
and  army  organization. 

On  board  men-of-war  the  admiral  messes  alone 
or  with  the  captain,  if  agreeable  to  both.  The 
>vard-room  mess  includes  all  ward-room  officers. 
The  junior  officers  (ensigns — if  not  in  the  ward 
room — naval  cadets,  pay  clerks,  etc.)  have  a 
separate  mess  room,  as  have  also  the  warrant 
officers  (boatswains,  gunners,  carpenters,  war- 
rant machinists,  pharmacists).  The  enlisted 
force  in  most  ships  forms  the  'general  mess.' 
The  men  are  divided  into  convenient  units  or 
messes,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tables;  the 
chief  petty  officers  and  those  of  the  first  class 
have  their  own  tables,  and  when  possible  are 
granted  special  privileges  in  their  messing  ar- 
rangements. In  ships  on  board  which  the  *gen- 
eral  mess*  system  has  not  been  established,  the 
crew  is  divided  into  several  messes,  according 
to  the  number. 

To  each  officers'  mess  are  allotted  a  cook,  stew- 
ard, and  servants,  the  number  of  the  latter  de- 
pending upon  the  number  of  officers  in  the  mess. 
The  servants  (or  meaa  attendants,  as  they  are 
called )  are  not  merely  waiters  and  personal  attend- 
ants, but  in  action  they  are  ammunition  passers. 

MESSA  DI  VOCE,  m?s'sft  d^  vf/chA  (It., 
setting  of  the  voice ) .  A  term  used  in  the  art  of 
singing,  meaning  the  gradual  swelling  and  again 
diminishing  of  the  sound  of  the  voice  on  a  note 
of  long  duration. 


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COBVIH  US. 


SS8 


MBB8IAH. 


COBVIOTDB,  Kabous  Valbbius 
<c  70  B.c.-c.  1  B.C.).  A  BomaB  soldier,  oraior, 
and  iuiti>oii  of  letters.  Be  was  educated  ki  part 
at  AtbeBB,  and,  havii^  returned  to  Bone  after 
Cesar's  assassiaation  aad  preTiciis  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  second  triumvirate,  became  a  member 
of  the  Senatorial  Party.  He  was  third  in  oom- 
mand  oi  the  Eepubliean  army  at  Philippi,  and 
stormed  tbe  camp  ol  Ck:taviu&,  whom  he  almost 
captured.  Having  escaped,  with  a  fairly  well 
organiaed  force,  to  tbe  island  of  Tha«os,  he  later 
accepted  terms  from  Antony,  against  wbom,  bow- 
ever,  at  Aotimm,  he  brillianily  commanded  the 
oentre  ol  Octavius's  fleet,  and  whose  abrogated 
consulship  be  filled  {mxi.  31).  Appointed  pro- 
consul of  A^uitania,  he  completed  the  reduction 
of  iiiat  province  and  received  a  triumph.  He  was 
also  at  one  time  a  pseiect  in  Asia  Mjbot,  and  be- 
came a  special  member  of  Uie  College  of  Augurs. 
He  was  reckoned,  with  Gaius  Asinius  Poliio,  the 
last  orator  <xf  the  old  8dMX)L  Consult  Wiese, 
De  Corvim  Vita  «*  SUidiiM  Dodrinm  ( Berlin. 
1829). 

JEES'SALI^A,  Valebia.  The  most  infamous 
woman  in  the  annals  of  the  Eoman  Empire.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  M.  Yalerims  Messala  Bar- 
batufi,  and  third  wife  ol  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
whom  she  married  before  his  accession  in  aj).  41. 
( See  CiAUDirs.)  Taking  advantage  of  the  weak- 
ness and  stupidity  of  the  Emperor,  she  indulged 
in  the  most  wanton  and  flagrant  atrocities,  both 
moral  and  political.  If  we  are  to  judge  by  the 
Boman  historians,  her  character  was  imspeak- 
ably  vile,  and  her  boundless  ambition  could  be 
satisfied  only  with  the  destruction  of  all  who 
seemed  to  thwart  her  plans.  The  best  blood  of 
Home  flowed  at  her  pleasure.  She  retained  her 
influence  over  the  Emperor,  who  remained  un- 
aware of  her  infidelities;  but  when,-  duriD^  a 
short  absence  of  Claudius  from  Bome,  she  actu- 
ally committed  the  foUy  of  going  through  the 
forms  of  a  public  marriage  with  C.  Silius.  The 
affair  was  brought  to  the  Emperor's  attention 
by  the  freedman  Narcissus,  and  Claudius  reluc- 
tantly gave  orders  for  her  death.  She  was 
killed  by  a  tribune  of  the  guards,  a.d.  48.  Consult: 
Stahr,  RonUsche  Kaiser  frauen    (Berlin,  1865). 

MESSA^IA  (Lat,  from  Gk.  Mwnnria),  The 
name  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  Calabria  (in  ihe 
classical  s^ise),  a  peninsula  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  Italy,  extending  from  Tarentum  to  the 
lapygian  Promontory.  The  Messapii,  inhabitants 
of  this  part  of  the  country,  were  known  also  as 
the  lapyges,  or  lapygii. 

KEOMJNE,  m^s-8^^  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  M«r- 
aifprf).  Capital  of  Meseenia,  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
founded  by  Epaminondas  (b.c.  869) .  It  was  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ithome,  and  surrounded 
by  a  stone  wall,  5%  nriles  lonsr,  and  of  great 
strength.  It  is  still  well  preserved  in  places,  espe- 
cially at  the  Arcadian  Gate,  which  is  an  exception- 
ally fine  example  of  Greek  fortification.  The  sta- 
dium, theatre,  and  other  ruins  can  be  easily  traced, 
and  excavations  in  1895  by  the  Greek  Arehspo- 
logical  Society  brought  to  light  a  fine  colonnade 
and  other  remains  of  the  ancient  agora. 

The  town  was  settled  by  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Messenians,  and  was  therefore  the  hered- 
itary enemy  of  Sparta,  contributing  not  a  little 
to  the  continual  internecine  strife  which  marks 
the  history  of  the  Peloponnesus  from  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  to  the  Roman  conquest. 


The  modem  Meeeene,  or  Nisi,  is  some  distance 
from  the  ancient  site,  which  is  partly  occupied 
by  the  little  village  of  Mavromati. 

WSamETNlA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  U€<r^wia).  A 
district  in  the  southwest  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Laconia,  on  the  north  by 
Arcadia  and  EHs,  and  on  the  south  and  west  by 
the  sea.  It  was  composed  chiefly  of  extensive 
plains,  watered  by  the  Pamisus  and  other 
streams.  These  plains  were  famous  for  their 
fertility,  and  particularly  for  their  wheat  har- 
vests. At  an  early  period,  after  the  Doric  con- 
quest, it  rose  to  power  and  opulence.  Its  <^ief 
cities  were  Methone  und  Pylos.  In  late  tiraea 
Messene  was  the  caprtai.  Messenia  is  c^efiy 
noted  for  its  two  wars  with  Sparta,  known  as  the 
Messenian  wars,  the  first  of  which  seems  to  have 
occurred  in  the  eighth,  the  aeeond  (of  which 
Artstomenes  is  represented  as  the  hero)  in  the 
second  half  of  the  seventh  oentury  b.€.,  though 
^ur  accounts  of  botii  rest  on  no  satisfactory  au- 
thorities. In  both  instances  the  Messenians  vif^re 
defeated,  and  after  the  second  war  a  part  of  the 
population  emigrated  to  Sicily.  The  peopling  of 
Messana  was  much  later.  The  remainder  <xf  the 
inhabitants  were  reduced  to  the  position  of  helots. 
A  nevolt  of  the  latter,  who  fortified  theuselvea 
<m  Mount  Ithome  and  Mtd  out  lor  ten  yeais,  is 
known  as  the  Third  Messenian  War  (b.g.  4§4- 
455).  The  invasion  oi  the  Peloponnesus  by 
Epaminondas  in  370^369  fed  to  the  return  of  ti^e 
li&ssenians  to  their  land  And  the  revival  of  their 
old  State,  which  oontinued  indepcaident,  though 
in  allianoe  at  times  with  the  Macedonians,  until 
the  Boman  ooii<}ue8t  (B.C.  146).  Messenia  is  the 
name  of  one  of  the  nomarchies  of  the  modem 
Kingdom  of  Greeoe. 

MESSIAH  (Gk.  Mwer/oj,  Ifewtas,  or  Meirlas, 
MesiaSf  from  Aramaic  Meshikha^  equivalent  of 
Heb.  ham-Mdshiakhy  tiie  anointed).  A  title 
given  to  the  King  or  Pontiff  in  ancient  Israel  be- 
cause of  his  anointment  as  vice-gerent  of  the 
deity  and  ruler  of  the  people;  and  in  later  times 
a  designation  of  the  expected  deliverer  from  for- 
eign oppression  and  founder  of  a  world-wide 
Jewish  empire.  Saul  (I.  Sam.  xii.  3,  5;  xxiv.  7, 
11),  David  (II.  Sam.  xix.  21;  xxiii.  1),  and 
Zedekiah  ( Lam.  iv.  20 )  are  spoken  of  as  Yahweh's 
Anointed.  In  Isa.  xlv.  1,  Cj^rus  is  regarded  as 
Yahweh's  vice-gerent  on  earth.  During  the  Per- 
sian period  some  hold  that  the  High  Priest  as 
head  of  the  State  was  referred  to  as  the  Messiah, 
the  Anointed  One  (Lev.  iv.  3,  5,  16).  The  same 
custom,  according  to  the  same  view,  continued 
in  the  Greek,  period,  as  Joshua  ben  Jozadak  is 
alluded  to  as  the  Anointed  Prince  in  Dan.  ix. 
25,  and  Onias  III.  as  an  Anointed  One  in  Dan. 
ix.  26.  It  is  natural  that  the  priest-kings  of  the 
Asmonapan  family  (see  Maccabees)  should  re- 
ceive this  title.  Ps.  xviii.  50;  xx.  6;  xxviii.  8; 
Ixxxiv.  10;  Ixxxix.  39,  52  clearly  refer  to  some  of 
these  rulers,  though  it  is  doubtful  in  some  in- 
stances whether  one  of  the  actual  kings,  Aristo- 
bulus  I.  and  Alexander  Jannseus,  or  a  princely 
pontiff  like  Jonathan,  Simon,  or  John  Hyrcanus 
is  meant.  From  the  critical  point  of  view  there 
is  no  reference  in  the  Old  Testament  to  a  future 
deliverer  of  Israel  described  as  the  Messiah,  and 
the  conception  of  a  coming  Messiah  meebi  us  for 
the  first  time  in  the  Psalter  of  Solomon,  written 
soon  after  the  conquest  of  Paiestine  by  Pompey 
in  B.C.  63. 


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But  the  elements  out  of  which  the  Measiah  a» 
an  esohatologicai  magnitude  was  formed  had 
long  been  in  existence.  There  had  been  a  tend' 
^ley  to  attach  much  importance  to  the  anoint- 
ing of  rulers*  From  S&ul  to  Zectekioh,  from 
Joabaa  to  Ariatobulns  II.,  the  leader  of  the 
Htate,  whether  king,  pontiff,  or  priest-king;  had 
been  conaecjated  with  oiL  Originally  unction 
was  aa  applieation  of  aaenfloial  fat.  The  pour- 
ing of  oil  upon  the  stone  in  which  the  divinity 
dwelt  waa  a  sacrifice.  The  King  was  a  holy  be^ 
ing  to  whom  this  offering  was  made.  With  the 
anointing  a  spirit  entered  into  him  (I.  Sam. 
xri.  13) ;  he  was  sacrosanct,  his  body  must  not 
be  touched  (L  Sam.  xxiv.  10)  ;  he  waa  gradually 
removed  from  the  gaze  of  the  people  and  seen* 
only  by  his  oflicials(  U.Kings  xix  15).  The  pontiff 
as  ruler  of  Israel  was  Yahweh's  anointed,  a  'son 
of  oil'  (Zech.  iv.  14),  having  aooese  to  the  celes- 
tial court  (Zedi.  iii.  7).  It  is  held  by  some  that 
in  the  Asmoiuean  age  the  priest-kii^  by  virtue  of 
his  anointment  was  regarded  as  Yahweh's  'Son' 
and  as  a  'god'  sitting  on  his  throne  (Ps.  xlv., 
Ivii.,  Izxxii).  It  is  not  considered  strange  by 
those  holding  this  view  that  a  victorious  king 
engaged  as  it  seemed  to  his  admirers  in  the  eon- 
quest  of  the  world  should  at  that  time  have  been 
addressed  as  *god'  by  a  court-poet  (Ps.  xlv.  6). 
There  had  also  been  a  tendency  to  repose  ex- 
traordinary faith  in  the  dynasty  founded  by 
David.  The  reason  for  this  may  have  been  its 
remarkable  longevity;  perhaps  also  its  promised 
prosperity.  As  long  as  princes  of  this  family  lived 
and  received  signal  honors  at  the  hands  of  Chal- 
da'an  and  Persian  kings,  as  was  the  case  with  Je- 
hoiachin,  Sheshbazzar,  and  Zenibbabel,  the  hope 
of  national  independence  naturally  connected 
itself  with  these  shoots  of  the  old  stock.  Thus  the 
elevation  of  Jehoiachin  from  his  dungeon  to  royal 
dignity  in  b.c.  561  and  the  birth  of  bis  son,  Sin- 
apaluzur  (Sbeshbazzar),  seem  according  to  srnne 
to  have  led  a  poet  to  express  the  hopes  of  Isaiah 
ix.  1-6,  xi.  1-6,  and  the  presence  of  Jehoiachin's 
grandson,  Zerubbabel  (q.v.),  as  Grovemor  in 
Jerusalem  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Darius 
Hystaspis  raised  expectations  of  his  restoring 
the  old  dynasty  (Hag.  ii.  23;  Zech.  viii.  8;  iv. 
6  sqq. ;  vi.  12).  The  gradual  disappearance  of 
prominent  members  of  the  Davidic  family  no 
doubt  gave  room  for  independent  aspirations. 
Sanballat  (q.v.)  may  have  been  right  when  he 
declared  that  prophets  in  Jerusalem  had  an- 
nounced Nehemiah  as  the  coming  King  (Neh.  vL 
7).  Simon  became  prince  as  well  as  hifi^  priest, 
and  Aristobnlns  I.  king,  without  belonging  to  the 
Davidic  family.  But  the  strength  of  the  legiti^ 
mist  feeling  may  be  seen  both  in  the  fiction  by 
which  the  occupant  of  David's  throne  was  desig- 
nated as  his  son,  and  in  the  indignant  protest 
ef  the  Pharisees  against  this  fiction.  This 
k^alty  to  the  legitimate  line  and  the  increasing 
difficulty  of  finding  a  leader  who  should  also  be 
a  genuine  descendant  of  David,  necessarily  re- 
moved into  the  future  the  Messiamc  King.  Of 
great  importance  was  also  the  tendency,  always 
strong  in  Israel,  to  look  beyond  present  condi- 
tions for  better  things  to  come.  While  the  great 
prophets  before  the  Exile  announced  impending 
judgment,  there  were  always  those  who  held  up 
eheerful  pictures  of  the  future  to  the  people. 
After  the  Exile,  it  was  especially  the  author  of 
Isaiah  zl.-xlviii.  who  inspired  hope  and  courage 
by  his  promises  of  good.    He  indeed  did  not  look 


forwacd  to  a  Messiah,  but  he  did  mueh  to  devek^ 
that  apocalyptic  mood  out  of  which  this  figure, 
was  bom.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Book  ef 
Daniel^  written  about  b.c.  16&  It  leveala  a 
mavked  growth  ol  the  apoealyptie  imagery,  but 
it  is  contended  by  many  that  the  Messiah  holds 
as  yet  no  place  among  its  eschatological  figures. 
The  man^like  being  appearing  on  the  cloud  (ch» 
vii.>  is  probably  "Miamel,  the  celestial  represent- 
taiive  of  IsraeK  The  Maoeabean  uprising  and  the 
establishment  of  a  native  dynas^  eneeuragedl 
this  disposition  to  map  out  the  ^iture.  But  while 
Yahweh's  anoiated  aotnally  sa^  upon  the  thvooe 
of  David  and  was-  conquering  the  neighboring  nar 
tions,  there  was  na  reason  for  putting  the  Mes- 
siah in  the  future.  The  atmosphere  ol  the 
Psalter  is  saturated  with  a  desire  for  divine 
judgment  upon  the  heathen  nations  and  breathes 
a  pathetic  oonftdenoe  in  the  dynasty  occupying 
the  Davidic  throne.  The  enthusiasm  seems  to 
hare  been  Glared  by  the  Egyptian  Jews.  Isaiah 
xix.  16-25' shows  bow  the  recognition  of  Jonathan 
by  Alexander  Bales  on  the  occasion  of  his  mar- 
riage to  Cleopatra  in  B.O.  150  affected  the  Jewish 
colony  at  Le^ntopolis.  (See  Onias's  Tbmpue.) 
Jonathan  is  probably  the  deliverer  of  verse  20. 
In  the  SibyUine  Oraelea  (iii.  652  sqq.)  there 
seems  to  be  a  reference  to  Simon  as  a  god-sent 
king  who  will  put  an  end  to  evil  war.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  Erythrean  Sibyl,  Simon  may 
be  said  to  be  a  king,  sent  'from  the  sun,'  even 
as  Cyrus  is  called  a  king  'from  heaven'  (iii. 
286).  The  passage  was  probably  written  in  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  IX.,  Euergetes  II.(b.c.  145-117). 
Neither  the  apocalypse  in  Isaiah  zxiv.-xxviL, 
written  c.128  B.C.,  nor  Ethiopic  Enoch  i.-xxxvi., 
written  later  in  the  reign  of  John  Hyrcanus  (  b.o. 
135-105),  contains  any  allusion  to  a  king,  and 
Ethiopic  Enoch  xc.  37,  38  seems  to  be  a  late  ad- 
dition to  the  book  Ixxxiii.-xc,  whieh  apparently 
was  written  c.l06  B.G.  An  elaborate  eschatology 
had  thus  been  developed  before  the  Roman  pe- 
riod in  which  the  Messiah,  according  to  this  view, 
held  no  place.  But  the  way  was  prepared  by 
veneration  for  the  anointed  ruler  of  the  State, 
loyalty  to  the  old  dynasty,  and  speculation  about 
the  world's  future.  Roman  oppression  caused  a 
fusion  of  these  elements.  The  anointed  king  .that 
was  needed  must  be  a  genuine  son  of  David,  and 
as  no  claimant  to  the  throne  of  the  legitimate 
line  presented  himself,  he  necessarily  belonged  to 
the  future.  The  Roman  yoke  was  all  the  more 
galling  as  the  Jewish  people  had  for  a  century 
indulged  in  a  dream  of  empire  and  imagined  it- 
self in  the  midst  of  the  actual  conquest  of  the 
world.  But  even  this  cruel  disenchantment  could 
not  quench  the  spark  of  ambition.  The  Pharisees 
saw  the  cause  oi  the  calamity  in  the  Asmonsan 
usurpation  of  the  throne  of  David,  as  the  Psalter 
of  Solomon  shows,  and  looked  to  Grod  to  provide 
the  genuine  'Son  of  David,'  strengthening  their 
faith  by  the  prophetic  word.  They  understood 
the  Psalms  of  David  to  be  songs  indited  by  the 
great  monarch,  and  naturally  interpreted  the  lan- 
guage in  which  the  actually  reigning  King  had 
been  referred  to  as  prophecies  of  the  coming  Mes- 
siah. Similarly  the  words  of  ancient  prophets 
originally  referring  to  their  contemporaries  of 
the  Davidic  family  or  to  the  dynasty  itself  were 
explained  as  divine  announcements  of  the  coming 
deliverer.  But  in  spite  of  this  support  in  the 
popular  exegesis  of  the  Bible,  the  Messianic  hope 
seems  to   have  been   cherished  only   in   limited 


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MESSIAH. 


860 


MESSIAH. 


circles.  Whether  the  idea  was  influenced  at  the 
outset  by  Mazdayasnian  thought  is  doubtful;  in 
its  later  development  it  may  have  borrowed  some 
features  from  the  Saoshyant  (q.v.).  This  Per- 
sian Messiah  has  no  political  character.  He  was 
expected  to  raise  the  dead  and  to  renew  the  world 
( Yasht,  xix.  92  sqq. ) .  The  Messianic  idea  seems 
to  have  had  little  hold  upon  the  Alexandrian 
Jews.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  translators  of 
Isaiah  ix.  5  and  Psalm  ex.  3  had  the  Messiah 
in  mind;  in  Numbers  xxiv.  7  the  Davidic  house 
is  meant,  and  the  rendering  of  Genesis  xlix.  10, 
'he  is  the  expectation  of  the  nations,'  is  not  like- 
ly to  be  original.  It  is  doubtful  whether  Sibyl- 
Itne  Oracles  iii.  46-62,  75-92  belongs  to  the  time 
of  the  First  Triumvirate  and  Cleopatra,  or  to 
the  time  of  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius;  in  the 
latter  case  the  *widow*  is  Rome,  and  the  *holy  ruler* 
may  be  none  else  than  the  'immortal  God'  and 
'great  king*  mentioned  in  the  same  connection. 
The  Book  of  Wisdom  contains  no  allusion  to  the 
Messiah.  Philo  declares  that  the  Israelites  shall 
return  to  Palestine  *led  by  a  divine  or  more  than 
human  apparition'  {De  Execrationibua,  iii.  437), 
and  that  if  the  future  kingdom  of  peace  shall 
be  disturbed  a  man  will  come,  according  to  the 
promise,  to  subdue  the  nations,  God  granting  to 
the  pious  auxiliaries  in  psychic  power  and  physi- 
cal strength  (De  Prcemiis  et  Pcenis,  ii.  421-428). 
But  he  seems  to  have  thought  of  the  divine  glory 
and  of  deliverance  through  manly  qualities  rather 
than  through  a  man.  The  Slavonic  Enoch  knows 
nothing  of  a  Messiah.  The  same  silence  concern- 
ing this  figure  is  found  in  such  Palestinian  works 
as  Ecclesiastes,  written  c.30  B.C. ;  the  Assumption 
of  Moses  (i.-vi.),  written  in  the  beginning  of 
our  era;  the  Book  of  Jubilees;  and  the  original 
Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  It  is  held 
by  many  that  aside  from  the  Psalter  of  Solomon 
there  is  no  unmistakable  reference  to  the  Mes- 
siah in  any  literary  production  that  can  be  dated 
with  certainty  as  earlier  than  the  time  of  Jesus. 
But  the  description  given  in  this  work  (xvii., 
xviii.)  of  the  coming  king  shows  with  sufficient 
clearness  that  some  men  in  Israel  in  the  first 
century  B.C.  looked  forward  to  the  appearance  of 
a  descendant  of  David,  who  would  be  a  con- 
queror of  nations  and  a  righteous  ruler  and 
whom  they  called  the  Messiah.  According  to 
Matthew  xxii.  15,  16  (Mark  xii.  13)  there  was 
a  party  of  *the  Herodians.'  Tertullian  declares 
that  'the  Herodians  said  Herod  was  the  Christ' 
{Prwscr.  45).  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
king  who  built  the  most  splendid  temple  Jerusa- 
lem had  ever  had  and  restored  the  Davidic  king- 
dom, even  though  it  was  by  the  favor  of  Rome, 
was  thus  looked  upon  as  the  promised  Messiah 
by  his  courtiers.  Judah  of  Gamala  in  Galilee 
seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  the  Messiah  by 
many  and  undertook  an  insurrection  in  a.d.  7. 
(See  Judas  of  Galilee.)  He  was  supported  by 
Zadok,  a  disciple  of  Shammai.  The  immediate 
cause  of  the  rebellion  was  the  census  of  Quirinius 
on  the  accession  of  Archelaus.  He  was  put  to 
death,  but  his  followers  continued  as  a  sect 
(Josephus,  Wars,  ii.,  118). 

Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  crucified  by  Pontius 
Pilate  as  a  political  criminal  claiming,  in  de- 
fiance of  the  authority  of  Rome,  to  be  'King  of 
the  Jews.'  It  is  believed  by  some  that  he  never 
claimed  himself  to  be  the  Messiah.  The  Synoptic 
Evangelists  believed,  indeed,  that  he  was  the 
Messiah.     But  this  belief  may  have  been  based 


on  his  resurrection  from  the  dead.  For  a  time 
at  any  rate  he  avoided  assuming  any  distinctive 
Messianic  title^  and  on  several  occasions  forbade 
his  disciples  to  say  that  he  was  the  Messiah. 
From  their  point  of  view  they  could  explain  this 
attitude  only  as  a  persistent  attempt  to  keep  his 
Messiahship  a  secret.  This  secret  was  known  to 
God,  who  might  in  due  time  reveal  it,  and  to  the 
demons,  who  were  punished  for  prematurely  an- 
nouncing it,  but  not  to  men.  The  disciples  seem» 
however,  to  have  regarded  the  term  'Son  of  Man' 
as  a  self-designation  of  Jesus  by  which  he  in- 
tended to  hint  at  his  Messianic  claims  without 
directly  disclosing  them.  But  this  belief,  it  is 
argued,  may  have  been  erroneous,  and  so  in- 
definite a  term  as  'man'  cannot  have  been  a 
Messianic  title  and  is  not  found  in  Jewish  litera- 
ture as  such.  The  life  and  teaching  of 
Jesus  offended  all  influential  parties  in  the  na- 
tion, while  the  enthusiasm  and  indiscretion  of 
his  disciples  readily  furnished  immediate  excuse 
for  a  false  accusation.  Pilate  could  scarcely 
avoid  regarding  him  as  a  disturber  of  the  peace^ 
and  executed  him  on  the  ground  of  the  loose 
charge  preferred  against  him.  Similarly  there 
is  no  evidence  that  John  the  Baptist  regarded 
himself  as  the  Messiah,  though  his  disciples  at 
a  later  time  seem  to  have  considered  him  as  such. 

It  is  only  just,  however,  to  state  that  from 
the  traditional  Jewish  and  Christian  standpoint, 
the  Messianic  belief  was  imbedded  in  Hebrew 
history  and  interwoven  with  the  deepest  life  of 
the  people.  The  promises  which  formed  and 
fed  it  are  thought  to  reach  back  to  the  earliest 
Jewish  annals  and  the  belief  itself  is  thought  to 
rest  upon  sacred  traditions  coeval  with  the  origin 
of  the  human  race.  According  to  this  view  the 
Messianic  idea  was  inseparably  connected  with 
the  provision  for  the  redemption  of  man  after  the 
fall  and  was  gradually  unfolded  through  the 
history  of  the  chosen  people  of  God.  The  hope 
of  a  Messiah  was  centred  in  a  single  race.  With 
the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  came  at  once 
an  enlargement  of  the  conception  of  the  Anointed 
One's  person  and  work  and  a  narrower  limitation 
of  the  stock  from  which  he  was  to  spring.  One 
family  was  selected  from  the  chosen  tribe  and 
the  'sceptre'  fell  to  the  House  of  David.  With 
the  later  development  of  the  kingdom  and  the 
idolatrous  faithlessness  of  the  people  came  the 
clearer  conception  of  Messianic  teaching.  The 
captivity  completed  the  circle  of  Messianic  hopes 
by  turning  the  eyes  of  the  people  to  the  divine 
glory  of  the  coming  king  and  the  universal  extent 
of  his  kingdom.  The  son  of  David  acquired  the 
wider  title  of  'the  Son  of  Man*  and  his  kingdom 
appeared  as  the  last,  but  mightiest,  of  the  mon- 
archies of  the  world. 

According  to  this  traditional  view  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  Messianic  idea  may  be  traced  through 
four  distinct  epochs,  three  within  the  limits 
of  the  Hebrew  canon  and  the  fourth  outside 
it.  The  first  of  these  ends  with  Moses.  In  the 
protevangelium  we  have  the  primal  prom- 
ise. *The  seed  of  the  woman'  is  to  bruise  the 
serpent's  head.  This  promise  takes  shape  in  the 
family  of  Abraham,  in  whose  seed  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth  are  to  be  blessed.  Saint  Paul  argues 
in  Gal.  iii.  16  that  the  'seed*  is  a  personal  Mes- 
siah. His  characteristics  are  gradually  un- 
folded in  the  'Shiloh*  of  the  dying  Jacob  (Gen. 
xlix.  10),  in  the  'Star'  of  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv. 
17)  and  the  'prophet'  of  Moses  (Deut.  xviii.  18, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MESSIAH. 


861 


MESSIAIL 


19),  who  was  to  be  the  lawgiver,  teacher,  and 
deliverer  of  Israel.  The  aeco^  period  centres  in 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon ;  the  promise  of 
a  kingdom  to  David  and  his  house  'forever' 
could  not  be  literally  fulfilled  by  any  mere  con- 
tinuation of  his  dynasty  on  an  earthly  throne.  It 
implied  a  superhuman  royalty  of  which  we  have 
a  series  of  pictures  in  the  Messianic  psalms,  which 
are  believed  to  be  pervaded  with  the  expectation 
of  a  coming  deliverer,  based  on  definite  promises 
of  God  and  confirmed  by  His  repeated  assurances. 
In  Ps.  ii.,  xlv.,  Ixxii.,  and  ex.,  for  instance,  we 
have  depicted  not  only  the  Messiah's  inheritance 
and  the  blessings  and  extent  of  his  kingdom,  but 
the  King  himself  reigning  among  men  and  bring- 
ing to  his  subjects  righteous  judgment,  salvation, 
and  redemption.  He  is  both  priest  and  king.  He 
is  David's  Lord  as  well  as  his  son.  His  empire 
is  spiritual.  Its  rule  is  world-wide  and  time- 
embracing.  He  is  to  reign  until  his  enemies  be- 
come his  footstool.  These  Psalms,  as  is  widely 
contended.,  cannot  be  applied  exclusively  to  Solo- 
mon or  any  temporal  ruler  without  exegetical 
violence  and  the  New  Testament  interpretation  of 
the  regal  triumph  over  the  rebellious  heathen 
(Heb.  i.  8)  referred  it  to  the  anointed  Saviour. 
The  third  period  extends  to  the  close  of  the 
Hebrew  canon  and  includes,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, the  richest  mine  of  Messianic  prophecy  ki 
the  Old  Testament.  Messiah,  as  the  'servant  of 
God,'  is  the  central  figure  of  Isaiah's  prophecies. 
This  expected  king,  this  *root  of  Jesse,*  will 
'stand  for  an  ensign  of  the  people.'  He  will  be 
the  rallying-point  of  the  world's  hopes,  the  true 
centre  ot  its  government  (Isa.  xi.  10).  He  is 
portrayed  as  *the  mighty  God,  the  everlasting 
Father,  the  Prince  of  Peace'  ( Isa.  ix. )  The  picture 
of  the  suffering  Messiah  in  the  fifty-third  chapter 
is  so  accurate  in  its  prophetic  anticipations  of  the 
events  in  the  judgment  hall  of  Caiaphas  and  be- 
fore Pilate's  bar  as  to  have  given  Isaiah  the  title 
of  the  'Evangelical  prophet.'  Jeremiah  depicts 
the  future  deliverer  as  a  king  executing  judgment 
and  justice  in  the  earth  (Jer.  xxiii.  5)  and 
Zechariah  paints  him  as  an  enthroned  priest 
(2^ch.  vi.  13).  Daniel  is  taught  that  at  the 
anointing  of  the  most  holy,  God  will  'make  recon- 
ciliation for  iniquity'  and  'bring  in  everlasting 
righteousness'  (Dan.  ix.  24).  In  chapter  vii.  he 
applies,  according  to  this  view,  to  the  coming 
Messiah  the  title  'Son  of  Man,'  whose  dominion  is 
*an  everlasting  dominion  which  shall  not  pass 
away.'  Finally  Malachi  speaks  of  him  as  'the 
angel  of  the  covenant'  whom  Israel  was  seeking 
and  who  would  'suddenly  come  to  his  temple* 
(Mai.  iii.  1).  The  fourth  epoch  extends  from 
the  close  of  the  Hebrew  canon  to  the  beginning 
of  the  Gospel  era.  Among  the  Jews  of  Alex- 
andria the  Messianic  hope  at  this  time  is  sup- 
posed to  have  deteriorated,  while  among  the 
Palestinian  Jews  it  survived  and  flourished.  The 
Hellenized  peoples  would  naturally  be  absorbed  in 
the  current  speculations  regarding  the  Sophia 
and  the  Logos  and  long  absence  from  Palestine, 
and  a  hesitancy  to  avow  startling  beliefs  among 
unfriendly  critics  would  tend  to  quench  all  inter- 
est in  the  future  of  Jewish  nationality.  Never- 
theless the  expectation  of  a  Messiah  was  a  promi- 
nent feature  of  both  the  popular  and  the  intel- 
lectual mind  at  the  beginning  of  the  (Christian 
Era.  The  Galilean  peasantry  and  the  Pharisees 
alike  expected  the  fulfillment  of  the  national 
hopes.     An  oppressed  and  suffering  people  natu- 


rally looked  for  a  secular  prince  who  would  free 
them  from  the  heathen  yoke,  and  when  Jesus 
entered  upon  his  public  ministry,  Messiah- 
ship  meant  to  the  masses  and  the  classes 
of  Jewry  simply  emancipation  from  Roman 
rule.  But  Jesus  did  not  lend  himself  to  this 
narrow  and  perverted  type  of  Messiahship. 
He  claimed  to  be  the  divine  Messiah  of  David 
and  Isaiah.  At  Cssarea  Philippi  (Matt,  xvi.; 
Mark  viii.,  Luke  ix.)  he  clearly  accepted  the 
recognition  of  himself  as  the  Messiah-King  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  term  'Christ'  or  Anointed 
is  synonymous  with  Messiah,  and  Saint  Peter's 
confession  "Thou  art  Christ — the  Christ  of  God 
(Luke),  the  Son  of  the  living  God  (Matt.)"  ex- 
presses in  unmistakable  language  the  supernat- 
urally  imparted  recognition  of  Jesus  as  the  Mes- 
siah. The  same  designation  of  him  was  used 
by  the  Samaritan  woman  (John  iv.  25,  26)  and 
accepted  by  Jesus,  and  Andrew  said  to  his 
brother  Simon:  "We  have  found  the  Messiali, 
which  is,  being  interpreted,  the  Christ"  (John 
i.  41  sqq.). 

According  to  the  traditional  view,  the  title 
'Son  of  Man'  was  the  Christ's  self -chosen  desig- 
nation of  himself,  and  with  two  exceptions  was 
applied  to  him  by  his  own  lips.  To  Jewish  ears 
it  is  thought  to  have  been  a  clear  assertion  of 
Messiahship.  Some  suppose  that  in  consequence 
of  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  it  became  a  popular 
and  official  title  of  the  Messiah.  In  one  part  of 
the  Book  of  Enoch  (q.v.),  which,  however,  is  of 
imcertain  date,  the  judgment  day  of  Messiah, 
identified  with  Daniel's  'Son  of  Man,'  stands  in 
the  forefront  of  the  eschatological  picture.  Jesus, 
when  standing  at  the  tribunal  of  Caiaphas,  said 
to  his  judges:  "Hereafter  shall  ye  see  the  son  of 
man  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  power  and  com- 
ing in  the  clouds  of  heaven"  (Matt.  xxvi.  64) ,  and 
he  uttered  a  similar  prediction  in  his  prophecy 
over  Jerusalem  (Matt.  xxiv.  30).  Those  who 
accept  the  genuineness  of  these  sayings  think  that 
it  was  no  merely  generic  title,  but  the  constant 
setting  forth  of  his  Messianic  claims  and  that, 
coupled  as  it  was  with  his  repeated  assertions  of 
his  divine  origin,  it  brought  down  upon  him  the 
wrath  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees.  The  San- 
hedrin,  the  highest  court  of  Jewry,  condemned 
him  because  he  claimed  divinity.  "We  have  a 
law  and  by  our  law  he  ought  to  die  because  he 
made  himself  the  son  of  God,"  said  the  mem- 
bers of  this  court  to  the  Koman  Governor.  "He 
hath  spoken  blasphemy,"  cried  the  High  Priest 
(Matt.  xxvi.  65).  This  was  the  culmination  of 
the  Nazarene's  offense  against  the  current  concep- 
tions of  Messiahship.  "They  all  condemned  him 
to  be  guilty  of  death."  But  having  lost  the 
power  of  capital  punishment,  in  their  subjection 
to  the  Koman  Government,  the  Jews  had  to  go  to 
Pontius  Pilate  to  attain  their  ends,  and  Jesus 
was  crucified  by  order  of  the  Governor. 

It  should  also  be  stated  that  between  the  criti- 
cal estimate  first  given  and  the  traditional  inter- 
pretation just  outlined  many  scholars  have  as- 
sumed a  mediating  position,  rejecting  the  bulk  of 
supposed  Messianic  prophecy  and  the  accuracy 
of  the  New  Testament  interpretation  of  it,  while 
still  maintaining  that  Jesus  regarded  himself  as 
the  Messiah  and  gave  to  the  Messiahship  as  to 
the  kingdom  a  more  spiritual  significance. 

In  A.D.  37  a  Samaritan  appeared  as  a  leader 
of  a  rebellion  in  Tirathana.  Precisely  what 
claims  he  made  for  himself  is  not  clear  from 


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MESSIAH. 


M2 


the  aceount  of  Josephus  {Ant.  xviii.  85  sqcj.)- 
There  are  many  indications  that  after  this  time 
a  more  transcendental  character  was  given  to 
the  Messianic  conception,  not  only  among  the 
Jews  who  looked  forward  to  a  return  of  Jesus 
as  the  Messiah,  but  also  in  other  circles  of 
Jewry.  Theudas,  who  announced  himself  as  the 
Messiah  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  did  not  depend 
upon  military  strength  or  political  diplomacy, 
but  looked  for  a  miraculous  establishment  by 
€iod  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel  in  place  of  the 
R<Hnan  Empire.  He  was  beheaded  by  Cuspius 
FadUB  in  a.d.  46  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx.  97  sqq.). 
The  Egyptian  (c.58  a.d.)  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus {Ant.  XX.  169  sqq.)  probably  (mly claimed 
to  be  what  the  historian  calls  him — a  prophet. 
But  Menahem,  son  of  Judah,  the  Galilean,  who 
appeared  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  led  the 
attack  upon  the  Roman  garriscm  clothed  in  royal 
garments,  and  fell  a  victim  of  his  Messianic 
pride  and  arbitrariness.  An  apocalyptic  frag- 
ment of  Jewish  origin,  preserved  in  Revelation 
xi.  1,  2,  xii.,  sets  forth  figuratively  how  the 
Messiah  has  already  been  bom,  but  is  hidden 
secirre  against  Roman  persecution,  to  appear  in 
due  time.  This  idea  that  the  Messiah  has  been 
born  in  the  Jewish  commimity,  but  has  already 
as  a  child  been  translated,  is  similar  to  the  con- 
ception found  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  {8an- 
hedrin,  98  b),  where  the  Messiah  is  a  deceased 
descendant  of  David  who  rises  from  the  dead  to 
accomplish  the  delivery  of  Israel.  Both  of  these 
notions  were  due  to  the  conviction  that  God 
would  provide  a  genuine  son  of  David.  A  trans- 
lated hero  would  naturally  return  on  the  clouds 
of  heaven.  Thus  in  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch, 
written  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  the  Messiah 
is  'revealed'  (xxix.  3;  xxxix.  7),  and  'returns  in 
glory*  (XXX.  1)  to  rule  imtil  the  world  of  cor- 
ruption is  at  an  end  (xl.  3),  sparing  some  and 
putting  others  to  death  (Ixxii.  2-6).  In  the 
Apocalypse  of  Ezra,  written  in  a.d.  97,  the  Mes- 
siah is  to  be  revealed  during  four  hundred  years 
and  then  die  together  with  all  men,  whereupon 
the  present  age  will  end  and  a  new  world  begin, 
after  seven  days  of  silence,  with  the  resurreetion 
of  the  dead  and  the  appearance  of  the  Most  High 
on  the  judgment  seat  (vii.  28  sqq.).  The  woman 
that  brings  forth  a  child,  as  in  Revelation  xii., 
loses  him  when  she  is  about  to  give  him  a  wife 
and  flees  into  the  wilderness  (ix.  43  sqq.).  The 
lion  rebuking  the  eagle  is  said  to  be  the  Mes- 
siah who  has  been  preserved  for  the  end  from  the 
seed  of  David  (xii.  3.  sqq.).  Finally  the  man- 
like or  angelic  being  that  rises  from  the  sea  and 
flies  with  the  clouds  of  heaven,  destroying  an 
army  with  the  fire  proceeding  from  his  mouth, 
is  declared  to  be  the  Messiah  (xiii.).  In  spite 
of  the  marked  influence  of  Jewish-Christian 
thought,  the  emphasis  is  strongly  put  upon  the 
assertion  that  Cfod  is  not  to  judge  His  creation 
through  any  one  (v.  56,  vi.  6).  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  even  this  step  was  taken  by  the 
Jewish  interpolator  of  the  hortatory  addresses  of 
Enoch  {Ethiopic  Enoch,  Zl -11.  (On  the  composite 
character  of  this  section  of  the  book,  consult 
Schmidt,  article  "Enoch,"  in  the  Jewish  En- 
cyclopopdia.)  In  the  original  vision  God  alone 
is  the  judge,  and  there  is  no  Messiah;  but  the 
book  seems  to  have  been  annotated  and  expanded 
by  a  writer  who  looked  forward  to  the  revelation 
oif  a  chosen  instrument,  not  merely  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  nations,  but  for  the  judgment  of 


the  world — a  man  destined  to  sit  upon  a  giorloiu 
throne  to  judge  angels  and  men  (xlv.  3,  4;  idvL; 
li.;  liii.  6;  Iv.  4;  IzL  8,  9).  This  picture  has 
finally  been  retouched  by  a  Christian  hand.  Thm 
Aramaic  original'  is  ]oA,  but  e^en  the  Ethiopio 
translation  renders  it  possible  to  dtstinguish  be- 
tween the  early  paasages,  wfaave  a  bar  naska  in 
the  generic  sense  of  'man'  occurred,  and  the 
places  where  the  Christiaa  title  has  beoi  suboe* 
quently  introdooed.  The  Jewish  expanaion  prob* 
ably  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  After 
this  a  reactioii  against  the  transcendental  Mes- 
sianic idea  set  in.  This  waa  developed  in  Chris- 
tianity am  it  separated  itself  from  J^idaism.  The 
Messianic  idea  became  fused  with  metaphysical 
speculation  of  Greek  origin  to  such  an  extent 
that  d  xpt^rht^  the  anointed  one,'  the  etymolog- 
ical eqiuvalent  of  'the  Messiah,'  finally  conveyed 
a  meaning  absolutely  foreign  to  tiie  original  con*- 
ception. 

The  figure  of  Simon  bar  Koaeba  (or  Bar-Coch- 
ba  was  probably  as  elose  a  realiaation  of  the 
popular  Jewish  ideal  of  a  Messiah  as  history 
ever  produced.  Of  him  alone  can  it  be  said 
that  he  waa  not  only  recogniasd  by  hie  peo- 
ple as  the  Messiah  at  a  time  when  the  Mes- 
sianic idea  had  reached  its  full  development 
and  regarded  himself  aa  suehv  but  also  suc- 
ceeded temporarily  in  redeeming  Jerusalem 
from  foreign  oppreseion*  In  less  than  a 
year  he  conquered  50  fortified  cities  and  945 
towns  and  villages.  His  army  consisted  of  200,- 
000  men.  For  two  years  and  a  half  he  reigned 
as  king.  Only  after  52  battles  could  Julius 
Severus  vanquish  him  in  A.D.  136.  There  is  some- 
thing sublime  in  this  King  of  Zion  bidding  Im- 
perial Rome  defiance.  The  terrible  persecutions 
that  followed  the  Hadrianic  insurrection  did  not 
quench  the  Messianic  hope.  This  is  shown  by 
the  "Eighteen  Prayers"  by  Trypho,  who  told 
Justin  Martyr  that  all  Jews  believed  the  Mes- 
siah would  come,  a  man  bom  of  men;  and  by 
CelsuB,  who  in  a.d.  178  no  doubt  correctly  repre- 
sented his  Jew  as  cherishing  this  expectation. 
The  Targums  also  indicate  its  continuance.  The 
idea  of  a  Messiah  ben  Joseph  who  is  to  rule  until 
Messiah  ben  David  comes  may  be  an  early  Jew- 
ish concession  to  the  Ebionitisli  Christiana  who 
believed  that  Jesus  waa  the  son  of  Joseph.  Only 
in  late  writings  is  there  any  reference  to  a  aul- 
fering  Messiah,  though  the  notion  of  sufferings 
of  Israel  previous  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Messianic  kingdom  is  common.  The  end  at  the 
Roman  Empire  and  the  victories  of  the  Moham- 
medans naturally  stirred  afresh  the  hope  of  a 
return  to  Palestine  and  the  coming  of  Ime  Bfies- 
siah*  In  716-721  Serenus,  a  Galilean,  appeared 
as  a  Messianic  reformer,  after  the  fashion  of 
Mohammed,  rejecting  certain  Rabbinic  regula- 
tions as  to  food  and  marriage  and  gaining  many 
followers.  But  when  he  was  brought  to  task  by 
Yerid,  the  Caliph,  he  lacked  the  courage  of  his 
convictions,  and  was  handed  over  to  the  Jewish 
authorities  for  punishment.  From  745  to  756 
Abu  Isa  exercised  a  great  influence  as  a  reformer, 
abolishing  the  law  of  divorce  and  the  sacrificial 
cult,  and  maintaining  himself  with  a  large  army 
against  Merwan  II.  and  Abdallah.  After  his 
death  he  had  followers  into  the  tenth  c^itury. 
Yudghan  of  Hamadan,  on  the  other  hand^  pur- 
sued no  political  ends.  He  sought  only  to  n^ 
form  Judaism,  being  an  ascetic  and  a  believor 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls  and  the  allegorieal 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


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868 


JCESSIKA. 


iBterpretation  of  the  Bible.  He  died  c.800  JU)^ 
though  his  followers  believed  him  to  be  still  liv* 
ing  and  destined  to  return  in  the  appointed  time. 
In  1160  David  Alrui,  of  Amadia,  Persia,  pro- 
claimed himself  to  be  the  Messiah  in  Azer- 
baijan.  His  plan  was  to  use  the  weakness  of  the 
caliphate  for  the  establishment  of  a  free  Jew- 
ish State^  and  he  attracted  to  himself  large 
masses  of  Jews;  but  he  was  murdered  by  his 
father-in-law  before  he  could  carry  out  his  vast 
enterprise.  A  Messianic  cult-oommimity,  the 
Menahemites,  cherished  long  his  memory  and 
ideal.  Abraham  ben  Samuel  Abulafia,  of  Sara- 
gossa,  announced  himself  as  the  Messiah  in  1280. 
He  was  a  mystic,  and  occupied  himself  much 
with  cabbalistic  speculations.  The  expulsion  of 
the  Jews  from  Spain  drove  many  earnest  minds 
to  the  prophetic  writings.  Even  such  a  states- 
man as  Isaac  Abarbanel  wrote  works  in  which 
he  announced  that  1603  would  be  the  year  of  re- 
demption. In  the  sixteenth  century  David  Reu- 
beni  and  Solomon  Molko  appeared  in  the  rdle 
of  the  Messiah.  The  former  pretended  to  be  the 
brother  of  a  prince  reigning  in  Arabia,  and  was 
received  with  great  honor  by  Pope  Clement  VII. 
The  latter,  bom  in  1500,  was  a  Christian  who 
became  a  convert  to  Judaism  and  seems  to  have 
sincerely  believed  in  his  mission.  He  is  said  to 
have  prophesied  accurately  the  inundation  of 
Rome  in  1530  and  the  earthquake  in  Portugal 
in  1531,  and  thereby  gained  a  great  reputation. 
He  was  saved  from  death  in  Rome  by  Clement 
VI L  substituting  another  man  for  him,  but  suf- 
fered martyrdom  courageously  in  1532.  His  fol- 
lowers long  believed  that  he  had  escaped  death 
this  time  also.  The  most  important  Messiah 
after  Solomon  Molko  was  Sabbathai  Zewi  ( 1626- 
76).  He  was  bom  in  Smyrna,  and  belonged  to  a 
family  of  Spanish  Jews.  His  brother  was  the 
agent  in  Smyrna  of  an  English  mercantile  house, 
and  through  him  Sabbathai  became  acquainted 
"with  the  speculations  of  Christian  pietists  who 
expected  the  second  advent  of  Christ  in  1666. 
He  was  an  eager  student  of  cabbalistic  works. 
His  personality  was  very  attractive,  and  in  all 
lands  Jews  were  drawn  to  him  and  accepted  him 
as  their  heaven-sent  leader.  The  enthusiasm  was 
boundless,  and  the  hope  of  a  return  to  Palestine 
filled  thousands  of  hearts.  Sabbathai  intended 
to  abrogate  the  law,  establish  a  new  code  based 
on  the  Cabbala,  introduce  the  doctrine  of  a  Trin- 
ity consisting  of  three  persons — the  Ancient  of 
I>Etys,  the  Messiah,  and  the  female  Shechinah. 
In  the  year  1666,  however,  he  was  ordered  to 
appear  before  the  Turkish  authorities  at  Con- 
stantinople. Here  he  finallv  abandoned  the  Jew- 
ish faith  and  became  a  Moslem.  The  disenchant- 
ment waa  great,  but  a  sect  of  Sabbatians  con- 
tinued to  honor  him  as  the  Messiah.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  the  Messiahs  of  Judaism  have  some- 
times been  mystics,  obeying  what  seemed  to  them 
£t  divine  call,  sometimes  political  leaders  taking 
up  a  heroic  struggle  for  liberty,  sometimes  men 
of  personal  ambition  and  unscrupulous  methods. 
But  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans  owe 
much  moral  vigor  and  spiritual  uplift  to  the 
Messianic  hope. 

BiBiJOGRAPHT.  Bertholdt,  Christ ologia  Judce- 
omm  (Erlangen,  1811)  ;  Orelli,  Die  alttestament- 
liche  Weissagung  (Vienna,  1882)  ;  Riehm,  Die 
meseianische  Wei^sagung  (Gotha,  1885)  :  De- 
litzsch,  Messianische  Weissagungen  (Leipzig, 
1890) ;  Vole,  Die  vorewilische  Tahive-Prophetie 
Vol.  XIII.— 24. 


und  der  Mesaias  (Gdttingen,  1897)  ;  Hiihn,  Die 
measianiscJien  Weissagungen  (Freiburg,  1899) ; 
Castelli,  II  Messia  seoondo  gU  Ebrei  (Milan* 
1874) ;  Colani,  Jisus  Christ  et  les  croyanoes 
messianiques  de  son  temps  (Paris,  1862)  ;  Ver- 
nes,  Hiatoire  des  id^es  messianiques  (Paris, 
1874)  ;  Drummond,  The  Jeunsh  Messiah  (London, 
1877);  Stanton,  The  Jewish  and  the  Christian 
Messiah  (Edinburgh,  1886)  ;  Briggi,  Messianic 
Prophecy  (New  York,  1886)  ;  id..  The  Messiah 
of  the  Gospels  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Dalman,  Der 
leidende  und  der  sterhende  Messias  (Leipzig, 
1888)  ;  Wiinache,  Die  Leiden  des  Messias  (Leip- 
zig, 1870)  ;  Graetz,  Cfeschichte  der  Juden  (Leip- 
zig, 1888-1902);  Bacher,  Die  Agada  der  Tan- 
naiten  (Strassburg,  1884-90)  ;  Die  Agada  der 
palestinensischen  Amorder  (Strassburg,  1892- 
99)  ;  Weber,  Jiidisohe  Theologie  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1897 )  ;  Hamburger,  '^essiasse,"  in  Real-Ency- 
clopadie  des  Judentums {hei^zig,  1896)  ;  Schmidt, 
The  Son  of  Man  and  the  Son  of  Qod  in  Mod- 
em Theology  (New  York,  1903)  ;  Bousset,  Die 
Religion  des  Judentums  (Berlin,  1903)  ;  West- 
cott,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Oospels 
(Cambridge,  1860). 

MESSIAH,  The.  (1)  A  poem  by  Alexander 
Pope,  which  appeared  in  the  Spectator,  May  14, 
1712.  It  is  a  sacred  eclogue,  imitating  VergiPs 
Pollio.  (2)  An  epic  poem  by  Klopstock  (q.v.). 
(3)  An  oratorio  by  Handel,  composed  in  1741, 
and  given  first  in  Dublin,  April  13,  1742,  in  aid 
of  charity.  The  words  were  arranged  by  Han- 
del's friend  Charles  Jennens.  This  ever-popular 
masterpiece  may  be  described  as  a  musical 
counterpart  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 

KESSIDOB,  mfis'sft'dOr'  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  mes- 
sis,  harvest  -j-  Gk.  8Qpov,  d6ron,  gift).  The 
tenth  month  of  the  French  Revolutionary  Calen- 
dar, beginning  on  June  19th  in  years  one  to 
seven,  and  on  Jime  20th  in  years  eight  to  thir- 
teen. 

KESSnTA,  m^'B^nk  (anciently  Messana). 
The  capital  of  the  Province  of  Messina,  and,  after 
Palermo,  the  most  important  city  of  Sicily.  It  is 
in  the  northeast  comer  of  the  island, on  the  Strait 
of  Messina,  59  miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Catania 
( Map :  Italy,  K  9 ) .  It  is  situated  between  a  sickle- 
shaped  harbor  on  the  east,  with  its  two  sightly 
lighthouses,  and  a  chain  of  abrupt  conical  peaks 
on  the  west,  rising  to  a  height  of  3700  feet.  The 
climate  is  very  even.  The  mean  temperature  is 
66°  F.  Messina  is  substantially  built,  is  forti- 
fied, and  has  some  fine  lava-paved  thoroughfares, 
which  afford  views  of  the  bay  and  of  Calabria 
across  the  strait.  The  city  itself  has  no  very 
famous  attractions  for  sightseers,  having  retained 
few  of  its  striking  antiquities,  owing  to  a  rather 
calamitous  career.  It  has  suffered  especially 
from  earthquakes.  The  most  interesting  struc- 
ture is  the  cathedral,  dating  from  Norman  times 
(1098).  Little  of  the  original  edifice,  however, 
remains ;  it  is  a  mixture  of  different  architectural 
periods. 

Among  the  leading  secular  edifices  are  the 
municipal  palace,  completed  in  1829,  and  the 
Villa  Rocca  Guelfonia,  with  Norman  remains. 
The  museum  in  the  Convent  of  San  Gregorio 
contains  a  few  paintings,  some  marbles  and  other 
antiquities,  and  a  collection  of  majolica  vases. 
The  fish  of  the  neighboring  waters  are  highly 
esteemed,  as  well  as  the  Mamertine  wines  of  the 
district.     The  manufacturing  interests  are  not 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MESSINA. 


864 


META. 


extensive.  The  chief  products  are  hardware^ 
silk,  muslin,  and  linen.  Messina  has  some 
fame  for  satins  and  damasks.  The  commerce  is 
important,  though  not  as  great  as  formerly.  The 
harbor  is  very  busy  at  all  times.  Silk,  oil,  wine, 
coral,  fruit  essences,  argol,  oranges,  lemons,  and 
other  articles  are  dealt  in.  The  town  ranks  fourth 
among  Italian  cities  in  the  volume  of  its  com- 
merce, the  total  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  in 
1900  being  over  3,300,000.  The  imports  were 
about  $4,000,000,  the  exports  $10,000,000.  There 
is  direct  steamship  commimication  with  Naples 
and  Marseilles.  The  university,  opened  in  1538, 
is  attended  by  some  600  students.  There  is  also 
a  technical  institute  in  the  city.  The  municipal 
hospital  is  a  vast  structure  built  prior  to  1600. 
Messina  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop.  Popula- 
tion (commune),  in  1901,  149,778. 

The  outskirts  and  environs  are  delightful,  af- 
fording magnificent  views  of  the  sea  as  well  as 
of  Mount  Etna.  On  the  w^est  rises  the  former 
fort  of  Castellaccio,  and  not  far  away  to  the  south 
is  Fort  Gonzaga,  on  a  historic  spot.  The  new 
Campo  Santo  is  beautiful,  with  its  graceful 
Greek  colonnades  and  wonderful  views.  The  Tel^- 
grafo — ^the  summit  of  a  pass  near  Messina — is 
much  visited  for  its  scenery.  Here  was  supposed 
to  be  the  Chary bdis  of  the  familiar  legend,  oppo- 
site Scylla,  on  the  Calabrian  coast. 

History.  Messina  is  a  town  of  great  antiquity, 
its  foundation  being  ascribed  to  pirates  from 
Cumse  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.,  when  it  was 
known  as  Zancle  (a  sickle),  in  allusion  to  the 
shape  of  its  harbor.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C.  the  town  was  occupied  by  fugitives 
from  Samos  and  Miletus,  and  it  soon  after  passed 
to  Anaxilas,  the  tyrant  of  Rhegium,  who  intro- 
duced there  Messenians  from  the  Peloponnesus, 
by  whom  the  name  of  the  city  was  changed  to 
Messana.  After  the  death  of  Anaxilas,  Messana 
became  a  republic,  and  maintained  that  status 
until  its  destruction  by  the  Carthaginians  during 
their  wars  with  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century  b.c.  It  was  re- 
built by  Dionysius,  but  soon  fell  again  into  the 
hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  who  were  finally 
expelled  by  Timoleon  in  B.C.  343.  During  the 
war  between  Agathocles  of  Syracuse  and  Car- 
thage, Messana  sided  with  the  Carthaginians. 
The  First  Punic  War  left  Messana  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Rome,  and  the  town  subsequently  attained 
considerable  commercial  importance.  In  a.d.  831 
the  town  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  and  in  1061 
was  conquered  by  the  Normans.  The  town  be- 
came a  flourishing  seat  of  trade  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  received  important  privileges  from 
Charles  I.  of  Spain,  which  added  greatly  to  its 
prosperity.  During  the  struggle  between  the 
aristocratic  faction,  or  Merli,  and  the  democratic 
faction,  or  Mavizzi,  the  Senate,  in  1674,  appealed 
for  aid  to  the  French,  who  occupied  the  city,  but 
soon  abandoned  it,  after  having  defeated  the  com- 
bined fleet  of  Spain  and  Holland.  T^ft  in  the 
hands  of  the  Spaniards,  the  city  was  deprived  of 
its  political  liberties,  and  soon  lost  its  commer- 
cial importance.  The  plague  of  1743  and  the 
earthquake  of  1783  carried  ofl"  a  considerable  part 
of  its  population.  In  1860  the  place  was  occupied 
bv  Garibaldi,  and  in  1861  became  a  part  of  united 
Italv. 

MESSINA,  Stratt  of  (It.  Faro  di  Messina, 
Lat.  Mamertinum  f return) .  The  channel  sepa- 
rating Sicily  from  the  southern  point  of  Italy, 


and  connecting  the  Ionian  with  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea.  It  is  24  miles  in  length,  and  from  2  to  12 
miles  in  breadth.  Regular  tidal  currents  run 
through  the  strait,  which  is  of  great  depth,  in 
some   places  exceeding   4000   feet.     See  Scylla 

AND  ChABTBDIS. 

MESSMATES^  Animjll.    See  Commensalism. 

MESSITAOE.  A  legal  term  employed  in  con- 
veyancing as  substantially  equivalent  to  the 
phrase  'dwelling  house  and  appurtenances,'  and 
most  commonly  construed  as  meaning  the  cur- 
tilage, court-yard,  and  an  orchard,  if  there  is 
one.    See  Appubtenance  ;  Cubtilage. 

MESTIZO,  mSs-te^zd  (Sp.,  mongrel,  from  Lat. 
miwtuSf  past  part,  of  miscere,  to  mix).  The  or- 
dinary term  in  use  in  Spanish  American  coun- 
tries to  denote  the  ofl'spring  of  white  and  Indian 
parentage,  and  usually  understood  to  mean  the 
ofl'spring  of  a  white  father  by  an  Indian  mother. 
The  equivalent  term  in  French  Canada  is  metiSy 
and  in  the  United  States  half-breed.  The  off- 
spring of  an  Indian  and  a  mestizo  is  called  mesti- 
so-claro,  of  a  negro  and  mestizo  a  mulato-oscuro, 
of  a  mulatto  and  mestizo  a  chino, 

MES^OME  (from  Gk.  fi4<jTufia,  mestOma, 
fullness,  from  fieard^  mestos,  full).  The  conduct- 
ing portion  (hadrome  and  leptome)  of  a  vascular 
bimdle.  The  term  does  not  include  the  bast 
fibres,  libriform  cells,  or  pericycle. 

MESTBE,  mfis'trA.  A  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
in  the  Province  of  Venice,  five  miles  northwest 
of  the  city  of  Venice,  on  the  border  of  a  lagoon 
(Map:  Italy,  G  2).  It  is  connected  with  Venice, 
Padua,  and  other  places  by  railway.  There  are 
many  villas  around  the  to\iii  and  along  the  road 
to  Padua.  Mestre  has  a  considerable  transit 
trade.  There  are  manufactures  of  machinery. 
Population  (commune),  in  1901,  11,680,  includ- 
ing Malghera. 

MESTU^ITS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiearSc, 
mestos,  full  +  ohpd,  oura,  tail).  A  fossil 
actinopterygian  fish  of  the  family  Pycnodontid®, 
found  in  the  Jurassic  rocks  of  Euroi>e.  The  body 
was  flat  and  high,  and  was  covered  with  rhombic 
ganoid  scales  that  are  most  peculiar  in  being 
united  to  each  other  by  jagged  sutures.  The 
mouth  is  small  and  provided  with  powerful 
grinding  teeth  on  the  palate  and  sharp  cutting 
teeth  in  the  ja>vs.    See  Ganoioei. 

lSt8ZABX)B,  mh'a&-T6sh,  LAzAb  (1796-1858). 
A  Hungarian  patriot.  He  was  bom  at  Baja, 
studied  theology  and  law,  and  in  1813  joined 
the  Hungarian  army  in  the  campaign  against 
Napoleon.  He  was  colonel  of  a  Hussar  regiment 
in  1848,  when  Batthyflnyi  called  him  to  be 
Minister  of  War  in  his  (Cabinet.  In  the  same 
year  M(^szflros  took  command  of  an  exj>edition 
against  the  Rascians  in  his  native  county  of 
Bfies.  This  proved  a  complete  failure,  and  in 
January,  1849,  his  army  was  defeated  with  great 
loss  before  Kaschau.  For  a  brief  time  he  was 
nominally  commander-in-chief  of  the  Hungarian 
forces,  and  shared  with  Dembinski  in  the  defeats 
at  SzOreg  and  Temesvfir.  He  then  fled  to  Turkey. 
After  residing  for  some  years  in  England,  France, 
and  the  island  of  Jersey,  M^szliros  emigrated  to 
the  United  States.  He  died  at  Eywood,  Hereford- 
shire, England,  on  his  way  to  Switzerland. 

META,  mfl'tA.  One  of  the  principal  tribu- 
taries of  the  Orinoco.  It  rises  in  the  Eastern 
(IJordillera  of  the  Colombian  Andes,  near  Bogotfi, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


META. 


865 


METACHBOSI& 


and  flow?  in  a  northeasterly  direction  to  its 
junction  with  the  Orinoco,  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween Colombia  and  Venezuela  (Map:  Colombia, 
D  2).  Its  length  is  about  700  miles,  for  the 
greater  part  of  which  it  is  navigable  for  small 
steamers,  though  its  channel  is  filled  with  nu- 
merous islands. 

METABETCHOIJAN,  m6t'A-bgt-ch55-an'.  The 
principal  southern  affluent  of  Lake  Saint  John 
(q.v.),  Canada.  It  is  90  miles  long  and  near  its 
mouth  occur  its  fine  falls  236  feet  high. 

METAB^OLISM  (from  Gk.  fierajio^Jf^metahole, 
change,  from  furajidXXeiv^  metahallein,  to  change, 
from  fierdj  meta,  beyond  +  pdXXeiv,  baHeitif  to 
throw).  The  continual  molecular  or  physico- 
chemical  changes  taking  place  in  the  protoplasm 
of  organisms,  during  growth  and  throughout  life. 
Upon  it  the  life-processes  rest.  Verwom  says 
that  it  is  solely  a  process  that  distinguishes  the 
living  organism  from  the  dead  organism,  and  not 
from  inorganic  substance;  it  occurs  also  among 
inorganic  bodies.  Verworn  defines  it  as  the 
thing  in  which  the  living  organism  differs  from 
the  lifeless,  and  says  that  it  consists  in  the  con- 
tinual self-decomposition  of  living  substance,  the 
giving  off  to  the  outside  of  the  decomposition- 
products,  and,  in  return,  the  taking  in  from  the 
outside  of  certain  substances,  which  give  to  the 
organism  the  material  with  which  to  regenerate 
itself  and  grow  by  the  formation  of  similar 
groups  of  atoms,  i.e.  by  'polymerization.*  This 
IS  characteristic  of  all  living  substance.  During 
the  process  of  metabolism  the  living  cell-sub- 
stance is  being  continually  broken  down  and 
reformed  by  the  continual  giving  off  and  taking 
in  of  material.  The  metabolism  of  living  sub- 
stance, says  Verwom,  upon  which  all  life  is 
based,  is  conditioned  by  the  existence  of  certain 
very  labile  compounds,  which  stand  next  to  the 
proteids  and  on  account  of  their  elementary 
significance  in  life  are  best  termed  *biogens.' 
Their  continual  decomposition  and  reformation 
cojistitute  the  life-process. 

In  plant  physiology  the  term  metabolism  is 
used  in  essentially  the  same  sense  as  in  animal 
physiology.  Two  series  of  processes  are  distin- 
guishable: (1)  Processes  which  result  in  the  up- 
building of  complex  substances,  particularly  such 
as  contain  a  greater  amount  of  potential  energy 
than  the  ones  from  which  they  are  constructed. 
These  processes  are  designated  as  'constructive' 
metabolism  or  'anabolism.'  (2)  Processes  which 
result  in  the  decomposition  of  complex  substances 
into  simpler  ones,  designated  as  'destructive* 
metabolism  or  'katabolism.'  For  special  discus- 
sions of  metabolic  processes  see  Assimilation  in 
Plants;  Digestion  in  Plants;  Fermentation; 
NuTBiTioN;  Photosynthesis;  Respiration  in 
Plants.  Consult  Verworn,  General  Physiology : 
An  Outline  of  the  Science  of  Life  (New  York, 
1899). 

METACENTBE  (from  Gk.  fierd^  meta,  after 
-f  KkvTpov,  kentron,  centre) .  It  is  shown  in  hydro- 
statics that  a  floating  body  is  acted  on  by  two  equal 
forces  in  opposite  directions ;  one,  vertically  down 
through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  body  itself; 
the  other,  vertically  up  through  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  volume  which  was  occupied  by 
the  liquid  now  displaced  by  the  body.  If  the 
body  is  at  rest,  these  two  forces  must  lie  in  the 
same  vertical  line;  but  the  question  of  the  sta- 
bility  of   this   equilibrium   depends   upon   what 


happens  when  the  floating  body  is  tipped  slight- 
ly. If  the  forces  bring  it  back  to  its  former  posi- 
tion, the  equilibrium  is  stable;  if  they  make  it 
tip  still  farther,  the  equilibrium  is  unstable. 
Imagine  a  line  drawn  in  the  floating  body  so  as 
to  pass  through  the  centres  of  gravity  of  the 
body  and  of  the  displaced  liquid,  when  the  body 
is  in  equilibrium;  this  line  is  called  the  'axis.' 
Now  imagine  the  body  tipped  slightly,  thus  mak- 
ing the  axis  inclined  to  the  vertical;  the  line  of 
action  of  the  vertical  upward  force  will  intersect 
this  line  at  a  point  called  the  'metacentre.*  If 
the  metaoentre  lies  above  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  body,  the  two  forces  will  form  a  couple 
tending  to  restore  the  body  to  its  former  posi- 
tion, where  the  equilibrium  was  stable.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  metacentre  is  below  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  body,  the  forces  form  a 
couple  tending  to  tip  the  body  farther,  and  so  the 
equilibrium  was  unstable.  An  elongated  floating 
body  like  a  ship  has  a  transverse  metacentre  and 
a  longitudinal  metacentre.  The  former  is  the  one 
most  commonly  considered.  The  metacentric 
height  is  the  vertical  distance  between  the  centre 
of  gravity  and  the  metacentre.  It  is  evident  that 
this  must  always  be  a  positive  quantity;  for  if 
the  centre  of  gravity  were  above  the  metacentre 
there  would  be  no  force  tending  to  keep  the  ves- 
sel upright  and  it  would  capsize.  See  Ship- 
building. 

HET'ACHBO^IS  (from  Gk.  fieraxptwvivat, 
metachrOnnynai,  to  change  color,  from  fierd^  meta, 
after  -f  ;tP'^*^<",  chr6nnynai,  xP^^^v,  chrozein, 
to  color,  from  xP^^^f  chrosis,  color,  from  xP^^^f 
chroia,xp^t  c^roa,  skin,  color).  Color-change, as 
that  of  the  chameleon,  in  adaptation  to  surround- 
ings, and  due  to  changes  in  the  size  of  the  pigment- 
cells  of  the  inner  layer  of  the  skin.  These  special- 
ized pigment-cells  are  called  'chromatophores,*  and 
the  remarkable  changes  in  the  color  of  the  skin 
of  the  chameleon,  of  the  tree-toad,  the  squid,  etc., 
depend  on  the  distribution  of  these  pigment-cells, 
which  dilate  (becoming  highly  ramified)  and 
contract  under  certain  kinds  of  irritation.  The 
pigment  (q.v. )  varies  in  color  in  different  species 
and  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  being  black. 


CHROMATOPHOBE8  OF  A    FROO. 

A,  Wholly  contracted :  h,  c,  half  relaxed ;  d,  wholl.v  re- 
laxed ;  e,  wholly  contracted  (a  capillary  veesel);  f,  g,  h,  ex- 
panded color-ceils. 

brown,  yellow,  and  sometimes  even  red  or  green. 
In  the  goby  Heincke  found  that  the  chromato- 
phores which  are  yellow  or  greenish-v'^Uow  when 
distended  become  orange-colored  when  contracted, 
while  the  orange  or  red  ones  when  shrunk  become 
brown  or  even  black ;  and  he  detected  in  the  goby 
a  special  kind  of  chromatophores  which  were 
filled  with  iridescent  crystals  of  marvelous  deli- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METACHB0SI8. 


866 


METAL  TRADES  ASSOCIATION. 


•cacy,  appearing  when  dilated  as  specks  of  metallic 

sheen. 

Tliese  changes  may  be  due  to  the  direct  in- 

:fluence  of  the  stimulus  of   light,  or  indirectly 

through  the  eyesight.     Semper  says  that  Lister 

demonstrated  as 
long  ago  as  1858 
that  the  activity 
of  the  chromato- 
phores  depends 
solely  on  the 
healthy  condition 
tsonoi  or  ▲  raos's  skix.  of  the  eye.  As  soon 
a,   EpWermtii;    *,    cutte,   with  »8  the  eyes  are  de- 

<>lack.   star- shaped,   deep-aeated   stroyed  or  the  optic 

*^Hli  t*  "'•JJ^'^r  P^«™?»*  <»"»  ^  nerve  b  divided, 
9k  thick,  stnf^e  layer  cloee  under  TT     T.  ****  *«*=«, 

the  epld^into.  the  chroma toph  ores 

do  not  function.  He 
WMB  confirmed  in  this  view  by  Pouchet's  experi- 
ments on  fishes  and  crabs,  showing  that  the 
<hromatophore8  lost  their  power  of  contraction 
if  the  two  sympathetic  nerves  were  destroyed  at 
the  root. 

Heincke's  observations  in  some  respects  contra- 
■diet  those  of  Pouchet.  Biedemann  (1892),  on 
the  other  hand,  has  claimed  that  the  color-cells 
change  their  shape  owing  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  light  and  of  temperature.  He  shows  that  the 
slightest  change  of  temperature  affects  the  mu- 
tual disposition  of  the  pigment-cells,  and  conse- 
<}uently  the  color,  of  the  frog.  It  is  enough  to 
keep  the  animal  in  the  hand  to  provoke  a  con- 
traction of  its  black  cells.  The  amount  of  blood- 
supply  also  has  a  definite  effect.  Steinach  also 
(1891)  has  proved  that  light  acts  as  a  direct 
stimulus.  Biedemann  therefore  appears  to  have 
proved  that  the  chief  agency  of  changes  of  color 
is  not  in  the  sensations  derived  from  the  eyes, 
but  in  those  derived  from  the  skin. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  under  side  of  flatfish 
is  white  or  colorless.  This  is  due  to  absence 
there  of  piginent-cells.  These,  however,  are 
present  in  very  young  flounders,  but  as  they  grow 
iinsymmetrical  the  fish  turns  the  left  side  up- 
ward, and  the  chromatophores  disappear  from 
the  right  or  under  side.  Chinningham  experi- 
mented with  young  flounders  by  placing  a  mirror 
below  the  aquarium  at  an  angle  of  45  o,  and 
cut  off  the  light  from  above.  In  the  larger  num- 
ber of  specimens  thus  treated,  after  several 
months,  more  or  less  of  the  skin  of  the  lower 
«ide  was  pigmented.  He  thus  proved  that  the 
absence  of  pigment  on  that  side  in  the  normal  fish 
is  due  to  its  position  in  shadow.  It  thus  appears 
that  the  absence  of  the  pigment  or  of  color  is  due 
to  the  absence  of  light,  a  mechanical  or  physical 
<»ause. 

BiBLiooBAPHT.  Semper,  Animal  Life  a«  Af- 
fected by  the  Natural  Conditions  of  Existence 
(New  York,  1881)  ;  Biedemann,  "Ueber  den  Far- 
benwechsel  der  FriSsche,"  in  Archiv  fiir  die  ge- 
^ammte  Physiologic,  vol.  li.  (Bonn,  1892)  ; 
■Oadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (London  and 
New  York,  1902). 

MET' AGENESIS.  See  Alternation  op 
<tEnkbations  ;  Pabthenogenesis. 

MET'AKHra/SIS  (Gk.  titraKlvriffts,  trans- 
position). A  term  suggested  by  Jaekel  to  ex- 
press the  results  of  cenogenetic  modification, 
since  the  process  involves  a  thoroughgoing  modi- 
fication of  a  form  in  a  way  impossible  in  the 
sdult,  and  only  possible  in  a  larval  or  early 
fitage,  or  in  which  the  various  organs  are  not  yet 


specialized.  Consult  Jaekel,  Ueber  verschiedene 
Wege  phylogenetischer  Entwickelung  (Jena, 
1902;  reviewed  in  Hcienoe,  vol.  xvii.  p.  380,  New 
York,   1903).     Compare  Paijnqenesis. 

METAL.    See  Hehaldrt. 

METAX-CASTINO.     See  Foundino. 

METAL^EHYDE.    See  Aldehyde. 

METALLIC  PAINT.     See  ^Iinebal  Paint. 

MET'ALLUB'OY  (from  Gk.  iirraWovpy^, 
metallourgos,  metal-working,  from  fjAraXKow,  met- 
allon,  metal,  mine  +  <fp7or,  ergon,  work).  That 
branch  of  applied  science  which  has  for  its  ob- 
ject the  extraction  of  metals  from  their  ores,  and 
the  subsequent  treatment  by  which,  singly  or  in 
combination,  they  are  shaped  into  final  products 
by  casting,  rolling,  pressing  or  spinning.  The 
operations  of  metallurgy  are  partly  mechani- 
cal and  partly  chemical.  Some  of  the  mechanical 
operations  of  metallurgy  pertaining  to  treatment 
of  ores  are  described  under  Ore  Dressing,  other 
mechanical  operations,  referring  to  the  working 
of  metals,  as  well  as  the  chemical  treatment, 
which  differs  in  detail  for  each  metal,  are  de- 
8cril>ed  in  the  articles  on  the  various  metals. 
Briefly  stated,  ore  dressing  consists  in  separating 
the  valuable  ore  or  mineral  from  some  of  the 
barren  rock  with  which  it  is  mixed  upon  coming 
from  the  mines  and  in  otherwise  rendering  it  by 
mechanical  means,  such  as  crushing,  sorting,  and 
washing,  better  fitted  for  the  smelting  or  other 
operations  of  extraction  which  follow.  The  proc- 
esses of  extraction  may  be  separated  into :  ( 1 ) 
Smelting  processes,  in  which  metal  is  extracted 
from  its  ore  by  reactions  induced  through  the 
agency  of  great  heat;  (2)  amalgamation  proc- 
esses, in  which  the  metal  forms  an  amalgam  with 
mercury,  the  mercury  being  afterwards  distilled 
off,  leaving  the  metal ;  (3)  extraction  by  aqueous 
chemical  solutions  in  which  the  metal  is  dis- 
solved and  subsequentlv  precipitated  in  solid 
form  by  suitable  precipitants  or  by  electrolytic 
deposition;  (4)  electrolytic  processes,  in  which 
the  metal  is  obtained  from  the  ore,  or  by  which 
the  impure  metal  is  refined  by  electrolysis. 
Two  or  more  of  these  processes  are  often 
combined  in  the  metallurgy  of  a  single  metal. 
See  Aluminum;  Copper;  Gold;  Iron  and  Steel; 
Lead;  Nickel;  Platinum;  Mercury;  Silver; 
Tin;  Zinc;  etc. 

METALS  AND  METALLOIDS.  See  Peri- 
odic Law. 

METAL  TBADES  ASSOCIATION,  The 
National.  An  association  com]>osed  of  about 
200  firms  in  the  metal  trades  organized  in  Au- 
gust, 1899.  The  declaration  of  principles 
disavows  "any  intention  to  interfere  with 
the  proper  functions  of  labor  organizations,"  an- 
nounces that  "no  discrimination  will  be  made 
against  any  man  because  of  his  membership  in 
any  society  or  organization,"  indorses  arbitra- 
tion, but  asserts  that  the  following  questions 
must  be  decided  by  the  employer  alone:  (1)  the 
selection  or  rejection  of  workmen  for  the  per- 
formance of  particular  tasks;  (2)  the  number 
of  apprentices,  helpers,  and  handy  men  to  be 
employed;  (3)  the  method  of  wage  payment, 
whether  by  time,  piece,  contract,  or  premium 
rate.  The  association  further  declares  that  its 
members  will  not  arbitrate  any  question  after 
employees  have  gone  on  a  strike;  neither  will  the 
association  countenance  a  lockout  on  any  arbi- 
trable question,  unless  arbitration  has  failed. 


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METAL-WOBKLNG  MACHIKEBT. 


METAL  WOBK.  A  term  usually  applied  to 
artistic  work  in  metaL  The  metals  generally 
used  for  this  purpose  are  gold,  silver,  copper, 
iron,  and  lead,  and  the  principal  methods  of 
treatment  employed  anf  casting  and  repousse. 
( For  a  description  of  these  processes,  see  Found- 
nvo  and  Befouss£.  )  By  reason  of  its  scarcity  and 
value,  gold  has  been  generally  used  in  the  fine 
arts  for  small  objects  of  luxury  and  adornment, 
although  the  Greeks  frequently  used  it,  in  con- 
nection with  ivory,  for  statues  of  great  sanctity. 
(See  Goldsmith's  Work;  Jewelry.)  The  use 
of  silver  is  also  thus  limited,  though  to  a  less 
extent.  Although  copper  in  a  pnre  state  was 
used  for  ecclesiastical  ornaments  irom  the  twelfth 
to  the  fifteenth  century,  its  chief  use  has  always 
been  as  an  alloy  with  tin  in  the  form  of  bronze. 
In  this  form  it  is  the  metal  most  used  in  the 
fine  arts,  being  more  used  than  any  other  ma- 
terial except  marble,  both  in  statuary  and  relief. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  its  high  fluidity  when 
melted,  its  slight  contraction  upon  cooling,  and 
its  hardness  render  it  peculiarly  adapted  for  cast- 
ing. (See  Bronze.)  Brass,  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  zinc,  was  also  used  during  the  ^Middle  Ages 
for  sepulchral  slabs,  the  image  being  engraved 
upon  the  brass  plate.  (See  Brasses,  Sepul- 
chral. )  By  reason  of  its  great  contraction  upon 
cooling,  iron  is  less  adapted  to  casting;  but  its 
extreme  malleability  and  adhesive  qualities  when 
heated  render  it  easy  to  forge  under  the  stroke 
of  the  hammer.  From  the  thirteenth  century  to 
the  eighteenth  it  was  extensively  used  with  high 
artistic  success  for  screens,  gates,  and  the  like, 
though  the  attempted  revival  in  our  day  can- 
not be  pronounced  equally  successful.  (See 
Iron  and  Steel.)  Steel  is  also  extensively  used 
in  the  beautiful  inlay  work  of  Oriental  nations. 
See    Damaskeening;    Inlaying;    Indian   Art. 

Bibliography.  The  authorities  on  the  technique 
and  history  of  the  special  kinds  of  metal  work 
will  be  found  under  the  titles  cited  above.  Among 
the  special  manuals  on  the  subject,  which  have 
been  written  at  different  periods,  are :  The  treat- 
ise of  the  Monk  Theophilus,  "Diversarum  Artium 
Schedula"  (twelfth  century),  published  in  Quel- 
lenachriften  fur  Kunstgesohichtey  VII.  (Vienna, 
1877)  ;  Cellini,  Trattati  delV  oreficeria  e  delta 
scultura,  ed.  Milanesi  (Florence,  1856)  ;  Vasari, 
Tre  arti  del  disegno^  pt.  ii.,  ed.  Milanesi  (ib., 
1882)  ;  Gamier,  Manuel  du  ciseleur  (Paris, 
1859)  ;  Codron,  Travail  des  nietaux  dans  les 
at^liera  de  construction  m^canique  (ib.,  1901)  ; 
Haas,  Der  Metallarheiter  (Landeshut,  Schlesien, 
1902)  ;  Lexicon  der  Metaltechnik  (Vienna,  1900). 

METAL- WOBKINO   MACfHINEBY.      The 

number  and  variety  of  metal -working  machines 
are  very  large,  the  term  comprehending  prac- 
tically all  machines  by  which  metals  are  wrought 
into  useful  shapes.  For  ordinary  purposes  metal- 
working  machines  may  be  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing classes:  Planing  machinery  or  planers; 
turning  machinery  or  lathes ;  boring  machinery  or 
drills;  punching  machinery  or  punches;  milling 
machines;  shearing  machines  or  shears;  riveting 
machinery  or  riveters;  presses;  bending  machin- 
ery; saws;  and  special  machiner>^ 

Planing  Machines.  Planing  machines  or 
planers  are  employed  for  working  metal  surfaces 
to  accurate  planes  by  cutting  off  the  projections 
by  the  planing  or  cutting  action  of  a  suitable 
tool,  past  which  the  work  reciprocates  or  revolves 
in  a  fixed  plane.  One  of  the  most  common  forms 


of  planing  machines  is  shown  by  the  illustration* 
(Fig.  3,  Plate  of  Metal- Working  Machinery.) 
The  tool  is  carried  by  a  tool  head  having  a  slid- 
ing motion  on  a  cross-bar  which  can  be  moved 
up  or  down  on  two  vertical  guides.  The  table 
wnich  carries  the  work  clamped  to  it  slides  back 
and  forth  between  ihe  two  vertical  guides,  and 
thus  brings  the  work  against  the  tool,  which  takes> 
oflf  a  narrow,  thin  shaving  of  metal.  By  a  suc- 
cession of  such  shavings  following  each  other 
like  the  furrows  of  allowed  field,  a  plane  surface 
is  secured.  Machines  of  this  character  are  built 
in  tarious  sizes,  some  of  them  having  tables  21 
feet  long  and  7  feet  wide.  In  rotary  planers 
the  work  has  a  rotary  motion  with  respect  to  the 


FlO.  1.   DBILL. 

tool  instead  of  a  rectilinear  motion.  Planes  for 
smoothing  the  edges  of  metal  plates  usually  have 
the  work  clamped  fast  while  the  tool  is  carried 
along  the  edge  taking  off  a  thin  shaving.  Power 
is  usually  supplied  to  planing  machines  from 
shafting  by  means  of  belt  transmission,  and  the 
rotary  motion  of  the  belt  is  transformed  into 
the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  table  by  means 
of  gearing.  When  in  operation  the  motion  of  the 
table  and  the  motion  of  the  tool  head  necessary 
to  produce  successive  cuts  are  automatic. 

Turning  Machinery  or  Lathes.  Lathes  are 
tools  for  producing  cylindrical  surfaces  by  ro- 
tating or  turning  a  bar  before  a  cutting  tool.  The 
bar  to  be  turned  is  clamped  between  a  fixed  point 
at  one  end  and  a  rotating  disk  at  the  other  end,., 
while  the  tool  head  and  carriage  move  parallel 
with  the  axis  of  the  bar,  the  tool  removing  a 
spiral  shaving  from  the  surface  of  the  ber. 
Lathes  are  driven  by  belts  from  shafting  or 
may  be  operated  by  electric  motors.     They  are 


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METAL-WOBKINO  HACHINEBT. 


built  in  a  multitude  of  forms  and  of  various 
sizes,  from  the  small  machine  used  by  jewelers 
to  the  large  gun  and  ingot  lathes  capable  of 
turning  a  cylinder  10  feet  in  diameter.  See  Fig. 
2  on  Flate  of  Metal- VVobking  Machinebt. 


Punching  Machines  ob  Punches.  Punches 
are  used  like  drills  for  perforating  metal  plates 
and  shapes  for  riveted  connections,  the  hole  be- 
ing made  by  the  thrust  of  a  cylindrical  punch  in- 
stead of  by  a  rotating  drill.  Single  and  multiple 
punches  are  built  capable  of  punching  one  or 
several  holes  at  once.  For  light  work  punches 
are  usually  driven  by  belts,  but  for  heavy  work 
individual  steam-engines  or  hydraulic  cylinders 
are  the  m*otive  powers  used.  Where  holes  are  to 
be  punched  at  regular  intervals  automatic  spac- 
ing tables  are  often  used  in  connection  with 
punches.  Fig.  3  shows  a  single  punch  of  familiar 
construction.  Horizontally  acting  punches  are 
also  constructed. 


FlO.  2.     THBBE-8PINDLE   BOBINO   MACHINE. 

BoBiNG  Machines.  Boring  machines  are  tools 
for  boring  cylindrical  holes  by  means  of  an 
axially  rotating  tool;  they  vary  greatly  in  form 
according  to  the  purpose  for  which  ihey  are 
used,  bemg  made  with  from  one  to  a  dozen  or 
more  spindles,  and  for  drilling  horizontal  or 
inclined  holes.  Boring  machines  for  boring 
holes  of  large  diameter,  such  as  engine  cylinders. 


FlO.  4.     8HE1.B8. 

Sheabing  Machines.  Shears  are  used  for 
cutting  off  or  shearing  metal  plates  and  shapes, 
and  resemble  punches  in  construction  and  opera- 
tion except  that  the  punching  tool  and  die  are 
replaced  by  cutting  edges  which  slide  past  each 
other  like  the  blades  of  ordinary  shears  or  scis- 
sors. Fig.  4  shows  a  familiar  construction  of 
plate  shears;  machines  of  this  type  are  built 
wide  enough  to  shear  plates  10  feet  wide.  For 
shearing  angle  iron  and  other  shapes  special 
forms  of  shears  are  often  made. 


Fig.  3.    punch. 

ordnance,  hollow  shafting,  usually  have  a 
cylindrical  tool  head  in  which  two  or  more 
separate  tools  are  clamped.  They  are  designed 
to  drill  horizontal,  vertical  or  inclined  holes. 
Fig.  2  shows  a  three-spindle  vertical  boring  ma- 
chine. Drills  and  boring  machines  are  often 
used  for  reaming  holes  made  by  punching  or  for 
giving  an  exact  cylindrical  interior  surface  to  a 
hollow  casting,  as,  for  example,  an  engine  cylin- 
der. 


Riveting  Machines  ob  Rivetebs.  Riveters 
are  employed  for  driving  and  heading  hot  rivets 
in  making  riveted  connections  in  Iwiler  work, 
structural  work,  etc.  They  are  built  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  but  most  usual  is  a  U-s^iped 


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METAL-WORKING   MACHINERY 


1.  HORIZONTAL  BENDING  ROLLS  2.  LATHE 


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frame  or  yoke  having  at  the  ends  of  the  arms 
interiorly  projecting  dies  one  of  which  is  sta- 
tionary while  the  other  has  a  reciprocating  mo- 
tion. The, rivet  after  being  inserted  in  the  hole  is 
squeezed  endwise  between  these  two  dies  until 
it  clamps  the  work  together  and  a  head  is  formed. 
Fig.  5  shows  a  common  form  of  riveter.  The  mov- 
ing die  is  operated  by  means  of  a  steam  or  com- 
pressed air  cylinder.  Riveters  are  made  sta- 
tionary as  well  as  portable;  stationary  riveters 
are  usually  employed  for  heavier  work  and  are 
often  operated  by  hydraulic  power. 

Presses.  Presses  are  used  for  forming  sheet 
metal  into  utensils  of  various  forms  by  means  of 
pressure  between  dies.  They  may  be  operated 
by  steam,  hydraulic,  or  other  power.  Fig.  6 
shows  a  hydraulic  press  for  such  work  as  watch- 


FlO.  7.      BULLDOZES  PRB88. 

tween  which  the  plate  is  drawn  by  the  rotation 
of  the  rolls.  The  relative  adjustment  of  the  rolls 
determines  the  curve  to  which  the  plate  is  bent. 
The  accompanying  plate  shows  a  horizontal  bend- 
ing roll  operated  by  a  special  steam-engine  and 


used  by  the  United  States  Grovemment  for  bend- 
ing 1  inch  thick  steel  plates.  These  rolls  will 
take  in  plates  24  feet  wide.  Vertical  rolls  of 
similar  construction  are  also  made. 

SAwmo  Machines.  Saws  are  used  extensively 
in  metal-working  for  cutting  plates  and  shapes 
into  shorter  lengths.  They  are  built  in  a  large 
number  of  forms  both  portable  and  stationary. 
In  the  illustration  (Fig.  8)  a  familiar  form  of 


Fig.  6.    hydki.ulio  press. 

case  making,  which  is  operated  by  a  belt-driven 
pump.  The  operation  of  presses  of  this  style  is 
described  in  the  article  on  Hydbaulic  Press. 
Presses  are  made  for  both  the  hot  and  cold  work- 
ing of  metals.  A  form  of  hot- working  press,  gen- 
erally horizontal  in  action,  used  in  bending  struc- 
tural shapes,  is  called  a  bulldozer.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  a  familiar  form  of  bulldozer  press. 

Bending  Machines.  Bending  rolls  are  used 
for  bending  metal  plates  to  suitable  curves  for 
boiler  and  tank  work.  They  usually  consist  of 
three  rolls  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  triangle  be- 


FlO.  8.     cold   MfCTl-L-SAWINO  MACHINES. 

toothed  saw  for  cutting  off  steel  beams  and  simi- 
lar shapes  is  shown;  the  beam  is  clamped  to  a 
carriage  and  moved  into  contact  with  the  edge  of 
a  circular  saw  as  is  done  in  sawing  lumber  by 
similar  saws.  The  toothless  cold  metal  saw  con- 
sists simply  of  a  plain  soft  steel  or  iron  disk  with- 
out teethj  about  42  inches  in  diameter  and  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  The  velocity  of  the 
circumference  in  operation  is  about  15,000  feet 
per  minute.  One  of  these  saws  will  cut  through 
an  ordinary  steel  rail  in  about  one  minute.  In 
this  saw  the  iron  or  steel  is  ground  off  by  the 
friction  of  the  disk,  and  is  not  cut  as  with  the 


FlO.  9.     PLAIN  MILLING  MACHINE. 

teeth  of  an  ordinary  saw.  It  has  generally  been 
found  more  profitable,  however,  to  saw  iron  with 
disks  or  band  saws,  fitted  with  cutting  teeth, 
which  run  at  moderate  speeds  and  cut  the  metals 
as  do  the  teeth  of  a  milling  cutter  such  as  is  de- 
scribed in  the  succeeding  section.  A  novel  appli- 
cation of  the  cold  saw  is  known  as  Reese's  fusing 
disk.  This  saw  is  used  to  cut  iron  or  steel  in 
the  form  of  bars,  tubes,  cylinders,  etc.,  and  the 


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XETAMOBPHIC   BOCX& 


piece  to  be  cut  is  made  to  revolve  as  well  as  thA 
saw,  but  at  a  slower  speed.  By  this  means  only 
a  small  surface  of  the  bar  to  l>e  cut  is  presented 
at  a  time  to  the  circumference  of  the  saw.  The 
saw  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  cold  saw  de- 
scribed above,  and  is  rotated  at  a  velocity  of 
about  25,000  feet  per  minute.  The  heat  generated 
by  the  friction  of  this  saw  against  the  small  sur- 
face of  the  bar  exposed  to  its  action  at  one  time 
is  so  great  that  the  particles  of  iron  or  steel  in 
the  bar  are  actually  fused  and  the  'sawdust' 
welds  into  a  solid  mass  as  it  falls.  Tliis  disk 
will  cut  either  cast  iron  or  wrought  iron  or  steel. 
MiixiNO  Machines.  Milling  machines  are 
used  for  forming  exact  surfaces  of  various  forms 
by  means  of  revolving  cutting  tools  or  cutters. 
By  means  of  different  shaped  cutters  an  almost 
unlimited  variety  of  surfaces  can  be  cut  by  mill- 
ing machines.  They  are  used  extensively  for 
shaping  small  articles  such  as  sewing-machine 
and  gun  parts.  They  vary  greatly  in  form,  being 
vertical,  horizontal,  and  universal,  with  one  or 
several  cutters.  Fig.  9  shows  a  form  of  plain 
milling  machine  with  a  horizontal  spindle,  and 
Fig.  10  shows  representative  forms  of  cutters  and 
tools,  of  which  there  are  many  special  shapes. 


FlO.  10.     MILLING  OUTTBBS  AlTD  TOOLS. 

Special  Machines.  The  term  special  ma- 
chines includes  all  metal-working  machines  for 
tapping  nuts,  threading  bolts,  and  making  pins, 
screws,  nails,  rivets,  pens,  etc.  The  use  of  metal- 
working  machines  has  largely  replaced  hand 
labor  in  metal-working  in  all  countries,  but  it 
has  become  particularly  extended  in  the  United 
States. 

METAM^BISM  (from  Gk.  /xerd,  meta,  after 
-f- /tt^pof ,  meros,  part).  A  term  equivalent  to 
segmentation,  as  seen  in  the  worms  whose  body 
is  divided  along  the  primary  or  longitudinal  axis 
into  sppments.  homologous  with  each  other,  which 
are  technically  called  'somites'  or  'metameres.' 
Each  metamere  or  segment  contains  a  chamber 


or  compartment  of  the  body-cavity,  and  a  section 
of  the  alimentary  canal  and  other  organs.  The 
external  appendages  or  the  so-called  'segmental 
organs'  are  said  to  be  segmentally  or  metameri- 
cally  arranged.  Metamerism  is  most  obviously 
exhibited  in  worms  and  arthropods,  as  the  lob- 
ster, myriapods,  and  insects.  Vertebrate  animals, 
also,  in  the  nervous  system,  and  some  of  the 
other  organs,  show  a  tendency  to  a  repetition  of 
segments,  i.e.,  to  metamerism. 

METAK^KEH.     A  town  of  Galabat    (q.v.). 

XETAXOBPHIC  BOCKS.  One  of  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  rocks  (see  Rock)  char- 
acterized generally  by  a  foliated  or  schistose 
structure  and  including:  (1)  rocks  which  have 
been  shown  to  be  altered  (metamorphosed)  igne- 
ous rocks  (q.v.)  ;  (2)  rocks  which  have  been 
shown  to  be  altered  sedimentary  rocks  (q.v.)  ; 
and  (3)  rocks  which,  while  resembling  one  or 
both  of  these  types,  do  not  allow  of  a  definite 
determination  of  their  origin.  This  implies  that 
the  product  of  metamorphism  acting  upon  a  sedi- 
mentary rock  may  be  indistinguishable  from  the 
result  of  the  same  agencies  acting  upon  an 
igneous  rock.  There  are,  however,  certain  limits 
of  composition  fixed  by  flie  laws  of  consolidation 
of  rock  magmas  that  restrict  somewhat  the 
composition  of  metamorphic  rocks  which  can 
have  had  an  igneous  origin,  the  processes  of  meta- 
morphism having  been  shown  in  the  great  ma- 
jority of  instances  not  to  have  altered  in  an  im- 
portant way  the  ultimate  composition  of  the  rock 
as  a  whole.  The  metamorphic  rocks  are  as  a 
class  those  of  which  the  processes  involved  in 
their  alteration  have  been  active  within  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  and  are  exclusive  of  those  formed 
through  the  chemical  action  of  the  atmospheric 
agencies,  the  latter  class  being  generally  desig- 
nated residual  rocks  (q.v.).    See  Metamorphism. 

Metamorphic  Sedimentary  Rocks.  The  prin- 
cipal metamorphic  sedimentary  rocks  are  definite- 
ly related  to  the  unaltered  sedimentary  rocks, 
principally,  however,  in  respect  to  composition. 
Thus  marble  (q.v.)  and  crystalline  limestone 
(q.v.)  are  metamorphosed  limestone,  and  dolo- 
mitic  marble  is  the  product  of  metamorphism  of 
dolomite.  Quartzite  (q.v.)  and  quartz  schist  re- 
sult from  the  metamorphosis  of  arenaceous  rocks, 
and  by  the  recrystallization  of  contained  iron 
ore  or  by  the  impregnation  by  ferruginous  ma- 
terial they  become  jaspilite  (q.v.)  or  hematite 
rock.  The  argillaceous  rocks  produced  by  the 
same  processes  are  slate,  phyllite,  mica  schist, 
hornblende  or  actinolite  schist,  garnetiferous 
schist,  staurolitic  schist,  and  the  rarer  types 
of  hornfels  or  hornstones  (q.v.),  albite  schist 
and  chiastolite  schist. 

Metamorphic  Igneous  Rocks.  The  types  in- 
cluded under  this  head  may  generally  be  recog- 
nized by  the  partial  preservation  of  the  peculiar 
textures  of  igneous  rocks;  such,  for  example,  as 
the  granitic,  porphyritic,  vitreous  or  glassy, 
spherulitic,  pearlitic,  etc.  (See  Igneous  Rocks.) 
These  structures  are,  however,  almost  always  ob- 
scured by  the  presence  of  parallel  or  approxi- 
mately parallel  sets  of  fissile  planes  which  are 
collectively  referred  to  as  the  schistosity  of  the 
rock.  (See  Metamorphism.)  There  may  be 
several  sets  of  these  fissile  planes,  but  when  two 
or  more  are  present  it  is  generally  impossible  to 
determine  whether  the  rock  had  an  igneous  or 
sedimentary  origin,  and  it  would  be  relegated  to 


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METAMOBPHIC   BOCKS. 


871 


METAXOBFHOSI& 


the  third  class  of  metamorphic  rocks.  It  has 
been  found  that  igneous  rocks  which  were  origi- 
nally glassy  in  texture  are  liable  to  devitrifica- 
tion, the  product  o|  which  process  is  a  rock  of 
microcrystalline  or  crypto-crystalline  texture. 
Metamorphic  rocks  of  this  derivation  are  named 
in  terms  of  the  rocks  from  which  they  have  been 
derived  with  the  addition  of  the  prefix  apo;  as, 
for  example,  aporhyolite  from  rhyolite  (q.v.). 
If,  however,  the  induced  texture  is  that  of 
schistosity  or  foliation  alone,  a  structure  which 
must  be  referred  to  the  processes  known  as  dy- 
namic metamorphism,  the  original  name  of  the 
igneous  type  is  loined  to  the  textural  term  cneiss; 
as,  for  example,  granite-gneiss  from  metamor- 
phism of  granite  (q.v.).  Oranitoid  gneiss  is  the 
equivalent  of  granite-gneiss.  The  third  class  of 
metamorphic  igneous  rocks  owe  their  origin 
chiefly  to  the  chemical  alteration  ( recrystalliza- 
tion)  of  Igneous  rock  types  with  the  abundant 
development  of  new  minerals  out  of  old  ones. 
Such  rocks  are  steatite  or  soapstone  (q.v.),  from 
the  development  of  talc,  and  serpentine  rock 
(q.v.),  from  the  development  of  serpentine,  in 
rocks  of  dominant  magnesian  composition. 

Consult:  Rosenbusch,  Elemente  der  Oesteins- 
lehre  (Stuttgart,  1898);  Zirkel,  Lehrhuch  der 
Petrographie,  vol.  iii.  (Leipzig,  1894)  ;  Diller, 
*'The  Educational  Series  of  Rock  Specimens  Col- 
lected and  Distributed  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,"  in  Bulletin  150,  United 
States  Geological  Survey  (Washington,  1898). 

MET'AXOB^HISM.  A  term  commonly 
used  by  geologists  to  indicate  the  profound 
changes  which  some  rocks  have  underjgone.  The 
term  is  not  applied  to  the  changes  induced  by 
weathering  ana  decomposition,  but  is  appli- 
cable only  to  the  profound  modifications  tnat 
are  usually  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  hard- 
ness and  degree  of  crystallization  from  the  origi- 
nal conditions.  Metamorphism  may  lead  also 
to  the  mineralogical  reconstruction  of  rocks.  In 
a  way  it  may  be  contrasted  with  weathering, 
which  tends  to  break  down  the  surface  strata 
and  thus  promotes  their  removal  to  the  sea  by 
rivers;  metamorphism,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
solidates the  sediments  when  they  are  deeply 
buried.  The  phenomena  of  metamorphism  are 
commonly  met  with  in  nature  particularly  in  the 
regions  underlain  by  ancient  rocks,  where  the 
processes  of  upheaval  and  subsidence  and  vol- 
canic forces  have  operated  through  long  periods 
of  time.  The  degree  to  which  rocks  have  been 
changed  varies  from  mere  hardening  in  some 
cases  to  an  extreme  marked  by  complete  altera- 
tion in  structure  and  composition. 

Kinds  of  Metamobphism.  Strata  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  igneous  intrusions,  as  dykes  and  bosses 
of  granite,  are  more  or  less  metamorphosed  and 
show  an  increase  in  hardness  and  crystallization. 
In  this  kind  of  metamorphism,  called  contact 
metamqrphismy  the  amount  of  change  effected  de- 
pends upon  the  character  of  the  invading  rock 
and  the  rock  that  has  been  invaded,  and  also 
upon  the  proximity  to  the  contact.  Deep-seated 
igneous  masses  exert  greater  influence  than  sur- 
face flows  of  lava,  doubtless  because  of  the 
greater  heat  and  longer  period  of  cooling;  while 
those  of  acid  composition  in  which  there  are  large 
quantities  of  occluded  gases  and  vapors  are  more 
effective  than  basic  types.  The  character  of  the 
strata  invaded  by  the  igneous  rock  largely  de- 
termines the  extent  to- which  new  minerals  are 


found;  sandstone  usually  shows  no  change  be- 
yond  a  hardening  or  recrystallization  of  the 
quartz  particles,  but  clay  rocks,  such  as  shales 
and  slates,  exhibit  a  complete  rearrangement  of 
the  chemical  constituents  with  the  formation  of 
new  minerals. 

A  second  form  of  metamorphism  by  which 
rocks  have  been  influenced  over  wide  areas  de- 
pends upon  the  energy  developed  by  the  great 
stresses  and  movements  within  the  earth's  crust; 
this  is  called  regional  or  dynamic  metamorphism. 
The  first  stages  of  regional  metamorphism  are  in- 
dicated by  hardening  and  the  loss  of  volatile  sub- 
stances; out,  as  the  strains  of  compression  and 
shearing  increase,  the  rock  assumes  a  schistose 
structure  and  its  constituent  minerals  are  more  or 
less  completely  recrystallized.  The  change  ef- 
fected may  amount  to  a  thorough  transformation, 
as  from  an  unaltered  sediment  to  a  homogeneous 
crystalline  mass  resembling  an  i^eous  rock. 

Causes  of  Metamorphism.  Heat,  pressure, 
and  moisture  are  the  most  effective  agencies  in 
producing  the  changes  known  as  ntetamorphism. 
The  infiuence  of  heat  is  shown  in  igneous  con- 
tacts, but  it  is  also  an  accessory  in  regional 
metamorphism,  although  pressure  is  here  the 
dominant  factor.  Moisture  which  is  present  in 
all  classes  of  rocks  assists  in  decomposing  min- 
erals and  in  the  formation  of  new  compounds. 
The  phenomena  of  metamorphism  have  been  imi- 
tated in  an  experimental  way  by  subjecting  speci- 
mens of  various  rocks  to  the  influence  of  heat  and 
pressure.  Consult  Geikie,  Temt-Book  of  Oeology 
(London,  1893).  See  Gbologt;  Mstamorphio 
Rocks. 

MET  AMOBTHOSIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  /lero- 
M^p^AKrtf,  from  furafiopifoOv0eUy  metamorphousthai, 
to  be  transformed,  from  fj^erd,  meta^  over  +  uofx^, 
morphS,  form ) .  In  the  mythology  of  the  ancients, 
those  transformations  of  human  beings  into 
beasts,  stones,  trees,  and  even  into  fire,  water, 
etc.,  in  fables  of  which  that  mythology  abounded. 
See  Ovid  ;  Folklore  ;  Werwolf. 

ICETAKOBPHOSIS  (in  animals).  A  change 
of  form  in  the  post-embryonic  life  of  an  indi- 
vidual animal.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
change  in  form  of  homologous  parts  in  different 
species. 

The  young  of  many  animals  pass  through  a 
series  of  changes  of  form,  in  each  of  which  the 
animal  is  adapted  to  changes  in  its  surround- 
ings,  involving  alterations  in  its  mode  of  life. 


lOBTAMORPBOBIS  OF  OIL-BBBTLS. 

A.  Finit  larra ;  b,  second  larva ;  c,  third  larva :  d,  pupa; 
e,  mature  beetle. 

slight  if  the  change  of  body-form  is  slight,  thor- 
ough-fjoing  and  radical  if  its  body  becomes  pro- 
foundly modified.  As  examples  of  a  complete 
metamorphosis  may  be  cited  the  life-histories  of 
the  jellyfish  (q.v.),  the  starfish,  moUusks,  crus- 
taceans, insects,  and  also  the  salamanders,  toads, 
and  frogs.  Most  shrimps  and  crabs  undergo  a 
complicated  metamorphosis,  for  in  the  different 


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872 


METAXOBPHOSia 


stages  they  lead  different  lives  and  are  subjected 
to  different  environments^  the  larvae  for  the  most 
part  being  free-swimming  and  living  near  the 
surface  of  the  water,  while  the  parents  are  sta- 
tionary. The  result  of  this  change  of  habits  and 
form  undoubtedly  is  to  prevent  the  extinction  of 
the  species,  since  if  at  a  given  moment  the  par- 
ents were  swept  out  of  existence,  the  young,  living 
imder  very  different  circumstances,  would  sur- 
vive, develop,  and  represent  the  species.  Again 
in  the  marine  species  of  worms,  Crustacea, etc.,  the 
free-swimming  young  (larva)  are  borne  about  by 
oceanic  and  tidal  currents,  and  in  this  way  what 
in  adult  life  are  the  most  sedentary  forms  be- 
come widely  distributed  from  one  part  of  the 
world  to  another.  On  the  other  hand,  the  larval 
forms  of  fixed  marine  animals  serve  as  food  for 
fishes,  especially  young  fishes,  and  numerous 
invertebrates.  Thus  were  it  not  for  the  meta- 
morphoses of  animals,  many  species  would  be- 
come extinct  sooner  than  they  do,  while  the  great 
overplus  of  larval  forms  gives  to  many  other  spe- 
cies of  animals  a  secure  hold  on  existence. 

As  an  example  of  metamorphosis  we  may  cite 
that  of  a  butterfly,  fly,  or  bee.  Their  life  is  di- 
vided into  four  stages,  the  embryo  passed  within 
the  egg,  the  larva,  pupa  or  chrysalis,  and  imago. 
An  insect  after  hatching  lives,  so  to  speak,  three 
different  lives,  having  distinct  bodily  struc- 
tures and  existing  under  very  different 
conditions  as  regards  food,  enemies,  etc. 
The  caterpillar,  for  example,  has  big  jaws,  which 
in  the  winged  or  adult  state  are  entirely  want- 
ing. Other  radical  changes  are  observable  in 
the  body  and  appendages,  and  also  in  the  inter- 
nal organs.  The  term  *larva'  (q.v.),  as  applied 
to  the  first  stage  of  animals,  is  a  very  variable 
and  indefinite  one,  that  of  insects  in  general  be- 
ing a  much  more  highly  organized  animal  than 
the  larva  of  a  worm,  starfish,  or  crustacean.  Wing- 
less insects  (synaptera)  do  not  pass  through  a 
metamorphosis.  That  of  winged  insects  is  said  to 
be  'incomplete'  or  'complete.'  An  example  of  incom- 
plete metamorphosis  is  that  of  locusts  and  grass- 
hoppers. In  these  insects  the  freshly  hatched 
young  differs  from  the  adult  only  in  being  with- 
out wings.  The  different  stages  of  metamor- 
phosis are  not  primitive,  inherited  from  some 
early  form,  but  are  acquired  characters ;  the  nau- 
plius  stage  of  most  Crustacea,  and  the  caterpillar, 
maggot,  or  grub  of  insects,  are  forms  which  were 
adaptations  to  changed  modes  of  life,  inducing  use 
or  disuse  of  certain  organs.  At  first  insects  were 
ametabolous,  and  it  was  not  until  perhaps  the 
middle  of  the  Paleozoic  era  that  insects  with  a 
metamorphosis  began  to  exist. 

Hypermetamorphosis.  a  condition  in  insects 
wherein  they  pass  through  more  than  the  three 
normal  stages.  The  best  known  examples  are  the 
supernumerary  stages  of  Melog,  Stylops,  etc.  In 
the  oil-beetle  (Meloe)  the  freshly  hatched  young 
is  an  active,  minute  campodia-like  larva,  which 
inhabits  the  nests  of  wild  bees,  feeding  upon  the 
eggs  of  their  hosts.  This  sedentary  mode  of  life 
reacts  upon  the  organism,  and  after  molting  in 
the  second  larval  stage  it  is  grub-like,  the  body 
thick,  soft  and  fleshy  (carabidoid  stage),  and  it 
feeds  on  honey.  At  the  next  molt  the  insect  is 
motionless  and  nearly  footless  (semi pupal  stage). 
It  then  changes  to  a  third  larval  form,  when 
it  resembles  the  maggot  or  larva  of  a  bee.  It 
then  transforms  into  a  genuine  pupp.  and  finally 
into  the  beetle.     It  will  be  seen  that  at  nearly 


each  stage  its  mode  of  life,  kind  of  food,  etc., 
change. 

SuppBESSBD  Metamobphosis.  This  phenome- 
non, or  'direct  development,'  is  a  curtailment  or 
absolute  loss  of  primitive  larval  characters,  or  a 
forcing  back  of  larval  features  or  structures,  until 
they  Are  either  passed  through  in  the  embryo  be- 
fore hatching  or  entirely  lost,  due  to  the  lapse  of 
heredity.  Thus  in  all  the  insects  with  a  meta- 
morphosis there  exists  what  is  called  'polypody' 
in  the  embryo,  except  in  the  Diptera,  where  it 
has  been  known  to  exist  only  in  one  case.  The 
embryos  of  other  metabolous  insects  than  flies 
at  a  certain  period  have  abdominal  legs,  showing 
their  descent  from  a  Peripatus  or  myriapodous 
ancestry.  The  campodeoid  characters  of  the  larva 
of  Coleoptera  also  become  suppressed  and  lost  in 
the  more  specialized  moths,  bees  ( Hymenoptera ) , 
and  Diptera.  This  is  explained  by  their  being 
crowded  out,  due  to  the  acquisition  of  later  ac- 
quired characters  better  adapted  to  their  changed, 
new  mode  of  life. 

This  abbreviated  metamorphosis  is  seen  also 
in  the  Crustacea,  as  the  lobster  ( q.v. ) ,  and  more 
especially  in  certain  shrimps  and  crabs,  which, 
owing  to  changed  conditions,  hatch  in  the  adult 
form,  passing  through  the  nauplius  and  zoea 
stages  in  the  embryo.  It  is  also  seen  in  the  frogs 
(q.v.),  where  the  different  degrees  of  metamor- 
phosis are  plainly  due  to  great  differences  in  the 
conditions  of  life.    See  Nidification. 

Causes  op  Metamorphosis.  These  are  obscure, 
but  it  is  plain  that  the  different  stages  are  ex- 
aggerated or  pronounced  periods  in  the  growth 
of  the  animal,  and  that  the  fundamental  causes 
are  the  same  as  those  which  have  initiated  and 
controlled  the  origin  of  species.  This  is  plainly 
seen  in  aquatic  larvae,  the  young  of  forms  whose 
larvse  were  originally  terrestrial.  The  number- 
less contrivances  and  temporary  larval  organs, 
especially  seen  in  dipterous  larvae,  are  evidently 
adaptations  to  the  needs  of  the  insect  during  its 
temporary  aquatic  life,  these  being  cast  aside 
when  the  animals  pass  to  a  different  medium. 

Bibliography.  Weismann,  "Die  nachembry- 
onale  Entwicklung  der  Musciden,"  in  Zeitschrift 
fur  ioiasenschaftliche  Zoologie,  vol.  xiv.  (1864)  ; 
Korschelt  and  Heider,  Text-hook  of  the  Embry- 
ology of  Invertebrates  (London,  1895-1900)  ;  Lulb- 
bock,  The  Metamorphoses  of  Insects  (ib.,  1874)  ; 
Packard,  Text-book  of  Entomology  (New  York, 
1898). 

METAMOBPHOSIS  (in  plants).  Goethe's 
doctrine  which  seeks  to  account  for  the  observed 
connection  between  the  different  organs  of  a  leafy 
nature  in  the  same  plant,  and  chiefly  developed 
and  applied  to  what  may  be  called  foliar  organs. 
The  stem  came  into  consideration  only  as  carry- 
ing leaves,  and  the  root  was  almost  entirely  disre- 
garded. The  theory  assumes  for  foliar  structures 
an  ideal  fundamental  organ,  from  which  different 
leaf  forms  could  be  derived.  In  its  applica- 
tion this  ideal  form  came  to  mean  to  most 
botanists  an  ordinary  foliage  leaf,  and  foliar 
structures  have  been  in  the  main  presented  from 
this  standpoint.  For  example,  the  parts  of  the 
flower  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  modified  or 
metamorphosed  leaves;  and  when  petals  or  sta- 
mens are  abnormally  replaced  by  foliage-like 
structures  they  are  said  to  revert  to  the  primi- 
tive condition  and  to  prove  derivation  from  leaves 
by  modification.  Morphology  long  ago  disproved 
this  idealistic  metamorphosis,  and  it  does  not  re- 


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878 


METASTASIO. 


gard  the  occasional  replacement  of  a  usual  organ 
by  an  unusual  one  as  any  argument  in  favor  of 
such  a  view.  Consult  Sachs,  Oesohichte  der 
Botanxk  vom  16,  Jahrhunderi  lis  1860  (Munich, 
1875),  trans,  by  Garnsey   (Oxford,  1890). 

METAPHOB  (Gk.  fi£Ta</>opd,  meiaphora,  a 
transference).  A  figure  of  speech  by  means  of 
which  one  thing  is  put  for  another  which  it  only 
resembles.  Thus,  the  Psalmist  speaks  of  God's 
law  as  being  ^'a  light  to  his  feet  and  a  lamp  to 
his  path."  The  metaphor  is  a  kind  of  comparison 
in  which  the  speaker  or  writer,  casting  aside  the 
circumlocution  of  the  ordinary  similitude,  seeks 
to  attain  his  end  at  once  by  boldly  identifying 
his  illustration  with  the  thing  illustrated. 

METAPHYSICS  (Lat.  metaphysica,  from 
Gk.  /ierd  rd  ipwrucd,  meta  ta  phyaika,  following 
the  physics;  because  of  the  position  this  subject 
occupied  in  Aristotle's  collected  works).  The 
name  given  to  the  science  which  deals  with  ulti- 
mate reality.  Metaphysics  or  ontology  is  a 
term  used  to  designate  a  branch  of  philosophy, 
but  much  difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to 
the  precise  character  and  function  of  this  philo- 
sophic discipline,  and  even  as  to  its  possibility. 
Its  possibility  naturally  depends  upon  its  task 
and  scope.  According  to  the  older  view,  meta- 
physics had  to  do,  not  with  the  world  of  experi- 
ence, but  with  a  metempirical  world — i.e.  a  world 
other  than  the  world  of  experience,  and  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  more  real  than  the  latter. 
But  there  are  many,  especially  in  modern  times, 
who  take  a  different  view  of  the  task  of  meta- 
physics. They  regard  it  as  a  science  dealing  with 
the  world  of  experience  as  every  other  science 
does,  but  studying  that  world  with  a  view  to 
answering  certain  questions  which  the  so-called 
natural  sciences  do  not  raise.  The  natural  sci- 
ences take  up  certain  isolated  aspects  of  ex- 
perienced reality,  and  by  means  of  this  speciali- 
zation are  able  to  obtain  much  more  detailed 
knowledge.  But  this  knowledge  does  not  pretend 
to  go  beyond  appearances.  The  Question  is  al- 
ways left  open  wnether  after  all  tne  things  may 
not  be  a  surface  show  while  true  being  lies  below 
in  unfathomable  deeps.  This  question  some  mod- 
em metaphysicians  take  up  and  claim  to  answer 
in  the  negative,  not  dogmatically,  but  scientifical- 
ly. According  to  this  school  the  proper  point 
of  departure  for  metaphysical  inquiry  is  the 
epistemological  conclusion  that  knowledge  and 
reality  are  two  sides  of  one  and  the  same  con- 
crete experience.  ( See  Knowledge,  Theory  of.  ) 
Any  attempt  to  divorce  reality  from  knowledge 
involves  the  logical  fallacy  of  supposing  that 
what  is  always  validated  to  us  by  experience 
can  be  sundered  from  experience  and  yet  remain 
real.  The  error  is  of  the  same  kind  as  would  be 
committed  by  one  who  should  say  that  because 
color  and  extension  are  distinguishable,  therefore 
color  can  exist  when  separated  from  extension. 
According  to  this  school,  metaphysics  is  the  sci- 
ence which  draws  conclusions  as  to  the  nature 
of  reality  from  the  scientific  findings  of  epis- 
temology.  As  epistemology  is  an  experiential 
and  inductive  science,  metaphysics  is  based  on 
experience;  it  is  not  an  attempt  to  spin  cobwebs 
in  the  brain.  Among  metaphysical  problems  are 
those  as  to  the  nature  of  cause  (see  Causality), 
of  time  and  space  (q.v.),  of  substance  (q.v.), 
of  infinity  (see  Infinite),  of  the  absolute  (q.v.), 
of  the  freedom  of  the  will   (see  Determinism), 


of  mechanism  and  teleology  (q.v.),  of  monism 
and  pluralism  (q.v.),  and  of  the  relation  be- 
tween mind  and  body.     See  Dualism  and  Ma- 

TEBIALISM. 

As  Ktilpe  has  remarked,  the  bibliography  of 
metaphysics  is  that  of  philosophy  (q.v.)  itself. 
Some  systematic  treatises  on  the  subject  may 
be  mentioned  here:  Deussen,  Elemente  der  Met<i- 
physik  (Aix-la-Chapelle,  1877;  2d  ed.  1890;  Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1894) ;  Dietrich,  Orundzuge  der 
Metaphysik  (Freiburg,  1885)  ;  Bowne,  Metaphys- 
ics (2d  ed..  New  York,  1895)  ;  Ladd,  A  Theory 
of  Reality  (ib.,  1899)  ;  Lotze,  System  der  Philoso- 
phie,  part  ii.,  Metaphysik  (Leipzig,  1879;  Eng. 
trans.,  Oxford,  1884,  1887);  Bradley,  Appear- 
ance and  Reality  (2d  ed.,  London,  1897).  See 
also  Philosophy  and  its  bibliography. 

MET'APON^TJIC,     or     METAPONTITJK. 

(Lat.,  from  Gk.  "ileraxdyrtoVy  Metapontion),  An 
ancient  city  of  Magna  Grsecia,  Italy,  24  miles 
from  Tarentum  and  14  from  Heraclea.  It  was 
founded  at  the  instigation  of  the  Sybarites,  who 
wished  to  check  the  advance  of  Tarentum,  by 
Achaean  and  probably  Messenian  emi^ants,  early 
in  the  seventh  century  b.c.  To  this  place  the 
philosopher  Pythagoras  was  said  to  have  retired, 
and  here  his  tomb  was  shown.  In  B.C.  415  we  find 
the  inhabitants  allies  of  the  Athenians  in  their 
invasion  of  Sicily,  and  for  some  time  previous 
the  town  had  evidently  been  in  a  condition  of 
constantly  increasing  prosperity.  .  In  the  wars 
waged  against  Rome  by  Pyrrhus  and  Hannibal, 
the  Metapontines  were  hostile  to  the  Imperial  city. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  of  Pyrrhus  they  were  sub- 
jugated completely  by  the  Romans,  but  in  B.c. 
212  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  yoke  by  ad- 
mitting the  Carthaginians.  After  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Carthaginians  the  city  was  deserted,  and 
soon  fell  into  ruin.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the 
modern  railway  station  are  some  remains  of 
ancient  temples,  and  excavation  has  brought  to 
light  some  inscriptions  and  architectural  frag- 
ments. Consult  Lacava,  Topografia  e  storia  di 
Metaponto  (Naples,  1891). 

METAB^GON  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /urd, 
meta,  after  -|-  Eng.  argon).  A  name  applied  by 
Ramsay  to  what  he  erroneously  thought  to  be  a 
new  chemical  element  contained  in  minute  quanti- 
ties in  atmospheric  air. 

METASTASIO,  mt'tk-sWzA-6  (originally 
Tbapassi),  Pietbo  (1698-1782).  One  of  Italy's 
most  admired  poets.  He  was  bom  at  Rome, 
January  13,  1698,  of  humble  parents,  and  gave 
early  evidence  of  his  genius  by  his  boyish  im- 
provisations. Metastasio  having  attracted  the 
casual  notice  of  Gravina,  a  famous  jurisconsult 
of  the  day,  the  latter  undertook  the  entire  educa- 
tion and  career  of  the  youth,  whose  paternal 
name  of  Trapassi  had  thenceforward  the  Greek 
form  Metastasio.  In  1724  he  published  one  of 
his  most  celebrated  dramas,  La  Dione  dhhando- 
nata,  which,  with  II  Catone  and  II  Siroe,  conferred 
on  the  poet  a  European  name.  In  1730  Meta- 
stasio accepted  the  post  of  Court  poet  at  Vienna. 
During  his  sojourn  in  Vienna  Metastasio  com- 
posed his  Giuseppe  riconosciuto,  II  Demofoonte, 
and  the  Olimpiade.  Among  the  best  of  his  pieces 
are  the  melodramas  Clemenza  di  Tito  (1734) 
and  Attilio  Regolo,  this  latter  being  usually 
considered  his  masterpiece.  He  died  at  Vienna, 
April    12,    1782.     Metastasio   was   distinguished 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HSTA8TASI0. 


374 


M^AYES. 


for  the  generosity,  integrity,  and  candor  of  hia 
nature.  His  works  enjoy  unexampled  popu- 
larity among  all  grades  of  his  countrymen;  in 
their  pure  classical  subjects  and  forms  the  edu- 
cated student  finds  instruction  and  delij^t,  while 
their  facile  musical  grace  and  verbal  simplicity 
adapt  them  to  the  popular  appreciation.  They 
were  translated  into  many  languages  and  set  to 
music  by  celebrated  composers.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  Metastasio  is  that  ol  Paris  (12  vols., 
17S0),  with  useful  supplements  in  the  Opere 
pogtwne  (Viemia,  1796),  and  in  the  Floren- 
tine editions  of  1820  and  1826.  Consult:  Ver- 
non Lee,  Studies  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  in 
Italy  (1880);  Mussafia,  Pietro  Metastasio  (Vi- 
enna, 1882)  ;  Carducci,  Letiere  disperse  e  inedite 
di  Pietro  Metastasio  (Bologna,  1883);  Antona- 
Traversi,  Lettere  inedite  e  disperse  di  Pietro 
MetastasiOy  con  un*  appendioe  (Rome,  1886) ;  O. 
Tommasini,  "Pietro  Metastasio  e  lo  svolgimento 
del  melodramma  italiano,"  in  his  Scritti  di  storia 
e  critica  (ib.,  1891)  ;  Masi,  "Pietro  Metastasio," 
in  his  Parrucche  e  Banculotti  nel  secolo  XVIIL 
(Milan,  1886). 

HETAS^ASIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  furd- 
trraaic,  removal,  change,  from  /u$i<jT6vaty  methi- 
Stanaif  to  remove,  change  place,  from  ftrrA^  meta, 
after  -j-  ^r<iva*,  histanai,  to  place,  stand).  A 
change  in  the  seat  of  a  disease  from  one  part  of 
the  body  to  another.  Rheumatism  and  gout  are 
examples.  Muscular  rheumatism  is  more  or  less 
.  movable,  changing  from  one  set  of  muscles  to  an- 
other. Arthritic  rheiunatism  is  more  liable  to 
change  persistently  from  one  joint  to  another,  or 
it  may  pass  to  an  analogous  tissue  in  another 
kind  of  organ,  as  to  the  serous  membranes  of  the 
heart,  or  pericardium.  Gout  is  well  known  for 
its  flights  from  one  point  to  another.  A  gouty 
manifestation,  such  as  eczema,  may  disappear 
and  be  replaced  by  an  attack  of  asthma.  In 
mumps  (q.v.)  metastasis  may  take  place  to  the 
ovaries  in  girls  or  to  the  testicles  in  boys,  with 
resulting  ovaritis  or  orchitis  respectivelv.  In 
abscess,  metastasis  may  take  place  to  distant 
points  as  a  joint  or  the  kidneys.  The  courses  of 
metastasis  are  obscure. 

ME^A  Sira)ANS  (Lat.,  dripping  goal).  A 
great  fountain  facing  the  Coliseum  at  Rome, 
said  to  have  been  erected  by  Domitian  and  com- 
pleted in  A.D.  97.  Representations  on  medals  and 
references  in  literature,  however,  seem  to  indicate 
that  Domitian  enlarged  a  foimtain  already  in 
existence.  Its  name  was  given  from  its  shape, 
which  represented  the  goal  of  a  circus.  Only  the  ' 
partially  restored  brick  interior  of  the  fountain 
remains. 

MET^ATHEOEtlA  (Neo-Lat  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  furd,  meta,  after  -|-  Otjfuov^  therion,  diminu- 
tive of  6^p,  thSr,  wild  beast).  The  order  Marsu- 
pialia,  or  marsupial  mammals.  In  the  classi- 
fication of  the  Mammalia  prepared  by  Huxley 
{Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London, 
1880),  the  marsupials  were  placed  in  a  class 
*Metatheria'  (compare  Didelphia),  between  the 
Prototheria,  or  monotremes,  below  them,  and  the 
Eutheria,  or  ordinary  mammals,  above  them,  and 
equivalent  to  both  in  rank.  He  enumerated  eleven 
characters  as  distinguishing  the  Metatheria  and 
giving  it  the  rank  he  proposed.  Subsequent  in- 
vestigations, however,  have  shown  the  invalidity 
of  some  of  the  supposed  facts  relied  upon,  and  the 
preponderance  of  evidence  that  the  marsupials 


cannot  be  separated  from  the  higher  mammals 
by  any  such  a  gap  as  separates  them  from 
the  Prototheria.  The  term  Metatheria  is  now 
retained,  therefore,  only  as  the  designation  of  a 
section  of  the  subclass  Eutheria  embracing  the 
marsupials.  Consult  Beddard,  Mammalia  (Lon- 
don, 1902). 

METAUBU8,  m^tft'rfis  (It.  Meiauro).  A 
small  river  of  Central  Italy,  emptying  into  the 
Adriatic,  4  miles  south  of  Fano  (Map:  Italy, 
G  4) .  It  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Hasdrubal, 
brother  of  Hannibal,  by  Caius  Nero  and  Marcus 
Livius  in  b.c.  207. 

]fl±TAYEB,  mA'ti'yft'  (Fr.  m4tayer,  farmer 
who  tills  the  land  for  half  the  produce).  An 
agricultural  tenant  who  works  the  land  with 
capital  owned  by  the  landlord,  and  pays  as  rental 
a  fixed  proportion  of  the  crop.  It  may  in  general 
be  said  to  be  the  resource  of  a  conmiunity  where 
cultivators  are  without  capital.  In  the  United 
States  such  a  system  of  renting  land  on  shares 
prevails  mainly  in  the  South,  but  as  time  pro- 
gresses money  rents  are  substituted  more  and  more 
for  share  rents,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  natural 
tendency  where  the  economic  position  of  the  ten- 
ants improves.  The  system  of  metayage  is  still 
very  common  in  Italy,  parts  of  Austria  and  Rus- 
sia, and  in  Portugal  and  in  the  West  Indies.  It 
is,  however,  less  common  at  present  than  it  was 
formerly,  the  system  of  leasing  land  for  a  cash 
rental  tending  to  displace  it  as  agricultural  capi- 
tal becomes  more  plentiful.  Metayage  is  a  sys- 
tem which  possesses  marked  social  advantages, 
but  equally  marked  economic  disadvantages.  The 
metayer  cannot  be  rack-rented;  bad  seasons  can- 
not drive  him  into  bankruptcy;  the  increase  in 
value  of  produce  due  to  improved  means  of  trans- 
portation redound  to  his  advantage  as  well  as  to 
that  of  the  landlord.  Metayage,  therefore,  tends 
to  create  a  class  of  peasantry  who  are  in  large 
measure  independent  of  the  price  movements 
which  are  so  great  a  source  of  anxiety  to  the 
small  farmer  who  is  compelled  to  make  periodic 
money  payments  for  rent.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  slight  inducement  for  either  meta- 
yer or  landowner  to  make  improvements,  since 
(Hie-half  of  the  resulting  increase  in  product  goes 
to  the  other  party  on  the  division  of  the  crop. 
Metayage  has  for  this  reason  tended  to  perpetu- 
ate primitive  conditions  of  agriculture.  This 
evil  is,  however,  not  necessarily  inherent  in  the 
system,  since  it  would  be  quite  possible  for  land- 
owner and  metayer  to  unite  in  making  improve- 
ments, and  this  practice  is  not  uncommon  in 
France.  It  is  also  possible  to  make  an  agree- 
ment as  to  a  separate  return  for  the  capital  in- 
vested. The  economic  disadvantages  of  divided 
responsibility  would  still  remain,  and  for  this 
reason  metayage  can  hardly  survive  in  highly  ad- 
vanced economic  conditions.  Its  existence  in  so 
large  a  part  of  Europe  is  probably  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  persistency  of  custom  among  the 
agricultural  population.  See  Cruveilhier,  Etude 
sur  le  metayage  (Paris,  1894).  An  excellent  ac- 
count of  the  system  in  practice  is  to  be  found  in 
Higgs,  "Metayage  in  Western  France,"  in  Eco- 
nomic Journal  ( March,  1894 ) .  See  also  article  on 
"M(itayage"  in  Palgrave,  Dictionary  of  Political 
Economy.  The  standard  works  on  political  econ- 
omy usually  devote  some  attention  to  the  merits 
of  Wtaya^.  Consult:  Especially,  Adam  Smith, 
Wealth' of  Nations;  Mill,  Political  Economy. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


METAZOA. 


875 


METELLTTB. 


KET'AZCyA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi,  from  Gk. 
^irrd,  meta,  after  -|-  ^fov,  z6on,  animal).  The 
name  applied  to  all  the  animals  above  the  Proto- 
BM.  Tne  animal  kingdom  is  thus  subdivided  into 
two  divisions,  namely,  the  Protozoa,  or  one-celled 
animals,  and  the  Metazoa,  or  many-celled  ani- 
mals. The  latter  include  all  the  branches  or 
phyla  of  the  animal  kingdom  from  the  sponges 
(Porifera)  to  the  Vertebrata.  Each  metazoan, 
however,  develops  froip  a  single  cell,  the  egg. 

The  Metazoa  have  been  defined  as  ''Animals  in 
which  the  ordinary  (so-called  adult)  form  of  the 
species  has  always  more  than  one  nucleus,  and 
in  which  the  nuclei  are  for  the  most  part  ar- 
ranged regularly  and  with  a  definite  relation  to 
the  functional  tissues  of  the  animal  (so-called 
'cellular  arrangement').  Special  conjugating  in- 
dividuals of  the  form  of  ova  and  spermatozoa 
are  always  formed."  Metazoa  reproduce  by  ova 
and  spermatozoa.  These  reproductive  products 
originate  by  a  process  of  unequal  fission  from 
their  parent,  and  .may  both  be  produced  by  one 
or  different  individuals.  When  they  are  both 
produced  by  the  same  individual,  that  individual 
is  said  to  be  hermaphrodite.  When  they  are  pro- 
duced by  different  individuals,  that  parent  giv- 
ing rise  to  the  egg  is  called  female,  and  that 
producing  sperm  cells  or  spermatozoa  is  called 
the  male,  and  the  individuals  are  said  to  be  'uni- 
aexual'  and  the  species  ^dioecious.'  In  certain 
forms,  probably  under  given  conditions  of  food 
or  temperature,  the  ova  may  develop  without 
being  fertilized  by  a  sperm  cell,  the  process  being 
call^ 'parthenogenesis*  (q.v.).  Reproduction  by 
ova  and  spermatozoa  is  called  'sexual  reproduc- 
tion,' and  that  by  parthenogenesis  'asexual  re- 
production.' Consult  Bourne,  The  Coelomaie 
Metazoa  (London  and  New  York,  1901).  See 
Classification  qf  Animals. 

MET'CAIiFEy  Ohables  TBCOPmLUS,  Baron 
(1785-1846).  A  British  statesman,  bom  in  Cal- 
cutta, India.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to 
England,  where  he  was  educated  in  a  pre- 
paratory school  at  Bromley,  and  then  at  Eton. 
After  holding  various  other  positions,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Supreme  Council  of 
India  in  1827,  and  from  1835  to  1836  was  Pro- 
visional Govemor-CjcneraL  He  was  next  made 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  Northwest  Prov- 
inces, but  resigned  in  1838  and  returned  to  Eng- 
land. The  next  year  he  was  sent  out  as  Gov- 
ernor of  Jamaica,  where  he  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing about  better  relations  between  the  planters 
and  the  emancipated  blacks.  In  1842  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  the  next  year  was  made 
Governor-General  of  Canada,  where  he  soon  came 
into  conflict  with  the  Executive  Council  and  the 
Representative  Assembler.  In  consequence  of  his 
refusal  to  admit  their  right  to  be  consulted  about 
official  appointments,  all  the  members  of  the 
Council  save  one  resigned,  and  for  some  time 
he  was  without  a  full  Council;  but  in  the  elec- 
tion of  November,  1844,  the  GJovemment  received 
a  small  majority,  and  he  was  able  to  fill  the 
vacancies  with  men  of  his  own  views.  In  1845 
he  was  created  Baron  Metcalfe  of  Fern  Hill,  but 
in  the  same  year  an  incurable  disease  forced  him 
to  return  to  England,  where  he  died.  Consult 
Kaye,  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Charles,  Lord 
Metcalfe  (rev.  ed.,  London,  1858). 

KBTCAIiPEy  Frederick  (1815-85).  An 
English  scholar  and  educator.    He  graduated  at 


Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1838,  and 
was  elected  fellow  of  Lincoln  Colle^,  Oxford. 
In  1848  he  became  head-master  of  Brighton  Col- 
lege, an  institution  founded  in  1847  for  the  sons 
of  noblemen.  In  1844  he  published  a  translation 
of  Professor  W.  A.  Bekker's  Oallus,  with  notes 
and  excursus,  considered  of  great  historical  value 
(2d  ed.  1853).  In  1845  followed  his  trans- 
lation of  Bekker's  Charicles,  a  tale  similarly  il- 
lustrative of  private  life  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  also  with  notes  and  excursus.  He  pub- 
lished a  History  of  German  Literature  (1858)  ; 
The  Oiponian  in  Nortcay  (1856) ;  and  The  Owo- 
nian  in  Iceland  ( 1861 ) . 

METCHNTEOFF^  mfich'nl-kdf,  Iijya  (1845 
— ).  A  Russian  embryologist  and  cytologist, 
bom  in  the  Province  of  Kharkov,  May  15,  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  Kharkov,  and  afterwards 
studied  at  Giessen  and  at  Munich.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  zoology  at  Odessa  in 
1870,  but  resigned  in  1882  to  devote  himself 
to  private  researches.  In  1884,  as  the  result  of 
work  on  sponges  and  polvps,  he  published  an 
epoch-making  memoir  on  the  intracellular  diges- 
tion of  invertebrates.  He  found  that  the  in- 
dividual cells  of  sponges  took  in  solid  particles 
of  food  and  digested  them  in  order  to  provide 
material  for  tlie  growth  of  the  young;  and  he 
saw  the  amoeba-like  eggs  of  a  polyp  (Tubularia) 
eat  and  digest  the  neighboring  follicular  cells. 
He  also  established  the  fact  that  certain  wander- 
ing amoeboid  cells  attack,  ingest,  or  absorb  parts 
of  the  body  which  become  either  useless  or  septic 
and  thus  harmful  to  the  organism ;  and  even  hard 
objects,  as  also  microbes  or  disease  germs  and 
the  bacteria  which  have  entered  a  wound.  He 
called  these  microbe-eaters  'phagocytes'  (q.v.). 
He  boldly  (1884)  threw  out  the  remarkable 
theory  that  inflammation  in  the  vertebrates  is 
due  to  the  struggle  between  the  white  or  amoeboid 
corpuscles  of  the  blood  and  the  disease  germs 
within  it.  He  went  to  Paris,  became  chef -de- 
service  in  Pasteur's  Institute  in  1892,  and  at  the 
death  of  Pasteur  in  1895  succeeded  him  as  the 
director  of  the  Pasteur  Institute.  Metchnikoff 
has  shown  the  value  of  and  the  close  relation 
between  studies  in  the  development  of  the 
lower  animals  and  physiological  and  medical 
studies  and  practice.  His  chief  later  works 
are:  "Untersuchungen  tiber  die  intracelluiare 
Verdauung  bei  wirbellosen  Thieren,"  in  Arbeiten 
aus  dem  zoologischen  Institut  der  Unit^ersitdt 
Wien,  vol.  v.  ( 1883;  ib.,  1884)  ;  "Ueber  die  Bezie- 
hung  der  Phagocyten  zu  Milzbrandbacillen/'  in 
Virchow's  Archiv  fur  pathologische  Anatomic  und 
Physiologie,  etc.,  xcvii.,  p.  502  (1884;  ib.,  1892)  ; 
LcQons  sur  la  pathologic  compar^e  de  Vinflam- 
mation  (Paris,  1892);  Immunity  in  Infective 
Diseases  (Eng.  trans.  1905). 

ICETEI/LUS.  The  name  of  a  Roman  family 
of  the  plebeian  gens  CaKiilia,  which  rose  to  be  one 
of  the  first  families  of  the  Roman  nobility.  One 
of  the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  family 
was  QuiNTUS  C.«:ciLius  Metellus  Macedonicus, 
who  received  his  surname  from  his  victory  over 
Andriscus,  a  claimant  to  the  throne  of  Macedonia 
(B.C.  148).  His  life  was  considered  by  ancient 
writers  an  example  of  the  greatest  felicity.  He 
died  B.C.  115.— -QiTiNTUS  C.^ctlius  Metellus 
NuMTDicus  twice  defeated  Jugurtha  in  Numidia 
(B.C.  108) ,  but  was  superseded  in  his  command  by 
Marius.     He   was  celebrated   for   his   integrity. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METELLUS. 


876 


METEMPSYCHOSI& 


His  son,  QmwTUS  C^cilius  Metkllus,  sur- 
named  Piu8,  joined  Sulla  in  b.o.  83,  but  sought 
to  moderate  the  severity  of  his  proscriptions.  Be, 
too,  bore  a  distinguished  character  for  virtue. — 
QuiNTUS  CiECii.ius  IklETELLUs  Creticus  con- 
quered Crete,  and  reduced  it  to  a  Roman  province 
(B.C.  67). — QiTiNTUS  C^ciuus  Metellus  Pius 
SciPio,  sometimes  called  Quintus  Scipio,  and 
sometimes  Scipio  Metellus,  was  a  son  of  Pub- 
lius  Cornelius  Scipio,  who  was  adopted  by  one 
of  the  Metelli,  and  became  the  father-in-law  of 
Pompey,  and  his  zealous  partisan.  He  com- 
manded under  him  at  Pharsalia,  maintained  war 
on  his  behalf  for  some  time  in  Africa,  and  after 
the  battle  of  Trapsus  (b.c.  46)  died  by  his  own 
hand. 

METEMTSYCHCXSIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Merc/^ 
yjf^X^^^h  fro™  fiercfjal/vxodyf  metempsychoun,  to 
make  the  soul  pass  from  one  body  to  another, 
from  m/to,  meta,  over  +  i/jol/vxoOv,  empsychoun,  to 
animate,  f rom  l/A^a/x<*')  empsychos,  animate,  from 
ivy  en,  in  -h  /^x^Ji  psychly  soul ) .  Transmigration 
of  souls,  or,  more  accurately,  the  reincorporation 
of  a  soul.  In  a  crude  form  this  is  the  usual  belief 
of  all  animistic  forms  of  religion,  and  is  not  a 
religious,  but  a  philosophical  opinion.  That  is  to 
say,  it  is  not  believed  that  any  religious  factors, 
such  as  the  state  of  the  soul,  or  the  will  of  the 
deity,  decide  the  soul's  fate,  but  that  every  soul 
necessarily  finds  another  habitation  after  death 
in  a  body  similar  to  the  one  it  has  just  quitted 
or  has  been  accustomed  to  occupy.  To  the  primi- 
tive mind  the  soul  is  air,  breath,  and  at  death 
disappears  from  one  body  either  to  be  lost  in 
general  air  or  to  hold  together,  as  before,  sepa- 
rated from  other  air  and  screened  by  a  new 
body.  But  as  any  soul  during  a  man's  life  mav 
enter  at  will  the  body  of  a  beast,  so  after  death 
the  soul  of  the  departed  may  find  shelter  either 
in  a  man's  body  or  in  the  frame  of  a  beast.  Some 
savages  believe  that  at  the  instant  when  one  dies 
one's  soul  enters  a  new  body.  Others  believe  that 
the  spirit  can  remain  for  some  time  disembodied, 
and  that  it  seeks  reincarnation,  not  from  neces- 
sity, but  for  pleasure.  At  the  same  time  it  is  be- 
lieved that  souls  may  take  quite  different  habita- 
tions, such  as  trees,  streams,  and  stars,  sometimes 
remaining  there  forever,  and  sometimes  descend- 
ing or  ascending  to  be  bom  again.  The  next  stage 
is  where  this  animistic  belief  appears  sporadical- 
ly in  a  much  more  developed  environment  and  is 
evidently  a  reversion.  Thus  in  the  midst  of  the 
nature-gods  of  the  Teutons  we  find  once  in  legend 
and  often  in  folk-lore  a  reversion  to  the  belief 
that  men  are  often  liable  to  be  reborn  on  earth 
either  in  human  or  in  animal  bodies.  Sometimes  no 
rebirth  is  necessary,  but  the  soul  leaps  from  one 
body  and  drives  out  the  soul  of  the  animal  whose 
body  it  enters.  All  these  beliefs,  more  or  less 
confused  and  vague,  but  persistent  through  va- 
rious stages  of  social  development,  are  found  in 
Europe,  India,  Asia,  and  America,  while  in  Af- 
rica, where  very  little  social  change  has  taken 
place,  and  in  Polynesia,  where  the  same  holds 
good,  it  may  be  said  to  be  in  its  crudest  form 
the  usual  faith  of  the  people. 

Quite  different  are  the  complex  systems  of 
metempsychosis  built  upon  this  animistic  basis. 
Three  such  systems  are  known.  The  latest  in 
time,  that  of  the  Greeks,  has  been  derived  by 
various  scholars  from  the  Egyptian  system  on 
the  one  hand,  and  from  the  Hindu  system  on  the 
other.    Others  hold  that  it  was  indigenous.    The 


correct  opinion  must  be  based  upon  considera- 
tions often  neglected  in  the  discussion.  These 
are,  first,  that  the  Greek  belief  differs  essentially 
from  both  the  Hindu  and  Egyptian  systems ;  sec- 
ond, that  Pythagoras  traveled  in  the  East,  but 
did  not  invent  the  notions  nor  borrow  the  plan 
of  his  own  system;  third,  that  metempsychosis 
to  the  Greeks  was  always  as  a  system  a  matter 
of  poetry  and  philosophy,  whereas  in  India  and 
in  Egypt  it  was  a  national  belief.  Herodotus  says 
that  the  Greek  system  was  derived  from  the 
Egyptian;  but  he  adds  that  the  Greeks  have 
made  it  their  own,  and  in  this  he  is  probably 
right.  The  chief  differences  between  the  three 
systems  are  as  follows:  The  Hindu  system  is 
an  outgrowth  from  a  general  belief  in  transmi- 
gration of  souls.  There  was  at  first  no  notion 
of  retribution  connected  with  this  belief.  The 
soul  that  sinned  perished.  The  good  soul  per- 
sisted in  a  new  body,  or,  if  it  chose,  lived  in 
heaven  in  a  *body  of  light'  About  the  seventh 
century  B.C.,  however,  arose  the  doctrine  of  Kar- 
ma (q.v.),  which  turns  this  belief  into  a  system 
based  on  morality.  According  to  this  system,  the 
soul  is  doomed  to  expiate  by  future  rebirths  in 
low  forms  of  life  the  sins  committed  in  this  life. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  highly  moral  life  results 
in  one  being  reborn  in  a  higher  plane,  either  as 
an  aristocrat,  a  king,  or  a  priest,  or  even  as  a 
godling.  By  incessant  and  unrelaxing  endeavors 
in  every  new  birth  a  soul  may,  however,  finally 
reach  emancipation,  and  become  pure  and  one 
with  God,  no  longer  to  be  reborn.  In  this  sys- 
tem the  length  of  the  series  of  rebirths  depends 
wholly  upon  Uie  individual,  who  works  out  his  own 
salvation  by  his  own  acts.  As  Buddhism  denies 
the  existence  of  a  soul,  metempsychosis  in  India  is 
confined  to  Hinduism.  But  Buddhism  had  an 
analogous  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  char- 
acter-entities, also  conditioned  by  acts,  ending,  if 
at  all,  in  Nirvana,  unconscious  existence  or  ex- 
tinction of  personality  resulting  from  extinction 
of  desire,  volition,  the  animating  principle  in 
Buddhistic  psychology.  The  Egyptian  system 
puts  a  term  of  years  to  the  series  of  rebirths. 
Further,  the  soul  at  the  end  of  this  series  of 
three  thousand  years  returns  to  its  first  cor- 
poral environment,  an  idea  not  found  in  India. 
Again,  what  was  sporadic  in  India,  namely,  the 
termination  of  the  series  by  divine  favor,  is  cus- 
tomary, according  to  the  Egyptian  doctrine.  But 
the  third  difference  between  the  two  systems  is 
most  important.  In  Egypt,  namely,  metempsycho- 
sis is  not  the  fate  of  the  good,  but  of  the  sinful, 
the  good  being  united  with  Osiris,  and  even  this 
is  only  very  generally  true,  for  the  sinful  are 
simply  deprived  of  union  with  the  good,  while 
even  the  good  may,  if  they  will,  continue  on  the 
round  of  existences,  or  if  they  prefer  may  live 
in  Elysium.  So,  too,  in  the  Greek  system,  the 
Elysian  fields  are  the  reward  of  the  good,  but 
transmigration  is  here  the  necessary  consequence 
of  sin.  Moreover,  both  in  India  and  in  Greece 
the  whole  system  of  metempsychosis  was  crossed 
by  the  belief  in  hell,  and  amalgamated  with  it 
rather  roughly.  In  India,  for  example,  the  soul 
first  expiates  its  sins  in  hell  and  then  enters 
upon  rebirth.  Roman  writers  adopted  the  Greek 
idea,  but  it  seems  to  have  taken  little  hold  on  the 
people  either  in  Greece  or  in  Rome. 

I^fetempsychoais  has  always  had  an  attraction 
for  some  minds.  It  has  even  been  attributed  in 
a  refined  form  to  Christ,  and  the  Church  fathers 


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METEMPSYCHOSIS. 


877 


METEOBOLOGT. 


were  not  uninfluenced  by  it,  just  as  the  Jewish 
rabbis  adopted  it  in  holding  that  Adam  was  re- 
incarnated as  David.  It  has  been  held  by  Chris- 
tian sects  at  various  times  since  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonists'  doctrine  was  received  by  the  Gnostics,  but 
always  in  the  form  of  a  belief  that  a  man's  soul 
has  preexisted  in  the  soul  of  some  previous  man; 
seldom  in  the  form  of  Hindu  belief,  that  an  ani- 
mal as  well  as  a  man  may  receive  the  soul  of  a 
man  that  has  just  died.  Consult:  Hopkins,  Re- 
ligions of  India  (Boston,  1895);  Wiedermann, 
The  Ancient  Egyptian  Doctrine  of  the  Immortal- 
ity of  the  fifoul  ( London,  1895)  ;  Zeller,  Qrundrisa 
der  Oeschichte  der  griechischen  Philosophic  ( 4th 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1893)  ;  Jevons,  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  Religion  (London,  1896). 
METEOBIC  STONE.     See  Aerolite. 

METEOBOLOGICAL  SOCIETY,  The  Roy- 
al. A  learned  association  established  in  1850 
and  incorporated  in  1866.  The  society  has  its 
headquarters  in  London.  The  objects  are  the 
promotion  of  meteorology  in  all  its  branches, 
and  the  record  of  data  and  theories  relating  to 
the  subject.  Its  membership  consists  of  fel- 
lows and  honorary  members,  the  latter  being 
foreigners  of  distinction.  The  two  quarterly 
publications  of  the  society  are  the  Quarterly 
Journal  and  the  Meteorologwal  Record. 

ME'TEOBOI/OGY  ( Gk.  uereopo^oyla^  nteteCr- 
ologia,  treatise  on  celestial  phenomena,  from 
fureupoXSyo^j  metedrologoa,  discussing  celestial 
phenomena,  from  fieriupov  meteOron,  meteor  4- 
Aiyc*v,  legein,  to  say).  The  study  of  the  at- 
mosphere and  its  phenomena.    Efforts  are  being 


telegraph  daily,  compile  weather  maps,  issue 
forecasts,  and  publish  weekly,  monthly,  or 
annual  climatological  summaries,  together  with 
frequent  special  meteorological  memoirs.  Among 
the  most  prominent  of  these,  on  account 
of  the  extent  of  their  territory  and  the  value 
of  their  publications,  are  those  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Russia,  India,  Argentine  Republic,  Canada, 
and  the  United  States.  The  total  annual  ex- 
penditure by  all  Grovernment  services  on  meteoro- 
logical work  is  not  less  than  three  million  dol- 
lars, to  which  should  be  added  an  equal  sum  to 
represent  the  great  amount  of  work  that  is  done 
without  pay  by  voluntary  observers.  Several 
private  meteorological  establishments  are  main- 
tained by  wealthy  lovers  of  science,  most  promi- 
nent among  which  are  those  of  Vallot,  on  Mont 
Blanc;  A.  Lawrence  Rotch  at  Blue  Hill,  near 
Boston;  L.  Teisserenc  de  Bort  at  Trappes,  near 
Paris.  There  are  also  numerous  municipal  ob- 
servatories, prominent  among  which  are  that  of 
the  New  York  City  Central  Park,  Dr.  Daniel 
Draper,  director,  and  those  of  Montsouris  and 
the  Tour  Saint  Jacques  in  Paris,  of  which  Dr.  J. 
Joubert  is  director.  Observatories  are  also  main- 
tained by  special  associations,  such  as  those  on 
the  Santis,  Austria,  the  Jesuit  observatories  of 
Saint  Holier,  Havana,  Zikawei,  Manila,  and  the 
one  recently  destroyed  at  Antananarivo,  in  Mada- 
gascar. Special  mention  should  be  made  of 
Symons's  British  Rainfall  System,  to  the  devel- 
opment of  which  his  life  was  devoted  and  the 
perpetuity  of  which  is  now  assured  by  the  terms 
of  nis  will.    Over  three  thousand  stations  are 


WKATHKB  MAP  FOR  SUNDAY,  APBIL  8,   1893,  8  A.M. 


made  by  every  civilized  nation  to  apply  to  the 
benefit  of  mankind  the  knowledge  we  possess 
of  meteorology,  especially  to  foretell  the  winds 
and  weather  from  day  to  day  and  the  general 
character  of  the  seasons  from  season  to  sea- 
son. About  fifty  official  governmental  weather 
bureaus  receive  reports  from  their  stations  by 


maintained  in  the  British  Isles.  Organized  sys- 
tems of  rainfall  stations  have  also  been  main- 
tained  in  Mauritius,  Jamaica,  Barbados,  An- 
tigua, and  Saint  Kitts. 

In  addition  to  its  material  progress  in  ob- 
servers and  apparatus,  theoretical  meteorology 
has  especially  profited  by  the  labors  of  eminent 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XETEOBOLOGY.  878 

physicists.  Those  who  have,  since  1850,  contrih- 
Uted  most  to  our  knowledge  of  the  mechanics  and 
physics  of  the  atmosphere  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows:  Adolph  Erman,  who  published  in  1868 
a  memoir  on  the  distribution  of  winds  and  pres- 
sure over  the  globe;  J.  C.  Redfield,  who  showed 
the  mechanism  of  extended  hurricanes;  James 
P.  Espy,  who  published  several  reports  and  a  vol- 
ume on  the  philosophy  of  storms,  explaining  in 
feneral  how  atmospheric  moisture,  by  its  con- 
ensation  into  cloud  and  rain,  disturbs  tne  equilib- 
rium of  the  atmosphere  and  produces  both  local 
and  general  storms;  William  Ferrel,  who  pub- 
lished numerous  papers  developing  the  laws  of 
the  motions  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  and  its 
general  and  local  phenomena  as  resulting  from 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  the  evapora- 
tion and  condensation  of  aqiieous  vapor,  ana  the 
general  influence  of  the  solar  heat;  Lord  Kelvin, 
who  first  gave  the  laws  of  thermal  convective 


ICETEOBOLOGY. 


Our  knowledge  of  meteorological  conditions  has 
been  obtained  for  the  most  part  by  observation 
of  the  clouds  or  by  stations  on  mountain  tops. 
More  recently  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  study 
conditions  at  considerable  altitudes  above  sta- 
tions and  places.  In  order  to  obtain  better  data 
for  the  lower  atmosphere,  at  least  partially 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  case,  Americans 
have  developed  the  art  of  obtaining  meteoro- 
graphic  records  by  sending  up  meteorographs  on 
kites  to  heights  of  one  or  two  miles ;  on  the  other 
hand,  Europeans  have  given  attention  to  the 
development  of  the  balloon  and  especially  the 
small  sounding  balloon  which  can  carry  a  meteor- 
ograph to  an  elevation  of  six  or  eight  miles  above 
sea  level,  where  man  cannot  live.  The  exposure 
of  meteorological  apparatus  so  that  the  records 
from  different  stations  on  the  earth's  surface  and 
from  vessels  on  the  ocean  and  from  kites  or 
balloons  in  the  atmosphere  shall  be  comparable 


WKATffBB  MAP  FOB  UONDAY,   APBIL.  4,  1892,  8  A.M. 


equilibrium  for  dry  air;  Peslin,  who  gave  the 
laws  of  thermal  equilibrium  for  moist  air;  Von 
Helmholtz,  Willy  Wien,  Oberbeck,  Guldberg  and 
Mohn,  Margules,  Diro  Kitao,  Rayleigh,  Pockels, 
Sprung,  and  F.  H.  Bigelow  have  made  important 
contributions  to  the  hydrodynamic  problems  of 
the  atmosphere;  Prof.  H.  Hertz,  W.  von  Bezold, 
and  Marcel  Brillouin  have  contributed  greatly 
to  the  perfection  of  our  knowledge  of  the  thermo- 
dynamic problems.  The  most  recent  contribu- 
tions in  this  field  include  that  of  Pockels,  on  the 
Theory  of  the  Formation  of  Rain  in  slowly  as- 
cending currents  of  moist  air  (see  Wiedemann's 
Annalen,  January,  1901)  ;  Prof.  F.  H.  Bigelow's 
tables  in  his  reports  on  International  Cloud 
Work  (Washin^on,  1900)  ;  his  report  on  Ba- 
rometry  (Washington,  1902)  ;  Neuhofl'^s  memoir 
on  Adiabatic  Changes  in  the  Atmosphere  (Ber- 
lin, 1900)  ;  Berson  and  Assmann's  Scientific  Bal- 
loon Ascensions,  3  vols.,  quarto  (Berlin,  1900)  ; 
all  which  respectively  contain  highly  important 
investigations. 


with  each  other  offers  many  difficult  problems, 
but  the  progress  toward  uniformity  throughout 
the  world  has  been  appreciable  during  the  past 
twenty-five  years.  Every  first-class  weather  serv"- 
ice  now  keeps  close  watch  of  the  condition  of 
its  apparatus  and  the  correctness  of  the  methods 
in  vogue  at  its  stations.  Although  much  remains 
to  be  done,  yet  the  contrast  between  the  condi- 
tion of  affairs  in  1850  and  that  in  1900  is  very 
great,  and  the  present  outlook  is  verj'  encourag- 
ing. 

In  some  cases  the  larger  portion  of  the  funds 
and  forces  of  a  weather  service  is  spent  upon 
observations  and  cliniatological  work,  but  in 
most  cases  the  daily  forecast  work  takes  prece- 
dence, since  that  promises  immediate  results  in 
saving  life  and  property.  In  order  to  carry  on 
this  work  properly,  numerous  stations  must  be 
connected  by  telegraph  with  the  central  bureau, 
at  which  several  simultaneous  observations  must 
be  received  daily  from  the  observers,  and  weather 
charts  must  be  promptly  made  out  showing  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METEOBOLOGY. 


879 


METEOBOLOGY. 


isobars,  isotherms,  state  of  the  wind  and  weather, 
moisture  and  clouds  over  a  large  region  of 
country.  The  accompanying  charts,  for  April 
3d,  8  A.M.,  and  4tb,  8  A.M.,  1892,  show  the  gen- 
eral character  of  such  daily  weather  maps;  they 
will  easily  be  understood  by  studying  the  respec- 
tive legends.  On  these  charts  the  reader  will 
see  the  development  of  a  storm  that  began  with 
an  area  of  low  pressure  in  Colorado  and  rapidly 
developed  into  the  great  storm  centre  shown  on 
Chart  2;  the  latter  then  passed  northeastward 
over  the  Lake  Region  and  the  Gulf  of  Saint 
Lawrence  and  was  followed  by  an  extensive  area 
of  clear  cool  weather  on  April  5th.  The  move- 
ments and  changes  of  storms  and  weather  will 
undoubtedly  be  fully  understood  only  in  propor- 
tion as  we  have  better  knowledge  of  the  facts  and 
of  the  mechanical  and  physical  laws  that  govern 
the  atmosphere,  but  their  approximate  prediction 
from  day  to  day  is  expected  and  demanded  by 
reason  of  the  many  interests  that  depend  upon  the 
wind,  temperature,  and  weather.  At  present  such 
forecasts  are  generally  based  on  the  evident  trend 
of  events,  as  shown  by  comparing  together  the 
two  or  three  latest  weather  maps,  and  in  part 
also  on  empirical  rules  or  generalizations,  based 
on  the  study  of  similar  types  of  maps  in  preced- 
ing years;  but  in  some  cases  also  one  may  be 
guided  in  part  by  general  physical  principles 
that  must  apply  to  the  case  m  hand.  The  gen- 
eralizations relative  to  storm  movements  for  the 
United  States,  that  is  to  say,  the  statistics  of 
storms,  have  been  presented  in  three  memoirs  by 
Prof.  Elias  Loomis,  and  printed  in  the  Memoira  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  Similar  data 
for  the  Northern  Hemisphere  as  a  whole  were 
published  in  1893  in  Bulletin  A  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau;  this  compilation  is 
mostly  the  work  of  Prof.  E.  B.  Garriott  and  is 
based  upon  ten  years  of  daily  maps  (1878  to 
1887),  originally  published  in  the  Bulletin  of 
International  Simultaneous  Observations,  In  this 
volume  the  paths  of  the  storm  centres  are  classi- 
fied by  different  types  and  displayed  on  charts 
that  show  the  frequency  with  which  storm  cen- 
tres pass  over  each  square  of  latitude  and  longi- 
tude. 

Charts  of  storm  paths  for  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Japan  have  been  published  by  Germany,  Russia, 
and  Japan  respectively,  and  monthly  charts  for 
the  United  States  have  been  published  regularly 
since  January,  1873.  By  means  of  these  charts 
one  may,  in  a  general  way,  anticipate  the  path 
and  velocity  of  a  storm  centre  when  once  it  has 
appeared  in  any  part  of  thfe  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere. In  the  Northern  Hemisphere  such  centres 
move  westward  when  they  lie  between  the  equator 
and  the  parallels  of  25**  or  30"  N.;  they  then 
curve  poleward  and  move  northeastward  with 
increasing  rapidity  toward  the  parallel  of  60°  or 
70*".  The  variations  from  this  general  rule  can 
best  be  understood  by  studying  the  charts  of 
storm  frequency.  A  similar  fule  holds  good  for 
the  Southern  Hemisphere,  substituting  only  south 
for  north.  But  little  is  known  about  the  tracks 
of  storms  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  region 
of  greatest  storm  frequency  extends  in  a  narrow 
belt  east  and  west  from  Lake  Superior  to  New- 
foundland and  its  prolongation  eastward  ends  in 
the  interior  of  Northern  Russia.  The  region  of 
next  greatest  storm  frequency  covers  the  islands 
of  Japan.  The  north  polar  region  of  cold  air, 
whose  tendency  is  to  flow  outward  toward  the 

Vou  XIII.— 26. 


equator,  is  inclosed  within  an  oval  curve  extend- 
ing from  Luzon  over  Japan,  Southern  Alaska, 
British  Columbia,  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
Newfoundland,  the  Hebrides,  Northern  Norway 
and  Sweden,  and  ending  in  Siberia  at  latitude 
60°  and  longitude  90°  east  of  Greenwich.  South 
of  this  oval  the  prevailing  winds  are  west  and 
southwest;  north  of  it  they  are  north  and  east 
in  the  stormy  season  of  the  year. 

The  great  whirls  that  we  call  general  storms 
occur  in  connection  with  these  polar  and  equa- 
torial currents,  but  not  necessarily  between 
them.  The  whirls  are  explained  as  partially  due 
to  mechanical  reactions  between  the  northern 
and  southern  currents,  but  they  are  not  merely 
liydrodynamic  phenomena,  since  they  have  also 
an  additional  thermodynamic  relationship  which 
is  quite  as  important.  The  warm,  moist  south- 
erly winds  are  imderrun  by  the  colder  and  drier 
northerly  winds.  This  enforced  elevation  of  the 
southerly  winds  is  accompanied  by  a  correspond- 
ing expansion  and  cooling  of  the  air  that  is  thus 
elevated,  and  generally  it  is  soon  cooled  to  its 
dew  point  or  below.  This  is  followed  by  con- 
densation of  aqueous  vapor  and  the  formation  of 
cloud,  rain,  hail,  or  snow  with  a  great  liberation 
of  latent  heat.  Consequently  the  cloudy  region 
will  be  warmer,  but  especially  will  it  have  a 
much  smaller  specific  gravity  than  before. 

In  very  small  storms,  such  as  tornadoes,  water- 
spouts, etc.,  this  process  gives  rise  to  very  rapid 
uprising  currents,  a  very  rapid  whirl  around  the 
central  axis  and  a  very  low  barometric  pressure 
at  the  centre,  but  in  extensive  storms  the  vertical 
current  is  not  so  conspicuous,  although  the  buoy- 
ancy of  the  central  air  tends  very  strongly  to 
maintain  the  disturbance.  The  storm  centre  un- 
doubtedly has  a  tendency  to  move  toward  the 
region  in  which  the  temperature  and  buoyancy 
are  most  disturbed;  but  as  this  region  is  al- 
ways moving  in  advance,  the  storm  centre  will 
remain  in  the  rear  and  its  path  will  advance 
somewhat  to  the  left  of  the  direction  of  the 
greatest  disturbance.  But  the  uplifting  of  the 
lower  moist  air  may  be  greatly  intensified  if  the 
southerly  winds  on  the  eastern  half  of  the  storm 
area  are  being  pushed  up  over  high  lands,  or 
it  may  be  almost  wholly  annulled  if  these  winds 
must  necessarily  descend  from  the  high  lands  to 
the  ocean  level.  Therefore  the  relation  of  the 
storm's  motion  to  the  continents  must  be  care- 
fully worked  out. 

As  regards  weather  prediction,  it  is  eyident  at 
once  that  the  descending  winds  and  those  that 
are  coming  from  the  north  southward  are  being 
warmed  up,  and  therefore  in  their  presence  the 
storm  disappears  and  the  weather  clears  away. 
For  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  rain 
is  to  be  forecasted  only  when  a  south  and  east 
wind  prevails,  and  especially  when  it  is  blowing 
on  the  coast.  The  actual  effect  of  mountains, 
plateaus,  continents,  and  the  underflow  of  cold 
air  varies  so  much  on  every  occasion  that  the 
best  one  can  do  in  forecasting  is  to  familiarize 
himself  thoroughly  with  the  illustrations  and 
exceptions  that  appear  on  every  daily  weather 
map. 

The  atmosphere  would  be  at  rest  on  the  earth's 
surface  and  whirl  about  with  the  globe  were  it 
not  for  the  sun's  heat.  All  the  important 
meteorological  phenomena  may  be  considered  as 
resulting  from  the  interaction  of  the  solar  heat, 
the  moisture  in  the  air,  the  varying  temperature, 


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and  the  centrifugal  reaction  due  to  the  rapid 
diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  The 
solar  radiation  maintains  the  temperature  of  the 
equatorial  regions.  The  cold  air  of  the  polar 
region  is  both  by  gravity  and  by  centrifugal 
force  driven  toward  the  equator.  Thus  the  gen- 
eral currents  are  maintained  moving  from  the 
poles  toward  the  tropics  and  return.  They  are 
most  intense  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  in 
January,  when  the  sun  is  farthest  south  or  over 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  because  at  that  time  and 
subsequently  the  difference  of  temperature  be- 
tween the  equator  and  the  North  Pole  is  greatest, 
and  the  reverse  holds  good  in  June,  when  the  sun 
is  north  of  the  equator.  The  general  circulation 
is  greatly  modified  by  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture and  moisture  of  the  air  over  the  land  and 
the  ocean,  so  that  in  summer-time  the  tendency 
of  the  air  to  flow  inward  toward  a  continent  or 
mountain  is  very  decided.  The  general  circula- 
tion is  also  greatly  modified  by  the  presence  of 
snow,  ice,  mountains,  plateaus,  clouds,  forest, 
etc.  The  winds,  when  once  formed  by  differences 
of  temperature  and  moisture,  are  themselves  af- 
fected by  the  rotation  of  the  earth.  No  matter 
in  what  direction  they  may  be  moving  they  are 
at  once  deflected  from  their  polar  path;  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere  they  turn  to  the  right;  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere  to  the  left.  Therefore 
those  flowing  toward  the  equator  become  the 
northeast  and  southeast  trade  winds  and  those 
flowing  toward  the  poles,  or  the  upper  return 
trade  winds,  become  the  westerly  winds  of  the 
north  and  south  temperate  zones. 

The  differences  in  temperature  between  the  con- 
tinents and  the  ocean  give  rise  to  the  so-called 
monsoon  winds.  The  general  centrifugal  action 
of  the  winds  produces  a  low  pressure  in  the 
regions  about  which  the  winds  rotate,  namely, 
a  low  pressure  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  re- 
gions; a  low  pressure  on  the  left  of  the  winds 
blowing  arouna  a  storm  centre,  and  on  the  right 
hand  side  of  these  same  winds  considered  as 
blowing  around  an  adjacent  region  of  high  pres- 
sure; a  low  pressure  at  the  equator  between 
the  northeast  and  southeast  trades.  The  reaction 
of  the  easterly  winds  near  the  equator  and  the 
westerly  winds  farther  north  also  produces  a 
similar  area  of  high  pressure  between  these  two 
systems  of  wind  corresponding  to  the  high  pres- 
sure under  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn. 

A  full  exposition  on  these  'and  other  theorems 
by  Prof.  William  Ferrel  will  be  found  in  his  Trea- 
tise on  the  Winds  { New  York,  1893 ) .  The  results 
of  later  researches  are  presented  in  Prof.  F.  H. 
Bigelow's  report  on  international  cloud  observa- 
tions (Washington,  1900),  and  his  Report  on 
Barometry  (Washington,  1902).  but  these  are 
written  for  purely  technical  and  mathematical 
readers.  A  general  r(^8um(^  of  the  laws  of  atmos- 
pheric motion  is  given  in  the  appendix  to  Hann, 
Lehrhuch  der  Meteorologie  (T^ipzig,  1901).  An 
elementary  presentation  of  the  subject,  will  be 
found  in  Davis,  Elementary  Meteorology  (Bos- 
ton, 1894)  ;  and  in  Ward,  Practical  Exercises  in 
Elementary  Meteorology  (Boston,  1899).  Con- 
sult Flammarion,  Thunder  and  Lightning  (Bos- 
ton, 1906).  For  history  of  practical  meteorology 
in  the  United  States,  see  VVeatueb  Bureau. 

Some  details  as  to  the  instruments  used  in 
meteorology    will    be    found    under    the    topics: 

ACTINOMETEB;    ANEMOMETER;    BAROMETER;    PyR- 

UELiOMETER;    Nephoscope;    Rain   Gauge;    and 


THEBMOMETE3.  Some  of  the  results  of  obser- 
vation  will  be  found  treated  under  the  topics: 
Atmosphere;  Atmospheric  Electricity;  Au- 
rora BoREALis;  Buzzard;  Climate;  Clouds; 
Dark  Day;  Dew;  Doldrums;  Dust;  Equi- 
noctial Storm ;  Fog;  Frost;  Hail;  Halo; 
Humidity;  Indian  Summer;  Isobarometric 
Lines;  Isothermal  Lines;  Lightning;  Mon- 
soon; Polarization  of  Skylight;  Scintil- 
lation; Simoom;  Snow;  Snow  Line;  Storms; 
Heat;  Typhoons;  Weather;  Whirlwinds; 
Wind. 

METEOBS  (OF.  meteore,  Fr.  m4t4ore,  from 
Gk.  fiertupoVy  meteCron^  meteor,  from  fieriupoCy 
meteOros,  on  high,  from  fura,  meta,  beyond  -f 
aelpeiv,  aeirein,  to  lift).  A  term  now  applied 
by  astronomers  to  those  shooting  stars  that  flash 
into  view  without  detonation  or  explosion.  Aa 
thus  characterized,  meteors  form  a  class  of  bod- 
ies distinct  from  the  aerolites  (q.v.).  Some- 
times those  meteors  of  which  fragments  are  not 
known  to  reach  the  earth  are  called  bolides.  The 
phenomena  are  exactly  the  same  except  that  the 
fragments  are  not  actually  found. 

The  brilliant  display  of  November  13,  1866,. 
gave  a  vigorous  impulse  to  astronomical  investi- 
gation of  shooting  stars,  leading  to  the  discovery 
that  the  November  meteors  move  in  an  orbit 
round  the  sun,  and  that  in  all  probability  this, 
orbit  forms  a  ring  or  belt  of  innumerable  small 
fragments  of  matter,  distributed  with  very  varia- 
ble density  of  grouping  along  it,  thus  correspond- 
ing so  far  to  the  planetoid  (q.v.)  group  be- 
tween Mars  and  Jupiter.  It  is  also  known  that 
the  motion  of  this  meteor  ring  round  the  sun  ia 
retrograde;  that  the  earth's  orbit  at  that  point 
where  she  is  situated  on  November  13-14  inter- 
sects this  ring;  and  that,  probably  in  1799,  1833-  ^ 
34,  and  1866-67,  it  is  the  same  group  of  meteors- 
which  has  been  observed.  The  last-mentioned 
hypothesis  has  been  made  the  foundation  of  a 
calculation  of  the  probable  orbit  and  periodic 
time  of  this  meteor  ring.  The  fact  that  a  No- 
vember star-shower  may  occur  for  two  years  in 
succession,  and  then  recur  at  an  interval  of  32 
or  33  years,  seems  to  indicate  that  though  the 
earth  may  pass  through  the  meteor-orbit  every 
year,  the  meteors  are  so  grouped  at  intervals 
along  the  ring  and  their  periodic  time  difl'ers  sa 
much  from  that  of  the  earth  that  it  requires  32- 
33  years  before  this  accumulating  difference 
amounts  to  a  complete  revolution  of  either  the 
earth  or  the  ring,  and  a  repetition  of  the  star- 
shower  becomes  possible. 

Professor  Newton  of  Yale,  who  entered  into  an 
elaborate  investigation  of  the  subject,  concluded 
that  there  were  five  possible  periodic  times  for 
the  meteor  ring:  33^4  years,  376  days,  354  days, 
188  days,  177  days.  The  English  astronomer 
Adams  then  showed  that  of  these  the  33 14 -year 
period  was  the  only  one  actually  consistent  with 
known  facts,  and  this  is  therefore  now  accepted 
as  the  time  required  by  the  November  meteors  to 
complete  a  revolution  around  the  sun. 

That  there  is  an  intimate  relation  between  mete- 
ors and  comets  is  an  ascertained  fact  of  much 
interest.  There  is  a  great  similarity  between  the 
orbits  of  some  of  the  more  important  showers 
and  certain  of  the  comets,  a  similarity  so  close 
as  to  establish  some  kind  of  mysterious  rela- 
tionship beyond  the  possibility  of  mere  coinci- 
dence. 

Popular  interest  has  been  very  keen  in  the  mat^ 


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METHODISU. 


ter  of  meteors  since  the  brilliant  display  of 
1866.  This  star-shower,  perhaps  the  grandest 
that  has  ever  been  observed,  was  confidently  pre- 
dicted from  the  occurrence  of  a  similar  shower 
at  the  corresponding  date  in  1799,  1833,  and 
1834.  The  shower  commenced  about  11:30  p.m., 
with  the  appearance  at  brief  intervals  of  single 
meteors;  then  they  came  in  twos  and  threes, 
steadily  and  rapidlv  increasing  in  number  till 
1 :13  A.M.  on  November  14th,  when  no  fewer  than 
57  appeared  in  one  minute.  From  this  time  the 
intensity  of  the  shower  diminished  gradually, 
wholly  ceasing  about  4  a.m.  The  total  number 
of  meteors  which  at  that  time  came  within  the 
limits  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  was  estimated 
at  about  240,000,  and  the  number  seen  at  each 
of  the  several  observatories  in  Great  Britain 
averaged  nearly  6,000.  This  star-shower,  like 
those  of  1833  and  1834,  seemed  to  proceed  from 
the  region  of  the  heavens  marked  by  the  stars  ^ 
and  7  in  the  constellation  Leo;  and  it  has  been 
shown  by  astronomers  that  this  was  the  point 
toward  which  the  earth  in  her  orbit  was  mov- 
ing at  the  time ;  consequently  she  had  either  over- 
taken the  meteoric  shower  or  had  met  it  proceed- 
ing in  a  contrary  direction.  The  meteors  on  that 
occasion  presented  the  usual  variety  of  color, 
size,  and  duration;  the  great  majority  were 
white,  with  a  bluish  or  yellowish  tinge;  a  con- 
siderable number  were  red  and  orange,  and  a 
few  were  blue;  many  surpassed  the  fixed  stars  in 
lustre,  and  some  were  even  brighter  than  Venus 
at  her  maximum.  Most  of  the  meteors  left 
trains  of  vivid  light  5°  to  15**  in  length,  which 
marked  their  course  through  the  heavens,  and  en- 
dured for  three  seconds  on  an  average,  then  be- 
coming dissipated,  though  some  of  the  trains 
were  ^most  40**  in  length,  and  remained  in  sight 
for  several  minutes.  On  the  morning  of  No- 
vember 14,  1867,  a  star-shower  nearly  equal  in 
magnitude  to  that  of  1866  was  observed  in  this 
country  and  in  France,  but  was  almost  wholly 
invisible  in  England  on  account  of  the  cloudy 
state  of  the  atmosphere.    See  Aebolites. 

METEB.     See  Metbio  System. 

METEB,  Electbic.     See  Electbic  Meteb. 

METEB,  Gas.    See  Gas,  Illuminating. 

METH'AKE  (from  methyl),  Mabsh  Gas, 
Fibe-Damp  ( Ger.  Sumpfgas ) ,  CH4.  The  simplest 
of  the  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  usu- 
ally prepared  by  heating  a  mixture  of  sodium 
acetate  and  soda-lime.  It  is  one  of  the  gase- 
ous products  of  the  decay  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter (especially  cellulose)  under  water,  and  it  is 
therefore  a  constituent  of  the  gases  bubbling  up 
in  the  stagnant  water  of  marshes;  it  is  also  one 
of  the  gases  evolved  in  petroleum  wells.  It  oc- 
curs in  considerable  quantities  in  some  coal 
mines,  where  it  has  often  caused  disastrous  ex- 
plosions. It  is  a  colorless  and  odorless  gas  burn- 
ing with  a  non-luminous  fiame.  It  is  formed  in 
the  destructive  distillation  of  organic  matter, 
such  as  wood,  coal,  etc.,  and  is,  therefore,  one  of 
the  principal  constituents  of  ordinary  illuminat- 
ing gas,  which  contains  30-40  per  cent,  of  meth- 
ane. A  verv  large  number  of  organic  compounds 
can  be  derived  from  methane.  And  since  the 
gradual  building  up  of  these  compounds  from  the 
elements  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  in  or- 
ganic chemistry,  the  synthesis  of  methane  it- 
self, as  the  first  step  in  innumerable  processes 
employed     in     producing     organic    compounds. 


formed  a  valuable  contribution  to  chemical 
science.  The  synthesis  of  methane  was  first  ef- 
fected by  Berthelot,  who  showed  that  the  gas  is 
produced  when  a  mixture  of  carbon  disulphide 
and  water-vapor  is  passed  over  red-hot  copper. 
The  reaction  taking  place  is  represented  by  the 
following  chemical  equation: 

CS,  -f  2H2O  +  6Cu  =  CH*  +  2Cu,S  -h  2CuO. 

Carbon  di-  Water   Copper  Methane  Cnprons      Cupric 
sulphide  Bolphide        oxide 

In  this  manner  any  quantity  of  methane  can 
be  obtained  by  using  nothing  but  elementary  sub- 
stances as  starting  material;  for  carbon  disul- 
phide and  water  can  be  prepared  by  the  direct 
union  of  their  elements. 

METHANE   SEBIES.     See   Htdbocabbons. 

METHODISM.  The  name  given  to  the  reli- 
gious movement  in  England  led  by  John  Wesley, 
appropriated  by  the  numerous  churches  which 
have  sprung  from  that  movement,  and  by  others 
which,  though  not  bearing  the  name,  are  both 
historically  and  spiritually  in  the  Methodist  suc- 
cession. Wesley  himself  was  impatient  of  all 
sectarian  names,  and  called  the  people  whom 
he  enrolled  in  classes  for  religious  culture  sim- 
ply the  Unit«i  Societies,  and  proudly  appealed 
to  the  fact  that  to  join  the  Societies  there  was 
no  dogmatic  or  ecclesiastical  test,  all  Christians 
from  Anglicans  to  Quakers  being  alike  welcome. 
His  definition  of  a  Methodist  (abridged)  was  as 
follows :  "A  Methodist  is  one  who  has  the  love  of 
God  shed  abroad  in  his  heart  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
given  unto  him ;  one  who  loves  the  Lord  nis  God 
with  all  his  heart,  and  soul,  and  mind,  and 
strength.  He  rejoices  evermore,  prays  without 
ceasing,  and  in  everything  gives  thanks.  His 
heart  is  full  of  love  to  all  mankind,  and  is  puri- 
fied from  envy,  malice,  wrath,  and  every  unkind 
affection.  His  one  desire,  and  the  one  design  of 
his  life,  is  not  to  do  his  own  will,  but  the  will 
of  Him  that  sent  him.  He  keeps  all  Crod's  com- 
mandments, from  the  least  to  the  greatest.  He 
follows  not  the  customs  of  the  world;  for  vice 
does  not  lose  its  nature  through  its  becoming 
fashionable.  He  fares  not  sumptuously  every 
day.  He  cannot  lay  up  treasure  upon  the  earth ; 
nor  can  he  adorn  himself  with  gold  or  costly  ap- 
parel. He  cannot  join  in  any  diversion  that  has 
the  least  tendency  to  vice.  He  cannot  speak  evil 
of  his  neighbor  any  more  than  he  can  tell  a  lie. 
He  cannot  utter  imkind  or  evil  words.  No  cor- 
rupt communication  ever  comes  out  of  his  mouth. 
He  does  good  unto  all  men;  unto  neighbors, 
strangers,  friends,  and  enemies.  These  are  the 
principles  and  practices  of  our  sect.  These  are 
the  marks  of  a  true  Methodist.  By  these  alone 
do  Methodists  desire  to  be  distinguished  from 
other  men."  Wesley's  catholicity  was  so  broad 
that  it  was  indiflferent  to  him  whether  the  books 
he  reprinted  for  his  people  were  by  Roman  Catho- 
lics or  Unitarians.  It  was  his  hope  that  his 
movement  would  be  the  nucleus  of  a  reunited 
Christendom,  and  it  was  with  sorrow  he  saw 
forces  which  he  could  not  control  carrying  his 
people  into  permanent  separation  both  from  An- 
glicanism and  Dissent.  The  title  Methodist  was 
not  a  word  of  his  own  choosing — it  was  given 
by  Oxford  students  because  of  the  strict  life  of 
Charles  Wesley  and  his  band  in  the  university — 
and  he  detested  it  as  s«on  as  it  became  an  eccle- 
siastical watchword. 

Polity.    The  polity  of  early  Methodism  waa 


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882 


METHODISX. 


suggested  by  exigencies  in  the  growth  of  the  re- 
vival of  which  it  was  the  outcome.  Methodism 
as  an  organization  dates  from  1739,  the  loosest 
possible  in  form.  A  few  Christians  met  together 
weeklj  in  'classes'  (the  'class  meeting*)  to  pray 
and  to  talk  concerning  the  things  of  Qod,  over 
whom  a  leader  (a  layman)  was  appointed,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  watch  over  their  souls  and  to  give 
spiritual  counsel.  The  societies  were  independent 
of  each  other,  except  as  they  were  held  together 
by  the  itinerating  Wesley,  who  appointed  their 
leaders,  and  to  whom  these  leaders  were  re- 
sponsible. In  1743  Wesley  drew  up  the  rules  for 
the  United  Societies,  which  have  remained  the- 
ethical  and  almost  theological  standard  of  teach- 
ing and  practice  from  that  day  to  this.  As  the 
work  extended,  preachers  were?  appointed.  They 
were  of  two  kinds:  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
England  who  affiliated  with  the  movement,  and 
who  were  permanent  pastors;  and  laymen,  who 
were  'itinerants/  moving  at  first  every  six  months 
and  then  every  year.  In  its  inception  Methodism 
was  preeminently  an  episcopal  movement,  over- 
sight, as  in  the  Society  of  Jesus,  being  reduced  to 
an  exact  science.  Over  the  classes  were  the  lead- 
ers, over  both  were  the  preachers  assisted  in  out- 
appointments  by  'local  preachers,'  who  were  lay- 
men with  the  gift  of  public  address,  and  from 
whom  the  itinerants  were  recruited.  Each 
preacher  had  his  'circuit;'  and  several  circuit 
preachers  were  under  a  head  (whence  arose  the 
'district,'  and,  in  North  America,  the  'presiding 
elder').  There  were  'quarterly'  and  'district  con- 
ferences,* and,  after  1744,  the  'annual  conference,' 
composed  of  both  clergymen  and  lay  preachers. 
Finally  over  the  whole  movement  was  Wesley 
himself,  giving  it  vitality,  depth  of  impression, 
and  breadth  of  view,  saving  it  from  fanaticism 
on  the  one  hand,  and  laxity  on  the  other,  ever 
guiding  and  really,  though  not  officially  and 
narrowly,  dominating  it.  A  'general  conference,' 
meeting  every  four  years,  arose  in  the  United 
States  after  1792,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of 
the  country. 

The  relation  of  the  movement  to  the  Church 
of  England  is  not  hard  to  define.  Wesley  was 
a  sincere  lover  of  the  Church  of  his  fathers,  and 
hoped  that  the  bishops  would  ordain  his  preach- 
ers and  in  some  way  articulate  his  results  into 
the  normal  ecclesiastical  life  of  the  country.  In 
this  he  was  disappointed,  but  nothing  daunted  he 
went  on  his  way  independently,  holding  that  he 
was  justified  in  this  by  the  unique  position  he 
occupied  as  the  providential  leader  of  the  move- 
ment, and  consolidating  what  became  a  vast  ec- 
•  clesiasticism.  Wesley  tried  to  be  a  loyal  church- 
man as  far  as  circumstances  allowed.  But  Eng- 
land's call  always  sounded  louder  than  the 
Church's,  so  that  he  came  to  -feel  that  he  was 
serving  the  Church  best  when  disregarding  her 
most. 

After  Wesley's  death  in  1791  'the  people  called 
Methodists'  were  governed  by  the  Annual  Con- 
ference, composed  of  the  Legal  Hundred,  as  the 
lawmaking  body,  and  all  the  itinerant  preachers 
as  advisory  and  cooperative.  The  new  denomina- 
tion— ^as  it  has  been  legally  since  1784,  when 
Wesley  entered  a  deed  into  the  Court  of  Chancery 
ronstituting  the  Conference,  and  as  it  has  been 
practically  since  1740,  when  the  movement  sep- 
arated from  both  Moravianism  and  Calvinism — 
came  to  be  called  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Con- 
nection or  Church.    The  territory  was  divided 


into  districts  for  more  efficient  supervision,  whose 
interests  were  looked  after  by  the  district  meet- 
ing, and  subdivided  into  circuits  ivhose  affairs 
were  governed  by  a  quarterly  meeting  composed 
of  ministers,  local  preachers,  and  stewards,  of 
whom  the  two  last  were  appointed  by  the  super- 
intending pastor.  Various  efforts  were  made  to 
tone  down  the  hierarchical  spirit  and  constitution 
of  the  Church  by  introducmg  lavmen  into  the 
Annual  Conference  and  by  giving  the  local  church 
the  right  to  elect  its  own  officers,  but  these  ef- 
forts were  successful  only  at  the  cost  of  numerous 
divisions.  Finally,  in  1878,  the  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odist Church  introduced  the  principle  of  lay 
representation  thus  far:  that  it  allowed  laymen 
to  sit  in  ^he  Annual  Conference  and  deliberate 
with  the  ministers  on  all  financial  and  benevo- 
lent causes,  those  of  a  pastoral  nature  being  re- 
served to  the  clergy.  In  all  the  Methodist 
churches  of  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies 
there  is  only  one  order  of  ministers. 

In  1784  Wesley  ordained  Thomas  Coke  (q.v.) 
superintendent  for  America,  and  at  the  Christ- 
mas Conference  of  1784-85,  held  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was  con- 
stituted by  the  ordination  of  Francis  Asbury  as 
superintendent  and  the  drawing  up  of  an  episco- 
pal Church  constitution.  The  new  overseers  as- 
sumed the  title  of  bishop,  much  to  Wesley's  dis- 
gust, who,  out  of  deference  to  the  Church  of 
England,  desired  them  to  be  called  simply  superin- 
tendents. But  that  he  considered  them  to  be 
bishops  in  the  full  sense  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
In  his  letter  to  the  Conference  stating  and  de- 
fending his  position  he  says:  "Lord  King's  ac- 
count of  the  Primitive  Church  convinced  me 
many  years  ago  that  bishops  and  presbyters  are 
of  the  same  order,  and  consequently  have  the 
same  right  to  ordain.  For  many  years  I  have 
been  importuned  to  exercise  this  right;"  but  he 
refused  out  of  deference  to  the  established  order. 
But  in  America  the  case  was  different.  There 
there  were  no  bishops,  so  that  for  hundreds  of 
miles  there  was  no  one  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ments. "Here,  therefore,  my  scruples  are  at  an 
end,  and  I  conceive  myself  at  full  liberty,  as  I 
violate  no  order  and  invade  no  man's  right  by  ap- 
pointing and  sending  laborers  into  the  harvest." 
Of  course  it  is  understood  that  the  American 
Methodist  Episcopacy  is  in  order  presbj'terial 
purely,  though  it  is  certainly  sufficiently  catho- 
lic in  its  powers  of  supervision,  especially  in  its 
absolute  control  over  pastoral  appointments — ^a 
control  that  is,  however,  limited  in  practice  when 
dealing  with  popular  preachers  and  wealthy 
churches.  The  other  of  the  two  orders  is  that  of 
deacons,  who  are  strictly  differentiated  from  eld- 
ers. It  is,  however,  a  principle  of  Methodism 
that  no  one  type  of  Church  order  is  of  exclusive 
authority,  that  the  Scripture  lays  down  no  model, 
and  that  therefore  a  Church  may  exercise  lib- 
erty in  matters  of  polity  if  she  is  true  to  the 
spirit  and  general  complexion  of  the  Apostolic 
Church.  The  non-episcopal  Methodist  Churches 
are  true  to  Wesley's  idea  of  oversight  through 
their  conferences  and  districts,  but  presbyterian 
in  ministry  and  congregational  in  some  features 
of  their  administration.  A  peculiar  feature  of 
all  Methodist  polity  is  the  itinerancy,  or  the  re- 
moval of  preachers  from  one  charge  to  another, 
which  is  done  by  the  bishops  with  the  advice  of 
the  presiding  elders  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
churches,  and  by  a  stationing  committee  in  the 


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883 


METHODISM. 


other  churches.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  the  pastoral  limit  was  placed  at  two 
years  in  1804,  at  three  in  1864,  at  five  in  1888, 
and  in  1900  the  limit  was  removed  entirely. 
Preachers  are  now  reappointed  from  year  to  year 
by  the  bishops. 

Theology.  Few  Churches  have  had  less  doo* 
trinal  disturbances  than  the  Methodist.  No 
one  has  expressed  more  briefly  and  admir- 
ably the  doctrines  received  by  all  Methodists 
than  Bishop  John  H.  Vincent:  "I.  I  believe 
all  men  are  sinners.  II.  I  believe  that  Gk>d 
the  Father  loves  all  men  and  hates  all  sin. 
III.  I  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  died  for  all 
men  to  make  possible  their  salvation  from  sin, 
and  to  make  sure  the  salvation  of  all  who  be- 
lieve in  Him.  IV.  I  believe  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
given  to  all  men  to  enlighten  and  to  incline  them 
to  repent  of  their  sins  and  to  believe  on  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  V.  I  believe  that  all  who  re- 
pent of  their  sins  and  believe  on  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  receive  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  This  is 
justification.  VI.  I  believe  that  all  who  re- 
ceive the  forgiveness  of  sin  are  at  the  same 
time  made  new  creatures  in  Christ  Jesus.  This 
is  regeneration.  VII.  I  believe  that  all  who 
are  made  new  creatures  in  Christ  Jesus  are 
adopted  as  the  children  of  God.  This  is  adop- 
tion. VIII.  I  believe  that  all  who  are  accepted 
as  the  children  of  God  ma^  receive  the  inward 
assurance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  that  fact.  This 
is  the  witness  of  the  Spirit.  IX.  I  believe  that 
all  who  truly  desire  and  seek  it  may  love  Grod 
with  all  their  heart  and  soul,  mind  and  strength, 
and  their  neighbors  as  themselves.  This  is  entire 
sanctification.  X.  I  believe  that  all  who  perse- 
vere to  the  end,  and  only  those,  shall  be  saved 
in  heaven  forever."  As  to  the  sacraments,  Metho- 
dism holds  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is  a  memorial 
of  Christ's  death  for  the  spiritual  feeding  on 
Him,  that  He  is  really  present  only  in  the 
hearts  of  those  who  receive  Him,  and  that 
baptism  is  a  sign  of  a  regeneration  already 
accomplished  by  faith,  and  as  to  adults  should 
be  given  only  to  believers.  Infant  baptism  is 
enjoined  and  is  administered,  on  the  groimd  that 
the  child  is  already  a  member  of  the  Kingdom  of 
God.  As  to  atonement,  Methodists  universally 
hold  to  the  fact,  but  are  not  agreed  as  to  theory. 
In  England  the  penal  substitutionary  theory  has 
been  held,  at  least  imtil  recently,  and  that  was 
the  common  view  in  America  until  Professor 
Miley,  of  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  published 
his  book  on  the  Atonement  in  1879,  advocating 
the  governmental  theory.  But  it  has  been  the 
universal  conviction  of  Methodists  that  a  real 
atonement  was  paid  to  God  for  the  sins  of  the 
world,  though  in  1900  Professor  Bowne  of  Bos- 
ton advocated  the  view  that  it  was  an  act  of  love 
to  influence  men,  holding,  however,  that  the  suf- 
ferings of  Christ  bear  a  '*vital  and  unparalleled 
relation  to  the  forgiveness  of  sins."  As  to  de- 
pravity, Methodists  hold  that  it  is  total  in  the 
sense  that  no  man  is  saved  except  through 
Clod's  inciting  and  enabling  grace,  but  not  total 
in  the  sense  of  the  Reformation  creeds.  In  es- 
ehatology  opinions  differ.  Unlike  the  older 
Methodists,  some  hold  now  to  processes  of  salva- 
tion in  an  intermediate  state  for  those  who  never 
heard  of  Christ.  Dr.  Pope  presented  this  view 
in  his  Theology  (1875-76),  and  his  book  was 
placed  on  the  course  of  study  for  preachers.  The 
natural  immortality  of  the  soul  has  always  been 


maintained,  the  first  dissentient  being  Professor 
Beet  in  his  The  Last  Things  (1897;  3d  ed.,  enl., 
1899)  and  more  explicitly  in  his  Immortality  of 
the  Soul:  A  Protest  (1901).  His  views  were 
not  acceptable  to  the  church,  and  he  was  not 
continued  in  his  professorship*.  Eternal  punish- 
ment in  some  sense  is  a  cardinal  tenet.  The  gen- 
eral view  of  the  final  state  of  the  heathen  is 
that  all  who  conscientiously  live  according  to 
the  light  which  they  have  received  will  be 
saved. 

Ethics.  Wesley  always  retained  some  of  the 
ascetic  fervor  of  his  High  Church  days,  and  set 
forth  in  his  "General  Rules  for  the  United  So- 
cieties" (1743)  a  standard  of  conduct  of  a  strict 
and  self-denying  type.  These  rules  forbade  soft- 
ness and  needless  self-indulgence,  the  using  of 
many  words  in  buying  or  selling,  the  use  of  in- 
toxicants as  a  beverage,  and  the  reading  of  books 
or  the  taking  of  diversions  that  could  not  be 
indulged  in  in  the  name  of  Jesus.  The  early 
Methodists  were  accordingly  noted  for  their  Qua- 
ker-like strictness  of  life,  this  even  showing  it- 
self in  regard  to  dress  and  jewelry;  and  they  re- 
sembled the  Puritans  in  their  abhorrence  of 
sports  and  amusements. 

Worship.  Wesley  was  attached  to  the  liturgy 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  drew  up  for  the 
societies  at  home  and  in  America  a  service  based 
on  the  Prayer- Book,  which  he  abridged  and 
changed  extensively.  This  was  not  adapted  to 
American  needs  and  was  never  used  in  this  coun- 
try to  any  extent  until  recently.  It  was  repub- 
lished by  the  Rev.  Charles  S.  Harrower  in  1891, 
and  the  responsive  parts  have  been  widely 
adopted.  But  the  spirit  of  Methodism  seems 
opposed  to  the  reading  of  prayers,  and  though  a 
modest  liturgical  service  was  suggested  by  the 
Genera]  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1896,  it  goes  no  further  than  a  respon- 
sive reading,  the  Gloria,  and  the  recitation  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  and  even  this  is  too  ritualistic 
for  some  churches.  In  special  rites,  however, 
like  baptism,  marriage,  and  burial,  all  Metho- 
dists use  a  prepared  service. 

HiSTOBY  AND  MeTHODIST  DENOMINATIONALISM. 

England.  (For  the  so-called  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists, see  Calvinistic  Methodists;  and  for  the 
"Calvinistic  Methodist  Church"  of  Wales,  see 
Pbesbtterianism.  )  The  paternal  absolutism 
which  Wesley  exercised  and  which  he  left  to  his 
legal  successors — the  Hundred  Ministers — could 
not  endure.  It  was  inevitable  that  the  socie- 
ties would  assert  their  liberties.  These  liber- 
ties had  reference  to  (1)  holding  service  in 
church  hours,  which  Wesley  had  opposed  out  of 
regard  for  the  Established  Church;  (2)  receiving 
the  sacraments  in  their  own  chapels  from  their 
own  ministers;  (3)  lay  representation  in  the 
conferences;  and  (4)  the  right  of  the  local 
church  to  have  a  voice  in  the  reception  and  ex- 
pulsion of  members,  in  the  choice  of  local  officers, 
and  in  the  calling  out  of  candidates  for  the  min- 
istry. All  these  principles  except  the  last  have 
been  incorporated  into  all  types  of  Methodism, 
but  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  found  a  so- 
ciety upon  them  belongs  to  Alexander  Kilham 
(1762-98).  In  1795  Kilham  published  a  pam- 
phlet, The  Progress  of  Liberty,  which  is  a  land- 
mark in  Methodism,  as  it  is  the  first  systematic 
presentation  of  the  rights  of  ministers  and  lay- 
men.    For  this  book  and  for  statements  which 


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XETHODISU. 


384 


METHODISX. 


were  interpreted  as  reflecting  on  the  Conference 
he  was  expelled  in  1796.  Three  ministers  joined 
themselves  to  him  immediately,  and  soon  5000 
members  were  enrolled,  the  body  taking  the  name 
of  the  Methodist  New  Connection  at  the  date  of 
its  organization  in  1797.  In  theology  and  polity 
it  is  similar  to  Wesleyan  Methodism,  except  in 
the  principle  of  representation.  It  was  the  first 
effective  effort  to  adjust  Methodism  to  the  non- 
conformist principle,  and  thus  bring  it  to  its 
logical  conclusion. 

With  the  building  of  chapels  there  had  been  a 
decline  in  the  aggressive  zeal  of  the  field-preach- 
ing days  of  original  Methodism.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  news  was  borne 
across  the  Atlantic  of  the  marvelous  success  of 
camp  meetings  as  a  revival  agency,  and  desiref 
was  felt  by  some  to  revive  open-air  meetings  in 
England.  Accordingly  Hugh  Bourne  (1772- 
1852),  assisted  by  William  Clowes  and  other 
zealous  Wesleyan  local  preachers  and  exhorters, 
held  a  camp  meeting  at  Mow  Cap,  a  hill  between 
Staffordshire  and  Cheshire,  May  13,  1807,  and 
with  such  favorable  results  that  several  similar 
meetings  followed.  The  parent  Conference  in 
1807  passed  a  resolution  severely  condemning 
such  meetings,  but  Bourne  persisted  in  his  use 
of  an  evangelism  so  congenial  to  early  Methodism. 
For  this  he  and  his  companions  were  expelled, 
and  in  1810  they  organized  an  independent 
Church,  which  in  1812  took  the  title  of  the 
Primitive  Methodist  Connection,  In  polity  this 
body  is  similar  to  the  New  Connection  Church, 
except  that  it  has  two  laymen  instead  of  one  to 
every  minister  in  their  Conference,  and  is  espe- 
cially noted  for  its  large  use  of  laymen  both  in 
Church  government  and  in  evangelism.  It  pub- 
lishes an  able  review,  the  Primitive  Methodist 
Quarterly,  and  sustains  numerous  schools  and 
missions  and  all  the  appliances  of  a  strong 
Church. 

A  zealous  young  Wesleyan,  William  O'Bryan, 
felt  called  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  destitute  vil- 
lages of  East  Cornwall  and  West  Devon  in  thjB 
early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  had 
great  success  in  these  tours.  As  this  necessarily 
carried  him  beyond  the  bounds  of  Wesleyan  cir- 
cuits, and  as  he  could  not  limit  his  work  to  their 
harness,  he  was  expelled  for  his  zealous  follow- 
ing of  Wesley.  In  1815  O'Bryan  organized  his 
first  society,  the  work  developed,  other  preachers 
were  received,  rules  were  drawn  up  in  1818,  and 
in  1819  the  first  conference  was  held.  His  so- 
cieties came  to  be  called  Bible  Christians,  al- 
though that  was  not  adopted  as  the  official  name 
until  1828.  In  1850  they  sent  Way  and  Rowe 
to  Australia,  where  a  strong  cause  has  been  built 
up.  They  also  have  missions  in  China.  The 
polity  of  the  Bible  Christians  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  other  bodies  of  reformed  Methodists. 

The  forcing  of  an  organ  on  the  Brunswick  Wes- 
leyan Methodist  Chapel  in  Leeds  in  1828  against 
the  wishes  of  the  leaders  and  stewards  caused  the 
withdrawal  of  more  than  a  thousand  members 
and  the  formation  of  the  Wesleyan  Protestant 
Methodists.  The  dominating  influence  of  Jabez 
Bunting  (minister  1799-1858),  who  exercised  an 
autocratic  power  over  the  Conference,  was  the  in- 
direct cause  of  the  next  schism — that  over  the 
formation  of  a  theological  institution.  The  oppo- 
sition to  this  scheme  was  led  by  Dr.  Samuel 
Warren,  who  was  then  minister  at  Manchester, 
and  who  was  expelled  in   1835.     Thousands  of 


members  sympathized  with  him  and  left  the 
Church,  forming  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Asso- 
ciation, which  in  ten  years  numbered  21,176  mem- 
bers. Independent  speech  and  action  in  the  Con- 
ference being  impossible  under  Bunting,  an  out- 
let for  criticism  was  found  in  anonymous  publica- 
tions and  periodicals.  To  find  out  the  authors  of 
these  articles  strong  measures  were  adopted,  and 
every  member  of  ihe  Wesleyan  Methodist  Con- 
ference was  subject  to  a  system  of  rigid  question- 
ing. For  failure  to  answer  these  and  other  ques- 
tions James  Everett  and  other  ministers  of  stand- 
ing were  expelled  in  1849.  The  revulsion  against 
these  proceedings  was  equal  to  that  against  State 
control  in  Scotland  six  years  before.  One  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  members  left  within  three 
years  and  the  contributions  fell  off  £100,000.  This 
separation  helped  to  swell  the  nonconformist 
churches,  but  many  kept  up  a  Methodist  organi- 
zation— generally  called  the  Wesleyan  Reformers 
— ^until  1857,  when  they  united  with  the  Protes- 
tant ( Leeds )  and  Association ( Warren ) Methodists 
to  form  the  United  Methodist  Free  Churches. 
This  body  carries  cm  large  missicmary  and  edu- 
cational woric  Its  polity  is  thoroughly  represen- 
tative, and  is  congregational  as  to  uie  supremacy 
of  the  local  church  in  purely  local  affairs. 

Under  the  charge  of  English  Wesleyan  Meth- 
odism in  1854  the  Connectional  Relief  and  Ex- 
tension Fund  was  inaugurated,  in  the  same  year 
that  the  Wesley  Chapel  Fund  was  established  on 
a  new  basis,  and  in  1861  the  Metropolitan  Chapel 
Building  Fund  for  the  building  of  fifty  new 
churches  in  and  near  London  was  founded  by 
the  gift  of  £50,000  by  Sir  Francis  Lycett.  The 
Children's  Home  was  established  in  1873  by  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Bowman  Stephenson,  which  has  de- 
veloped into  a  magnificent  charity,  with  branches 
in  several  cities  and  a  house  in  Canada.  In  1873 
the  Sunday  School  Union  was  founded  for  the 
extension  of  that  cause.  But  the  most  important 
change  is  the  introduction  of  laymen  into  the 
Annual  Conference  since  1878.  There  are  now 
two  sections  of  the  Conference — a  ministerial  for 
the  consideration  of  matters  relating  to  the  cler- 
gymen, and  a  mixed  section  for  the  financial  and 
other  matters  in  which  all  are  interested.  This 
tardy  and  partial  recognition  of  laymen  has  given 
an  impetus  to  the  parent  Church,  seen  especially 
in  the  munificent  gifts  for  the  Million  Guinea 
Century  Fund  in  1899-1902. 

Ireland.  In  Ireland,  Wesley  had  been  preceded 
by  Thomas  Williams,  who  in  1747  gathered  a 
society  in  Dublin.  Wesley  came  in  that  same 
year  and  was  greatly  encouraged,  and  all  through 
the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  both 
English  and  native  itinerants  traveled  through 
the  country,  establishing  societies  in  some  towns, 
but  being  frequently  mobbed,  fined,  and  im- 
prisoned. In  the'  Irish  Rebellion  of  1798  the 
Methodists  were  the  special  objects  of  Irish 
wrath  and  suffered  numerous  tortures.  It  was 
they  who  saved  Dublin  from  being  sacked  by 
timely  communication  of  the  intentions  of  the 
rebels.  The  first  Irish  Conference  was  held  in 
1752.  But  Methodism  was  unable  to  affect  Irish 
life  deeply.  The  membership  has  never  reached 
30,000,  and  the  highest  number  was,  as  far  back 
as  1814,  29,388.  The  Irish  were  even  more  in- 
sistent on  receiving  the  sacrament  at  the  hands 
of  their  own  ministers  (rather  than  from  the 
Episcopal  Church)  than  the  English  were,  and 
in   this  they  were   favored  by   Dr.   Coke,   who 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METHODISM. 


885 


METHODISM. 


frequently  presided  over  the  conferences.  In 
January,  1818,  the  Primitive  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Society  was  formed  under  the  leadership  of  the 
apostolic  Adam  Averell,  whose  banner  was  "The 
Sacrament  from  the  Established  Church."  The 
regular  Methodist  Church  in  Ireland  declared  for 
independence.     In  1878  the  two  united. 

Scotland.  Wesley  found  Scotland  stony 
ground.  He  received  an  attentive  hearing,  but 
not  much  response.  Whitefield  told  him  plainly 
that  he  had  *'no  business  in  Scotland."  6ut  he 
persevered  and  established  his  societies.  The 
Rev.  D.  Butler  has  recently  shown  in  two  inter- 
esting studies  the  influence  of  Wesley  on  Scot- 
land and  the  debt  which  Wesley  himself  owed 
to  Scougal's  Life  of  Ood  in  the  Soul  of  Man 
(1671),  a  book  that  he  had  reprinted  in  1744. 
Consult  Butler,  Wesley  and  Whitefield  in  Scot- 
land (Edinburgh,  1898) ;  Henry  Scougal  and  the 
Oxford  Methodists  (Edinburgh,  1899). 

France.  English  soldiers  carried  Methodism 
to  Jersey,  in  the  Channel  Islands,  as  early  as 
1779,  and  Robert  Carr  Brackenbury,  a  wealthy 
layman,  who  could  speak  French,  was  sent  there 
in  response  to  their  converts.  Wesley  himself 
spent  a  fortnight  in  the  islands  in  1787,  preach- 
ing and  exhorting  from  house  to  house.  In  1790 
the  mainland  was  invaded,  and  from  that  day  to 
this  Methodism  has  always  had  a  foothold  in 
France.  In  1818  Charles  Cook  began  his  min- 
istry there.  Cook  died  in  1858  and  left  his  two 
sons  to  carry  on  his  work.  In  1852  France  was 
made  a  separate  conference,  and  the  full  super- 
vision of  the  mission  was  left  in  her  own  hands. 
Some  notable  men  have  wrought  their  lives  into 
French  evan^Iization — Cook  and  his  two  sons, 
Emile  F.  and  Jean  Paul,  Gallienne,  Hocart,  and 
Gibson.  Oncf  of  the  best  lives  of  Wesley  ever 
written  we  owe  to  this  mission,  that  by  J.  W. 
Leliftvre  (1868,  trans.  1871,  new  ed.  1900). 

Gebmant.  a  young  Wttrttemberger,  C.  G. 
Mtlller,  went  to  London  in  1805  on  business,  was 
converted,  became  a  local  preacher,  in  1830  re- 
turned to  South  Germany,  became  a  missionary 
of  the  Wesleyan  Conference,  and  when  he  died 
in  1863  left  67  preaching  places,  20  local  preach- 
ers, and  1100  members,  chiefly  in  Wtirttemberg. 
In  1849  Ludwig  S.  Jacoby  went  out  from  Amer- 
ica, and  for  fifty  years  English  and  American 
Methodism  labored  in  different  sections  of  the 
German  Empire.  In  1898  England  handed  over 
to  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  her  missions 
in  (jlermany,  and  a  union  was  effected. 

Italy.  In  1852  the  French  Methodists  sent 
M.  Rostan  to  the  Piedmont  valleys,  who  estab- 
lished several  stations.  In  1861  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Conference  in  England  sent  Green  and 
Piggott  to  Florence,  and  they  soon  had  flourish- 
ing missions  in  North  Italy.  In  1872  Leroy  M. 
Vernon  began  his  work  in  Bologna  as  represent- 
ing the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Further 
particulars  as  to  European  Methodism  will  be 
found  imder  Missions. 

America.  The  first  Methodist  society  in  the 
New  World  was  recruited  from  the  German 
refugees  to  Ireland  driven  out  of  the  Palatinate 
by  Louis  XIV.  Two  of  these,  Philip  Embury 
and  Barbara  Heck,  had  been  converted  in  Ire- 
land, and  upon  arriving  in  New  York,  in  1760, 
they  began  preaching.  Thomas  Webb,  an  army 
captain  and  local  preacher,  also  preached  in  New 
York  and  elsewhere,  and  about  the  same  time 
(1766)    Robert   Strawbridge,  another  Irishman, 


started  the  work  in  Maryland,  where  he  was  as- 
sisted bjr  Robert  Williams,  who  was  the  apostle 
of  Virgmia.  In  1769  Wesley  sent  out  Richard 
Broadman  and  Joseph  Pilmoor,  and  two  years 
later  Francis  Asbury  and  Richard  Wright.  In 
1773  their  first  Conference  was  held — 10  min- 
isters with  1160  members.  In  spite  of  the  dis- 
astrous influence  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  at 
its  end  they  had  80  preachers  and  nearly  15,000 
members.  Most  of  the  Episcopal  cler^  had  fled, 
and  Wesley  tried  to  get  a  bishop  in  England  to 
ordain  one  of  his  preachers  for  America.  Failing 
in  this,  he  concluded  that  he  himself  had  au- 
thority. The  societies  in-  America,  Wesley  said, 
"are?  now  at  full  liberty  to  follow  the  Scriptures 
and  the  primitive  Church,  and  we  judge  it  best 
that  they  should  stand  fast  in  that  liberty  where- 
with God  has  so  strangely  made  them  free."  He 
accordingly  ordained,  September  1,  1784,  What- 
coat  and  Vasey  as  deacons,  on  the  next  day 
elders,  and  Coke  superintendent.  He  furnished 
them  with  a  liturgy  and  collection  of  psalms  and 
hymns,  articles  of  religion  abridged  from  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  told  them  to  organize  the  American  societies 
into  a  church.  This  was  done  at  the  celebrated 
Christmas  Conference  in  Lovely  Lane  Chapel, 
Baltimore,  December  24,  1784- January  2,  1785, 
where  Asbury  was  ordained  deacon,  elder,  and 
superintendent,  the  societies  taking  the  name  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 

The  catholicity  of  the  new  Church  was  shown 
by  Wesley's  method  in  regard  to  both  doctrine 
and  discipline.  Everything  of  a  sectarian  nature 
was  stricken  out  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  so 
that  as  they  left  Wesley's  hands  they  could  be  sub- 
scribed to  by  almost  any  evangelical  Christian. 
Nor  did  he  insert  any  of  his  own  teachings.  His 
design  was  to  provide  a  generous  platform  on 
which  all  who  loved  the  Lord  could  rally.  As  to 
discipline,  no  mode  of  baptism  was  made  obliga- 
tory, and  even  rebaptism  of  such  as  had  scruples 
of  their  baptism  in  infancy  was  permitted,  and 
although  kneeling  was  recommended  on  the  re- 
ception of  the  Lord's  Supper,  it  was  distinctly 
conceded  that  it  might  be  received  standing  or 
sitting.  Nor  were  people  required  at  first  to  give 
up  membership  in  their  own  Church  in  order  to 
become  Methodist ;  so  long  as  they  'complied  with 
our  rules'  they  were  to  have  full  liberty  of  at- 
tending their  own  churches.  On  the  other  hand, 
no  one  could  be  admitted  to  communion  but  mem- 
bers of  the  society,  or  such  as  had  received  tickets 
from  the  preacher.  Members  who  neglected  their 
class-meetings  were  liable  to  expulsion,  and  also 
members  who  married  *unawakened  persons* — 
rules  that  have  gone  by  the  board  long  since. 

During  the  national  period  the  growth  of 
Methodism  has  been  extraordinary.  Ite  polity  is 
vigorous  yet  elastic,  and  provides  for  close  super- 
vision of  all  parts  of  the  field.  This  it  does  by 
reviving  the  apostolate  or  apostolic  episcopate, 
and  adapting  it  to  present  day  needs.  Itineracy 
has  given  it  the  opportunity  to  meet  the  im- 
migrant face  to  face  while  establishing  his  family 
in  their  new  home,  and  it  has  thus  been  able  to 
proclaim  the  Gospel  everywhere  on  American 
soil.  But  this  would  have  been  impossible  with- 
out a  band  of  preachers  alert,  brave,  consecrated, 
self-sacrificing,  ready  to  go  anywhere  with  the 
message  of  salvation.  Perhaps  history  has  never 
seen  a  truer  type  of  home  missionary  than  the 
itinerant  preachers  of  Methodism.  Ready  to  obey 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METHODISH. 


386 


METHODISM. 


orders  like  the  Jesuits,  strcMig  to  preach  like  the 
Dominicans,  they  have  gone  everywhere,  thread- 
ing forests,  fording  and  swimming  rivers,  making 
friends  with  Indians  or  with  chance  settlers, 
traveling  through  parishes  a  hundred  miles  or 
more  in  extent,  meeting  their  appointments  with 
the  regularity  of  a  machine,  running  the 
gauntlet  of  all  kinds  of  dangers.  These  men  of 
the  first  generations  of  Methodists  revived  the 
earliest  traditions  of  Christianity.  The  emphasis 
put  on  preaching  has  been  another  cause  of  suc- 
cess. Necessarily  deficient  in  learning,  the 
preachers  made  up  for  that  by  study  (a  course 
of  study  was  early  prescribed),  reading,  and  con- 
tact with  men.  fiut  they  learned  above  all  to  be 
preachers— ready,  powerful,  interesting  extempo- 
raneous preachers.  Emphasis  on  religioijs  ex- 
perience, personal  knowledge  of  Christ,  and  vic- 
tory over  all  sin,  gave  both  preachers  and  people 
a  buoyant,  triumphant  life,  and  this  sense  of 
reality  and  power  invested  the  pulpit  with  au- 
thority and  fascination,  and  its  people  with  a 
vitalizing  influence  over  others.  At  a  time  when 
the  prevailing  type  of  Christianitv  was  Cal- 
viniatic,  the  Methodists  came  with  the  Gospel  of 
a  free,  full  and  present  salvation,  which  they 
preached  with  tremendous  earnestness  and  with- 
out philosophical  refinements.  Methodism  has 
therefore  been  a  revival  Church. 

The  government  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  was  completely  in  the  hands  of  the 
preachers,  who  received  their  appointments  an- 
nually from  the  superintendents,  who  were  thus 
invested  with  large  legal  and  indefinite  moral 
power.  This  excessive  clericalism  was  the  occa- 
sion of  the  first  two  schisms.  James  O'Kelly,  an 
earnest  Irishman  of  warm  piety  and  strong  per- 
sonality, tried  to  have  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
Conference  recognized  in  the  case  of  a  preacher 
who  felt  oppressed  by  an  appointment  by  the 
bishop,  and,  failing  in  this,  led  a  schism  in 
Virginia  in  1792.  He  organized  the  Republican 
Methodist  Churchy  which  was  finally  absorbed 
by  other  movements.  Of  greater  significance  was 
the  agitation  to  admit  laymen  into  the  Church 
councils,  which,  being  refused  by  the  General 
Conference  of  1824,  led  to  a  new  Church,  in  1828, 
which  took  the  name  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church  in  1830.  This  Church  repudiated  the 
episcopate,  gave  laymen  their  full  rights,  and 
thus  disent«mgled  Methodism  from  hierarchical 
methods. 

To  many  minds  at  one  time  slavery  seemed 
the  article  of  a  standing  or  falling  Church.  At 
the  beginning  Methodism  had  taken  strong 
ground  against  slavery,  but  exigencies  of  the 
work  in  the  Southern  States  led  to  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  old  ground.  The  anti-slavery  men  of 
the  North  would  not  yield,  however,  and  in  1843 
organized  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Connection  at 
Utica,  N.  Y.  In  government  they  are  similar  to 
the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  They  hold 
stricter  ground  in  regard  to  secret  societies  and 
intemperance  than  the  old  Church.  The  great 
division  on  slavery  was  that  in  1844-45,  in  con- 
nection with  the  case  of  Bishop  James  O.  Andrew, 
who  had  married  a  slave-holding  wife.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  organ- 
ized, taking  most  of  the  societies  in  the  South. 
This  Church  has  the  same  laws  and  customs  as 
the  elder  body,  with  some  modification  of  the 
disciplinary  provisions.  The  latest  division  of 
consequence  was  that  in  Western  New  York  in 


1860,  when  the  Free  Methodist  Church  was  or- 
ganized, a  reaction  toward  the  strenuous  ideals 
of  primitive  Methodism  in  regard  to  secret  so- 
cieties, plainness  of  dress,  the  use  of  tobacco,  and 
in  the  interests  of  positive  Christian  teaching 
and  practice.  Other  and  smaller  separations 
have  taken  place  prompted  by  a  desire  either  for 
a  more  democratic  or  for  a  purer  Christianity,  or 
both,  the  latest  being  the  organization  of  the 
Independent  Methodist  Church,  at  Newark,  N.  J., 
in  1900. 

Colored  Methodism  has  had  free  course  in  the 
United  States.  Housed  at  first  in  the  parent 
Church,  the  colored  people  came  out  in  Philadel- 
phia under  Richard  Allen  in  1816,  and  organized 
the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  Four 
years  later  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 
Church  was  organized  in  New  York.  The  Col- 
ored Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  America 
was  organized  by  action  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South,  December  16,  1870.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  colored  con- 
ferences in  the  South,  but  she  had  never  elected  a 
colored  bishop  since  the  death  of  Francis  Burns 
in  1863,  until  1904,  when  Scott  was  elected 
Missionary  Bishop  of  Africa. 

The  struggle  for  the  rights  of  laymen  in 
America  has  been  similar  to  that  in  England. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  not  only 
(since  1869)  admits  laymen  to  the  General  Con- 
ference in  equal  numbers,  but  admits  four  lay- 
men from  every  district  in  the  Annual  Confer- 
ence. The  African  Churches  do  the  same.  After 
the  organization  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church,  1828-30,  the  agitation  rested  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  imtil  1852.  But  it 
was  not  until  1872  that  that  Church  granted  place 
to  laymen  in  her  supreme  council;  and  then  only 
to  the  extent  of  two  laymen  from  each  Annual 
Conference,  which  gave  the  preponderance  to  the 
ministers  three  to  one.  In  1900  the  ratio  of  rep- 
resentation was  made  equal. 

Canada.  The  Palatines,  who  did  so  much  for 
Irish  Methodism  and  who  founded  the  Church  in 
the  New  World,  were  also  the  organizers  of  the 
first  class  in  Canada — at  Augusta,  Ontario,  in 
1778.  In  fact,  it  was  the  same  Paul  and  Barbara 
Heck,  their  sons  and  relatives,  and  the  widow  and 
son  of  Philip  Embury,  who  constituted  that  class. 
George  Neaf,  a  school  teacher  in  the  Niagara  dis- 
trict, preached  to  the  people  on  Sunday  and  on 
week  evenings  after  1786,  and  gathered  his  con- 
verts into  classes.  He  kept  up  this  work  for 
years,  but  was  not  ordained  until  1810.  William 
Losee  was  the  first  itinerant  minister.  He 
preached  in  and  around  Kingston  in  1790  and 
following  years,  and  in  1791  and  thereafter  Can- 
ada was  regularly  supplied  with  ministers  from 
the  United  States.  In  1800  there  were  one  dis- 
trict, four  circuits,  seven  preachers,  and  936 
members.  Relations  with  the  Episcopalians  were 
not  always  friendly.  Canada  was  a  part  of  the 
Genesee  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  until  1824,  when  the  Canada  Conference 
was  organized.  In  1828  the  Church  was  made 
independent  and  became  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  Canada.  The  English  Methodists  be- 
gan work  in  Montreal  in  1814,  extended  it  into 
Ontario  in  1818,  and  took  over  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  1832,  though  the  latter  re- 
sumed an  independent  existence  in  1834.  Metho- 
dism in  the  eastern  provinces  was  founded  by 
the  apostolic  William  Black,  a  notable  figure> 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METHODISM. 


887 


METHODISM. 


who  began  his  work  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1782. 
Other  branches  of  English  Methodism  were  like- 
wise  planted  in  Canada.  In  1874  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Church  of  the  Dominion  united  with 
the  New  Connection  Church,  and  in  1883  these 
united  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal,  Primitive 
Methodist,  and  Bible  Christian — ^making  one 
Methodism  in  Canada.  The  union  has  been  very 
successful.     There  aTe  also  colored  churches. 

Australia.  Two  schoolmasters  and  farmers, 
who  were  sent  out  from  England  to  take  charge 
of  the  convict  schools,  established  the  first  class, 
in  Sydney,  March  6,  1812.  They  soon  applied 
for  a  missionary  and  in  1815  Samuel  Leigh,  the 
Apostle  of  Australia,  landed  and  took  up  the 
work.  Others  followed,  and  wonderful  success  at- 
tended their  labors,  often  wrought  with  heroic 
«elf -sacrifice  and  bravery.  In  1820  Methodism 
went  to  Tasmania,  1822  to  the  Friendly  Islands, 
1823  to  New  Zealand,  1835  to  the  Fiji  Islands, 
1838  to  South  Australia,  and  1839  to  Western 
Australia.  In  1854  all  the  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Churches  were  united  in  one  conference  (includ- 
ing New  Zealand ),  and  in  1873  those  of  Tasmania 
and  the  South  Sea  Islands  were  united  with  these, 
making  the  Australasian  Church.  The  Primitive 
Methodist  and  other  English  Methodist  denom- 
inations were  also  established  in  Australia,  but 
in  1900-02  these  all  united  with  the  Wesleyans, 
making  one  Methodism  in  the  South  Pacific. 

Missions.  All  the  Methodist  Churches  sus- 
tain ejttended  missionary  operations,  but  it  is 
impossible  here  to  do  justice  to  their  work.  A 
society  was  gathered  in  Sierra  Leone  in  1792, 
and  in  1811  the  Wesleyan  Conference  sent  George 
Warren  as  the  first  missionary  to  Africa. 
Churches  have  been  established  among  both  na- 
tives and  Europeans,  and  in  1884  William  Tay- 
lor opened  up  the  Congo  country.  Bishop  Hartzell 
has  done  much  toward  coordinating  the  work  over 
a  vast  territory  with  the  progress  of  civilization. 
In  1814  Thomas  Coke,  with  six  missionaries, 
foiuided  the  first  Methodist  missions  in  Asia, 
which  have  realized  great  results.  The  American 
Church  sent  Melville  B.  Cox  to  Africa  in  1833, 
and  William  Butler  founded  missions  in  India 
in  1856,  which  have  recently  achieved  notable 
results  among  the  peasants  of  North  India — the 
natives  coming  into  Christianity  faster  than  they 
can  be  cared  for.  In  1873  Butler  also  began  work 
in  Mexico,  where  hospitals,  schools,  and  churches 
have  been  established.  William  Taylor  also 
did  a  great  work  in  India  and  Bishop  James  M. 
Thoburn  ranks  with  William  Butler  and  William 
Taylor  for  efficiency,  enthusiasm,  and  influence 
in  India.  Numerous  missions  exist  in  South 
America.  Scandinavia  has  proved  a  good  soil 
for  Methodism;  even  Finland  has  been  entered, 
and  Switzerland  has  several  societies.  In  1900 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  made  John 
H.  Vincent  resident  Bishop  in  Europe,  where 
there  are  already  five  conferences.  Mission  work 
in  China  has  had  marv^elous  success,  considering 
the  circumstances,  where  various  Methodist  bodies 
are  working  in  harmony.  In  Japan,  efforts  have 
been  made  to  merge  the  Methodist  denominations 
into  a  single  Japanese  Church.  In  1900  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  to  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Education.  It  was  not  till  1834  that  it  was 
decided  to  open  institutions  for  the  training  of 
ministers,  and  even  then  amid  much  opposition, 
partly  on  account  of  fear  of  loss  of  the  old 
spirituality,    freshness,    and    independence,    and 


partly  on  account  of  the  preponderating  influ- 
ence of  Bunting.  In  1834  an  institution  was 
opened  at  Hoxton,  London,  removed  to  Richmond^ 
Surrey,  in  1843;  another  was  opened  in  Stoke 
Newington  in  1839,  merged  ip  the  Richmond 
school  in  1843.  The  Didsbury  institution  near 
Manchester  received  students  in  1842;  that  at 
Headingly,  near  Leeds,  in  1868;  that  at  Hands- 
worth,  near  Birmingham,  in  1891.  These  schools 
are  both  academic  and  theological,  and  not  on 
the  grade  of  American  theological  seminaries. 
These,  as  well  as  Wesley  College  for  boys  at  Shef- 
field, the  Leys  school  in  Cambridge,  and  Trinity 
College,  Taunton,  are  in  connection  with  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Church,  which  also  supports 
a  svstem  of  day  schools  having  159,000  scholars 
and  an  annual  expenditure  of  £259,000,  with 
training  colleges  for  teachers  in  Westminster  and 
Southlands.  In  Ireland  there  are  Wesley  College^ 
Publin,  and  the  Belfast  Methodist  College.  In 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  there  are  three 
theological  institutions  and  ten .  colleges.  The 
Primitive  Methodists  have  a  college  for  min- 
isters at  Manchester,  and  colleges  for  youths  in 
York  and  Birmingham.  The  New  Connection 
Church  has  a  theological  institution  at  Ranmoor^ 
near  Sheffield,  opened  in  1864.  The  Bible  Chris- 
tians have  Shebbear  College  at  Highampton^ 
Devon,  and  a  girls'  school  at  Edgehill. 

In  America  Cokesbury  College  was  opened  at 
Abingdon,  Md.,  in  1787.  After  eight  years  of 
vicissitudes  it  was  burned.  It  was  rebuilt,  but 
was  burned  again  in  1797.  In  1817  an  academy 
was  built  at  Newmarket,  N.  H.,  closed  December 
30,  1823,  but  opened  again  at  Wilbraham,  Mass., 
iNovember  5,  1825.  The  oldest  academy  having  a 
continuous  existence  is  at  Kent's  Hill,  Maine, 
founded  in  1821.  Cazenovia  Seminary,  at  Caze- 
novia,  X.  Y.,  was  founded  in  1825.  The  oldest 
college  is  Wesleyan  University  (1831),  at  Mid- 
dletown.  Conn.  Between  1820  and  1847  academies 
and  colleges  furnished  all  the  education  received 
in  school  in  theological  branches  by  candidates 
for  the  ministry,  and  that  was  meagre,  as  class- 
ical and  scientific  studies  necessarily  predomi- 
nated. There  was  in  fact  a  deep-seated  prejudice 
against  theological  schools,  lest  they  should  be- 
come centres  of  heresy,  as  well  as  deprive  men  of 
that  spirituality,  earnestness,  and  self-sacrifice 
which  characterized  early  Methodist  preachers. 
It  was  not  till  1840  that  the  first  theological  in- 
stitution was  opened,  that  at  Newbury,  Vt.,  re- 
moved to  Concord,  X.  H.,  in  1847,  to  Boston  in 
1807,  and  incorporated  in  Boston  University  in 
1871.  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  at  Evanston,  111., 
now  in  connection  with  Northwestern  University 
(the  largest  university  in  Methodism),  began  in 
1856,  and  Drew  Theological  Seminary  at  Madi- 
son, N.  J.,  in  1867.  Gammon  Theological  Sem- 
inary, for  colored  preachers,  was  founded  in 
South  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  1883,  and  the  Grant 
University  School  of  Theology,  for  whites,  at 
Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  began  work  in  1886.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  25  theological 
institutions,  56  colleges  and  universities,  60 
classical  seminaries,  8  women's  seminaries  and 
colleges,  99  foreign  mission  schools,  and  4  mis- 
sionary training  schools.  There  are  important 
schools  for  classical  and  theological  instruction 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  and  Bareilly,  India, 
and  smaller  schools  in  other  mission  fields.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  reports  147 
schools  and   colleges,   one  of   the   largest   being- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METHODISM. 


388 


METHODISM. 


Vanderbilt  University  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  with 
a  theological  school,  organized  in  1875.  The 
Methodist  Protestant  Church  has  colleges  at 
Adrian,  Mich.  ( 1859 ;  theological  department, 
1 882 )  ;  Westminster,  Md.  (1868;  theological 
department,  1882)  ;  and  Kansas  City,  Kan. 
(1896).  The  Free  Methodists  have  a  college  at 
Greenville,  111.,  and  seminaries  at  North  Chili, 
N.    Y.;    Spring   Arbor,    Mich.;    Orleans,    Neb.; 


dist  Quarterly  in  1889  (merged  in  the  Methodist 
Magazine y  Toronto,  in  1896.  The  oldest  official 
weekly  in  American  Methodism  is  The  Christian 
Advocate  of  New  York,  founded  in  1826. 

Statistics.  According  to  the  latest  figures 
obtainable  the  statistics  of  Methodist  communi- 
cants in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Australasia,  and 
Canada  in  1906  and  in  the  United  States  for 
1905  were  as  follows: 


FoBBMir  Cowraim  (1906) 


Dbtomiiiatioiis 


Wesleyan  Methodists : 

Oreftt  Britain 

Ireland 

Foreign  MiBaioua 

French  Conference 

Bonth  African  Conference 

Methodist  New  Connection  (Home) 

"  •'  *•  (Foreign) 

Independent  Methodist  Churches 

Wesleyan  Reform  Union 

Bible  Christians  (Home) 

(Foreign) 

Primitive  Methodists  (Home) 

»*  "  (Foreign) 

United  Methodist  Free  Churches  (Home). . 
'♦  "        (Foreign) 

Australasia  Methodist  Church 

The  Methodist  Church  of  Canada 

Grand  Total 


Ministers 

Preachers 

2,399 

19,519 

269 

600 

637 

[2,661] 

41 

76 

235 

6,195 

204 

1,123 

9 

163 

399 

17 

630 

205 

1,534 

13 

7 

1,101 

16,963 

52 

246 

424 

2,979 

33 

397 

949 

4,466 

2499 

2,416 

9,176 

57,865 

Church 
Members  and 
Probationers 


536,612 

29,376 

129,302 

1,673 

111,338 

42,317 

4,372 

9,147 

8,689 

33,000 

1,378 

205,407 

4,766 

85,603 

17,416 

146,805 

317,717 


1,683,918 


Sunday 
Schools 


7,547 

355 

[1,611] 

58 

722 

468 

45 

161 

177 

677 

3 

4,133 

72 

1,237 

108 

3,972 

3,552 


24,778 


Officers 

and 
Teachers 


133,731 

2,741 

10,399 

200 

3,002 

11,085 

44 

3,104 

2,808 

7,527 

11 

60,691 

568 

25,037 

431 

24,816 

34,558 

320,753 


Sunday 
Scholars 


Churches, 
etc. 


1,013,391 

26,046 

146,303 

1,734 

39,497 

88,522 

542 

28,046 

22,323 

46,741 

660 

473,837 

6,701 

194,862 

5,368 

234,054 

274,306 


2,600,832 


8,475 

2,091 

3,373 

131 

3,459 

465 

213 

153 

197 

644 

8 

4,906 

221 

1,331 

284 

6,106 

4,738 


36,694 


Tm  Unttsd  Statm  (1906) 


Mbthodists 


Methodist  Episcopal 

Union  American  Methodist  Episcopal 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 

African  Union  Methodist  Protestant , 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 

Methodist  Protestant 

Wesleyan  Methodist 

Methodist  Episcopal,  South , 

Congregational  Methodist 

Congregational  Methodist  (Colored) 

New  Congregational  Methodist 

Zion  Union  Apostolic 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal , 

PrimlUve.  > 

Free  Methodist  

Independent  Methodist > 

Evangelist  Missionary 

Total  MethodisU  in  the  United  States 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  in  foreign  fields 

Orand  Total 


Ministers 


17,409 

138 

6,190 

128 

3,669 

1,551 

402 

6,616 

415 

5 

238 

30 

2,299 

74 

1,044 

8 

72 


40,278 
1,117 


Churches 


27,340 

255 

5,321 

90 

3,161 

2,242 

666 

15,209 

425 

5 

417 

32 

2,376 

100 

1,068 

15 

47 


68,659 
1,761 


60,410 


Communicants 


2,910,779 

18,50C 

842,023 

3,887 

669,306 

183,894 

17.009 

1,595,014 

24,000 

319 

4,022 

2,346 

214,987 

6,976 

30,271 

2,569 

3,014 


6,429,815 
240,766 


6,(770,580 


Seattle,  Wash.;  Wessington  Springs,  S.  D.;  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.;  and  Evansville,  Wis.  Canada 
established  an  academy  at  Cobourg,  Ontario,  in 
183(j,  which  was  made  a  college  in  1841,  the  first 
degree-conferring  body  in  Ontario;  a  medical 
faculty  was  added  in  1854,  law  in  1860,  theology 
in  1871,  and  the  whole  (Victoria  University) 
removed  to  Toronto  in  1892.  The  Wesleyan 
Theological  College,  Montreal,  was  establisned 
in  1873,  and  the  Mount  Allison  College,  Sack- 
ville,  N.  B.,  in  1859.  There  are  several  acad- 
omjes  and  female  colleges. 

.Journalism  and  Publishing  Interests.  There 
are  many  weekly  and  monthly  periodicals.  The 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Maga^irie,  London^  was  es- 
tablished under  the  name  of  tlie  Arminian  Maga- 
zine in  1778,  the  London  Quarterly  Revieio  in 
1853,  the  Primitive  Methodist  Quarterly  in  1858, 
the  Methodist  Review,  New  York,  in  1818  (quar- 
terly, 1830,  bi-monthly,  1885),  the  Methodist  Re- 
viciCy  Nashville,  1847,  and  the  Canadian  Metho- 


Bibliography.  Theology:  Pope,  Theology  (new 
ed.,  enl.,  London,  1875-7G)  ;  Miley,  Systematic 
Theology  (New  York,  1893);  Banks,  Ele- 
ments of  Theology  (London,  1887);  Sheldon, 
Christian  Theology  (Boston,  1901);  Burwash, 
Systematic  Theology  (London,  1901);  Tigert, 
editor.  Doctrines  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  America  (Cincinnati,  1902);  Lidgett, 
The  Fatherhood  of  God  (Edinburgh,  1902); 
Polity:  Williams,  Constitution  and  Polity  of 
Wesleyan  Methodism  (London,  1882)  ;  Gregory, 
Handbook  of  Wesleyan  Methodist  Polity  and 
History  (London,  1888);  Rigg,  Church  Organ- 
ization (London,  1887;  3d  ed.,  enl.,  1900)  ;  Per- 
rine,  Principles  of  Church  Government  (New 
York,  1887)  ;  Rigg,  Comparative  Mac  of  Church 
Organizations  (3d  ed.,  London,  1900)  ;  Bar- 
clay, editor,  Constitution  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Churches  in  America  (Nashville,  1902). 
History:  Histories  of  Methodism,  by  Stevens 
(3    vols.,   London,    1858-61;    supp.    vol.,    1900); 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


METHODISH. 


889 


METHYL. 


George  Smith  (London,  1857-62),  able,  but  par- 
tisan for  Wesleyanism  in  treatment  of  late 
separations;  McTyeire  (Xashville,  1884);  Hyde 
(New  York,  1887).  Histories  of  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church:  Bangs  (New  York,  1839-41)  ; 
Stevens  (New  York,  1864-67;  supp.  vol.  1899); 
Buckley,  History  of  Methodism  in  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1897);  Basset,  History  of 
the  Methodist  Protestant  Church  (Pittsburg, 
1878;  3d  ed.,  rev.  and  enl.,  1887);  Atkinson, 
Centennial  History  of  American  Methodism  ( New 
York,  1884) ;  Tigert,  Constitutional  History  of 
Arnerican  Episcopal  Methodism  (Nashville, 
1894) ;  Drinkhouse,  History  of  Methodist  Re- 
form (Baltimore,  1900)  ;  Atkinson,  Beginnings 
of  Wesleyan  Movement  in  America  (New  York, 
1896).  Special  topics:  Slater,  Methodism  in  the 
Light  of  the  Early  Church  (London,  1885); 
Cummings,  Early  Schools  of  Methodism  (New 
York,  1886 )  ;  Green,  Mission  of  Methodism 
(London,  1890)  ;  Neely,  Evolution  of  Episcopacy 
and  Organic  Methodism  (New  York,  1888)  ; 
and  Governing  Conference  of  Methodism  (New 
York,  1892) ;  Stephens,  Wesley  and  Episcopacy 
(Pittsburg,  1892)  ;  Crooks,  Life  of  Bishop  Simp- 
son (New  York,  1890)  ;  Lanahan,  Era  of  Frauds 
in  the  Methodist  Book  Concern,  New  York  (Bal- 
timore, 1896)  ;  Tigert,  The  Making  of  Methodism 
(Nashville,  1898) ;  Oliver,  Our  Lay  Office  Bearers 
(Cincinnati,  1902). 

METHODIST  CHTTBCHy  Free.  See  Meth- 
odism. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHUBCH.  See 
Methodism. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH, 
South.    See  Methodism. 

METHODIST   NEW   CONNECTION.      See 
Methodism. 
METHODIST    PBOTESTANT    CHURCH. 

See  Methodism. 

METHODIUS  (also  called  Eubuijus)  ( ?- 
C.311).  A  noted  Greek  theologian  of  the  third 
century,  a  martyr  and  Church  father.  He  was 
Bishop  of  Olympus  in  Lycia  and  perhaps  of  Tyre. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Porphyry  and  suffered 
martyrdom  about  311.  Epiphanius  calls  him 
"a  very  learned  man,  and  a  strenuous  asserter  of 
the  truth.*'  He  vigorously  opposed  Origen.  Of 
his  numerous  works,  which  are  mostly  dialogues, 
several  exist  complete  either  in  Greek  or  Syriac, 
the  most  important  being  the  Banquet^  a  Chris- 
tian counterpart  to  Plato's  Symposium.  It  is  in 
Migne,  Patrol.  Qrceca,  xviii.,  and  has  been  edited 
by  Bonwetsch  ( I^ipzig,  1891 )  ;  there  is  an  English 
translation  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (vol.  vi.). 

METHODIUS.  The  apostle  to  the  Slavs.  See 
Ctbil  and  Methodius. 

METHOD  OF  CHABACTEBISTICS.  See 
Charactebistic. 

METHOD  OF  DIFFEBENCE  (in  logic). 
See  Induction. 

METHUENy  m*-thti'en.  A  town  in  Essex 
County,  Mass.,  30  miles  north  of  Boston,  on 
the  Spicket  River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railroad  (Map:  Massachusetts,  E  2).  It  is  a 
handsome  residential  town,  and  has  the  Nevins 
Memorial  Library  and  the  Nevins  House  for 
Aged  and  Incurables.  There  are  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  yarns,  etc.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  by  town  meetings.     First 


settled  about  1641,  Methuen  was  part  of  Haver- 
hill until  1725,  when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  sep- 
arate town.    Population,  1900,  7512;  1905,  8676. 

METHUEN,  me-tOn',  Paul  Sanfobd  Me- 
thuen, Baron  ( 1845 — ) .  An  English  general,  bom 
at  Corsham  (jourt,  Wiltshire,  and  educated  at 
Eton.  He  entered  the  army  in  1864  as  lieutenant 
of  the  Scota  Guards;  served  in  the  second  cam- 
paign of  the  Ashanti  War  in  1874,  and  after  four 
years  as  attache  in  Berlin  became  assistant  quar- 
termaster-general for  the  Home  District  in  1881. 
In  the  Egyptian  War  (1882)  he  was  staff  officer 
and  quartermaster-general,  and  in  Bechuanaland 
in  1884-85  he  won  a  C.M.G.  From  1892  to  1897 
he  was  commander  of  the  Home  District,  and 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Boer  War  was  put  at  the 
head  of  the  first  of  Buller*s  three  divisions,  to 
relieve  Kimberley.  He  was  entirely  unsuccess- 
ful in  this  attempt,  being  severely  checked  and 
wounded  at  Modder  River,  and,  a  week  after, 
November  30,  1899,  losing  in  a  frontal  attack  on 
Magersfontein  nearly  1000  men.  He  retired  to 
Modder  River.  Methuen,  together  with  Hunter, 
formed  the  left  in  Lord  Roberts's  victorious 
movement  on  Pretoria  in  May  and  June,  1900.  In 
March,  1902,  he  was  captured  by  De  la  Rey  and 
Kemp  on  the  way  from  Vryburg  to  Lichtenburg. 
The  troops  were  almost  immediately  released,  and 
with  them  Lord  Methuen,  who  had  been  wounded 
in  the  brief  engagement.  He  was  made  general 
officer,   commanding   in   chief,   in    1905. 

METHUEN  TEEATY.  A  treaty  concluded 
May  16,  1703,  between  England  and  Portugal. 
Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession  Portugal  agreed  to  support  Eng- 
land against  France,  and  hence  a  formal  treaty 
was  negotiated  by  Sir  Paul  Methuen,  the  English 
Ambassador  at  Lisbon.  Politically  this  treaty 
had  the  effect  of  making  Portugal  the  devoted 
political  adherent  of  England  for  more  than  a 
century.  In  its  commercial  aspects  the  treaty 
is  almost  still  more  interesting.  The  wines  of 
Portugal  were  to  be  admitted  into  England  upon 
the  payment  of  a  duty  33%  per  cent,  less  than 
the  duty  paid  upon  '  French  wines.  For  this 
England  received  proportionate  advantages.  The 
result  was  that  for  generations  the  English  gen- 
try were  addicted  to  the  drinking  of  port,  the 
Portuguese  wine. 

METHUSELAH.  According  to  Gen.  v.  21- 
27,  son  of  Enoch  and  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Seth,  who  attained  to  the  age  of  969  years  and 
hence  has  become  known  as  the  *oldest  man  who 
ever  lived.'  The  list  of  ten  antediluvian  patri- 
archs in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Genesis  is  thought 
by  modern  scholars  to  have  some  relationship  to 
the  legendary  list  of  ten  dynasties  who  ruled 
Babylonia  before  the  flood  and  which  Berosus 
embodied  in  his  Babylonian  history.  The  name 
Methuselah  is  composed  of  two  elements,  Methu 
(=  Babylonian  mutu),  'man,*  and  Shelah\  prob- 
ably the  name  of  a  deity ;  though  in  regard  to  all 
the  names  in  Gen.  v.,  we  cannot  be  certain  that 
the  traditional  forms  have  been  correctly  pre- 
served. Consult  Zimmem,  KeilinschHften  und 
das  alte  Testament,  pp.  535-543   (Berlin,  1902). 

METHY.     The  burbot   (q.v.). 

METHYL  (from  Gk.  fiidv^  methy,  mead  -h 
IJXiy,  hyU,  wood),  CH«.  The  simplest  monovalent 
radicle  found  in  carbon  compounds.  Like  any 
other  radicle,  it  is  a  group  of  atoms  that  can- 
not exist  independently,  and  that  remains  imde- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METHYL. 


890 


METONIC  CYCLE. 


composed  during  many  chemical  transformations 
of  the  substances  whose  molecules  contain  it. 
See  Cabbon  Compound;  Chemistby  (historical 
section). 

METHYL  ALCOHOL,  Wood  Alcohol,  or 
Pyeoxtlio  Spimt,  CHgOH.  A  colorless  liquid 
having  a  peculiar  aromatic  odor.  It  boils  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  ordinary  alcohol,  and, 
like  the  latter,  mixes  with  water  in  all  propor- 
tions. It  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnishes  and  for  the  preparation  of  'methylated 
spirit'  (q.v.).  Methyl  alcohol  is  one  of  the 
products  obtained  when  wood  is  heated  in  retorts, 
out  of  contact  with  the  air.  It  is  contained  in 
the  aqueous  portion  of  the  distillate,  mixed  with 
pyroligneous  (crude  acetic)  acid,  ammonia, 
acetone,  etc.  To  separate  the  acid,  the  mixture  is 
neutralized  with  slaked  lime  and  distilled,  the 
acid  then  remaining  fixed  as  calcium  acetate. 
Ammonia  may  be  eliminated  in  a  similar  man- 
ner,  by  adding  sulphuric  acid  and  distilling. 
Further,  to  separate  the  alcohol  from  acetone 
(which  is  especially  objectionable  if  the  alcohol 
is  to  be  used  m  the  manufacture  of  aniline  dyes) , 
oxalic  acid  may  be  added  to  the  mixture  and  a 
gentle  heat  applied.  Methyl  alcohol  acts  like 
a  weak  base ;  when  brought  in  contact  with  oxalic 
acid  it  forms  the  crystalline  solid  substance 
called  methyl  oxalate,  while  acetone  does  not 
react  with  oxalic  acid,  and  remains  in  solution. 
After  separating  the  solid  methyl  oxalate  from 
the  remaining  liquid,  methyl  alcohol  may  be  re- 
obtained  from  it  by  dissolving  it  in  potash  and 
distilling.  Finally,  the  alcohol  may  be  freed 
from  water  and  any  remaining  impurity  by  recti- 
fying it  over  quicklime.  Pure  methyl  alcohol 
may  be  distilled  from  commercial  wood  spirit 
after  the  addition  of  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of 
iodine  and  just  enough  caustic  soda  to  decolor- 
ize the  solution.  All  the  ordinary  impurities  of 
wood  spirit  are  thus  converted  into  iodoform. 
When  taken  into  the  stomach,  wood  alcohol  acts 
as  a  violent  poison.  A  peculiar  feature  of  its 
toxic  action  is  that  a  dose  insufficient  to  cause 
death  may  cause  complete  blindness. 

Methylated  Spirit.  Ethyl  alcohol  or  spirit  of 
wine  to  which  methyl  or  wood  alcohol  has  been 
added  to  render  it  unfit  for  use  in  beverages, 
is  used  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  ethyl  alcohol, 
since  the  manufacture  of  ordinary  alcohol  is 
heavily  taxed  by  most  governments.  In  1907  the 
United  States,  following  the  example  of  other 
countries,  removed  the  tax  from  alcohol  properly 
denatured  or  made  unfit  for  drinking,  and  as 
the  tax  of  $1.10  per  proof  gallon  (alcohol  % 
gal.,  water  ^^  gal.)  was  ten  times  the  cost  of 
production,  a  great  saving  to  users,  and  a  great 
extension  of  the  use  of  alcohol  resulted  (see 
Fuel).  The  formula  for  the  legally  denatured 
or  methylated  alcohol  is  100  parts  ethyl  alcohol, 
not  less  than  90%  pure,  10  parts  of  wood  spirits, 
and  one  ^  part  of  benzine.  This  mixture  is  al- 
most as  suitable  for  general  use  as  a  solvent  or 
fuel  in  burners  or  engines  as  the  pure  alcohol. 
In  cases  where  this  mixture  is  not  suitable,  such 
as  the  manufacture  of  many  chemicals  and  medi- 
cineB,  the  law  allows  the  manufacturer  to  obtain 
permission  to  use  special  denaturants. 

METHTLENE  BLUE.  An  aniline  dye,  oc- 
curring in  the  form  of  a  bluish,  finely  crystalline 
powder  with  a  bronze-like  lustre.  It  is  slightly 
soluble   in   water,   and   much    more   freely   upon 


the  addition  of  alcohol.  It  is  largely  used  as  a 
stain  for  pathological  and  normal  tissues  and  for 
specimens  of  blood.  It  has  proved  of  some  value 
in  the  treatment  of  gonorrhoea,  and  claims  are 
made  for  it  as  a  substitute  for  quinine  in  malaria. 

METHYLENE  (from  methyl)  DICHLO- 
BIDE,  or  Di-Chlobo-Methane,  CH,CU.  A  chem- 
ical compoimd  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  chlorine. 
It  can  be  obtained  by  the  direct  action  of  chlorine 
gas  on  methane  (marsh -gas),  or  by  the  action  of 
nascent  hydrogen  on  chloroform.  It  is  a  color- 
less heavy  liquid,  having  a  chloroform-like  odor. 
It  is  a  powerful  aneesthetic,  and  has  been  used  as 
a  substitute  for  chloroform.  Its  effect  on  the 
organism  is  more  even  than  that  of  similar 
anaesthetics. 

METIS.  The  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys 
and  wife  of  Zeus,  who  devoured  her  in  the  fear 
that  the  son  whom  she  should  bear  would  be 
more  powerful  than  himself. 

METTDBy  m&^t^us,  Adbiaan  (1571-1635).  A 
Dutch  geometer,  bom  at  Alkmaar.  He 
studied  law  and  medicine,  but  later  de- 
voted his  attention  to  astronomy,  and  from 
1598  until  his  death  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  University  of  Franeker.  His 
mathematical  works  include:  DoctrincB  Sphericcp 
Lihri  (1598)  ;  XJniversce  AstronomicB  Institutio 
(1605;  2d  ed.  1630);  Praxis  Nova  Oeometrioa 
(1623)  ;  Prohlemata  Astronomica  (1625)  ;  Caleiv- 
darium  Perpetuum  ( 1627 )  ;  Opera  Astronomica 
(1633)  ;  ArithTneticcB  Lihri  2,  et  Geometries  Lihri 
6  ,  .  .  Trigonometries  Planorum  Methodus {IQ26) ; 
De  Genvino  Utriusque  Glohi  Traetatus  (1624)  ; 
Primum  Mohile  Astronomioe,  etc,  (1631;  2d  ed. 
1632-33). 

METLAKAHTLA,  m6t'lA-ka^tl&  (properly 
Matlakhatla) ,  A  prosperous  mission  settlement 
of  ChimesyAn  or  Tsimshiftn  Indians,  on  an 
island  near  the  extreme  southern  end  of  Alaska. 
The  original  settlement  was  some  seventy  miles 
farther  south,  below  Port  Simpson,  on  the  main- 
land of  British  Columbia.  Here  the  Episcopal 
missionary  William  Dimcan  in  1862  established 
a  mission,  which  within  a  few  months  was 
joined  by  the  whole  body  of  -Indians  residing 
near  Port  Simpson,  and  prospered  so  rapidly  that 
in  1886  it  had  developed  into  a  town  of  1500 
civilized  Indians,  with  two-story  houses,  regular 
streets,  a  salmon  cannery,  a  sash  and  door  fac- 
tory, a  sawmill,  a  brickyard,  and  one  oi  the 
largest  churches  in  British  Columbia.  An  ex- 
tensive shawl-weaving  industry  was  also  carried 
on.  Unfortunately  the  British  Government  un- 
dertook to  place  the  Indians  of  the  town  under 
the  charge  of  an  agent  and  reduce  them  to  a 
reservation  status,  with  the  result  that  almost 
the  entire  settlement,  led  by  Duncan,  abandoned 
the  place  and  established  themselves  at  the  pres- 
ent location  in  United  States  territory,  where 
they  continue  to  maintain  their  advanced  civili- 
zation. The  original  settlement,  now  called  Old 
Metlakahtla,  is  almost  in  ruins,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  perhaps  100  souls  still  remaining. 

METONIC  CYCLE  (so  called  from  its  in- 
ventor, Meton,  who  flourished  at  Athens  about 
B.C.  432).  A  cycle  of  nineteen  years  of  236 
lunar  months,  or  6940  days,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  new  moon  falls  on  the  same  day  of 
the  year  as  it  did  at  the  beginning  of*  the 
cycle,  and  eclipses  recur  in  nearly  the  same 
order.     This  arises  from  the  circumstance  that 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XETONIC  CYCLE. 


891 


METBE. 


19  solar  years  are  nearly  equal  to  235  lunations, 
their  average  values  being  6939.68835  and 
6939.60249  days  respectively.  As  the  Greek 
States  reckoned  by  lunar  months,  and  on  this 
reckoning  depended  the  recurrence  of  many  re- 
ligious festivals,  while  on  the  other  hand  certain 
other  rites  were  connected  with  the  recurrence  of 
the  seasons^  there  was  a  constant  effort  to  bring 
the  solar  year  ( 365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  46 
seconds)  into  accord  with  the  period  of  twelve 
lunar  months  (354  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes, 
33.6  seconds) .  Before  Meton  the  favorite  cycle  was 
the  Octa^teris  (or,  as  it  was  sometimes  called, 
Enneateris) ,  of  eight  years  with  three  intercalary 
months  of  30  days.  The  inaccuracy  thus  arising 
was  removed  by  Meton,  who  in  the  period  of  19 
years  inserted  7  intercalary  months,  of  which  5 
had  30  and  2  had  29  days.  They  were  inserted 
in  the  3d,  6th,  8th,  11th,  14th,  17th,  and  19th 
years.  The  slight  inaccuracy  that  remained 
was  reduced  by  Callippus  about  a  century  later, 
by  combining  four  Metonic  periods  into  a  'great 
year*  of  76  calendar  years,  and  omitting  one  day 
in  the  intercalation,  obtaining  27,759  days.  The 
details  of  Meton's  cycle  are  not  very  clear,  and 
there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  among 
scholars  in  regard  to  them,  linger  places  the 
beginning  of  Meton's  cycle  on  July  16th,  b.c.  432; 
Oppert  on  July  28th,  B.C.  433.  It  is  agreed  that 
the  Callippic  cycle  began  June  29th,  e.g.  330. 
The  Attic  calendar,  as  laid  down  by  Unger,  is  as 
follows : 


rendu  de  VAcadimie  des  Inacriptiona  et  Bellea- 
Lettres  (Paris,  1898). 

METON^YMY  (Gk.  firrctyvfita,  metdnumia, 
change  of  name).  A  figure  of  rhetoric  by  which 
one  thing  is  put  for  another  to  which  it  bears  an 
important  relation,  as  a  part  for  the  whole,  the 
effect  for  the  cause,  the  abstract  for  the  concrete, 
etc.  For  example,  **Lying  lips  are  an  abomina- 
tion to  the  Lord." 

METOPE,  m6t'6-pe  (Lat.  metopa,  from  Gk. 
fAerdTTTfy  metope,  space  between  beam-ends,  from 
fierdy  meta,  between  -+-  ^tti^,  op^,  aperture).  The 
space  between  the  triglyphs  in  the  frieze  of  the 
Doric  order.  As  this  space  in  the  developed 
Greek  architecture  is  always  filled,  the  name  is 
generally  applied  to  the  thin  slab  thus  used.  This 
was  often  decorated  with  sculpture  in  high  relief, 
or  with  painting.  Even  where  sculpture  was 
used,  the  backgroimd  and  the  relief  seem  to  have 
been  painted  in  contrasting  colors. 

METBK  In  music,  the  division  of  a  compo- 
sition into  parts  whose  rhythm  is  similar  and 
whose  time  is  equal.  The  smallest  element  in 
metre  is  the  meaaure  (q.v.)  ;  a  section  comprises 
two  measures,  and  two  sections  make  a  phrase. 
The  largest  division  is  the  period,  which  consists 
of  two  phrases.  Theoretically  metre  differs  from 
rhythm  in  that  the  latter  deals  with  accents  and 
with  actual  and  typical  patterns  which  metre 
arranges  in  groups  in  accordance  with  their  time- 
value.     But  this  definition   is  not  universally 


Yeas  of  the  Cycle 


MONTHS 

I. 

II. 

IIL 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII, 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

Hecatombeon 

30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
80 

29 
30 
29 
30 
30 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

80 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 

80 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

ao 

29 
30 
29 
30 
30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
80 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 

29 
80 
29 
80 
80 
29 
30 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
80 

29 
80 
29 
30 
29 
30 

80 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 

80 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
80 
29 
30 

29 
80 
80 
29 
80 
29 

80 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 

30 

Meta^ltnion 

80 

Boedromion 

29 

Pyanepsion 

80 

Memacterion 

29 

PoseideoD 

80 

Poseldeon  II.  (in  leao  years) 

OamelioD 

29 

Antheeterion 

80 

ElaphebolloD 

29 

Hunychion 

80 

TbarK<elion 

29 

Scirophorion 

80 

Number  of  dajB  in  a  year 

365 

3S4 

8B4 

855 

354 

384 

854 

884 

854 

855 

IfOMTBS 


XI. 


XII.     xni.     XIV.     XV.     XVI.    XVII.  xviii.l  xix. 


Hecatombeon 

Hetageitnion 

Boedromion 

Pyanepsion 

Memacterion 

Poeeldeon 

Poseideon  II.  (in  leap  years).. 

Qamelion 

Antheffterlon 

Eiaphebolion 

Munychion 

Tharprelion..., 

Scirophorion 


29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 


29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
30 

29 
30 
80 
29 
30 
29 


30 
29 
30 
29 
80 
29 

30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 


30 
80 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
30 
29 


30 
29 
80 
80 
29 
30 

29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
80 


29 
30 
29 
30 
29 
80 

29 
30 
80 
29 
80 
29 


80 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
30 
29 
80 
30 
29 


80 
29 
80 
29 
30 
29 

81) 
29 
30 
29 
80 
29 


30 
29 
30 
30 
29 
30 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 
80 
29 


Number  of  days  in  a  year.. 


884 


854 


354 


884 


356 


854 


384 


354    I      384 


Consult:  Ideler,  Handhuch  der  Chronologic 
(Berlin,  1825-26)  ;  Boeckh,  Zur  Oeschichte  der 
Mondcyclen  der  Hellenen  (Leipzig,  1855)  ;  and 
Ueher  die  vierfdhrigen  8onnenkrei8e  der  Alien 
(Berlin,  1863) ;  A.  Mommsen,  Chronologic 
(Leipzig,  1883)  ;  A.  Schmidt,  Handhuch  der 
griechisohen  Chronologic  (ib.,  1888)  ;  Unger, 
**Zeitrechnung  der  Griechen  und  R<5mer,"  in  Mttl- 
ler's  Handhuch  der  klaasischen  Altertumsicissen- 
Bchaft,  vol.  i.  (Mimich,  1892)  ;  Oppert,  in  Compte 


accepted,  and  exactly  opposite  significations  are 
often  given  to  the  two  terms. 

METBE.  A  designation  applied  without  great 
precision  to  measured  or  rhythmic  language 
called  verse;  also  the  rhythmical  measure  of 
verse.  In  those  languages  whose  versification  de- 
pends not  only  on  the  number  of  feet  in  a  line, 
but  also  on  the  length  of  the  syllable  or  syllables 
in  each  foot,  metre  designates  both  the  charac- 
ter of  the  line  as  a  whole  and  that  of  the  feet 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HETBE. 


892 


XETBIC  gYSTEK. 


composing  the  line.  This  is  true,  for  example,  of 
Latin  and  of  Greek.  In  such  languages  as  do  not 
depend  on  the  length  of  individual  syllables  for 
their  verse  systems,  metre  applies  to  the  number 
of  stresses  or  beats  in  a  line,  or  on  the  number 
of  counted  syllables.  This  is  true,  for  example, 
of  the  Germanic  and  the  Romance  languages,  al- 
though attempts  have  been  made  to  employ  long 
and  short  syllables  as  in  the  ancient  languages. 
See  Versification. 

METRICAL  FOOT.  In  versification,  the 
designation  of  the  rhythmical  unit  in  a  verse. 
In  Greek  or  Latin  poetry  this  unit  may  be  com- 
posed of  one  or  more  syllables,  all  long,  or  short 
and  long,  in  various  arrangements,  as  the  spon- 
dee, dactyl,  anapwst,  etc.  In  the  Germanic 
and  Romance  languages  the  unit  may  be  a 
single  stressed  syllable,  or  a  combination  of 
a  stressed  and  one  or  more  imstressed  sylla- 
bles. The  metrical  foot  is  marked  here  not  by 
quantity  of  individual  syllables,  but  simply  by 
this  thesis  or  accentuation,  which  corresponds 
with  the  regular  accentual  system  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  not  necessarily,  as  in  Greek  or  Ro- 
man poetry,  with  a  long  syllable.     See  Vebsipi- 

CATION. 

METRIC  SYSTEM  (from  Lat.  metrum, 
from  Gk.  fi&rpov,  measure,  from  fierptlv^  to 
measure).  A  system  of  weights  and  measures 
invented  by  the  French  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  From  earliest  times,  civil- 
ized people  have  possessed  two  ideas  concern- 
ing their  standards  of  weights  and  measures: 
that  they  should  be  invariable,  and  that  their 
prototype  should  be  found  in  nature.  All  na- 
tions have  zealously  guarded  their  standards. 
The  Hebrews  deposited  theirs  in  their  temples, 
the  Romans  preserved  theirs  in  the  Temple  of 
Jupiter;  Justinian  standardized  the  weights  and 
measures  of  the  Empire  and  deposited  them  in 
a  church  in  Constantinople.  Dagobert  (died  in 
638)  kept  the  standards  of  the  Franks  in  the 
King's  palace,  and  modem  nations  preserve  their 
units  in  special  archives  at  their  capital  cities. 

Great  diversity  in  the  kinds  of  units  and  in 
the  size  of  the  same  units  has  always  character- 
ized systems  of  measures.  As  early  as  1558 
Henry  II.  tried  to  correct  the  standard  units 
of  France,  and  a  Gabriel  Mouton,  vicar  of  Saint 
Paul  at  Lyons  proposed  in  1670  a  system 
remarkably  similar  to  the  metric  system  of  to- 
day. But  not  until  1790  did  the  French  Gov- 
ernment undertake  the  making  of  a  new  system. 
For  this  purpose  a  committee  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  was  appointed  under  the  authority 
of  the  National  Assembly  and  sanctioned  by 
Louis  XVI.  The  committee  consisted  of  Borda, 
Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and  Condorcet.  Of 
the  three  linear  bases  profK)sed,  the  length  of  a 
seconds  pendulum,  a  quarter  of  the  terrestrial 
equator,  and  a  quarter  of  a  terrestrial  meridian, 
the  committee  reported  in  favor  of  the  last,  one 
ten-millionth  of  which  should  be  the  standard 
unit  of  linear  measure.  Delambre  and  M{»ehain 
were  appointed  to  measure  the  meridional  distance 
from  Dunkirk  to  Barcelona,  the  same  task  which 
Cassini  had  undertaken  in  1669.  This  task,  diffi- 
cult in  itself,  was  made  the  more  so  by  the  politi- 
cal revolutions  of  the  times,  and  required  seven 
years  for  its  completion.  The  finally  computed 
length  of  the  terrestrial  quadrant  was  in  part 
verified  by  a  comparison  with  a  similar  result 


found  by  Bouguer  and  La  Gondamine  in  Peru 
(1736).  The  length,  expressed  in  English  meas- 
ure, is  32,808,992  feet.  Sir  John  Herschel  has 
since  estimated  the  quadrant  to  be  32,813,000 
feet,  which  makes  the  meter  1-208  of  an  inch 
shorter  than  one  ten-millionth  of  a  meridional 
quadrant.  In  1793  a  temporary  commission  of 
twelve  was  appointed,  with  Borda  as  president,, 
to  make  a  comparison  of  all  the  units  then  used 
in  France,  and  to  determine  the  kinds  and  com- 
position of  the  metals  to  be  used  in  constructing 
the  new  standard  units,  their  forms  of  construc- 
tion, and  finally  the  place  and  means  of  their 
preservation.  In  1798  the  European  States  were 
invited  to  send  representatives  to  a  conference  at 
Paris,  the  object  being  to  examine  the  work  exe- 
cuted during  the  preceding  eight  years  by  the 
various  commissions.  Nine  States  responded. 
Their  delegates,  together  with  the  ten  French 
commissioners,  were  divided  into  committees, 
which  reviewed  the  work  so  far  accomplished. 

On  June  22,  1799,  the  standard  units,  the 
meter  and  kilogram,  were  presented  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Five  Hundred,  and  deposited  in  the  archives 
at  Paris.  In  December  of  the  same  year  the 
Council  adopted  these  standards.  The  use  of  the 
new  system,  however,  was  not  made  obligatory  in 
all  departments  until  1837. 

The  hope  of  the  inventors  of  the  metric  sys- 
tem, that  it  would  become  the  universal  system 
of  all  civilized  nations,  seems  likely  to  be  realized, 
for,  in  one  century,  its  use  has  been  made 
obligatory  in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Bel- 
gium, Brazil,  Chile,  Argentina,  Spain,  France, 
Greece,  Italy,  Mexico,  the  Netherlands,  Peru, 
Portugal,  Rumania,  Servia,  Norway  and 
Sweden,  Switzerland,  and  Venezuela;  its  use  has 
been  legalized  in  Egypt,  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  Japan,  Russia,  and  Turkey.  The  popula- 
tions comprised  in  these  two  lists  x)f  nations  are 
about  equal,  each  being  nearly  300  millions. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce 
the  French  system  in  the  United  States  or  to 
adopt  a  similar  system.  On  January  15,  1790^ 
Congress  ordered  the  Secretary  of  State,  Thomaa 
Jefferson,  to  prepare  a  imiform  system  of  weights 
and  measures.  Jefferson,  who  had  been  Minister 
to  France,  reported,  on  July  14th,  a  system 
founded  on  the  length  of  a  seconds  penaulum 
in  the  mean  latitude  of  the  United  States 
(38**),  or  in  the  latitude  of  45**.  But  the  Eng- 
lish system  was  not  disturbed.  Again,  in  1821, 
Congress  sought  to  revise  the  system  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  John  Quincy  Adams,  Secre- 
tary of  State,  recommended  in  the  strongest 
terms  the  adoption  of  the  metric  system. 

In  1866  the  law  which  made  the  metric  system 
legal  in  the  United  States  was  passed.  The  same 
legislation  directed  that  the  5-cent  piece  should 
weigh  five  grams  and  have  a  diameter  of  two 
centimeters;  that  the  unit  for  weighing  letters 
in  pK)st-offices  should  be  the  gram.  But  these 
details  were  imperfectly  carried  out.  The  use  of 
units  in  electrical  engineering,  based  on  the 
metric  system,  was  determined  by  the  law  of 
1894.  Bills  have  been  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Representatives  several  times,  proposing  to 
make  the  metric  system  obligatory.  The  most 
recent  bill  of  this  kind  was  that  of  1902.  Al- 
though compulsory  legislation  may  not  be  imme- 
diate, the  adoption  of  the  metric  system  is  con- 
stantly extending,  as  shown  by  its  use  in  weigh- 
ing  foreign   mail   matter,   in  weighing   at  the^ 


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METBIC  SYSTEM. 


898 


mints,  in  certain  Grovernment  publications,  in 
the  Pharmacopceia  and  the  Dispensatory,  in  cer- 
tain measurements  of  the  Coast  and  Creodetic  Sur- 
vey, and  in  much  of  the  work  of  the  arts  and 
sciences. 

The  basal  units  of  the  metric  system  are:  for 
length  the  meter,  for  small  surfaces  the  square 
meter,  for  area  of  land  the  square  dekameter  (or 
are),  for  volume  the  cubic  meter,  for  capa^sity 
the  liter,  for  weight  the  gram,  and  for  the 
monetary  system  tne  franc.  The  scale  selected 
for  the  multiples  and  subdivisions  of  the  various 
units  is  10.  The  prefixes  used  to  designate  the 
multiples  of  the  measuring  unit  are  deka  (10), 
hekto  (100),  kilo  (1000),  and  myria  (10,000), 
all  from  the  Greek,  and  those  used  to  designate 
subdivisions  are  deci  (0.1),  centi  (0.01),  and 
milli  (0.001),  from  the  Latin. 

The  ratio  between  the  successive  denominations 
in  the  system  of  linear  measure,  of  weight,  of 
capacity,  and  of  money  is  10,  the  ratio  between 
the  successive  denominations  of  surface  measure 
is  100,  and  that  of  cubic  measure  is  1000.  The 
unit  of  capacity,  the  liter,  is  equal  to  a  cubic 
decimeter,  and  approximately  so  to  the  volume 
of  a  kilogram  of  water  at  the  maximum  density. 
Its  equivalent  is  1.06671  liquid  quarts  (U.  S. 
standard),  or  .88036  liquid  quart  (British). 
The  imit  of  weight,  the  gram,  is  the  mass  weight 
of  one  cubic  centimeter  of  water,  standard  pure, 
at  the  maximum  density.  Its  equivalent  in  the 
English  system  is  15.432-|-  troy  grains. 

The  abbreviations  of  the  following  tables  are 
those  adopted  by  the  International  Commission 
of  Weights  and  Measures: 

TaBLB  of  LINBAB  MBAeURB 

A  myrtameter        =  10.000  meters 
A  kilometer  (km.)  =    1.000      " 


A  hektometer 

A  dekameter         ■■ 

Meter  (m.) 

A  decimeter  (dm.)  ■■ 

A  centimeter  (cm.)  «- 

A  millimeter  (mm.)»a 

A  mlkron  ^j         « 


100     •• 
10      •• 

0.1  of  a  meter 
0.01 

0.001      •• 
0.000001  •• 


Tablb  of  Square  Mbaburb 

A  square  myrtameter  —100,000.000  square  meters 

••       kilometer  (km. •)  =     1.000,000  •• 

••       hektometer  or  hektare -•         10.000  " 

"       dekameter  or  are  —  100  " 

Square  meter  (m.«) 

A  square  decimeter  (dm.«) 
"  centimeter  (cm.") 
**       millimeter  (mm.*) 


-—  0.01  of  a  square  meter 

—  0.0001 

—  0.000001 


Tablb  of  <3vbio  Mbasurb 


A  cubic  myriameter 

"      kilometer 

"      hektometer 

'*      dekameter 
Cubic  meter  (m.») 
A  cubic  decimeter  (dm.*)    «-  0.001  of  a  cubic  meter 


— 10*"  cubic  metera 
«  10» 

« 1,000,000   " 
=        1,000   " 


centimeter  (cm.»)  =  0.000001 
"        millimeter  (mm.  ^)  — 0.000000001 

A  cubic  meter  is  also  called  a  sterCf  a  unit  used 
in  measuring  wood. 

Tablb  of  Weights 

A  metric  ton  (t.)  =  1.000,000  grams 

A  quintal  (q.)       =     100,000      •• 

A  myriagram       «      10,000      " 

A  kilogram  (kg.)  =        1,000      " 

Ahektogram        —  100      " 

A  dekagram         «=  10     .•• 

Oram  (g.) 

A  decigram  (dg.)  —  0.1  of  a  gram 

A  centigram  (eg.)  —  0.01 

A  mllllgram(mg.)  -  0.001 

A  mlkrogram (7)— 0.000001   - 


METBIC  SYSTEK. 

Table  of  Capacity 

A  hektollter  (hi.)  »  100  litera 
A  dekaliter  (dal.)=-    10     •• 
Liter  (1.) 

AdecUiter(dl.)    —0.1    of  a  liter 
A  centUiter  (cl.)   —  0.01  " 

A  milliliter  (ml.)  —  0.001 
Amikrollter  (;i)  =  0.000001    •• 

EQUIVALENTS. 

APPRO^tlMATE  EQmVALBKTS 


A  meter 
A  kilometer 
A  liter 
A  kilogram 
A  gram 
A  hectare 


—  dO.37  inches  —  3^  feet 
« I  of  a  mile 

«  1  quart 

=  2|  lbs.  avoir. 

—  W/i  grains 
ai  2Vi  acres 


A  square  meter  »  10  square  feet 
More  Nearly  Accurate  EquitaiiEnts 

LBNOTH 


Inches 

Feet 

Yards 

Path's 

MUes 

MUllmeter... 
Centimeter.. 
Decimeter... 
Meter 

0.03937 
0.39371 
8.98708 
39.37079 
89370.79000 

0.008 
0.032 
0.328 
3.280 
8280.899 

0.001 
0.010 
0.109 
1.098 
1093. (}33 

0.000 
0.005 
0.054 
0.646 
646.816 

0.000 
0.000 
0.000 
0.000 

Kilometer... 

o.esa 

Milliliter.... 
CJentmter... 

Deciliter 

Liter 

Hektollter, 


Cubic  in. 


0.06103 

0.61027 

6.10271 

61.02705 

6102.70616 


Cubic  ft.  D17  pints  Gallons 


0.000 
0.000 
0.003 
0.036 
3.631 


0.0018 
0.0182 
0.1816 
1.8162 
181.6211 


Cw^\ 


0.0 

o.oool 

0.003  ., 

0.0281  ^,10  y 

2.8881  ^^<^ 


Oram , 

Kilogram., 


Grains 


16.43235 
16432.84880 


Troy  01. 


0.032 
32.160 


Avoir,  lb. 


0.002 
2.204 


SQUARE    MEASURE 


Square  feet 

Sq.  yards 

Acres 

(Tentiare 

10.764299 

1076.429934 

107642.998419 

1.196 

119.603 

11960.332 

0.000 

Are 

0.026 

Hektare 

2.471 

Table  for  Reduohto  from  One  System  to  the  Othbb 

(The  figures  in  heavier  type  represent  either  of  the  two 
columns  beside  them,  as  the  case  may  be,  viz.  with 
hektares  and  acres  in  the  flrat  set  of  columns,  1  eusre—i 0.405 
hektare,  and  vice  vena  1  hekt>area  2.471  acres,  and  so  on.) 


Meter 

Yard 

Kllogr.    Lb.  avoir. 

Liter 

Gallons 

0.914 

1 

1.093 

0.454 

1 

2.20 

4.40 

1 

0.23 

1.829 

2 

2.188 

0.907 

2 

4.41 

8.81 

2 

0.45 

2.743 

3 

8.281 

1  361 

3 

6.61 

13.21 

3 

0.68 

8.658 

4. 

4.374 

1.814 

4. 

8.82 

17.62 

4. 

0.91 

4.572 

8 

6.468 

2.268 

6 

11.02 

22.02 

6 

1.14 

6.486 

6 

6.562 

2.722 

6 

13.23 

26.48 

e 

1.36 

6.401 

7 

7.656 

3.175 

7 

16.43 

30.83 

7 

1.69 

7.315 

8 

8.749 

3.629 

8 

17.64 

86.24 

8 

1.82 

8.229 

9 

9.843 

4.082 

9 

19.84 

39.64 

9 

2.04 

9.144 

10 

10.936 

4.536 

10 

22.05 

44.05 

10 

2.27 

18.288 

20 

21.873 

9.072 

20 

44.09 

88.10 

20 

4.54 

27.432 

SO 

32.809 

13.608 

30 

66.14 

132.14 

30 

6.81 

86.576 

4,0 

43.745 

18.144 

40 

88.18 

176.19 

410 

9.06 

46.719 

60 

64.682 

22.679 

60 

110.23 

220.24 

50 

11.86 

64.863 

eo 

66.618 

27.215 

eo 

132.28 

264.29 

eo 

13.62 

64.007 

70 

76.554 

31.752 

TO 

154.32, 

308.33 

70 

15.89 

73.151 

80 

87.491   36.288 

80 

176.37' 

352.38 

80 

18.16 

82.295 

90 

98.427  40.823 

90 

198.42' 

396.43 

90 

20.43 

91.438 

100 

109.363,  45.359 

100 

220.46,  |440. 48 

100 

22.70 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METBIC  SY8TEK. 


394 


METBIC  SYSTElC 


Hektara 

Acre 

KUo- 

EMf. 

Square 
Kilo-             Enff. 

meter 

mUes 

meter 

miles 

0.406 

1 

2.471 

1.609 

1 

0.621 

2.592 

1 

0.386 

0.809 

2 

4.942 

3.219 

a 

1.243 

5.184 

2 

0.772 

1.2U 

3 

7.413 

4.828 

3 

1.864 

7.776 

3 

1.158 

1.619 

41 

9.885 

6.438 

41 

2.486 

10.868 

4. 

1.544 

3.023 

6 

12.356 

8.047 

6 

3.107 

12.960 

B 

1.930 

2.428 

6 

14.227 

9.666 

6 

3.728 

15.552 

6 

2.316 

2.833 

7 

17.898 

11.265 

7 

4.350 

18.144 

7 

2.702 

8.237 

8 

19.769 

12.879 

a 

4.971 

20.736 

8 

3.088 

8.642 

9 

22.240 

14.484 

9 

5.592 

23.328 

9 

8.474 

4.047 

lO 

24.711 

16.093 

lO 

6.214 

25.920 

lO 

3.860 

8.093 

20 

49.423 

32.186 

20 

12.428 

51.840 

20 

7.720 

12.140 

30 

74.134 

48.279 

30 

18.641 

77.760 

30  11.580 

16.187 

4.0 

98.846 

64.373 

4M 

24.855 

103.680 

40  15.440 

90.234 

60 

123.667 

80.466 

60 

31.0691  129.600 

5019.300 

24.286 

60 

148.268 

96.659 

eo 

37.283   156.620 

60  23.160 

38.327 

TO 

172.980 

112.652 

70 

43.497;  181.440 

TO 

27.030 

82.373 

80 

197.692 

128.746 

80 

49.710!  207.380 

80 

30.880 

86.420 

90 

222.903 

144.839 

90 

55.924]  233.280 

90 

34.740 

40.467 

lOO 

247.114 

160.932 

lOO 

62.1381  259.200  lOO 

38.601 

The  advantages  of  the  metric  system  over  the 
English-American  system  are  numerous.  Al- 
though, in  hoth  systems,  the  standard  units  of 
volume,  capacity,  and  weight  are  directly  con- 
nected with  the  standard  unit  of  measure,  the 
relation  in  the  French  system  is  far  more  simple. 
Thus,  in  the  English  system  one  quart  has  a 
volume  of  57%  cubic  inches,  while  in  the  French 
system  one  liter  has  the  volume  of  one  cubic 
decimeter;  in  the  English  system  the  pound  has 
the  weight  of  about  0.0156  of  a  cubic  foot  of 
standardized  water,  while  in  the  French  system 
one  gram  has  the  weight  of  one  cubic  centimeter. 
Although  the  names  used  in  the  metric  system 
are  generally  longer  than  the  names  used  in  the 
English-American  system,  the  nomenclature  of 
the  former  has  several  advantages.  Thus,  the 
prefixes  deci,  centi,  milli,  deka,  hekto,  kilo  have 
in  point  of  derivation  a  numerical  significance 
and  have  other  applications  in  the  langua^, 
while  the  names  incn,  foot,  yard,  rod,  and  mile 
are  devoid  of  numerical  significance  and  are  dis- 
tinctive in  their  use.  But  the  greatest  advantage 
of  all  results  from  the  use  of  a  uniform  scale 
of  relation.  In  the  English -American  system 
seldom  do  more  than  two  units  in  succession 
have  the  same  scale.  Thus,  in  the  metric  system, 
10  centimeters  =  1  decimeter,  10  decimeters  =  1 
meter,  .  .  .  ,  the  ratio  being  always  10 ;  while 
in  the  English  system,  12  inches  =  1  foot,  3 
feet  =  1  yard,  5%  yards  =  1  rod,  .  .  . ,  the 
ratio  changing  between  every  pair  of  units.  The 
French  Commission  of  1790  reported  in  favor  of 
the  decimal  scale  for  reasons  of  expediency, 
although  admitting  that  the  uniform  scale  of 
12  possessed  many  advantages. 

The  metric  system  was  once  thought  to  be 
superior  to  all  other  systems  of  weights  and 
measures  in  being  founded  on  an  invariable 
magnitude,  one  ten-millionth  of  a  terrestrial 
quadrant.  But  science  has  dispelled  this  illusion 
by  showing  that  this  magnitude  is  not  a  constant 
and  that  the  distance  originally  taken  as  the 
basis  of  the  meter  was  inaccurately  measured. 

In  1840  the  French  Government  conceived  the 
idea  of  exchanging  sets  of  the  metric  units  for 
sets  of  the  units  of  other  nations  in  order  to 
promote  an  international  interest  in  the  metric 
system.  The  international  expositions  at  Lon- 
clon  (1851)  and  at  Paris  (1855)  were,  on  account 
of  the  immense  variety  and  confusion  of  metrical 
units,  the  first  practical  demonstrations  of  the 
need  of  a  universal  decimal  system  of  weights 
and  measures.    At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867 


a  committee,  representing  several  different  na- 
tions, was  appointed  to  consider  the  question  of 
uniformity,  and  was  called  the  Committee  of 
Weights,  Measures,  and  Moneys.  Mathieu  was 
the  president  of  this  commission.  The  com- 
mittee recommended  instructicm  in  the  metric 
system  in  the  public  schools  and  its  use  in  gov- 
ernmental departments  and  in  scientific  publica- 
tions. The  Geodetic  Association,  which  met  at 
Berlin  about  this  time,  was  also  representative 
of  several  nations,  and  likewise  favored  the  gen- 
eral adoption  of  the  metric  system.  In  the  year 
1869  a  committee  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris  and  one  of  the  Saint  Petersburg  Academy 
recommended  the  convocation  of  an  international 
commission,  which  should  consider  the  means  of 
providing  all  nations  with  sets  of  standard  metric 
units.  Such  a  commission  was  invited  by  the 
French  Government,  and  assembled  at  Paris  in 
1870.  Twenty-four  countries  responded  by  send- 
ing delegates,  Joseph  Henry  and  Julius  E.  Hil- 
gard  representing  the  United  States.  This  body 
was  divided  into  committees,  the  most  permanent 
one  being  the  French  section,  for  the  purpose  of 
devising  means  for  copying  the  standards  pre- 
served in  the  archives.  Some  of  the  questions 
which  concerned  the  committee  were  the  com- 
position of  the  metal  to  be  used  in  constructing 
the  new  unit  of  length,  the  most  desirable  form 
of  cross-section,  ways  of  expressing  the  length, 
as  the  distance  between  the  ends,  or  between  two 
fine  lines  made  on  the  bar,  means  of  comparing 
the  new  unit  with  the  standard  of  the  Archives, 
means  for  determining  its  variation  due  to 
changes  in  temperature,  and  other  considerations. 
The  French  section  met  in  1872  and  proposed 
that  an  international  bureau  of  weights  and 
measures  be  located  at  Paris,  the  original  con- 
ception of  the  International  Bureau  being  later 
decided  upon  at  the  diplomatic  conference  of 
1875.  At  the  second  meeting  of  the  Inter- 
national Commission  in  1872  it  was  decided 
to  make  the  standard  meter  and  the  stand- 
ard kilogram  of  the  Archives  the  actual 
bases  for  the  new  standards.  In  order  to 
give  the  work  of  the  commission  the  character 
of  an  international  act,  its  members  so  far  being 
simply  citizens  of  their  respective  countries,  the 
French  Government  invited  plenipotentiaries  and 
delegates  from  all  of  the  nations  interested.  Rep- 
resentatives from  twenty  States  assembled  at 
Paris  (1875)  to  constitute  the  Diplomatic  Con- 
ference of  the  Meter.  E.  B.  Washburne  acted 
as  plenipotentiary  and  H.  Vignaud  as  delegate 
for  the  United  States.  The  Observatory  of  the 
International  Bureau,  decided  upon  by  this  con- 
ference, was  completed  in  1878.  It  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  park  of  Saint  Cloud  on  a  reserva- 
tion presented  by  the  French  Government.  The 
management  of  the  Bureau  reposes  in  the  Inter- 
national Committee  under  the  authority  of  the 
General  Conference.  In  the  Observatory  are  kept 
the  instruments  used  in  the  determination  of  the 
international  standards,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  comparators,  balances,  and  thermometers. 
The  extent  of  the  demands  upon  this  bureau  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in  1882  twenty- 
three  countries  requested  twenty-nine  meters  and 
thirty  kilograms;  in  1889  they  requested  thirty- 
six  meters  and  thirty  kilograms.  The  meters 
are  highly  polished  metal  bars  made  of  an  alloy 
of  platinum  and  iridium,  and  the  kilograms  are 
cylinders  of  the  same  material. 


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895 


METTEBKICH. 


For  a  complete  history  of  the  metric  system, 
with  its  present  status,  its  equivalents,  the  Inter- 
national Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures,  and 
the  international  abbreviations,  consult  Bigour- 
dan,  Le  ayst&me  m^triqae  dea  poida  et  mesurea 
(Paris,  1901) ;  Barnard,  Metric  8y8tem  (3d  ed., 
Boston,  1879)  ;  Fouvielle,  Le  mitre  intemational 
d^finitif  (Paris,  1875)  ;  Mendenhall,  in  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  vol.  xlix.  (1896);  Potts,  Ele- 
mentary Arithmetic  (London,  1886)  ;  Bassot, 
School  of  Mines  Quarterly  (November,  1901). 
See  Weights  and  Measubes. 

METRONOME  (from  Gk.  fiirpov^  metron, 
measure  +  vdfio^y  nomos,  law).  A  small  ma- 
chine for  indicating  the  correct  time  or  speed  at 
■which  a  musical  composition  should  be  played. 
It  was  invented  in  1816,  and  consists  of  a 
pendulum,  actuated  by  clockwork,  which  swings 
in  front  of  a  graduated  scale.  To  the  upper  part 
of  the  pendulum-rod  is  attached  a  movable  weight 
which  can  be  set  at  any  figure  indicated  by  the 
scale.  The  figure  60  means  that  when  the  weight 
is  set  there  the  pendulum  swings  60  times  a 
minute.  Thus  it  beats  exact  seconds.  When  set 
at  120  it  beats  half  seconds.  The  metronome 
indication  appears  always  at  the  beginning  of  a 
composition.  M.  M.  (MaizePs  metronome,  from 
its  reputed  inventor,  Mtlzel)  J  =  80  means  that 
the  tempo  must  be  taken  so  that  80  half  notes 
fill  the  space  of  one  minute.  The  indications 
differ  with  the  tempo  and  time  of  each  composi- 
tion. A  work  written  as  allegro  in  common  time 
might  be  indicated:  M.  M.  J  =  100;  alle^o  in 
alia  breve:  M.  M.  J  =100;  adagio  m  |; 
M.M.  J  =66;  scherzo  (Presto  %):  M.  M.J 
=  120.  By  means  of  the  metronome  the  com- 
poser is  enabled  to  give  the  minutest  directions 
in  respect  to  the  tempo,  for  the  old  terms  allegro, 
andante,  presto,  etc.,  can  only  serve  as  approxi- 
mate indications,  leaving  much  to  the  tempera- 
ment of  the  individual  performer.  The  met- 
ronome is  of  the  greatest  value  and  is  much  used 
to-day  in  training  beginners  to  play  strictly  in 
time. 

METBOF^OLIS.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Massac  County,  111.,  38  miles  by  river  east 
by  north  of  Cairo;  on  the  Ohio  River  and  on  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad  (Map:  Illinois,  D  6). 
It  is  built  on  a  high  bluff  which  slopes  gradually 
toward  the  river;  has  three  public  parks,  the 
R.  W.  McCartney  Public  Library,  a  sanatorium, 
and  fine  Odd  Fellows*  Temple,  four  public  schools, 
court-house,  music  hall,  and  city  hall  buildings. 
There  are  potteries,  saw  and  planing  mills,  flour 
mills,  veneer,  box,  stave,  heading,  spoke,  and 
basket  factories,  and  large  lumber  interests.  The 
government  is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The 
city  owns  and  operates  the  water-works  and  elec- 
tric-light plant.  Metropolis  is  built  on  the  site 
of  old  Fort  Massac,  which  was  settled  about 
1700  by  French  and  Indians,  but  was  not  per- 
manently inhabited  until  1838;  five  years  later 
it  was  incorporated.  Population,  in  1890,  3573; 
in  1900,  4069;  in  1906  (local  est.),  6000. 

METIIOPOI/ITAN  (Lat.  metropoUtanua, 
MGk.  fjL7rrpoiro\lTa,  mStropoUtes,  from  firrrp^o- 
X«f,  metropolis,  a  capital  city,  from  fn^vp.  m^t&r, 
mother  +  rAXtf,  polis,  city).  An  ecclesiastical 
title,  in  modem  times  practically  equivalent  to 
archbishop  (q.v.).  It  arose  from  the  early  cus- 
tom of  giving  precedence  to  the  bishop  of  the 
Vol.  Xin  — 26. 


chief  city  or  metropolis  of  a  province.  In  some 
of  the  English  colonies  where  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop is  not  used  by  the  Anglican  Church,  that 
of  metropolitan  is  applied  to  the  chief  bishop  of 
a  province.  For  the  prerogatives  of  metropoli- 
tans in  canon  law,  consult  Owen,  Institutes  of 
Canon  Law  (London,  1884). 

HETSTT,  m^^sv,  or  HETZU,  Gabriel  (1630- 
67).  A  Dutch  genre  painter.  He  was  born  in 
Leyden  in  1630,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Gerard  Dou. 
In  1648  he  entered  the  Painters'  Guild  of  his  na- 
tive place,  and  in  1650  settled  in  Amsterdam.  He 
painted  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  burgher 
classes,  although  occasionally,  in  his  market 
scenes  and  kitchen-maids,  he  deals  with  humbler 
life.  In  refinement  of  drawing  and  grace  of  ex- 
pression he  ranks  among  the  best  of  the  Dutch 
School.  His  pictures  are  characterized  by  deli- 
cate treatment  and  picturesque  composition;  the 
heads  are  animated  and  express  cheerfulness  and 
good  humor;  the  color  is  clear  and  harmonious. 
His  principal  works  include:  The  "Lady  at  the 
Piano"  and  the  "Amsterdam  Market,"  in  the 
Louvre;  "Music  Lovers,"  at  The  Haffue;  the 
"Duet,"  in  the  National  Gallery,  London;  the 
Music  Lesson"  (1659),  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum, New  York;  "Feast  of  the  King  of  Beans," 
in  which  there  is  a  touch  of  Jan  Steen*s  humor,  in 
the  Pinakothek  at  Munich;  "Old  Poultry  Ped- 
dler" and  the  "Young  Poultry  Maid,"  both  in 
the  Dresden  Gallery. 

METTEBNICH,  m6t't«r-nlK,  Clemens  Wen- 
ZEL  Nepomuk  Lothab,  Prince  (1773-1859). 
An  Austrian  statesman.  He  was  bom  at 
Coblenz,  May  15,  1773,  being  the  son  of 
Franz  Georg  Karl,  Coimt  von  Metternich,  an 
Austrian  diplomat  and  an  associate  of  Kaimitz. 
Young  Metternich  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Strassburg,  and  afterwards  studied  law 
at  Mainz  and  traveled  in  England.  In  1795  he 
married  the  granddaughter  of  Kaunitz,  by  whom 
he  acquired  large  estates.  His  diplomatic  career 
commenced  at  the  Congress  of  Rastadt  ( 1797-99) , 
which  he  attended  as  representative  of  the  West- 
phalian  lordly  houses.  In  1801  he  became  Aus- 
trian Ambassador  at  Dresden,  and  two  years 
later  was  appointed  Ambassador  to  the  Prussian 
Court,  where  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  alliance 
between  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Kussia  against 
France  in  1805.  In  1806  he  went  as  Ambassador 
to  Paris.  In  1809  he  succeeded  Count  Stadion  as 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  concluded  the  Treaty 
of  Sch5nbrunn  with  France,  and  was  instrument- 
al in  brinsring  about  the  marriage  of  the  Arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa  to  Napoleon.  He  guided 
the  course  of  Austria  amid  the  difiiculties  of 
1812-13.  He  maintained  at  first  a  temporizing 
policy  and  a  scheme  of  armed  mediation  by  Aus- 
tria; but  the  arrogance  of  Napoleon's  demands 
and  the  personal  humiliations  to  which  he  was 
subjected  at  his  famous  interview  with  the 
French  Emperor  in  Dresden  in  Jime,  1813,  led 
him  to  resolve  upon  the  declaration  of  war  by 
Austria  against  France,  and  he  subsequently  con- 
ducted with  great  ability  the  negotiations  which 
ended  in  the  completion  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  in  almost  all  the  chief 
diplomatic  affairs  of  that  eventful  time.  With 
little  concern  for  the  cause  of  (Jerman  national- 
ity, which  animated  so  largely  the  Prussians 
during  the  War  of  Liberation,  Metternich  during 
the  last  two  years  of  Napoleon's  power  pursued 
a  policy  aiming  at  the  advancement  solely  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HETTEBNICH. 


396 


HETZ. 


Austrian  interests..  Fearing  lest  the  defeat  of 
France  should  raise  up  powerful  rivals  for  Aus- 
tria in  Russia  and  Prussia^  he  exerted  himself 
to  preserve  for  France  its  ancient  boundaries, 
pursuing  that  end  ostensibly  in  order  to  preserve 
the  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  With  masterly 
diplomacy  he  succeeded  in  imposing  his  policy 
on  the  allies,  represented  Austria  in  the  Congress 
of  Chfttillon  in  Februaiy  and  March,  1814,  and 
participated  in  the  deliberations  leading  to  the 
Treaty  of  Paris.  In  June  he  visited  England  and 
formed  a  new  Quadruple  Alliance  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  peace  of  Europe.  As  presiding  officer 
of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  he  exercised  a  prepon- 
derating influence  on  the  deliberations  of  that 
body,  and  succeeded  in  gaining  for  Austria  a  dom- 
inant position  among  the  Powers  of  Europe,  with 
her  interests  supreme  in  Germany  and  Italy.  After 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  he  became  the  leading 
statesman  of  Europe.  He  was  the  inspiring  genius 
of  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  Restoration  pe- 
riod. Crafty  and  cynical,  having  no  sympathy  with 
the  aspirations  of  the  people,  his  schemes  were  all 
directed  to  restoring  the  old  order  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. In  1821  he  was  made  Austrian  Chancellor. 
With  his  customary  astuteness,  he  made  use  of 
the  Holy  Alliance  (q.v.),  organized  by  Alexander 
of  Russia  to  further  the  cause  of  'Christian 
peace,*  as  an  instrument  for  the  repression  of  all 
liberal  or  national  movements.  Under  his  in- 
spiration congresses  were  held  at  Karlsbad 
(1819),  Troppau  (1820),  Laibach  (1821),  and 
Verona  ( 1822) ,  at  which  action  was  taken  against 
the  Burschenschaft  and  the  freedom  of  the  press 
in  Germany,  the  national  movement  in  Italy,  and 
the  struggle  for  constitutionalism  in  Spain.  He 
consistently  opposed  the  Greek  movement  for 
independence,  but  there  Russia  refused  to  fol- 
low him.  With  time  his  influence  over  the 
French  and  Russian  courts  disappeared,  but  in 
Germany  and  Italy  the  reactionary  policy  of 
Mettemich  remained  unabated  until  1848.  The 
revolutionary  movement  of  that  year,  however, 
breaking  forth  with  sudden  violence,  ended  Met- 
ternich's  system  and  caused  the  aged  Minister  to 
flee  from  Austria  (March,  1848)  and  to  seek 
refuge  in  England  and  Belgium;  nor  did  he  re- 
turn to  Vienna  till  the  end  of  1851,  when  he 
received  great  marks  of  honor  and  favor  from  the 
Emperor;  but  although  sometimes  consulted,  he 
was  never  again  asked  to  undertake  the  cares  of 
office.  He  died  at  Vienna,  June  11,  1859.  His 
writings  were  published  under  the  title  Ana  Met- 
temichs  nachgelassenen  Papieren^  published  by 
his  son.  Prince  Richard  (8  vols.,  Vienna,  1880-84; 
published  in  English  translation  under  the  title 
of  Memoirs),  Consult:  Gross-Hoffinger,  Furat 
Mettemich  und  das  osterreichische  Staatssystem 
(Leipzig,  1846)  ;  Mazade,  Un  chancelier  d^ancien 
regime,  Le  rdgne  diplomatique  de  M.  de  Metier- 
nioh  (Paris,  1889)  :  Beer,  "FUrst  Clemens  Met- 
temich," in  Der  Neue  Plutarch,  vol.  v.  (Leipzig, 
1877 )  ;  Demelitsch,  Mettemich  und  seine  auswiir- 
tige  Politik  (Stuttgart,  1898)  ;  Malleson,  Life  of 
Prince  Afeffemicft(  London  and  New  York,  1888). 
See  Austria-Hungary;  Vienna,  Congress  of; 
Carlsbad  Decrees. 

liETTBAY,  m^'trft'.  A  great  agricultural 
and  industrial  colony  (reformatory)  at  Mettray, 
near  Tours,  France,  which  has  for  years  been 
looked  upon  as  the  model  of  all  such  institutions. 
It  was  founded  in  1839  by  Mettray  Demetz  and 
Bretigni^res  de  Courteilles,  who  had  gotten  their 


inspiration  from  America.  The  object  was  to 
keep  young  boys  out  of  the  regular  prisons  and 
to  teach  them,  in  addition  to  common  school 
branches,  trades,  particularly  agriculture.  Boys 
of  the  better  classes  who  are  sent  by  their  parents 
to  the  school  are  kept  separately  in  the  *Maison 
Patemelle*  and  spend  their  time  in  study.  In 
1899  the  colony  contained  450  boys.  After  the 
boys  leave  the  institution  a  supervision  is  main- 
tained over  them.  See  Bulletin  de  la  commission 
p6nitentiaire  intemationale  ( Brussels  and  Berne, 
1900). 

MET^  m$ts.  A  town  and  first-class  fortress 
in  Alsace-Lorraine,  Germany,  capital  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Lorraine,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Seille  with  the  Moselle,  about  11  miles  east  of  the 
French  frontier  and  66  miles  by  rail  south-south- 
west of  Treves  ( Map :  Germany,  B  4 ) .  It  is  built 
partly  between  the  two  rivers  and  partly  on 
islands  of  the  Moselle.  The  streets  bear  both 
(jierman  and  French  names.  The  older  section  is 
irregularly  constructed  and  is  ancient  in  appear- 
ance. In  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  town 
is  a  splendid  esplanade  with  statues  of  Marshal 
Ney  and  Emperor  William  I.,  and  a  fine  fountain. 
The  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral  was  begun  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  It  was  consecrated  in 
1546,  and  is  now  being  restored.  It  has  numerous 
fine  specimens  of  stained  glass,  and  is  surmounted 
by  a  tower  387  feet  high.  The  Church  of  Saint 
Vincent,  a  fine  Gothic  structure  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  garrison  church,  and  the  Church 
of  Saint  Constance,  with  frescoes,  are  also  of 
architectural  interest.  Among  the  secular  build- 
ings may  be  mentioned  the  palace  of  justice,  the 
town  hall,  the  theatre,  the  barracks,  and  the 
railway  station. 

The  educational  institutions  include  a  ^ym* 
nasium,  a  realschule,  a  seminary  for  priests 
and  for  teachers,  schools  of  art  and  music,  and 
a  military  school.  The  municipal  library  of 
about  85,000  volumes  is  rich  in  works  relating 
to  the  history  of  Metz,  and  the  municipal  mu- 
seum contains  collections  of  coins  and  painting^s, 
and  of  antiquities  found  in  the  vicinity.  Metz 
has  lost  somewhat  in  industrial  importance  since 
its  occupation  by  the  Grermans,  the  French  having 
withdrawn  a  large  amount  of  capital.  The  chief 
manufactured  products  are  leather  and  leather 
goods,  arms,  hats,  artificial  flowers,  coarse  cloth, 
preserves,  etc.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  agri- 
cultural products  of  the  surroimding  country. 

The  city  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  fortifled 
places  in  Europe.  Its  fortiflcations,  extending 
along  the  Moselle  and  the  Seille,  consist  of  works 
begun  by  the  French  and  completed  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  of  works  built  entirely  by  the  con- 
querors. Some  portions  of  the  old  fortifications 
have  also  been  retained.  Population,  in  1890, 
60,186;  in  1900,  58,424,  part  of  the  troops  having 
been  withdrawn;  in  1905,  68,419,  including  the 
garrison  of  nearly  25,000  men.  The  civil  popula- 
tion is  almost  entirely  Catholic. 

Metz  was  known  to  the  Gauls  as  Divodurum, 
and  in  mediaeval  times  as  Metac.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Mersen  (870)  the  city  fell  to  East  Francia 
(later  Germany)  and  rapidly  attained  impor- 
tance, so  that  in  the  thirteenth  century  it  became 
a  free  Imperial  city.  It  was  here  that  Charles 
IV.  in  1356  proclaimed  the  Golden  Bull.  Metz 
became  involved  in  many  conflicts  with  Lor- 
raine, and  in  the  period  of  the  Reformation  the 
city  was  a  centre  of  disturbance.    In  1552  it  was 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


METZ. 


897 


MEirBBiirs. 


handed  over  to  Henry  II.  of  France,  together 
with  Toul  and  Verdun,  by  the  Protestant  lords 
in  order  to  gain  French  aid  against  Charles  V. 
(See  Maubice  op  Saxony.)  The  latter  be- 
sieged the  city  in  vain,  and  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648)  confirmed  France  in  possession  of 
the  city.  Metz  was  henceforth  chiefly  important 
as  a  strong  fortress,  and  played  a  prominent  rdle 
in  the  campaigns  of  1814  and  1815  against 
Napoleon  and  again  in  the  Franco-German  War. 
As  a  result  of  the  battles  of  Colombey-Nouilly, 
Mars-la-Tour,  and  Gravelptte  (see  Franco-Geb- 
MAN  War),  the  German  army  occupied  the  city 
on  October  29,  1870,  and  the  Peace  of  Frankfort 
gave  Metz  to  Germany.  Consult:  Klipffel,  Metz, 
cii4  ^piscopale  et  imp&riale  (Brussels,  1867)  ; 
Westphale,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Metz  (3  vols., 
Metz,  1876-78). 

METZXT.     See  Metsu. 

METTBONy  m€'d6N^  A  town  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  in  the  southwest- 
ern outskirts  ot  Fans  (Map:  France,  N.,  K  2). 
Its  chateau,  fitted  up  by  Napoleon  for  Maria  Louisa 
in  1812,  was  almost  destroyed  during  the  bom- 
bardment by  the  (Srermans  in  1871;  it  has  been 
partly  restored.  The  church  contains  a  statue  of 
Rabelais,  who  was  cur6  of  Meudon.  A  chapel 
commemorates  a  railway  accident  in  1842,  in 
which  over  100  persons,  including  the  celebrated 
traveler  Dumont  d'Urville,  were  burned  alive. 
The  forest  near  by  is  a  favorite  holiday  resort. 
Meudon's  manufactures  comprise  glass,  chalk, 
linen,  whiting,  buttons,  and  ammunition.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  9702. 

METTLEN,  mg'len,  Adam  Frans  van  der 
(1632-90).  A  Flemish  painter,  bom  at  Brussels 
and  the  pupil  of  Peter  Snayers.  He  afterwards 
went  to  France  on  the  invitation  of  Lebrun,  and 
was  made  Louis  XIV. 's  Court  painter  (1666) 
and  counselor  of  the  Academy  (1681).  During 
the  war  in  Flanders  he  accompanied  the  King 
and  painted  pictures  of  the  battles  in  which  he 
was  engaged.  These  are  remarkable  for  the  care 
bestowSi  upon  historical  detail  and  the  fine 
grouping  of  horses.  There  are  several  of  them 
in  the  Louvre  and  at  Versailles.  He  also  de- 
signed some  cartoons  for  the  Gobelins. 

MEUNO,  m5N,  Jean  de  (c.1250-  ?) .  A  French 
poet,  also  called  Jean  Clopinel.  He  was  born 
at  Meung-sur-Loire,  and  died  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Not  much  is  known 
about  his  early  life,  but  it  is  assumed  that  he 
studied  at  the  University  of  Paris.  His  literary 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  addition  to  the  Roman 
de  la  rose  (q.v.)  of  Guillaume  de  Lorris  (q.v.). 
The  poem,  as  Guillaume  de  Lorris  left  it,  com- 
prise<l  about  4000  verses.  Jean  de  Meung  added 
about  18,000,  of  which  12,000  can  be  found  in  the 
authors  of  whom  he  was  especially  fond — ^notably 
2000  from  Gvid  alone.  Ostensibly  continuing  the 
allegory  of  his  predecessor,  who  intended  to  make 
it  a  poem  of  chivalry,  Jean  de  Meung  in  reality 
introduced  quite  a  different  spirit,  and  made  the 
allegory  a  mere  cloak  for  telling  stories  and  in- 
dulging in  political  and  moral  satire.  At  the  re- 
quest of  King  Philippe,  he  translated  the  Conso- 
latio  of  BoStnius  into  prose  and  verse.  Toward 
the  end  of  his  life  he  wrote  his  Testament,  in 
which,  although  praising  sincere  piety,  he  pours 
bitter  sarcasm  on  monks.  Consult:  Paris.  "Jean 
de  Meung,"  in  the  Histoire  litt^aire  de  la  France, 
Tol.  xxviii.    (Paris,  1840) ;  Quicherat,  "Jean  de 


Meung  et  sa  maison  k  Paris,"  in  the  Bihliothdque 
de  VEcole  des  Chartres  (ib.,  1880)  ;  and  Langlois, 
Origines  et  sources  du  Roman  de  la  rose  (ib., 
1890). 

MEUNIEB,  mg'nyft^  Constantin  (1831- 
1905 ) .  A  Belgian  historical  and  genre  painter  and 
sculptor,  bom  in  Brussels.  He  was  for  a  while 
professor  at  the  Academy  of  Louvain,  and  he 
s]icnt  some  time  in  Madrid,  copying  the  old  mas- 
ters. Afterwards  he  settled  at  Louvain  and  de- 
voted himself  principally  to  painting.  Both  as 
a  painter  and  as  a  sculptor  he  belongs  to  the 
naturalistic  school.  His  subjects  usually  are 
chosen  from  scenes  in  the  colliery  district  in 
which  he  lived — episodes  of  the  foundry  and  the 
pit;  or  else  rather  brutally  painted  martyrdoms. 
But  his  treatment  of  any  theme  is  powerful  and 
sincere.  His  sculptures  include  "The  Lost 
Son"  (in  the  Berlin  National  Gallery)  ;  and 
there  are  also  other  bronzes  by  him  in  the  AJber- 
tinum  at  Dresden.  Among  his  paintings  are: 
"The  Peasants'  Rebellion"  (in  the  Brussels  Mu- 
seum) ;  "The  Martyrdom  of  Saint  Stephen"  (in 
the  Ghent  Museum )  ;  and  "The  Burial  of  a  Trap- 
pist"  (in  the  Ourtrai  Museum).  He  received  a 
gold  medal  in  Brussels  in  1867  and  the  Order 
3  Leopold  in  1873. 

MEXTBpICE,  mS'r^s',  FRANgois  Paul  (1820- 
1905).  A  French  dramatist,  bom  in  Paris  and 
educated  at  the  College  Charlemagne.  In  1842  he 
prepared  a  version  of  Falstaff  for  the  Od^n  with 
Vacquerie,  presented  at  the  same  theatre  in  1843. 
With  the  same  collaborator  he  produced  Le  ca- 
pitaine  Paroles  and  an  imitation  of  Antigone 
(1844),  and  he  assisted  Dumas  in  a  metrical 
translation  of  Hamlet,  which  was  given  at  the 
Theatre  Historique  in  1847.  The  following  year 
he  became  chief  editor  of  Victor  Hugo's  VEv^ne- 
ment,  to  whose  cause  Meurice  was  so  devoted 
that  he  suffered  nine  months'  imprisonment 
(1851),  but  in  1869  he  aided  in  starting  a  new 
journal  with  the  same  motive,  Le  Rappel,  and  he 
was  intrusted  by  Hugo  himself  with  the  publica- 
tion of  his  complete  works  (46  vols.,  1880-85). 
Meurice  dramatized  several  of  them,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  George  Sand's  novels,  and  his  other 
plays  include:  Benvenuto  Cellini  (1852)  ; 
Schamyl  (1854)  ;  L'avooat  des  pauvres  (1856)  ; 
Fanfan  la  tulipe  (1858);  La  vie  nouvelle 
(1867)  j  Cadio  (1868) ;  and  an  adaptation  of  the 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream  (1886).  Meurice  also 
"wrote  romances  such  as  La  famille  Auhry  ( 1854) , 
C4sara  (1869),  and  Le  songe  de  V amour  (1869). 

METIBSITTS,  mSr'sI-vs  (de  Meubb),  Jo- 
hannes (1579-1639).  A  Dutch  classicist  and 
historian,  bom  at  Loozduinen.  near  The  Hague. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  finished  a  commentary 
on  Lycophron.  He  traveled  much,  and  in  1610 
was  appointed  professor  of  history  at  Leyden. 
Later  the  political  disturbances  in  his  country 
and  the  execution  of  Jan  Barneveldt,  to  whose 
sons  he  had  once  been  tutor,  exposed  him 
to  considerable  persecution  and  cost  him  the 
high  favor  which  he  had  once  enjoyed.  He  left 
Holland,  and  in  1625  accepted  a  position  at  the 
Academy  of  Sor5  in  Denmark,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  published  works 
include  many  editions  of  the  Greek  authors 
Lycophron,  Apollonius  Dyscolos,  Philostratus, 
Procopius,  and  others.  His  numerous  treatises 
on  Greek  literature  are  mostly  reprinted  in  Gro- 


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MEXICAN  ABCHJEOLOGY. 


novius's  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Orcpcarum, 
The  Qlossarium  Grcgco-Barharum  (1614)  and 
AthencB  Batavcs  (1626)  also  deserve  mention. 
His  complete  works  were  edited  in  12  volumes  by 
Lamie    (Florence,   1741-63). 

MEXTBTHE-ET-HOSELLE,  m&rt^&-m6'zeK 
A  frontier  department  in  the  northeast  of  France, 
part  of  the  old  Province  of  'Lorraine,  and  com- 
posed of  the  remnants  of  the  departments  of 
Meurthe  and  Moselle  which  remained  to  France 
after  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort,  1871  (Map: 
France,  M  4).  Area,  2039  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  466,979;  in  1906,  517,508.  It  is 
named  from  the  principal  rivers  which  traverse 
the  department.  The  surface  is  diversified  and 
picturesque,  the  eastern  border  being  marked  by 
the  wooded  Vosges  Mountains,  which  attain  a 
maximum  altitude  of  2955  feet.  Iron,  copper, 
lead,  rock  salt,  gypsum,  and  building  stone  are 
the  chief  mineral  products;  and  the  fertile  soil 
yields  abundant  crops  of  cereals,  hops,  grapes, 
and  other  fruits.  There  are  manufactures  of  steel, 
iron,  railway  materials,  textiles,  pottery,  glass, 
paper,  chemicals,  wine,  and  beer.  Capital,  Nancy. 

MEXJSEy  mez.  A  frontier  department  in  the 
northeast  of  France,  part  of  the  ancient  Province 
of  Lorraine,  and  bordered  on  the  north  by  Bel- 
gium (Map:  France,  L  4).  Area,  2010  square 
miles.  Population,  in  1896,  288,876:  in  1906, 
280,220.  It  is  traversed  from  southwest  to  north- 
west by  the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  flanked  by  the 
wooded  Argonne  ranges  of  hills.  The  department 
is  well  forested,  and  the  valleys  are  fertile  and 
well  cultivated,  producing  wheat,  oats,  and  hemp ; 
grapes  are  largely  grown  for  wine,  and  beet-roots 
for  sugar.  Minerals  and  manufactures  are  un- 
important.    Capital,  Bar-le-Duc. 

HEirSE,  m<?z,  or  HAAS,  mas.  One  of  the 
principal  rivers  of  Western  Europe.  It  rises  on 
the  Plateau  of  Langres  in  the  Department  of 
Haute-Mame,  Northeastern  France,  and  flows 
at  first  north  through  a  narrow,  winding  valley 
with  high  and  steep  sides,  sometimes  becoming 
cafion-like  with  rocky  cliffs,  and  through  the 
wild  forest  region  of  Ardennes  (Map:  France, 
L  4).  It  then  flows  northeast  through  Belgium 
into  Holland,  the  land  becoming  gradually  lower, 
changing  through  the  heath  lands  of  l^orthem 
Belgium  to  the  extensive  peat-bogs  known  as  De 
Peel  in  Southeastern  Holland.  Finally  the  river 
turns  westward,  joins  the  Waal,  one  of  the 
arms  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  Gorkum,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  North  Sea  through  the  great  delta 
common  to  the  two  rivers,  a  large,  compound 
estuary  consisting  of  broad,  sandy,  and  shallow 
channels  inclosing  a  number  of  low,  flat  islands. 
The  united  Meuse  and  Waal  first  divide  into  two 
arms,  one  of  which,  the  Hollandsch  Diep,  flows 
southwest,  and,  after  communicating  southward 
with  the  delta  of  the  Scheldt  (q.v.),  enters  the 
sea  through  the  broad  Haringvliet.  The  other 
arm  flows  west  and  again  divides  into  the  Old 
and  the  New  Meuse,  which,  uniting  at  several 
points,  flow  parallel  to  the  sea.  The  Old  Meuse 
communicates  by  side  channels  with  the  Haring- 
vliet, and  the  New  Meuse  receives  the  Lek,  an 
arm  of  the  Rhine.  The  New  Meuse,  which  passes 
Rotterdam,  is  the  main  channel  for  navigation. 
The  total  length  of  the  Meuse  is  498  miles,  and 
it  is  navigable  for  355  miles.  Its  principal  tribu- 
taries are  the  Sambre  from  the  left,  and  the 
Semoy,  Ourthe,  and  Roer  from  the  right.    It  con- 


nects with  extensive  canal  systems  in  Belgium 
and  in  Holland.  Above  NeufchAteau,  in  the  De- 
partment of  Vosges,  the  river  loses  itself  under- 
ground for  some  miles.  The  chief  cities  on  its 
banks  are  Verdun  (the  head  of  navigation), 
Sedan,  and  Charleville  in  France;  Namur  and 
Liege  in  Belgium;  and  Maastricht,  Dordrecht, 
and  Rotterdam  in  Holland. 

HEW,  or  Sea-Mew.  In  Great  Britain,  a 
gull   (q.v.). 

HEXBOBOUO]^  meks'bflr-S.  A  town  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  on  the  Don, 
5%  miles  northeast  of  Rotherham.  It  has  large 
iron  and  pottery  industries.  The  markets  are 
municipal  property.  Population,  in  1891,  7700; 
in  1900,  10,400. 

MEXCALA^  m^-kS/\k,  A  river  of  Mexico. 
See  Mescaia. 

MEXICAN  ABCHiEOLOOY.  Among  the 
many  tribes  which  occupied  Mexico  in  former 
times,  six  may  be  said  to  have  attained  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  culture.  The  Nahuas,  whose 
chief  seat  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest 
was  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  had  come  from  the 
North,  and  their  influence  extended,  by  reason 
of  conquest  and  migration,  southward  as  far  as 
Costa  Rica.  It  is  impossible  to  state  the  exact 
limits  of  Nahua  remains  in  Mexico,  owing  to 
our  meagre  knowledge  of  the  antiquities  of  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  country,  and  the  confused  tradi- 
tions of  the  migrations  of  the  people.  The 
Tarascans  were  settled  in  what  is  now  Michoacan 
and  probably  parts  of  Jalisco,  Tepic,  and  Colima. 
In  Oaxaca  are  found  the  remains  of  the  Mixtecs 
and  Zapotecs,  with  traces  of  an  earlier  settle- 
ment of  the  Nahuas.  In  Vera  Cruz  the  Huax- 
tecs,  linguistically  a  branch  of  the  great  Maya- 
Quich6  family,  are  found;  and  the  Totonacs, 
whose  territory  lay  between  that  of  the  Huaxtecs 
and  Nahuas,  had  a  distinct  culture,  although  un- 
doubtedly influenced  by  both  of  the  former  peo- 
ples. To  the  east  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec, 
and  extending  eastward  over  the  States  of  Chia- 
pas, Tabasco,  and  Yucatan,  and  northward 
through  Guatemala  to  Northern  Honduras,  are 
the  remains  of  the  Maya-Quich6  family,  whose 
civilization  was,  in  many  respects,  the  most 
advanced  in  ancient  America.  This  region  is 
geographically  as  well  as  culturally  a  part  of 
Central  America. 

The  remains  found  in  Chihuahua  show  an 
ancient  culture  similar  to  that  which  existed  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Gila  and  Salt  rivers  in 
Arizona,  but  of  a  slightly  higher  grade.  The 
people  seem  to  have  reached  an  intermediate 
stage,  between  the  Nahuas  on  the  south  and  the 
Pueblo  peoples  on  the  north,  but  nearer  the  lat- 
ter than  the  former.  In  this  region  the  ruins  of 
Casa  Grande  (q.v.)  are  the  only  noteworthy 
group.  The  pottery  from  the  vicinity  of  this 
ruin  is  of  an  advanced  type  and  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  ceramics  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
but  it  has  distinct  peculiarities  and  bears  the 
marks  of  contact  with  the  people  of  the  south. 
In  the  dense  forests  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  ruins  have 
been  reported  which  are  related  to  the  culture 
of  the  south,  and  probably  belong  to  the  Huaxtec 
or  Totonac  peoples.  We  flnd  the  first  important 
remains  of  the  higher  Mexican  civilization  in  the 
very  centre  of  that  part  of  Mexico  which  lies 
north  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  in  the  im- 


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mense  structure  of  La  Quemada  in  Zacatecas, 
which  have  been  but  little  studied;  but  they 
are  probably  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Nahua  set- 
tlement. In  Michoacan  the  ruins  of  Tzintzuntzan 
bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of  La  Quemada. 
This  region  of  the  Tarascos  has  been  little  ex- 
plored. The  great  ruins  of  the  Nahuas  include 
Tula,  Teotihuacan,  Xochicalco,  Tepoztlan,  Cho- 
lula,  and  Tenochtitlan,  now  the  City  of  Mexico, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Aztecs,  the  predomi- 
nant branch  of  the  Nahuas,  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest ;  beneath  the  soil  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
lies  buried  a  vast  number  of  objects,  and  also  the 
bases  of  temples,  although  the  imposinff  struc- 
tures and  the  greater  number  of  the  sculptures, 
idols,  books,  etc.,  of  Montezuma's  seat  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  Spaniards.  In  the  Huaxtecan  and 
Totonacan  districts  are  the  ruins  of  Papantla, 
Misantla,  Centla,  Tusapan,  and  Cempoalla; 
while  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  Montcf  Alban,  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  Zapotecs,  is  one  of  the 
most  stupendous  ruins  in  Mexico.  Mitla,  in  the 
same  district,  has  nothing  in  common  with  Za- 
potec  remains  and  must  be  ascribed  to  the 
Nahuas.  In  the  Maya  region  are  the  remains  of 
hundreds  of  cities,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  Palenque,  Piedras  Negras,  Mench6,  Seibal,. 
Tikal,  Labna,  Kabah,  Uxmal,  Chichen  Itza, 
Quirigua,  and  Copan. 

In  the  arts  the  ancient  Mexicans  show  a  sur- 
prising progress.  For  the  architecture  of  ancient 
Mexico,  see  Abchjeology,  American;  Mitla; 
Palenque. 

Sculptures  in  stone  are  found,  ranging  in  size 
from  the  small  amulets,  representing  deities, 
and  designed  as  personal  ornaments,  to  monu- 
ments of  colossal  size,  such  as  the  so-called  Mexi- 
can calendar  stone,  and  the  great  stelse  of  the 
ruins  of  Quirigua.  In  wood-carving  the  Mexi- 
cans displayed  even  greater  skill  than  in  the 
working  of  stone.  TTie  great  altar  tablets  of 
Tikal,  the  wooden  drums,  and  the  atlatls  or 
th rowing-sticks  splendidly  carved,  and  in  some 
instances  covered  with  gold  leaf,  attest  their 
proficiency  in  this  branch  of  art.  Carving, 
whether  m  stone,  wood,  bone,  or  shell,  was  done 
with  stone  or  copper  tools.  Jadeite,  emerald, 
rock  crystal,  turquoise,  and  serpentine  were 
carved  into  numberless  varieties  of  personal  or- 
naments, chiefly  in  the  territory  of  the  Mixtecs 
and  Zapotecs  of  Oaxaca,  and  by  the  Mavas  in 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Chiapas.  The  Nahuas 
and  Zapotecs  fashioned  mosaics  on  wood,  shell, 
and  clay,  using  bits  of  shell,  jadeite,  turquoise, 
obsidian,  mother-of-pearl,  and  hematite  to  form 
the  designs. 

In  the  ceramic  art  the  products  of  the  several 
civilized  nations  are  quite  distinct,  and  we  may 
determine  their  provenance  with  a  certain  amount 
of  exactness.  The  terracotta  figures  of  the  Ja- 
lisco district,  the  ware  from  the  vicinity  of 
Cholula,  the  funeral  urns  from  the  Oaxaca  Val- 
ley, and  the  pottery  from  the  Maya  region  are 
characteristics  of  each  centre.  In  metallurgy  we 
find  the  ancient  Tarascos,  the  Aztecs,  Totonacs, 
Mixtecs,  and  Zajjotecs  were  very  skillful  in  the 
manipulation  of  copper  into  axes,  tweezers,  rings, 
rattles,  and  bells.  Beautiful  objects  of  gold  have 
been  found  in  the  Matlaetzinca  region  near  To- 
luca  and  in  the  Mixtecan  and  Zapotecan  areas, 
which  are  the  very  highest  achievement  of  the 
ancient  American  goldsmiths.  Ear,  nose,  and  lip 
ornaments;    beautiful  bells,   some  representing 


symbolic  faces  and  animals*  heads;  beads;  circu* 
lar  breastplates;  the  copilli  or  crown  of  rulers, 
and  even  remains  of  armor  made  of  the  precious 
metal,  have  been  found  in  ancient  graves  during 
recent  years.  Unfortunately  the  greater  part 
of  these  'finds'  go  to  the  melting  pot. 

The  ancient  Mexicans  believed  in  a  future  life 
which  was  graded  according  to  the  manner  of 
death,  and  among  the  Zapotecs  they  had  elaborate 
funeral  ceremonies  and  sacrificed  slaves  to  assist 
the  shades  of  important  persons  on  their  journey 
to  paradise.  They  had  greater  and  lesser  deities. 
The  principal  god  of  the  Aztecs  was  Teotl,  who 
was  worshiped  as  a  supreme  being.  Next  to 
Teotl,  Tezcatlipoca  was  venerated  as  the  soul  of 
the  world,  who  rewarded  the  righteous  and  pun- 
ished the  unrighteous.  The  great  beneficent  god 
was  Quetzalcoatl  among  the  Nahuas,  called 
Kukulcan  by  the  Mayas,  the  great  feathered 
serpent  deity,  undoubtedly  a  deified  culture  hero. 
He  invented  the  arts  and  taught  the  people  wis- 
dom by  his  laws.  According  to  his  various  at- 
tributes he  appears  under  difi'erent  names,  as 
dp  many  other  gods  of  the  Mexican  pantheon. 
Tlaeoc  was  the  god  of  rain,  and  among  the 
Aztecs,  Huitzilopochtli,  the  terrible  war  god, 
was  patron  and  protector.  There  were  gods 
of  the  hunt  and  chase,  of  play,  fiowers,  wine, 
merchants,  trickery,  lust,  and  so  forth,  while 
each  trade  and  occupation  had  its  own  patron 
deity.  The  religious  rites  were  elaborate  and 
prescribed  with  minuteness.  The  multiplicity  of 
gods  required  a  great  number  of  priests  and 
priestesses,  who  were  almost  as  highly  venerated 
as  the  deities  they  served.  There  were  degrees 
of  priesthood  and  religious  orders;  fixed  and 
movable  festivals.  The  great  teocallis  or  god- 
houses  were  commanding  edifices  of  stone,  built 
on  high  truncated  pyramids  with  annexed  build- 
ings. Their  idols  were  many  and  hideous, 
smeared  with  the  blood  of  human  and  animal 
sacrifices. 

Among  certain  of  these  civilized  tribes  we  find 
artificial  fiattening  of  the  head;  also  trepana- 
tion, and  decoration  of  the  teeth  by  filing  and 
interlaying  with  certain  stones,  such  as  jadeite, 
turquoise,  obsidian,  and  hematite,  rock  crystal 
and  obsidian.  Labrets,  or  lip  ornaments,  made 
of  obsidian  and  gold,  were  inserted  in  holes  in 
the  lower  lip;  U-shaped  ornaments  of  obsidian 
and  shell  were  hung  from  the  nose,  and  large 
ornaments  were  inserted  in  incisions  in  the  ears. 
Many  of  the  musical  instruments  are  still  ex- 
tant, and  we  find  in  various  museums  examples 
of  the  teponoztli,  the  horizontal  drum,  made 
from  a  log  of  wood  hollowed  out  on  the  under 
surface  and  having  two  tongues  cut  on  the  up- 
per one,  which  were  beaten  with  rubber-tipped 
sticks.  Among  the  instruments  were  the  upright 
drum,  of  a  hollowed  log  of  wood,  with  skin-cov- 
ered top,  beaten  with  the  hands ;  flageolets,  whis- 
tles, and  rattles  of  clay;  trumpets;  and  rattles 
of  shell  and  notched  human  bones  from  the  arm 
or  leg,  rasped  with  a  bone  or  shell.  Paintini? 
was  another  art  in  which  the  ancient  Mexicans 
had  made  remarkable  progress.  This  is  shown 
by  the  mural  paintings  of  Teotihuacan,  Mitla, 
and  Chichen  Itzfi,  and  those  recently  discovered 
in  British  Honduras.  One  of  the  most  important 
sources  of  information  for  the  study  of  ancient 
Mexico  is  found  in  the  existing  pictorial  and 
hieroglyphic  codices,  or  books.  As  is  well  known, 
several  of  the  tribes  of  Mexico  had  attained  ft 


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degree  of  culture  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
Conquest  that  led  to  the  recording  of  events,  not 
only  on  stone  bas-reliefs  and  sculptures,  but  on 
material  of  a  more  perishable  nature.  These 
codices  were  on  strips  of  deerskin,  the  surface 
of  which  was  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of 
stucco.  They  were  folded  screen-fashion,  and 
the  paintings  were  on  both  sides.  The  Mexicans 
had  furthermore  invented  a  kind  of  paper.  In 
Mexico  proper,  in  addition  to  bark-paper,  a  paper 
was  made  from  the  leaves  of  the  maguey  plant. 
Agave  Americana;  this  paper  they  also  sized 
with  a  coating  of  lime. 

One  of  the  things  which  impressed  Cortes, 
when  he  first  came  in  contact  with  the  mes- 
sengers sent  out  by  Montezuma,  was  that  some 
of  them  were  busily  employed  in  making  paint- 
ings of  the  Spaniards ;  their  costumes,  arms,  and 
different  objects  of  interest,  giving  to  each  its 
appropriate  color.  These  were  to  convey  to 
Montezuma  an  idea  of  the  conquerors  in  picture 
writing,  and  is  the  first  notice  we  have  of  its 
existence  in  ancient  America.  In  symbolic  and 
picture  writing  the  Mayas  approached  very  close- 
ly to  phoneticism,  and  recent  progress  has  been 
made  in  an  interpretation  of  the  codices  of  the 
Nahua  and  Mixtec  group,  as  well  as  signal  suc- 
cess in  the  decipherment  of  the  hieroglyphics  of 
the  Mayas,  preserved  in  codices,  tablets,  and 
stelse.  Of  the  latter  class  of  inscriptions  certain 
dates  and  methods  of  counting  have  been  worked 
out,  and  in  some  instances  about  40  per  cent,  of 
the  inscriptions  have  been  successfully  deciphered. 
Besides  tne  two  known  systems  of  pictographic 
and  hieroglyphic  writing,  explorations  in  Oaxaca 
have  recently  revealed  a  third  and  distinct  form 
of  inscription  among  the  Zapotecs. 

The  complex  calendar  system  of  the  Taras- 
cos,  Nahuas,  Mixtecs,  Zapotecs,  Totonacs,  and 
Mayas  is  the  same,  and  is  a  remarkable  evidence 
of  the  high  culture  which  they  had  attained,  but 
the  Mayas  had  more  extended  measures  for  the 
computation  of  time  than  the  Nahuas.  Recent 
investigation  of  the  Maya  calendar  revealed  vari- 
ous periods  and  elaborate  computations  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  movements  of  certain  planets. 
The  general  scheme  of  the  calendar  proper  was 
the  division  of  the  year  into  two  unequal  parts, 
three  hundred  and  sixty  days  being  the  year,  di- 
vided into  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each ; 
at  the  end  of  the  last  month  fiver  days  were  added 
to  round  out  the  true  solar  year;  and  each  of 
the  twenty-dav  periods  had  its  own  name  and 
symbol,  but  the  days  were  not  numbered  from 
one  to  twenty,  but  from  one  to  thirteen.  By 
this  method  of  numeration  the  day  bearing  the 
same  name  and  number  did  not  recur  until  the 
thirteen  months  had  elapsed;  this  made  a  pe- 
riod of  two  hundred  and  sixty  days,  which, 
among  the  Aztecs,  was  called  Tonalamatl ;  it  was 
a  year  within  a  year,  and  was  used  for  divina- 
tory  or  religious  purposes.  There  were,  also, 
many  other  intricacies  in  the  Mexican  calendar, 
some  of  which  have  not  yet  been  explained. 

In  studying  Mexican  artifacts,  we  are  some- 
what handicapped  by  the  immense  number  of 
clever  frauds  which  have  been  made  during  re- 
cent years,  and  which  have  found  their  way  into 
all  collections  and  museums.  We  are  just  be- 
ginning to  study  in  a  systematic  way  the  archap- 
ology  of  this  region,  and  further  research  will 
unquestionably  prove  that  the  early  accounts  of 
the  Mexican  civilization,  handed  down  to  us  in 


the  writings  of  the  eye-witnesses  of  the  Spanish 
Conquest,  and  the  histories  of  the  early  mis- 
sionaries, as  SahagtLn,  Durfin,  De  Landa,  and 
others,  were  not  very  greatly  exaggerated. 

MEXICAN  HAIBLESS  DOG.  See  Hair- 
less DOQ. 

MEXICAN  JUMPING  BEAN.  See  Jump- 
iNQ  Bean.      ' 

MEXICAN  LITEBATUBE.  Modem  Mexi- 
co, despite  the  surprising  advance  of  the  past 
quarter-century,  has  been  so  far  outstripped  in 
the  material  elements  of  civilization  that  the 
people  of  more  progressive  nations  are  apt  to  for- 
get tlie  time  when  its  capital  was  the  intellectual 
and  artistic  centre  of  the  New  World.  The  in- 
tellectual life  of  Mexico,  therefore,  is  not  of  mod- 
ern creation,  but  dates  back  to  the  third  decade 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  which  the  early  conquis- 
tadores  marked  by  the  introduction  of  the  first 
printing  press,  to  be  followed  shortly  by  the 
establishment  of  the  first  university  upon  the 
American  continent.  That  neither  of  these 
establishments  was  a  matter  of  mere  formal 
enactment  is  shown  by  the  creditable  list  of  the 
writers  of  that  century,  who  were  connected  as 
teachers  or  pupils  with  the  early  educational 
institutions,  and  whose  works  bear  the  imprint 
of  the  native  Mexican  press,  whose  list  of  extant 
works,  printed  before  1600,  embraces  some  116 
titles. 

Any  study  of  Mexican  literature  naturally  be- 
gins with  the  few  survivals  of  primitive  picture 
writing.  These  hieroglyphs  so  far  approached 
writing  as  to  give  clearly  names,  places,  and  the 
date  of  events — some  of  which  are  accurate — as 
far  as  the  twelfth  century,  while  more  vague 
traditions  extend  several  centuries  further  back. 
Most  of  these  records  belong  to  that  aboriginal 
branch  of  Nahua  stock  known  as  the  Toltecs,  but 
the  famous  PopuhVuhf  of  Quiche  origin,  also 
mentions  names  and  places  of  Mexican  legendary 
history.  The  meagre  details  of  these  records  were 
supplemented,  within  a  century  after  the  Spanish 
Conquest,  by  so-called  ^histories,*  written  by 
educated  natives  from  the  above  sources,  aided 
by  oral  tradition.  These  works  consist  of  songs, 
ordinances,  memoirs  of  the  native  kings,  and 
accoimts  of  the  Spanish  conquerors.  Without 
them  it  would  now  be  impossible  to  read  the  few 
extant  sources;  and  if  some  of  the  early  Church 
fathers  are  to  be  blamed  for  their  fanaticism 
in  destroying  hieroglyphs,  others  deserve  equal 
credit  for  their  care  in  preserving  the  remain- 
ing few,  and  in  training  natives  who  could  still 
unravel  their  meaning. 

Most  writers  of  the  early  colonial  period  were 
natives  of  the  Old  World,  whom  matters  of 
Church  or  State  called  to  the  New.  Among  those 
works  of  the  sixteenth  century  which  relate  to 
early  native  history  we  may  mention  Motolinfa's 
Hisforia  de  lo8  Yndios  de  la  Nueva  Espana 
(1541)  ;  Sahagtln's  Historia  de  las  coaas  antiguas 
de  los  Indios  (lo66)  ;  and  Molina's  Vocahulario 
(1555),  a  Castilian-Mexican  work  of  249  pages, 
one  of  the  products  of  Juan  Pablo's  first  print- 
ing press.  The  work  of  these  men  was  largely 
utilized  by  Torquemada  in  his  MonarqMW  In- 
diana (1615),  a  work  for  which  Alam&n  bestows 
upon  him  the  title  *the  Livy  of  New  Spain.' 
Above  the  names  of  the  adopted  European  chron- 
iclers stand  those  of  Tezozomoc,  son  of  the  last 
Mexican    Emperor,    Cuitlahuac,    whose    Crdnica 


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Mexicana  (c.  1600)  is  an  admirable  compan- 
ion volume  to  Friar  Diego  Duriin's  Historia 
de  lo8  Indios  de  Nueva  Espana  y  islas  de  Tierra 
fimie  (1581),  up  to  that  time  the  most  complete 
chronicle  of  the  ancient  Mexicans ;  and  Fernando 
de  Alva-lxtlilxochitl  (1568-1648),  the  original 
chronicler  of  the  Texcuco  royal  line,  whose  work, 
though  not  rigorously  correct  in  chronology,  in 
volume  and  importance  surpasses  all  his  prede- 
cessors. It  is  to  these  two  native  writers  that 
we  owe  the  interpretation  of  the  early  Mexican 
hieroglyphs  then  in  existence. 

The  chroniclers  who  treated  merely  of  the  Con- 
<)uest  did  so  from  a  European  standpoint,  and 
for  this  reason  do  not  greatly  concern  us  here. 
Among  the  Creole  population  of  the  sixteenth 
-century,  however,  there  were  some  poets  of  note. 
Prominent  among  these  were  Francisco  de  Ter- 
razas,  who  was  eulogized  by  Cervantes,  but  whose 
works  have  been  lost;  and  Saavedra  Guzmftn^ 
whose  most  famous  poem.  El  peregrino  indiano 
(1590),  adds  rather  to  his  reputation  as  chron- 
icler than  as  poet. 

Though  the  modest  literary  product  of  the 
seventeenth  century  may  to  some  extent  exem- 
plify the  intellectual  decadence  of  New  Spain 
during  that  period,  yet  it  illustrates  in  one  phase 
the  aptitude  of  the  mestizo  caste  for  music  and 
for  poetry — an  aptitude  which  displayed  itself  in 
both  Castilian  and  Latin  verse.  Easily  the  leader 
of  this  period  stands  the  poetess  Juana  In^s  de 
la  Cruz  (1651-1695),  a  leading  personage  at  the 
vice-regal  court,  and  later  a  nun,  who  dazzled 
her  contemporaries  by  her  learning,  and  whose 
subtle  and  suggestive  verse  gained  for  her  the 
title  *the  Tenth  Muse.'  Another  easy  and  cor- 
rect versifier  of  the  period  was  the  Pueblan 
Matias  Bocanegra,  whose  popularity  lasted  well 
into  the  succeeding  century.  The  making  of  verse 
at  that  time  was  simply  a  pastime,  so  a  com- 
paratively small  output  has  survived  until  our 
own  day.  The  man  of  letters  par  excellence  of 
the  century  was  the  diligent  and  versatile  Carlos 
de  Sigfienza  y  G6ngora  (1645-1700),  whose  writ- 
ings, poetical  and  prose,  embraced  a  wide  variety 
of  literary  and  scientific  subjects.  He  held  the 
post  of  Cosmographer  of  New  Spain,  and  for 
many  years  filled  the  chair  of  mathematics  in 
the  University  of  Mexico.  The  most  noted  co- 
lonial dramatist  of  the  century  was  Eusebio  Vela, 
who,  if  not  equal  to  the  leaders  of  the  Spanish 
stage,  surpassed  many  of  those  of  the  second 
rank.  Juan  Ruiz  de  Alarc6n,  the  dramatist, 
was  of  Mexican  birth  and  education,  though 
his  mature  work  was  produced  in  Spain.  The 
theological  works  of  the  time  bore  the  names 
of  many  native  Church  fathers;  likewise  the 
best  work  on  the  early  compiling  of  the  Laws 
of  the  Indies  was  that  of  Rodrigo  Aguiar  y  Acufia 
(died  1629).  In  the  realm  of  scientific  litera- 
ture the  work  of  Enrico  Martinez,  Reportorio  de 
lo8  tiempos  y  historia  natural  desta  Nueva  Es- 
paHa  (1606),  and  that  of  Friar  Agustm  de  Ve- 
tancourt,  Teatro  mexicana  (1698),  fittingly  open 
and  close  the  century. 

The  eighteenth  century  in  New  Spain  was 
marked  by  a  more  extensive  if  less  notable 
literary  culture.  This  was  especially  true  of  the 
reign  of  Carlos  IV.,  when  public  functions  were 
the  scenes  of  notable  contests  of  poets  and  ora- 
tors, many  of  whose  productions  were  favorably 
mentioned  in  Europe.  The  book  trade  with 
Madrid  and  other  Spanish  cities  was  very  flour- 


ishing, and  some  especially  fine  editions  of  clas- 
sical authors  were  printed  in  the  Oeole  capital. 
Large  and  well-selected  private  libraries  were 
common,  both  here  and  in  the  provincial  towns. 
It  was  the  period  for  the  collection  of  archives 
and  the  writing  of  local  history — a  work  in  which 
the  names  of  Veytia  (1718-1779)  and  Morfl  (died 
1793)  hold  a  prominent  position.  Spanish-Amer- 
ican journalism  is  represented  by  the  monthly 
gazette  (1728-39)  of  Francisco  Sahagdn  de  Are- 
valo;  by  the  Gacetas  de  Literatura  (begun  1768) 
of  Jos6  Antonio  de  Alzate  (1729-90),  whose  peri- 
odical did  much  to  stimulate  intellectual  eflfort 
and  develop  a  correct  literary  sentiment;  by  the 
Mercurio  Volante  (begun  1772)  of  Jos6  Ignacio 
Bartolache,  largely  a  medical  journal;  by  the 
Oaceta  de  Mexico,  a  fortnightly  publication  from 
1784  to  1806,  devoted  to  general  news  and  literary 
and  scientific  discussions,  and  after  that  date 
a  bi-weekly;  and  the  Diario  de  M6jico  (1805) 
and  the  Diario  de  Vera  Cruz  (1805),  the  iformer 
devoted  to  literary  and  statistical  matters,  and 
the  latter  a  commercial  sheet.  Despite  the  strict 
censorship  of  all  these  periodicals,  they  exercised 
a  most  beneficial  effect  upon  public  opinion  at 
the  close  of  the  century. 

In  the  literary  production  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  work  of  the  Mexican  historians  easily 
leads  at  home,  and  occupies  a  prominent  place 
in  the  world  at  large.  An  important  work  as  col- 
lector of  historical  documents  was  done  by  Jos^ 
Fernandez  Ramirez.  Among  historians  of  lesser 
note  may  be  mentioned  Mora  and  Zamacois.  Of  un- 
usual excellence  is  the  work  of  Bustamante  ( died 
1848),  whose  volumes  treat  of  the  revolutionary 
period  and  of  the  beginnings  of  the  American 
War.  The  leader  of  his  age,  and  still  easily  the 
foremost  Mexican  historian,  was  Lucas  Alamdn 
(died  1853),  whose  work  as  statesman  during 
a  trying  period  has  been  eclipsed  by  his  greater 
work  as  the  historian  of  that  period.  His  Diser- 
taciones  sohre  la  Historia  de  M6jico  (3  vols., 
1844-49)  cover  the  vice-regal  period,  and  these 
are  supplemented  by  his  Historia  de  M4jico  (5 
vols.,  1849-52),  continuing  the  narrative  to  the 
middle  of  the  century.  Among  the  more  recent 
historians  the  greatest  figure  is  that  of  Manuel 
Orozco  y  Berra  ( 1816-81 ) ,  who  crowTied  a  life 
of  public  service  and  valuable  archaeological  re- 
search by  devoting  his  last  twenty  years  to  his 
Historia  Antigua  de  Mexico,  Closely  allied  with 
these  is  the  work  of  Antonio  Garcia  Cubas,  whose 
Diccionario  geogrdficOy  histdrico^  y  hiogrdfico  de 
los  Estados  Unidos  Mexicanos  (1889)  is  a  model 
of  its  kind. 

In  the  realm  of  pure  literature  the  physician- 
poet  Manuel  Carpio  (1791-1860)  was  well  known 
for  his  vigorous  descriptive  verse,  of  which  the 
most  important  example  is  La  cena  de  Baltasar, 
His  firmness  and  moderation  in  political  life,  and 
the  erudition  and  charm  of  his  poen>s,  easily 
render  him  the  most  popular  Mexican  poet  of 
the  centurj'.  Ignacio  Manuel  Altamirano  (bom 
1834),  a  noted  liberal  orator,  is  famous  both  as 
a  poet  and  as  a  novelist.  His  poems  are  less  vig- 
orous in  description  than  those  of  Carpio;  the 
best  known  of  his  novels,  Clemenciay  is  of  con- 
siderable merit.  To  Rodriguez  Galvfin  is  given 
the  credit  of  the  first  national  drama,  but  his 
work  has  been  surpassed  by  Fernando  Calder6n 
(1819-45).  whose  Reimldo^y  Elena,  Zadig,  and 
others  gave  promise  of  much  better  work  had 
he  lived  to  complete  it.     In  comedy  the  name  of 


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Manuel  £.  Gorostiza  (1789-1851)  stands  su- 
preme. His  comedies,  of  which  the  most  famous 
are  Indulgencia  para  todoa  and  Contigo  pan  y 
ceholla,  still  hold  popular  favor.  In  addition 
to  an  active  militaiy  and  diplomatic  career  he 
organized  the  present  Bihlioteca  Aactonal,  and 
greatly  advanced  the  cause  of  popular  education 
throughout  the  Republic.  Consult:  Alaman, 
Diaertacionea  aohre  la  Historia  de  M^jico  (Mexi- 
co, 1844-49)  ;  Piementel,  Historia  critica  de  la 
literatura  y  de  las  ciencias  en  Mexico  (Mexico, 
1885);  Cortez,  AmMca  Poitioa  (Paris,  1875); 
id.,  Diccionario  hiogrdfico  Americano  (Paris, 
1875)  ;  and  M^onco  a  travSs  de  lo8  aigloa  (Mexi- 
co, 1887-89). 
MEXICAN  POPPY.     See  Aboemone. 

MEXICAN  STJBBEGION.  In  zodgeography, 
a  subdivision  of  the  Neotropical  Region  which 
embraces  Central  America  and  the  low,  hot 
coast  regions  of  Mexico  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Grande  on  the  east  and  about  to  the 
border  of  the  plains  of  Durango  on  the  west. 
Between  these,  the  northern  fauna  and  flora 
are  continued  along  the  summit  of  the  Cordillera 
as  an  entering  wedge  reaching  south  to  Nica- 
ragua. It  has  many  species  peculiar  to  itself, 
but  no  large  groups.  Many  northern  as  well 
as  southern  forms  extend  their  range  into  this 
middle  region,  as  might  be  expected;  and  views 
differ  as  to  where  its  boundaries  should  be  drawn. 
(See  SoNOBAN  Region.)  On  the  whole,  its  aflBni- 
ties  are  South  American.  See  Distribution  op 
Animals;  NEOOiEA;  NoTOOiEA. 

MEXICAN  WAB.  The  war  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  in  1846-48.  It  was  the 
result  of  a  series  of  outrages  upon  American 
citizens,  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
Texas  by  the  United  States  (1837),  the  annexa- 
tion (1845)  of  Texas  to  the  United  States,  in 
the  face  of  bitter  opposition  on  the  part  of 
Mexico,  herself  torn  with  revolution  and  con- 
tending factions,  and  finally  of  a  dispute  regard- 
ing the  boundary  of  Texas,  the  United  States 
claiming  the  Rio  Grande  as  the  boundarj',  while 
Mexico  held  that  Texas  did  not  extend  farther 
south  than  the  Nueces.  During  the  fall  of  1845 
a  large  part  of  the  small  regular  army  of  the 
United  States  was  assembled  under  Gen.  Zachary 
Taylor  at  Corpus  Christi,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Nueces  in  Texas,  and  on  March  12,  1846,  under 
orders  from  the  United  States  Government,  Tay- 
lor advanced  into  the  territory  the  possession  of 
which  was  then  in  dispute.  After  a  march  of 
sixteen  days  he  reached  the  Rio  Grande  at  a 
point  opposite  to  the  Mexican  city  of  Mata- 
moros.  A  week  earlier,  on  the  21st,  the  Unit- 
ed States  Minister  to  Mexico,  Slidell,  unable 
to  negotiate  a  treaty  in  accordance  with  Presi- 
dent Polk's  directions,  or  even  to  secure  official 
recognition,  received  his  passports  and  started 
on  his  return  to  the  United  States.  The  Mexican 
army  at  this  time  numbered  at  least  30,000  of  all 
arms,  and  comprised,  besides  troops  of  the  line, 
the  active  battalions  of  the  States  and  the  local 
national  guards  of  the  cities.  The  cavalry 
(lancers)  were  excellent  horsemen,  fairly  dis- 
ciplined, but  indifferently  mounted  and  poorly 
armed:  the  artillery,  officered  partly  by  foreign- 
ers, were  good  gimners,  but  the  arm  lacked  mo- 
bility; the  infantry  were  well  drilled,  but  were 
armed  with  muskets  of  ancient  pattern.  An 
undue    number    of   general    officers    (politicians 


rather  than  soldiers)  and  an  inefficient  general 
staff  completed  the  Mexican  resources  for  war. 
The  effective  power  of  the  Mexicans,  however, 
was  enhanced  bv  the  fact  that  they  represented 
the  'defense;'  that  they  served  among  friends, 
and  that  they  often  fought  behind  strong  fortifi- 
cations. The  American  army  was  inferior  in 
numerical  strength  to  the  enemy.  At  the  close 
of  1845  the  maximum  strength  was  7883.  What 
it  lacked  in  numbers,  however,  was  made  up  in 
fighting  quality.  It  consisted  of  two  regiments 
of  dragoons,  four  of  artillery,  and  eight  of  in- 
fantry, with  the  usual  staff  corps.  The  dragoons 
were  well  disciplined,  drilled  as  light  cavalry,  and 
armed  with  carbines  and  sabres;  the  artillery 
garrisoned  the  fortifications,  but  had  little  in- 
struction in  gunnery,  excepting  one  company  in 
each  regiment  organized  as  light  artillery,  which 
had  reached  a  high  standard  of  efficiency;  the 
infantry,  well  disciplined  and  familiar  with  the 
use  of  arms,  w^ere  distributed  among  a  number  of 
small  frontier  posts  and  never  in  large  bodies; 
the  officers,  a  majority  graduates  of  West  Point, 
were  generally  of  superior  ability,  with  the  ex- 
perience and  self-reliance  gained  in  Indian  ser- 
vice and  independent  command.  The  navy  of  the 
United  States,  although  small,  was  exceedingly 
efficient.  The  Mexican  Republic  had  only  a  few 
small  steamers  and  sailing  vessels,  and  these 
principally  on  paper.  Taylor's  command  hardly 
comprised  3000  effectives  upon  its  arrival  oppo- 
site Matamoros,  on  the  28th  of  March,  1846. 
Taylor  immediately  fortified  his  position  and 
established  a  base  of  supply  at  Point  Isabel. 
The  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  was  blockaded  by 
the  small  naval  force  accompanying  the  Ameri- 
can army,  and  two  vessels  with  supplies  for  the 
Mexican  army  were  warned  off  and  returned  to 
sea.  General  Ampudia,  who  was  in  command  at 
Matamoros  from  April  11th  to  April  24th,  pro- 
tested vigorously  against  the  occupation  of  dis- 
puted territory  by  General  Taylor,  and  insisted 
that,  pending  a  settlement  of  the  boundary  dis- 
pute, the  American  army  should  be  withdrawn  to 
the  Nueces.  On  April  24th  General  Arista  super- 
seded Ampudia,  and  at  once  decided  to  take  the 
offensive  and  cross  the  Rio  Grande, notifying  Tay- 
lor that  he  considered  hostilities  already  to  have 
begun  on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  On  the 
25th  General  Taylor  learned  that  a  large  force  of 
cavalry  had  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  some  miles 
above  his  position,  and  sent  a  small  squadron  of 
the  Second  Dragoons  under  Captain  Thornton  to 
obtain  definite  information.  While  endeavoring 
to  execute  the  order,  Thornton,  whose  guide  had 
deserted,  found  his  command  surrounded  by 
a  Mexican  cavalry  force  of  more  than  500,  and  in 
an  attempt  to  cut  his  way  out  lost  one  officer  and 
eight  men  killed,  and  two  men  wounded:  and, 
with  the  remainder  (46),  was  captured.  Taylor 
notified  his  Government  that  the  first  blow  had 
been  struck,  and  called  upon  the  Governors  of 
Ix)uisinna  and  Texas  for  5000  volunteers.  On  the 
30th,  General  Taylor,  leaving  a  regiment  of  infan- 
try and  two  companies  of  artillery  to  garrison  an 
earthwork,  known  as  Fort  Brown  (see  Browns- 
ville, Tex.),  in  front  of  Matamoros,  proceeded 
with  the  remainder  of  his  command  to  Point 
Isabel  in  order  to  complete  his  communications. 
During  his  absence  the  Mexicans  attacked  the 
fort  vigorously,  but  to  no  avail.  As  he  was  return- 
ing (May  8th),  he  encountered  Arista,  who  with 
6000  men  and  ten  guns  barred  the  road  at  a  place 


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nine  miles  from  Matamoros,  known  as  Palo  Alto. 
Taylor's  force  numbered  2300  officers  and  men 
and  ten  guns.  After  a  fight  of  four  hours  (see 
Palo  Alto),  Arista  fell  back  to  Resaca  de  la 
Palma,  with  a  loss  of  252.  The  American  casual- 
ties comprised  7  killed  and  47  wounded.  On  the 
following  day  Taylor  continued  his  march.  Ar- 
riving in  front  of  the  Mexican  position,  a 
low  ridge  commanding  the  road  to  Matamoros, 
the  Americans  paused  to  reconnoitre.  On  ac- 
count of  the  dense  ^chaparral/  movements  en 
masse  were  impacticable,  and  the  infantry 
were  deployed  as  skirmishers,  with  the  artillery, 
supported  by  the  dragoons,  remaining  on  the 
road.  Arista  had  been  reinforced  during  the 
night  by  2000  infantry.  As  on  the  day  before,  an 
artillery  duel  ensued,  and  the  Mexican  batteries 
held  the  Americans  at  bay  for  some  time,  imtil 
Taylor  sent  a  squadron  of  dragoons  imder  Captain 
May,  who  gallantly  charged,  taking  the  guns, 
together  with  the  Mexican  general.  La  Vega,  at 
the  cost,  however,  of  1  officer,  and  7  men  killed, 
and  10  men  wounded.  Upon  this  the  enemy  gave 
way  and  fied  from  the  field,  pursued  by  the 
Americans,  who  made  many  captures,  includ- 
ing 14  officers,  8  pieces  of  artillery,  and 
several  standards.  The  Mexicans,  in  confu- 
sion, retired  to  Matamoros,  many  being  drowned 
in  crossing  the  river.  Arista's  losses  were  esti- 
mated at  1000  men,  of  whom  200  were  left  dead 
upon  the  battle-field.  On  May  17th  Arista  evacu- 
ated Matamoros,  and  on  the  following  day  Tay- 
lor crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and  took  possession. 
Previously,  on  May  11th,  President  Polk  had  sent 
to  Congress  his  famous  war  message,  in  which  he 
enumerated  the  wrongs  committed  by  Mexico 
against  the  United  States,  and,  ignoring  Mexico's 
reasonable  claim  to  the  country  between  the 
Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande,  asserted  that  **Mexi- 
co  has  passed  the  boundary  of  the  United  States, 
has  invaded  our  territory,  and  shed  American 
blood  upon  American  soil."  Two  days  later  Con- 
gress issued  a  formal  declaration  of  war,  and 
threw  the  onus  of  striking  the  first  blow  upon 
^Mexico.  The  ensuing  three  months  were  utilized 
by  both  sides  in  raising  additional  troops.  Con- 
gress authorized  a  call  for  50»000  volimteers,  and 
the  regular  army  was  increased  to  30,000.  On 
August  19th  Taylor  marched  with  6700  men 
(including  volunteers)  upon  Monterey,  which 
wa«  held  by  Ampudia  with  10,000  men.  Previous 
to  his  arrival  before  Monterey,  however,  Santa 
Anna  (q.v.)  had  subverted  the  Government  of 
Paredes,  and  had  established  himself  in  power. 
The  American  army  arrived  in  front  of  the  town 
S(^ptember  19th,  attacked  on  the  21st,  and  after 
three  days  of  severe  fighting  the  defenses  were 
taken  by  assault,  and  the  Mexican  general  capitu- 
lated, being  permitted  to  march  out  *with  the 
honors  of  war,*  and  an  armistice  of  eight  weeks 
being  agreed  upon.  (See  Monterey,  Battle  of.) 
The  Mexican  losses  were  estimated  at  nearly 
1000;  the  American  at  488.  General  Scott  with- 
drew from  Taylor  the  greater  part  of  his  army 
and  instructed  Taylor  to  establish  his  head- 
quarters at  Monterey  and  refrain  from  further 
offensive  operations.  Throiiffh  captured  dis- 
patches Santa  Anna  learned  of  Taylor's  de- 
pleted force,  and  quietly  advanced  upon  the 
American  position  near  Saltillo  with  20,000  effec- 
tives. Tavlor's  scouts  informed  him  of  this  in 
time  for  him  to  complete  his  dispositions  for  bat- 


tle. With  4691  men,  including  several  regiments  of 
newly  enlisted  volunteers,  he  awaited  Santa 
Anna  at  Angostura  near  Saltillo  and  on  the 
road  to  San  Luis  de  Potosf.  The  engagement 
which  followed,  known  as  the  battle  of  Buena 
Vista  (q.v.),  lasted  two  days  (February  22  and 
23,  1847 ) ,  and  more  than  once  the  result  seemed 
doubtful,  the  panic  which  seized  certain  regi- 
ments of  Taylor's  volunteers  being  coimter- 
balanced  by  the  steadiness  of  the  regulars, 
the  effective  work  of  the  light  batteries,  and  the 
gallantry  of  the  Mississippi  regiment  imder 
Col.  Jefferson  Davis,  afterwards  President  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy.  Notwithstanding  the  nu- 
merical superiority  of  the  Mexican  army,  the 
obstinacy  of  the  defense  eventually  won,  and  San- 
ta Anna  was  forced  to  withdraw  with  2500  killed 
and  wounded  and  nearly  4000  missing,  of  whom 
the  greater  number  had  deserted  during  the  battle. 
The  American  casualties  comprised  264  killed 
and  450  wounded.  Soon  afterwards  General  Tay- 
lor returned  home  on  leave  of  absence. 

While  the  campaign  in  Northern  Mexico  was 
thus  progressing,  the  United  States  sent  expedi- 
tions into  New  Mexico  and  California.  Within 
three  months  the  American  flag  had  been  hoisted 
at  Santa  F6,  the  navy  had  planted  the  flag  at 
San  Francisco,  and  seaports  on  the  west  coast 
of  Mexico  were  blockaded. 

On  March  9,  1847,  Scott  began  to  land  his  force 
( 12,000  men )  at  Vera  Cruz,  with  materials  for  a 
siege.  By  the  22d  the  investment  of  the  city 
was  complete,  and  a  formal  demand  for  sur- 
render was  made,  which  met  with  prompt  re- 
fusal. For  four  days  the  besiegers  bombarded 
the  city  and  the  Castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua, 
their  fire  being  replied  to  with  spirit,  but  on  the 
25th  the  foreign  consuls  used  their  influence  in 
the  interests  of  non-combatants  and  to  secure  the 
burial  of  the  dead,  and  a  suspension  of  hostili- 
ties ensued.  On  the  29th  the  city  surrendered. 
(See  Vera  Cruz.)  After  a  brief  interval  the 
Americans  pushed  on  toward  their  goal.  At  the 
same  time  Santa  Anna,  having  reorganized  his 
army,  marched  with  more  than  12,000  men  from 
the  City  of  Mexico.  At  Cerro  Gordo  (q.v.) ,  a  pass 
in  the  mountains,  60  miles  from  Vera  Cniz,  he 
awaited  the  invaders,  about  8500  strong.  On  the 
14th  of  April  Scott  arrived  and  on  the  18th 
attacked.  Although  stoutly  resisted,  by  noon 
the  Americans  had  swept  over  Cerro  Gordo  and 
driven  the  Mexicans  down  the  road  for  ten 
miles.  The  spoils  comprised  3000  prison- 
ers, including  5  generals,  and  40  bronze  cannon. 
The  casualties  on  the  Mexican  side  were  fully 
1000;  on  the  American  side,  431.  The  advance 
to  Puebla  was  only  slightly  opposed,  and  on  May 
15th  Worth's  division  of  4000  men  encamped  in 
the  Grand  Plaza  of  this  *City  of  the  Angels,*  in 
the  midst  of  60,000  hostile*  citizens,  75  miles 
from  the  Mexican  capital.  On  the  17th  Scott 
made  a  final  appeal  to  the  Mexicans  in  the 
interest  of  peace,  but  in  the  imbittered  state  of 
popular  feeling  it  failed.  On  the  contrary,  Santa 
Anna  strained  every  means  for  the  defense  of  his 
capital;  he  appealed  to  the  patriotism  of  the 
people,  money  was  freely  contributed,  and  almost 
every  able-bodied  man  was  enrolled  for  the  com- 
mon defense,  until  36.000  men  and  100  pieces  of 
artillery  were  in  readiness.  Sickness  and  the  dis- 
charge of  seven  regiments  of  volunteers  had  re- 
duced Scott's  army,  but  the  arrival  of  2400  men 
under  General  Pierce    (afterwards  President  of 


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MEXICAN  WAB. 


404 


liEXICO. 


the  United  States)  brought  the  total  strength  of 
the  American  forces  to  10,738,  nearly  one-half 
of  whom  were  recruits.  Leaving  a  detach- 
ment of  600  men  at  Puebla,  where  2300 
wounded  were  in  hospitals,  Scott  advanced  upon 
the  *Halls  of  the  Montezumas.*  The  city  was 
entered  by  three  roads,  each  guarded  by  rocky 
hills  strongly  fortified,  the  most  prominent  being 
that  of  El  Pefion,  mounting  51  guns,  behind  which 
were  long  and  narrow  causeways,  flanked  on  one 
side  by  fields  covered  with  broken  lava,  and  on 
the  other  by  ponds  and  marshes.  On  the  east  and 
southeast  large  lakes  added  to  the  military  pro- 
tection of  the  city;  an  inner  line  of  fortifications, 
made  doubly  impregnable  by  nature  and  art, 
completed  the  obstacles  to  a  further  advance  on 
the  part  of  the  Americans.  Undismayed  by  these, 
however.  General  Scott  summoned  his  engineers, 
among  whom  were  Captains  George  B.  Mc- 
Clellan  and  Robert  E.  Lee,  and  a  new  road  was 
cut,  skirting  Lake  Chalco  and  by  a  circuitous 
route  of  27  miles  leading  to  the  most  vulnerable 
side  of  the  town.  After  careful  reconnoissance 
the  first  impediment,  the  hill  of  Contreras  (q.v.), 
was  taken  (August  20th)  by  an  unexpected  and 
desperate  assault,  with  813  prisoners  (including 
four  generals)  ,22  cannon,  and  thousands  of  small 
arms.  The  attacking  force  numbered  4500,  the 
defense  7000  men,  of  whom  700  were  killed,  while 
the  Americans  lost  about  60  in  killed  and 
woimded.  On  the  same  day  the  strong  positions 
of  San  Antonio  and  Churubusco  (q.v.)  were 
carried  by  the  divisions  of  Worth  and  Twiggs, 
with  further  captures  of  1800  prisoners,  includ- 
ing 4  general  officers;  the  Mexicans  losing  more 
than  3000  and  the  Americans  about  1100  killed 
and  wounded.  After  the  *outer  walls*  had  thus 
been  gained,  the  American  advance  was  again 
halted,  and  on  August  23d  an  armistice  was 
agreed  upon  pending  the  possibility  that  the  de- 
mands of  the  United  States  might  be  acceded  to 
without  further  bloodshed.  This  expectation 
proved  futile,  and  on  September  7th  the  final 
movement  began.  After  severe  hand  to  hand 
fighting,  the  defenses  of  Molino  del  Rey  were 
carried  by  the  Americans  on  September  8th,  and 
on  the  13th  the  castle  of  (Jhapultepec  was 
stormed.  On  the  14th  the  Mexican  army  evacu- 
ated the  capital,  and  General  Scott  made  his 
entry  into  the  city.  The  total  American  losses 
during  the  operations  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico 
were  2703,  including  383  officers;  that  of  the 
Mexicans  7000  killed  and  wounded  and  3730 
prisoners  of  war.  Tlie  spoils  of  war  comprised 
20  standards,  132  cannon,  and  20,000  small  arms. 
■General  Scott  established  his  headquarters  in 
the  City  of  Mexico,  was  reinforced  to  an  aggre- 
gate of '20,000  men,  and  levied  a  tax  of  $150,000 
upon  the  municipal  government,  to  be  largely  ex- 
pended for  the  comfort  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 
•On  February  2,  1848,  a  treaty  of  peace  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico  was  signed  at 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo.  (See  Guadalupr  Hidalgo, 
Treaty  of.)  The  total  number  of  American 
regulars  who  served  in  Mexico  and  its  borders 
during  the  war  was  21.509;  of  volunteers,  22,027. 
Bibliography.  Consult:  Ripley,  The  War  tvith 
Mexico  (New  York,  1849)  ;  Mansfield,  The  Mexi- 
can War  (New  York,  1852);  Ladd.  The  War 
icith  Mexico  (New  York.  1883)  ;  Official  Report, 
Secretary  of  War  (Washington,  1847)  ;  Wilcox, 
History  of  the  Mexican  War  (Washington. 
1892)  ;  Bancroft,  History  of  Mexico,  vol.  v.  (San 


Francisco,  1885)  ;  Autobiography  of  Lieutenant- 
General  Hcott  (New  York,  1864)  ;  Howard,  Oen- 
eral  Taylor  (New  York,  1892)  ;  and  Wright, 
General  Scott  (New  York,  1894),  in  the  "Great 
Commanders  Series."  For  further  information 
concerning  the  causes  and  results  of  the  war, 
see  the  article  United  States. 

liEXICO  (Sp.  M^jico,  ma^Hl-kd).  A  country 
of  North  America  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
United  States  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  east  by 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
British  Honduras,  south  and  west  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  Guatemala.  It  extends  through  18 
degrees  of  latitude,  between  the  parallels  of  IS** 
and  33°  N.,  and  through  30  degrees  of  longitude, 
between  the  meridians  of  87"  and  117*  W.,  and 
has  an  area  of  767,258  square  miles,  including 
the  islands.  The  Tropic  of  Cancer  passes  through 
it  nearly  midway  between  its  northern  and  south- 
ern boundaries,  the  southern  half  of  the  country 
being  therefore  within  the  tropics.  The  boundary 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  is  1833 
miles  in  length,  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
coimtry  being  its  widest  portion.  The  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec,  a  little  more  than  100  miles  across, 
is  the  narrowest  part.  The  country  has  1727 
miles  of  coast  line  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  4574  miles  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  In  form  Mexico  is  not  unlike  a  cornu- 
copia with  its  narrow  end  tapering  toward  the 
southeast ;  and  the  country  is  concave  on  its  east- 
ern and  convex  on  its  western  coast  lines.  It  is 
prolonged  toward  the  east  by  the  low,  wide 
peninsula  of  Yucatan ;  and  the  long,  narrow  pen- 
insula of  Lower  California  projects  through  9 
degrees  of  latitude,  the  great  Gulf  of  California 
separating  it  from  the  mainland. 

Topography.  The  surface  of  the  main  portion 
of  Mexico  rises  steeply  from  the  narrow 
coast  lands,  and  more  ^ntly  from  the  great 
depression  of  the  lower  Rio  Grande  to  the  broad 
tableland  of  the  interior.  This  central  plateau 
is  dominated  by  mountains  whose  great  height  is 
masked  by  the  elevated  lands  above  which  they 
rise.  The  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  main  mass 
of  Mexico  in  its  conformation  or  geological  struc- 
ture, being  a  very  low,  level  region. 

The  eastern  coast  is  of  monotonous  aspect,  low, 
flat,  and  sandy;  but  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz, 
where  the  lofty  mountain  edge  of  the  plateau 
most  nearly  approaches  the  coast,  the  inconspicu- 
ous shore  line  is  forgotten  by  all  who  approach  it 
from  the  gulf,  for  the  majestic  summits  of  the 
interior  are  visible  far  out  to  sea  and  dominate 
the  view.  Long  reaches  of  sand  banks  stretch  in 
front  of  the  shore  nearly  as  far  south  as  Vera 
Cruz,  shielding  the  shallow  waters  between  the 
mainland  and  the  banks  from  the  sea  waves.  The 
Pacific  shore  is  also  generally  low,  though  here 
and  there  relieved  by  spurs  from  the  Cordillera 
that  extend  to  the  ocean.  Most  of  the  many 
small  islands  near  the  coasts  are  uninhabited, 
though  some  of  them  are  very  fertile.  The  most 
important  islands  are  El  Carmen,  the  largest 
Mexican  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  San  Juan 
de  Ulua  and  Sacrificios,  at  Vera  Cruz;  Mujeres 
and  Cozumel,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea;  Guadalupe, 
in  the  Pacific  off  the  coast  of  Lower  California ; 
the  Tres  Marias  group,  near  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  California;  the  Revilla  Gigedo  group,  far 
off  the  coast  of  the  State  of  Colima,  to  which  it 


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MEXICO. 


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liEXICO. 


IS  assi^ed;  and  Alcatras  Island,  near  the  coast 
of  Michoacan. 

There  are  no  good  natural  harbors  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  coast,  but  this  impediment  to  com- 
merce has  been  partly  relieved  by  the  expenditure 
of  large  sums.  Jetties  at  the  entrance  to  the 
port  of  Tampico  have  increased  the  depth  from 
9  to  24  feet;  and  breakwaters  at  Vera  Cruz  have 
turned  that  dangerous  roadstead  into  a  safe  and 
commodious  harbor.  The  best  natural  harbors 
are  on  the  Pacific  coast,  those  of  Acapulco,  !Man- 
zanilla,  Guaymas,  and  La  Paz,  the  chief  town  of 
Lower  California,  being  most  conspicuous.  That 
of  Acapulco  is  one  of  the  finest  natural  harbors 
in  the  world.  These  excellent  Pacific  coast  ports 
have,  however,  the  disadvantage  that  they  are 
shut  off  by  mountains  from  the  busiest  parts  of 
the  republic,  and  therefore  do  not  have  a  large 
share  of  the  country's  trade. 

The  eastern  and  western  edges  of  the  great 
central  tableland  are  bordered  by  two  cordilleras 
or  high  mountain  ranges.  The  eastern  range 
(Sierra  Madre  Oriental)  extends  from  10  to  100 
miles  back  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  land 
gently  sloping  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains  to 
the  sea.  The  cordillera  on  the  Pacific  side 
(Sierra  Madre  Occidental)  is  on  the  whole  nearer 
to  the  coast;  and  in  the  south,  in  the  States  of 
Michoacan  and  Guerrero,  extends  a  coastal  range, 
a  broad  and  fertile  valley  stretching  between  it 
and  the  main  cordillera  which  trends  toward  the 
east.  The  most  continuous  range  is  the  Sierra 
Madre  Occidental  of  the  Pacific  which  extends 
from  Arizona  to  Oaxaca  with  a  mean  elevation 
of  over  10,000  feet.  The  inland  faces  of  the  two 
border  ranges  descend  somewhat  gently  to  the 
central  tableland,  while  their  seaward  sides  are 
more  precipitous,  presenting  many  scarps  and 
cliffs  and  furrowed  with  deep  chasms  or  gorges. 
The  border  ranges  gradually  approach  one  an- 
other toward  the  south  and  the  narrowing  plain 
between  them  terminates,  south  of  the  City  of 
Mexico,  in  a  labyrinth  of  mountains  culminating 
in  giant  peaks,  such  as  Popocatepetl  and  Orizaba. 
They  include  an  irregular  line  of  mountains, 
known  to  the  Mexicans  as  the  Cordillera  de 
Anahuac,  extending  east  and  west  across  the 
country  without  forming  a  continuous  chain,  but 
embracing  most  of  the  active  volcanoes. 

The  numerous  volcanoes  of  Mexico,  active  and 
extinct,  which  are  confined  to  the  southern 
half  of  the  country  between  the  22d  parallel  and 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuan  tepee,  are  the  most 
elevated  features  of  the  topography.  Ten  of  them 
are  more  or  less  active,  though  a  number  may  be 
called  dormant,  as  their  exhalations  consist  only 
of  aqueous  or  sulphurous  vapors.  The  loftiest 
among  them  is  Orizaba  ( CTitlaltepetl ) ,  Star 
Mountain,  18,250  feet  in  height,  situated  to  the 
north  of  the  line  of  the  railroad  between  Vera 
Cruz  and  the  City  of  Mexico.  It  has  not  been 
in  violent  eruption  since  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  has  been  nearly  quiescent 
since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  though 
vapors  and  sulphurous  jets  are  still  ejected  from 
its  crater,  which,  however,  is  usually  filled  with 
snow.  Popocatepetl  (Smoking  Mountain),  17,- 
620  feet,  the  most  widely  known  of  the  Mexican 
volcanoes,  is  comparatively  easy  of  ascent.  Its 
yawning  crater  is  over  a  half  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference and  250  feet  deep,  and  through  the  melted 
snow  around  the  orifice  frequent  jets  of  gas 
emerge.     Orizaba  and   Popocatepetl   are   among 


the  most  perfectly  formed  of  volcanic  mountains. 
Ixtaccihuatl  (White  Woman),  16,960  feet,  rises 
to  the  north  of  Popocatepetl,  and  is  now  extinct, 
though  many  legends  relating  to  its  ancient 
activity  are  still  repeated.  The  extinct  Nevado 
de  Toluca  (14,950  feet)  rises  to  the  south  of  the 
town  whose  name  it  bears,  a  lake  from  melting 
snows  partly  filling  its  crater  with  pure  cold 
water  in  which  fish  of  a  peculiar  species  are 
found.  Malinche  (13,460  feet)  rises  in  isolated 
majesty  from  the  middle  of  the  Tlaxcala  plateau. 
On  tlie  verge  of  the  central  plateau  bordering  the 
Sierra  Madre  Oriental  is  Cofre  de  Perote  (13,- 
400  feet),  another  great  eruptive  summit  now 
extinct,  which  owes  its  name  'coffer*  to  the  quad- 
rilateral form  of  its  summit,  and  is  famous  for 
the  China-camote  cavern  on  its  western  side,  said 
to  be  over  30  miles  in  length,  but  difficult  of  ac- 
cess because  its  floor  is  strewn  with  large  rocks. 
Colima  ( 12,970  feet)  ,not  far  from  the  Pacific  and 
the  most  active  volcano  in  Mexico,  is  in  an  almost 
incessant  state  of  ebullition.  The  view  from  its 
summit,  during  its  periods  of  quietude  is  un- 
rivaled, embracing  the  ocean,  widespread  plains, 
and  the  glittering  snow  crown  of  Popocatepetl 
far  to  the  east.  The  forested  Tancitaro  volcano 
(12,650  feet)  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  (Dolima, 
but  nearer  to  the  Sierra  Madre.  As  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow  is  a  little  under  15,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  only  three  of  these  lofty  summits, 
Orizaba,  Popocatepetl,  and  Ixtaccihuatl,  have  an 
enduring  crown  of  snow;  and  considerable 
glaciers  develop  only  on  Ixtaccihuatl.  The  small 
volcano  of  Jorullo  (4330  feet)  is  said  by  the 
natives  to  have  suddenly  risen  above  the  culti- 
vated plain  in  a  single  night  near  the  end  of 
1759,  though  its  period  of  construction  did  not 
end  till  1763.  Humboldt  made  it  famous  by  the 
description  he  received  from  the  natives  of  its 
terrific  energy.  Columns  of  superheated  air  still 
rise  from  its  crater. 

The  wide  tableland  or  plateau  of  Anahuac 
(q.v.),  fringed  by  these  mountains,  slopes  from 
south  to  north,  being  from  5000  to  9000  feet 
high  in  the  States  of  Mexico  and  Puebla  and 
falling  to  3600  feet  at  El  Paso,  on  the  United 
States  border.  Its  surface  is  covered  with  long- 
continued  outpourings  from  the  volcanoes  and  the 
detritus  worn  away  from  the  mountain  slopes, 
which,  according  to  Heilprin,  filled  the  original 
depressions,  the  valleys  of  to-day  having  been 
imposed  upon  this  new  surface.  The  mountains 
of  the  plateau,  nearly  buried  by  the  accumula- 
tions of  past  ages,  still  rear  their  heads  above  the 
general  level,  and  here  and  there  are  continuous 
ridges  or  ranges  which  divide  the  surface  into 
well-defined  basins  such  as  the  Valley  of  Mexico, 
nearly  8000  feet  above  the  sea  and  completely 
inclosed  by  mountains.  The  rivers  of  the  plateau 
have  cut  deep  valleys  and  caflons,  some  of  which 
are  1000  feet  below  the  general  level,  extending 
the  warmer  influence  of  the  coast  lands  into  the 
plain.  These  barrancas,  as  they  are  called,  are 
watered  by  small  streams  and  contrast,  by  the 
luxuriance  of  their  vegetation,  with  the  dry  and 
often  barren  plateau  above  them.  The  most  fa- 
mous of  the  barrancas  extend  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Guadalajara  through  the  western  moun- 
tains to  Colima  and  Tepic.  On  the  whole,  the 
surface  of  the  plateau  is  so  level  that  there  was 
little  difficulty,  even  before  there  were  wagon 
roads,  in  traveling  by  carriage  between  the  CJity 
of  Mexico  and  Santa  Fe. 


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MEXICO. 


406 


MEXICO. 


The  dry  and  sandy  peninsula  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, the  most  remote  region  of  the  Republic, 
is  also  traversed  by  a  range  of  mountains,  broken 
in  two  places,  and  culminating  in  Mount  Santa 
Catalina,  rising  10,000  feet  above  the  sea  not  far 
south  of  the  neck  of  the  peninsula.  Owing  to  its 
excessively  dry  climate  and  scanty  population, 
this  peninsula  is  still  little  known.  The  huge 
quadrilateral  peninsula  of  Yucatan  is  projected 
beyond  the  continental  coast  line  toward  Cuba, 
has  no  mountain  ranges,  and  its  mean  altitude  is 
scarcely  above  100  feet. 

Hydrography.  The  form  of  the  central 
plateau,  hemmed  in  by  border  ranges  parallel 
with  the  sea  and  preventing  wet  winds  from 
reaching  the  interior,  is  not  favorable  to  the 
development  of  large  fluvial  systems.  No  Mexi- 
can river  is  important  for  its  volume  or  is 
valuable  for  commerce  excepting  to  a  very  limited 
extent.  All  rivers  tributary  both  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  are  obstructed  by  sand 
bars  at  their  mouth.  The  longest  river  is  the 
Rio  Grande,  which  rises  in  Colorado  and  for  750 
miles  forms  the  boundary  line  between  the  United 
States  and  Mexico.  The  waters  of  its  upper 
course  are  so  far  diverted  for  irrigation  purposes 
that  the  lower  river  is  almost  entirely  dry  dur- 
ing the  dry  season.  While  the  Mexican  part  of 
its  basin  comprises  94,000  square  miles,  the  river 
receives  scarcely  any  perennial  stream.  Its 
largest  affluent  in  Mexico  is  the  Rio  Conchos, 
which  is  fed  for  200  miles  north  and  south  by  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre  Occidental. 
The  Salado  tributary  comes  from  the  Sierra 
Madre  Oriental,  and  its  name.  Salt  River,  indi- 
cates that  its  waters  are  rendered  saline  by  their 
very  slow  passage  through  shallow  basins.  Other 
tributaries  have  the  same  peculiarity,  so  that 
they  give  a  brackish  taste  to  the  waters  of  the 
Rio  Grande  itself.  The  Pftnuco,  the  most  con- 
siderable river  of  the  south  tributary  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  rises  north  of  the  Mexican  Valley  and 
empties  at  the  port  of  Tampico.  The  Coatzacoal- 
cos,  or  Snake  River,  drains  the  alluvial  plain  and 
low  mountain  district,  forming  the  northern  slope 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec;  small  boats  as- 
cend it  for  over  sixty  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
most  important  rivers  on  the  Pacific  coast  are 
the  Rio  de  las  Balsas  (river  of  the  rafts),  which, 
as  its  name  indicates,  is  navigable  to  a  limited 
extent  in  its  lower  reaches,  and  the  Lerma  ot 
Santiago,  which  rises  a  little  west  of  the  City  of 
Mexico,  and  about  fifteen  miles  from  Guadalajara 
is  precipitated  over  the  great  falls  of  Juanacat- 
lan,  one  of  the  finest  waterfalls  in  the  Western 
world. 

The  Lake  of  Chapala,  which  receives  and  dis- 
charges the  Lerma  River,  is  the  largest  lake  in 
Mexico ;  many  fine  country  houses  have  been  built 
on  its  shores.  Mexico  has  no  really  large  lakes, 
though  some  of  the  sheets  of  water,  as  Cuitzeo 
and  Patzcuaro,  in  the  State  of  Michoacan,  are 
famous  for  their  beauty.  A  considerable  part 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  is  occupied  by  six  very 
shallow  lacustrine  basins,  four  of  the  lakes  salt. 
They  are  the  relics  of  much  larger  lakes  which 
existed  when  the  Spaniards  invaded  the  country. 

Climate.  As  a  whole,  Mexico  is  a  hot  coun- 
try, but  its  climate,  if  not  one  of  the  most 
salubrious,  is  among  the  most  delightful  in  the 
world;  the  normal  warm  temperature  is  modified 
by  great  contracts  in  elevations  and  by  the  posi- 
tion and  trend  of  the  mountain  ranges,  which  in- 


fluence the  force  and  direction  of  the  winds  and 
the  distribution  and  amoimt  of  the  rainfall.  The 
climatic  differences  depending  upon  the  differing 
altitudes  are  so  great  that  the  vegetable  products 
include  almost  all  that  grow  between  the  equator 
and  the  arctic  regions.  In  some  large  areas> 
however,  uniformity  of  climate  prevails;  thus 
the  great  plains  of  the  northern  States,  hemmed 
in  by  mountains  from  sea  influences,  have  the 
extremes  of  temperature  characteristic  of  the 
continental  climate  in  the  United  States.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  is 
entirely  included  in  the  wet  tropical  zone. 

Three  zones  of  climate  are  distinctly  marked. 
The  tierra  caliente,  or  hot  land,  lies  along  the 
low  maritime  zone  of  the  Gulf  and  the  Pacific, 
and  includes  swampy  and  sandy  coast  lands  and 
well-watered  plains  and  slopes  leading  up  to 
the  moimtains.  The  growth  oi  luxuriant  tropical 
vegetation  is  promoted  by  a  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  77°  to  82°  F.,  the  mercury  seldom 
falling  below  60°,  but  often  rising  to  100°,  and 
in  the  sultry  districts  of  Vera  Cruz  and  Acapulco 
to  104°.  Some  places,  as  the  port  of  La  Paz, 
are  among  the  hottest  in  the  world.  The  sea- 
coasts  are  unhealthful,  fevers  prevail,  and  in 
some  localities  yellow  fever  and  black  vomit  are 
endemic.  The  health  conditions  may  be  greatly 
improved  by  draining  the  swamps,  as  has  already 
been  shown  at  Vera  Cruz. 

Above  the  Gulf  and  Pacific  hot  zones  are  the 
tierras  templadas,  or  temperate  lands,  from  3000 
to  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  embracing  the  higher 
terraces  and  parts  of  the  central  plateau.  The 
temperate  lands  rise  to  a  higher  elevation  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  States.  The 
mean  temperature  is  from  62°  to  70°  F.,  and  does 
not  vary  more  than  4°  to  5°  during  the  year. 
Thus  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  unknown; 
semitropical  products,  like  those  of  Southwestern 
Europe,  are  abundant  and  to  some  extent,  also, 
products  both  of  the  tropical  and  cold  regions. 
Around  the  city  of  Oaxaca  wheat  and  sugar  cane 
may  be  seen  growing  on  the  same  piece  of  ground. 

Above  the  temperate  lands  are  the  tierras  frias, 
or  cold  lands,  7000  feet  or  more  above  sea  level, 
with  a  mean  temperature  of  from  59°  to  63°  F. 
Most  of  the  central  plateau,  with  its  girdle  of 
mountains,  is  included  in  this  region,  but  in  great 
depressions  of  the  surface  a  warmer  temperature 
and  tropical  products  are  found.  The  less  ele- 
vated parts  of  this  region  produce  cereals 
and  apples,  while  the  higher  grounds,  some  of 
which  extend  above  the  snow  line,  have  a  sparse 
vegetation.  The  lower  cold  lands  are  the  most 
thickly  inhabited  regions  in  Mexico. 

Owing  to  the  differences  of  temperature  and  the 
effect  of  the  mountain  ranges  upon  the  direction 
of  the  winds,  the  rainfall  is  very  unequally  dis- 
tributed. During  the  rainy  season,  from  the 
middle  of  May  to  October,  many  torrential  storms 
occur  in  the  southern  half  of  the  Republic.  Lit- 
tle or  no  rain  falls  in  the  winter  or  dry  season. 
The  cold  lands  receive  only  about  one-fifth  as 
much  rain  as  the  temperate  lands  except  in  some 
of  the  mountain  districts,  where  the  precipitation 
is  heavy.  The  City  of  Mexico  has  a  mean  rain- 
fall of  30  inches  a  year,  which  is  somewhat  in 
excess  of  the  general  supply  of  the  plateau  to  the 
north  of  it.  though  the  precipitation  on  the  moun- 
tain coast  lands  is  two  to  four  times  as  great. 
The  extreme  northern  part  of  the  plateau  is  semi- 
arid,  reproducing  the  conditions  that  prevail  in 


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407 


liEXICO. 


.^izona  and  New  Mexico.  The  country  lies  in 
the  zone  of  trade  winds  blowing  from  northeast 
to  southwest,  but,  as  mentioned  above,  the  trend 
of  the  ranges  modifies  their  normal  direction. 
Both  the  Gulf  and  Pacific  coasts  are  exposed  to 
violent  gales,  which  often  do  great  damage  to 
shipping. 

Geology  and  Minerax  Resoubces.  The  moun- 
tain ranges  are  formed  chiefly  of  plutonic  and 
volcanic  rocks  such  as  granites,  gneiss,  syenites, 
mineral-bearing  trachytes,  basalts,  porphyries, 
obsidian,  sulphur,  pumice,  lavas,  and  tufa.  Sedi- 
mentary formations  are  also  represented  especial- 
ly by  a  carboniferous  limestone  interspersed  with 
deposits  of  anthracite.  The  land  consists  mainly 
of  metamorphic  formations  largely  penetrated 
and  overlaid  by  volcanic  outpourings  and  the 
debris  resulting  from  moimtain  denudation.  The 
most  valuable  rocks  thus  far  known  are  the 
argentiferous  porphyries  and  schists  of  Sinaloa 
and  the  central  plateau.  It  has  not  yet  been  re- 
vealed whether  tne  auriferous  deposits  of  Sonora 
are  destined  to  equal  them  in  economic  value. 
The  sandstones  of  the  northern  States  have  pro- 
duced the  sandy  plains  of  North  Mexico,  but  none 
of  the  horizontal  layers  is  rich  in  ores,  which  are 
found  chiefly  in  metamorphic  rocks  of  Durango, 
Chihuahua,  and  the  south. 

Mexico  is  one  of  the  richest  mining  countries 
in  the  world.  Excepting  Sinaloa  and  Sonora, 
which  contain  vast  stores  of  the  precious  metals, 
nearly  all  the  historic  mines  lie  on  the  south- 
central  plateau  at  elevations  of  from  5500  to 
9500  feet.  A  line  drawn  from  the  City  of  Mexico 
to  Guanajuato,  thence  north  to  Chihuahua  and 
south  to  Oaxaca,  incloses  a  silver-yielding  zone 
that  is  unsurpassed  in  richness.  The  central 
group  of  mines  in  the  districts  of  Guanajuato, 
Zacatecas,  and  Catorce.in  the  States  of  Guana- 
juato, Zacatecas,  and  San  Luis  Potosl  have  thus 
far  yielded  over  half  of  the  silver  mined  in  Mex- 
ico. The  Veta  Madre  lode  of  Guanajuato  alone 
produced  $252,000,000  between  1556  and  1803. 
Gold  is  found  chiefly,  not  on  the  plateau,  but  on 
the  slopes  facing  the  Pacific.  It  is  believed  to 
be  in  greatest  abundance  in  Sonora,  but  the  gold- 
mining  industry  may  be  said  as  yet  to  be  almost 
in  its  infancy,  and  the  production  is  compara- 
tively small.  The  inferior  development  of  gold- 
mining  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  far  more 
difficult  and  expensive  to  mine  and  reduce  gold 
than  silver;  and  most  of  the  gold  Mexico  pro- 
duces is  that  obtained  in  association  with  silver- 
mining.  Copper  in  a  pure  state  is  found  near 
the  City  of  Guanajuato  and  associated  with  gold 
in  several  States.  Iron  is  in  vast  abundance  in 
Micboacan,  Jalisco,  and  Durango,  but  until  the 
coai  fields  found  at  various  points  are  developed 
there  is  little  prospect  that  iron-mining  will  be- 
come very  important.  The  famous  Cerro  del 
Mercado  in  Durango,  discovered  in  1562,  is  a  hill 
of  magnetic  iron  ore,  4800  feet  long,  1100  feet  in 
width,  and  640  feet  high,  averaging  about  70  per 
cent,  of  metal  and  estimated  to  contain  over 
300,000,000  tons  of  ore  above  the  plain,  beneath 
which  it  may  extend  to  a  great  depth.  Fuel  is 
one  of  the  most  pressing  needs  of  Mexico.  Fire- 
wood costs  in  the  City  of  Mexico  $14  a  cord. 
Coal  ranges  from  $16  to  $22  a  ton,  and  is  brought 
from  England  and  the  United  States.  The  diffi- 
culty is  that  most  of  the  coal  is  remote  from 
lines  of  transportation,  and  the  fields  cannot  be 
developed  till  means  of  cheap  carriage  are  pro- 


vided. Sonora  has  a  carboniferous  area  with 
veins  from  5  to  16  feet  in  thickness  of 
hard  clean  anthracite  carrying  as  high  a  per- 
centage of  fixed  carbon  as  the  l^st  coal  of  Wales. 
When  it  can  be  transported  the  anthracite  of  this 
field  will  supply  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica with  anthracite  of  the  first  quality  for  years 
to  come.  The  coal  measures  of  Miohoacan  and 
Oaxaca  are  also  undeveloped.  Many  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  northern  State  of  Coahuila  bum 
mesquite  bush,  straw,  and  cotton  bushes  because 
they  cannot  procure  the  coal  mined  at  Salinas 
in  their  State,  which  now  supplies  fuel  for  the 
International  Railroad  Company,  a  part  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  the  factories  in 
Monterey. 

Much  lead  is  associated  with  silver,  and  tin, 
sulphur,  salt,  marble,  and  the  building  stones 
are  in  abimdance.  All  other  mining  enterprises, 
however,  are  dwarfed  by  the  colossal  develop- 
ment of  silver  production.  Most  of  the  mines 
yield  silver  either  alone  or  in  combination  with 
other  ores.  In  1903-4  the  silver  production 
amounted  to  $82,318,000  (in  1877-78,  $24,837,- 
000),  the  gold  production,  $11,178,000 (in  1877- 
78,  $747,000),  and  the  copper  production,  $23,- 
234,000.  The  production  of  lead  amounted  in 
1902-3  to  $3,693,000;  of  iron,  $297,000;  of  anti- 
mony, $216,000;  and  of  mercury,  $263,000.  The 
total  value  of  the  output  of  ore  in  1902-3  was 
$94,870,000,  and  the  number  of  persons  employed 
in  mining  was  86,815  (including  856  women  and 
4942  children). 

One  mint  and  ten  Government  assay  offices 
are  maintained.  The  total  coinage  of  Mexican 
silver  from  1537  (when  the  City  of  Mexico  mint 
was  founded)  to  1906  amounted  to  $3,546,393,- 
017 — more  than  one- third  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion of  silver  since  1493.  As  a  large  amount  of 
silver  is  not  coined,  but  is  used  in  the  arts,  it  is 
estimated  that  Mexico  has  produced  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  world's  silver  mined  in  the  past  four 
centuries.  From  April  16,  1905,  the  mints  and 
assay  offices  have  ceased  to  accept  bullion  from 
private  persons  for  free  coinage.  Most  of  the  gold 
and  silver  is  exported.  Europe  is  the  principal 
market  for  the  export  silver  and  the  United 
States  for  the  export  gold. 

Flora  and  Agbicultural  Resources.  The 
sharp  differences  in  climate  produce  rapid  transi- 
tions in  forms  of  vegetation;  in  a  few  hours' 
travel  not  only  great  differences  in  the  kinds  of 
plants,  but  also  in  the  stages  of  growth  of  the 
same  plant,  are  observed.  The  Mexican  Southern 
Railroad  from  Puebla  to  Oaxaca  descends  by  fer- 
tile terraces  from  7000  feet  to  1750  feet  above 
the  sea.  In  March  the  green  wheat  is  just  peer- 
ing above  the  ground  in  Puebla,  while  lower  down 
along  this  railroad  fields  of  wheat  are  ripe  for 
harvest  and  still  lower  the  grain  is  being 
threshed.  The  varied  conditions  of  temperature 
and  moisture  result  in  the  greatest  contrasts, 
desert  areas  lying  contiguous  to  grassy  steppes, 
which  are  succeeded  by  cultivated  fields,  and  in 
the  lowlands  by  forests  with  an  inextricable 
tangle  of  tropical  undergrowths.  Gray,  thorny 
plants  characterize  the  northern  region,  where 
rain  seldom  falls,  though  even  this  region  is 
brightened  in  the  spring  by  many  flowers.  Owing 
•to  the  undeveloped  state  of  coal-mining  and  the 
great  need  of  fuel  and  timber  for  the  mines, 
the  forests  that  once  covered  the  mountains  have 
been  largely  destroyed,  and  thus  the  conditions  of 


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rainfall  have  been  considerably  modified.  But 
many  varieties  of  oak  and  also  pines  and  firs  are 
found  on  the  mountain  slopes;  and  the  hot  lands 
have  about  100  varieties  of  building  and  cabinet 
woods,  including  mahogany  and  rosewood,  be- 
sides dyewoods,  gum  trees,  the  fig  and  oil-bearing 
trees  and  plants,  such  as  the  olive,  cocoa  palm, 
sesame,  and  almond.  Fifty-nine  species  of  me- 
dicinal plants  have  been  classified. 

Few  countries  equal  Mexico  in  the  variety  of 
its  economic  vegetable  products.  Many  localities 
are  well  suited  for  the  raising  of  coffee,  an  export 
crop  of  which  about  60,000,000  pounds  are  pro- 
duced every  year,  most  of  it  in  the  temperate 
lands  of  Vera  Cruz,  Oaxaca,  Tabasco,  Chiapas, 
and  Michoacan.  Cotton  is  grown  chiefly  in  the 
Pacific  States  and  also  in  Vera  Cruz  and  Coa- 
huila.  It  is  not  so  cheaply  produced  as  in  the 
United  States,  is  wholly  consumed  by  the  local 
mills,  and  the  Government  endeavors  to  promote 
its  cultivation,  and  to  improve  the  facilities  for 
transportation  to  the  spinneries  so  that  the  de- 
pendence upon  foreign  supplies  of  cotton  cloth 
may  be  decreased.  Sugar  cane  is  cultivated  in 
the  lowlands  of  the  southern  States,  though  they 
as  yet  produce  scarcely  enough  sugar  for  home 
consumption.  Tobacco  grown  on  the  warm  lands 
south  of  Tampico  and  San  Bias  is  almost  equal 
to  Cuban  leaf  in  aroma.  Its  improved  cultiva- 
tion was  introduced  by  Cuban  planters  about 
forty  years  ago.  Maize,  the  chief  crop  through- 
out the  temperate  region,  thrives  best  south 
of  Durango.  Another  great  food  staple  is  the  fri- 
jole  or  brown  bean,  cultivated  with  peas  and  len- 
tils and  daily  eaten  by  most  Mexicans.  The 
wheat  crop  in  the  cold  zone  is  worth  only  about 
one- fourth  as  much  as  the  maize  crop. 

A  great  variety  of  tropical  fruits  are  raised 
in  the  hot  zones,  including  oranges  (up  to  2500 
feet),  lemons,  bananas  (up  to  5000  feet),  easy 
to  cultivate  and  affording  a  large  profit,  pine- 
apples (from  sea-level  to  3000  feet),  and  cocoa- 
nuts  along  the  hot  coasts.  Many  species  of  the 
agave  grow  on  the  central  plateau,  some  of  them 
yielding,  particularly  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
plateau,  large  quantities  of  a  white  juice  which, 
when  fermented,  is  intoxicating,  and  is  the  na- 
tional beverage,  pulque  holding  the  same  place 
in  the  dietary  of  Mexico  that  wine  occupies  in 
France.  Other  species  of  the  agave  yield  hene- 
quen  or  sisal  hemp,  whose  cultivation  and  prepa- 
ration for  market  is  by  far  the  most  important  of 
the  fibre  industries  and  has  made  the  prosperity 
of  the  State  of  Yucatan,  in  the  northern  part  of 
which  it  is  produced.  Enormous  quantities  are 
exported  to  the  United  States  for  sacking,  cord- 
age, and  binder's  twine.  The  Castilloa  eldsHca 
is  the  predominant  species  of  rubber  tree,  and 
though  rubber-collecting  is  as  yet  little  developed, 
it  is  destined  to  be  very  profitable.  The  cacao 
tree  thrives  chiefly  in  Chiapas  and  Tabasco,  but 
not  enough  cocoa  is  produced  for  home  consump- 
tion. The  vanilla  bean  grows  luxuriantly  on  the 
Gulf  Coast  and  brings  a  high  price  on  account  of 
its  excellent  quality.  Rice  on  the  coasts  is  usual- 
ly grown  without  irrigation,  depending  entirely 
upon  the  rainfall.  The  soils  of  Mexico  excepting 
in  the  sandy  north  and  some  areas  of  sand  along 
the  coasts  are  excellent.  The  agricultural  re- 
sources are  capable  of  far  larger  development  as 
soon  as  irrigation  is  applied  to  the  naturally  pro- 
ductive lands.  Much  of  the  plateau  is  semi-arid, 
but  the  neighboring  mountains  have  inexhaustible 


•upplies  of  water,  which  by  the  construction  of 
reservoirs  and  other  modern  appliances  may  be 
conserv^ed  for  agricultural  uses.  Farming  meth- 
ods are  crude  and  modern  machinery  has  been  in- 
troduced only  on  the  large  plantations.  The  chief 
agricultural  products  of  1903  were,  in  kilograms 
(a  kilogram  =  2.2  pounds)  : 

Rice 22,090,000  Cotton 36,642,000 

Wheat 286,561,000  Logwood 6,133,000 

Buffar  99,812,000  Cacao  1,734,000 

Oranges .  26,860,000  Coffee 29,339,000 

Henequen 136,677,000  Tobacco 13,226,000 

Maixe  (buaheli). 88,070,000 

Fauna.  In  the  plateau  regions  the  fauna  is 
that  of  the  North  American  continent,  while  it 
is  more  closely  associated  with  that  of  the  West 
Indies  in  the  coast  lands  of  the  Gulf;  that  of 
the  Pacific  seaboard  partakes  of  the  character  of 
the  California  and  South  American  fauna. 
Wolves  and  coyotes  are  common  in  the  northern 
States,  and  bears,  peccary,  the  puma,  jaguar, 
and  ocelot  are  found  among  the  mountain  forests. 
In  the  tropical  forests  are  five  varieties  of 
monkeys  and  a  species  of  sloth.  Among  the  other 
animals  are  the  hare,  rabbit,  squirrel,  beaver, 
mole,  marten,  otter,  and  several  species  of  deer. 
A  few  boas  in  the  south  and  several  other  species 
of  snakes,  some  of  them  very  venomous,  as  the 
rattle  and  coral  snakes,  represent  the  ophidians. 
Noxious  insects  infest  the  hot  regions  in  myriads. 
The  coast  waters  and  estuaries  of  the  rivers  teem 
with  fish,  and  turtle-shell  is  an  article  of  some 
trade  importance.  Bees  are  numerous  and  their 
wax  is  exported.  Vultures  are  the  scavengers  of 
every  town,  and  parrots,  humming-birds,  and 
other  tropical  birds  vie  in  brilliancy  of  plum- 
age with  those  of  Brazil.  The  Mexican  mocking- 
bird and  other  songsters  are  unsurpassed.  Only 
the  turkey  and  a  species  of  duck  nave  been  do- 
mesticated, all  the  farm  animals  having  been 
introduced  by  the  Spaniards  into  Mexico,  where 
they  have  multiplied  prodigiously. 

Animal  Industbies.  Stock-raising  is  one  of 
the  leading  industries.  In  the  low-lying  coast 
regions,  particularly  in  Vera  Cruz  and  Tabasco, 
are  moist  savannahs,  covered  with  nutritious 
grasses  where  cattle  may  be  reared  and  fattened 
at  small  expense;  and  on  the  comparatively  arid 
plateau  of  the  north  there  is  sufficient  herbage 
to  support  enormous  numbers  of  cattle.  On  some 
of  the  haciendas  10,000  to  30,000  head  are  in 
charge  of  vaqueros,  who  are  very  skillful  in 
throwing  the  lasso  and  in  all  the  other  arts  of 
the  cowboy.  Mexican  cattle  are  of  inferior  qual- 
ity (long-homed  type)  and  small  size,  weighing 
only  900  to  1000  pounds.  In  recent  years  many 
of  the  stock-raisers  have  begun  to  improve  their 
herds  by  the  importation  of  better  breeds  from 
the  United  States.  Hides  are  an  important  ex- 
port to  the  United  States,  and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  undeveloped  steers  are  sold  in  Texas. 
The  horses  are  small  but  hardy  animals;  sheep 
produce  only  1  to  2^  pounds  of  coarse  and  in- 
ferior wool  to  the  fieece,  all  of  which  is  consumed 
in  the  home  mills,  which  import  much  wool  of 
finer  grades,  while  well-to-do  Mexicans  wear  im- 
ported clothes.  The  tendency  toward  the  im- 
provement of  all  the  native  domestic  animals  and 
of  the  methods  of  stock-raising  gives  promise  of 
large  expansion  in  these  industries.  In  1903  there 
were  in  Mexico  5,304,000  head  of  cattle,  872,500 
horses,  340.000  mules,  4,259,000  goats,  3,458,000 
sheep,  298,500  donkeys,  and  640,000  hogs. 


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409 


MEXICO. 


Manufactures.  The  manufacturing  indus- 
tries have  progressed  slowly,  though  in  recent 
years,  with  the  advent  of  much  foreign  capital 
and  the  cessation  of  political  revolutions  that 
were  long  the  curse  of  the  country,  there  has  been 
a  large  development  of  many  industries.  There 
are  now  over  3000  small  establishments  for  the 
manufacture  of  sugar.  The  first  cott^jn  mill  was 
erected  in  1834.  In  1904  there  were  119  cotton 
spinning  and  weaving  mills  with  635,940  spindles, 
20,364  looms,  consuming  63,450,000  pounds  of 
raw  cotton  and  producing  2,726,000  pounds  of 
yarn  and  27,356,000  pieces  of  cloth.  Puebla, 
Jalisco,  Vera  Cruz,  Coahuila,  Tlaxcala,  the 
City  of  Mexico,  Rio  Blanco,  near  Orizaba, 
and  the  falls  of  Juanacatlan,  near  Guadalajara, 
are  the  centres  of  largest  development  in  the  cot- 
ton industries.  The  distilleries  produced  18,- 
922,000  gallons  of  spirits;  605  tobacco  factories, 
with  Vera  Cruz  as  the  chief  centre,  made  467,- 
950,000  packages  of  cigarettes,  53,545,000  ci- 
gars, 88,151,000  cheroots,  besides  pipe  tobacco 
and  snuff.  Woolen  and  linen  spinning  and 
weaving  (over  20  mills  producing  underwear, 
carpets,  etc.),  the  manufacture  of  glass,  drugs, 
chocolate,  paper,  porcelain,  flour,  and  soap,  and 
beer  brewing  are  also  important  industries.  The 
artisans  of  the  plateau  are  skilled  in  making 
the  broad-brimmed  Mexican  hats,  silver  orna- 
ments, jewelry,  saddlery,  leather  work,  and  em- 
broidery, and  in  other  arts  that  contribute  to  the 
distinctive  finery  of  Mexican  attire  and  equip- 
ment. The  feather  work  and  other  products  of 
the  Indians  are  still  highly  prized.  The  Govern- 
ment encourages  the  development  of  home  indus- 
tries by  imposing  a  tariff  amounting  on  an  aver- 
age to  about  38  per  cent,  on  the  declared  value  of 
nearly  all  imported  goods. 

Commerce.  The  value  of  the  foreig^n  trade  of 
Mexico  has  for  years  been  rapidly  increasing. 
The  exports  are  usually  larger  in  value  than  the 
imports. 

Imports  and  exports  for  fiscal  years  ending 
June  30,  have  been  valued  respectively  (in 
Mexican  silver  dollars,  worth  in  1906  49.8  cents) 
as  follows:  1895,  $66,200,000  and  $95,000,000; 
1900,  $128,700,000  and  $158,200,000;  1905,  $178,- 
204,962  and  $208,520,451;  1906,  $220,651,074 
and  $271,138,809.  The  trade  with  the  leading 
countries  (in  millions  of  dollars)  was  as  follows 
in  the  fiscal  years  1901  and  1906  (imports  for 
1901  are  stated  in  gold)  : 


Imports  from 

EzportAto 

1901 

1906 

1901 

1906 

Unitwl  BtatM 

Great  Britain 

jPrtuic^ ,,,...., 

82.98 
9.06 
6.12 
6.54 
.75 
2.62 

145.60 

20.34 

16.38 

20.81 

2.64 

7.60 

114.96 
11.44 
1.87 
4.18 
8.96 
.87 

186.01 

41.67 

8.01 

OfimukiiT 

20.62 

Belgliim 

7.27 

Spa&D 

2.40 

The  principal  classifications  of  imports  were 
valued  (in  silver)  as  follows  for  the  fiscal  years 
1905  and  1906  respectively:  Mineral  substances, 
$52,758,614  and  $90,937,431;  vegetable  substan- 
ces, $30,426,903  and  $32,616,929;  dry  goods, 
$23,282,549  and  $23,022,528;  machinery  and  ap- 
paratus, $22,442,984  and  $20,539,213.  The 
principal  classifications  of  exports  in  the  two 
vears  respectively  were  valued :  Mineral  products, 
$130,303,978  and  $192,709,186;  vegetable  prod- 
ucts, $59,076,270  and  $62,928,135;  animal  prod- 
ucts, $10,505,119  and  $11,723,425;  manufactured 


articles,  $7,896,959  and  $2,978,441.  The  leading- 
articles  of  export  in  the  fiscal  years  1905  and 
1906  respectively  were  valued  in  silver  as  fol- 
lows: Silver,  $65,523,646  and  $125,400,084;  gold, 
$28,361,881  and  $31,695,777;  heniquen,  $29,389,- 
128  and  $29,437,318;  copper,  $29,803,421  and 
$28,655,897;  coffee,  $9,256,782  and  $9,288,623; 
hides  and  skins,  $6,739,612  and  $7,882,867 ;  sugar^ 
$5,717,446  and  $674,235;  lead,  $5,504,669  and 
$4,967,806;  ixtle,  $3,495,669  and  $3,667,845;  cat- 
tle, $3,149,320  and  $3,271,837;  vanilla,  $2,285,673 
and  $4,157,395;  rubber,  $719,104  and  $2,390,425; 
chick  peas,  $2,253,508  and  $2,960,822. 

The  United  States  buys  by  far  the  larger  part 
of  the  exports.  Mexico  is  thus  chiefly  dependent 
upon  the  United  States  as  a  market  for  its  com- 
modities and  the  source  from  which  its  foreign 
supplies  are  drawn. 

Shipping  and  Communications.  Most  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Mexico  is  carried  either  by  rail- 
road or  in  foreign  bottoms.  Hundreds  of  ves- 
sels, most  of  them  very  small  and  owned  by  Mexi- 
cans, are  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade.  The 
mercantile  marine  of  the  country  comprised,  in 
1905,  32  steamers  of  13,199  tons  and  29  sailing 
vessels  of  8451  tons.  About  10,000  vessels  in 
the  foreign  and  coastal  trade  enter  at  the  Mexican 
ports  every  year,  the  tonnage  being,  on  an  aver- 
age, over  6,000,000. 

The  first  railroad,  only  three  miles  in  length, 
connecting  the  City  of  Mexico  with  Gaudalupe,. 
was  completed  in  1854.  Since  1870  railroad  con- 
struction has  been  carried  on  rapidly.  The 
railroad  between  Vera  Cruz  and  the  City  of 
Mexico  was  completed  in  1873.  Two  trunk  lines 
connect  the  capital  with  the  United  States — the 
Mexican  Central  to  El  Paso,  Texas,  with  a  branch 
from  San  Luis  PotosI  to  the  port  of  Tampico; 
and  the  Mexican  National  to  I^redo,  Texas.  An- 
other trunk  line  from  Torreon  on  the  Mexican 
Central  to  Eagle  Pass,  Texas,  makes  a  third  route 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  There 
are  now  two  lines  between  the  City  of  Mexico  and 
Vera  Cruz.  The  Tehuantepec  Railroad  from  the 
port  of  Coatzacoalcos  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
Salina  Cruz  on  the  Pacific,  130  miles  long,  is  the 
only  road  yet  extended  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  though  several  others  are  building.  Great 
improvements  have  been  completed  at  the  ports 
of  Coatzacoalcos  and  Salina  Cruz,  so  that  large 
vessels  may  enter  them,  and  it  is  expected  that 
much  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  will 
pass  over  this  road.  The  railroad  system  now 
reaches  the  principal  cities  and  commercial  and 
mining  centres,  and  extends  southward  as  far  as 
Oaxaca,  500  miles  from  the  Guatemalan  frontier. 
Many  of  the  railroads  are  heavily  subsidized,  it 
being  the  Government's  policy  to  promote  rail- 
road building.  In  1906  there  were  13,420  miles  of 
railroad  in  operation,  mostly  built  by  foreign 
capital,  of  which  the  Federal  Government  owned 
10,834  miles,  and  the  rest  belonged  to  the  States 
or  to  private  persons.  In  1904  there  were  45,200 
miles  of  telegraph  lines,  of  which  32,680  miles 
belong  to  the  Federal  (iovernraent  (34,975  miles 
in  1900)  and  the  remainder  to  the  States,  com- 
panies and  railroads.  In  1905  there  were  2466 
post-offices;  the  receipts  from  the  post-office 
amounted  to  $16,527,000  (silver),  and  the  expen- 
diture $18,359,000. 

Banking.  Banking  is  very  profitable  in  Mex- 
ico, though  the  system  is  not  yet  well  developed 
throughout  the  country.    The  great  bank  of  the 


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MEXICO. 


410 


MEXICO. 


<!Ountry  is  the  national  Bank  of  Mexico,  estab- 
lished in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1882  and  having 
branches  in  all  the  principal  cities.  It  has  a 
monopoly  for  the  issuing  of  bank  notes,  except- 
ing that  the  same  privilege  is  exercised  by  the 
Bank  of  London  and  Mexico,  founded  duriiu^  the 
French  intervention  in  Mexico,  and  by  the  Inter- 
national and  Hypothecary  Bank  of  Mexico,  or, 
as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Mortgage  Bank  of 
Mexico.  Both  of  these  banks  antedate  the  Na- 
tional Bank,  though  both  have  since  been  reor- 
ganized. A  general  banking  law  was  adopted  by 
the  Mexican  Congress  in  1897,  establishing  the 
conditions  imder  which  banking  institutions  may 
be  organized;  but  this  law  does  not  affect  the  Na- 
tional Bank  or  the  other  banks  in  the  capital  that 
were  chartered  before  the  law  was  passed.  The 
prosperity  of  the  banks  under  this  law  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following  figures.  In  1897  there 
were  altogether  10  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $41,- 
500,000,  cash  holdings  of  $43,915,000  in  reserve 
funds  of  $2,983,000.  In  1904  there  were  32 
banks,  with  a  capital  of  $108,850,000,  cash  hold- 
ings of  $65,984,000,  and  a  reserve  fund  of  $21,- 
260,000.  The  capital  of  the  National  Bank  is 
$26,000,000,  of  the  Bank  of  London  and  Mexico 
$15,000,000,  and  of  the  Mortgage  Bank  $5,000,- 
000.  The  capital  of  the  other  banks  ranges 
from  $10,000,000  to  $200,000,  and  the  deposits 
from  al)Out  $22,000,000  in  the  National  Bank  and 
$9,000,000  in  the  Bank  of  London  and  Mexico  to 
less  than  $100,000.  The  Central  Bank,  in  the 
City  of  Mexico,  acts  as  a  clearing  house  for 
the  provincial  banks.  Tlie  existing  banks  are  in 
a  flourishing  condition.  The  demand  for  increased 
banking  facilities  is  very  large;  new  banks  are 
being  established  and  the  old  banks  are  extend- 
ing their  facilities  in  various  directions.  The 
National  Bank,  which  began  with  a  capital  of 
$3,000,000  and  now  has  a  reserve  fund  of  $8,300,- 
000,  has  in  the  past  decade  declared  annual  divi- 
dends ranging  from  23  to  29  per  cent.  The  de- 
clared dividends  of  the  Bank  of  London  and 
Mexico  for  seven  years  ranged  from  10  to  20  per 
cent.  When  the  stock  of  this  bank  was  increased 
from  $5,000,000  to  $10,000,000,  the  $5,000,000  of 
new  stock  was  subscribed  more  than  four  times 
over.  The  National  Bank  is  the  fiscal  agent  of  the 
Government. 

Owing  to  the  expense  and  dangers  of  transpor- 
tation, it  was  formerly  difficult  and  hazardous 
to  carry  money  from  one  city  to  another,  and  ex- 
change between  the  various  cities  was  sometimes 
as  high  as  10  per  cent.  The  building  of  railroads 
has  reduced  the  rate,  but  it  is  still  high.  The 
exchange  is  much  higher  when  money  is  sent  to 
towns  without  banking  facilities. 

Finance.  Mexico  still  needs  capital  to  de- 
velop her  resources  and  give  employment  to  labor. 
A  great  deal  of  foreign  capital  is  invested  in  the 
country,  but  much  more  will  be  required  before 
the  natural  resources  are  adequately  developed. 
It  was  not  surprising  that  the  finances  of  the 
country  were  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition 
so  long  as  there  were  no  railroads,  little  develop- 
ment, and  the  country  almost  incessantly  suf- 
fered from  disturbed  political  conditions.  Mex- 
ico's credit  fell  very  low  in  the  money  markets 
during  this  period  of  her  history,  and  it  was  not 
till  peace  and  order  became  firmly  established, 
after  1877,  that  her  credit  began  to  revive  and 
that  the  revenues  finally  reached  an  amount  suf- 
Hcient  to  pay  the  public  expenses.    It  was  osten- 


sibly for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  intereeta 
of  European  holders  of  Mexican  bonds  that  a 
combinea  force  of  French,  English,  and  Spanish 
soldiers  was  sent  to  invade  the  country  in  1861. 
The  English  and  Spanish  soon  withdrew;  but 
Emperor  Napoleon  III.  proceeded  to  carry  out 
his  plan,  now  known  to  have  been  formed  before 
the  invasion,  of  founding  a  Mexican  empire  un- 
der French  protection,  and  Maximilian  ascended 
the  throne  in  1864  with  assurances  from  France 
that  it  would  help  him  to  establish  his  rule  upon 
a  firm  basis.  The  financial  difficulties  of  Mexico 
were  therefore  the  pretext  for  the  intervention 
out  of  which  arose  the  ill-starred  empire  of  Maxi- 
milian. 

Long  after  his  downfall,  however,  the  finances 
of  the  country  were  still  in  a  chaotic  state.  At 
the  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  June  30,  1896,  Mexico 
was  able  for  the  first  time  since  achieving  inde- 
pendence to  show  a  surplus  of  $6,000,000.  The 
obnoxious  tax  called  alcahalas,  or  interstate 
duties  on  domestic  and  foreign  commerce,  was  a 
great  drawback  to  internal  trade,  and  was  finally 
abolished  on  July  1,  1896.  The  country  was  then 
in  a  condition  when  radical  financial  and  other 
reforms  might  be  introduced  without  danger  of 
serious  disturbances. 

The  per  capita  expenses  are  necessarily  large, 
as  the  population  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
vast  extent  of  coast  line  and  the  large  area  requir- 
ing army,  revenue,  lighthouse,  and  police  ser- 
vices; and  only  a  small  part  of  the  inhabitants 
are  wealth-producers,  the  burden  of  taxation  fall- 
ing chiefly  upon  a  fourth  or  a  third  of  the  people. 
It  is  only  since  1888  that  the  reorganization  of 
the  Federal  Treasury  has  enabled  that  office  to 
keep  correct  and  complete  accounts  of  the  public 
expenses.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the 
national  receipts  and  expenditures,  in  Mexican 
silver  dollars,  for  several  fiscal  years: 


FISCAIi  TBABS 

BevenueB 

EzpenditurM 

1888-89 

$139,302,070 
64,653,630 
69,116,510 
62,998,806 
132,997,000 

$141,959,066 

1891-92           

64,624,084 

1893-94 

1900-01       

69.441,269 
59,423,006 

1904-05  

109,132,000 

The  apparent  great  excess  of  the  revenues  and 
expenditures  in  1888-89  was  partly  due  to  the 
operations  of  the  Liquidating  Bureau  which  was 
closing  the  old  accounts  and  opening  the  new 
ones  under  the  new  system.  The  budget  esti- 
mates for  1906-7  show  a  revenue  of  $90,073,500 
and  an  expenditure  of  $89,897,400. 

The  revenues  of  the  Mexican  States  from  1899 
to  1903,  derived  chiefly  from  taxes  on  real  estate, 
averaged  over  $20,000,000. 

The  federal  revenue  is  derived  chiefly  from 
three  sources :  import  and  export  duties,  internal 
revenue,  and  direct  taxes  in  the  Federal  District. 
The  duties  levied  on  foreign  trade  are  highly 
protective  and  yield  about  40  per  cent,  of  the 
revenue.  Export  duties  are  leWed  upon  some  of 
the  largest  exports,  such  as  henequen,  cabinet  and 
dye  woods,  and  vanilla.  The  internal  revenue 
collected  through  the  use  of  stamps  supplies  about 
40  per  cent,  of  the  receipts;  and  the  direct  taxes 
levied  upon  the  real  estate,  scientific  professions, 
and  industrial  establishments  of  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict, together  with  some  minor  sources  of  in» 
come,  make  up  the  remainder.  Taxes  on  the  pro- 
fessions vary  from  50  cents  to  $20  a  month.    The 


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MEXICO. 


411 


MEXICO. 


national  debt  in  1905  was  divided  into  the  exter- 
nal debt,  $316,348,000  (silver);  and  internal 
debt,  $131,858,000  (silver). 

PopuuLTiON.  It  is  difficult  to  take  a  correct 
census  in  Mexico,  particularly  in  the  many  dis- 
tricts inhabited  bv  Indians,  who  fear  tliat  they 
will  be  taxed  if  they  are  enrolled  in  the  census 
return.  This  table  gives  the  area,  population, 
and  density  of  population  according  to  the  census 
of  1900;  and,  for  comparison,  the  population 
according  to  the  census  of  1896  is  a&ed: 


nxrWB  AMD  TnHTOUM 


ATLAHnO  tTATM 

TuiuuilipM 

Vera  Crui 

TrImmoo 

Oampecbe 

Tnoatan  and  QoiiiteDa  Roo 

Total 

DTLAVD  tTATBt 

Chlhiiahiia 

OoahuUa.  ..  ..!!.!."...7.!.l!...... 

Hu6To  Leon 

Durango 

Z>fiatfnia> 

Ban  Lab  Potod 

Agoas  OaUentaa 

Ooanajoato 

Qii«<taro ..!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 

Hidalgo 

Mexico 

FiBderalDifltriot 

Moreloa 

Tlazoala 

Paebla. 

Total 

FAOmO  tTATM 

Lower  OaUfornia  (Ter.) 

Bonora. 

BInaloa    

Tepic  (Ter.) 

JaUcoo 

CoUma. 

MiclMacan 

Onerrero 

Oaxaoa 

Chil^MM 

Total 

inde 

Grand  Total 


Area  in 
square 


82,277 
29,291 
10,076 
18,091 
35,213 


Populao 
tion 
1896 


908,342 
863,892 
133,926 
87,264 
297,088 


124,947 


89,998 

63,746 

23,686 

42,276 

24,473 

24,007 

2,970 

10,961 

4,493 

8,677 

8,961 

679 

2,734 

1,696 

12,207 


811,241 


68,348 
76,698 
27,660 
10,964 
83,496 


26,002 
86,391 
27,229 


819,606 
1,420 


767,258 


1,676,612 


260,008 
287,816 
807,866 
292,649 
447,265 
662,196 
102,378 
1,047,817 
224,848 
661,817 
837,981 
468,706 
166,786 
163,244 
973,876 


Popula- 
tion 
1900 


218,948 
981,930 
16.  ,834 
86,542 


1,766,006 


827,784 
296,938 
327,987 
870,294 
462,190 
675,432 
102,416 

1,061,724 
232,389 
606,061 
984,463 
641,616 
160,116 
172,316 

1,021,188 


6,636,140 


41,838 

189,168 

266,868 

146,806 

1,094,669 

66,264 
887,008 
417,886 
872,902 
818,730 


4,281,018 


12,491,670 


7,191,697 


47,624 

221,682 

296,701 

160,098 

1,153,891 

66,116 
935,808 
479,206 
948,633 
360,799 


4,669,264 


13,607,269 


The  population  in  1900  included  6,716,007 
males  and  6,829,455  females.  Nineteen  per  cent, 
of  the  population  were  pure  white,  43  per  cent, 
mixed  bloods,  and  38  per  cent.  Indians.  The  cold 
lands,  being  the  most  healthful,  have  the  densest 
population,  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation ;  a  relatively  small  part  of  the  people,  from 
16  to  18  per  cent.,  live  in  the  temperate  zone,  and 
only  7  to  10  per  cent,  in  the  torrid  zone.  The 
first  census  in  1795  showed  a  population  of  6,200,- 
000.  The  population  therefore  much  more  than 
doubled  in  the  past  century.  The  increase  of  the 
Indian  population  is  comparatively  slow,  because, 
though  the  Indians  have  large  families,  they  are 
subject  to  many  epidemics.  Of  the  foreign  ele- 
ments of  the  population  the  English,  Germans, 
and  French  monopolize  many  branches  of  business. 
Very  few  foreigners,  excepting  those  engaged  in 
leading  branches  of  trade,  are  well  educated. 
The  country  is  to  some  extent  being  Americanized 
as  far  as  means  of  transportation,  electric 
Vol.  XIU— 27. 


lighting,  improved  hotels,  and  other  modem  con- 
veniences are  concerned.  The  tendency  of  the 
people,  however,  is  to  cling  to  the  old  habits 
which  grew  out  of  their  Spanish  ancestry  and 
climatic  environment.  They  still  desire  their 
midday  siesta,  their  religious  feast  days  and 
holidays,  but  they  are  unwilling  to  live  abstemi- 
ously, spending  their  money  freely  and  dressing 
poorly.     This  is  especially  true  of  the  Indians. 

IlCMIGRATION  AND  PUBLIO  LaNDS.     The  publiC 

lands  are  surveyed  by  surveying  companies,  who 
receive  title  to  one-third  of  the  lands  which  they 
demarcate.  In  the  eleven  years  1893-1903  settlers 
acquired  title  to  2,319,672  hectares.  The  Govern- 
ment in  every  way  encourages  immigration  and 
the  occupancy  of  the  areas  not  yet  appropriated 
for  farms,  plantations,  and  grazing  lands.  The 
laws  permit  the  free  importation  of  personal  ef- 
fects and  the  supplies  needed  for  the  subsistence 
of  colonists  for  a  term  of  years,  exempt  colonists 
from  taxes,  and  to  some  extent  supply  seed  or 
plants.  Numerous  agricultural  colonies  have 
been  established  by  the  Government  or  by  au- 
thorized companies  or  persons.  The  low  rate  of 
wages  is  an  obstacle  to  large  immigration.  Other 
difficulties  are  that  a  large  portion  of  the  public 
lands  have  already  been  disposed  of, comparatively 
little  of  the  land,  either  public  or  private,  has 
yet  been  adequately  surveyed,  and  therefore  can* 
not  easily  be  obtained  in  small  lots,  and  the  large 
land-holders  are  unwilling  to  divide  their  estat^ 

Education.  In  nearly  all  the  States  educa- 
tion is  free  and  compulsory,  and  the  law  is  now 
enforced;  illiteracy  is  very  prevalent,  and  little 
has  been  done  to  educate  the  Indians.  In  1903 
the  common  schools,  supported  by  the  Federal 
and  State  Governments,  numbered  6360;  by  the 
municipalities,  2956 ;  enrolled  pupils,  642,903 ; 
average  attendance,  484,570.  The  private  and 
clerical  schools  numbered '  2377 ;  enrolled  pupils, 
144,921,  with  an  average  attendance  of  113,003. 
The  Federal  Government  supports  special  schools 
for  engineering, law, medicine, agriculture, etc., and 
most  of  the  States  support  one  technical  college. 
The  number  of  Federal  and  State  secondary  and 
preparatory  schools  was  49,  with  an  enrollment 
of  7342  and  an  attendance  of  6661  pupils.  For 
professional  instruction  there  were  63  institu- 
tions and  colleges,  with  an  enrollment  of  9374 
and  an  attendance  of  6669  pupils.  There  were 
18,024  teachers  in  all  the  public  schools,  primary 
and  higher.  The  public  and  private  libraries 
are  no&ble,  the  largest  of  them,  the  National 
Library,  containing  180,000  volumes;  there  are 
134  other  public  libraries,  37  museums  for  scien- 
tific and  educational  purposes,  11  meteorological 
observatories,  and  429  newspapers,  including  8 
in  English,  2  in  Spanish  and  English,  and  2  in 
Italian.  Mexico  is  first  in  Latin  America  in  ar- 
tistic, literary,  and  scientific  advancement. 

Religion.  The  Catholic  faith  is  the  prevailing 
religion,  but  there  is  no  connection  between 
Church  and  State,  and  the  Constitution  guaran- 
tees the  free  exercise  of  all  religions.  Protestant 
missionaries  from  the  United  States  entered  the 
country  in  1867.  The  number  of  Protestants  in 
1900  was  51,795. 

Government.  The  present  Constitution  of 
Mexico  was  adopted  by  a  constituent  assembly 
on  February  5,  1857,  and  has  undergone  various 
amendments  extending  down  to  the  year  1896. 
It  is  a  written  instrument  of  great  length,  and 
is  closely  modeled  after  the  Constitution  of  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEXICO. 


412 


ICEXICO. 


United  States.  There  are  twenty-nine  articles 
on  the  'rights  of  man.'  These  rights  include  main- 
ly personal  freedom,  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the 
press,  right  of  assembly  and  petition,  right  of 
bearing  arms,  certain  rights  of  accused  persons 
on  trial  for  the  commission  of  crime,  and  im- 
munity from  the  operation  of  retroactive  laws, 
laws  which  impose  excessive  fines  or  inflict  im- 
usual  punishments  and  which  take  private  prop- 
erty without  compensation.  In  case,  however, 
of  great  public  danger  from  insurrection  or  inva- 
sion the  President  of  the  Republic,  in  concurrence 
with  the  Council  of  Ministers  and  with  the  ap- 
proval of  Congress,  may  suspend  these  guaranties 
for  a  limited  period. 

The  Government  of  Mexico  may  be  described  as 
a  Presidential  federal  republic,  composed  of  27 
States,  2  Territories,  and  a  Federal  District. 
The  Constitution  provides  for  a  distribution  of 
the  powers  of  government  among  legislative,  exec- 
utive, and  judicial  branches.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  Congress  consisting  of  a 
House  of  Representatives  and  a  Senate.  The 
House  of  Representatives  is  composed  of  mem- 
bers elected  by  indirect  secret  ballot  for  a  term 
of  two  years  on  the  basis  of  one  Representative 
for  every  40,000  of  the  population  and  by  an 
electorate  which  consists  practically  of  all  male 
adults.  The  qualifications  for  membership  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  are  citizenship  and 
the  full  enjoyment  of  all  the  rights  incident 
thereto,  the  attainment  of  the  twenty-fifth  year, 
and  residence  in  the  State  from  which  the  Repre- 
sentative is  chosen.  Ecclesiastics  are  disquali- 
fied. The  Senate  is  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State  and  two  from  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict, chosen  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Repre- 
sentatives and  possessing  the  same  oualifica- 
tions,  except  that  the  Senators  must  have  at- 
tained the  thirtieth  year  of  age.  The  terms  of 
one-half  the  Senators  expire  every  second  year. 
Both  Senators  and  Representatives  receive  annual 
salaries  of  $3000  (which  cannot  be  renounced) 
and  are  privileged  from  arrest  for  opinions  ex- 
pressed in  the  discharge  of  their  duties.  Each 
House  is  the  judge  of  the  election  and  qualifica- 
tions of  its  own  members.  Two  ordinary  sessions 
of  Congress  are  held  annually,  beginning  respec- 
tively in  April  and  September.  The  two  Houses 
enjoy  substantial  equality  of  powers  in  legisla- 
tion, except  that  financial  and  revenue  measures 
and  bills  for  the  recruiting  of  troops  must  be 
first  discussed  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Legislative  measures  may  be  initiated  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic,  the  State  legislatures, 
and  by  individual  Senators  and  Representatives. 
Bills  vetoed  by  the  President,  but  subsequently 
passed  by  an  absolute  majority  of  each  House, 
become  law  in  spite  of  the  executive  veto. 

The  powers  of  Congress  are  enumerated  with 
great  specification  in  the  Constitution.  They  in- 
clude the  admission  of  new  States  to  the  Union, 
the  erection  of  new  States  within  the  limits  of 
old  States,  the  levying  of  taxes,  the  issuing  of 
commercial  codes,  the  maintenance  of  the  army 
and  navy,  the  declaration  of  war,  the  coinage  of 
money,  the  regulation  of  weights  and  measures, 
the  granting  of  pardons,  and  the  enactment  of 
all  laws  necessary  and  proper  to  the  execution 
of  the  enumerated  powers.  The  exclusive  powers 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  include  the  elec- 
tion in  certain  rare  contingencies  of  the  President 
of  the  Republic,  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court, 


and  the  Senators  from  the  Federal  District^ 
supervision  of  the  chief  auditorship,  the  approval 
of  the  annual  estimates  of  expenses,  and  the  im- 
peachment of  the  President,  Senators,  Representa- 
tives, supreme  judges,  and  Governors  of  States 
for  the  commission  of  crimes  during  their  terms 
of  office.  The  exclusive  powers  of  the  Senate 
include  the  approval  of  treaties  with  foreign 
powers,  the  ratification  of  nominations  made  by 
the  President  to  important  offices,  the  decision 
as  to  whether  the  status  of  a  State  government 
is  such  as  to  require  the  appointment  of  a  pro- 
visional Governor,  the  decision  of  political  con- 
flicts within  a  State,  and  the  trial  of  impeach- 
ments preferred  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
During  the  recess  of  Congress  some  of  its  im- 
portant functions  are  discharged  by  a  Permanent 
Deputation,  composed  of  15  Representatives  and 
14  Senators. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President 
chosen  indirectly  by  electors  who  are  themselves 
popularly  elected.  His  term  is  four  years,  and 
by  a  constitutional  amendment  of  1887  he  is  eli- 
gible for  reflection  for  any  number  of  consecutive 
terms.  His  qualifications  are  citizenship  by  birth^ 
the  full  enjoyment  of  the  civil  right,  and  the  at- 
tainment of  the  thirty-fifth  year.  Ecclesiastics 
are  disqualified.  No  provision  is  made  for  a  Vice- 
President  except  that,  in  case  of  the  disability 
or  absence  of  the  President,  Congress  has  power 
to  choose  an  acting  President  to  discharge  the 
executive  duties  temporarily.  The  office  of  Presi- 
dent cannot  be  resigned  except  for  grave  cause, 
and  then  only  with  the  approval  of  Congress. 
His  chief  powers  are:  to  promulgate  and  execute 
the  laws;  to  appoint  and  remove  most  of  the 
military  and  civil  officers  of  the  Republic,  the 
approval  of  Congress  being  necessary  in  some 
cases;  to  declare  war  with  the  consent  of  Con- 
gress; to  dispose  of  the  army  and  naval  forces; 
to  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  to  ne- 
gotiate treaties  with  foreign  countries;  to  re- 
ceive ambassadors  and  ministers;  to  call  special 
sessions  of  Congress  with  the  consent  of  the 
Permanent  Deputation;  to  grant  pardons;  and 
to  grant  exclusive  privileges  to  discoverers  and 
inventors.  In  carrymg  out  the  work  of  adminis- 
tration the  President  acts  through  a  Cabinet 
composed  of  seven  secretaries,  who  serve  as  heads 
of  the  Departments  of  Foreign  Afi'airs,  Interior. 
Justice  and  Public  Instruction,  Colonization  and 
Industry,  Communication  and  Public  Works, 
Finance  and  Public  Credit,  and  War  and  Marine. 
Every  order,  decree,  or  regulation  of  the  Presi- 
dent must  be  signed  by  one  of  the  Cabinet  secre- 
taries in  order  to  be  valid.  The  members  of  the 
Cabinet  do  not  occupy  seats  in  Congress  and  their 
responsibility  to  that  body  extends  only  to  crim- 
inal acts. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  Republic  is  vested 
in  a  Supreme  Court  and  in  District  and  Circuit 
courts.  At  present  the  Supreme  Court  consists 
of  16  judges  chosen  by  electors  for  a  term  of 
six  years.  They  must  be  native  bom  citizens 
thirty-five  years  of  age,  and  learned  in   juria- 

{>rudence.  They  are  required  to  take  oaths  simi- 
ar  to  that  prescribed  for  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  and  may  resign  only  with  the  approval 
of  Congress.  The  organization  of  the  district 
and  circuit  courts  is  determined  by  statute.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  courts  extends  to 
cases  involving  the  application  of  Federal  law; 
to  maritime  cases ;  to  cases  in  which  the  Republic 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MEXICO. 


413 


MEXICO. 


is  a  party;  to  cases  in  which  a  State  is  a  party; 
to  cases  arising  under  treaties  with  foreign  Pow- 
ers; and  to  cases  concerning  diplomatic  agents. 
In  those  cases  in  which  the  Republic  or  a  State  is 
a  party,  and  in  those  cases  in  which  the  question 
of  jurisdiction  arising  between  the  State  and 
Federal  courts  is  involved,  the  Supreme  Court 
has  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  other  cases  it 
has  appellate  jurisdiction. 

The  mdividiial  States  of  the  Mexican  Republic 
have  a  large  degree  of  local  autonomy,  although 
the  Federal  Ck)nstitution  requires  that  they  shall 
adopt  the  popular,  representative,  republican 
form  of  government.  Tney  have  their  own  con- 
stitutions and  codes  of  laws;  their  own  Gov- 
ernors and  legislatures,  and  local  officials.  They 
are  allowed  to  regulate  with  one  another  their 
own  boundaries  subject  to  the  approval  of  Ck)n- 
gress,  but  may  not  form  alliances  or  treaties  with 
one  another,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal, 
coin  money  or  issue  paper  currency,  lay  duties  on 
interstate  commerce,  or  without  the  consent  of 
Congress  levy  tonnage  duties,  keep  troops  or 
ships  of  war,  or  wage  war  except  in  case  of  inva- 
sion or  peril  so  imminent  as  to  admit  of  no 
delay.  Each  State  is  under  an  obligation  to  de- 
liver without  delay  criminal  refugees  from  other 
States  and  to  give  full  faith  and  credit  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of 
every  other  State.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  the 
State  executives  to  publish  the  Federal  laws  and 
cause  them  to  be  obeyed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
made  the  constitutional  duty  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment to  protect  the  States  against  invasion  or 
domestic  insurrection  upon  request  of  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  State  concerned  or  of  the  execu- 
tive if  the  Legislature  be  not  in  session.  As  in 
the  United  States,  all  powers  not  expressly  con- 
ferred upon  the  Federal  authorities  are  reserved 
to  the  individual  States.  Similarly  the  Federal 
Ck)nstitution,  the  laws  of  Congress,  and  all 
treaties  made  in  pursuance  thereof  are  declared 
to  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  whole  Union,  and 
the  judges  are  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the 
constitutions  or  laws  of  the  States  to  the  con- 
trary notwithstanding. 

Amendments  to  the  Federal  Constitution  may 
be  proposed  by  Congress,  two-thirds  of  all  mem- 
bers present  concurring.  If  approved  by  a  ma- 
jority of  the  State  legislatures,  they  shall  be  a 
valid  part  of  the  Constitution. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measubes.  The  stand- 
ard of  value  is  silver,  the  only  paper  currency 
being  ordinary  bank  notes.  The  silver  peso  or 
dollar  is  the  unit  of  coinage.  The  metric  sys- 
tem of  weights  and  measures  was  introduced  in 
1856,  but  the  old  Spanish  denominations,  the 
libra  (1.01  pounds  avoirdupois),  the  quintal 
(101.6  pounds),  and  the  vara  (33  inches),  are 
very  commonly  used. 

Peoples  of  Mexico.  The  population  of  Mex- 
ico at  the  present  day  is  largely  Indian,  and  in 
many  parti  of  the  country  ancient  customs, 
superstitions,  and  languages  hold  sway.  It  is  im- 
possible to  estimate  the  exact  proportion  of 
pure  Indian  blood,  mestizo,  or  mixed  blood,  and 
white;  probably  there  are  about  Ave  million  pure- 
blooded  Indians,  and  a  somewhat  larger  num- 
ber of  mestizos.  Dr.  Leon,  the  most  recent 
student  of  the  linguistic  families  of  Mexico, 
has  divided  them  into  17  families  and  180 
dialects,  and  is  of  the  opinion  that  future 
studies  and  investigations  will  resolve  this  num- 


ber of  families  to  three  mother  tongues,  which 
will  be  the  Otoml^  Mava-Quich6,  and  the  Nahua, 
In  many  parts  of  the  Republic  where  certain  lan- 
guages are  spoken  over  extended  areas,  we  find 
dialectal  diflferences  in  every  village.  In  some 
parts  of  Mexico  the  tribes  occur  in  masses,  while 
in  other  parts  people  speaking  different  lan- 
guages are  strangely  intermingl^.  In  the  same 
town,  separated  by  a  single  street,  we  may  find 
two  different  languages  spoken,  while  in  one 
town  Starr  reports  Aztecs,  OtomI,  Tepehuas, 
and  Totonacs,  each  group  preserving  its  independ- 
ence in  language,  dress,  customs,  and  supersti- 
tions, and  occupying  its  own  distinct  quarter  of 
the  town. 

Most  of  the  Mexican  Indians  have  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity;  some  are  still  idolaters, 
but  have  lost  much  of  their  knowledge  of  ancient 
traditions  and  religion.  These  are  superstitious 
to  a  degree,  and  believe  in  omens,  witchcraft,  and 
divination.  Among  the  Huicholes,  whose  habits, 
customs,  religion,  and  symbolism  have  been  ex- 
haustively studied  by  Lumboltz,  and  the  Mixes, 
who  have  been  briefly  investigated  by  Starr  and 
Belmar,  we  find  greater  adherence  to  primitive 
ideas  than  among  any  other  Mexican  people. 

All  over  Mexico  the  commerce  of  the  people  is 
carried  on  in  very  much  the  same  manner  as  be- 
fore the  Spanish  Conquest,  and  their  periodic 
markets,  the  'tianguis,'  are  held  weekly,  as  in  for- 
mer times;  they  also  carry  merchandise  for  long 
distances,  to  attend  annual  festivals  of  certain 
saints,  whose  modem  shrines  are  built  on  the 
sites  of  ancient  temples.  The  Indians  are  prin- 
cipally agriculturists,  though  certain  aboriginal 
trades  stnl  prevail,  such  as  weaving,  basket  and 
mat  making,  and  the  manufacture  of  pottery; 
and  the  products  of  these  industries,  for  which 
certain  villages  are  noted,  are  scattered  through- 
out extended  areas.  Their  mode  of  living,  habi- 
tations, and  clothing  have  changed  but  little 
under  white  influence.  Their  food  consists  main- 
ly of  corn,  beans,  and  chili  peppers;  the  corn  is 
made  into  cakes,  or  *tortillas,'  or  a  thin  mush 
called  possole;  their  food  is  prepared  as  before 
the  Conquest,  although  to  a  certain  extent  cook- 
ing vessels  of  tin  and  iron  are  used  as  well  as 
those  of  clay.  Their  great  vice  lies  in  the  use 
of  alcoholic  stimulants;  they  make  many  native 
drinks  as  in  former  times,  and  on  every  possible 
occasion  they  indulge  in  their  use. 

HISTORY. 

The  Aztec  or  Nahuatl  tribes  whom  the  Spanish 
conquerors  found  in  the  central  valley  of  Mexico 
had  been  preceded  by  at  least  two  other  races  in 
that  region.  From  the  hopelessly  confused 
legendary  accounts  of  events  in  prehistoric  Mex- 
ico, it  is  possible  to  make  out  only  a  rough  out- 
line of  what  probably  happened.  The  Toltecs 
were  said  to  trace  their  history  back  to  the  year 
720  of  the  Christian  Era,  when  they  began  a 
long  course  of  wanderings  which  flnally  led  them, 
about  the  year  970,  into  the  Valley  of  Mexico. 
There  they  erected  vast  cities,  whose  ruins,  at  Tul- 
lantzinco  and  at  Tula  or  Tollan,  some  fifty  miles 
north  and  northeast  of  the  present  City  of  Mex- 
ico, justify  the  name  of  *the  Builders*  given 
them  by  their  successors.  In  the  year  1103  the 
Toltec  power  was  overthrown  and  they  were 
eventually  driven  from  the  country,  going  off 
toward  the  south,  where  they  are  supposed  to 
have  erected  some  at  least  of  the  immense  build- 
ings now  in  ruins  in  Yucatan,  Honduras,  and 


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MEXICO. 


414 


XEZICO. 


Guatemala.  Their  conquerors,  the  Chichimecas, 
first  appeared  in  the  vicinity  of  the  two  great 
volcanoes,  Popocatepetl  and  Ixtaccihuatl,  where 
the  ruins  of  Amecameca  show  the  centre  of  their 
power.  The  Chichimecan  legends  carry  their  his- 
tory back  for  1796  years  before  the  Christian  Era. 
After  they  succeeded  the  Toltecs  as  the  dominant 
power,  the  Chichimecas  settled  at  Texcoco,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  lake  of  that  name,  where  they 
were  living  in  a  flourishing  condition  when,  early 
in  the  twelfth  century  a.d.,  seven  allied  Nahua- 
tlaca  families  or  tribes  entered  the  valley  from 
the  north,  having  started  on  their  wanderings, 
quite  possibly,  in  the  cliff-dweller  region  of  the 
modem  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  One  of  these 
tribes,  imable  to  win  a  home  elsewhere  from  the 
powerful  Chichimecas,  settled  upon  some  marshy 
islets  in  the  lake  of  Texcoco.  The  year  1326  is 
given,  with  some  signs  of  probability,  as  that  in 
which  these  Nahiiatl  Aztecs  fixed  upon  this  loca- 
tion, which  is  said  to  have  been  pointed  out  to 
them  by  a  sign  from  their  gods,  an  eagle  perched 
upon  a  prickly-pear  cactus,  the  nopal,  strangling 
a  serpent.  This  sign  is  now  the  national  seal  of 
Mexico.  Gradually  the  settlement  in  the 
marshes  at  Tenochtitlan  grew  stronger.  The  isl- 
ands were  enlarged,  causeways  built  to  connect 
them  with  the  mainland  and  the  allied  settle- 
ments at  Tlaltelolco  and  Chapultepec,  and  by 
1376  the  Aztec  war  chiefs  had  won  for  their  peo- 
ple a  position  of  influence  in  the  valley.  Huitzili- 
huitl,  who  was  chosen  chieftain — or  *king*  or 
'emperor'  as  the  Spanish  writers  styled  these 
rulers — in  1404,  and  his  brother  Chimalpopoca, 
who  succeeded  after  his  death  in  1414  and  di- 
rected the  tribe  until  1427,  greatly  increased 
their  power  by  intermarrying  with  the  rival 
tribes  and  establishing  trade  relations,  as  well 
as  by  their  successful  battles.  Izcohuatl  or 
Izcoatzin  was  the  next  tlaca-tecuhtli  or  war 
chief,  and  during  his  time  the  dominant  position 
of  the  tribe  was  rendered  more  secure  by  the  for- 
mation of  a  sort  of  military  confederation,  with 
the  other  tribes  subordinate  to  the  Aztecs,  by 
which  the  peoples  about  Lake  Texcoco  were 
united  for  the  purpose  of  overpowering  their  out- 
lying neighbors  and  forcing  them  to  pay  tribute. 
Izcohuatl  was  followed  in  1436  or  1437  by  the 
first  Motecuhzoma  or  Montezuma  ('Wrathy 
Chief),  who  was  perhaps  the  first  chief  to  com- 
bine the  war  and  priestly  functions,  and  who  pre- 
pared for  the  downfall  of  the  tribal  power  by  al- 
lowing the  latter  to  interfere  with  the  former. 
His  successors,  Axayacatl,  Tizoc,  and  Ahuizotl, 
considerably  extended  the  influence  of  the  tribe 
by  conquering  the  tribes  beyond  the  mountains, 
to  the  two  seas  on  the  east  and  west,  and  far  to- 
ward the  south,  and  forcing  them  to  render 
tribute  of  slaves  for  the  sacrifices  which  were 
becoming  the  established  and  popular  religious 
practice  of  the  Aztecs. 

In  1502  the  second  Montezuma  was  elected  to 
the  chief  position  in  the  tribe.  (For  an  account 
of  Montezuma's  career  and  the  invasion  of  Mex- 
ico by  Cortes,  see  Montezuma;  Cort6s.)  In 
November,  1519,  Cortes  entered  Tenochtitlan — 
Mexico — and  before  the  end  of  the  month  he  had 
secured  the  person  of  the  Mexican  'Emperor,* 
whose  subjects  soon  fully  realized  that  the  white 
men  would  have  to  be  expelled  by  force,  and 
quickly  commenced  hostilities  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Montezuma's  younger  brother,  Cuitla- 
huatzin  (q.v.),  and  the  Emperor's  nephew,  Guate- 


motzin  (q.v.),  or  Cuahtemoc.  On  the  Voche 
Triste,  or  'dreadful  night,'  June  30,  1620,  Cort^ 
withdrew  from  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  for  a  time 
his  position  was  desperate,  but  the  indomitable 
valor  of  the  Spaniards  enabled  them  to  return  to 
the  attack.  Cuitlahuatzin,  Montezuma's  suc- 
cessor, died  in  November,  1520,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Guatemotzin,  whose  heroic  defense  of 
the  City  of  Mexico  during  the  following  year 
remains  one  of  the  noblest  episodes  in  American 
history.  Cortes  began  his  siege  of  Mexico  in 
May,  1521,  and  after  the  capture  of  Guatemotzin 
in  August,  he  set  promptly  to  work  at  rebuild- 
ing the  city.  The  dead  bodies  were  burned  and 
the  city  roughly  cleansed,  the  canals  filled  up, 
streets,  market  places,  and  the  sites  for  a  church, 
fort,  official  residence,  and  other  necessary  build- 
ings located.  As  an  administrator  Cortes  was 
less  successful  than  as  a  military  leader,  and  the 
repeated  complaints  and  threats  against  his  rule 
led  him  to  go  to  Spain  to  present  his  case  at  Court. 
There  were  rapid  changes  in  the  form  and  person- 
nel of  the  Grovernment  of  Mexico,  or  of  New 
Spain,  as  it  was  officially  called,  military  Govern- 
ors succeeding  one  apothef  eveiy  few  months  until 
1528,  when  the  first  Audiencia,  under  NuQo  de 
Guzman,  arrived,  to  be  replaced  by  the  second  a 
year  later.  This  managed  affairs  successfully 
until  1535,  when  the  first  Viceroy,  Antonio  de 
Mendoza,  came  from  Spain.  To  him  was  prin- 
cipally due  the  growth  of  the  country  along 
lines  which  assured  its  permanent  strength  and 
welfare.  In  1650  'the  Good  Viceroy'  Mendoza 
was  transferred  to  Peru,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Luis  de  Velasco,  under  whom  the  University  of 
Mexico  was  founded  in  1563,  and  the  mineral 
and  other  sources  of  wealth  developed.  Few  acts 
or  episodes  of  ^neral  interest  mark  the  reigns 
of  the  succeeding  vice-regal  rulers  of  Mexico. 
The  capital  grew,  was  periodically  fiooded,  and 
plans  as  regularly  were  made  for  its  draining,  by 
the  Viceroy  Velasco  and  others,  whose  vast  de- 
signs were  only  consummated  in  the  last  years  of 
the  nineteenth  century  by  President  Diaz.  The 
Inquisition  was  introduced  in  1571,  and  the 
Autoa  da  Fe  claimed  their  heretical  victims  from 
time  to  time.  In  1789  the  second  Count  of 
Kevillagigedo  began  the  rebuilding  of  the  capi- 
tal. One  result  of  these  works  was  the 
finding  of  the  ancient  Mexican  Calendar  stone 
and  the  sacrificial  block,  which  had  been  buried 
at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  The  gradual  in- 
crease of  education  among  all  classes,  the  spread 
of  revolutionary  and  independent  ideas  all  over 
the  world,  a  succession  of  Viceroys  who  responded 
to  the  pressure  from  Spain  by  draining  the 
American  colonies  of  every  possible  ingot  and 
coin,  and  finally  the  addition  of  Spain  to  the 
appanages  of  Napoleon,  were  all  factors  in  caus- 
ing the  growth  of  ideas  of  independence  for  Mex- 
ico. 

Various  groups  had  been  formed  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  revolutionary  plans,  and  some  of  the 
advocates  of  independence  had  been  imprisoned 
and  killed,  before  the  fateful  16th  of  September, 
1810,  when  the  parish  priest  at  Dolores,  near 
Guanajuato,  Hidalgo  y  Costilla  (q.v.),  upon  sud- 
denly learning  that  some  of  his  fellow  conspir- 
ators had  been  arrested,  rang  his  church  bell  and 
called  upon  his  people  to  follow  him  and  free 
Mexico  from  foreign  tyranny.  His  Orito  de 
Dolores,  the  cry  of  "Long  live  religion!  Long 
live  our  Holy  Mother  of  Guadalupe!    Long  live 


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MEXICO. 


415 


MEXICO. 


America,  and  death  to  bad  government,"  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  struggle  for  Mexican  inde- 
pendence. Hidalgo,  after  a  series  of  successful 
nghts  with  scattered  Royalist  forces,  was  defeat- 
ed, driven  north,  and  finally  caught  and  shot 
at  Chihuahua,  on  July  30,  1811.  His  pupil, 
Morelos  (q.v.),  took  up  the  leadership,  became 
known  as  the  'hero  of  a  hundred  battles,'  and 
was  in  turn  defeated  by  the  Royalist  army  under 
Itufbide  (q.v.),  betrayed  by  one  of  his  follow- 
ers, and  shot  in  December,  1815.  In  1817 
Javier  Mina  invaded  Mexico  from  Tamaulipas 
and  maintained  the  fight  for  independence  with 
the  usual  temporary  success,  until  defeated,  cap- 
tured, and  shot,  November  11th.  Meanwhile, 
Vicente  Guerrero  (q.v.)  had  gradually  been  es- 
tablishing his  claim  to  be  the  natural  and  most 
able  leader  of  the  Independents  in  the  field, 
while  among  all  classes  in  Mexico  the  feeling 
was  growing  more  and  more  strong  that  the 
Spanish  power  must  be  done  away  with.  Iturbide 
determined  to  unite  the  two  parties,  and  by  the 
Plan  of  Iguala,  February  24,  1821,  in  which 
Guerrero  and  the  Spanish  Viceroy,  0*Donaju, 
joined,  proposed  an  independent  monarchy  with 
a  ruler  irom  the  Spanish  royal  family.  The  plan 
failed;  no  ruler  could  be  secured  from  Europe, 
but  independence  had  been  practically  and  peace- 
fully assured.  Iturbide  arranged  a  popular  dem- 
onstration, and  the  Congress  ratified  bis  choice 
of  himself  as  Emperor,  May  19,  1822.  The  older 
Independents  soon  refused  to  acknowledge  his 
empire,  and  on  March  20,  1823,  the  opposition 
forced  his  resignation.  An  executive  council  of 
four  revolutionary  leaders,  Nicolas  Bravo,  Guada- 
lupe Victoria,  Negrete,  and  Vicente  Guerrero, 
managed  affairs  during  the  next  year,  calling  for 
the  election  of  a  congress,  which,  on  October 
4,  1824,  proclaimed  the  first  Constitution  of  the 
Republic  of  Mexico.  Guadalupe  Victoria  became 
the  first  President  and  succeeded  in  retaining 
office  for  the  full  term.  In  1828  the  election  was 
bitterly  contested  by  rival  factions  of  Free- 
masons, and  the  successful  party  was  almost 
immediately  overpowered  by  its  opponents, 
under  Santa  Anna,  who  forced  Congress  to  depose 
the  duly  elected  President,  Gomez  Pedraza,  and 
install  Guerrero.  His  Vice-President,  Bustamente, 
forced  him  to  take  refuge  in  the  South,  before 
the  end  of  1829,  and  had  himself  inaugurated  as 
President. 

The  course  of  local  politics  during  the  next 
twenty  years  is  sufficiently  detailed  under 
Santa  Anna,  who  had  a  hand  in  whatever  oc- 
curred. In  1836  the  Texans  made  good  their 
separation  from  Mexico,  and  ten  years  later  the 
United  States  forces  invaded  Mexico,  the  task 
of  its  generals  being  rendered  relatively  easy  by 
the  repeated  internal  dissensions  which  absorbed 
most  of  the  attention  of  the  Mexican  commanders. 
There  were  twelve  changes  in  the  chief  executive 
during  the  two  years  of  the  war,  a  fact  which 
sufficiently  explains  the  inability  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, in  spite  of  their  admirable  fighting  quali- 
ties, to  prevent  the  advance  of  the  United  States 
troops.  In  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo 
(q.v.)  Mexico  suffered  heavy  loss  of  territory. 
Santa  Anna  was  the  leading  factor  in  affairs 
until  August,  1855.  GJeneral  Comonfort  (q.v.) 
was  installed  as  President  in  December,  and  in 
June,  1 856,  issued  the  decree  ordering  the  sale  of 
all  unimproved  Church  lands,  which  precipitated 
the   struggle   between    Church   and    State.     On 


February  5,  1857,  a  new  constitution,  which  i< 
still  in  force,  was  adopted  by  Congress.  In 
January,  1858,  Comonfort,  who  had  tried  to  set 
aside  the  Constitution,  departed  suddenly  for  the 
United  States,  and  General  Zuloaga  and  after 
him  Juarez  (q.v.)  took  the  lead  in  affairs.  *La 
Reforma,'  the  war  for  reform  of  the  Church, 
broke  out  with  all  the  fury  of  religious  warfare. 
Juarez,  on  July  12,  1859,  issued  his  decree  na- 
tionalizing all  Church  property.  The  battle  of 
Calpulalpam,  in  Decemoer,  1860,  with  the  de- 
feat of  Miramon  (q.v.)  by  the  Juarez  forces  un- 
der General  Ortega,  marked  the  end  of  the  old 
order  of  thin^.  In  addition  to  the  difficulties  of 
internal  administration,  Juarez  brought  foreign 
war  on  the  country  by  decreeing  the  suspension 
for  two  years  of  the  payments  on  the  foreign 
loan.  The  act,  wise  and  perhaps  necessary  in 
itself,  was  not  managed  with  diplomacy,  and  on 
October  31,  1861,  the  Convention  of  London  was 
entered  into  by  England,  France,  and  Spain,  in 
which  these  Powers  agreed  upon  common  action 
for  the  protection  of  their  interests  in  Mexico. 
Fleets  were  at  once  dispatched  across  the  ocean, 
and  in  December  a  Spanish  force  occupied  Vera 
Cruz.  In  February,  1862,  England  and  Spain 
withdrew  their  forces,  upon  becoming  aware 
that  Napoleon  III.  was  scheming  to  establish 
an  empire,  supported  by  France,  in  America. 
On  the  departure  of  the  English  and  Spanish 
troops  the  French  came  out  openly  against  the 
Mexican  Government  and  were  joined  by  the 
Reactionists  and  Monarchists,  who  were  natu- 
rally hostile  to  Juarez.  On  May  6,  1862,  a  French 
army  of  6000  men  under  General  Lorencez  was 
defeated  before  Puebla  (the  famous  Cinco  de 
Mayo),  and  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Orizaba. 
In  S^tember  the  arrival  of  reinforcements  raised 
the  French  strength  to  12,000  men.  In  May, 
1863,  a  combined  force  of  French  and  Mexicans 
captured  Puebla,  and  marched  upon  the  capital, 
which  fell  into  their  hands  on  June  10th  after 
Juarez  and  his  Cabinet  had  fied.  A  council  of 
thirty  members  was  appointed  by  the  French 
commander,  Forey,  and  this  council  in  turn 
elected  a  committee  of  three  men  to  whom  was 
intrusted  the  supreme  executive  authority.  The 
most  prominent  of  those  who  made  up  this  Su- 
preme Council  of  the  Regency  was  General  Juan 
Nepomuceno  Almonte  (q.v.).  On  July  10th  an 
Assembly  of  Notables  at  Mexico  proclaimed  Mex- 
ico an  empire  and  tendered  the  crown  to  Maxi- 
milian, Archduke  of  Austria,  brother  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph.  (See  Maximhjan, 
Febdinand  Joseph.)  Maximilian  accepted  the 
crown  on  condition  that  the  action  of  the  Assem- 
bly of  Notables  be  ratified  by  a  vote  of  the  Mexi- 
can people.  As  a  French  army  of  35,000  was 
present  in  the  country,  there  was  little  difficulty 
in  obtaining  this.  On  May  29,  1864,  Maximilian 
and  his  wife  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  and  on  June 
12th  the  sovereigns  entered  the  capital,  taking  up 
their  residence  at  Chapultepec,  where  they  estab- 
lished a  court  with  all  the  regalia  and  forms  of 
a  European  dynasty.  In  the  field  the  French 
troops  under  Bazaine,  who  had  assumed  com- 
mand in  October,  1863,  gained  a  number  of  suc- 
cesses over  the  patriot  forces,  and  drove  Juarez 
from  place  to  place  until  he  finally  established 
his  capital  at  El  Paso  del  Norte  on  the  United 
States  border.  In  the  desperate  guerrilla  war- 
fare which  the  Nationalist  forces  waged  against 
the  invaders  a  large  part  of  the  country  waa 


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MEXICO. 


416 


MEXICO. 


devastated.  For  a  year  and  a  half  eveiTthiiig 
went  satiafactorily  with  Maximilian  to  outward 
seeming,  but  at  the  end  of  1865  he  found  himself, 
despite  his  efforts  to  win  the  good-will  of  his  sub- 

i'ects,  with  no  real  support  except  that  of  the 
i'rench  soldiers.  Meanwhile  the  United  States 
had  convinced  Napoleon  III.  that  French  troops 
would  not  be  suffered  to  interfere  in  American  af- 
fairs. On  May  31,  1866,  Maximilian  received 
word  that  the  French  army  was  to  be  withdrawn. 
He  at  once  decided  to  abdicate,  then  changed  his 
mind,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Empress  Garlotta, 
who  hastened  back  to  Europe,  where  her  failure 
to  secure  any  help  was  probably  responsible  for 
the  attack  of  brain  fever  which  left  her  hopelessly 
insane.  Maximilian  again  decided  to  withdraw, 
but  the  French  commissioners  refused  to  agree  to 
the  terms  in  which  he  insisted  upon  phrasing  his 
abdication,  and  eventually  the  Emperor  deter- 
mined to  stay  by  his  empire  and  the  supporters 
who  remain^  true  to  him.  Meanwhile  Juarez 
returned  southward,  gathered  an  army,  and 
awaited  the  departure  of  the  French.  Maxi- 
milian made  hia  way  to  Quer^taro,  where  he  was 
joined  by  the  troops  raised  by  Marquez,  Miramon, 
Mejia,  and  others,  and  where,  in  turn,  the  re- 
publican armies  quickly  surrounded  him,  by 
March  1,  1867.  Marquez  broke  through  the 
enemy  to  bring  assistance  from  Mexico,  but  in- 
stead undertook  to  establish  a  power  for  himself 
at  Puebla,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Diaz,  who 
drove  him  back  to  Mexico  and  then  captured 
that  city.  Maximilian  had  meanwhile  been  be- 
trayed by  one  of  his  most  favored  officers.  Colonel 
Miguel  Lopez,  who  arranged  the  admittance  of 
the  enemy  into  the  Imperial  camp.  The  Emperor 
was  forced  to  surrender,  receivea  a  military  trial 
and  was  shot,  with  Generals  Mejia  and  Miramon, 
on  June  19,  1867.  After  four  years  Juarez 
entered  the  City  of  Mexico  on  July  15,  1867,  and 
began  the  reorganization  of  the  Republic.  An 
election  was  held  which  confirmed  him  in  the 
Presidency,  and  he  held  the  position  until  his 
death  in  1872.  Lerdo  de  Tejada  succeeded  to  the 
office  and  held  it  until  1876,  when  he  was  ousted 
by  Porfirio  Diaz,  who  became  President  in  1877. 
In  1880  Diaz  was  succeeded  by  his  friend.  General 
Manuel  GonzAlez,  whose  four  years  of  inefficiency 
convinced  Diaz  of  the  necessity  of  governing  in 
person.  Since  then  he  has  continued  to  fill  the 
Presidential  office.  Under  Diaz  have  occurred  the 
remarkable  extension  of  railroads  that  have 
knit  together  the  most  distant  portions  of  the 
Republic,  the  great  advance  in  textile  industries, 
the  enormous  development  of  mines,  the  practical 
reconstruction  of  the  capital,  and  the  rebuild- 
ing of  portions  of  the  other  cities.  This  work  is 
largely  due  to  governmental  initiative,  at  the 
expense  of  the  national  or  State  treasury,  but  ac- 
companied by  an  increase  in  national  credit  com- 
mensurate with  the  results  obtained. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Gensbal.  Reclus,  04ographie 
univeraelle,  vol.  xvii.  (Paris,  1891);  Romero, 
Geographical  and  Statistical  Notes  on  Mexico 
(New  York,  1898)  ;  Romero,  Mexico  and  the 
United  States  (New  York,  1898);  Bureau  of 
American  Republics,  If eanco  ( Washington,  1900)  ; 
Anuario  estadistico  de  la  repUhlica  mexicana 
(Mexico)  ;  Moses,  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  of  Mexico  (Philadelphia,  1899). 

Resoubces:  Industbies.  Wells,  A  Study  of 
Mexico  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Dunn,  Mexico  and  Her  Re* 
sources    (London,    1889);    Howell,    Mexico:    Its 


Progress  and  Commercial  Possibilities  ( ib.,  1892 ) ; 
Felix  and  lenk,  Beitrdge  zur  Geologic  und  Palaon- 
tologie  von  Mexico  (Leipzig,'  1892)  ;  Cubas, 
Mexico:  Its  Trade,  Industries  and  Resources^ 
translated  by  Thompson  and  Cleveland  (Mexico, 
1893) ;  Ducios  Salmas,  The  Riches  of  Mexico 
and  Its  Institutions  (Saint  Louis,  1893) ;  Ban- 
croft, Resources  and  Development  of  Mexico  { San 
Francisco,  1894) ;  Baker,  A  Naturalist  in  Mexico 
(Chicago,  1895). 

Tbavel:  Descbiption.  Hill,  Travels  in  Peru 
and  Mexico  (London,  1860) ;  Taylor,  Anahuac: 
Mexico  and  the  Mexicans  (ib.,  1861);  Rat- 
zel,  Aus  Mexiko,  Reiseskizzen  aus  den  Jahren 
1874-75  (Breslau,  1878)  ;  Taylor,  Eldorado  (New 
York,  1881)  ;  Aubertin,  A  Flight  to  Mexico  (Lon- 
don, 1882)  ;  Bishop,  Old  Mexico  and  Her  Lost 
Provinces  (New  York,  1883)  ;  Brocklehurst, 
Mexico  To-Day  (London,  1883) ;  Conkling, 
Mexico  and  the  Mexicans  (New  York,  1883)  ; 
Bandelier,  Mexico  (Boston,  1885) ;  Griffin,  Mexi- 
co of  To-Day  (New  York,  1886)  ;  Chamay,  An- 
cient Cities  of  the  New  World  (London,  1887) ; 
Biart,  The  Aztecs  (Chicago,  1887)  ;  Gooch,  Face 
to  Face  with  the  Mexicans  (New  York,  1888) ; 
Ober,  Travels  in  Mexico  (London,  1888)  ;  Ballou, 
Aztec  Land  (Boston,  1890)  ;  Hesse- Wartegg, 
Mexiko^  Land  und  Leute  (Vienna,  1890)  ; 
Through  the  Land  of  the  Aztecs,  or  Life  and 
Travel  in  Mexico  (London,  1892)  ;  Crawford, 
Land  of  the  Montezumas  (New  York,  1897)  ; 
Below,  Mexiko  (Berlin,  1899)  ;  Seler,  Auf  alten 
Wegen  in  Mexiko  und  (hiatemala  (Berlin,  1900)  ; 
Lumholtz,  Unknotcn  Mexico  (New  York,  1902)  ; 
Campbell,  Complete  Guide  and  Descriptive  Booh 
of  Mexico  (Chicago,  1904) ;  Fits^rrell,  Guide  to 
Tropical  Mexico  (Mexico,  1905). 

Histobt.  Icazbalceta,  Documentos  para  la  his- 
toria  de  M^jico  (20  vols.,  Mexico,  1853-57) ;  Coleo- 
cidn  nueva  de  documentos  para  la  historia  de  M^ji- 
CO  (5  vols.,  Mexico,  1892).  The  standard  work  on 
Mexican  history  is  Mexico  al  travis  de  los  siglos, 
a  series  of  five  volumes  published  under  the  edi- 
torial supervision  of  Vincente  Riva  Palacio 
(Mexico,  1887-89).  Volume  i.  of  the  series  com- 
prises Chavero,  Historia  antigua  y  de  la  con- 
quista;  volume  ii.,  Riva  Palacio,  Historia  de  la 
dominacidn  espanola  en  Mexico  desde  1521  6 
1808;  volume  iii.,  Zarate,  La  guerra  de  inde- 
pendencia;  volume  iv.,  Olavarrea  y  Ferrari, 
Mexico  independiente,  1821-55;  volume  v.,  Vigil, 
La  reforma.  Other  general  works  are :  Bancroft, 
Mexico  (6  vols.,  San  Francisco,  1883-88)  ;  Cavo, 
Los  tres  siglos  de  Mexico  (4  vols.,  Mexico,  1836- 
38) ;  Mayer,  Mexico:  Aztec,  Spanish,  and  Repub' 
lican  (Hartford,  1863)  ;  Mora,  Mexico  y  su9 
revoluciones  (Paris,  1856)  ;  Chevalier,  Mexico, 
Ancient  and  Modem,  translated  by  Alpass  (Lon- 
don, 1864)  ;  Payno,  Historia  de  M^jico  (Mexico, 
1871)  ;  Lester,  The  Mexican  Republic:  A  His- 
toric Study  (New  York,  1878)  ;  Frost,  History 
of  Mexico  (New  Orleans,  1882)  ;  Johnson,  Meooi- 
co,  Past  and  Present  (New  York,  1887)  ;  Noll, 
A  Short  History  of  Mexico  (Chicago,  1890)  ; 
Hale,  The  Story  of  Mexico  (New  York,  1891); 
N.  Le6n,  Compendio  de  la  historia  general  de 
Mexico  (Mexico,  1902).  Of  works  dealing  with 
special  periods,  a  few  of  the  best  known  are: 
Bandelier,  "On  the  Social  Organization  and  Mode 
of  Government  of  the  Ancient  Mexicans,"  in 
Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Peabody  Museum 
of  American  Archceology  and  Ethnology    (Cam- 


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MEXICO. 


bridge,  1880) ;  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Histoire 
des  nations  civilis^es  du  Mexique  et  de  VAm&rique 
centrale  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1857-59)  ;  Garcia,  Cardc- 
ter  de  la  conquista  eapanola  en  America  y  en  Mex- 
ico (Mexico,  1901);  Prescott,  History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Mexico  (New  York,  1856);  Bemal 
Diaz  del  Castillo,  The  True  History  of  the  Con- 
quest of  Mexico,  translated  by  Keatinge  ( London, 
( 1800) ;  Sahagdn,  Historia  de  la  conquista  de  Mex- 
ico (Mexico,  1829) ;  Solis  y  Ribadeneyra,  Historia 
de  la  conquista  de  Mexico  (Barcelona,  1789) ; 
Comwallis,  The  Conquest  of  Mexico  cmd  Peru 
(London,  1893)  ;  Alaman,  Historia  de  M^jico, 
1808-21  (Mexico,  1849-50)  ;  Rivera,  Principios 
criticds  sohre  el  vireynato  de  la  Nueva  Espana  y 
sohre  el  revoluoidn  de  independencia  (San  Juan 
de  los  Lagos,  1884) ;  Bustamante,  Cuadro  his- 
torioo  de  la  revolucidn  de  la  America  mexicana 
(Mexico,  1823) ;  Torrente,  Historia  general  de 
la  revolucidn  modema  Hispano- Americana  (5 
vols.,  Madrid,  1829-30) ;  Frias,  Episodios  militares 
mexicanos;  guerra  de  independencia  (Paris, 
1901)  ;  Ward,  Meonco  in  1827  (London,  1829)  ; 
Hidalgo,  Apuntes  para  escrihir  la  historia  de  los 
proyectos  de  monarquia  en  Mexico  (Mexico, 
1868)  ;  K^ratrjr,  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian,  translated  by  Venables  (Lon- 
don, 1868)  ;  Alvensleben,  With  Maximilian  in 
Mexico  (London,  1867)  ;  Basch,  Erinnerungen 
aus  Mexiko  (Leipzig,  1868)  ;  Elton,  With  the 
French  in  Mexico  (Philadelphia,  1867)  ;  Steven- 
son, Maximilian  in  Mexico  (New  York,  1899) ; 
Cubas,  Mexico  in  1876  (Mexico,  1876) ;  Castro, 
The  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1882  (New  York, 
1882)  ;  Butler,  Mexico  in  Transition  (ib.,  1892)  ; 
Lummis,  The  Awakening  of  a  Nation  (ib.,  1898). 

MEXICO.  An  inland  State  of  Mexico, 
bounded  by  the  State  of  Hidalgo  on  the  north, 
Tlaxcala  and  Puebla  on  the  east,  Morelos  and 
Guerrero  on  the  south,  and  Michoacan  and  (Juerg- 
taro  on  the  west  (Map:  Mexico,  J  8).  A  part 
of  this  territory,  adjacent  to  the  State  of  Morelos 
and  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  State  of 
Mexico,  is  occupied  by  the  Federal  District,  which 
is  outside  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State.  The  area 
of  the  State  is  8952  square  miles.  The  surface  is 
very  diversified.  In  the  north  it  is  generally 
flat,  with  a  few  low  hills  and  a  number  of  lakes. 
The  eastern  part  is  taken  up  by  the  Popocatepetl 
range  with  its  tw«  great  volcanoes  rising  to  an 
altitude  of  17,000  feet.  In  the  south  rises 
the  Ajusgo  range  with  its  highest  peak  of  over 
13,500  feet,  while  the  centre  is  occupied  by  the 
Sierra  de  las  Cruces,  exceeding  14,000  feet  in  its 
highest  peak.  The  rivers  are  few  in  number,  the 
chief  among  them  being  the  Senna,  which  rises 
in  this  State.  There  are  a  number  of  lakes  in 
the  eastern  portion,  the  largest  of  which  is  Lake 
Texcoco.  The  climate  is  generally  cold,  owing 
to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  surface.  In 
the  valleys,  however,  it  is  temperate  and  health- 
ful and  even  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  tropi- 
cal fruits.  The  chief  products  are  cereals,  sugar, 
coffee,  tobacco,  and  spices.  Stock-raising  is  also 
an  important  industry.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
the  State  is  very  considerable,  but  only  slightly 
exploited.  The  manufactured  products  include 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  glassware,  pottery, 
wines,  and  flour.  The  State  is  traversed  by  sev- 
eral railway  lines,  all  centring  in  Mexico  City. 
Population,  in  1895,  841,618;  in  1900,  934,463. 
The  capital  is  Toluca  (q.v.). 


MEXICO.  The  largest  and  finest  city  in 
Latin  North  America.  It  is  situated  in  the 
Federal  District  (area,  679  square  miles)  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  on  the  Ana- 
huac  plateau,  7350  feet  above  the  sea,  in  latitude 
19 o  26'  N.  and  longitude  99 o  8'  W.  (Map:  Mexico, 
J  8).  Its  area  is  about  20  square  miles.  The 
city  is  263  miles  by  rail  from  Vera  Cruz  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  290  miles  from  Acapulco  on  the 
Pacific,  839  miles  from  Nuevo  Laredo,  the  nearest 
railroad  town  on  the  United  States  frontier,  and 
1224  miles  from  El  Paso,  Tex.  Its  population 
by  the  census  of  1900  was  344,721,  of  which  num- 
ber 12,064  were  of  foreign  birth.  It  is  one  of  tha 
most  ancient  cities  of  the  continent,  and  has  been 
successively  the  capital  of  the  Aztecs,  of  the 
Spanish  colony  of  New  Spain,  and  of  the  Re- 
public of  Mexico. 

The  valley  in  which  it  stands  is  an  immense 
basin,  approximately  circular  in  shape,  embrac- 
ing some  2220  square  miles,  and  completely  en- 
circled by  high  mountains,  through  which  only 
two  or  three  quite  elevated  passes  afford  an  en- 
trance. The  view  of  the  valley  and  of  its  girdling 
mountains  and  snow-capped  volcanoes  from  eleva- 
tions such  as  the  towers  of  the  Cathedral  or 
Chapultepec  Hill,  three  miles  west  of  the  city, 
is  superlatively  beautiful.  There  is  no  natural 
exit  for  the  waters  which  pour  down  the  inner 
sides  of  the  mountains  and  they  collect  in  six 
lakes  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  plain — 
Chalco  and  Xochimilco  (fresh  water),  and  Tex- 
coco, Xaltocan,  San  Cristobal,  and  Zumpango 
(salt  water).  In  an  early  age  nearly  the  entire 
surface  of  the  valley  was  a  lake  bed,  but  for 
many  centuries  desiccation  has  been  very  gradu- 
ally progressing  until  the  waters  are  collected 
entirely  in  the  six  shallow  basins  whose  extent 
has  been  still  further  reduced  by  the  drainage 
work  recently  completed.  The  waters  of  Xochi- 
milco, however,  were  practically  absorbed  by  the 
network  of  canals  that  irrigate  the  surrounding 
region. 

Owing  to  the  inadequate  drainage  and  sewage 
systems  and  a  soil  permeated  with  the  refuse  of 
centuries,  the  city  long  had  an  annual  death-rate 
of  40  to  every  1000  inhabitants,  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  mortality  than  in  any  other  civilized  city 
of  the  world.  The  conditions  which  promoted 
this  high  death-rate  have  now  largely  been  reme- 
died, and  the  city  compares  favorably  with  others 
in  salubrity,  and  is  decreasing  its  death-rate, 
though  the  unhygienic  manner  of  life  of  the 
poorer  classes  swells  the  mortality.  The  city  is 
naturally  healthful,  and  in  its  climatic  conditions 
is  a  delightful  place  of  residence.  The  tempera- 
ture is  extremely  equable,  with  an  annual  range 
of  only  12®  to  15°.  The  mean  temperature  of 
the  summer  months  is  60°  to  65°,  and  the  mean 
temperature  in  mid-winter  is  about  53°.  The 
prevailing  winds,  coming  from  the  northwest,  are 
damp,  while  the  south  winds,  which  blow  only 
a  sixth  of  the  time,  are  very  dry.  The  total  rain- 
fall is  about  20  inches,  or  about  half  of  that  at 
New  York. 

From  its  three  centuries  of  Spanish  domination 
Mexico  still  preserves  many  characteristics  of 
the  great  cities  of  Spain,  and  from  a  certain 
Oriental  suggestion  in  its  appearance,  far  sur- 
passes them  in  novelty  and  interest.  Along  with 
the  wonderful  commercial  development  that  has 
characterized  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  are 
to  be   found   evidences   of   an   artistic   plan   to 


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MEXICO. 


preaeire  more  beautiful  forms  of  architecture 
than  are  usually  associated  with  a  modern  indus- 
trial city,  witn  the  result  that  here  may  be 
foimd  an  artistic  centre  for  local  color  not 
equaled  elsew\)ere  on  the  American  continent. 
Seen  from  a  distance  the  city,  prevailingly  white 
in  color,  is  an  imposing  spectacle.  Spreading 
widely  over  the  plain  overtopped  by  domes  and 
pinnacles,  and  hemmed  around  by  majestic  moim- 
tains,  few  cities  of  the  world  are  more  charming 
and  impressive. 

Most  of  the  houses  have  terraced  roofs  and 
inner  courts,  are  solidly  built  of  sandstone  or 
lava,  and  are  only  one  to  two  stories  in  height, 
a  precaution  against  the  frequent  though  usually 
slight  earthquakes;  but  many  of  the  business 
and  public  buildings,  supported  on  solid  founda- 
tions of  piling,  are  three  and  even  more  stories  in 
elevation,  and  some  of  them  reach  an  altitude  of 
five  stories.  The  walls  of  many  of  the  poorer 
buildings  are  not  quite  perpendicular,  owing 
to  the  shocks  they  have  siistained,  thus  giving  to 
some  of  the  street  fronts  a  rather  rickety  appear- 
ance. The  later  buildings  along  the  business 
streets  are  making  greater  use  of  steel  in  their 
construction,  a  practice  better  adapted  to  the 
rather  insecure  foundation  soil  of  the  city. 

Buildings.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Plaza  de 
Armas,  the  Cathedral,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  sumptuous  churches  in  America,  rises  on 
the  site  of  the  great  temple  of  Huitzilopochtli, 
the  titular  god  of  the  Aztecs.  The  Cathedral, 
begun  in  1673,  and  dedwated  in  1667  at  a  cost  of 
$2,000,000  for  the  walls  alone,  forms  a  Latin 
cross,  426  feet  long  and  203  feet  wide,  with  two 
great  naves,  three  aisles,  twenty  side  chapels, 
and  a  magnificent  high  altar  supported  by 
marble  columns  and  surrounded  by  a  balustrade 
with  sixty-two  statues  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
alloy.  The  elaborately  carved  choir  inclosed  by 
tombac  (copper  and  zinc  alloy)  railings  is  valued 
at  $1,500,000.  The  Doric  style  of  architecture 
prevails  in  the  interior,  and  the  mixed  Doric 
and  Ionic  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance  in  the 
exterior,  with  its  five  domes  and  two  open  towers 
218  feet  high.  The  latter  were  not  completed 
until  1791.  In  addition  to  the  Cathedral,  Mexico 
contains  some  sixty  churches  among  which  the 
finest  are  La  Profesa,  Loreto,  Santa  Teresa,  Santo 
DomiAgo,  and  San  Hip6lito.  The  leading 
Protekstant  denominations  are  represented  by 
houses  of  worship,  which  are  attended  almost 
wholly  by  the  foreign  element  of  the  population. 

The  east  side  of  the  Plaza  is  occupied  by  the 
National  Palace,  of  poor  and  monotonous  archi- 
tecture, which  has  675  feet  frontage  and  contains 
most  of  the  Government  offices,  the  general 
archives,  and  some  remarkable  paintings  by 
Miranda  and  native  artists.  With  its  associated 
buildings  this  structure  occupies  an  area  of 
14,000  square  meters.  The  Palacio  has  long  been 
inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the  various  depart- 
ments installed  within  it,  and  at  the  present  time 
there  are  in  process  of  building  a  new  post-office 
building  and  a  new  War  and  Navy  builaing,  both 
steel  and  stone  structures.  North  of  the  Na- 
tional Palace  and  forming  parts  of  it  are  the 
post-office  and  the  National  Museum  of  Natural 
History  and  Antiquities,  with  a  priceless  collec- 
tion of  Aztec  relics,  and  'the  bones  of  giants*  as 
they  were  formerly  supposed  to  be,  though  now 
recognized  as  the  remains  of  large  animals  of  the 
Quaternary  epoch.     The  National   Observatory 


and  the  Meteorological  Bureau  are  also  located 
here.  The  Monte  de  Piedad,  the  famous  national 
pawnshop  of  Mexico,  with  nearly  $10,000,000  of 
accumulated  funds,  stands  close  to  the  Cathedral, 
and  with  its  liberal  management  is  really  a 
beneficent  charity. 

Facing  the  Cathedral  is  the  Palacio  Municipal 
or  City  Hall,  containing  the  city  and  Federal 
District  offices.  Among  other  notable  buildings 
is  the  School  of  Medicine  on  the  Plaza  Santo 
Domingo,  occupying  the  quarters  in  which 
the  Inquisition  made  its  infamous  history; 
the  Church  of  the  Jesuits;  the  School  of 
Arts,  where  many  branches  of  industry  are 
taught;  the  National  Picture  Gallery  of  San 
Carlos,  in  which  the  Florentine  and  Flemish 
schools  are  especially  well  represented;  the  Na- 
tional Library,  formerly  the  Church  of  San 
Augustin,  with  over  200,000  volumes,  numerous 
manuscripts,  and  rare  old  Spanish  books;  the 
Mint,  in  which  silver  and  gold  have  been  coined,, 
since  1690,  to  the  value  of  nearly  $3,000,000,000; 
the  Iturbide  Hotel,  and  the  School  of  Mines,  de- 
signed by  the  artist  Tolsa,  one  of  the  finest  struc- 
tures in  Mexico,  with  rich  mineralogical  and 
geological  collections,  and  containing  also  the 
School  of  Engineering  with  its  observatory.  The 
city  abounds  with  hospitals,  for  no  place  takes 
better  care  of  its  sick  and  infirm  than  the  City  of 
Mexico.  One  of  the  curiosities  is  the  little  old 
building  in  which  the  first  printing  in  America 
was  done.  At  the  present  time  33  dailjr  papers 
and  100  magazines  and  reviews,  in  Spanish,  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  Qerman,  administer  to  the  in- 
tellectual and  artistic  life  of  the  capital.  The 
chief  of  the  twenty  scientific  institutions 
is  the  Geographical  and  Statistical  Society,, 
which  issues  many  maps  and  charts.  There  are 
numerous  public  schools,  and  many  of  the  sciences 
and  arts  are  represented  by  special  schools. 

Streets  and  Parks.  Mexico  is  said  to  be  the- 
finest  built  city  on  the  American  continent. 
Some  of  its  thoroughfares,  paved  with  asphalt 
and  lined  with  houses  whose  height  bears  a  strict  . 
architectural  relation  to  the  width  of  the  streets, 
certainly  bear  out  this  assertion.  While  many 
of  its  600  streets  and  lanes  are  very  narrow, 
especially  within  the  nine  square  miles  that  the 
old  walls  inclose,  still  they  are  laid  out  with 
great  regularity.  The  monotony  of  arrangement 
of  this  part  is  fairly  well  broken  by  an  occasional 
public  square  or  garden,  while  beyond  the  circle- 
of  the  walls,  and  especially  to  the  northwest,  the 
streets  have  spread  with  greater  irregularity. 
The  main  streets  running  from  north  to  south 
and  from  east  to  west  intersect  at  the  Plaaa 
Mayor,  familiarly  known  as  the  *Zocalo.*  These 
streets  are  of  fair  width,  but  the  sidewalks 
here,  as  elsewhere,  are  too  narrow  to  accommo- 
date easily  the  passers-by.  For  the  customary 
mule  tramway  an  up-to-date  electric  service  has 
been  substituted,  with  the  result  that  the  urban 
population  is  largely  increasing.  The  principal 
streets  are  electrically  lighted,  and  are  clean  and 
well  kept. 

The  leading  business  thoroughfare,  San  Fran- 
cisco Street,  with  its  continuation,  Calle  de 
Plateros  (for  the  city  still  retains  the  bewilder- 
ing custom  of  changing  the  name  of  the  street 
every  few  blocks ) ,  connects  the  Plaza  Mayor  with 
the  Alameda  and  reminds  the  visitor  strongly- 
of  the  fashionable  shopping  districts  of  European- 
centres.    Here  shops  with  their  costly  displays  of 


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MEXICO. 


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MEXICO. 


ftll  sorts  of  merchandise,  the  hest  hotels,  caf^, 
and  restaurants,  the  business  offices  and  clubs, 
pour  forth  during  the  later  afternoon  hours  their 
elegantly  attired  throngs  that  overflow  the  nar- 
row sidewalks  and  fill  the  costly  equipages  and 
hackney  coaches  moving  in  a  double  line  along 
the  crowded  street.  San  Francisco  Street  is  in- 
teresting any  day,  but  it  is  doubly  so  when  pro- 
cessions of  flower-bedecked  carnages,  -columns 
of  troops  in  showy  imiform,  and  the  gaily 
decorated  fronts  of  the  buildings,  proclaim 
the  celebration  of  the  fiestas  of  September 
or  of  the  Cinco  de  Mayo  (Fifth  of  May).  The 
name  Cinco  de  Mayo  is  also  applied  to  the  prin- 
cipal rival  of  San  Francisco  street,  and  is  borne 
by  a  thoroughfare  extending  from  the  Cathedral 
to  the  New  National  Theatre.  As  San  Francisco 
street  represents  the  business  life  of  the  city,  so 
the  Paseo  de  la  Reforma  is  the  highway  of  Mex- 
ican social  life.  This  beautiful  drive,  two  miles 
in  length,  extends  from  the  Alameda  to  the  hill  of 
Chapultepec.  With  its  double  avenue  of  fine 
trees,  shading  well-constructed  stone  sidewalks; 
its  seven  large  circles,  each  300  feet  in  diameter, 
some  already  surmounted  with  statuary  of  his- 
toric interest,  and  others  exhibiting  a  wealth  of 
flowers  and  shrubbery;  with  iia  terminal  parks 
of  rare  beauty  in  the  midst  of"  an  architectural 
setting  that  each  year  becomes  more  imposing, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  daily  from  five  to  seven 
o'clock  the  Paseo  is  the  favorite  parade  ground 
for  every  Mexican  who  owns  or  can  afl'ord  to 
hire  an  equipage.  Along  the  line  of  handsome 
vehicles  one  occasionally  detects  a  touch  of  do- 
mestic color  in  the  person  of  some  cahallero  in 
native  costume,  but  such  appear  with  less  fre- 
quency as  the  years  pass  on,  and  the  Mexican 
•Vanity  Fair*  approximates  more  closely  to  the 
ordinary  park  processions  of  the  great  world 
centres. 

A  spot  hardly  second  to  the  Paseo  in  interest 
is  the  beautiful  park  and  promenade  known  as 
the  Alameda.  With  its  40  acres  well  shaded  with 
poplar  and  beech  trees  and  variegated  with  a 
most  profuse  collection  of  semi-tropical  plants 
and  shrubs,  it  has  long  been  the  favorite  stamping 
ground  of  Mexican  aristocracy,  whose  weekly 
parade  on  Sunday  from  eleven  to  one  exhibits  the 
fashionable  life  of  the  capital  at  its  best.  Here 
a  fountain  now  stands  on  the  site  of  the  Quema- 
dero  or  'burning  place'  of  the  Inquisition,  where 
many  a  heretic  expiated  his  heresy  at  the  behest 
of  the  then  all-powerful  Church,  and  had  his 
ashes  thrown  into  the  ditch  flowing  behind  the 
neighboring  sanctuary  of  San  Diego.  The  central 
Plcuea  de  Armas  or  Plaza  Mayor,  surrounded  by 
the  magnificent  Cathedral,  the  Palacio,  the  mu- 
nicipal buildings,  and  some  of  the  finest  retail 
stores,  seems  more  truly  than  any  other  spot 
the  real  centre  of  the  city.  It  covers  14  acres 
and  is  beautified  by  trees,  flower  plots,  statuary, 
and  marble  fountains,  while  in  the  centre  is  the 
charming  band-stand  which  gives  to  it  its  popular 
name  of  *Zocalo.'  At  all  times  the  centre  of  the 
commercial  and  political  life  of  the  metropolis, 
it  is  preeminently  so  for  the  patriotic  celebra- 
tions so  dear  to  tne  heart  of  its  populace.  It  is 
here,  during  the  fiestas  of  September,  that  one 
can  view  the  floral  parade  of  the  14th ;  can  listen 
to  the  charming  military  concerts  of  the  15th, 
and  behold  the  gorgeous  electric  and  pyrotechnic 
display  that  follows  the  commemorative  ring  of 
the  grito  of  Hidalgo;  and  on  the  16th  can  per- 


ceive in  column  after  column  of  well-drilled 
troops  on  parade  the  mano  fuerte  (strong  hand) 
of  the  modern  ruler  whose  sway  has  been  charac- 
terized by  peace  and  order. 

Monuments.  The  city,  which  contained  the 
first  academy  of  fine  arts  erected  upon  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  still  affords  many  examples  of 
the  artistic  instinct  of  its  people  in  its  well-built 
public  and  private  residences  and  in  important 
groups  of  statuary.  Among  the  most  important 
of  these  is  the  equestrian  statue  of  Carlos  IV.» 
begun  in  1794  and  finished  in  1803,  the  work  of 
a  native  artist,  Manuel  Tolsa.  Originally  placed 
on  the  Plaza  Mayor,  it  is  now  situated  at  the 
city  terminus  of  the  Paseo,  Farther  along  the 
same  thoroughfare  appear  statues  of  Columbus 
and  Cuauhtemoc,  the  last  of  the  Aztec  rulers,  as 
well  as  others  of  less  artistic  prominence.  The 
monument  over  the  tomb  of  Juarez,  in  the  San 
Fernando   Ometery,   is   also   worthy  of   notice. 

Clubs  and  Theatres.  As  may  be  imagined, 
the  social  life  of  Mexico  City,  from  a  Latin- 
American  point  of  view,  is  exceedingly  attractive. 
In  addition  to  many  native  organizations,  all  of 
the  principal  foreign  colonies  have  a  social  centre^ 
the  British  and  the  Americans  being  especially 
well  housed.  The  Jockey  Club,  a  native  organiza- 
tion, has  as  its  headquarters  one  of  the  finest 
buildings  in  the  city,  formerly  the  palace  of  the 
Coimt  del  Valle.  Among  the  play-houses  the 
old  Teairo  Nacional,  or  *opera  house,'  had  a  seat- 
ing capacity  of  3000.  It  has  been  replaced  by  a 
more  commodious  structure  at  the  terminus  of 
the  Cinco  de  Mayo  street.  The  Teatro  Principal 
is  smaller,  and  there  are  several  others  of  less 
note.  Although  the  theatres  of  Mexico  City  are 
not  the  finest  of  the  Republic,  it  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant stations  of  the  Spanish-American  circuit. 
In  no  other  country,  except  Spain,  is  bull-fighting 
so  popular,  and  although  the  administration  of 
Diaz  nas  made  quiet  efforts  to  bring  the  sport 
into  disrepute,  the  two  bull-rings  are  well 
thronged  on  festal  days  and  at  the  Sunday  per- 
formances. 

Suburbs,  etc.  The  tramway  expansion  of  the 
past  few  years  has  resulted  in  the  building  of 
new  suburbs,  formed  of  houses  constructed  in 
American  style  with  all  modem  conveniences. 
Although  possibly  more  desirable  as  places  of 
residence,  they  do  not  yet  equal  in  interest  the 
older  suburbs.  Prominent  among  the  latter,  at 
the  far  end  of  the  Paseo,  is  Chapultepec,  a  mass 
of  rock  rising  some  200  feet  from  the  midst  of 
magnificent  cypress  groves,  and  topped  by  the 
splendid  structure  containing  the  National  Mili- 
tary Academy  and  the  President's  summer  palace, 
from  which  may  be  obtained  the  finest  view  of 
the  valley.  Farther  on,  reached  by  the  same 
tramway,  is  Tacubaya,  the  most  fashionable  re- 
sort of  Mexico,  situated  in  the  most  fertile  por- 
tion of  the  Federal  District.  Here  is  located  one 
of  the  National  Observatories,  occupying  a  former 
palace  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mexico.  To  the 
north  of  the  city  lies  Guadalupe,  whose  beautiful 
and  rich  church  is  the  Lourdes  of  Mexico,  and 
whose  traditional  Virgin  has  become  the  tutelar 
divinity  of  the  modem  Republic.  To  the  south  is 
the  Viga  Canal,  lined  with  the  so-called  'floating 
gardens,'  the  region  which  furnishes  the  flowers, 
fruits,  and  vegetables  for  the  city  markets,  and 
whose  inhabitants  present  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting pictures  of  contemporary  native  life. 
Upon  this  canal  are  the  towns  of  Santa  Anita  and 


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MEXICO. 


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MEXICO. 


Iztacalco,  interesting  pleasure  resorts  frequented 
by  the  lower  classes.  Also  to  the  south  is  Tlal- 
pam,  a  resort  second  only  to  Tacubaya  in  im- 
portance. To  the  west,  Popolta  contains  the 
*Noche  Triste*  tree,  under  which  tradition  says 
that  Cort^  wept  on  the  night  of  his  expulsion 
from  Mexico.  By  rail  it  is  possible  to  extend 
one's  excursions  beyond  the  mountain  valley  to 
the  most  interesting  points  of  ancient  and  mod- 
em Mexican  histqiy,  all  of  which  are  within  easy 
distance  of  the  capital. 

Industries  and  Commerce.  The  industries  of 
the  city  are  constantly  increasing.  Around  the 
outskirts,  completely  encircling  the  city,  is  a 
belt  of  factories  and  other  industrial  establish- 
ments, manufacturing  cotton,  paper,  linen,  silk, 
gold  and  silver  wares,  pottery,  feather  articles, 
leather,  carriages,  bricks,  corks,  and  soap;  there 
are  also  several  packing  houses;  in  spite  of  the 
high  price  of  fuel,  all  these  establishments  do  a 
thriving  business  and  will  welcome  the  day  when 
coal  can  be  brought  in  cheaply  to  give  them  a  new 
element  of  prosperity.  A  large  part  of  the  trade 
interests  is  in  the  hands  of  French,  German,  and 
English  merchants.  (For  commimications  with 
the  United  States  and  other  countries,  see  Mex- 
ico. )  The  city  is  the  wholesale  centre  for  the  na- 
tion, and  its  banks,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  the  Banco  Nacional  de  Mexico,  capitalized  at 
$26,000,000,  and  the  London  Bank  of  Mexico, 
capitalized  at  $15,000,000,  control  its  financial 
conditions.  Its  fifteen  markets  are  large  and 
well  ordered  and  a  perpetual  source  of  conveni- 
ence to  its  inhabitants  as  well  as  of  interest  to 
the  increasing  number  of  visitors. 

Drainage  and  Water  Supply.  The  city  de- 
rives its  water  supply  from  the  western  moun- 
tains, the  greater  portion  coming  from  the  vicin- 
ity of  Tacubaya.  For  the  transportation  of  the 
water  there  have  been  constructed  a  series  of 
aqueducts,  the  first  of  which  was  completed  in 
1576  and  the  last  in  1900.  When  the  city  ob- 
tains full  advantage  of  these  it  will  receive  from 
them  55,000  liters  per  minute,  an  average  of 
198  liters  per  day  for  each  inhabitant.  This  is 
a  larger  average  than  London,  Berlin,  or  New 
Orleans  enjoys,  and  with  the  supply  from  the 
690  artesian  wells  added  this  will  he  raised  to 
250  liters.  At  present,  however,  the  water  is 
very  unevenly  distributed,  the  poorer  sections 
especially  suffering  in  this  particular;  but  when 
the  new  plans  of  the  department  are  put  in  opera- 
tion, some  12,000  of  the  15,000  houses  can  be 
supplied  with  water  at  a  cost  of  $30  to  $48  a 
year,  which  rate  will  yield  the  city  an  annual 
revenue  of  $500,000.  In  this  way  one  of  the 
present  wretched  conditions  of  the  worst  slums 
will  be  greatly  ameliorated. 

The  drainage  works,  which  have  vastly  im- 
proved the  sanitary  conditions,  were  completed  in 
1898  after  three  centuries  of  more  or  less  spas- 
modic effort,  and  at  the  cost  of  the  lives  of 
many  thousands  of  men  and  many  millions  of 
dollars.  The  great  evils  from  which  the  City 
of  Mexico  suffered  for  many  generations  were 
inundations  from  Lake  Texcoco,  and  disease  pro- 
moted by  the  fact  that  the  city  stood  in  the  bot- 
tom of  an  undrained  natural  sink.  The  lake, 
suddenly  filled  by  downpours  from  the  mountains, 
sometimes  buried  the  streets  in  water  for  weeks. 
Thirty  thousand  persons  were  drowned  by  the 
sudden  submergence  of  the  city  in  1629,  and 
similar  catastrophes  were  caused  by  other  floods. 


It  was  to  rescue  the  city  from  inundations  that 
the  drainage  works  were  begun  three  centuries 
ago;  but  it  was  not  till  1789  that  the  citv  ceased 
to  be  menaced  by  deluges.  Up  to  1830  the  total 
expenditure  on  the  drainage  works  had  been 
$8,000,000,  but  the  menace  of  malaria  and  epi- 
demics had  not  yet  been  removed.  The  canal 
was  not  deep  enough,  the  lake  was  still  very  little 
below  the  mean  level  of  the  city,  and  the  fall  was 
not  sufficient  to  carry  off  the  sewage.  The  gigan- 
tic works  now  completed  were  not  seriously  un- 
dertaken till  1885.  They  rank  among  the  great 
engineering  achievements  of  modem  times,  and 
with  the  completion  of  the  sewage  system  in  the 
city  the  total  cost  will  be  about  $20,000,000.  The 
works  consist  of  sewers  carrying  the  waste  of  the 
city  to  a  canal  starting  from  the  San  Lftzaro 
gates  and  extending  for  43  miles,  its  course  being 
deflected  so  as  to  cut  Lakes  San  Crist6bal» 
Xaltocan,  and  Zumpango.  Near  the  town  of  Zum- 
pango  the  canal  empties  into  the  tunnel,  com- 
pletely lined  with  brick,  which  has  been  dug 
through  the  mountains  a  distance  of  32,869  feet 
to  a  river  which  carries  the  sewage  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  These  works  thus  carry  all  the  sur- 
plus waters  and  sewage  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
outside  of  the  valley,  and  also  control  the  entire 
waters  of  the  valley,  affording  an  outlet  to  those 
that  might  otherwise  overflow  fields  and  towns. 

Government.  With  the  exception  of  the  tem- 
porary organization  of  a  municipal  government 
at  Vera  Cruz  to  further  the  ambitious  plans  of 
Cortes,  the  mimicipal  corporation  of  Mexico  City 
was  the  first  to  be  established  upon  the  American 
continent.  The  probable  date  of  its  establish- 
ment by  the  Great  Conqueror  is  1522,  but  the 
earliest  preserved  record  of  its  meetings  is  that 
of  March  8,  1524.  In  that  year  the  officers  con- 
sisted of  two  alcaldes  (municipal  judges),  six 
regidores  (members  of  council),  a  secretary,  and 
a  major  domo.  Later  the  number  of  these  officers 
was  increased  and  other  official  places  created. 
At  first  there  was  a  nominal  form  of  election  for 
these  men,  though  the  influence  of  Cort6s  practi- 
cally dominated  the  choice  of  the  corporate  mem- 
bers; but  later  the  governing  body  of  the  city 
became  more  of  a  close  corporation,  filling  a  por- 
tion of  its  own  vacancies.  The  remaining  posi- 
tions were  at  the  disposal  of  the  King  or  Vice- 
roy; both  classes  were  often  bestowed  by  sale  or 
bequest. 

Although  created  at  first  as  the  creature  of 
Cort^,  the  cahildo  (municipal  corporation)  of 
Mexico  soon  became  a  powerful  body,  strong 
enough  in  some  cases  to  make  or  mar  the  reputa- 
tion of  succeeding  viceroys.  It  greatly  inter- 
fered with  the  salutary  reforms  of  the  Count  of 
Revilla-Gigedo  (1789-93),  and  on  the  abdication 
of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1808,  it  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  assembling  of  a  general  junta  of  New 
Spain  to  resist  the  pretensions  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte. 

Following  the  declaration  of  Mexican  inde- 
pendence and  the  division  of  New  Spain  into  the 
States  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  there  arose  a 
conflict  between  the  State  authorities  of  Mexico 
and  the  National  Government  which  resulted  in 
the  creation,  November  18, 1824,  of  a  Federal  Dis- 
trict, comprising  the  territory  within  a  radius 
of  two  leagues  of  the  main  plaza.  The  Federal 
District  was  subsequently  enlarged,  until  it  com- 
prises four  prefectures  besides  the  municipality 


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of  Mexico,  which  of  itself  covers  some  twenty 
square  miles. 

The  present  governing  body  of  the  municipality 
is  the  Ayuntamiento  Constituciotial  (Constitu- 
tional City  Council),  under  the  direction  of  a 
president.  Among  those  who  within  recent  years 
have  filled  this  station  with  credit  are  General 
Gonzalez  Cosio,  the  present  Minister  of  War, 
who  has  the  reputation  of  having  completely 
changed  the  appearance  of  the  Mexican  metrop- 
olis. Following  him  Sefior  Gallardo  began  the 
great  Drainage  Canal.  When  the  latter  was 
transferred  to  the  headship  of  the  whole  Federal 
District,  he  was  succeeded  by  Don  Sebastian 
Camacho,  who  is  laboriously  continuing  the  good 
work  of  his  predecessors — which  work  is  but  a 
portion  of  the  beneficial  policy  of  President  Diaz. 
As  an  indication  of  recent  municipal  progress  it 
may  be  noted  that  the  revenues  of  the  cities  of 
the  Federal  District  (and  those  of  Mexico  City 
are  by  far  the  largest)  have  increased  from 
$1,332,403  in  1884  to  $3,395,638  in  1896;  while 
the  expenses  have  shown  a  corresponding  in- 
crease. The  same  figures  for  the  later  years 
would  show  a  still  greater  contrast. 

HiSTOBY.  The  city  dates  from  about  a.d.  1325, 
when  the  Aztecs,  looking  for  a  favorable  site,  saw 
perched  on  a  cactus  an  eagle  devouring  a  snake. 
The  omen  was  interpreted  to  mean  that  this  was 
to  be  the  site  of  their  city;  hence  its  original 
name,  Tenochtitlan,  'cactus  on  a  stone,'  changed 
later  to  Mexico  in  honor  of  the  war  god  Mexitli. 
With  the  progress  of  Aztec  culture  the  city  ex- 
panded and  improved,  and  about  1450  tradition 
reports  that  the  mud  and  rush  houses  were  re- 
placed by  solid  stone  edifices  built  partly  on  piles 
amid  the  little  islands  of  Lake  Texcoco.  The 
Aztec  city  was  an  imposing  spectacle  at  the  time 
of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  in  1519,  when  it 
is  reported  to  have  contained  at  least  50,000 
buildings  and  several  hundred  thousand  inhabit- 
ants. It  was  about  twelve  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, everywhere  intersected  by  canals  and  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  six  long  and  solidly 
constructed  causeways.  It  was  thus  essentially 
a  lacustrine  city,  but  the  subsidence  of  Lake 
Texcoco  has  left  the  modem  city  high  and  dry, 
with  the  lake  two  and  a  half  miles  away.  The 
Aztec  city  was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by 
Cort6s,  who,  in  1521,  employed  the  friendly  na- 
tives to  rebuild  the  city  on  the  same  site.  Under 
Spanish  domination  the  city  in  1600  contained 
about  15,000  inhabitants,  which  number  gradu- 
ally increased  to  120,000  two  centuries  la^r. 

The  city  was  captured  by  the  United  States 
forces  after  the  battle  of  Chapultepec,  on  Sep- 
tember 13,  1847,  and  by  the  French  forces  under 
Marshal  Forey  in  1863.  With  a  history  extend- 
ing from  the  uncertain  past  of  Aztec  tradition 
through  three  centuries  of  Spanish  dominion  and 
six  decades  of  spasmodic  revolution,  the  centre, 
subsequently,  of  a  political  system  unique  on  the 
American  continent  and  of  an  intellectual  and 
industrial  development  unparalleled  in  Latin 
America,  Mexico  is  to-day  at  once  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  most  promising  cities  of  the 
Western  continent. 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  Cavo,  Trcs  siglos  de  Mexico 
(Mexico,  1836-38)  ;  Bandelier,  Mexico  (Boston, 
1885)  ;  Chamay,  Ancient  Cities  in  the  New 
World  (London,  1887)  ;  Curtis,  The  Capitals  of 
Spanish  America  (New  York,  1888)  ;  Howells, 
Mexico:  Its  Progress  and  Commercial  Possibili- 


ties (London,  1892)  ;  Cubas,  Mexico,  trans,  by 
Thompson  and  Cleveland  (Mexico,  1893)  ;  Below, 
Mexico  (Berlin,  1899)  ;  Percival,  Mexico  City 
(Chicago,  1901). 

MEXICO.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  in 
the  Province  of  Pampanga.  It  is  situated  on  an 
arm  of  the  Pampanga  Delta,  about  5  miles  north- 
east of  Bacolor.  The  population,  in  1903,  was 
13,469. 

MEXICO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Audrain  County,  Mo.,  on  Salt  River,  110  miles 
northwest  of  Saint  Louis,  on  the  Wabash,  the 
Chicago  and  Alton,  and  the  Burlington  Route 
railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  E  2).  It  is  the  seat 
of  Hardin  College  for  Women  ( Baptist ) ,  founded 
in  1873,  and  of  the  Missouri  Military  Academy. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  horses  and  cattle, 
and  the  manufactures  include  flour-mills,  a  foun- 
dry, shoe  and  ice  factories,  fire-brick,  marble, 
stove-lining,  cigar,  plough,  and  wagon  works. 
Settled  in  1833,  Mexico  was  incorporated  in  1852. 
The  government  is  administered  under  a  charter 
of  1893,  which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  bien- 
nially, and  a  unicameral  council.  Population, 
1900,  5099;  1906  (local  est),  6500. 

MEXICO,  Gulf  of.  A  partially  inclosed 
basin  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  having  the  United 
States  on  the  north  and  Mexico  on  the  west  and 
south.  It  has  an  extreme  length  from  east  to 
west  of  about  1000  miles  and  a  breadth  from 
north  to  south  of  800  miles ;  its  area  is  estimated 
at  600,000  square  miles  (Map:  North  America, 
E  6 ) .  The  opening  of  the  gulf  eastward  is  nar- 
rowed by  the  peninsulas  of  Florida  and  Yucatan, 
which  approach  within  450  miles  of  each  other. 
Near  the  middle  of  the  outlet  lies  the  island  of 
Cuba,  forming  two  passages — the  Strait  of  Flor- 
ida, 125  miles  wide,  between  Florida  and  Cuba, 
and  the  Yucatan  Channel,  120  miles  wide,  be- 
tween Cuba  and  Yucatan.  The  northern  entrance 
connects  with  the  Atlantic,  and  the  southern 
with  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  basin  of  the  gulf 
attains  a  maximum  depth  of  12,700  feet,  while  a 
large  proportion  of  its  area  exceeds  10,000  feet 
in  depth.  From  Florida  west  to  the  Mexican 
boundary  the  shores  form  a  part  of  the  coastal 
plain  and  slope  so  gradually  that  the  100-fathom 
line  is  distant  100  miles  or  more  from  land. 
Off  the  Mexican  coast,  however,  the  basin  rapidly 
sinks  to  the  level  of  the  submarine  plain  known 
as  Sigsbee's  Deep,  which  has  an  average  depth 
of  12,000  feet.  The  passages  leading  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  are  relatively 
shallow.  The  gulf  contains  few  islands  and  these 
are  located  in  proximity  to  the  coasts;  the 
Florida  Keys,  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
the  islands  on  the  coast  of  Yucatan  are  the  most 
important.  Numerous  small  bays  and  innumer- 
able lagoons  inclosed  behind  sandbars  give  re- 
lief to  the  coast  line,  which  is  otherwise  quite  reg- 
ular. The  Bay  of  Campeachy,  between  Yucatan 
and  the  main  mass  of  Mexico,  is  the  only  broad 
indentation.  Owing  to  the  low  shores,  good  har- 
bors are  not  numerous,  the  best  being  those  of 
Vera  Cruz,  Galveston,  Mobile,  Tampa,  Pensa- 
cola,  and  Havana.  The  principal  rivers  flowing 
into  the  gulf  descend  from  the  United  States, 
and  include  the  Mississippi,  Rio  Grande,  Colo- 
rado of  Texas,  Brazos,  Sabine,  Mobile,  and  Appa- 
lachicola.  The  gulf  is  visited  by  violent  gales, 
which  are  reflex  storms  from  the  tropics,  and 
which  prevail  mainly  in  the  winter  time.     The 


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most  remarkable  feature  in  connection  with  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  is  the  Gulf  Stream  (q.v.),  which 
enters  it  by  the  southern  channel,  passes  round  it, 
and  emerges  through  the  Strait  of  Florida.  Ow- 
ing partly  to  the  presence  of  this  heated  current^ 
the  temperature  of  the  gulf  is  8©  or  9°  higher 
than  that  of  the  Atlantic  in  the  same  latitude. 

MBYEB,  ml'?r,  Adolf  Bebnhabd  (1840 — ). 
A  German  zoSlogist  and  ethnologist,  born  in 
Hamburg.  After  a  prolonged  course  of  study 
at  the  universities  of  GOttingen,  Vienna,  Zurich, 
and  Berlin,  he  explored  the  Malay  and  Philippine 
Islands,  and  in  1874  became  director  of  the  Dres- 
den Royal  Museum  of  Natural  History,  retiring  in 
1905.  Among  his  writings  are  Album  von  Phil- 
lippinentypen  (1884-90)  and  Ahhildungen  von 
Vogelskeletten  (1879-95). 

MEYEB,  Eduabd  (1855 — ).  A  German  his- 
torian, born  at  Hamburg.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Halle  in  1889,  and  in 
1902  at  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  his  Oe- 
schichte  des  AUertums  (1884-1902).  He  also 
published:  Forachungen  zur  alten  Oeschichte 
(1892-99);  Unterauchungen  zur  Gesohichte  der 
Gracchen  (1894);  Wirtachaftliche  Entunckelung 
des  Altertuma  (1895)  ;  and  Die  Entatehung  dea 
Judentuma  (1896). 

MEYEBy  Geoboe  von  Lengebke  (1858 — ). 
An  American  political  leader  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Boston.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1879,  and  became  a  merchant.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1892-96,  and 
in  1894-96  was  speaker  of  the  House.  He  was 
Ambassador  to  Italy  in  1900-5,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  corresponding  post  at  St.  Peters- 
burg.    In  1907  he  became  Postmaster-General. 

MEYEB,  Hans  (1858—).  A  (3erman  ex- 
plorer. He  was  born  at  Hildburghausen  and 
studied  science  and  political  economy  at  Leipzig 
and  Berlin.  He  traveled  in  Asia,  North  America, 
and  South  Africa,  and  in  1887  explored  Kiliman- 
jaro in  East  Africa.  After  several  venturous 
attempts  to  ascend  the  mountain  he  reached  the 
top  of  the  higher  of  the  two  peaks,  the  Kilbo 
summit  (1889),  where  he  found  a  crater  more 
than  a  mile  wide  and  about  19,700  feet  above  the 
sea.  In  1898  he  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
mountain  and  its  glaciers  and  wrote  Der  Kili- 
manjaro  (Berlin,  1900).  In  1903  he  studied  the 
glaciation  of  the  Ecuadorian  Cordilleras.  In  his 
Zum  Schneedom  dea  Kilima-Ndacharo  he  gives  a 
full  account  of  his  experiences  and  discoveries  in 
that  region.  His  otner  contributions  to  geog- 
raphy include  Fine  Weltreiae  (1885)  and  Oata- 
frikaniache  Oletacherfahrten  (1890). 

MEYEB,  Heinrich  (1760-1832).  A  Swiss 
writer  on  art  and  antiquity.  He  was  bom  at 
Zurich,  and  studied  painting  there  under  Fflessli. 
In  1784  he  went  to  Italy  and  at  Rome  in  1788  he 
met  Croethe,  with  whom  he  contracted  a  friend- 
ship so  intimate  that  he  was  known  in  Germany 
by  the  name  of  "Goethe-Meyer."  In  1792,  through 
the  influence  of  Goethe,  he  was  appointed  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Weimar  Academy  of  Design.  Three 
years  later  he  revisited  Italy,  and  in  1797  re- 
turned to  Weimar,  where  he  was  made  a  director 
of  the  Academy  in  1807.  Many  of  the  critical 
portions  of  Goethe's  essays  on  art  in  Kunat  und 
Altertum  are  to  be  credited  to  Meyer.  As  a 
painter,  his  production  was  scanty.  He  edited, 
with  extensive  annotations  of  his  own,  the  works 
of  Winckelmann  (1808-20).    These  notes  he  sub- 


sequently expanded  into  a  general  history  of 
Greek  art,  which  appeared  under  the  name  of  Oe- 
achichte  der  hildenden  Kunat e  hei  den  Chriechen 
und  Romem  (with  an  additional  volume  by 
Kiemer,  1824-36).  He  died  at  Weimar,  leaving 
to  that  city  a  bequest  of  33,000  thalers  for  the 
establishment  of  a  foundation  for  the  poor. 

HEYEB,  Heinbich  August  Wilhelm 
(1800-73).  A  German  Bible  commentator.  He 
was  born  at  Gotha,  studied  theology  at  Jena,  and 
held  various  pastoral  charges.  After  1841  he  re- 
sided in  Hanover  as  a  member  of  the  consistory. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  Kritischexegetiachea^ 
Kommentar  zum  neuen  Teatament,  of  which  the 
first  volume,  containing  the  first  three  Gospels, 
appeared  in  1832.  An  English  translation  ap- 
peared at  Edinburgh,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Revelation  (20  vols.,  1873-82) ;  and  an  American 
in  New  York  (11  vols.,  1884-88). 

MEYEB,  Hebmann  von  (1801-69).  A  Ger- 
man paleontologist,  born  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  He  wrote:  Palaeologica  zur  Oeachickte 
der  Erde  und  ihrer  Oeachdpfe  (1832) ;  and  Die 
foaailen  Z&hne  und  Knochen  (1834).  With 
Duncker  he  founded  the  periodical  Pakeonto- 
graphica. 

MEYEB,  JoHANN  Geoso  (Meyer  von  Bremen) 
(1813-86).  A  German  genre  painter,  bom  at 
Bremen.  He  was  a  pupil  at  Dflsseldorf  of  Sohn 
and  Schadow,  and  at  first  painted  biblical  sub- 
jects, but  after  1842  practiced  genre  painting. 
His  favorite  subjects  were  peasants  of  the  Hes- 
sian, Bavarian,  and  Swiss  mountain  districts. 
Among  his  early  works  were  "The  Anniversary 
of  the  Hessian  Parson"  (1842);  "The  Penitent 
Daughter"  (1852),  Bremen  Gallery;  "Grand- 
mother," Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.  His- 
scenes  from  child-life  followed  after  he  settled 
in  Berlin  in  1852.  These  include:  "Girl  Telling- 
Fairy  Tales,"  "Blind-Man's  Buff,"  "The  Youngest 
Brother,"  and  the  "Little  Mother"  (1852),  Na- 
tional Gallery,  Berlin.  He  also  painted  single 
or  group  figures  of  young  girls,  like  his  "Await- 
ing," "The  Courting,"  and  "Reading  the  Love- 
Letter."  The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New 
York  possesses  "The  Letter,"  "Evening  Prayer," 
ani  "The  Grandmother."  Meyer's  pictures  are 
often  naive  and  full  of  humor.  Meyer  was  a  pro- 
fessor at  the  Berlin  Academy  and  received  a. 
medal  in  Philadelphia  in  1876. 

MEYEB,  Jt*RGEN  Bona  (1829-97).  A  Ger- 
man philosophical  writer.  He  was  born  at  Ham- 
burg, and  studied  science  and  philosophy  in  Ber- 
lin and  Bonn.  In  1868  he  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Bonn,  and  from  1889  to  1892  he 
was  editor  of  the  Deutache  Zeii-  und  Streitfragen. 
He  wrote:  Zum  Streit  Uher  Leih  und  8eele 
(1856);  Philoaophiache  Zeitfragen  (1870-74); 
and  Probleme  der  Lehenaweiaheit  (1887). 

MEYEB,  Klaus  (1856—).  A  German  genre 
painter,  born  at  Linden,  near  Hanover.  He 
studied  first  at  the  School  of  Arts  in  Nuremberg, 
then  at  the  Munich  Academy,  under  Alexander 
Wagner  and  afterwards  under  LiSfftz,  whose  influ- 
ence led  him  to  an  intimate  study  of  the  Dutch 
masters  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  acquired 
such  refinement  of  color  and  subtle  characteriza- 
tion as  almost  to  surpass  his  models.  Even  his 
early  "Dutch  Interior"  (1882)  displayed  the 
most;  sterling  qualities,  and  "Sewing  Room  in  a 
B^guine  Convent"  ( 1883) ,  was  awarded  the  greats 
gold  medal  at  the  International  Exhibition  in 


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Munich.  "Old  and  Young  Cats"  ( 1885,  Dresden 
Gallery)  and  "Infants*  School"  (1888)  are  alsft 
notable.  He  was  professor  at  the  School  of  Art 
in  Karlsruhe  in  1891-95,  and  afterwards  at  the 
Acedemy  in  DUsseldorf.  His  later  works  include 
some  notable  mural  decorations  in  the  city  hall  at 
Duisburg. 

MEYEB,  KoNBAD  Febdinand  (1825-98).  A 
Swiss  poet  and  historical  novelist.  The  little 
volume  of  historical  Balladen  (Leipzig,  1867), 
by  which  he  first  attracted  attention,  is  halting 
in  expression,  as  are  the  verses  of  Romanzen  und 
Bilder  (Leipzig,  1870).  More  plasticity  appears 
in  Huttena  letzte  Tage  (Leipzig,  1871),  and  in 
Engelberg  (Leipzig,  1873),  both  narrative  poems. 
Meyer  then  turned  his  attention  from  verse  to 
prose,  still  remaining  faithful  to  historical 
themes,  and  produced  six  striking  epic  narra- 
tives, which,  though  they  require  in  the  reader 
too  wide  a  culture  to  be  popular,  are  an  enduring 
part  (,/  German  novelistic  literature.  These  are: 
Jiirg  Jenatsch  (1876);  Der  Heilige  (1880); 
Leiden  eines  Knahen  (1883)  ;  Die  Hoohseit  dea 
Moneha  (1884);  Die  Versuchung  dea  Pesoara 
(1887);  and  Angela  Borgia  (1891).  Meantime 
he  had  written  a  remarkable  group  of  historical 
short  stories,  first  collected  as  Kleine  Novellen 
(1883)  and  later  as  Novellen  (13th  ed.  1899). 
Characteristic  and  perhaps  best  of  these  is  Oua- 
iav  Adolfa  Page.  His  early  poems  are  incor- 
porated, with  many  changes,  almost  always  for 
the  better,  in  Oediohte  (1882).  Meyer's  literary 
characteristics,  which  combine  to  make  him  the 
most  important  imaginative  writer  in  Switzer- 
land in  his  generation,  are  truthfulness  of 
observation,  a  realistic  plasticity  in  description, 
clearness  of  style,  objectivity  in  statement.  A 
uniform  edition  of  Meyer's  works  appeared  in 
1892.  For  his  biography,  consult  Trog  (Basel, 
1897)  and  Frey  (Stuttgart,  1900).  Also  Moser, 
Wandlungen  der  Oedichte  K,  F.  May  era  (Leipzig, 
1900)  ;  and  Kraeger,  K,  F,  Meyer,  Quellen  und 
Wandlungen  aeiner  Oedichte  (Berlin,  1901). 

HETEB,  Leo  (1830—).  A  German  philolo- 
gist, bom  at  Bledein,  near  Hanover,  and  edu- 
cated at  Gdttingen  and  Berlin.  From  1862  to 
1865  he  was  professor  in  G5ttingen,  and  in  1865 
he  became  professor  of  comparative  philology  at 
Dorpat.  In  1889  he  again  accepted  a  chair  at 
Gdttingen.  His  contributions  to  philological  lit- 
erature are  of  great  merit;  they  include:  Ver- 
gleichende  Orammatik  der  griechiachen  und  la- 
teiniachen  Sprache  (1861-65);  Die  gothiache 
Sprache  (1869)  ;  and  Handhttch  der  griechiachen 
Etymologie  ( 1901 ) .  He  also  wrote  Olauhen  und 
Wiaaen  (1876),  and  Ueher  d€ta  Lehen  nach  dem 
Tode   (1882). 

MEYEB,  LoTHAB  Julius  (1830-95).  A  Ger- 
man chemist,  bom  in  Varel,  Oldenburg.  He 
studied  medicine  in  Zurich  and  WUrzburg  and 
chemistry  at  Heidelberg,  where,  in  1857,  he  made 
the  discovery,  by  a  simple  analysis,  that  the 
taking  up  of  oxygen  by  the  blood  is  not  accom- 
plished by  the  air,  but  results  from  the  chemical 
affinity  between  oxygen  and  the  coloring  matter 
of  the  blood.  This  view,  published  in  Die  Oaae 
dea  Blutea  (1857),  was  supplemented  by  the 
study  De  Sanguine  Oxydo  Carhonico  Infecto 
(1858).  In  1859  he  became  professor  in  the 
chemical  laboratory  in  Breslau;  in  1866  he  be- 
came professor  at  Eberswalde;  and  in  1868  at 
Karlsruhe,  whence  in  1876  he  went  to  TQbingen. 


Meyer  also  wrote  important  monographs  on' 
educational  methods.  Die  modemen  Theorien  der 
Chemie  (1864;  6th  ed.,  partially,  1896),  and  Die 
Atomgetoichte  der  Elemente  (with  Seubert,  1883) . 

MEYEB,  mft'yftr',  Paul  ( 1840—) .  A  French 
philologist,  born  in  Paris.  He  studied  at  the 
Ecole  des  Chartes;  served  in  the  manuscript  de- 
partment at  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale  ( 1863- 
65 ) ;  and  was  keeper  of  the  national  archives  from 
1865  to  1872.  In  1865  he  founded  the  Revue 
Critique,  of  which  he  was  joint-editor  until  1872, 
when  he  established  the  Romania,  Meyer  became 
secretary  of  the  Ecole  des  Chartes  in  1872,  pro- 
fessor of  Romance  languages  in  the  College  de 
France  in  1876,  and  director  of  the  Ecole  des 
Chartes  in  1882.  He  was  elected  to  the  Institute 
in  1883.  His  researches  into  the  literature  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  which  began  with  a  study  of  that 
of  Provence  and  was  very  comprehensive,  in- 
volved laborious  investigations  in  many  libraries, 
particularly  those  of  France  and  England.  His 
works  include:  Recherchea  aur  l*4pop6e  francaiae 
(1867)  ;  Recherchea  aur  lea  auteura  de  la  chan- 
aon  de  la  croiaade  albigeoiae  (1868);  Mimoire 
aur  VMude  dea  dialectea  de  la  langue  d'oc  au 
moyen  dge  (1874) ;  Recueil  d'anciena  tewtea  haa- 
latina,  provencauw  et  franoaia  (1874-76);  Alew- 
andre  le  Grand  dana  la  litt4rature  francaiae  du 
moyen  dge  (1886) ;  Nicole  de  Bozon  (1889) ;  and 
Quillaume  le  Mar4ohdl  (1891-94). 

MEYEB,  ml'5r,  Victob  (1848-97).  A  German 
chemist,  bom  in  Berlin.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  Stuttgart  Polytechnikum  in  1871, 
and  in  1872  professor  of  chemistry  and  director 
of  the  chemical  laboratory  in  the  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute of  Zurich.  In  1885  he  became  professor 
at  GOttingen,  and  in  1889  he  was  called,  as  Bun- 
sen's  successor,  to  Heidelberg.  He  made  valuable 
researches  in  organic  chemistry,  and  invented 
apparatus  for  determining  the  solubility  and 
density  of  gas  and  smoke.  (See  Molecules.)  In 
addition  to  voluminous  contributions  to  the 
reports  of  the  German  Chemical  Society,  he  wrote 
Gutaohten  hetreffend  den  Verkehr  mit  Petroleum 
und  anderen  feuergefAhrUohen  Fliiaaigkeiten 
(1879). 

MEYEBBEEB,.  ml^Sr-bftr,  Gla.cx)MO  (1791- 
1864).  A  famous  German  composer.  He  was 
born  at  Berlin,  of  wealthy  Jewish  parents,  and 
gave  early  promise  of  musical  talent,  which  his 
parents  encouraged.  Lauska,  considered  the  best 
teacher  in  Berlin,  superintended  his  studies, 
while  Clementi  took  a  special  interest  in  his 
progress  and  instruction.  He  made  his  first  pub- 
lic appearance  as  a  boy  of  nine.  In  1806  he  be- 
came a  student  under  Vogler,  and  entered  the 
latter's  academy  in  Darmstadt,  where  he  formed 
a  friendship  with  Weber,  which  proved  to  be  life- 
long. Meyerbeer's  earliest  compositions  gave  lit- 
tle indication  of  the  success  he  afterwards 
achieved,  and  in  style  were  largely  ecclesiastical. 
An  opera,  Jephthah'a  Vow,  dating  from  this 
period,  is  singularly  dull  and  heavy,  and  when 
first  given  was  little  esteemed  by  the  general 
public,  though  the  critics  thought  highly  of  it. 
Ahimelek  (1813)  was  a  comic  opera  which  met 
with  a  more  favorable  reception  than  any  of  his 
previous  efforts,  and  was  especially  fateful  in 
that  it  took  its  composer  to  Vienna,  where  he 
first  heard  Hummel,  whose  virtuosity  on  the 
piano  so  impressed  him  that  he  postponed  all  his 
plans  and  went  into  retirement  with  the  object 
of  perfecting  his  own  style.    After  a  brief  stay 


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in  Paris  he  went  to  Venice  (1815),  and  at- 
tempted to  duplicate  Rossini's  success,  with  a 
series  of  operas  in  the  Italian  vein:  Romilda  e 
Costanza  (1815);  Semiramide  riconosciuta 
(1819)  ;  Emma  di  Resburgo  (1819)  ;  Margherita 
d*Angiii  (1820)  ;  L*e8ule  di  Oranata  (1822)  ;  and 
II  crociato  in  Egitio  (1824),  which  latter  made 
a  tremendous  success.  In  none  of  these  operas  is 
there  the  faintest  trace  of  his  German  training. 
An  attempt  to  win  German  favor  with  the  last- 
named  opera  proved  a  failure,  as  did  a  similar 
attempt  in  Paris.  From  1826  to  1831  little  was 
heard  of  him  publicly,  but  apparently  the  time 
was  not  wasted.  According  to  Mendel  he  was 
devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  the  French 
style,  and  particularly  French  opera.  His 
father's  death  and  the  subsequent  death  of  two 
of  his  children  weighed  upon  him,  for  he  was  a 
man  of  strong  family  attachments.  He  resolved 
to  expatriate  himself  from  Germany,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  desert  the  Italian  for  the  French 
style  of  composition.  Robert  le  Diahle  (1831) 
and  Les  Huguenots  (1836)  were  the  first  fruits 
of  his  French  studies;  operas  so  intimately  de- 
scriptive of  French  history  and  customs  as  to 
appeal  irresistibly  to  the  French  public.  Their 
success  was  immediate;  so  much  so  that,  despite 
the  determined  opposition  of  the  German  clas- 
sicists, Robert  le  Didble,  Les  Huguenots,  Le 
PropJUte,  and  Dinorah  were  all  successifully 
given  in  Germany.  His  success  in  both  France 
and  Germany  caused  the  Prussian  Government 
to  invite  him  to  Berlin,  where,  in  1842,  he  was 
made  Royal  Music  Director.  Although  not  a 
great  orchestral  leader,  he  nevertheless  accom- 
plished important  results  during  his  stay  in  Ber- 
lin. 

Das  Feldlager  in  Schlesien  belongs  to  this 
period  and  had  moderate  success,  as  did  Struen- 
see,  a  scarcely  known  work,  but  one  which  is  con- 
sidered to  contain  his  best  writing.  In  1849 
he  returned  to  Paris,  where  Le  Prophdte  was  per- 
formed with  remarkable  success.  He  regarded 
L'Africaine,  on  which  he  had  worked  on  and  off 
for  over  thirty  years,  as  his  best  work;  but 
Robert  le  Diable,  and  above  all  Les  Huguenots, 
have  by  their  continued  popularity  proved  the 
verdict  to  be  in  their  favor.  He  was  greatly  in- 
strumental in  developing  many  famous  singers, 
notably  Lucca  (q.v.),  and  in  a  measure  Jenny 
Lind.  To  the  poor  and  needy  he  was  especially 
generous,  the  Meyerbeer-Stiftung  in  Berlin  and 
many  similar  bequests  bearing  ample  testimony 
to  the  fact.  As  a  composer  he  belongs  to  the 
world's  great  masters,  notwithstanding  the  feeble- 
ness and  trivial  character  of  much  of  his  music. 
Impartial  criticism  is  in  agreement  with  those 
of  his  detractors  who  claimed  that  his  faults  were 
due  to  his  insatiate  craving  for  popularity.  He 
died  in  Paris.  Consult:  De  Bury,  Meyerbeer,  sa 
vie,  ses  ceuvres  et  son  temps  (Paris,  1865)  ; 
Mendel,  Oiacomo  Mei/erbeer,  eine  Biographic 
(Berlin,  1868)  ;  Pougin,  Meyerbeer  (Paris, 
1864)  ;  De  Lasalle,  Meyerbeer,  sa  vie  et  le  cata- 
logue de  ses  ceuvres  (Paris,  1864). 

MEYEBHEIM;  ml'Sr-hlm,  Friedrich  Edu- 
ABD  (1808-79).  A  German  genre  painter.  He 
was  born  at  Danzig,  January  7,  1808.  He  re- 
received  his  first  instruction  from  his  father,  and 
then  studied  at  the  Berlin  Academy.  His  sub- 
jects were  the  peasants  of  the  Harz  Mountains 
and  Thuringia.    He  became  a  member  of  the  Ber- 


lin Academy  in  1838  and  professor  in  1850. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Altenburgers  in  the 
Field"  (1838);  "The  Champion  Shot"  (1836), 
"Tid-Bit"  (1862),  both  in  the  National  Gallery, 
Berlin;  "Domestic  Happiness"  (1847),  "Going 
to  Church,"  and  "Good  Morning,  Dear  Father!" 
(1858),  all  in  the  Ravens  Gallery,  Berlin. 

MEYEBHEIM,.  Paul  (1842—).  A  German 
painter,  born  in  Berlin,  son  and  pupil  of  Fried- 
rich  Eduard  Meyerheim.  He  also  studied  at  the 
Berlin  Academy,  and  traveled  and  studied  in 
Germany,  the  Tyrol,  and  the  Netherlands,  final- 
ly spending  a  year  in  Paris,  whence  he  returned 
to  Berlin,  impressed  with  the  brilliant  color 
schemes  of  the  French  painters  and  matured  in 
technical  skill.  Although  he  won  distinction  in 
genre,  landscape,  and  portraiture,  and  as  a  deco- 
rative artist,  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  master- 
ly rendering  of  the  animal  world,  the  incompara- 
ble humorous  delineations  of  the  monkey  race, 
portrayed  as  sharers  in  the  tragi-comedy  of  hu- 
man life,  constituting  his  most  popular  success. 
Even  the  following  limited  selection  from  a  long 
series  of  sterling  productions  may  convey  an  idea 
of  his  versatility:  "An  Amsterdam  Antiquary" 
(1869),  "Menagerie"  (1885),  both  in  the  Nation- 
al Gallery,  Berlin,  the  staircase  of  which  he 
adorned  with  a  charming  frieze  in  fresco,  allegor- 
izing "The  Four  Seasons"  (1883)  in  the  life  of 
bircU.  To  this  fanciful  creation  a  realistic  cycle  of 
seven  paintings  on  huge  copper  plaques,  illus- 
trating "The  Life-Course  of  a  Locomotive" 
( 1878 ))  in  the  Villa  Borsig,  Berlin,  forms  a  strik- 
ing contrast.  "Sheep-Shearing"  (1872),  with 
its  wonderful  light  effects;  "Wild  Man's  Tent" 
(1874)  ;  "The  Young  Lions;"  "The  Card  Sharp- 
ers" (monkeys,  1882)  ;  "Monkeys  in  a  Studio," 
and,  out  of  many  fine  landscapes,  mostly  of 
mountain  scenery  with  cattle,  a  "Charcoal  Pit  in 
the  Bavarian  Alps"  (1887,  Hamburg  Gallery), 
are  only  a  few  among  his  best  efforts.  Of  numerous 
excellent  portraits  those  of  his  father  and  of 
Daniel  Chodowiecki  (1887),  both  in  the  Museum 
at  Danzig,  are  representative  examples.  Consult 
Meissner,  in  the  Art  Journal  (London,  1895). 

MEYEB-HELMTTin),  ml'^r-h^Kmynt,  Erik 
(1861 — ).  A  Russian-German  composer,  bom  in 
Saint  Petersburg.  He  received  the  rudiments  of 
musical  instruction  from  his  father  and  after- 
wards went  to  Berlin,  where  he  studied  under 
Kiel  and  Stockhausen.  He  became  famous  in 
Germany  as  a  song  composer,  and  for  many  of  his 
songs  he  himself  wrote  the  words.  All  his  music 
is  marked  by  strong  local  color  and  a  distinct 
individuality.  His  larger  works  include  a  comic 
opera,  Margitta  (1889)  ;  Die  beiden  Klingsberg, 
Der  Liebeskampf  (1893)  :  and  the  ballet  music 
Der  Berggcist  (1893),  followed  one  year  later  by 
the  burlesque  opera  Trischka. 

MEYEB-LXTBKE,  Uip'ke,  Wilhelm  (1861 
— ).  A  Romance  philologist.  He  was  bom  at 
DUbendorf,  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich,  January 
30,  1861.  From  1879  to  1883  he  studied  at 
Zurich  and  Berlin,  coming  under  the  influence  of 
Adolf  Tobler  (q.v.).  In  1887  he  became  a  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  at  Jena,  and  in  1890  he 
was  made  full  professor  of  Romance  philology  at 
Vienna.  His  works  include:  Die  Schicksale  des 
lateinischen  Neutrums  im  Romanischen  (1883) ; 
and  the  Orammatik  der  romanischen  Sprachen 
(1890-99),  trans,  as  Orammaire  des  langues  ro- 
maines  ( 1890-1900).    This  is  the  most  important 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HEYEB-LttBKE. 


436 


MEZEBEOir. 


grammar  of  the  Romance  languages  since  that  of 
Diez.  Other  books  are  the  Italienische  Oram- 
tnatik  ( 1890)  and  the  EinfUhrung  in  das  Studium 
der  romaniachen  Sprachtoiaaenschaft  ( 1901 ) . 

MEYEBSDALE.  A  borough  in  Somerset 
County,  Pa.,  on  Castlemans  River,  113  miles 
southeast  of  Pittsburg,  on  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Railroad  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  C  8).  Its 
industries  include  the  mining  of  coal,  planing- 
mills,  machine  works,  cigar  factories,  etc.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  1847;  in  1900,  3024. 

MEYKELL,  mSn^n^l,  Alice  Chbistiana.  An 
English  poetess  and  essayist,  born  in  London 
about  1853,  the  second  daughter  of  Thomas  J. 
Thompson,  an  intimate  friend  of  Charles  Dickens* 
With  her  elder  sister,  Elizabeth  (Lady  Butler, 
well  known  for  "The  Roll  Call"  and  other  mili- 
tary paintings),  she  was  educated  at  home  by 
her  father.  The  Thompsons  lived  much  abroad, 
especially  in  Italy.  While  a  mere  girl,  Miss 
Thompson  went  over  to  the  Church  of  Rome  and 
was  followed  by  other  members  of  the  family. 
In  1877  she  married  Wilfrid  Meynell,  a  London 
journalist  and  magazine  writer.  Her  first  poems. 
Preludes  (1875;  new  ed.,  1893),  were  warmly 
praised  by  Ruskin,  Rossetti,  and  Browning.  The 
volume  contained  some  exquisite  pieces,  as  "Re- 
nouncement" and  "A  Letter  from  a  Girl  to  Her 
Own  Old  Age."  In  1901  she  collected  in  a  volume 
called  NetD  Poems  a  group  of  short  lyrics.  Soon 
after  her  marriage,  Mrs.  Meynell  began  to  con- 
tribute to  the  London  periodicals,  gaining  wide 
recognition  for  her  graceful  and  delicate  style. 
She  published  several  delightful  volumes  of  es- 
says, as  The  Rhythm  of  Life  (1893) ;  The  Colour 
of  Life  ( 1896) ;  The  Spirit  of  Place  ( 1898) ;  John 
Ruskin  (1900) ;  and  a  Seventeenth  Century  An- 
thology (1904).  Consult  Archer,  Poets  of  the 
Younger  Generation    (New  York,    1902). 

MEYNEBT,mI'n$rt,THEODOB  (1833-92).  An 
Austrian  neurologist,  bom  at  Dresden.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Vienna ;  in  1865  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  the  anatomy  of  the  brain 
at  the  university,  and  in  1870  professor  of  psy- 
chiatry. He  was  a  member  of  the  Vienna  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  A  member  of  the  stafi"  of  the 
Psychiatrisches  Centralblatt  in  1871-78,  he  also 
published  several  volumes,  including  Zur  Me- 
chunik  des  Oehimbaues  (1874),  and  Psychiatric. 
Klinik  der  Erkrankungen  des  Vorderhims  ( 1884 ) . 

METB,  mir,  Melchiob  (1810-71).  A  Ger- 
man poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Ehringen,  near 
N($rdlingen.  He  was  educated  at  Munich  and 
Heidelberg.  His  most  important  works  are:  Er- 
zahlungen  aus  dem  Ries  (3d  ed.,  1875),  some 
didactic  Oedichte  (1857)  ;  the  tragedies  Karl  der 
Kiihne  (1862)  and  Herzog  Albrecht  (1862) ;  and 
the  anonymous  and  extremely  clever  Gesprache 
mit  einem  Grohian  (1866).  He  also  wrote  the 
philosophical  Religion  des  Geistes  (1871). 

HEYBICK,  mCr'rlk,  Fbedebick  (1827-1905). 
A  CJhurch  of  England  scholar.  He  was  born  at 
Ramsbury  Vicarage,  Wiltshire;  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  suc- 
cessively scholar,  fellow,  and  tutor,  and  held  the 
university  offices  of  select  preacher  and  public 
examiner.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
Queen*s  Whitehall  preachers,  in  1859  inspector 
of  schools,  and  in  1868  became  rector  of  Blickling 
with  Erpingham  in  Norfolk,  and  in  1869  non- 
residentiary  canon  of  Lincoln.  He  was  the  chief 
agent  in  establishing  the  Anglo-Continental  soci- 


ety tor  making  known  the  principles  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  in  foreign  countries,  and  wrote  much 
for  that  purpose.  He  was  the  author  of  The 
Moral  and  Devotional  Theology  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  According  to  the  Authoritative  Teach- 
ing of  S,  Alphonso  de*  Liguori  (1856) ;  The  Out- 
casts and  Poor  of  London  (1868);  But  Isn't 
Kingsley  Right  After  Allt  (1864) ;  On  Dr.  New- 
man's Rejection  of  Liguori* s  Doctrine  of  Equivo- 
cation (1864)  ;  Is  Dogma  a  Necessity  f  (1883) ; 
The  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the 
Holy  Communion  (1883;  4th  ed.,  1889)  ;  The  His- 
tory of  the  Church  of  Spain  (1892);  Justin 
Martyr  (1896);  Appeal  to  the  Primitive  Cen- 
turies (1904) ;  and  Appeal  to  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  Centuries  ( 1905 ) . 

ITEYBICE,  Sir  Samuel  Rush  (1783-1848). 
An  English  antiquary.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, was  called  to  the  bar,  and  practiced  law 
in  the  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty  courts.  He 
possessed  a  very  fine  collection  of  armor,  and  his 
Critical  Inquiry  Into  Ancient  Armor  (splendidly 
illustrated,  1824)  is  still  considered  authorita- 
tive. He  assisted  Rev.  T.  D.  Fosbrooke  in  1823- 
25  in  the  publication  of  the  Encyclopcedia  of  An- 
tiquities. In  1826  he  arranged  the  arms  and 
armor  in  the  Tower  of  London,  and  in  1828  per- 
formed the  same  service  at  Windsor  Castle.  Dur- 
ing his  administration  of  the  office  of  High 
Sheriflf  of  Herefordshire  he  revived  some  of  the 
old  ceremonial  display,  including  javelin-men  in 
full  accoutrement. 

MEYTEN'S,  ml't^ns,  Mabtin  van  deb  (1695- 
1770).  A  Swedish  painter  of  Dutch  extraction, 
bom  at  Stockholm.  He  studied  under  his  father, 
Peter  Meytens,  then  Court  painter.  He  after- 
wards traveled  in  England  and  France,  and  while 
in  Paris  painted  the  portraits  of  Iiouis  XV.  and 
Peter  the  Great  (1717).  Afterwards  he  lived 
for  some  time  in  Italy,  and  then  went  to  Vienna, 
where  he  ultimately  became  Court  painter  and 
Director  of  the  Academy  (1759).  His  works  are 
largely  the  portraits  of  his  celebrated  contempo- 
raries. 

MEZEN,  mft-zSn'y',  or  MESEN.  A  river  of 
Northern  Russia.  It  rises  near  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Government  of  Vologda  and 
flows  northwest  through  the  Government  of  Arch- 
angel, entering  the  White  Sea  at  Mezen  Bay 
after  a  course  of  about  510  miles  (Map:  Russia, 
J  1).  It  is  navigable  in  its  lower  part,  but  is 
free  from  ice  only  about  six  months  m  the  year. 

MlSZEBAT,  mftz'iift^  FsANgois  Eudes  de 
(1610-83).  A  French  historian  and  man  of  let- 
ters. He  was  bom  at  Ruy,  near  Argenton,  in  the 
Department  of  Indre,  studied  at  Caen,  and  after 
some  military  service  in  Flanders  came  to  Paris 
and  set  to  writing  history.  Richelieu  patronized 
him  and  put  him  into  the  Academy.  His  His- 
toire  de  France  ( 1643-51 )  brought  him  fame,  and 
is  still  of  considerable  value.  During  the  Fronde 
he  was  an  active  pamphleteer  against  Cardinal 
Mazarin. 

MEZE'BEOK'  (Fr.  m4z6rion,  Sp.  mezeron, 
from  Ar.  mazariyim,  camelia).  The  bark  of 
Daphne  Mezereum,  Daphne  Gnidum,  and  Daphne 
Laureola  of  the  natural  order  Thymelaeacese, 
three  shrubs  from  two  to  four  feet  high. 
Daphne  Mezereum  has  rose-red,  sessile,  fra- 
grant flowers,  in  small  clusters,  preceding  the 
deciduous  leaves.  It  is  indigenous  to  hilly 
and    mountainous    regions    of    Europe,    extend- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HEZEREON. 


426 


MEZZOTINT. 


ing  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  eastward  to  Sibe- 
ria, and  cultivated  in  the  United  States.  The 
other  two  species  grow  in  Southern  Europe. 
Daphne  Laureola,  spurge  laurel,  has  lar^  ever- 
green leaves  and  yellowish-green  flowers  in  axil- 
lary clusters.  Daphne  Gnidum,  spurge  flax,  has 
narrow,  deciduous  leaves,  and  small  white  flow- 
ers in  terminal  racemes.  Formerly  the  bark  was 
extensively  employed  in  medicine.  The  dried 
bark  is  inodorous,  but  has  a  persistently  acrid 
and  burning  taste.  The  bark  of  Daphne  Gnidum 
is  darker,  and  that  of  Daphne  Laureola  is  more 
gray  and  has  a  greenish  cast.  They  resemble 
mezereon  in  acridity.  The  root  bark  of  the  three 
species  is  the  strongest,  but  the  stem  bark  is  the 
more  common.  It  is  used  as  an  adjunct  to  sar- 
saparilla  in  making  the  compound  decoction  and 
the  compound  extract  of  that  drug.  The  juice  of 
the  fresh  bark  is  irritant  and  is  said  to  blister 
the  skin.    See  Daphne. 

MEZHIBTETCHIE,  m^'zh^-rft'chye.  A 
town  in  the  Government  of  Siedlce,  Russian 
Poland,  about  80  miles  from  Siedlce.  It  manu- 
factures leather,  brass  articles,  etc.,  and  had  a 
population  of  13,681  in  1897. 

IT^lilBES,  mft'zyftr^.  A  fortified  town  in 
the  northeast  of  France.  It  is  the  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Ardennes,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Meuse  and  Vence,  and  on  a  branch  of  the  Eastern 
Kailroad  (Map:  France,  K  3).  The  town  manu- 
factures ammunition,  and  has  iron  and  copper 
foundries,  but  most  of  its  iron  industry  has 
been  transferred  to  Charleville,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  suspension  bridge.  In  1521  the 
Chevalier  Bayard,  with  2000  men,  successfully 
defended  the  place  against  40,000  Spaniards 
under  Charles  V.  In  1815  the  town  held  out  for 
six  weeks  against  the  Allies,  who  besieged  it  after 
the  battle  of  Waterloo.  In  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71,  M^ziftres  capitulated  after  a  can- 
nonade of  two  days.    Population,  in  1901,  7884. 

M^ZriiBESy  Alfbed  Jean  FsANgois  (1826 
— ).  A  French  critic,  bom  at  Rehon  (Moselle), 
November  19,  1826.  He  became  professor  of  for- 
eign literature  at  Nancy  (1854)  and  Paris 
(Sorbonne,  1861),  Academician  (1874),  and 
Deputy  (1881).  His  publications  are  main- 
ly literary  studies.  Among  them  may  be 
named:  Shakespeare,  sea  ceuvres  et  sea  critiques 
( 1861 )  ;  PrM6cesseurs  et  contemporains  de  Shake- 
speare (1863)  ;  Contemporains  et  successeurs  de 
Shakespeare  (1864);  Dante  et  Vltalie  nouvelle 
(1865);  P6trarque  (1867);  Ooethe,  lea  ceuvres 
expliquies  par  la  vie  ( 1872-73 ) .  His  later  books. 
En  France  (1883),  Hors  de  France  (1883), 
Miraheau  (1891),  have  had  a  more  political  ten- 
dency. The  Revue  des  Deuw  Mondes  and  the 
Temps  have  published  many  articles  by  M^zi^res. 

MEZI]£!BESy  Mabie  Jeanne  Laboras  de. 
A  French  novelist.  See  Riccoboni,  Mabie  J. 
L.  DE. 

M^ZIBIAC,  mft'z^'r^'ftk^.    See  Bachet. 

MEZtiTltB,  me'z5-t?R5r.  A  town  of  Hungary, 
situated  on  an  affluent  of  the  K5ro8,  80  miles 
southeast  of  Budapest  (Map:  Hungary,  G  3) .  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  gymnasium  and  has  manufactures 
of  potterv  and  trade  in  cereals  and  domestic  ani- 
mals. Population,  in  1890,  23,757;  in  1900,  25,- 
383,  mostly  Magyars. 

MEZZO,  mM'zd  (It.,  middle).  A  term  gen- 
erally used  in  music  in  conjunction  with  some 


other  word,  as  mezzo-forte,  moderately  loud; 
mezzo- piano,  rather  soft;  mezza-voce,  with  a 
moderate  strength  of  tone ;  mezzo-orchestra,  with 
half  the  orchestra,  etc.  When  written  alone  and 
applied  to  the  grand  piano-forte  it  indicates  that 
the  soft  pedal  is  to  be  used.  But  mezzo-soprano 
means  a  voice  lying  half  way  between  the  high 
soprano  and  contralto. 

MEZZOFAKTI,  m6d'z6-fan't*,  Giuseppe 
(1774-1849).  An  Italian  linguist  and  a  cardinal 
in  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  was  bom  in  Bologna ; 
was  educated  there,  and  became  a  priest  in  1797, 
professor  at  the  university  in  1804,  and  university 
librarian  in  1812.  In  1831  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  Vatican 
and  secretary  of  the  College  of  the  Propaganda, 
and  in  1838  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  cardinal.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  linguistic 
attainments,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was 
credited  with  knowing  fifty-eight  languages.  Con- 
sult Russell's  Life  of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  (Lon- 
don, 1858)  ;  and  the  biographies  by  Manavit 
(Paris,  1853),  Bellesheim  (Wttrzburg,  1880), 
and  Mitterrutzner  (Brixen,  1885). 

MEZ^ZOTINT  (It.  mezzotinto,  half-black). 
A  style  or  method  of  engraving  on  a  copper 
or  steel  plate,  which  is  at  first  prepared  by 
making  on  it  a  ground  with  an  instrument  called 
a  cradle  or  a  mezzotint  grounder.  This  instru- 
ment is  a  fiat  plate  of  hardened  steel,  of  which 
one  side  is  brought  to  a  segment  of  a  circle 
with  a  sharp  cutting  edge,  the  bevel  of  which  is 
so  engraved  with  fine  parallel  lines  that  it  re- 
sembles a  file,  and  the  edge  itself  is  brought  to 
a  ridse  of  very  fine  points.  This  has  to  be 
rocked  across  the  plate  many  times,  in  four 
or  more  directions,  until,  by  this  operation, 
the  whole  surface  is  reduced  to  a  close-set 
mass  of  small  teeth  or  points.  The  plate  thus 
pricked  by  this  grounder  offers  a  uniformly 
roughened  surface,  and  upon  this  surface  the  en- 
graver begins  his  proper  work.  Now,  this  pre- 
pared plate,  if  covered  with  printers*  ink,  would 
yield  an  entirely  black  impression;  so  it  is  the 
business  of  the  engraver  to  work  from  dark  to 
light,  or  from  black  to  white.  This  he  does 
with  various  instruments  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose, such  as  scrapers  and  burnishers;  the 
scraper  employed  to  diminish  the  burr  and  such 
asperity  of  surface  as  tends  to  retain  too  much 
ink,  and  the  burnisher  to  remove  all  surface 
roughness  when  the  highest  light  or  pure  white  is 
required  in  the  design  or  picture  he  is  producing. 

Mezzotint  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  repro- 
duction of  those  works  in  which  broad  effects  of 
light  and  shade  are  dominant,  as  opposed  to 
those  where  close  line,  contour,  and  small  detail 
are  demanded. 

Among  the  greatest  mezzotint  engravers 'may 
be  mentioned:  James  McArdell  (d.  1765),  James 
Watson,  J.  Raphael  Smith,  and  Valentine  Green. 
David  Lucas  was  very  successful  in  reproducing 
the  landscapes  of  Constable.  Besides  its  com- 
parative inadequacy  in  depicting  gpreat  detail, 
mezzotint  has  another  limitation — its  failure  to 
bear  much  printing.  The  burr  is  soon  destroyed 
in  the  copper  plates,  and  although  steel  is  more 
enduring,  mezzotint  on  this  medium  is  still  far 
behind  line  engraving  in  reproductive  possibili- 
ties. From  twenty- five  to  thirty  impressions  of 
the  first  class  are  all  that  may  be  drawn  from 
copper   plates.     The   original   inventor   or   difl- 


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MIAMISBUBG. 


coverer  of  mezzotint  engraving  was  Louis  yon 
8iegen,  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  service  of 
the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  his  first 
published  work  was  a  portrait  of  the  Princess 
Amelia-Elizabeth  of  Hesse,  proofs  of  which  are 
dated  1642,  fifteen  years  anterior  to  the  earliest 
date  on  the  plates  of  Prince  Rupert,  to  whom 
a  charming  legend  ascribes  the  invention  of  the 
art.  In  the  United  States  the  mezzotint  style 
was  a  favorite  with  magazine  publishers  in  the 
early  days  of  magazines,  being  introduced  from 
England  by  John  Sartain  (q.v.) ,  an  expert  mezzo- 
tint engraver,  in  1830.  He  published  Sartain's 
Magazine^  illustrated  after  this  fashion.  Con- 
sult: Wedmore's  Studies  in  English  Art  (Lon- 
don, 1876-80)  ;  Hamerton,  The  Graphic  Arts 
(London,  1882).    See  Engbaving. 

MHOWy  mou.  A  city  and  important  British 
military  station  in  the  native  Rajputana  State  of 
Indore,  13  miles  southwest  of  the  town  of  Indore, 
near  the  Vindhya  mountains,  on  an  eminence  on 
the  Gumber  River  1900  feet  above  the  sea  (Map: 
India,  C  4).  On  the  southeast  are  the  canton- 
ments, arranged  like  a  European  town,  having  a 
church  with  a  steeple  on  an  eminence,  a  spacious 
lecture-room,  a  well-furAished  library,  and  a 
theatre.  They  are  occupied  imder  the  Mandsaur 
Treaty  of  1818  by  a  considerable  force  of  British 
and  native  troops.  Population,  in  1891,  31,773; 
in  1901,  36,039. 

MIAOAO,  me'&-gft^6.  A  town  of  Panay,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  Province  of  Iloilo.  It  is  situated  on 
the  southern  coast  of  the  island,  22  miles  west 
of  Iloilo.    Peculation,  in  1903,  20,656. 

MIAXOy  m^a^d.  A  city  of  Japan.  See 
Kioto. 

MTATiL,  Edwabd  (1809-81).  An  advocate  of 
English  Church  disestablishment.  He  was  born 
in  Portsmouth,  England;  studied  at  Wymondley 
Theological  Institute,  Hertfordshire;  entered  the 
independent  ministry,  and  was  installed  pastor  at 
Ware  in  1831  and  at  Leicester  in  1834.  Becoming 
an  active  advocate  of  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Church  of  England,  he  removed  to  London  and 
established  the  Nonconformist  newspaper  as  the 
organ  of  that  policy  in  1841 ;  he  was  elected  to 
Parliament  from  Rochdale  in  1852.  He  favored 
universal  suffrage  and  opposed  class  legislation 
and  compulsory  religious  education.  He  led  in 
the  establishment,  in  1844,  of  the  British  Anti- 
State  Church  Association,  which  afterwards  be- 
came the  Society  for  the  Liberation  of  Religion 
from  State  Patronage  and  Control.  In  1856  he 
introduced  in  the  House  of  Commons  a  resolution 
on  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  His 
motion  for  a  committee  on  the  disestablishment  of 
the  English  Church  was  introduced  three  times 
in  1871  and  1872  and  lost.  He  was  appointed 
in  1858  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission  on 
Education  as  a  representetive  of  the  Noncon- 
formists. Among  his  principal  publications 
are:  Views  of  the  Voluntary  Principle  (1845); 
Ethics  of  Nonconformity  (1848);  The  British 
Churches  in  Relation  to  the  British  People 
(1849)  ;  The  Franchise  as  a  Means  of  a  People's 
Training  (1851)  ;  Title  Deeds  of  the  Church  of 
England  to  Her  Parochial  Endouyments  (1862)  : 
Social  Influences  of  the  State  Church  (1867).  Of 
less  polemical  character  is  An  Editor  Off  the 
Line^  or  Wayside  Musings  and  Reminiscences 
(1865).  A  Life  of  Miall  was  published  by  his 
son  Arthur  Miall  (London,  1884). 
Vol.  xiii.-m. 


MTAMT,  mt-a^m^.  An  important  Algonquian 
tribe  residing,  when  first  kno\^'n-  to  the  French 
about  1660,  in  southeastern  Wisconsin.  They  were 
somewhat  superior  to  the  northern  tribes  gen- 
erally in  their  manner  of  living,  and  occupi^  a 
stockaded  town  with  mat-covered  houses.  About 
the  year  1690,  in  consequence  of  difficulties  with 
the  Illinois  and  Sioux,  they  removed  to  the  south- 
east and  esteblished  themselves  on  the  site  of 
what  is  now  Chicago  and  upon  the  Saint 
Joseph  River  of  Michigan,  whence  they  soon 
spread  to  the  Wabash  and  Maumee  and  later 
tc  the  Miami.  Their  principal  band  made 
headquarters  at  Kekionga,  where  Fort  Wayne 
now  stands,  while  others,  settled  lower  down  on 
the  Wabash,  developed  later  inte  two  distinct 
tribes,  known  respectively  as  Wea  and  Pianki- 
shaw  (q.v.).  All  three,  however,  continued  until 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  te  regard  them- 
selves as  one  people,  and  first  cousins  of  the  Illi- 
nois, their  western  neighbors,  whose  language  dif- 
fered only  dialectically  from  their  own.  In  the 
colonial  wars  the  Miami  sided  alternately  with 
either  party,  but  joined  Pontiac's  alliance  in  1764 
and  took  sides  against  the  Americans  in  the  Revo- 
lution, continuing  the  struggle  with  the  other 
tribes  of  the  Ohio  Valley  until  their  crushing 
defeat  by  General  Wayne  compelled  them  to  make 
peace  at  the  Greenville  Treaty  in  1795.  The 
great  chief.  Little  Turtle,  who  led  the  allied 
forces  to  victory  against  Saint  Clair  and  Har- 
mar,  was  a  Miami.  Under  Tecumseh  they  again 
joined  the  English  side  in  the  War  of  1812.  At 
its  close,  being  now  thoroughly  broken,  they 
began  to  sell  their  lands,  and  oy  1827  had  ceded 
almost  the  whole  of  their  original  territory  and 
agreed  to  remove  to  Kansas.  Here  they  rapidly 
died  out  from  disease,  famine,  and  dissipation, 
imtil  about  1873  the  renmant,  only  150  in  num- 
ber, were  placed  upon  the  Quapaw  reservation 
in  Indian  Territory,  where  they  number  now 
only  95.  A  considerable  band  had  continued  to 
occupy  a  reservation  in  Wabash  County,  Ind., 
until  1872,  when  the  land  was  divided  and  tribal 
relations  dissolved.  These  now  number  about 
240,  practically  all  of  mixed  blood. 

MIAMI,  or  0BEAT  MIAMI.  A  river  of 
western  Ohio,  flowing  southward  for  150  roiled 
through  a  fertile  and  populous  valley,  past  the 
cities  of  Troy,  Dayton,  and  Hamilton,  and 
emptying  into  the  Ohio  River  on  the  Indiana 
boundary,  20  miles  west  of  Cincinnati  (Map: 
Ohio,  A  7).  It  is  a  rapid  stream  furnishing  ex- 
tensive water  power.  The  Miami  and  Erie  Canal, 
connecting  the  Ohio  River  with  Lake  Erie,  fol- 
lows the  course'  of  the  Miami. 

MLAMISBXTBG,  ml-amlz-bflrg.  A  city  in 
Montgomery  County,  Ohio,  46  miles  north  by  east 
of  Cincinnati ;  on  the  Great  Miami  River  and  the 
Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Cin- 
cinnati, Hamilton  and  Dayton  railroads  (Map: 
Ohio,  B  6 ) .  It  is  an  important  industrial  centre, 
the  manufactures  being  favored  by  good  water 
power,  and  is  also  an  important  market  for  to- 
bacco, which  is  cultivated  extensively  in  the 
adjacent  region.  The  water-works  and  electric- 
light  plant  are  owned  by  the  municipality.  Just 
outeide  of  the  corporate  limits  is  one  of  the 
largest  Indian  mounds  in  the  State.  Population, 
1900,  3941;  1906  (local  est.),  5000. 


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MIAlffI  UNIVERSITY. 


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MICA. 


MIAMI  UNIVEBSITY.  A  coeducational 
institution  of  learning  at  Oxford,  Ohio,  founded 
in  1809.  The  first  school  was  opened  in  1816, 
and  the  university  proper  began  its  work  in  1824. 
It  has  a  preparatory,  a  normal,  and  a  collegiate 
department,  in  the  last  of  which  three  courses  are 
offered,  all  leading  to  the  B.A.  degree.  A  consid- 
erable freedom  id  allowed  in  the  election  of 
studies.  In  1906-7  the  faculty  numbered  36,  and 
the  attendance  was  1060,  divided  about  equally 
among  the  three  departments.  The  library  con- 
tained 22,707  volumes.  The  institution  was  en- 
dowed in  1803  with  one  township  of  land  in  Ohio, 
and  receives  financial  aid  from  the  State,  the 
endowment  amounting  to  $104,000  and  the  income 
to  about  $110,000.  The  college  campus  occupies 
nearly  60  acres.  The  grounds  and  buildings  were 
valued  in  1906  at  $350,000,  and  the  college  prop- 
erty amounted  to  $375,000. 

MIANA  BUG.    See  Mite. 

MIAKTON'OMOH,  mlftn't^-na'md.  A  Nar- 
ragansett  sachem,  who  succeeded  his  uncle,  Ca- 
nonicus,  in  1636.  He  was  on  friendly  terms  with 
the  early  settlers  of  Massachusetts,  and  assisted 
them  during  the  Pequot  war  of  1637.  In  1643 
he  conducted  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against 
Uncas,  the  Mohegan  sachem,  his  bitter  rival,  with 
whom,  however,  he  had  agreed  in  1638  not  to 
open  hostilities  without  first  appealing  to  the 
whites.  Being  captured,  he  was  handed  over  by 
Uncas  to  the  Commissioners  of  the  United  Colo- 
nies, and  was  tried  by  an  ecclesiastical  court 
organized  for  the  purpose,  which  condemned  him 
to  death  and  commissioned  Uncas  to  carry  out 
the  sentence.  A  brother  of  the  latter  soon  after- 
wards killed  the  unsuspecting  captive  on  the 
spot  now  called  Sachem's  plain  (near  Greenville), 
where  he  had  originally  been  captured.  A  monu- 
ment erected  there  in  1841  commemorates  the 
event. 

MIAO-TSE,  m*-a'd-tse,  or  MIAU-TSI.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  mountainous  regions  of  South- 
em  China,  in  parts  of  the  provinces  of  Hu-peh, 
Sze-chuan,  Yun-nan,  Kwei-chow,  Hu-nan,  Kwang- 
hsi,  and  Kwang-tung.  They  number  several  mil- 
lions, and  represent  an  aboriginal  population 
of  this  portion  of  the  Celestial  Empire  driven 
back  in  recent  times  by  the  Chinese.  Many  of 
the  Miao-tse  tribes  are  under  Chinese  rule,  but 
some  of  them  still  maintain  their  independence. 
The  Miao-tse  are  shorter  in  stature  than  the 
Northern  Chinese,  and  apparently  not  Mongoloid 
in  form  and  features ;  some  style  them  "sub-Cau- 
casian.'* Certain  scholars  connect  them  with  the 
Lolos  and  the  non-Mongoloid  Tibetans,  Lissus, 
Mossos,  and  kindred  peoples  of  the 'border  of 
China  and  Indo-China.  Others  can  see  nothing 
Mongolian  about  them;  still  others  seek  to  de- 
tect Malayan  or  "Indonesian"  affinities.  Some 
of  the  aborigines  of  the  island  of  Hainan  are 
thought  to  be  related  to  the  Miao-tse.  Consult: 
Edkins,  The  Miau-tsi  Tribes  (Foochow,  1870)  ; 
Henry,  Lingnam  (London,  1886)  ;  Bourne's  Jour- 
ney in  Southwest  China  (London,  1888). 

MIAS.     See  Orang-utan. 

MIAS^MA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fdafffia,  stain, 
from  fualweip^  witatwem,  to  pollute).  A  term 
formerly  applied  to  any  disease  w^hich  was 
thought  to  arise  from  polluted  air.  Miasma  has 
had  slightly  different  meanings  at  different  times, 
•but  has  been  most  generally  used  to  indicate  cer- 


tain imponderable  morbific  emanations  from  the 
soil  of  particular  localities.  Since  the  discovery 
of  the  specific  plasmodium  of  malaria,  and  its 
conveyance  by  the  mosquito,  the  term  miasma 
has  lapsed  into  disuse  and  is  now  rarely  seen  in 
medical  literature.  See  Malaria  and  Malarial 
Fever;  Insects,  Propagation  of  Disease  by. 

MIASSKIY  ZAVOD,  m^-ftsOc^  zftvdd'.  A 
mining  town  in  eastern  Russia  in  the  government 
of  Orenburg,  situated  among  the  Ural  Mountains, 
35  miles  west  of  Cheliabinsk  and  near  the  rail- 
road to  that  town.  Its  mines  produce  over 
17,000  ounces  of  gold  annually.  Population, 
1897,  16,100. 

MIAXTLIS,  m^ou^te,  Andreas  Vokos 
(c.  1768-1835).  A  Greek  patriot,  bom  in  the 
island  of  Negropont.  Brought  up  as  a  sailor, 
he  gave  his  services  and  his  property  heartily 
'to  the  cause  of  the  Greek  revolution  in 
1821,  and  was  put  in  command  of  the  Greek 
fleet.  In  March,  1822,  he  defeated  a  Turkish 
squadron  at  Patras,  and  in  September  another 
squadron  near  Spezzia.  In  1825  he  burned  the 
fleet  commanded  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  near  Modon. 
In  1827,  upon  the  appointment  of  the  Englishman 
Lord  Cochrane  as  his  superior  in  command,  he 
loyally  continued  to  serve  as  a  subordinate.  He 
was  restored  to  his  old  rank  by  President  Capo 
d'Istria.  He  participated  in  the  insurrection 
of  1831,  and  burned  the  fleet  under  his  command 
at  Poros,  to  keep  it  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Rus- 
sians. He  opposed  the  President's  Russian  policy 
and  was  actively  engaged  in  the  bitter  controver- 
sies of  the  period.  In  1832  the  naval  stations  in 
the  Archipelago  were  placed  in  his  charge,  and 
he  served  on  the  deputation  sent  to  Munich  to 
offer  the  crowTi  to  Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria.  He 
died  at  Athens  June  23,  1835.  In  1889  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  him  in  Syra. 

MIAVA,  rn^d^vd.  A  town  of  the  County  of 
Neutra,  Hungary,  on  the  Miava  River,  60  milee 
northeast  of  Vienna  (Map:  Hungary,  E  2).  The 
manufacture  of  woolen  and  linen  g€>ods  and  bag- 
ging is  the  chief  industry.  Popu&tion  in  1900^ 
10,639. 

MICA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  micare,  to  flash; 
confused  with  and  influenced  by  mica,  crumb). 
A  group  of  minerals  that  crystallize  in  the  mono- 
clinic  system,  and  consist  essentially  of  alumi- 
num silicate  with  varying  proportions  of  potas- 
sium, sodium,  lithium,  iron,  magnesium,  etc.  The 
different  species  are  characterized  by  a  basal 
cleavage,  yielding  thin,  tough  scales  that  are 
colorless  to  jet  black.  The  principal  members 
of  the  group  include  the  following:  Muscovite, 
or  common  mica,  called  also  potassium  mica,  as 
it  is  essentially  an  aluminum  and  potassium 
silicate.  The  colorless  varieties  of  muscovite  are 
used  in  the  doors  of  stoves  and  as  lamp  chimneys. 
It  is  also  employed  as  an  insulating  material,  in 
wall-paper  manufacture,  as  a  lubricant,  and  when 
ground  it  is  used  as  an  absorbent  for  glycerin 
in  the  manufacture  of  dynamite.  During  1900 
70,587  pounds  of  sheet  mica  were  mined  in  the 
United  States.  Paragonite,  or  sodium  mica,  is 
similar  to  the  foregoing,  except  that  the  sodium 
replaces  the  potassium  in  its  composition.  It 
is  of  a  yellowish  to  greenish  color.  Lepidolite^ 
or  lithium  mica,  is  a  potassium,  lithium,  alumi- 
num silicate,  also  containing  fluorine,  and  is  of  a 
rose  or  peach -blossom  color.  It  finds  some  use  for 
ornamental  purposes,  and  is  a  source  of  lithium 


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MICA  SCHIST. 


salts.  Zinmoaldite  is  of  a  complex  composition, 
containing  iron  in  addition  to  the  potassium, 
lithium,  and  aluminum  silicates.  In  color  it  is 
of  a  pale  violet  or  yellow  to  brown  and  dark 
gray.  Biotite,  or  magnesium  iron  mica,  is  a 
magnesium,  potassium,  and  iron  silicate.  It  is 
usually  dark-colored,  as  green,  brown,  or  black. 
Phlogopite  is  also  a  magnesium  mica,  generally 
nearly  free  from  iron,  and  usually  containing 
some  fluorine.  It  is  dark  in  color,  being  yellow- 
ish-brown to  brownish-red.  Lepidomelane  is  an 
iron  mica  generally  black  in  color.  The  micas 
occur  in  crystalline  rocks,  muscovite  bein^  a 
normal  constituent  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  similar 
rocks.  The  deposits  from  which  sheet  mica  is 
obtained  are  found  in  a  coarse  granite  called 
pegmatite.  The  preparation  of  mica  for  the  mar- 
ket is  comparatively  simple.  The  blocks,  after 
being  Hoisted  from  the  mine,  are  freed  from  ad- 
hering rock,  and  then  split  by  means  of  wedges 
or  heavy  knives.  After  this  the  mica  is  cut  up 
into  sizes  suitable  for  the  market,  usually  in 
pound  packages.  The  mica  waste  is  utilized  as 
described  previously  under  Muscovite,  Consult 
the  volumes  of  the  Mineral  Resources,  United 
States  Oeoloffioal  Survey  (Washington,  annual). 

MI^CAH  (Heb.  abbreviation  of  mlkdyah,  in- 
terpreted as,  *Who  is  like  Yah  web  V) .  One  of  the 
minor  prophets,  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah.  His 
book  is  sixth  in  the  ordinary  arrangement  of  the 
minor  prophecies,  but  third  according  to  the 
Jewish  canon^  and  this  order  is  followed  in  the 
Septuagint.  All  that  we  know  of  his  life  is 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Moresheth,  a  small  town 
dependent  upon  Gath  (Micah  i.  1 ;  Jer.  xxvi.  18)  ; 
and  that  his  activity  falls  in  the  reigns  of  Ahaz 
and  Hezekiah,  but  hardly  in  the  days  of  Jotham, 
roughly  speaking,  therefore,  between  B.C.  734  and 
700.  The  Book  of  Micah,  in  its  present  form, 
may  be  divided  into  three  sections,  each  beginning 
with  "Hear  ye."  (1)  Chapters  i.  and  ii.,  ad- 
dressed to  all  the  people,  describe  the  coming  of 
Yahweh  in  judgment  on  the  transgressions  of 
Israel  and  Judah,  and  the  doom  of  Samaria ;  de- 
nounce luxury  and  covetousness  as  the  sources  of 
transgression,  and  condemn  the  false  prophets  for 
leading  the  people  astray;  foretell  the  banish- 
ment of  the  people  into  captivity,  and  promise 
their  return  under  the  guidance  of  Yahweh.  (2) 
Chapters  iii.-v.,  addressed  to  the  heads  and 
princes  of  the  people,  condemn  their  oppressive 
rapacity,  and  declare  that  as  they  had  been  deaf 
to  the  cry  of  the  poor  in  their  wrongs,  they,  too, 
shall  call  on  Yahweh,  but  will  not  be  heard. 
The  false  prophets  also  who  had  deceived  others 
shall  themselves  be  made  ashamed.  This  second 
threatening  of  judgment  is  followed  by  a  second 
and  fuller  promise  of  Messianic  times.  (3)  In 
chapters  vi.  and  vii.,  Yahweh,  calling  on  the 
people  to  hear,  and  on  the  mountains  to  be  wit- 
nesses of  the  controversy,  appeals  to  all  His  past 
government  over  Israel  as  approving  His  right- 
eousness. The  people,  answering,  complain  that 
the  burden  of  the  sacriflces  required  is  too  great 
to  be  borne,  and  Yahweh,  in  reply,  says  that  He 
asks  of  them  only  to  do  justly,  love  mercy,  and 
walk  humbly  with  God.  That  they  had  failed  to 
comply  with  these  demands  is  shown  by  the 
treasures  of  wickedness  found  in  their  houses,  by 
the  scant  measures  used,  the  false  balances,  the 
deceitful  weights.  For  these  crimes  punishments 
"will  be  inflicted;   the  wheat,  the  oil,  and  wine 


shall  be  cut  off.  The  prophet  mourns  the  justice 
of  the  sentence,  and  acknowledges  the  guilt  of 
all  classes  of  the  people.  Yet  he  waits  for  the 
salvation  of  Yahweh,  triumphing  in  His  pardon- 
ing mercy,  which  will  certainly  be  manifested, 
and  in  His  faithfulness,  which  will  perform  all 
that  He  had  solemnly  sworn  to  Abraham  in  the 
days  of  old. 

These  three  divisions,  however,  do  not  corre- 
spond either  to  the  original  order  or  character 
of  the  discourses  embodied  in  the  book.  The 
first  three  chapters  (with  the  exception  of  ii. 
12-13)  depict  conditions  prevalent  prior  to  the 
destruction  of  Samaria,  and  may  be  attributed 
to  the  prophet  Micah,  though  with  editorial  addi- 
tions and  adjustment  to  the  rest  of  the  book. 
Chapters  iv.  and  v.,  however,  with  their  glimpse 
into  Messianic  times,  embody  the  views  and  as- 
pirations of  the  struggling  post-exilic  religious 
community,  weighted  by  the  sense  of  guilt,  regard- 
ing its  own  sufferings  as  a  punishment  for  trans- 
gressions in  the  past,  and  looking  forward  to  a 
redemption  and  restoration  of  national  glorv, 
which  can  only  come  from  Yahweh  Himself. 
There  are  reasons  for  supposing  that  chapters  i.-v. 
once  formed  the  entire  Book  of  Micah,  the  first 
three  being  by  the  prophet  himself,  and  forming 
the  text  as  it  were  to  the  last  two  chapters,  jus- 
tifying the  sufferings  in  post-exilic  days.  By  way 
of  consolation,  the  prophecy  of  the  Messiah  and 
Messianic  times  was  composed  and  added.  In 
the  same  spirit,  as  a  comment  upon  the  real 
Micah,  chapters  vi.  and  vii.  were  written,  which 
again  present  the  same  two  sides — ^Yahweh's  jus- 
tification in  bringing  such  sufferings  upon  His 
people  and  the  consolatory  promises  for  the  fu- 
ture. Chapters  iv.-vii.,  according  to  this  view, 
belong  to  the  Persian  period  and  probably  to  the 
later  half.  The  text  of  the  Book  of  Micah,  it 
should  be  added,  is  not  well  preserved,  and  this 
enhances  the  diflSculties  of  a  satisfactory  inter- 
pretation. Consult,  besides  the  general  commen- 
taries on  the  Minor  Prophets  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment introductions,  Caspari,  Ueher  Micha  den 
Morasthiten  und  seine  prophetische  Schrift 
( Christiania,  1851-52)  ;  Roorda,  Cowmen fartu*  tn. 
Vaticiniam  Michw  (Leyden,  1869)  ;  Cheyne,  "The 
Book  of  Micah,"  in  the  Cowftrid^e  Bible  for  Schools 
and  Colleges  (Cambridge,  1882)  ;  Ryssel,  Unter- 
suchungen  iiher  die  Textgestalt  und  die  Echthcit 
des  Buches  Micha  (Leipzig,  1887)  ;  Taylor,  The 
Massoretic  Text  and  the  Ancient  Versions  of  the 
Book  of  Micah  (London,  1891). 

MICA  SCHIST.  A  metamorphic  rock  (q.v.) 
possessing  a  schistose  or  foliated  structure  and 
composed  essentially  of  the  minerals  mica  and 
quartz.  The  mica  is  generally  the  colorless  va- 
riety known  as  muscovite  (q.v.) ,  though  the  dark 
variety,  biotite,  may  be  present  also.  When 
garnet  or  staurolite  is  present  in  addition  to 
the  quartz  and  mica,  the  rock  is  designated  a 
garnetiferous  or  a  staurolitic  mica  schist.  Prob- 
ably the  greater  number  of  mica  schists  have  been 
formed  by  the  metamorphism  of  sedimentary 
rocks  through  the  agency  of  orographic  (moun- 
tain-building) forces.  Other  mica  schists,  and  es- 
pecially the  variety  known  as  sericite  schists, 
have  been  developed  from  acid  igneous  rocks 
(q.v.)  by  the  action  of  the  same  forces.  Of 
many  mica  schists,  and  especially  those  of  pre- 
Cambrian  age,  it  has  been  found  impossible  as 
yet  to  determine  whether  their  origin  is  sedi- 
mentary or  igneous. 


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MICHAEL. 


MICAW^EB,  Mb.  Wilkins.  In  Dickens's 
David  Oopperfield,  an  improvident,  unpractical, 
and  visionary  character,  noted  for  his  mercurial 
temperament,  his  constant  financial  embarrass- 
ments, and  his  firm  confidence  that  ''something 
will  turn  up.*'  Micawber  is  believed  to  be  in- 
tsnded  as  a  portrait  of  Dickens's  father,  and 
Mrs.  Micawber  is  said  to  represent  his  mother. 

MICEI/LAB  THEOBY  (from  Neo-Lat.  mi- 
cella, diminutive  of  Lat.  mica,  crumb) .  A  theory 
proposed  by  the  botanist  N4lgeU  in  1862  to  ac- 
count for  the  physical  properties  of  organized 
bodies  like  starch  grains,  cell  walls,  etc.  He  as- 
sumed that  the  molecules  of  the  chemist  are  unit- 
ed into  larger  unions,  constituting  molecules  of  a 
higher  order,  which  he  called  micellsB.  These 
hypothetical  micelle  are  extremely  minute,  never 
being  visible  even  with  the  highest  powers  of  the 
viicroscope.  He  further  claims  that  the  growth 
in  thickness  of  a  cell  wall  is  due  to  the  intercala- 
tion (intussusception)  of  new  micellae  of  cellu- 
lose between  the  micellae  which  have  become 
widely  separated  from  each  other  by  the  stretch- 
ing of  the  wall.  Strasburger,  the  most  important 
opponent  of  the  micellar  theory,  holds  that  the 
growth  in  thickness  of  a  cell  wall  is  due  to 
the  deposition  of  material  upon  its  inner  surface. 
The  micellar  theory  is  still  carrent,  but  is  not 
so  strongly  supported  as  formerly. 

MICHABOy  m^ha^bd.    See  Manabozho. 

MICHAEL,  mindl-«l  or  ml^^l  (Heb.,  'Who  is 
like  God?') .  An  angel  called  in  Dan.  x.  13  one  of 
the  chief  princes,  who  had  special  care  of  the 
Jews  (Dan.  x.  21,  *Michael  your  prince*), 
and  who  will  fight  for  them  and  finally  re- 
deem them  (Dan.  xii.  1).  In  Jude  9  Mi- 
chael is  represented  as  fighting  with  the  Devil 
for  the  body  of  Moses.  In  Rev.  xii.  7-9  he 
'fights  against  the  Dragon.  In  the  Book  of 
Enoch  Michael  appears  as  one  of  the  four 
angels  who  stand  at  the  throne  of  €rod,  Ra- 
phael, Gabriel,  and  Lemuel  being  the  others, 
and  in  the  oldest  list  of  the  seven  archangels 
(Uriel,  Raphael,  Raguel,  Michael,  Suriel,  Gabriel, 
and  Remiel)  the  fourth  place  is  occupied  by 
Michael  (Ethiopic  text  of  Enoch,  chap.  xx). 
His  special  function,  as  described  in  Enoch,  is  to 
act  as  scribe  in  entering  in  the  heavenly  books 
the  deeds  of  the  angelic  patrons  of  nations,  while 
in  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah  he  records  the  deeds 
of  all  men  in  the  heavenly  books.  According 
to  the  Talmudic  account,  Michael  is  the  prince, 
the  chief  of  the  angels,  standing  in  relation  to  the 
rest  as  the  High  Priest  does  to  Israel  on  earth. 
He  is  therefore  looked  upon  as  the  medium 
through  whom  the  Law  was  given  to  Moses  on 
Mount  Sinai.  In  the  Western  Christian  Church 
September  29th  (Michaelmas)  has  been  set  aside 
as  his  day;  the  Greek  Church  keeps  November 
9th.  Zimmem  (Keilinschriften  und  das  alte 
Testament,  p.  376  seq.)  has  shown  that  some  of 
the  conceptions  connected  with  Michael  represent 
attributes  of  Babylonian  gods,  like  Marduk  and 
Nebo  transformed  to  'angels.'  Consult:  Weber, 
Lehre  des  Talmud  (Leipzig,  1897)  ;  Kohut,  Jit- 
dische  Angelologie  (Leipzig,  1866)  ;  Lucken, 
Michael   (GSttingen,  1898). 

MICHAEL,  mVkSl  or  ml^&-$l.  The  name  of 
nine  emperors  of  Constantinople.  Michaex  I. 
(died  845)  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  Stauracius,  in  811,  conducted  a  war  against 
the  Bulgarians,  but  was  a  feeble  monarch,  who 


abdicated  without  fighting  against  Leo,  the 
Armenian,  a  general  in  his  service,  in  813,  and 
retiring  to  a  monastery,  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  devotional  exercises. — ^Miguael 
II.  (died  829),  sumamed  the  'Stammerer,'  was 
bom  in  Upper  Phrygia,  of  an  obscure  family,  but 
was  ennobled  by  Leo  the  Armenian,  who,  how- 
ever, afterward  condemned  him  to  death  on  a 
charge  of  conspiring  against  him.  His  life  was 
saved  by  the  assassination  of  Leo,  and  Michael 
was  crowned  Emperor  in  820.  He  was  cruel  and 
arbitrary;  and  his  attempts  to  force  his  sub- 
jects to  celebrate  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  Pass- 
over brought  about  a  revolt  on  the  part  of  his 
general  Euphemius,  who  proclaimed  himself 
Emperor.  The  rebellious  general  was  slain  near 
Syracuse,  in  Sicily.  During  Michael's  reign  the 
Saracens  wrested  Crete  and  Sicily  from  the  Em- 
pire.— ^Michael  III.  (c.838-867),  sumamed  the 
^Drunkard,'  was  grandson  of  Michael  II.,  and 
succeeded  his  father,  Theophilus,  in  842,  his 
mother,  Theodora,  being  regent  until  856.  In 
his  reign  the  Varangians  appear  as  foes  to  the 
Empire,  and  the  foundation  for  the  separation 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  was  laid 
by  a  quarrel  between  the  Patriarch,  Photius,  and 
the  Pope,  Nicholas  I.  Michael  was  assassinated 
by  Basil  the  Macedonian  in  867. — Michael  IV. 
(died  1041),  sufnamed  the  Taphlagonian,'  from 
the  place  of  his  birth,  was  raised  to  the  throne 
by  the  Empress  Zo^,  who  on  account  of  her  infat- 
uation for  him  is  suspected  of  having  murdered 
her  husband.  He  was  successful  in  war  against 
the  Bulgarians  in  1040,  but  died  in  1041. — ^Mi- 
chael V.  succeeded  the  last  named,  who  was  his 
uncle.  Having  exiled  the  Empress  Zo§,  he  was 
overthrown  by  the  people  in  1042,  and,  after  hav- 
ing his  eyes  put  out,  was  sent  to  a  monastery. — 
Michael  VI.  succeeded  the  Empress  Theodora 
in  1056,  but  retained  the  throne  only  a  year,  when 
he  was  compelled  to  resign  in  favor  of  Isaac  Com- 
nenus.  He  retired  to  a  monastery.  He  was 
sumamed  Stratioticus,  and  with  him  the  Mace- 
donian dynasty  became  extinct,  his  successor  be- 
ing of  the  family  of  the  Comneni. — ^Michael  VII., 
Due  AS  Parapinaces^  was  a  son  of  Constantine 
XL,  and  after  the  regency  of  his  mother  Eudoxia 
he  ascended  the  throne  in  1071.  Having  given  too 
much  power  to  unworthy  favorites,  he  was  forced 
by  an  insurrection  to  abjure  the  throne  in  1078, 
and  retire  to  a  monastery. — ^Michael  VIII.  Pa- 
LiEOLOous  (1234-82)  was  the  first  of  his  family 
to  ascend  the  Byzantine  throne.  He  was  pro- 
claimed joint  Emperor  of  Nicsea  with  John  Las- 
caris  about  1259,  and  soon  after  became  sole 
ruler.  In  1261  Constantinople,  which  had  been 
held  by  the  Latins  since  1204,  was  captured,  and 
Michael  caused  his  young  colleague  to  be  blinded 
and  dethroned.  In  order  to  retain  possession  of 
the  capital,  he  made  some  pretence  at  an  attempt 
to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  Western  and  East- 
em  Churches,  which,  however,  proved  to  be  of  • 
short  duration. — Michael  IX.,  son  of  Andronicua-*. 
II.,  was  associated  with  his  father,  but  died  be- 
fore him  in  1320. 

MICHAEL,  Arthub  (1853 — ).  An  American 
chemist,  born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  He  studied  at 
Berlin  and  Heidelberg,  and  at  the  Ecole  de 
M^decine  of  Paris.  In  1882-89  and  after  1894  he 
was  professor  of  chemistry  in  Tufts  Colle^ 
(Medford,  Mass.).  His  researches  in  organic 
chemistry  include  studies  in  a  new  process  for  the 


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mCHAUD. 


formation  of  aromatic  sulphones^  in  forming 
aldol  from  ethyl  aldehyde,  in  the  action  of  alde- 
hydes and  aromatic  oxyacids  on  phenols,  and  in 
new  reactions  with  sodium  malonic  ether.  His 
writings  include  contributions  to  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  National  Academy  of  Science,  to  the 
American  Chemical  Journal  ("Synthesis  of  Heli- 
cin  and  Phenolglucoside,"  1879;  "on  a-  and  6- 
Monobromcrotonic  Acids,"  1880) ;  and  to  the 
Berichte  of  the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesellschaft 
("£inwirkung  von  wasserentziehenden  Mitteln 
auf  Sllureanhydride,"  1878;  "Paraconiin,"  1881). 

MICHAELy  Czar  of  Russia.    See  Romanoff. 

MICHAEIi  AN0ELO.  See  Michelangelo 
BuoNARBon. 

MICHAEL  AT'TALIA^A.  A  Byzantine 
jurist  of  the  eleventh  century.  By  command  of 
Michael  Ducas,  Emperor  of  the  East,  he  publish- 
ed in  1073  a  work  entitled  Uolrifia  po/wc6p  Ifrot 
vpayfxariK'^  comprising  a  system  of  law.  Though 
from  its  title  it  might  be  supposed  a  poem,  ver- 
sified structure  has  not  been  detected  in  it.  A 
Latin  rendering  by  Leunclavius  is  to  be  found  in 
vol.  ii.  of  the  compilation  Jus  Orceco-Romanum, 

MICHAELIS,  m^'KA-ftlls,  Adolf  (1836-). 
A  German  archaeologist.  He  was  bom  at  Kiel  and 
studied  at  the  university  of  his  native  town,  in 
Berlin,  and  Leipzig.  After  1862  he  was  professor 
of  classical  philology  and  archaeology  at  Greifs- 
wald,  Tabingen,  and  Strassburg.  In  1874  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  German  Central  Archaeolo- 
gical Institute  in  Rome,  the  history  of  which  he 
published  in  1879,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  arch- 
aologischen  Instituts  zu  Rom.  Besides  his  critical 
edition  of  Tacitus's  Dialogus  de  Oratorihus 
(1868),  he  published  many  archaeological  trea- 
tises, such  as  Der  Parthenon  (1871);  Ancient 
Marbles  in  Great  Britain  (English  translation  by 
Fennell,  1882);  Strasshurger  Antiken  (1901); 
and  prepared  the  sixth  edition  of  Springer's 
Handbuoh  der  Kunstgeschichte  (vol.  i.,  1901). 

MICHAJBLTS,  Cabolina.  A  German  philolo- 
gist and  literary  critic,  who  married  the  Portu- 
gese author  Joaquim  Antonio  da  Fonseca  e  Vas- 
vuncellos    (q.v.). 

MICHAELIS,  JoHANN  David  (1717-91). 
A  German  biblical  scholar.  He  was  bom  on 
February  27,  1717,  at  Halle,  where  his  father. 
Christian  Benedict  Michaelis,  was  professor. 
After  completing  his  studies  at  the  university 
of  his  native  town  he  traveled  in  Eng- 
land and  Holland.  In  1746  he  became  professor 
of  philosophy  at  G($ttingen,  and  in  1750  professor 
of  Oriental  languages.  From  1763  to  1770  he 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Oottinger  gelehrte 
Anzeigen^  and  for  some  years  he  filled  the  ofiice 
of  librarian  to  the  university.  He  died  at  Gttt- 
tingen.  August  22,  1791.  Michaelis  may  be  re- 
garded as  among  the  earliest  of  the  critical 
Hchool  of  German  theologians.  His  chief  works  are 
his  Hehrdische  Cframmatik  (1778)  ;  Einleitung  in 
die  gott lichen  Schriften  des  neuen  Bundes  (4th 
ed.,  Gdttingen,  1788;  Eng.  trans.,  Introduction  to 
the  yew  Testament,  London,  1823)  ;  Afosaisches 
Recht  (2d  ed.,  1776-80;  Eng.  trans..  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  1810-1814)  ; 
Moral  (1792-1823)  ;  Orientalische  und  exegetische 
Bibliothek  (1786-93).  Consult  his  Lehenshe- 
schreihung  ron  ihm  selhst  ahgefasst,  ed.  by  Has- 
sencamp  (Rinteln,  1793),  and  his  letters  (Leip- 
zig, 1794-96). 


MICHAELIUS,  m^K&m-vs,  Jonas  (1577-T). 
The  first  clergyman  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  in  New  Amsterdam.  He  was  bom  in 
North  Holland.  In  1600  he  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Leyden,  and  after  his  graduation  became 
a  country  pastor.  In  1624  he  was  appointed  to 
S&o  Salvador  in  Brazil,  the  next  year  to  a  settle- 
ment in  Guinea,  and  in  1628,  after  a  short  visit 
to  Holland,  he  sailed  for  New  Amsterdam.  His 
ministrations  there  probably  lasted  until  1633, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  Everardus  Bogardus 
(q.v.).  A  letter  written  by  him  in  1628,  and 
now  in  the  manuscript  collection  of  the  New  York 
Public  Library,  gives  the  only  extant  first-hand 
account  of  New  Amsterdam  as  it  then  was.  A 
translation  of  this  letter  appears  in  the  Collec- 
tions of  the  New  York  Historical  Society  for 
1880. 

MICHAELMAS^  mlk^el-mas  (from  Michael 
+  mass).  The  old  English  name  of  the  day  set 
apart  in  commemoration  of  Saint  Michael  and 
the  other  angels,  September  29.  The  observance 
of  this  day  is  commonly  traced  to  an  apparition 
of  the  archangel  which  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  on  Monte  Gargano  in  Apulia  in  493,  or 
more  probably  in  620 ;  but  it  is  likely,  for  various 
reasons,  that  the  festival  is  even  older.  This 
particular  apparition  is  commemorated  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  on  May  8;  the  feast-day 
in  September  has  a  wider  application,  in  the 
Eastern  and  Anglican  Churches  as  well,  and  is 
intended  to  recall  the  benefits  received  through 
the  ministry  of  angels.  In  England  it  has  been 
for  centuries  an  important  date  as  a  <juarter-day 
and  the  beginning  of  legal  and  university  terms. 

MICHAEL  KIKOLAYEVITCH,  ml^el  n^^- 
kd-lft'ye-vlch  (1832—).  Grand  Duke  of  Russia, 
the  fourth  son  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I.  In  the 
artillery  branch  of  the  army  he  was  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  general.  He  was  for  some  time  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Caucasus,  and  in  1877  commanded 
the  army  which  invaded  Turkish  Armenia.  In 
1881  he  was  made  president  of  the  Privy  Council 
of  State  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  cavalry. 

MICHAEL  OBRENOVITCH,  6-bren'^vIch 
(1823-68).  Prince  of  Servia,  bom  at  Kragu- 
yevats,  ihe  younger  son  of  Prince  Milosh. 
After  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Milan  in 
1839,  he  was  declared  Prince  of  Servia  by  the 
Turkish  Government.  He  soon  made  himself 
very  unpopular  by  favoring  the  Russian  policy, 
and  the  discontent  of  the  Servian  people  was  in- 
creased by  his  policy  of  arbitrary  and  heavy  taxa- 
tion. A  revolution  broke  out  in  1842,  and  an 
act  of  the  National  Assembly  expelled  him  and 
his  family  from  the  country.  In  1858  he  re- 
turned to  Servia,  together  with  his  father,  whom 
he  again  succeeded  in  the  government  in  1860. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  seemed  hon- 
estly desirous  to  do  his  best  for  the  country.  He 
was  successful  in  effecting  cardinal  changes  in  the 
military  organization,  and  freed  the  Servian 
fortresses  from  Turkish  garrisons.  On  June  10, 
1868,  he  was  shot  by  a  follower  of  Prince  Alex- 
ander Karageorgevitch. 

MICHAXTD,  mft-shA',  Joseph  FBAwgois  ( 1767- 
1839).  A  French  historian.  He  was  bom  at 
Albens,  Savoy,  June  19,  1767.  He  studied  in 
the  ecclesiastical  college  of  Bourg,  and  in  1787 
published  a  work,  Voyage  au  Mont  Blanc,  fol- 
lowed by  other  essays.  In  1791  he  went  to 
Paris,    where    he    embraced    the    teachings    of 


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laCHELANOELO  BUONABBOTI. 


Voltaire  and  Rousseau,  and  half  espoused  Repub- 
licanism. Ue  was,  however,  at  heart  a  conserva- 
tive and  a  Royalist.  His  true  opinions  soon 
showed  forth  in  his  contributions  to  the  three 
Royalist  papers,  the  (Jazettc  Universellef  the 
Postilion  de  la  Guerre,  and  the  Courrier  H&puh- 
licain.  In  1794  he  founded  the  Quotidienne,  and 
after  the  fall  of  Kobespierre  he  contributed  ar- 
ticles so  openly  favoring  the  Restoration  that  on 
October  27,  1795,  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  only  escaped  by  having  this  sentence  com- 
muted to  one  of  banishment.  He  passed  four 
years  in  Switzerland  and  in  Southern  France, 
occupied  in  light  literary  work.  In  1799  he  re- 
turned to  Paris.  In  1806,  in  partnership  with  a 
younger  brother,  he  undertook  the  publication 
of  the  Biographie  modeme,  in  which  the  public 
men  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  great 
revolution  were  painted  in  the  darkest  colors. 
His  work  Tableaux  historiques  des  irois  pre- 
mises croiaades  began  to  appear  in  1812,  though 
not  completed  until  1822.  Michaud  was  made 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1812;  the  pre- 
vious year  he  had  founded,  with  his  brother,  the 
Biographie  universelle.  He  also  collaborated 
with  Ponjoulat  in  editing  the  Collection  de 
m^oires  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  de  France, 
which  began  to  appear  in  1836.  In  the  Dernier 
rdgne  de  Buonaparte  (1815),  Michaud  made  a 
valuable  contribution  to  Napoleonic  history.  He 
died  at  Passy,  September  30,  1839.  In  1792 
Michaud  wrote  a  work,  Uapoth^ose  de  Franklin, 
of  interest  to  Americans.  Consult  Sainte-Beuve, 
Causeries  du  lundi,  vol.  vii. 

MICHAirX,  m^'shy,  Andb6  (1746-1802).  A 
French  botanist  and  traveler.  He  was  born  at 
Satory,  and  studied  science  under  the  botanist 
Jussieu.  In  1779  he  traveled  in  England,  and 
the  next  year  through  Auvergne  and  the  Py- 
renees, and,  on  his  return  to  Paris,  introduced 
several  new  varieties  of  Spanish  grain  and  other 
plants.  In  1782  he  was  sent  to  Persia  on  a 
scientific  mission.  From  1785  on  he  traveled 
extensively  in  North  America  on  a  similar  mis- 
sion at  Government  expense,  but  the  French  Revo- 
lution compelled  him  to  return  for  want  of  funds. 
He  was  shipwrecked  on  the  voyage  to  France, 
and  lost  nearly  all  his  specimens.  In  1800  he 
sailed  for  Madagascar,  where  he  died.  His  most 
important  publications  are  Histoire  des  chines 
de  VAmirique  septentrionale  (1801)  and  Flora 
Boreali-A mericana   { 1 803 ) . 

MICHA17X,  FBANgois  Andr6  (1770-1855). 
A  French  botanist,  son  of  Andr4  Michaux.  He 
accompanied  his  father  to  the  United  States,  and 
his  Histoire  des  arhres  forestiers  de  VAm6rique 
septentrionale  (1810-13)  contains  the  result 
of  his  explorations  and  gives  an  account  of 
the  distribution  and  the  scientific  classification 
of  the  principal  American  timber  trees.  Under 
the  title  The  North  American  Sylva  it  was  trans- 
lated by  Hillhouse,  with  three  supplementary 
volumes  on  the  trees  of  the  Rockies  by  T.  Nuttall 
(1841-49). 

MICH'EL.  Dan  (i.e.  Dominus  or  Master 
Michael)  of  Northgate  (fl.  1340).  An  English 
translator.  Nothing  is  kno\Mi  concerning  his 
personal  history  except  that  he  was  a  brother 
in  the  cloister  of  Saint  Austin  of  Canter- 
bury. In  1340  he  completed  his  translation  of 
La  somme  des  vices  et  des  vert  us,  a  moral 
treatise,    founded    on    Lc    tniroir   du    monde    (c. 


1250),  and  written  in  1279  by  Frfere  Lorens,  a 
Dominican  monk,  for  the  use  of  Philip  the  Second 
of  France.  The  translation  is  entitled  the  Ayen- 
bite  of  Inunt  (the  again-biting  of  the  inner  wit), 
or  the  Remorse  of  Conscience.  The  work  gives  a 
detailed  exposition  of  the  Ten  Comman<hnents, 
the  twelve  articles  of  faith,  the  seven  petitions  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  the  seven  heads  and  ten  horns  of  the 
beast  in  the  Apocalypse.  Interesting  in  itself,  it 
is  of  great  linguistic  value,  as  it  is  written  in  the 
dialect  of  Kent.  Consult  the  edition  by  Morris, 
Early  English  Text  Society  (Tendon,  1866). 

MICHEL,  m^'sheK,  Francisque  Xavieb 
(1809-87).  A  French  historian  and  antiquary. 
He  was  born  in  Lyons,  and  educated  there.  He 
went  to  Paris,  and  in  1830  he  was  sent  by  Guizot 
to  England  to  examine  documents  pertaining  to 
the  ancient  history  of  France.  In  1837  he  was  in 
Scotland  on  the  same  mission.  He  edited  many 
monuments  of  old  French  literature,  among  them 
the  Chanson  de  Roland  and  the  Roman  de  la 
rose.  His  historical  works  include  Histoire  des 
races  maudites  de  la  France  et  de  VEspagne 
(1847)  ;  Les  Ecossais  en  France  et  les  Frangais 
en  Ecosse  (1862)  ;  Recherches  sur  le  commerce 
pendant  le  moyen-dge  (1852-54) ;  Le  pays  basque 
(1857). 

MICHELy  Francois  Emile  (1828—).  A 
French  painter  and  writer  on  art,  bom  in 
Metz.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Migette  and  Mar^- 
chal,  the  glass  painter,  and  began  to  exhibit  in 
1853.  His  works  include  "Une  gardeuse  d*oies" 
(1853),  in  the  Nantes  Museum;  "Nuit  d'6t§ 
(1872),  in  the  Nancy  Museum;  and  "Semailles 
d'automne"  (1873)  and  "La  dune  pr^  de  Haar- 
lem" (1885),  both  in  the  Luxembourg.  He  con- 
tributed articles  on  art  to  the  Oa^sette  des  Beaux- 
Arts  and  other  periodicals,  and  he  published 
Le  mus6e  de  Cologne  (1883) ;  Les  musses  d'Alle- 
magne  (1885);  Rembrandt  (1886,  Eng.  trans., 
1904) ;  Hobbema  et  les  paysagistes  de  son  temps 
en  Hollande  ( 1890 ) ;  Jacob  van  Ruysdael  et  les 
paysagistes  de  Vicole  de  Haarlem  (1890).  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1892. 

MICHEL,  Louise  (1839-1905).  An  anarchist 
agitator,  called  the  Red  Virgin.  She  was  the 
illegitimate  daughter  of  the  master  of  the  Cha- 
teau of  Vroncourt,  in  the  Department  of  Mame, 
France ;  received  a  good  education  from  her  father 
and  went  to  Paris,  where  she  taught  school  till 
the  rising  of  the  Communists  in  1871.  She  joined 
them,  fought  among  the  insurgents,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Versailles  troops.  Tried  by 
court-martial,  she  was  condemned  to  death,  but 
her  sentence  was  commuted  to  transportation  to 
New  Caledonia.  Freed  in  1880,  she  devoted  her- 
self to  agitation  among  the  poor  in  Paris,  and 
was  sentenced  in  1883  to  six  years'  imprison- 
ment. On  her  release  in  1886  she  went  to  London, 
whence  she  continued  to  carry  on  her  propaganda. 
In  1895  she  returned  to  Paris.  She  published 
two  novels,  two  plays,  and  her  Mhnoires  (1886). 

MICHELANGELO  BUONABBOTI,  m^'-' 
kM-an'je-lA  bwd^nft-rA't*  (Michael  Anoelo) 
(1475-1564).  A  Florentine  sculptor,  painter, 
architect,  and  poet,  the  most  prominent  artist  of 
the  Hisfh  Renaissance,  and  the  most  influential 
figure  in  modem  art.  He  was  bom  at  Caprese, 
March  6,  1475.  the  son  of  Lodovico  Buonarroti. 
His  family,  the  Buonarroti-Simoni,  held  small 
landed  possessions,  and  had  long  been  honorably 


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laCHELANOELO  BTTOKABBOTI.         483        lOCHELANOELO  BUONABBOTL 


identified  with  public  office  in  Florence.  At  the 
time  of  Michelangelo's  birth  his  father  was 
Podesta  (governor)  of  Chiusi  and  Caprese,  Tus- 
can mounUiin  towns  tributary  to  Florence.  The 
infant  was  christened  Michelagnuolo,  and  upon 
his  father's  return  to  Florence  was  put  to  nurse 
with  the  wife  of  a  stonemason  of  Settignano,  im- 
bibing, as  he  himself  said,  the  love  of  sculpture 
with  his  nurse's  milk.  Destined  for  a  scholar, 
he  was  then  placed  in  the  school  of  Francesco 
d'Urbino  at  Florence.  Instead  of  devoting  him- 
self to  books,  he  spent  his  time  drawing,  and 
with  painters'  apprentices.  By  one  of  these, 
Francesco  Granacci,  with  whom  he  had  formed 
a  friendship,  he  was  introduced  to  the  studio  of 
the  brothers  Ghirlandajo,  and  after  much  opposi- 
tion on  the  part  of  his  family,  he  was,  in  1488, 
apprenticed  to  these  masters.  He  does  not  appear 
to  nave  learned  much  from  his  master  Domenico 
Ghirlandajo.  His  drawings  while  there  excited 
admiration  and  surprise,  as  did  also  his  first 
painting,  a  transcript  on  panel  of  Martin  Schon- 
gauer's  print,  the  "Temptation  of  Saint  An- 
thony." 

In  company  with  Granacci,  Michelangelo  left 
Ghirlandajo's  studio  in  1489,  to  study  sculpture 
in  the  garden  of  the  Medici  at  San  Marco.  With 
the  desi^  of  reviving  sculpture,  which  had 
fallen  behind  painting  at  Florence,  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici  had  established  an  academy  there,  at  the 
head  of  which  he  placed  Bertoldo,  a  pupil  of  Do- 
na tello.  A  marble  masque  of  a  faun  (Uffizi), 
which  Michelangelo  skillfully  changed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  advice  of  Lorenzo,  so  pleased  the 
latter  that  he  invited  him  to  live  in  his  house, 
and  procured  his  father  a  place  in  the  Florentine 
customs.  In  the  society  of  such  men  as  Poliziano, 
the  poet,  Pico  della  Mirandola,  Marsilio  Ficino, 
the  Platonist,  and  Lorenzo  himself,  he  became 
familiar  with  Italian  literature  and  humanist 
culture.  He  was  also  influenced  by  the  great 
political  and  religious  movements  of  the  day.  To 
the  spell  of  Savonarola's  eloquence  may  be  at- 
tributed, at  least  in  part,  his  intense  love  for 
Florentine  liberty  and  his  deep  religious  feeling. 
His  artistic  training  was  an  admirable  combina- 
tion of  Florentine  realistic  and  classic  influences. 
Through  Bertoldo  he  became  grounded  in  the 
works  of  Donatello ;  he  studied  the  antique  in  the 
Medici  collection,  and  sketched  Masaccio's  fres- 
coes in  the  Brancacci  Chapel.  He  was  also,  per- 
haps at  this  early  period,  and  certainly  later  in 
his  career,  influenced  by  the  painting  of  Luca 
Signorelli,  of  whose  manner  his  own  is  a  develop- 
ment in  its  most  essential  features.  Of  the  two 
surviving  works  of  his  student  days — both  bas- 
reliefs  now  in  the  Casa  Buonarroti,  Florence — 
the  seated  'Madonna  with  the  Infant  Jesus"  is 
in  the  manner  of  Donatello.  The  other,  the  so- 
called  "Battle  of  the  Centaurs,"  is  in  the  over- 
rich  style  of  late  Roman  reliefs,  which  were 
doubtless  his  models;  but  it  shows  the  great, 
though  still  incipient,  dramatic  talent  which 
marked  his  later  works. 

On  the  death  of  Lorenzo  in  1492  Michelangelo 
returned  to  his  father's  house.  Besides  carving 
a  statue  of  a  Hercules,  now  lost,  he  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  anatomy.  In  1494  he 
returned  to  the  palace  of  the  Medici,  but,  fright- 
ened at  a  vision  foretelling  their  destruction,  in 
October  of  the  same  year  he  fled  to  Bologna,  and 
thence  to  Venice.  At  Bologna  he  found  employ- 
ment for  almost  a  year  upon  the  shrine  of  San 


Domenico.  He  completed  a  statue  of  San  Petro* 
nio  by  Nicola  da  Bari,  and  carved  a  kneeling 
angel  of  rare  beauty,  bearing  a  candelabrum, 
which,  as  Grimm  has  shown,  was  long  confounded 
with  another  by  Nicola  Pisano  in  the  same  church. 
In  1495,  after  his  return  to  Florence,  he  carved 
for  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  of  a  younger  branch  of 
the  family,  a  statue  of  the  youthful  Saint  John, 
now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  realistic  in  style  and 
much  in  the  manner  of  Donatello.  The  sale  of 
his  next  work,  of  which  the  original  is  lost, 
caused  his  first  journey  to  Home,  and  during  his 
stay  there,  which  lasted  till  the  spring  of  1501, 
he  executed  a  number  of  important  works.  For 
Jacopo  Galli  he  carved  the  **Bacchus"  in  the 
Museo  Nazionale,  Florence,  a  statue  realistic  to 
the  verge  of  ugliness,  and  lacking  entirely  the  ele- 
ment of  divinity.  To  the  same  period  belongs 
the  well-known  statue  in  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum, which  may  be  the  "Cupid"  that  Condivi 
says  he  executed  for  Jacopo  Galli,  although 
Springer  has  shown  that  it  is  more  probably  an 
"Apollo."  The  subject  represented  is  a  beautiful 
youth  kneeling  in  the  act  of  discharging  his  bow. 
But  the  chief  work  of  this  early  Roman  period, 
which  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  the  greatest  sculp- 
tor of  the  day,  was  the  "Pieta"  in  Saint  Petei^s 
Church  (1498-99),  the  first  group,  in  the  highest 
sense  of  the  word,  in  modern  sculpture.  Seated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Cross,  the  Virgin  is  represented 
with  the  dead  Christ  in  her  lap,  gazing  sadly  at 
His  wounded  side  and  gently  raising  her  hand. 
She  is  of  youthful  appearance,  and  of  more  heroic 
proportions  than  her  son,  whose  dead  body,  the 
flesh  of  which  is  treated  with  marvelous  delicacy, 
is  reduced  in  size,  to  preserve  the  harmony  of  the 
group. 

After  his  return  to  Florence  in  1601  Michel- 
angelo, on  June  6,  signed  a  contract  for  fifteen 
statues  of  saints  for  the  Piccolomini  Chapel  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Siena.  The  inferior  quality  of 
these  works,  as  they  now  stand,  is  such  that  it 
is  impossible  to  attribute  them  to  him.  In  August 
of  the  same  year  he  received  from  the  city  of 
Florence  a  commission  for  a  statue  of  David,  nine 
cubits  in  height,  to  be  carved  from  a  single  block 
of  marble.  The  statue  was  of  national  impor- 
tance, intended  to  mark  the  deliverance  of  the 
city  ifrom  the  Medici  and  Cesare  Borgia.  On 
June  8,  1504,  it  was  erected  to  the  right  of  the 
entrance  to  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  where  it  re- 
mained as  a  sort  of  Palladium  until,  in  1873,  it 
was  removed  to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  for 
protection  against  the  weather.  The  figure  is 
frankly  naturalistic,  head  and  hands  being  un- 
duly large,  as  in  the  case  of  the  undeveloped 
youthful  frame.  The  expression  denotes  ex- 
pectation and  confidence  of  victory;  the  action 
represented  is  at  the  moment  at  which  the  youth 
is  about  to  unloose  the  string. 

The  "David"  is  the  last  work  of  Michelangelo's 
early  or  realistic  period.  A  number  of  other 
works  of  the  years  1501-04  cannot  be  exactly 
dated.  While  engaged  on  the  "David"  he  com- 
pleted, at  the  request  of  the  Signory,  another 
statue  of  the  same  subject  in  bronze,  which  was 
sent  as  a  present  to  a  high  official  of  the  French 
Court.  Resembling  the  "Pietft,"  though  probably 
somewhat  earlier,  is  the  life-size  "Madonna  of 
Bruges,"  purchased  by  the  Mouacron  family,  and 
still  in  their  chapel  in  the  Cathedral  of  Bruges. 
He  also  carved  two  circular  bas-reliefs  of  the 
Madonna,  one  in  the  Museo  Nazionale,  Florence, 


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mOHELANOELO  BXTOKABBOTI.        434        MIOHELAN0ELO  BTTOKABBOTI. 


another  in  the  Royal  Academy,  London.  Whfle 
executing  the  ''David"  he  was  also  engaged  in 
painting  a  ''Madonna"  for  Angelo  Doni  (Uffizi). 
Though  deficient  in  color,  this  picture  is  wonder- 
ful in  drawing  and  in  the  sturdy  realism  of  the 
figures,  and  is  original  in  conception.  Somewhat 
earlier  than  this  is  the  imfinished  Madonna  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Michelangelo's  second  manner  is  characterized 
by  an  increasing  departure  from  the  realism  of 
his  early  days  and  a  reliance  upon  an  unbridled 
imagination.  His  first  work  in  which  this  new 
style  prevails  was  his  cartoon  for  the  fresco  of 
one  of  the  long  walls  of  the  hall  of  the  Great 
Coimcil  in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  executed  in  ri- 
valry with  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (q.v.) ,  to  whom  the 
other  wall  had  been  assigned.  Begun  in  August, 
1504,  the  cartoon  was  not  completed  till  1606, 
the  fresco  never  having  been  carried  out.  The 
subject  was  the  so-called  "Battle  of  Pisa,"  an  in- 
cident from  the  war  between  Florence  and  Pisa, 
in  1364,  when  four  hundred  Florentines  were  sur- 
prised by  the  enemy  while  bathing  in  the  Amo 
at  Anghiari.  This  was  considered  by  contem- 
poraries as  his  greatest  painting,  and  practically 
revolutionized  Florentine  art.  The  cartoon  was 
destroyed  in  1616,  and  only  survives  in  drawings 
at  Holkham  and  Vienna  (Albertina),  and  in  the 
well-known  line  engraving  of  a  single  group  by 
Marcantonio,  entitled  "Les  Grimpeurs." 

Its  execution  was  interrupted  early  in  1606  by 
a  summons  to  the  artist  from  Rome  by  Pope 
Julius  II.,  who  of  all  Michelangelo's  patrons  best 
understood  the  man  and  his  art.  His  first  com- 
mission was  for  his  own  sepulchral  monument,  to 
be  placed  in  the  tribune  of  the  new  Church  of 
Saint  Peter's,  and  to  contain  forty  colossal  stat- 
ues, besides  bronze  reliefs  and  other  decorations. 
Michelangelo  spent  over  eight  months  in  Carrara 
procuring  the  marble  for  this,  the  darling  scheme 
of  his  life.  But  when,  after  his  return  £3  Rome, 
the  Pope,  moved  by  the  intrigues  of  Bramante, 
wished  to  defer  the  execution  of  the  monument, 
and  the  artist  was  slightingly  treated,  he  left 
Rome  in  a  rage,  sending  the  Pope  word  to  seek 
him  elsewhere.  Notwithstanding  the  latter's  ef- 
forts and  the  mediation  of  the  Florentine  govern- 
ment, a  reconciliation  was  not  efl'ected  till  the 
end  of  1506,  at  Bologna,  which  the  Pope  had  just 
added  to  the  Papal  domains.  Until  February  21, 
1608,  the  artist  was  occupied  with  the  bronze 
statue  of  Julius  II.,  three  times  life  size,  which 
was  destroyed  when  the  Bentivogli  recovered  the 
city  three  years  later.  Upon  rejoining  the  Pope 
at  Rome,  he  was  induced,  much  against  his  will, 
to  undertake  the  decoration  of  the  vault  of  the 
Sis  tine  Chapel. 

It  was  a  task  of  colossal  proportions  (the 
ceiling  alone  measuring  132  feet  by  44  feet), 
and  he  did  it  practically  alone.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1521,  the  scaffolding  was  removed.  Im- 
mediately upon  its  completion  it  was  hailed  as 
the  greatest  piece  of  work  ever  done  by  painter's 
hand.  Even  Raphael's  style  was  transformed 
after  he  had  seen  it.  Michelangelo  arranged 
the  vast  space  as  though  it  had  been  roof- 
less, framing  it  with  architecture  in  per- 
spective delusion,  and  filling  the  open  spaces 
with  paintings.  Just  above  the  windows  are  the 
figures  of  the  ancestry  of  Christ  in  attitudes  of 
eager  waiting;  above  them,  twelve  gigantic  fig- 
ures of  the  Prophets  and  Sibyls;  in  the  comers, 
four  representations  from  the  history  of  Israel; 


while  in  the  centre  of  the  vault  the  storiea  of  the 
"Creation  of  the  World,"  the  "Fall  of  Man,"  and 
of  the  "Deluge,"  are  told  in  nine  pictures.  The 
spaces  of  the  architecture  are  filled  with  figures 
of  nude  boys  and  genii  in  various  attitudes. 
Among  the  centra]  pictures  the  "Creation  of 
Adam"  is  preeminent.  Adam  is  depicted  just 
on  the  point  of  rising,  just  as  God's  touch  sends 
the  first  thrill  of  life  through  his  veins.  His 
body  is  the  perfection  of  anatomical  form  and 
action,  and  the  representation  of  the  Almighty  as 
the  incarnation  of  omnipotence  and  mild  com- 
passion has  never  been  equaled.  The  "Delphic 
Sibyl"  is  young  and  beautiful,  with  an  upturned 
look  of  rapture,  the  "Cumiean"  is  old  and  with- 
ered, the  wisdom  of  the  ages  in  her  counte- 
nance. Of  the  prophets,  Jeremiah  is  the  image 
of  deep  thought  and  Zacharias  a  type  of  mental 
absorption;  Jonah,  the  type  of  restored  life,  is  a 
nude  figure  of  remarkable  foreshortening. 

On  the  death  of  Julius  II.  in  1613,  Michel- 
angelo resumed  work  on  his  mausoleum,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  second  plan  on  a  slightly  reduced 
scale,  a  pen  and  ink  drawing  of  which  is  in  the 
Uffizi.  He  was  thus  occupi^  till  1616;  during 
this  time  he  executed,  at  least  in  part,  the  most 
important  of  the  statues  intended  for  it.  Fore- 
most of  these  is  the  "Moses" — certainly  the  great- 
est colossal  statue  in  modern  art.  Moses  is  por- 
trayed at  the  moment  when,  enraged  at  the 
idolatry  of  the  Israelites,  he  starts,  with  threat- 
ening brow,  to  quell  and  crush  them.  The  tech- 
nical execution  is  perfect,  even  to  such  details 
as  the  mighty  beard,  which  his  hand  grasps  con- 
vulsively, the  muscular  forearm,  and  the  wonder- 
ful fold  of  drapery  upon  his  knee.  The  two 
"Captive  Youths"  in  the  Louvre,  also  termed 
"Prisoners"  and  "Slaves,"  are  ideal  representa- 
tions of  the  arts,  dying  and  captive  because  of  the 
death  of  their  great  patron. 

In  December,  1616,  Michelangelo  was  com- 
pelled by  the  wishes  of  Pope  Leo  X.,  a  Medici,  to 
remove  to  Florence  and  busy  himself  with  a 
facade  for  San  Lorenzo,  the  family  church  of  the 
Medici.  He  wasted  three  years  of  his  life  in  the 
quarries  of  Carrara  and  Pietra  Santa  procuring 
the  marble  for  this  colossal  design,  when  in  1620 
the  Pope  gave  up  the  plan.  Then  Cardinal 
Giulio  de'  Medici  commanded  his  services  for  the 
Medicsean  Chapel  in  the  same  church,  upon  which 
work  was  begun  in  1621.  During  this  period  he 
foimd  time  for  the  "Christ  Risen,"  now  in  the 
Church  of  the  Minerva,  Rome,  upon  which  the 
finishing  touches  were  put  by  the  sculptor  Frizzi 
— a  figure  which  may  justly  be  termed  mannered, 
since  it  is  rather  an  athlete  than  a  Christ. 
Upon  Cardinal  Medici's  elevation  to  the  Papacy 
as  Clement  VII.  in  1623,  the  artist's  entire  time 
was  taken  up  by  the  designs  and  statues  for  the 
Medicsean  Chapel  and  plans  for  the  Laurentian 
Library.  This  work,  however,  was  interrupted 
by  the  last  great  struggle  of  Florence  for  liberty. 

Upon  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  army  of  Charles 
v.,  in  1527,  the  citizens  arose  and  drove  the 
Medici  from  Florence.  Though  he  had  never 
taken  active  part  in  public  life,  Michelangelo  was 
an  ardent  patriot,  willing  to  serve  his  country. 
On  January  26,  1529,  he  was  chosen  one  of  the 
nine  citizens  in  charge  of  the  defense  of  the 
city,  and  on  April  9th  he  became  governor  of 
the  fortifications.  His  work  took  him  to  Pisa 
and  Livorno,  and  he  visited  the  Duke  of  Ferrara, 
the  greatest  Italian  authority  on  fortifications. 


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MICHELANGELO 

'  MOSES,"    FROM   THE   STATUE   IN   THE   CHURCH    OF   SAN    PIETRO    IN   VINCOLI,   ROME 

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MICHELANGELO  BUONABBOTL 


But  convinced  that  Malatesta  Baglioni,  the  gen- 
eral of  the  mercenaries,  meant  U)  betray  Flor- 
ence— as  was  actually  the  case — in  September, 
1529,  he  fled  to  Venice.  He  was  received  with 
great  honor  by  the  Doge  and  nobility,  but,  de- 
clining their  hospitality  and  the  invitation  of 
the  King  of  France  to  enter  his  service,  he  re- 
turned to  Florence  and  resumed  his  duties  on  the 
fortifications.  After  the  capitulation  of  the  city, 
August  12,  1530,  he  remained  for  a  time  in  hid- 
ing, but,  on  the  Pope's  invitation  and  pardon, 
resumed  work  on  the  statues  for  the  MedicsBan 
Chapel.  He  had  also  received  a  commission  from 
the  city  for  a  colossal  "Hercules  and  Cacus,"  to 
stand  opposite  the  "David,"  in  commemoration 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici,  but  he  only  made 
the  wax  model  now  in  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum. A  copy  of  Michelangelo's  "Leda  and  the 
Swan,"  a  tempera  painting  executed  some  time 
later  for  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  is  at  Dresden. 

The  Chapel  of  the  Medici — ^the  new  sacristy  of 
San  Lorenzo— is  the  most  important  work  of  its 
kind  in  modern  art.  In  sculpture  it  marks  the 
culmination  of  Michelangelo's  style.  The  archi- 
tectural problem  was  not  constructive,  but  dec- 
orative ;  and,  conceived  as  a  framing  for  the  sculp- 
tures, the  architecture  is  above  criticism.  The 
sculptures  were  only  in  part  executed.  On  the 
entrance  wall  is  an  incomplete  statue  of  the  Ma- 
donna (1522)  by  Michelangelo,  flanked  by  the 
patron  saints  of  the  Medici,  Cosmas  by  Montor- 
soli,  and  Damian  by  Montelupo.  Far  more  im- 
portant are  the  tombs  of  the  two  Medicsan  dukes, 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  chapel.  The  dukes  are 
represented  over  life  size,  seated  above  their  sar- 
cophagi, and  are  rather  allegorical  than  portrait 
statues — ^the  representatives  of  contemplative  and 
active  life.  Lorenzo's  head  rests  heavily  on  his 
wrist,  and  the  beaver  of  his  helmet  is  drawn  over 
his  eyes,  which  ffaze  on  vacancy.  Giuliano  is 
represented  as  the  victorious  general  looking 
down  upon  the  battle-field.  Nothing  could  ex- 
ceed the  technical  perfection  of  his  Roman  cui- 
rass, and  of  his  hands  resting  upon  the  general's 
staff.  At  Lorenzo's  feet,  reclining  upon  the  sar- 
cophagus, are  "Dawn"  and  'Twilight;"  at  Giu- 
liano's  "Day"  and  "Night."  "Dawn"  is  the  most 
finished  and  beautiful  of  the  statues;  she  starts 
as  if  from  a  dream,  her  face  full  of  despondency. 
In  "Night,"  a  sleeping  woman  of  magnificent 
physique,  the  sculptor  has  solved  the  difficult 
problem  of  a  reclining  fiffure  in  profile.  "Twi- 
light" and  "Day"  are  male  figures  of  Herculean 
proportions,  the  heads  of  which  are  unfinished. 
"Day,"  the  grander  of  the  two,  is  represented  as 
gazing  over  his  shoulder,  showing  treatment  of 
the  muscles  of  the  back  in  this  difficult  position. 
In  reality,  these  allegories,  intended  for  quite  an- 
other purpose,  were  used  by  the  artist  to  express 
his  sorrow  for  the  loss  of  Florentine  liberty. 

Though  chiefly  engaged  upon  the  Medicsean 
statues,  Michelangelo  had  also  worked  at  Rome 
upon  the  tomb  of  Julius  II.  Luckily  he  was 
there  when  Clement  VII.  died  in  1534.  As  Duke 
Alessandro  of  Florence  was  bitterly  hostile  to 
him,  he  remained  at  Rome,  residing  there  until 
his  death.  At  last  he  hoped  to  complete  the 
Mausoleum,  which  had  been  the  darling  scheme, 
as  well  as  the  bane,  of  his  life.  By  threats  and 
lawsuits  the  heirs  of  Julius  II.  had  imbittered 
his  existence  during  the  reigns  of  Leo  and 
Clement,  but  the  popes  used  their  power  in 
his  behalf,  forcing  tae  heirs  to  repeated  changes 


of  contract,  each  of  which  reduced  the  scale  of 
the  monument.  Paul  III.  was  as  unwilling  as 
his  predecessors  to  forego  the  glory  of  l^ing 
served  by  Michelangelo.  He  annulled  the  con- 
tract with  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  Julius's  heir, 
compelling  the  latter  to  make  a  new  one  in  1542, 
according  to  which  the  tomb  was  flnally  erected 
before  1550.  As  it  now  stands  in  the  Church  of 
San  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  the  monument  is  but  a 
shadow  of  the  artist's  great  design.  The  statues 
adorning  the  lower  part  are  by  Michelangelo 
himself:  the  colossal  "Moses,"  and  on  either  side 
"Active  Life"  ("Leah")  and  "Contemplative  Life" 
("Rachel").  In  their  present  position,  which  was 
not  the  one  originally  intended,  the  two  female 
statues  are  dwarfed  by  the  architectural  sur- 
roundings. The  statues  of  the  upper  story  were 
imperfectly  executed,  after  Michelangelo's  de- 
signs, by  Montorsoli;  the  best  of  them  being  a 
Madonna,  begun  by  the  designer  himself.  Four 
rough-hewn  figures  in  the  Boboli  Gardens  (Flor- 
ence), and  an  incomplete  group  of  "Victory"  in 
the  Museo  Nazionale,  are  supposed  to  have  been 
parts  of  the  original  design  of  the  monument. 

Having  thus  freed  the  sculptor  from  all  cares 
regarding  the  monument,  Paul  III.  required  his 
services  for  the  completing  of  the  decoration  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel.  The  entire  altar  wall  (18 
meters  by  16)  was  to  be  covered  by  a  painting  of 
the  "Last  Judgment,"  the  cartoon  for  which  had 
been  executed  under  Clement  VII. ;  it  was  carried 
out  in  1534-41.  It  is  the  largest  fresco  in  th& 
world,  containing  above  a  hundred  figures,  over 
life  size.  The  centre  of  the  composition  is  Christ, 
a  beardless  figure  of  Herculean  proportion,  in  the 
act  of  condemnation,  and  the  Virgin  sits  shrink- 
ing beside  Him.  From  all  sides  the  terrified 
masses  stream  to  the  judgment  seat.  Below  the 
graves  are  opening  and  the  dead  become  flesh. 
The  colors  have  suffered  much  from  dust  and  can- 
dle smoke,  and  the  grand  flgures  are  much  de- 
faced. Their  nudity  having  aroused  adverse^ 
criticism,  Paul  IV.  emploj^ed  Daniele  da  Volterra 
to  clothe  the  most  conspicuous  examples — a  task 
for  which  he  received  the  name  of  *I1  Braccetone.*" 
Michelangelo's  last  paintings  (finished  in  1550) 
were  for  the  same  patron — two  large  frescoes  in 
the  Pauline  Chapel:  the  "Conversion  of  Saint 
Paul"  and  the  "Crucifixion  of  Peter,"  both  of 
which  were  spoiled  by  restoration. 

The  last  years  of  the  artist's  life  were  devoted 
chiefiy  to  architecture.  In  1546  he  designed  the 
beautiful  cornice  of  the  Famese  Palace,  and  in 
1547  he  was  appointed  chief  architect  of  Saint 
Peter's.  He  accepted  the  post  as  a  religious. 
duty,  refusing  all  pay,  and  imtil  his  death, 
through  the  reigns  of  five  popes,  he  filled  with 
credit  this  responsible  position.  Only  the  cupola 
of  the  present  edifice,  for  which  he  left  a  model, 
was  carried  out,  at  least  in  part,  according  to 
his  plans.  Unfortunately  he  left  no  model  for 
the  whole  church.  We  know,  however,  that  he 
returned  to  Bramante's  plan  of  a  Greek  cross, 
and  that  his  design  was  much  superior  to  the 
present  building.  (See  Saint  Peteb's  Chubch.) 
His  architectural  works  included  plans  for  the 
Porta  Pia,  and  the  transformation  of  the  Baths  of 
Diocletian  into  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli,  which 
was  unfortunately  rebuilt  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  although  his  court  of  a  hundred  columns 
survives.  The  general  plan  of  the  Capitoline  Hill 
is  due  to  him,  the  grand  staircase  and  the  Palace 
of  the  Senators  being  after  his  designs.  He  made 


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HICHEULNOELO  BUONABBOTI. 


a  number  of  gran4  designs  for  the  Church  of  the 
Florentines  at  Rome,  and  one  for  the  well-known 
staircase  of  the  Laurentian  Library,  Florence, 
which  was  carried  out  by  Vasari.  Finally,  his 
plans  were  followed  in  the  new  fortifications  of 
Rome. 

The  latter  part  of  Michelangelo's  life  was 
dominated  by  deep  religious  feeling,  which  found 
expression  in  his  drawings  and  poetry,  besides 
the  grand  religious  paintings  and  works  of  archi- 
tecture upon  which  he  was  engaged.  Of  wonder- 
ful pathos  and  deep  religious  feeling  is  the  un- 
finished sculptured  group,  the  "Deposition  from 
the  Cross,"  which  now  stands  behind  the  high 
altar  in  the  Cathedral  of  Florence.  But  the 
Florentine  patriot  was  revealed  in  his  bust  of 
Brutus  (Museo  Nazionale),  carved  when  Duke 
Alessandro  was  assassinated  by  Lorenzino  in 
1539.  Though  living  almost  like  a  hermit, 
Michelangelo  received  every  honor  that  could 
come  to  an  artist.  Under  successive  popes  he 
was  chief  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor  of  the 
Vatican ;  he  was  made  head  of  the  new  Academy 
of  Florence.  Popes,  kings,  and  princes  sought 
the  honor  of  a  work  by  his  hand.  He  died  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1564.  His  body  was  conveyed  secretly 
from  Rome  and  buried  at  Santa  Croce,  the 
Pantheon  of  Florence.  His  house  in  Florence 
was  left  by  the  last  surviving  member  of  the 
family  to  the  city,  and  is  now  used  as  a  museum 
of  his  works,  containing  the  family  archives. 

In  appearance  he  was  of  medium  height  and 
broad-snouldered ;  he  had  a  large  head,  with 
broad  forehead  and  protruding  temples,  small 
eyes,  and  a  nose  disfigured  by  a  fist  blow  of 
Torrigiano,  a  fellow  pupil  in  the  Medici  Gardens. 
He  was  of  a  noble  and  generous  character.  If 
lovingly  treated,  any  favors  could  be  obtained 
from  him;  but  if  treated  otherwise,  not  even  the 
popes  could  influence  him.  Some  of  his  most 
charming  traits  were  his  devotion  to  his  family; 
his  obedience  and  humility  toward  his  father,  a 
querulous  and  whimsical  man;  and  his  kindness 
to  his  greedy  brothers.  He  was  kind  and  gentle 
to  his  dependents,  and  fair  in  his  judgment  of 
other  artists ;  but  if  he  thought  himself  ridiculed 
his  tongue  could  be  sharp  enough.  The  sad 
experiences  of  a  highly  sensitive  nature  tended 
to  make  him  increasingly  suspicious  and  irrita- 
ble. Nevertheless,  he  remained  charitable  and 
generous,  and  he  was  scrupulously  honest  at  a 
time  when  this  was  a  virtue  exceedingly  rare. 

No  biography  of  Michelangelo  could  omit  men- 
tion of  the  beautiful  friendships  which  formed 
the  chief  joy  of  his  declining  years.  Chief  among 
these  was  his  friendship  for  Vittoria  Colonna. 
The  popular  idea,  which  sees  in  this  noble  old 
lady  the  artist's  Juliet,  is  quite  erroneous,  for 
their  relation  was  based  on  a  common  love  of 
literature  and  art  and  common  religious  views. 
In  Cavalieri,  a  handsome  and  accomplished 
young  Roman  nobleman,  as  in  other  young 
friends,  he  saw  an  idealization  of  youthful 
beauty. 

Michelangelo  has  been  admirably  characterized 
by  Burkhardt  as  the  *Man  of  Destiny'  in  the 
arts.  Never  in  history  were  they  so  dominated 
by  a  single  personality.  For  centuries  the  forms 
which  he  originated  dominated  architecture  and 
sculpture,  as  the  Baroque  style,  and,  to  a  large 
extent,  painting  as  well.  That  which  most  im- 
pressed them  and  his  contemporaries  was  the 
quality  which  the  Italians  call   terrihilitd — ^his 


stormy  energy  of  conception,  and  intense  dra- 
matic, even  violent  action.  With  him  this  was 
natural,  the  result  of  his  own  stormy  emotions; 
with  his  imitators  it  was  mannerism.  His  art  is 
sublime  rather  than  beautiful ;  its  chief  attribute 
is  power.  It  does  not  condescend  to  win,  but 
overwhelms  by  intellectual  grandeur  of  concep- 
tion and  technical  perfecti(m  of  execution.  It  is 
absolutely  original  and  unique.  Evident  in  his 
earliest  works,  this  quality  predominates  in- 
creasingly in  his  art,  becoming  arbitrary  in  later 
life.  He  is  a  destroyer  of  traditions,  a  creator 
of  new  types.  Such  an  artist  cannot  be  said 
to  belong  to  any  school;  he  stands  apart  in  a 
class  for  nimself. 

He  had,  perhaps,  the  most  perfect  command  of 
line  of  any  artist  of  whom  we  know.  For  his 
own  works,  as  well  as  independent  of  them,  he 
drew  great  numbers  of  designs,  sometimes  as 
many  as  a  dozen  heads  to  evolve  an  ideal  type. 
Nearly  all  the  chief  galleries  of  Europe  possess 
specimens  of  these  drawings.  In  early  life  the  pen 
was  his  favorite  instrument;  but  later,  when  he 
relied  more  upon  memory,  he  preferred  chalk  as  a 
softer  medium.  To  this  last  period  belong  the  most 
celebrated  examples,  like  the  "Phaeton,"  *Tithy- 
us,"  and  "Ganymede,"  drawn  for  Tommaso  Cava- 
lieri, the  series  of  designs  for  Christ's  "Cruci- 
fixion" and  **Deposition,"  meditative  and  deeply 
religious  in  mood;  and  the  "Arcieri"  ("Archers," 
Windsor  Collection),  nude  figures  of  wonderful 
beauty  and  grace. 

His  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  probably  more 
nearly  perfect  than  that  of  any  artist  since  the 
Greeks.  He  acquired  it  in  long  years  of  dili- 
gent study,  not  onlv  of  the  nude  model  and 
of  classic  sculpture,  but  through  use  of  the  dis- 
secting knife  m  a  laboratory  furnished  by  his 
enlightened  friend,  the  Prior  of  Santo  Spirito,  in 
Florence.  He  preferred  to  represent  the  human 
body  as  highly  developed,  and  he  inclined  to  the 
male  type.  His  women,  likewise  of  high  develop- 
ment, are  mostly  types  of  middle  life,  although  he 
created  a  few  youthful  examples  of  rare  b^uty, 
like  the  "Delphic  Sibyl"  and  the  "Madonna  of 
Bruges."  Like  the  Greeks,  he  used  the  human 
figure  as  expressive  of  emotion,  only  that  with 
him  the  emotion  is  particular  instead  of  general. 
Unlike  other  Italians,  he  generalizes  the  faces, 
refusing  all  portraiture. 

Michelangelo  was  essentially  a  sculptor,  and 
only  painted  under  protest.  In  every  block  of 
marble  he  saw  an  imprisoned  idea  awaiting  the 
sculptor's  art  to  be  freed.  He  probably  made 
previous  sketches,  and  in  his  early  period  used 
the  human  model,  but  his  usual  method  was  to 
use  only  a  small  wax  model.  Unlike  present-day 
sculptors,  he  did  all  the  work,  even  the  rough- 
hewing,  himself.  He  finished  the  bodies  first, 
reserving  the  heads  for  the  last.  In  his  paintings 
the  essentially  pictorial  qualities  of  perspective, 
atmosphere,  and  light  are  absent;  nor  was  he 
a  colorist  in  the  Venetian  sense.  His  color 
scheme  was  broadly  massive  and  subdued,  being 
subordinated  to  the  human  figures  in  his  pic- 
tures. His  paintings  are  decorative  in  the  high- 
est sense,  and  in  his  artistic  development  they 
are  of  especial  importance,  because  he  found  a 
more  facile  medium  in  painting  than  in  sculpture 
for  the  expression  of  his  titanic  thoughts. 
His  architecture  was  decorative  rather  than 
constructive.  He  regarded  only  the  general 
effect,    which    he    obtained    by    heavy    masses 


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of  light  and  shade,  requiring  of  detail  only  a 
sharp  and  effective  formation.  In  the  cupola  of 
Saint  Peter's,  however,  he  created  a  complete 
constructive  masterpiece,  as  perfect  as  any  of 
the  early  Renaissance. 

Michelangelo's  poetry  was  valued  as  highly  by 
his  contemporaries  as  were  his  other  artistic  ac- 
tivities. They  admired  especially  its  deep  phil- 
osophic thought,  in  which  respect  he  indeed 
stands  above  the  other  poets  of  his  day.  Indeed, 
the  value  of  his  poetry  is  rather  psychological 
than  literary;  it  is  often  obscure  and  labored  in 
expression.  But  when  his  nature  was  stirred  by 
powerful  emotions,  it  found  expression  in  some 
of  the  most  beautiful  sonnets  and  madrigals  in 
the  Italian  or  any  other  language.  Some  of  the 
very  finest  are  dedicated  to  Vittoria  Colonna  and 
Tommaso  Cavalierf;  these  are  mostly  love  poems. 
Others,  like  madrigals  on  the  loss  of  Florentine 
liberty,  are  patriotic  in  character  and  many  are 
deeply  religious,  expressing  the  dignified  attitude 
of  a  great  soul,  calmly  awaiting  the  end. 

Btbliogbapbt.  The  most  important  sources 
for  the  life  of  Michelangelo  are  the  documents 
preserved  in  the  Casa  Buonarroti,  Florence,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  letters  to  and  from  the  artist, 
his  poems,  memoranda,  contracts,  and  like  ma- 
terial, and  a  large  collection  of  his  letters  pur- 
chased by  the  British  Museum  in  1859  from 
one  of  the  Buonarroti  family.  The  latter  were 
first  made  known  to  the  public  by  Hermann 
Grimm  in  his  Lehen  Michelangelos;  a  selection 
of  the  former  waa  indifferently  edited  by  Mila- 
nesi,  Le  lettere  di  Michelangelo  (Florence,  1875), 
and  Les  correspondanta  de  Michel  Ange,  tome  i. 
(Sebastiano  del  Piombo,  Paris,  1891).  By  far 
the  best  edition  of  the  letters,  comprising  all  of 
historical  importance,  many  for  the  first  time 
published,  is  that  of  Carl  Frey  (Berlin,  1899). 
Of  high  importance  are  the  contemporary  biog- 
raphies of  Michelangelo.  The  earliest  of  these 
appeared  in  the  first  edition  of  Vasari's  Lives 
(Florence,  1550).  The  inaccuracies  of  this  ac- 
count impelled  Ascanio  Ck)ndivi,  then  an  inmate 
of  Michelangelo's  household,  to  write  his  brief 
biography  (Rome,  1553;  later  edition,  Pisa, 
1823).  Based  on  the  recollection  of  the  great 
artist  himself,  this  is  the  most  important  and 
reliable  source,  after  his  correspondence.  It  was 
pirated  without  acknowledgment  by  Vasari  in  his 
second  edition  of  the  Lives  ( 1568 ;  edited  by  Mila- 
nesi,  Florence,  1878),  who  supplied  valuable 
additional  information  on  Michelangelo's  later 
years.  Both  of  these  biographies,  together  with 
other  contemporary  biographical  materials,  are 
best  edited  by  Frey,  Sammlung  atisgetDdhlter  Bio- 
graphien  Vaaaris  (Berlin,  1887). 

The  most  important  modern  biographies  of 
Michelangelo  are  those  of  Duppa  (Lcmdon, 
1806)  ;  Quatremfere  de  Quincy  (Paris,  1835)  ; 
Harford  (London,  1857);  Grimm  (Hanover, 
1860);  Clement  (Paris,  1860;  translated  in 
"Great  Artist  Series")  ;  Gotti  (Florence,  1875)  ; 
Black  (London,  1875) ;  Heath  Wilson  (London, 
1876)  ;  Perkins  (Boston,  1878)  ;  Springer  (Leip- 
zig, 1892);  Scheffler  (Altenburg,  1892); 
Symonds  (London  and  New  York,  1892)  ;  Knack- 
fuss  (Bielefeld,  1895)  ;  Justi  (Leipzig,  1900)  ; 
Ricci  (Florence,  1901);  Gower  (London,  1903); 
and  Holroyd  (ib.,  1903).  The  first  critical  work 
was  that  of  Grimm  (10th  ed.,  Berlin,  1901; 
English  translation,  New  York,  1896),  in 
which    the    artist    is    sympathetically    treated 


and  with  high  literary  skill.  Although  as 
much  space  is  devoted  to  his  time  and  environ- 
ment as  to  the  artist  himself,  it  remains  the  best 
work  for  the  general  reader.  Wilson's  work  is 
valuable  from  a  technical  standpoint,  as  is  also 
the  admirable  volume  of  the  Gazette  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  entitled  L'ceuvre  et  la  vie  de  Michel  Ange, 
written  by  seven  French  artists.  Of  value  for 
the  artist's  youthful  period  is  WSlflin,  Die  Ju- 
gendwerke  Michelangelos  (Berlin,  1887). 
Springer's  Raffael  und  Michelangelo  (Leipzig, 
1892)  is  a  work  of  sound  learning  and  criticism. 
The  most  complete  English  life,  of  high  literary 
and  historical  value,  is  that  of  Symonds. 
Thode's  Michelangelo  und  das  Ende  der  Renais- 
sance (Berlin,  1902-3,  of  which  the  first  two  vol- 
umes have  appeared)  gives  an  exhaustive  treat- 
ment from  the  psychological  standpoint. 

Michelangelo's  poems  suffered  much  by  being 
known  through  the  garbled  and  mutilated  edition 
of  his  grandson,  Michelangelo  the  younger.  A 
more  complete  edition  was  that  of  Guasti  ( Flor- 
ence, 1863)  ;  but  the  best  is  by  Frey  (Berlin, 
1897).  Symonds  has  made  an  excellent  Eng- 
lish translation  of  selected  examples  of  the 
sonnets.  Consult,  also,  Lang,  Michelangelo  als 
Dichter  (Stuttgart,  1861)  ;  Thomas,  Michel  Ange, 
podte  (Paris,  1891) ;  and  the  admirable  essay  of 
Walter  Pater,  in  his  Studies  in  the  History  of  the 
Renaissance  (London,  1873). 

MICHELET,  m^'shlA',  Jules  (1798-1874). 
The  greatest  French  historian  of  the  Romantic 
School,  bom  in  Paris,  August  21,  1798,  the  son 
of  a  printer.  He  studied  literature  under  Ville- 
main  (q.v.),  and  at  twenty-three  became  profes- 
sor of  history  in  the  Ck>ll^  Rollin.  He  delivered 
lectures  at  the  ancient  College  Sainte-Barbe  and 
the  Ecole  Normale,  and,  after  the  Liberal  tri- 
umph in  1830,  received  an  appointment  at  the 
Record  Ofiice,  was  made  assistant  of  Guizot  at 
the  Sorbonne,  and  tutor  of  the  Princess  Clemen- 
tine. In  1838  he  was  made  Academician  and 
professor  in  the  Coll^  de  France,  where  he 
presently  became  involved  in  a  bitter  controvcrsv 
with  the  Jesuits,  the  popular  echoes  of  whicn 
may  be  felt  in  Sue's  (q.v.)  famous  novel  Le  juif 
errant.  In  1851  he  refused  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  Napoleon,  lost  his  offices,  and  lived  mainly  in 
Brittany  and  on  the  Riviera,  giving  himself 
wholly  to  literature,  chiefiy  poetically  romantic 
impressions  of  nature:  L'oiseau  (1856);  L*in- 
secte  (1857);  La  mer  (1861);  La  montagne 
(1868)  ;  of  society,  L'amour  (1858)  ;  La  femme 
(1860)  ;  La  sorci^e  (1862)  ;  La  hihle  de  Vhuma- 
niti  (1864);  and  'Nos  fils  (1869).  From  this 
imaginative  and  sociologic  work  he  returned  in 
his  last  years  to  history,  adding  three  volumes 
(1872-75)  to  the  eighteen  (1833-67)  of  his  His- 
toire  de  France,  and  bringing  the  narrative  to 
Waterloo.  Besides  this  monumental  work,  he 
had  contributed  to  history  a  Precis  d'histoire 
modeme  (1828);  Introduction  d  Vhistoire  uni- 
vcrselle  (1831);  Origines  du  droit  franQais 
(1837)  ;  Le  proems  des  templiers  (1841-51)  ;  M^- 
moires  de  Luther  (1845)  ;  and  to  religious  and 
political  controversy,  Les  J  ^suites  (in  collabora- 
tion with  Edgar  Quinet,  1843)  ;  Du  pritre  et  de 
la  famille  (1845)  ;  Du  peuple  (1846).  Charac- 
teristics of  all  Michelet's  work  are  democratic 
enthusiasm,  hatred  of  priests,  sympathy  for  the 
oppressed,  and  a  picturesque  imagination  that 
transformed  vast  learning  into  poetry  and  history 
into    intuition.    He    is    seldom    an     objective 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MICHELET. 


488 


HICHELSON. 


observer  and  rarely  a  dispaBsionate  judge. 
Michelet's.  style,  like  his  history,  lacks  con- 
tinuity, it  is  striking  rather  than  flowing, 
proceeds  by  leaps  and  bounds,  appeals  by  rhythm 
as  well  as  thought  to  emotion  rather  than  reason. 
Michelet  died  at  Hyferes,  February  5,  1874.  An 
edition  of  Michelet's  Work9  in  40  volumes  ( 1895 
et  seq.)  is  nearly  completed.  Besides  the  auto- 
biographical Ma  jetmesse  (Paris,  1884)  and  Mon 
journal  (ib.,  1888),  consult  for  his  life:  Simon 
(ib.,  1886),  Corr6ard  (ib.,  1886),  Monod  (ib.. 
1905),  Brunhes  (ib.,  1898),  and  Madame  (^uinet 
{Cinquante  ana  d*amiiie,  ib.,  1900) ;  for  criti- 
cism, Faguet,  XIXe  Steele  (ib.,  1891);  Taine, 
Essaia  (ib.,  1855-56);  and  Quarterly  Review 
(London,  1901). 

MICHELET,  mlsh'lA',  Karl  Ludwio  (1801- 
93).  A  German  philosopher.  He  was  bom  at 
Berlin  and  graduated  at  the  University  of  Berlin. 
In  1829  he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
there.  He  published  a  large  number  of  works 
on  metaphysical  subjects,  including  Die  Ethik 
d€8  Aristoteles  (1827);  Das  System  der  philo- 
aophiachen  Moral  (1828) ;  Oeachichte  der  letzten 
Syateme  der  Philoaophie  in  Deutachland  von  Kant 
hia  Hegel  (1837-38);  and  Anthropologie  und 
Paychologie  (1840).  From  1860  to  1875  he 
edited  Der  Qedanke  (Berlin,  1860  et  seq.). 

HICH'ELINOA.    A  fossil  coral.    See  Favo- 

BITES. 

MICHETJi,  mlch^el,  John  (1724-93).  An 
English  physicist  and  astronomer.  He  graduated 
at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1748,  became 
a  fellow  there  the  next  year,  and  in  1762  was 
appointed  professor  of  geology.  He  invented  the 
torsion  balance,  with  the  aid  of  which  Cavendish 
later  determined  the  mean  density  of  the  earth, 
and  devised  an  "easy  and  expeditious  method" 
of  making  magnets,  described  in  a  Treatiae  of 
Artificial  Magnet  a  (1750).  He  rendered  impor- 
tant services  to  astronomy  through  numerous 
original  contributions,  including  his  Enquiry 
into  the  Probable  ParalloiD  and  Magnitude  of  the 
Fixed  Stara  from  the  Quantity  of  Light  Which 
They  Afford  Ua  (1767). 

mCHELOZZIy  mdlc^lOt^sd,  Miohelozzo 
(1391-1472).  A  Florentine  architect  and  sculp- 
tor. He  was  the  preferred  artistic  adviser  of 
Cosmo  de*  Medici.  Michelozzi  was  bom  at  Flor- 
ence, the  son  of  Bartolommeo,  a  Burgundian 
tailor,  who  was  made  a  citizen  of  Florence  in 
1376.  His  name  is  a  variation  of  Michele.  He 
was  brought  up  as  a  die-cutter  and  goldsmith, 
and  assisted  Ghilberti  on  the  doors  of  the  Bap- 
tistery. At  an  early  period  he  appears  to  have 
come  under  the  influence  of  Brunelleschi,  and 
in  1492  he  entered  into  an  association  with 
Donatello  which  lasted  until  about  1435.     See 

DONATELLO. 

The  little  independent  sculpture  which  can  be 
definitely  ascribed  to  Michelozzi  is  inferior,  and 
is  a  resultant  of  the  influences  of  Donatello  and 
Luca  della  Robbia.  The  bas-reliefs  of  the  Ara- 
gazzi  Monument,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Montepul- 
ciano,  are  the  best  of  this  work;  another  well- 
known  example  is  the  silver  figure  of  John  the 
Baptist  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  Florence. 

After  1435  his  work  became  increasingly  archi- 
tectural. In  1446  he  succeeded  Brunelleschi  as 
architect  of  the  Florentine  Cathedral,  but  ap- 
pears to  have  done  very  little  on  that  building. 
He  built  or  rebuilt  the   churches   of  Mu^ello, 


of  the  Frati  Zoccolanti  near  Caffagiuolo,  of  San 
Girolamo  near  Volterra,  of  San  Girolamo  near 
Fiesole,  and  the  Chapel  of  the  Medici  in  Santa 
Croce,  Florence.  Between  1437  and  1452  Mi- 
chelozzi superintended  the  construction  of  the 
Monastery  of  San  Marco  in  Florence.  The  library 
and  the  two  courts,  where  the  Ionic  order  appears 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Renaissance,  are  espe- 
cially interesting.  From  1444  to  1455  he  was 
chief  architect  of  the  Monastery  of  the  Annun- 
ziata  in  Florence.  In  1457  he  went  to  Milan 
to  rebuild  the  fine  palace  presented  by  Francesco 
Sforza  to  Cosmo  de'  Medici.  Of  his  work  in  this 
city  only  the  chapel  of  the  Portinari,  on  the 
exterior  of  San  Eustorgio,  survives. 

His  most  famous  work,  however,  is  the  Ric- 
cardi  Palace  in  Florence,  built  for  the  Medici, 
and  finished  about  1440.  Models  were  made  by 
both  Michelozzi  and  Brunelleschi,  the  former 
receiving  the  preference  on  account  of  its  sim- 
plicity. The  Riccardi  Palace,  which  is  perhaps 
the  finest  city  house  in  existence,  is  really  only 
a  development  of  the  typical  Florentine  palace 
of  the  Middle  Ages  under  the  refining  influence 
of  classical  ideals.  The  last  of  Michelozzi's 
larger  undertakings,  his  work  upon  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio  in  Florence,  was  begun  in  1454.  His  last 
recorded  work  is  the  Palazzo  Rettorale  at  Ragusa 
in  Dalmatia  (1464).  Consult:  Schmarsow,  in 
Archivio  atorico  delV  arte,  vol.  vi.;  Geymilller, 
Jahrbuch  der  kdniglich  preuaaiachen  Sammlun- 
gen,  vol.  xv. 

HICHELSEN,  Peteb  Christian  (1857—). 
Norwegian  statesman,  bom  at  Bergen.  He  be- 
came prominent  as  a  lawyer  and  ship-owner,  was 
elected  to  the  Storthing  in  1891,  and  from  the 
radical  Left  passed  over  in  1903  to  the  coalition 
of  conservatives  and  liberals  which  was  in  favor 
of  an  amicable  settlement  of  the  consular  rep- 
resentation dispute  with  Sweden.  In  October  he 
entered  the  Hagerup  ministry,  representative  of 
that  party,  first  as  member  of  the  State  council 
at  Stockholm  and  later  as  minister  of  finance. 
Upon  the  resignation  of  Hagerup  in  March,  1905, 
Michelsen  formed  a  new  cabinet,  and  with  the 
unanimous  support  of  the  Storthing  entered  on  a 
course  of  rapid  action  which  culminated  in  the 
dissolution  of  the  union  with  Sweden.  (For  de- 
tails see  NoBWAT. )  Michelsen  was  instrumental 
in  the  election  of  Prince  Charles  of  Denmark 
(Haakon  VII.)  as  king,  and  by  the  new  monarch 
was  appointed  first  premier  of  independent  Nor- 
way in  November,  1905. 

HICHELSON,  ml^el-son,  Aiaebt  Abraham 
(1852 — ).  An  American  physicist,  bom  in 
Strelno,  Germany,  and  brought  up  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. He  graduated  from  the  Naval  Academy 
in  1873,  and  after  several  years*  service  in  the 
navy  went  abroad  and  studied  at  Berlin,  Heidel- 
berg, and  Paris  (1880-82).  On  his  retum  to 
America,  Michelsen  became  professor  of  phys- 
ics at  the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio;  then  held  a  like  chair  in  Clark 
University  (1889-92)  ;  and  in  1892  became  head 
of  the  department  of  physics  in  the  University 
of  Chicago.  His  determinations  of  the  velocity 
of  light  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  his 
results  are  marked  by  a  high  degree  of  accu- 
racy. These  experiments  were  begun  in  1878, 
when  Professor  Michelson  was  at  the  Naval 
Academy,  and  were  concluded  in  1882.  His  in- 
vention, in  1887,  of  an  interferential  refracto- 
meter  enabled  him  to  determine  linear  distances 
in  terms  of  the  wave  length  of  light,  and  he 

Digitized  by  CjOOQIC 


MICHELSON. 


430 


MICHIOAN. 


was  invited  by  the  International  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Measures  at  Paris  to  ascertain  the 
len^h  of  the  standard  meter  in  terms  of  the 
wave  length  of  cadmium  light.  This  investiga- 
tion was  of  neat  importance  in  that  it  enables 
the  Meter  of  the  Archives  to  be  reproduced  at 
any  time  by  reference  to  certain  known  quantities 
which  are  not  only  constant,  but  also  are  readily 
reproducible.  In  connection  with  Professor  Mor- 
ley,  Professor  Michelson  carried  on  a  series  of 
elaborate  experiments  designed  to  show  the  rela- 
tive motion  of  matter  and  ether.  He  also  devised 
the  echelon  spectroscope,  by  which  he  was  able 
to  secure  greater  dispersion  than  with  a  prism, 
and  thus  was  able  to  study  the  Zeeman  effect 
and  other  phenomena.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  the  Interna- 
tional Committee  on  Weights  and  Measures,  and 
of  other  learned  bodies. 

mCHETTI,  md-ket^t^,  Fbancesoo  Paolo 
(1861 — ).  An  Italian  painter,  bom  at  Tocco 
da  Casauria.  He  belongs  to  the  new  school  of 
Italian  painters.  His  works  are  genre  subjects 
of  peasant  life  in  Southern  Italy,  painted  with  a 
rich  color  and  much  dramatic  insight.  His 
"Corpus  Domini"  ( 1877 ) ,  "Domenica  delle  Palme" 
(1879),  "Ottava,"  "I  Morticelli,"  and,  above  all, 
^*I1  Voto"  (1884),  at  the  Capitoline  Museum, 
Kome,  are  good  examples  of  this  school  of  Italian 
art. 

MICHTE,  mlK%  Peter  Smith  (1830-1901). 
An  American  educator  and  soldier.  He  was  born 
in  Brechin,  Scotland,  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1843,  and  was  brought  up  in  Cincinnati.  He 
.graduated  second  in  the  class  of  1863  at  West 
Point  and  entered  the  engineer  corps;  served  in 
the  campaign  of  1864  against  Richmond;  was 
•chief  engineer  o!  the  Army  of  the  James  ( 1865) ; 
and  was  at  the  head  of  all  engineering  operations 
of  the  left  column  at  Hatcher's  Run  and  in  the 
pursuit  of  Lee's  army.  After  the  war,  having 
attained  brevet  rank  of  brigadier  in  1865,  he  was 
for  a  year  engaged  in  the  Government  survey 
of  the  theatre  of  the  war;  from  1867  to  1860 
he  taught  various  branches  at  West  Point;  was 
member  of  a  coastal  fortification  commission 
which  visited  Europe  in  1870;  and  for  the  last 
thirty  years  of  his  life  was  professor  of  natu- 
ral and'  experimental  philosophy  at  West  Point. 
He  wrote:  Element9  of  Wave  Motion  Relating 
to  Sound  and  Light  (1882);  Life  of  General 
Upton  (1885);  The  Personnel  of  the  Seacoast 
Defense  (1887);  Analytical  Mechanics  (1887); 
hydrodynamics  (1888);  and  General  McClellan 
(New  York,  1001),  in  the  "Great  Commanders 
Series." 

HICHIELS,  m^'HWl^W  Alfred  (1813-92).  A 
French  historian  and  writer  on  art  and  litera- 
ture, bom  in  Rome  of  Dutch-Burgundian  parents. 
He  began  his  law  studies  at  Strassburg  (1834), 
but  made  his  home  in  Paris.  His  publications 
include:  Etudes  sur  VAllemagne  (1830);  His- 
toire  des  id^es  litt4raires  en  France  au  XlXe 
-sidcle  et  de  leur  origines  dans  les  siMes  ant4- 
rieurs  (1842);  Angleterre  (1844),  of  which  a 
fourth  edition  (1872)  was  called  Voyage  d*un 
amateur;  Histoire  de  la  peinture  flamande  et 
hollandaise  (1845,  new  ed.,  enl.,  1865-76),  and 
its  sequel,  L'art  flamand  dans  Vest  et  le  midi  de 
la  France  (1877)  ;  L'architecture  et  la  peinture 
€n  Europe  depuis  le  IVe  au  XVIe  si^cle  (3d  ed. 


1873) ;  Ruhens  et  V^cole  d^Anvers  (4th  ed. 
1877)  ;  Histoire  secrete  du  gouvemement  att- 
trichien  (4th  ed.  1879) ;  Le  comte  de  Bismarck 
(1871) ;  Histoire  de  la  guerre  franco-prussienne 
(1872) ;  Van  Dyck  et  ses  (leves(\%%0)  ;  Le  monde 
du  oomique  et  du  rire  (1887). 

HICHIGAKy  mlsh^-gan  (Algonquin  michi, 
great  +  guma,  water).  One  of  the  States  of  the 
American  Union,  situated  in  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes.  It  lies  between  41°  42'  and  47  * 
32'  north  latitude  and  82"  24'  and  90**  31'  west 
longitude,  and  consists  of  two  natural  divisions, 
the  Upper  Peninsula  and  the  Lower  Peninsula. 
The  Upper  Peninsula,  with  an  extreme  length  of 
318  miles,  and  an  extreme  width  at  Keweenaw 
Point  of  164  miles,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Lake  Superior  and  on  the  south  by  Wisconsin  and 
Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron.  On  the  east  the 
Saint  Mary's  River  separates  it  from  the  Prov-' 
ince  of  Ontario,  Canada,  and  the  Menominee 
River  forms  about  one-half  of  its  Wisconsin 
boundary.  The  Lower  Peninsula  is  in  the  form 
of  a  mitten,  the  thumb  being  separated  from  the 
hand  by  Saginaw  Bay,  the  whole  division  being 
surrounded,  except  in  the  south,  by  Lakes  Michi- 
gan and  Huron,  the  Saint  Clair  River,  Lake  Saint 
Clair,  the  Detroit  River,  and  Lake  Erie,  and 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  States  of  Indiana 
and  Ohio.  It  has  a  length  of  300  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  an  average  width  of  200 
miles.  The  State  has  an  area  of  57,980  square 
miles,  including  500  square  miles  of  water,  rank- 
ing eighteenth  in  size  among  the  States  of  the 
Union. 

TopoGBAPHY.  Michigan  occupies  an  exceptional 
position.  Lying  within  the  embrace  of  the  three 
largest  of  the  Great  Lakes,  it  possesses  a  coast 
line  longer  in  proportion  to  its  area  than  that  of 
any  other  state  in  the  Union.  Further,  the  coast 
waters  possess  many  good  harbors  and  are  navi- 
gable for  large  craft.  Ships  of  2000  tons  can 
sail  within  sight  of  land  all  round  the  State. 
The  surface  of  the  State  is  in  general  level  and 
monotonous,  the  northern  peninsula  being  some- 
what rugged  and  rocky.  The  highest  elevation 
is  in  the  west  end  of  the  northern  peninsula  in 
the  Porcupine  Mountains,  a  gentle  ridge  running 
northeast  and  southwest  into  Wisconsin.  It  in- 
cludes the  famous  Copper  Range.  The  highest 
point  in  the  State  is  about  1800  feet  above  the 
sea,  or  about  1200  above  lake  level;  in  the 
southern  peninsula  the  elevation  nowhere  ex- 
ceeds  600  teet  above  the  lakes.  The  mean  eleva- 
tion of  the  State  is  less  than  200  feet  above 
lake  level.  There  are  two  high  areas  to  the 
southeast  and  northwest  of  Saginaw  Bay,  re- 
spectively. The  glacial  sheet  descending  from 
the  northeast  encountered  this  resisting  wall  and 
split,  turning  in  the  direction  of  the  softer  rocks 
on  each  side  into  the  Huron-Erie  and  the  Lake 
Michigan  regions,  and  cutting  out  basins  for  the 
present  lakes.  Southern  Michigan  is  marked  by 
two  parallel  ridges  or  topographic  axes  running 
northeast  and  southwest.  The  southern  axis  runs 
along  a  line  roughly  from  Ann  Arbor  to  Pontiac ; 
the  northern  axis  runs  from  the  region  north  of 
Saginaw  Bay  southwest  toward  the  Muskegon 
River. 

The  rivers  of  Michigan  follow  the  morainal 
valleys  around  in  a  circular  course — usually 
southward.  The  largest  streams  in  the  Upper 
Peninsula  are  the  Taquamenon  and  Outonagon, 
draining  into  Lake  Superior,  and  the  Ford,  Es- 


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capaba,  and  Manistique,  draining  into  Lake 
Michigan.  The  Lower  Peninsula  is  watered  by 
the  Manistee,  Muskegon,  Grand,  Italaniazoo,  and 
Saint  Joseph,  which  flow  into  Lake  Michigan; 
by  the  Cheboygan,  Thunder  Bay,  Au  Sable,  and 
Saginaw,  flowing  into  Lake  Huron;  and  by  the 
Huron  and  Raisin,  flowing  into  Lake  Erie.  Most 
of  the  rivers  are  small,  and  the  largest  are 
navigable  by  river  boats  only  for  short  distances. 
The  morainal  districts  are  also  crowded  with 
lakes  and  ponds,  some  tributary  to  the  rivers, 
draining  the  valleys,  others  deep  tarns  caught 
between  the  moraines  and  possessing  no  outlet. 
These  lakes  and  ponds  of  Michigan  are  estimated 
at  from  6000  to  15,000  in  number.  The  Kalama- 
zoo River  alote  has  within  its  basin  175  tribu- 
tary and  150  non-tributary  lakes,  and  other 
rivers  are  similarly  supplied.  They  are  valuable 
sources  of  water  supply,  and  when  they  disappear 
their  beds  furnish  a  black  muck  soil  with  a  shell 
marl  subsoil  which  is  excellent  for  garden  cul- 
ture. Other  lakes  owe  their  origin  to  the  erosion 
of  limestone  forming  caves  and  sink  holes,  or  to 
the  sand  bars  built  across  the  mouths  of  bays  or 
rivers  by  the  Great  Lakes  at  the  present  or  at 
a  higher  stage  of  elevation.  Still  another  source 
of  these  numerous  lakes  is  the  tilting  of  the 
earth's  crust  which  flooded  old  river  valleys  and 
landlocked  the  waters  within.  If  Professor  Gil- 
bert's theory  is  true,  this  process  is  even  now 
going  on.  If  the  land  is  rising  Ave  inches  a 
century  per  hundred  miles  along  an  axis  through 
Niagara  Falls  and  northeastern  Michigan,  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  Saginaw  Bay  will  soon  be  a  lake. 
In  fact,  even  now  it  is  practically  stagnant. 

Upward  of  200  islands  belong  to  Michigan. 
The  largest  are  Isle  Royale  and  Grande  Isle 
in  Lake  Superior;  Sugar  Island,  Encampment 
Island,  Drummond  Island*  Bois  Blanc,  Mackinac, 
and  Marquette  at  the  head  of  Lake  Huron;  and 
the  Beaver,  Fox,  and  Manitou  groups  at  the 
head  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  chief  indentations 
of  the  coast  of  the  Lower  Peninsula  are  Grand 
and  Little  Traverse  bays  on  the  northwest, 
and  Thunder  and  Saginaw  bays  on  the  east 
side.  In  the  northern  peninsula  are  Keweenaw 
Bay  east  of  Keweenaw  Peninsula,  and  White 
Fish  Bay  on  the  northern  shore  at  the  west 
end  of  Saint  Mary's  River.  On  the  south  are 
the  Big  Bay  and  the  Little  Bay  of  Noquet  at 
the  head  of  Green  Bay.  One  of  the  interesting 
features  of  the  Michigan  coast  is  the  'Pictured 
Rocks'  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  northern 
peninsula,  where  the  Cambrian  sandstones  are 
carved  by  the  action  of  the  water  into  fantastic 
shapes — arches,  towers,  castles,  etc.  In  some 
places  steamers  can  pass  directly  under  the  rocks 
and  behind  falling  cascades. 

Cum  ATE.  Though  Michigan  lies  in  the  heart 
of  the  north  temperate  zone,  the  northern  penin- 
sula has  a  rigorous  climate.  Only  in  the  south- 
em  tier  of  counties  are  the  plant  and  animal 
species  wholly  austral.  The  average  track  of 
the  extra-tropical  cyclonic  storms  for  all  the 
continent  crosses  the  State.  Over  450  such  dis- 
turbances passed  that  way  in  ten  years.  The  aver- 
age temperatures  for  July  are  65°  F.  for  Bes- 
semer and  Mackinac,  and  70**  F.  for  Detroit.  The 
southwestern  side  of  the  Upper  Peninsula  and 
the  southeastern  comer  of  the  Lower  Peninsula 
have  a  maximum  temprature  of  100**.  The  win- 
ter minimum  is  20®  below  zero  for  Detroit,  and  30** 
below  at  Keweenaw  Point.    This  gives  a  range 


of  130**  for  the  Upper  Peninsula  and  of  120*^ 
for  the  Lower.  Sault  Sainte  Marie  holds  the 
United  States  record  for  the  frequency  of  cold 
waves,  with  a  fall  of  20°  F.  or  over  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  average  rainfall  for  the  State 
is  30  inches.  The  northern  peninsula  from 
Keweenaw  Pojnt  to  Sault  Sainte  Marie  holds 
the  record  in  the  United  States  for  the  heaviest 
annual  snowfall,  130  inches.  This  is  reduced 
to  only  40  inches  at  Ann  Arbor.  Presque  Isle- 
County  has  precipitation,  on  the  average,  170 
days  in  the  year,  sharing  with  Buffalo  the  high- 
est record  in  the  United  States  east  of  Cape 
Flattery.  The  prevailing  winds  for  January  and 
July  alike  are  southwest  for  the  Lower  Peninsula 
and  northwest  for  the  Upper.  There  are  on  the 
average  twenty  thunderstorms  per  year,  with  a 
maximum  frequency  in  July. 

For  Flora  and  Fauna,  see  these  sections  under 
United  States. 

Geology.  The  State  of  Michigan  in  its  Upper 
and  Ix)wer  peninsulas  has  all  the  recognized 
series  of  rocks  from  Archsean  to  Carboniferous- 
inclusive.  The  earlier  part  of  this  record  ia 
represented  in  great  detail  in  the  rocks  of  the 
northern  peninsula.  In  fact,  the  region  around 
Lake  Superior,  including  northern  portions  of 
Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan,  has  had  an 
extremely  involved  geological  history,  the  care- 
ful and  detailed  study  of  which,  by  a  host  of 
geologists,  has  added  more  largely  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  pre-Cambrian  geology  than  any  equiva- 
lent area  in  the  world.  This  study  has  disclosed 
a  whole  system  (Algonkian)  of  rocks  below  the 
Paleozoic,  representing  ^rhaps  a  longer  lapse  of 
ages  than  all  the  time  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Cambrian.  The  earliest  beds  of  the  Algonkian 
are  much  metamorphosed  and  cut  in  every  direc- 
tion by  dikes  and  sills  of  igneous  intrusives  and 
extrusives.  The  Penokee-Gogebic  and  the  Mar- 
quette-Menominee members  of  this  system  are 
tne  great  iron-bearing  beds  of  the  northern  penin- 
sula. They  dip  down  under  the  bed  of  Lake 
Superior  and  outcrop  again  in  the  Vermilion 
and  Mesabi  ranges  in  Minnesota.  At  the  top  of 
the  Algonkian  are  the  copper-bearing  beds.  The 
copper  is  found  usually  in  clastic  beds,  largely 
in  conglomerates,  though  sometimes  in  sandstone 
and  adjacent  lava  sheets. 

The  Lower  Peninsula  of  Michigan  is  essentially 
a  bowl-shaped  depression  in  the  pre-Cambrian 
crust,  between  the  old  Archsean  island  of  North 
Wisconsin  and  the  similar  island  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks.  This  grand  synclinal  trough  was  being- 
filled  with  sediments  through  Cambrian,  Ordo- 
vician,  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carboniferous- 
ages,  the  successive  deposits  lying  like  a  pile  of 
saucers,  with  outcropping  edges  all  dipping  to- 
ward the  centre.  In  Sub-Carboniferous  time  the 
basin  was  a  narrow-mouthed  bay,  acting  as  a 
saltpan,  concentrating  sea-water  and  depositing 
beds  of  rock  salt.  In  upper  Carboniferous  some 
beds  of  coal  were  laid  down.  The  State  has 
evidently  been  continuously  above  the  sea  since 
Carboniferous  time.  The  present  surface  of  the 
State  is  largely  determined  by  glacial  action, 
being  very  much  smoothed  over,  and  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  till,  in  some  places  some  himdreds 
of  feet  in  thickness.  The  present  rivers  arc 
consequent  upon  the  drift  surface,  and  many- 
smaller  lakes  have  a  glacial  origin. 

The  soil  on  the  whole  is  extremely  fertile, 
being  made  up  of  the  glacial  detritus  of  lime- 


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stones,  with  large  contributions  from  the  older 
rocks  of  Canada.  In  the  northern  portions,  where 
the  outcrofpping  rock  was  a  Paleozoic  sandstone, 
the  soil  is  light  and  worthless  and  fit  only  for 
pine  and  other  trees. 

MiNEBAL  Resources.  The  minerals  for  which 
Michigan  is  best  known  are  copper  and  iron. 
Copper  mining  in  the  State  dates  from  1845. 
The  output  developed  at  a  much  faster  rate  than 
that  of  the  whole  country,  so  that  in  1870 
Michigan  produced  about  11,000  tons  out  of  a 
total  of  12,000  tons.  By  the  time  Montana  and 
Arizona  began  to  produce  copper,  the  output 
of  Michigan  had  doubled,  amounting  to  over 
22,000  tons  in  1880.  With  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  Montana  deposits  Michigan  fell  to 
the  second  place  (1887)  as  a  copper  producer, 
and,  although  its  output  has  been  steadily  grow- 
ing, its  contribution  to  the  total  copper  output 
of  the  country  has  relatively  decreased.  The 
copper  deposits  of  Michigan  are  confined  to  the 
peninsula  protruding  into  Lake  Superior,  and 
the  best-known  mines  are  the  Calumet  and  Hecla. 
They  yield  over  one-half  of  the  output  of  the 
State.  In  1906  Michigan  produced  99,909  long 
tons  of  fine  copper,  or  24.4  per  cent,  of  the  total 
for  the  United  States,  as  compared  with  32 
per  cent,  produced  by  Montana  and  28.9  by 
Arizona. 

Next  to  copper  the  chief  mineral  of  Michigan 
is  iron,  in  regard  to  which  the  State  occupies 
the  foremost  position  in  the  country,  although 
its  output  in  1901  was  exceeded  in  quantity  by 
that  of  Minnesota.  The  iron  deposits  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  Marquette,  Menominee,  and  Gogebic 
ranges,  and  consist  almost  entirely  of  red 
hematite.  Iron  was  first  discovered  in  the  State 
near  Marquette  in  1844,  and  mining  operations 
were  begun  in  1846.  The  development  of  the 
industry  was  greatly  retarded  by  the  lack  of 
transportation  facilities,  so  that  in  1872  the 
output  of  iron  from  the  Marquette  range 
amounted  only  to  948,553  tons  of  ore.  In  1885 
the  Marquette,  Menominee,  and  Gogebic  ranges 
yielded  2,240,887  tons.  The  improvement  of  the 
facilities  for  the  transportation  of  the  ore  and 
the  extension  in  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  gave 
a  new  impulse  to  iron  mining  and  brought  Michi- 
gan to  the  position  of  the  foremost  iron-produc- 
ing State  of  the  Union.  In  1906  the  total  yield 
of  its  iron  ore  amounted  to  12,361,411  long  tons, 
valued  at  the  mines  at  about  $19,777,000.  Only 
a  small  part  of  the  iron  output  is  smelted  in  the 
State,  most  of  the  ore  being  transported  by  way 
of  the  lakes  to  the  Lake  Erie  ports.  The  chief 
shipping  ports  are  Escanaba  on  Lake  Michigan 
and  Marquette  on  Lake  Superior. 

Previous  to  1893  Michigan  was  the  leading 
salt-producing  State.  In  that  year  it  was  dis- 
placed by  New  York,  which  has  since  held  the 
first  rank  except  in  1901  and  1905,  when  Michi- 
gan again  was  first.  The  total  production  of  salt 
in  Michigan  in  1905  was  9,492,173  barrels,  or 
36.8  per  cent,  of  the  output  of  the  United  States. 
The  value  of  the  salt  output  of  Michigan  for  the 
same  year  was  $1,851,332.  The  chief  salt  mines 
are  around  Saginaw  Bay.  Michigan  is  also  the 
leading  gypsum-producmg  State,  the  output 
amounting  m  1905  to  $634,434,  or  over  20  per 
cent,  of  the  total  for  the  country.  Most  of  the 
gypsum  is  found  in  Kent  County.  Among  the 
other  minerals  may  be  mentioned  Portland  ce- 
ment,* which  was  produced  to  the  value  of  $2,- 


921,607;  coal,  $2,512,697;  silver,  $152,819;  min- 
eral waters  (in  the  production  of  which  Michigan 
ranked  sixth  ampn^  the  States),  $277,188;  and 
various  clays  ( furnishing  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  bricks,  tiles,  and  pottery),  $1,765,707. 
These  figures  were  for  1905.  See  the  section  on 
Mining  in  the  article  United  States. 

Aqbicultube.  The  southern  half  of  the  Lower 
Peninsula  of  Michigan  has  been  generally  cleared 
of  its  forests,  and  being  of  great  fertility,  is  one 
of  the  most  productive  agricultural  regions  in 
the  Union.  Originally  a  large  part  of  it  was 
considered  irreclaimable  because  of  its  extensive 
swamp  areas,  but  these  have  been  very  greatly 
reduced  by  drainage.  The  northern  part  of  the 
Lower  Peninsula,  and  the  Upper  Peninsula,  are 
more  extensively  wooded,  and  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  latter  is  too  rugged  to  be  adaptable 
for  agriculture.  The  farming  area  is  continually 
spreading  to  the  northward,  and  every  decade  has 
witnessed  large  additions  to  the  farm  acreage. 
In  1904,  17,310,700  acres,  or  46.6  per  cent,  of 
the  total  area,  was  included  in  farms,  of  which 
67.2  per  cent,  were  improved.  In  Michigan  the 
average  size  of  farms  is  smaller  than  in  other 
North  Central  States,  the  average  in  Michigan  in 
1904  being  92  acres.  In  the  northern  peninsula 
the  farms  are  generally  larger  than  in  tne  south- 
em.  About  two- thirds  of  the  farm  area  is  in- 
cluded in  farms  ranging  in  size  from  50  to  175 
acres.  The  percentage  of  rented  farms  is  not 
large,  4  per  cent,  being  (1904)  rented  for  cash 
rent  and  13.2  per  cent,  on  shares.  The  agricul- 
tural products  are  not  characterized  bv  the  pre- 
dominance of  any  one  crop.  The  northern  loca- 
tion of  Michigan  adapts  it  as  a  whole  to  the  pro- 
duction of  wheat,  oats,  and  the  hardier  cereals 
rather  than  com,  yet  corn  is  largely  raised  south 
of  the  43d  parallel.  In  the  table  appended,  the 
acreage  shown  for  com,  oats,  and  barley  in  the 
census  year  1900  is  scarcely  normal,  since  a  late 
spring  had  reduced  the  acreage  of  the  last  two, 
resulting  in  turn  in  an  increase  in  the  acreage 
of  the  former.  Wheat  in  the  decade  1890-1900 
more  than  regained  the  amount  lost  in  the 
preceding  decade,  but  in  1906  the  acreage  was 
little  more  than  half  that  in  1900.  In  1906 
Michigan  ranked  third  in  the  production  of  buck- 
wheat, and  second  in  the  production  of  rye.  Hay 
and  forage  are  extensively  raised,  the  total  acre- 
age devoted  to  them  being  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  crop. 

The  State  has  become  noteworthy  for  vegeta- 
bles and  fruits.  The  great  fertility  of  the  soil, 
the  influence  of  the  lakes  in  moderating  the 
climate,  and  the  easy  access  to  large  markets — 
particularly  Chicago— have  favored  this  branch 
of  agriculture.  New  York  alone  in  1906  exceeded 
Michigan  in  the  area  devoted  to  potatoes.  In 
1900  this  acreage  was  57.2  per  cent,  greater  than 
in  1890,  the  absolute  gain  being  greater  than  that 
made  by  any  other  State,  but  the  acreage  has  de- 
clined considerablv  since  1900.  The  State  is  far 
in  the  lead  of  all  others  in  the  production  of 
|beans,  peas,  and  celerv,  and  produces  the  bulk  of 
the  peppermint  and  chicory  of  the  country.  The 
number  of  fruit  trees  about  doubled  in  the  decade 
1890- 1900.  More  than  half  of  the  gain  was  in 
the  number  of  peach  trees,  of  which  there  were 
7,314,035  in  1904.  The  number  of  plum  trees 
in  1900  was  more  than  eight  times  the  number 
reported  for  1890;  and  other  varieties  of  trees 
also  have  increased  remarkably.     The   number 


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of  apple  trees  is  still  in  excess  of  any  other 
variety,  there  being,  in  1904,  8,892,889.  The 
most  marked  recent  gains  have  been  in  the 
counties  bordering  on  Lake  Michigan.  The  soil 
is  well  adapted  to  beet  culture.  Michigan  sur- 
passed every  other  State  in  the  acreage  of  sugar 
beets  in  1900,  but  by  1906  it  had  been  surpassed 
by  Colorado  and  California  both  in  acreage  and 
production.  The  actual  yield  of  beet-sugar  in 
1905-6  was  54,635  long  tons. 

The  following  figures  show  the  acreage  of  the 
leading  crops  for  the  census  years  indicated : 


Wheat 

Com , 

Oat« , 

R]re 

Buckwheat 

Barley 

Hay  aod  forage.. 

Potatoes 

8agar  beets 

Dry  beans 

Dry  peaa 


1906 


1,926,769 

1,041,600 

1,501,189 

1,475,000 

1,01U,438 

1,426,000 

174,096 

400,000 

65,669 

62,000 

44,966 

70,000 

2,328,498 

2,660,000 

311,963 

286,000 

40,247 

76,300 

167,026 

360,896* 

71,376 

69,497* 

•1904 

Stock-raising.  The  increased  interest  in  min- 
ing and  fruit  and  vegetable  raising  has  tended  to 
lessen  the  attention  paid  to  stock-raising.  There 
were,  however,  noteworthy  increases  in  the  num- 
ber of  dairy  cows  and  other  neat  cattle  from 
1890  to  1906.  The  number  of  horses  and  of  swine 
has  increased  every  decade  since  1850.  The  num- 
ber of  sheep  reached  a  maximum  in  1890,  the 
following  decade  showing  a  decrease  of  32.3  per 
cent.,  but  the  number  in  1906  was  exceeded  in 
only  one  State  east  of  the  Mississippi  River — 
Ohio.  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of 
domestic  animals  on  farms  in  1900-1906: 


DOMSSnO   ANIMALS 


Dairy  cows. 

Other  neat  cattle.. 

Horses. 

Mules  and  asses  . 

Sheep 

Bwine 


1900 


663,906 

812,503 

686,659 

3,011 

1,625,030 

1,106,200 


1906 


778,609 
1,«:14,875 

060,729 

3,601 

1,970,836 

1,334,648 


Manufactures.  Michigan's  prominence  as  a 
manufacturing  State  is  largely  due  to  its  enor- 
mous timber  resources,  a  description  of  which 
with  their  products  will  be  found  below.  The 
census  of  1900  showed  a  total  of  16,807  establish- 
ments, employing  162,355  wage-earners  and  man- 
ufacturing products  valued  at  $356,944,082. 
That  census  showed  for  the  24  leading  industries, 
5116  establishments,  94,021  wage-earners,  and 
$230,864,647  in  value  of  products.  The  census  of 
1904  showed  for  the  same  industries  4935  estab- 
lishments, with  113,483  wage-earners  and  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $299,263,196.  The  employment 
figures  are  noteworthy  because  of  the  small  num- 
ber of  children  included,  the  result  of  the  State 
law  which  forbids  children  from  working  in  any 
establishment.  After  the  timber  products,  the 
most  important  are  those  which  depend  on  the 
agricultural  resources  of  the  State.  The  flouring 
and  grist-mill  industry  is  quite  extensive.  In  re- 
cent years  it  has  shown  a  tendency  to  centralize 
at  points  convenient  to  water-power  or  superior 
shipping  facilities.  Other  industries  which  be- 
long to  this  group  are  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing, the  manufacture  of  malt  liauors.  beet 
sugar,  and  the  tanning,  currying,  and  finishing  of 


leather,  all  of  which  are  in  a  flourishing  condi- 
tion. The  State  facilities  for  the  leather  industry 
are  full  of  promise,  inasmuch  as  it  is  found  more 
economical  to  transport  the  hides  to  the  tanning- 
bark  region  in  Michigan  than  to  transport  the 
bark  to  outside  centres.  The  State  ranked  ( 1906 ) 
third  in  the  production  of  beet  sugar,  the  indus- 
try having  developed  wholly  since  1890. 

The  abundant  high-grade  iron  ores  obtained  in 
the  northern  peninsula  are  within  easy  reach  of 
the  manufacturing  centres  in  the  south,  but  th€ 
inferiority  of  the  State's  coal  resources  greatly 
hinders  the  development  of  those  industries  which 
the  local  wealth  oi  iron  ore  would  otherwise  guar- 
antee. The  iron  and  steel  industry  gained  very 
little  from  1890  to  1904,  but  the  products  of  the 
foundry  and  machine  shop  increased  135  per  cent, 
during  that  period.  The  latter  industry  is  well 
distributed  throughout  the  State,  and  is  the  sec- 
ond largest  of  the  State's  manufactures.  The 
manufacture  of  cars  is  another  of  the  State's  lead- 
ing industries,  and  a  thriving  chemical  manufac- 
turing business  is  located  in  Detroit.  The  advan- 
tages of  Detroit  for  transportation,  being  located 
conveniently  for  lake  navigation,  and  at  the  point 
of  union  between  the  railroad  systems  of  Canada 
and  the  States,  make  that  city  the  largest  manu- 
facturing centre  in  the  State.  The  other  manufac- 
turing points  are  also  in  the  older  developed 
southern  portion  of  the  State,  where  the  access 
to  the  country's  markets  is  easiest.  A  decided 
tendency  toward  centralization  is  evident  in  a 
number  of  industries. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  shows  the  rel- 
ative importance  of  the  leading  industries  for  the 
years  indicated. 

FoBESTS  AND  FoBEST  Pboducts.  From  the 
table  on  the  following  page,  it  may  be  seen  that 
the  lumber  industry  and  those  which  use  its  prod- 
ucts constitute  together  the  most  important  group 
of  manufactures  in  the  State.  The  greater  portion 
of  the  forests  were  formerly  conifers,  though  hard 
woods  were  intermingled  with  these  in  the  south. 
The  white  pine  was  originally  the  most  usual  vari- 
ety, but  has  been  so  extensively  drawn  upon  that  the 
estimated  stand  of  timber  in  1896 — 6,000,000,000 
feet — ^was  less  than  one-sixth  the  amount  of  the 
estimate  in  1880.  Hemlock  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  other  conifers.  Maple,  elm,  basswood, 
ash,  and  white  oak  are  the  most  important  hard 
woods.  The  lumber  and  timber  product  had  not 
acquired  large  proportions  until  about  1870,  but 
from  that  date  until  1890  the  State  ranked  first 
in  the  value  of  its  product.  It  suff'ered  a  heavy 
decline  in  the  following  years,  and  was  exceeded 
in  1900  by  Wisconsin.  The  total  forest  area,  in- 
cluding stump  land,  was  estimated  in  1900  at 
38,000  square  miles.  The  method  of  exploiting 
the  forests  has  been  extremely  wasteful,  but  a 
sentiment  has  developed  in  the  State  in  favor  of 
the  application  of  approved  methods  of  forestry, 
and  a  commission  has  been  created  to  secure  bet- 
ter protection  for  the  forests. 

In  the  earlier  lumbering  period  the  logs  were 
usually  floated  to  the  mills  located  on  the  rivers 
and  lakes.  With  the  extension  of  railroads  into 
the  lumbering  region  the  mills  were  established « 
closer  to  the  supply  of  timber.  It  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  table  that,  although  the  value 
of  lumber  and  timber  products  decreased  from 
1900  to  1904,  all  the  industries  using  these  prod- 
ucts made  noteworthy  gains,  particularly  the 
manufacture  of  carriages  and  wagons  and  fund- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HZCHIGAN. 


443 


HICHIOAN. 


Average 

Value  of  prod- 

Tew 

eatabliah' 

number 
wage- 

oote,  including 
custom  work 

earners 

1901 

4,935 

113,483 

9299,263,196 

1900 

6,116 

94,021 

230,864,617 

•181 

19,462 

$68,398,549 

•3.5 

20.7 

29.6 

1904 

66.3 

64.8 

69.8 

1900 

69.1 

66.6 

72.6 

1904 

19 

1,211 

6,378,004 

1900 

9 

473 

1,602,266 

1904 

216 

7,423 

20,097,704 

1900 

299 

4,890 

11,206,602 

1904 

4 

3,881 

13,467,761 

1900 

4 

3,187 

9,920,780 

1904 

371 

876 

8,208,706 

1900 

286 

603 

3,918,996 

1904 

23 

3,624 

9,695,422 

1900 

26 

2,863 

6,326,002 

19M 

20 

2,168 

8,797,911 

1900 

10 

1,588 

4,921.913 

1904 

406 

1,608 

26,612,027 

1900 

393 

1,258 

20,467,221 

1904 

66 

1,041 

6,753,699 

1900 

26 

373 

1,891,516 

1904 

419 

10,958 

31,606,196 

1900 

364 

13,502 

20,616,864 

1904 

134 

13,260 

18,421,736 

1900 

124 

11,860 

14,614,606 

1904 

16 

1,939 

7,140,652 

1900 

10 

1,972 

6,902,068 

1904 

26 

1,747 

9,340,349 

1900 

27 

1,427 

6,015,590 

19M 

86 

1,271 

6,999,261 

1900 

77 

980 

6,296,826 

1904 

766 

27,460 

40,669,336 

1900 

1,391 

26,318 

63,574,483 

1904 

246 

6,226 

14,375,467 

1900 

236 

6,281 

12,469.532 

1904 

30 

3,052 

7,340,631 

1900 

27 

2,014 

4,217,869 

1904 

3 

650 

21,222,217 

1900 

3 

462 

17,340,041 

Total  for  eelected  induatrieo  for  State.. 


Increase,  1900  to  190ft. 
Per  cent,  of  increase  . . 


Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  manufacturing  industries  in  State. . . 


Beet  sugar.. 

Carriages  and  wagons. 

Cars,  steam  railroad,  not  including  operations  of  railroad  companies.  . 

Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed  milk. 

Chemicals 

Druggists*  preparations. 

Flour  and  grist-mill  products 

Food  preparations 

Foundry  and  maohinoHBhop  products 

Furniture 

Iron  and  steel 

Leather,  tanned,  ooiried,  and  finished. 

Liquors,  malt 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Lumber,  planing-miU  products,  Including  sash,  doors,  and  bUnds 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Smelting  and  refining,  copper 


•Decrease 


tiire.  The  furniture  industry  is  centred  largely 
in  Grand  Rapids,  where  it  has  been  promoted 
especially  by  means  of  semi-annual  fairs. 

Tbanspobtation.  Michigan's  extremely  favor- 
able location  with  respect  to  water  transportation 
has  been  of  great  value  in  the  exploitation  of  the 
local  mineral  and  forest  resources.  (For  a  dis- 
cussion of  lake  transportation,  see  Great  Lakes.  ) 
Besides  the  canals  connecting  the  main  lakes,  a 
short  canal  has  been  constructed  connecting  the 
northern  end  of  Lake  Portage  with  Lake  Su- 
perior. The  small  rivers  were  formerly  much 
used  for  the  transportation  of  logs.  Owing  to 
its  peninsular  form,  the  State  is  not  traversed 
by  many  of  the  great  trunk  lines  of  the  coun- 
tr5^  A  large  mileage,  however,  was  early  re- 
corded for  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  and 
railway  construction  has  steadily  spread  to  the 
northward,  almost  every  region  being  reached. 
The  mileage  January  1,  1907,  was  8576.  Detroit 
ranked  ( 1906 )  first  among  the  lake  ports  in  the 
amount  of  its  exports,  and  fifth  in  the  amount  of 
its  imports.  The  customs  districts  Huron  and 
Superior  also  have  a  large  foreign  trade,  and  a 
small  trade  is  done  from  the  Michigan  district. 
The  first  railway  began  operation  in  1836.  In  the 
following  year  the  State  undertook  the  building 
of  railways,  but  owing  to  financial  embarrass- 
ment the  lines  were  sold  after  a  decade  to  private 
corporations.  The  chief  lines  are  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern,  the  Michigan  Central, 
the  Grand  Trunk  Western,  and  the  P6re  Mar- 
quette. In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  very 
extensive  construction  of  interurban  electric  car 
lines.  There  is  one  railroad  commissioner.  His 
Vol.  XIII.— 29. 


duties  chiefly  pertain  to  the  physical  condition  of 
the  roads  and  to  accommodations. 

Banks.  The  Bank  of  Michigan,  organized  in. 
Detroit  in  1817,  was  the  first  in  the  Territory.  It 
incurred  large  losses  in  the  panic  of  1837-38,  and 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  trustees  for  liquida- 
tion in  1842.  In  1835,  shortly  before  Michigan 
was  admitted  as  a  State,  nine  new  banks  were  or- 
ganized. The  free  banking  law  of  1837  was  the 
first  in  the  United  States  to  put  into  practice  the 
system  of  securing  the  circulation  of  banks  by  de- 
posit of  collaterals.  It  also* provided  for  examina- 
tion of  banks  by  bank  commissioners.  The  law 
was  imperfectly  administered,  however,  and  in 
1839  42  banks  were  in  the  hands  of  receivers,  and 
more  than  a  million  dollars  of  bills  became 
worthless.  In  1844  the  banking  law  was  declared 
unconstitutional.  The  banking  system  of  the 
State  did  not  recover  from  this  depression  for 
many  years,  and  the  banking  business  was  carried 
on  mainly  by  brokers  and  private  bankers.  In 
1857  a  new  banking  law  was  adopted,  similar  to 
the  law  of  New  York.  In  1906  there  were  88  na- 
tion banks,  with  a  capital  of  $12,955,000;  sur- 
plus, $5,183,000;  cash,  etc.,  $7,958,000;  loans, 
$80,203,000,  and  deposits,  $86,994,000 ;  297  State 
banks  with  a  capital  of  $18,031,000;  surplus, 
$7,734,000;  cash,  $11,395,000;  loans,  $97,367,000, 
and  deposits,  $191,222,000. 

Government.  The  original  Constitution  of 
1835  was  revived  in  1850,  when  many  features, 
radical  for  the  time,  were  introduced.  It  has 
been  amended  in  1866,  1870,  and  1876,  and  also 
in  1900,  when  it  was  provided  that  railway  cor- 
porations might  be  taxed  on  the  gross  value  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MICHIGAN. 


444 


MICHIOAK. 


their  property  and  franchises.  Amendments  to 
the  Constitution  may  be  proposed  in  either 
House,  the  approval  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
elected  to  each  being  necessary  to  adoption,  fol- 
lowed by  the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the  quali- 
fied electors  of  the  State.  Every  sixteenth  year, 
and  oftener  if  provided  by  law,  the  question  of 
the  general  revision  of  the  Constitution  is  sub- 
mitted to  the  electors,  and  if  approved  by  a  ma- 
jority vote  a  convention  must  be  called  by  the 
Legislature  for  that  purpose.  Suffrage  is  granted 
to  male  citizens  above  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
who  have  resided  in  the  State  six  months,  and  in 
the  township  or  ward  twenty  days. 

Executive.  The  Lieutenant-Governor  and  the 
president  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate  are  in  the 
line  of  succession  to  the  Governorship  in  case  of 
vacancy.  The  Governor  may  convene  special  ses- 
sions of  the  Legislature  and  exercise  the  usual 
pardoning  power,  subject  to  certain  regulations. 
Other  State  officers  are  the  Secretary  of  State, 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  treasurer, 
commissioner  of  the  land  office,  auditor,  and  at- 
torney-general. All  these  officers  are  elected  at 
the  general  biennial  election,  and  serve  for  two 
years. 

Legislative.  There  are  32  Senators  elected  for 
two  years  from  single  districts,  in  the  composi- 
tion of  which  counties  cannot  be  divided  unless 
they  are  entitled  to  two  or  more  Senators.  The 
minimum  and  maximum  constitutional  limits  to 
the  number  of  members  in  the  House  are  64  and 
100  respectively.  They  are  also  elected  for  two 
years,  from  districts  composed  of  contiguous  ter- 
ritory, in  the  formation  of  which  no  township  or 
city  can  be  divided.  Members  are  paid  for  mile- 
age and  stationery,  and  $3  per  day  of  actual  at- 
tendance and  when  absent  on  account  of  sickness ; 
but  extra  compensation  may  be  granted  to  mem- 
bers from  the  Upper  Peninsula.  Bills  may 
originate  in  either  House,  and  a  two-thirds  vote 
of  the  members  elected  to  each  overcomes  the 
Governor's  veto.  No  new  bill  can  be  introduced 
after  the  first  fifty  days  of  a  session.  Election 
of  members  is  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Mon- 
day of  November  of  even  years.  The  Assembly 
opens  on  the  first  Wednesday  of  January  of  odd 
years. 

Judicial.  The  Supreme  Court  consists  of  one 
Chief  Justice  and  three  associates,  chosen  by  the 
people  for  eight  years.  The  State  is  divided  into 
judicial  circuits,  in  each  of  w^hich  one  circuit 
judge  is  elected  for  six  years.  In  each  county 
organized  for  judicial  purposes  there  is  a  court 
of  probate,  the  judge  being  elected  by  the  county 
for  four  years.  Justices  of  the  peace,  not  exceed- 
ing four  to  each  toNvnship,  are  elected  for  four 
years. 

Local  Government.  The  Legislature  may  con- 
fer upon  townships,  cities,  and  villages,  and  upon 
the  board  of  supervisors  of  the  several  counties, 
such  powers  of  a  local,  legislative,  and  admin- 
istrative character  as  it  may  deem  proper; 
and  may  organize  any  city  of  20,000  inhabitants 
into  a  county  when  the  majority  of  the  electors  of 
the  county  in  which  the  city  is  located  consent. 
Each  county  biennially  elects  a  sheriff,  clerk, 
treasurer,  register  of  deeds,  and  a  prosecuting  at- 
torney, the  sheriff  not  being  eligible  to  office 
more  than  four  years  in  any  period  of  six  years. 
The  board  of  supervisors,  composed  of  one  rep- 
resentative from  each  organized  township,  has 
charge  of  bridges,  etc.,  and  may  raise  by  tax 


$1000  per  year,  or  a  greater  amount,  if  the 
electors  consent.  There  are  annually  elected  in 
each  township  a  supervisor,  clerk  (ex-offlcio 
school  inspector),  commissioner  of  highways, 
treasurer,  school  inspector,  not  exceeding  four 
constables,  and  an  overseer  of  highways  for  each 
highway  district. 

Statutory  Provisions.  The  legal  rate  of  in- 
terest is  6  per  cent.;  10  per  cent,  is  allowed  by 
contract.  The  penalty  for  usury  is  forfeiture  of 
debt  if  over  12  per  cent.  A  local-option  liquor 
law  was  passed  in  1887,  under  which  both  manu- 
facture and  sale  may  be  prohibited  within  the 
county.  A  married  woman  may  carry  on  busi- 
ness in  her  owti  name,  and  her  property  is  not 
liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband. 

Michigan  has  twelve  members  in  the  National 
House  of  Representatives.  The  capital  of  the 
State  is  Lansing. 

Finance.  The  first  Legislature  of  the  State 
authorized  in  1837  a  loan  of  $5,000,000,  to  be  de- 
voted to  public  improvements.  Only  a  small  part 
of  the  bonds  were  sold  direct  and  paid  in  full. 
About  two-thirds  of  them  were  deposited  with  the 
United  States  Bank  of  Pennsylvania,  which  failed 
in  1841  after  selling  some  of  the  bonds.  The 
State  became  liable  for  interests  on  these  bonds, 
for  which  it  never  received  any  payment.  It 
could  not  meet  the  interest  payment  in  1842. 
An  adjustment  was  soon  reached,  which 
amounted  to  a  partial  repudiation  of  the  State 
debt.  The  State  debt  amounted  in  1861  to  $2,- 
316,328,  increased  during  the  war  to  $3,880,399, 
but  fell  to  $904,000  in  1880,  and  was  almost  alto- 
gether extinguished  in  1890.  The  present  Con- 
stitution contains  very  strict  provisions  against 
formation  of  a  State  debt,  any  debts  over  $50,000 
being  absolutely  prohibited  except  in  case  of  war 
or  insurrection.  The  indebtedness  dated  from  the 
Civil  War  to  1905,  when  it  was  entirely  paid  off. 
The  State  must  not  subscribe  to  the  stock  of  any 
company,  shall  not  lend  its  credit  to  any  one, 
and  must  not  undertake  any  internal  improve- 
ment unless  it  possesses  a  specific  grant  of  land 
or  other  property  for  that  purpose.  The  in- 
come of  the  State  grows  steadily,  and  was  $1,- 
510,000  in  1870,  $2,607,000  in  1880,  and  $3,- 
181,000  in  1890.  In  1906  the  total  receipts  were 
$16,154,219,  and  expenditures  $8,422,016,  leaving 
a  surplus  of  $7,732,203,  and  a  total  balance  in 
June,  1906,  of  $11,739,502.  The  revenue  of  the 
State  is  derived  partly  from  direct  taxation 
(about  28  per  cent.),  and  partly  from  specific 
taxes  on  railroads  (about  50  per  cent.),  and  on 
mining  companies,  banks,  insurance  and  express 
companies.  About  one-half  of  the  expenditures 
was  for  education,  charities,  and  corrections. 

Militia.  The  militia  is  composed  of  able- 
bodied  male  citizens  between  the  ages  of  eighteen 
and  forty-five,  except  such  as  are  exempted  by 
law.     In  1906  the  organized  militia  was  2667. 

Population.  The  population  of  Michigan  in- 
creased from  4762  in  1810  to  31,639  in  1830;  212,- 
267  in  1840;  397,654  in  1850;  1.184,059  in  1870; 
2,093,889  in  1890;  2,420,982  in  1900;  2,530,016  in 
1904;  and  2,584,533  (Federal  estimate)  in  1906. 
The  rate  of  gain  from  1890  to  1900  was  16.6 
per  cent.,  as  against  20.7  per  cent,  for  the 
United  States.  From  twenty-seventh  in  rank 
in  1830,  the  State  rose  to  ninth  in  1880, 
where  it  has  remained.  The  density  of  the 
population  is  44  persons  to  the  square  mile. 
The  prairie  region  in  the  south  was  naturally  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MICHIOAN. 


445 


HICHIOAN. 


first  portion  of  the  State  settled,  and  the  mass  of 
the  population  is  still  found  in  the  southern  half 
of  the  Lower  Peninsula.  The  population  is  stead- 
ily increasing,  however,  in  the  more  northern 
regions.  The  early  settlers  were  largely  from 
New  England  and  New  York,  but  a  very  consider- 
able German  element  settled  in  the  State  about 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  posi- 
tion of  Michigan  relative  to  Canada  has  resulted 
in  giving  it  a  large  Canadian  element — greater 
than  that  of  any  other  State  except  Massachu- 
setts. The  Canadians  form  the  most  numerous 
foreign-born  element  in  the  State.  They  predomi- 
nate in  many  northern  localities.  The  German-born 
population  is  second  in  importance  among  the 
foreign-born.  The  total  foreign-born  population 
in  1900  was '521,663.  In  that  year  there  were  26 
cities  having  each  over  8000  inhabitants,  and 
aggregating  30.9  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. The  largest  cities,  with  their  population  in 
1906,  are  as  follows:  Detroit,  353,535;  Grand 
Rapids,  99,794;  Saginaw,  48,742;  Bay  City 
( including  West  Bay  City ) ,  40,587 ;  Jackson,  25,- 
360;  Kalamazoo,  32,472  ;'^Mu8kegon,  20,937;  Port 
Huron,  20,464;  Battle  Creek,  24,039;  Lansing, 
22,172;  Ann  Arbor,  14,645;  Manistee,  11,932. 

Religion.  The  Methodist  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  churches  are  in  the  lead,  followed  in  the 
order  named  by  the  Lutherans,  Baptists,  Presby- 
terians, Congregationalists,  and  Protestant  Epis- 
copalians. 

Education.  In  1900  the  total  illiterate  popu- 
lation ten  years  of  age  and  over  was  4.2  per  cent. 
In  1905  there  were  540,384  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools,  of  whom  360,000  were  in  average 
attendance.  In  1905  there  were  579  graded  and 
6688  ungraded  school  districts  in  the  State,  but 
the  attendance  in  the  former  was  much  greater 
than  in  the  latter.  The  average  duration  of  the 
graded  schools  was  9.5  months;  of  the  un- 
graded, 8.3  months.  There  are  county  boards 
of  three  school  examiners,  who  determine  the 
qualifications  of  persons  proposing  to  teach  in 
public  schools;  township  boards  of  three  school 
inspectors,  whose  title  indicates  their  work;  and 
district  boards  of  six  trustees  for  graded  school 
district,  and  boards  of  three  trustees  for  un- 
graded ones,  their  duties  being  to  look  after  the 
educational  interests  of  the  respective  districts, 
specify  the  studies  to  be  pursued,  prescribe  text- 
books, and  elect  teachers.  No  separate  school  for 
any  race  is  allowed.  Schools  must  be  unsec- 
tarian,  and  must  be  taught  at  least  nine  months 
in  districts  having  eight  hundred  or  more  youths 
of  school  age,  and  at  least  five  months  in  dis- 
tricts having  from  thirty  to  eight  hundred,  and 
three  months  in  smaller  districts.  In  1904-5 
there  were  16,823  teachers,  of  whom  14,165  were 
females.  The  average  monthly  wages  of  men  in 
1905  were  $60.22,  and  of  women  $42.06.  The 
State  contains  normal  schools  at  Mount  Pleasant, 
Ypsilanti,  Kalamazoo,  and  Marquette.  The  pri- 
mary school  fund  amounted  in  1905  to  $5,228,- 
333.  The  greater  part  of  this  fund  was  acquired 
from  the  sale  of  the  sixteenth  section  of  land  in 
every  township.  The  remainder  was  acquired 
from  the  sale  of  swamp  lands.  The  total  ex- 
penditure of  the  State  for  public  schools  in  1904-5 
was  $9,630,696,  of  which  $6,007,652  was  paid  as 
salaries  to  teachers  and  superintendents.  The 
State  University,  located  at  Ann  Arbor,  is  one 
of  the  foremost  higher  educational  institutions 
in  the  country.     The  university  fund  amounted 


in  1905  to  $541,353.  The  State  also  maintains 
an  agricultural  college  and  a  school  of  mines* 
In  1905  the  Agricultural  College  fund  was  $966,- 
254,  and  the  Normal  School  fund,  $68,540.  Be^ 
sides  the  State  institutions,  there  are  the  fol- 
lowing denominational  schools:  Adrian  College-, 
at  Adrian  (Methodist) ;  Albion  College,  at  Al- 
bion (Methodist) ;  Alma  College,  Alma  (Presby 
terian) ;  Detroit  College,  Detroit  (Roman  Catho- 
lic) ;  Hillsdale  College,  Hillsdale  (Free  Baptist)  ; 
Hope  College,  Holland  (Reformed);  Kalama- 
zoo College,  Kalamazoo  (Baptist);  Olivet  Col- 
lege, Olivet  (Congregational). 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  There 
is  a  State  board  of  correction  and  charities  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor  for  a  term  of  8  years. 
This  board  is  authorized  to  examine  into  the 
conditions  of  every  city  and  county  poor-house 
and  county  jail,  visit  the  State  charitable,  penal, 
and  reformatory  institutions,  and  make  reports 
and  recommendations  concerning  the  same.  The 
law  authorizes  the  Governor  to  appoint  an  agent 
of  the  board  in  every  county  to  look  after  the 
care  of  juvenile  offenders  and  dependent  children. 
The  system  is  intended  to  secure  reformation 
without  commitment  to  State  institutions,  and 
only  one- third  of  the  children  arrested  are  sent 
to  the  Industrial  School  for  boys  at  Lansing,  and 
to  the  Industrial  Home  for  girls  at  Adrian.  The 
State  Public  School  for  the  care  of  dependent 
and  neglected  children  is  located  at  Coldwater, 
the  School  for  the  Deaf  at  Flint,  the  School  for 
the  Blind  at  Lansing,  the  Employment  Insti- 
tution for  the  Blind  at  Saginaw,  and  the  Home 
for  the  Feeble-minded  and  Epileptic  at  Lapeer. 
The  State  insane  asylums,  with  the  number  of 
patients  June  30,  1906,  were  as  follows:  Michi- 
gan Asylum  for  the  Insane,  at  Kalamazoo,  1757;^^ 
Eastern  Michigan  Asylum,  at  Pontiac,  1214; 
Northern  Michigan  Asylum,  at  Traverse  City, 
1308 ;  the  Upper  Peninsula  Hospital  for  Insane,  at 
Newberry,  666;  and  the  State  Asylum,  at  Ionia, 
326.  The  charge  of  maintenance  of  the  State's  in- 
sane has  been  gradual  I  v  decreased  from  $4.06  per 
week  in  1883-84  to  $3.29  in  1906-7.  The  Wayne 
County  Asylum  at  Eloise  (508  patients)  is  recog- 
nized by  the  State  and  is  under  the  supervision  of 
the  State  board.  The  State  Soldiers'  Home  is  at 
Grand  Rapids.  The  State  penal  institutions  are 
the  Michigan  State  Prison  at  Jackson ;  the  Michi- 
gan Reformatory  at  Ionia ;  and  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula Prison  at  Marquette.  On  June  30,  1906, 
1550  convicts  were  confined  in  these  institutions. 
Besides  these  the  Detroit  House  of  Correction 
receives  prisoners  from  different  counties.  Most 
of  the  convicts  in  this  institution  are  on  short- 
time  sentences.  The  State  has  a  parole  law  under 
which  there  were  granted  1895-1906,  937  paroles, 
of  which  105  were  forfeited.  The  Michigan  Re- 
formatory was  intended  as  an  adult  reformatory, 
but  new  legislation  has  converted  it  into  an  or- 
dinary prison,  to  which  all  classes  of  prisoners 
are  sentenced.  Part  of  the  prisoners  are  em- 
ployed under  the  State  account  system,  others 
by  contractors  who  hire  the  convicts.  Various 
occupations  are  followed,  shirt-making  and 
laundering  probably  being  the  most  important. 

History.  Remains  of  ancient  mines  and  min- 
ing implements  have  been  found  within  the  pres- 
ent limits  of  the  State.  The  white  discoverers 
and  first  settlers  were  French  missionaries  and  fur 
traders,  some  of  whom  visited  the  site  of  Detroit 
as  early  as  1610.    In  1641  French  Jesuits  found 


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MICHIGAN. 


their  way  to  the  falls  of  the  Saint  Mary.  -The 
first  actual  settlement  by  Europeans  within  the 
limits  of  the  State  was  the  mission  at  Sault 
Sainte  Marie,  founded  by  Father  Marquette  and 
others  in  1668.  Three  years  later  Michilimacki- 
nac  (now  Mackinac)  was  established.  In  1679 
and  1686  forts  were  built  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Saint  Joseph,  and  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Huron, 
and  in  1701  Antoine  de  la  Mothe-Cadillac  found- 
ed Detroit.  Through  the  entire  period  of  French 
occupation  the  town  dragged  out  a  painful  exist- 
ence, though  the  centre  of  a  considerable  fur 
trade  and  a  place  of  meeting  for  friendly  Indian 
tribes.  The  territory,  with  other  French  pos- 
sessions, fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  at 
the  end  of  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Detroit 
was  occupied  in  1763,  but  early  in  May  of  that 
year  the  Indians,  loyal  to  the  French,  rose  under 
Pontiac  (q.v.),  massacred  the  garrison  at  Macki- 
nac, and  besieged  Detroit  for  about  five  months. 
The  English  showed  no  capacity  for  government 
and  the  country  made  no  progress  imder  their 
rule.  By  the  Quebec  Act  of  1774  the  territory 
became  a  part  of  Canada,  and  during  the  Revolu- 
tion Detroit  was  the  starting  point  for  many 
Indian  expeditions  which  laid  waste  the  Amer- 
ican frontier.  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1783  the 
region  passed  to  the  United  States,  although  Eng- 
land did  not  at  once  relinquish  possession.  After 
1784  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest,  deeming  them- 
selves imjustly  treated  by  the  Americans,  waged 
a  bloody  warfare  against  the  Western  settlements 
till  they  were  brought  to  terms  by  General  Wayne 
in  1795.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  in  that 
year,  they  ceded  large  tracts  of  land  on  the  east- 
ern shore  of  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan . 
and  in  the  north  to  the  United  States.  It  was  not 
until  June  11,  1796,  that  the  United  States  took 
actual  possession  of  Detroit,  though  the  region 
was  included  within  the  boundaries  of  the  North- 
west Territory,  so  called,  and  amenable  to  the  ordi- 
nance of  178*7.  In  1800  Ohio  was  set  off  from 
the  Northwest  Territory,  including  the  eastern 
portion  of  Michigan,  but  in  1802  the  whole  of  the 
Lower  Peninsula  was  annexed  to  the  Territory 
of  Indiana.  Its  southern  boundary  was  a  line 
drawn  east  from  the  southerly  extreme  of  Lake 
Michigan  to  Lake  Erie.  At  that  time  the  white 
population  of  Michigan  was  about  4000,  consist- 
ing for  the  most  part  of  Canadian  traders  and 
coureurs  de  hois.  On  June  30,  1805,  Michigan 
was  set  off  as  a  separate  Territory,  with  sub- 
stantially its  present  limits,  and  Gen.  William 
Hull  was  appointed  Governor.  During  the  War 
of  1812  the  inhabitants  were  harassed  by  the 
British  and  Indians:  Mackinac  was  captured 
by  the  British ;  Detroit  was  surrendered  by  Grov- 
ernor  Hull  (q.v.)  ;  and  at  French  town,  in  1813, 
a  number  of  American  prisoners  of  war  were  mas- 
sacred by  the  Indians.  (For  military  operations 
during  the  War  of  1812.  see  United  States.) 
At  different  times  after  1814  the  Indians  ceded 
large  tracts  of  land,  and  by  1836  all  the  Lower 
Peninsula  and  part  of  the  Upper  Peninsula  had 
been  freed  from  Indian  title.  Surveys  were  made 
as  early  as  1816,  and  in  1818  a  large  tract  of 
land  was  put  on  the  market.  In  1819  the  Terri- 
tory was  authorized  to  send  a  delegate  to  Con- 
gress, and  in  1823  the  system  of  rule  by  a  Gov- 
ernor and  three  judges  was  replaced  by  that  of 
a  Governor  and  a  council  of  nine,  selected  from 
eighteen  chosen  by  the  people ;  in  1825  the  coun- 
cil was  increased  to  thirteen,  and  alter  1827  the 


members  were  elected  by  popular  vote.  In  1835 
a  State  Constitution  wae  adopted  by  a  conven- 
tion called  for  that  purpose,  but  the  admission  of 
Michigan  into  the  Union  waa  delayed  by  a  dis- 
pute with  Ohio  ooncemiAg  a  strip  of  land  on 
the  southern  boundary,  "niere  was  danger  that 
the  dispute  would  lead  to  bloodshed,  but  in  1836 
Congress  agreed  to' admit  Michigan  upon  condi- 
tion that  she  should  surrender  her  claim  to  the 
disputed  territory  and  accept  in  lieu  thereof  a 
larger  area  in  the  Upper  Peninsula.  The  first 
convention  called  to  consider  this  proposal,  Jan- 
uary 26,  1836,  rejected  it,  but  it  was  accepted 
by  a  second  in  December,  1836,  and  on  January 
26,  1837,  Michigan  was  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  following  have  been  Governors  of  the  State : 

TKBBITOBIAL 

WUllamHuU 1805.18 

LewlflCasB 1813^31 

OeorgeB.  Porter 1831-34 

Stevens  T.  Mason 1834-36 

John  S.  Homer 1835-36 

STATE 

Stevens  T.  Mason Democrat 1836-40 

WUliam  Woodbridge Whig 1840-41 

James  W.  Gordon  (acting).    "     1841-42 

John  8.  Barry Democrat 1842-46 

AlpheusFelcb ••         1846-47 

William  L.  (Jreenly  (acting)  Democrat 1847-48 

EpaphroditusRcknsom.... Democrat. 1848-50 

John  S.  Barry "         1850-52 

Robert  Mcaelland "         1852^ 

Andrew  Parsons  (acting).         "         1853-56 

Kinsley  S.  Bingham     .  ..Republican 1856-69 

Moses  Wisner  "  1869-61 

Austin  Blair "         1861-65 

Henry  H.  Crapo "         1865-69 

Henry  P.  Baldwin •«         1869-78 

John  J.  Bagley "         1873-77 

Charles  M.CrosweU "         1877-81 

David  H.  Jerome ••         1881-83 

Joslah  W.  Begole Democrat  and  Greenback 1883-85 

Russel  A.  Alger Republican 1885-«7 

Cyrus  G.  Luce ••         1887-91 

Edwin  B.  Winans Democrat 1891-93 

John  T.  Rich Republican 1893-97 

Haien  S.  Pingree ••         1897-1901 

Aaron  T.  Bliss. •*  1901-06 

Fred  M.  Warner "        1905- 

The  first  printing  press  in  Michigan  was  set 
up  in  1809,  and  in  1817  the  first  newspaper  was 
published  at  Detroit.  The  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal  (1825)  poured  a  vast  stream  of  immigra- 
tion into  Michigan,  and  at  the  time  of  the  ad- 
mission of  the  State  the  population  was  nearly 
70,000,  many  of  them  from  New  England  and  New 
York.  The  first  bank  was  established  at  Detroit, 
in  1818,  and  by  1837  there  were  fifteen  such  in- 
stitutions. After  1835  the  country  went  specula- 
tion mad,  a  general  banking  law  was  passed  in 
1837,  and  the  State  was  flooded  with  paper  mon- 
ey. The  panic  of  1837  did  not  interfere  with  the 
completion  of  the  elaborate  system  of  internal  im- 
provements that  had  been  planned.  The  State 
undertook  the  building  of  three  railways  across 
the  Lower  Peninsula,  but  after  running  greatly 
into  debt  was  forced  in  1846  to  sell  them  to  pri- 
vate persons  at  a  loss.  An  act  establishing  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  was  passed  in  1817,  acade- 
mies and  high  schools  were  projected  in  1821,  • 
and  a  board  of  education  was  created  in 
1829,  but  the  common  schools  did  not  really 
come  into  existence  till  after  1835,  and  teaching 
in  the  university  was  begim  on  an  appreciable 
scale  about  1845.  In  1847  the  capital  was  re- 
moved from  Detroit  to  Lansing.  From  1853  to 
1876  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  liquor  was  a  part 
of  the  Constitution.  In  1876  prohibition  was 
abolished  and  a  heavy  liquor  tax  substituted. 


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Legislation  after  the  Civil  War  was  concerned 
largely  with  the  taxation  of  corporations.  In 
1889  the  Australian  ballot  was  adopted;  a  law 
providing  for  the  election  of  Presidential  electors 
by  districts,  instead  of  on  a  general  ticket,  was 
passed  in  1891,  but  was  repealed  in  1893.  A 
factory  inspection  act  was  enacted  in  1894,  and 
a  stringent  anti-trust  law  in  1899.  Michigan  has 
consistently  supported  the  Republican  Party 
since  its  formation,  except  for  three  lapses — in 
1882  and  1883,  when  the  Democrats  and  Green- 
back party  in  fusion  elected  their  candidate  for 
Governor,  and  in  1890,  when  the  Democrats  alone 
carried  the  State. 

BiBUOGRAPHY.  Michigan  Oeologioal  Survey 
Report  (Lansing,  1839  et  seq.) ;  X^amman,  His- 
iory  of  Michigan  Civil  and  Topographical  (New 
York,  1839) ;  Sheldon,  The  Early  History  of 
Michigan  (New  York,  1866) ;  Campbell,  Outline 
of  the  Political  History  of  Michigan  (Detroit^ 
1876) ;  Cooley,  Michigan:  A  History  of  Govern- 
ments  (Boston,  1885) ;  Farmer,  The  History  of 
Detroit  and  Michigan  (Detroit,  1889) ;  Mc- 
Laughlin, History  of  Higher  Education  in  Michi- 
gan (Washington,  1891);  Beal  and  Wheeler, 
Michigan  Flora  (Lansing,  1892)  ;  Champlin, 
** Industrial  Prosperity,"  m  Michigan  Political 
Science  Association  Publications  (Lansing,  1897). 

MICHIGAN,  Lake.  The  second  in  size  of 
the  great  fresh-water  lakes  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent,  and  the  only  one  lying  wholly  in 
the  United  States,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
east  by  Michigan,  on  the  south  by  Indiana,  and 
on  the  west  by  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  (Map: 
United  StateSj  J  2).  It  contains  an  area  of 
22,450  square  miles.  It  is  over  300  miles  long, 
and  its  mean  breadth  is  about  75  miles;  the 
mean  depth  is  about  870  feet.  It  is  581 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  has  been 
found  by  accurate  observations  to  have  a  slight 
lunar  tidal  wave.  Its  banks  are  low  and  sandy, 
containing  rocky  sections  of  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, but  few  high  bluifs.  Inland  the  sandrhills 
rise  to  the  height  of  150  feet.  On  the  Wisconsin 
side  the  land  is  being  gradually  worn  away, 
while  a  gain  is  noticeable  on  the  Michigan  side. 
The  lake  communicates  with  Lake  Huron  through 
the  Straits  of  Mackinac,  and  is  connected  with 
the  Mississippi,  supposed  to  have  been  its  ancient 
outlet,  by  the  old  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal 
and  the  new  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  (q.v.) 
at  CHiicago.  Like  all  the  Great  Lakes,  it  is 
subject  to  violent  storms,  and  its  shores 
are  guarded  by  twenty-three  light-houses.  The 
best  harbors  are  at  the  mouths  of  tributary 
rivers;  the  chief  ones  are  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
Escanaba,  and  Grand  Haven.  Its  islands  are  in 
the  northern  portion,  forming  the  Manitou 
group;  the  largest,  Beaver  Island,  is  50  miles 
long.  It  has  two  large  bays — Green  Bay,  100 
miles  long,  and  Grand  Traverse  Bay,  30  miles 
long — and  three  of  lesser  dimensions.  Little 
Traverse  Bay,  Little  Bay  of  Noquet,  and  Big  Bay 
of  Noquet.  Ice  remains  longer  in  the  Straits  of 
Mackinac  than  elsewhere,  and  navigation  is 
usually  closed  for  four  consecutive  months.  Lake 
Michigan  has  important  fisheries;  white-fish 
and  lake  trout  are  taken  and  exported  in  large 
quantities,  fresh  and  canned.  The  largest  rivers 
which  empty  into  it  are  the  Saint  Joseph,  Mus- 
kegon, Grand,  Kalamazoo,  and  Manistee,  all  in 
Michigan;  the  Fox  in  Wisconsin,  emptying  into 
Green  Bay;  and  the  Menominee  on  the  borders 


of  ^lichigan  and  Wisconsin,  also  discharging  into 
Green  Bay.  The  lake  forms,  with  the  Saint 
Lawrence  and  the  Lower  Lakes,  a  natural  outlet 
for  one  of  the  richest  grain-growing  regions  in 
the  world. 

IdCHIGANy  Univebsity  of.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  chartered 
in  1837.  According  to  the  terms  of  the  charter, 
branches  were  estcDslished  at  various  places  to 
serve  as  preparatory  schools  of  the  imiversity. 
These  existed  only  a  short  time  and  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  State  high  schools,  which  are 
now  in  intimate  relation  with  the  imiversity. 
The  institution  was  opened  in  1841,  graduating 
its  first  class  in  1845.  It  is  intended  primarily 
for  the  higher  education  of  residents  of  the  State, 
but  receives  students  from  all  parts  of  the  coxm- 
try  on  payment  of  a  small  tuition  fee.  The 
governing  body  is  a  board  of  regents,  elected 
for  terms  of  eight  years.  The  imiversity  is 
organized  in  seven  departments:  literature, 
sciences,  and  the  arts  (including  the  graduate 
school)  ;  engineering  (opened  in  1853) ;  medicine 
and  surgery  (1850)  ;  law  (1859)  ;  pharmacy;  the 
Homoeopathic  Medical  College  (1875);  and  the 
College  of  Dental  Surgery  (1875).  Each  depart- 
ment has  its  special  faculty,  with  representation 
on  the  University  Senate,  which  considers  ques- 
tions of  common  interest.  The  degrees  conferred 
are  bachelor  and  master  of  arts,  science,  and 
law;  civil,  mechanical,  electrical,  chemical,  and 
marine  engineer;  and  doctor  of  philosophy,  sci- 
ence, medicine,  dental  surgery,  and  dental  science. 
The  total  attendance  in  1905-6,  including  the 
summer  session,  was  4571,  of  whom  1566  were 
students  in  the  department  of  literature,  science, 
and  the  arts,  1165  in  engineering,  902  in  law,  and 
451  in  medicine.  The  total  attendance  of  women, 
exclusive  of  the  summer  school,  was  714.  The 
university,  to  1906,  had  conferred  21,079  degrees, 
of  which  over  2000  were  given  to  women.  The 
university  was  a  pioneer  in  coeducation,  women 
having  first  been  admitted  in  1870.  They  now 
constitute  about  one-fifth  of  the  student  body. 
Coeducation  at  the  university  has  been  uniformly 
successful.  The  libraries  of  the  university,  in- 
cluding a  number  of  important  collections,  aggre- 
gate 195,000  volumes.  The  university  museums 
contain  collections  illustrative  of  natural  his- 
tory, the  industrial  arts,  chemistry,  materia 
medica,  anatomy,  archaBology,  ethnologj',  the  fine 
arts,  and  history,  including  a  very  full  Chinese 
exhibit  sent  by  the  Chinese  Government  to  the 
New  Orleans  Exposition  and  presented  to  the 
university  in  1885.  The  Detroit  Astronomical 
Observatory  contain^  a  meridian  circle  by  Pistor 
and  Martins,  of  Berlin,  mounted  clocks  by  Tiede 
and  Howard,  and  a  refracting  telescope  with  a 
thirteen-inch  object  glass,  constructed  by  the  late 
Henry  Fitz,  of  New  York.  A  smaller  observa- 
tory, used  in  the  work  of  instruction,  contains 
an  equatorial  telescope  of  six  inches  aperture 
and  a  transit  instrument  of  three  inches  aper- 
ture. There  are  two  hospitals  connected  with  the 
university.  The  Waterman  Gymnasium,  for 
men,  and  the  Barbour  Gymnasium,  for  women, 
are  free  to  all  students.  The  general  supervision 
of  athletic  sports  is  vested  in  a  board  of  control 
of  nine  members,  five  chosen  from  the  University 
Senate  and  four  from  the  Students'  Athletic 
Association.  The  university  is  a  member  of  the 
Northern  Oratorical  League,  which  includes  the 
universities  of  Chicago,  Minnesota,  and  Wiscon- 


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MICHIGAN. 


448 


MICKIEWICZ. 


sin,  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  Northwestern, 
and  Oberlin.  It  belongs  to  the  Central  Debating 
League,  with  the  universities  of  Chicago  and 
Minnesota,  and  Northwestern  University.  En- 
trance is  based  upon  examination  or  upon  cer- 
tificates from  accredited  schools.  The  university 
has  no  dormitories  and  no  commons.  Among 
other  developments,  the  establishment  of  courses 
in  forestry  and  in  marine  engineering  is  note- 
worthy. The  faculty  in  1906  numbered  280. 
The  endowment  of  the  university  was  $885,964; 
its  gross  income,  $864,000.  The  total  value  of  the 
college  property  was  $2,967,579,  and  that  of  the 
grounds  and  buildings  $1,990,886.  James  B. 
Angell  became  president  in  1871. 

MICHIGAN  CITY.  A  city  in  Laporte 
County,  Ind.,  52  miles  by  rail  east  of  Chicago, 
111.;  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette, the  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  the  Chicago, 
Indianapolis  and  Louisville,  and  the  Michigan 
Central  railroads  (Map:  Indiana,  CI).  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Northern  Indiana  State  Prison, 
and  has  a  public  library,  a  United  States  life- 
saving  station,  a  public  park  on  the  lake  front, 
and  a  soldiers'  monument.  There  are  good  trans- 
portation facilities,  to  which  are  due  the  city's 
large  commercial  interests,  the  trade  being  prin- 
cipally in  lumber,  salt,  and  iron  ore.  The  manu- 
factures of  railroad  cars,  chairs,  hosiery  and  knit 
goods,  lumber  and  products  of  lumber  are  im- 
portant. The  government,  as  provided  by  the 
charter  of  1867  and  numerous  amendments  there- 
to, is  vested  in  a  mayor,  who  holds  office  for  four 
years,  and  a  common  council,  which  elects  all 
administrative  officials,  excepting  the  statutory 
municipal  officers,  who  are  chosen  by  popular 
vote.  The  city  owns  and  operates  the  water- 
works. Michigan  City  was  laid  out  in  1832  and 
settled  in  the  following  year.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1837.  Population,  1890,  10,776;  1900,  14,850; 
1906  (local  est.),  22,000. 

MICHIGAN  COLLEGE  OF  MINES.   A 

mining  school  at  Houghton,  Mich.,  established  in 
1885.  There  are  six  college  buildings,  with  a 
library  of  about  20,000  volumes.  In  1906-7  there 
were  28  instructors,  and  234  students.  Its  finan- 
cial  support   is  derived  from   the   State. 

MICHIGAN  HEBBING.    The  cisco  (q.v.). 

MICHIGAN  STATE  AGBICXJLTTJBAL 
COLLEGE.  A  coeducational  State  institution 
at  Lansing,  Mich.,  the  oldest  institution  of  its 
kind  in  the  country.  It  was  established  in  pur- 
suance of  a  constitutional  provision  in  1855,  and 
was  opened  in  1857.  Its  endowment  consists  of 
a  fund  of  $800,000  derived  from  the  sale  of  part 
of  the  lands  (235,673  acres)  given  by  the  General 
Government  through  the  act  of  1862.  There  are 
four  courses,  agricultural,  mechanical,  forestry, 
and  women's  or  domestic  science,  which  were 
attended  in  1906-7  by  1010  students  under  a  fac- 
ulty of  80.  The  library  contained  25,000  volumes. 
Farmers'  institutes  are  carried  on  annually  in 
each  countv  of  the  State,  the  total  attendance  at 
these  schools  in  1900-7  being  about  100,000.  The 
income  from  the  endowment  fund,  with  other 
Government  grants  and  State  appropriations, 
amounted  in  1906  to  $269,090.  In  that  year  the 
buildings  and  grounds  were  valued  at  $585,600. 

MICHMASHy  mik'mfish.  The  site  of  the 
camp  of  the  Philistines  in  the  war  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Saul's  reign,  connected  with  the  notable 


exploit  of  Jonathan  (q.v.)  related  in  I.  Sam.  xiv. 
It  was  a  town  of  Benjamin,  about  seven  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem.  Its  importance  arose  from  its 
position  on  one  of  the  two  main  roads  from  Jem- 
salem  northward,  at  a  point  where  the  road 
descends  into  a  steep  and  rugged  valley.  Josephus 
{Ant.,  vi.  6,  2)  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
Jonathan's  exploit,  which  tallies  well  with  the 
features  of  the  locality  to-day.  Men  of  Michmash 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii.  27;  Neli. 
vii.  31).  It  is  mentioned  in  the  fictitious  inva- 
sion of  the  Assyrians  in  Isaiah  x.  28  sqq.  In  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  it  became  the  headquarters 
of  Jonathan  (I.  Mace.  ix.  73),  and  was  a  large 
village  in  the  time  of  Eusebius.  It  is  the  modem 
Muhmas. 

MICHOACiN,  m6-ch5'A-kan'.  A  Pacific  Coast 
State  of  Mexico,  bounded  by  the  States  of  Jalisco 
and  Guanajuato  on  the  north,  Mexico  on  the 
east,  Guerrero  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the 
south,  and  Colima  and  Jalisco  on  the  west  ( Map : 
Mexico,  H  8).  Area,  22,623  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  generally  mountainous,  although  its 
highest  elevations  are  below  13,000  feet.  The 
northern  part  is  the  more  elevated,  being  in 
general  over  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  a  few 
peaks  exceeding  10,000  feet.  The  southern  part 
slopes  toward  the  coast,  which  is  mostly  low. 
The  extreme  northern  part  is  rather  flat  and 
interspersed  with  a  number  of  lakes.  With  the 
exception  of  the  large  rivers  Lerma  and  Las 
Balsas,  forming  part  of  the  boundaries,  and  the 
Tepalcatepec,  a  tributary  of  Las  Balsas,  crossing 
the  State  from  east  to  west,  the  rivers  are  small, 
but  lakes  are  abundant,  and  some  of  them,  such 
as  Cuitzeo,  are  of  considerable  size.  The  climate 
is  on  the  whole  healthful,  except  in  the  southern 
part,  where  fever  prevails  to  some  extent.  The 
soil  is  of  remarkable  fertility;  the  principal 
products  are  cereals  in  the  more  elevated  parts, 
and  sugar,  coflfee,  vanilla,  tobacco,  and  other 
tropical  plants  in  the  valleys.  Stock-raising 
and  mining  are  also  important  industries,  and 
trade  is  considerable.  The  State  is  crossed  by 
the  Mexican  National  and  the  Mexican  Central 
railwav  lines.  Population,  in  1895,  896,495;  in 
1900,935,808.  Capital,  Morel ia  (q.v.).  Michoa- 
cAn  was  inhabited  by  the  Tarascos,  who  had  suc- 
cessfully resisted  the  domination  of  the  Aztecs 
up  to  the  time  of  the  Conquest. 

MICKIEWICZ,  mIts'kl-AMch,  Adam  (1798- 
1855).  The  greatest  of  Polish  poets.  He  was  born 
near  Novogrodek,  Lithuania;  his  father  was  a 
lawyer  of  the  lesser  nobility.  Inclined  to  the 
study  of  nature,  he  took  up  mathematics  and 
physics  at  the  University  of  Vilna,  but  later 
passed  to  biology  and  literature  (1815-19).  After 
that  he  taught  Latin  and  Polish  at  the  gymna- 
sium in  Kovno  until  1823,  publishing  there  the 
first  collection  of  his  poems  in  two  volumes  in 
1822.  To  the  legends,  superstitions,  and  tales  of 
the  Polish  nation  contained  in  it,  Mickiewicz  gave 
a  wonderfully  poetic  form,  and  at  one  bound 
became  the  national  poet  of  the  Poles.  The  vol- 
umes contained  two  longer  works:  Dziady  (An- 
cestors, Festival  in  honor  of  the  Dead),  a  ro- 
mantic drama;  and  Oraiyna,  an  historical  epic. 
The  former  contains  much  autobiographical  ma- 
terial. The  poem  is  deficient  in  orderliness,  the 
episodes  being  flung  together  with  almost  reck- 
less freedom,  but  the  chief  theme — love — has, 
perhaps,  never  been  better  sung.    Oraiyna  relates 


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MICKIEWICZ. 


449 


mCBOCONOBON. 


the  noble  death  of  a  princess  of  that  name,  who 
dons  the  armor  of  her  husband,  and  thus  dis- 
guised leads  his  army  against  the  Teutonic 
Knights. 

In  1824  Mickiewicz  was  arrested  in  Vilna  on 
suspicion  of  revolutionary  plotting,  and  was  sent 
to  Saint  Petersburg.  In  the  capital  he  formed 
a  warm  friendship  with  Pushkin,  but  soon  went 
to  Odessa  (1825)  as  instructor  in  the  Richelieu 
Lyceum.  After  nine  months  he  visited  the  Cri- 
mea, and  this  was  a  turning  point  in  his  career. 
The  Crimean  Sonnets  recording  his  impressions 
are  glowing  with  Oriental  color  and  graceful  in 
form.  In  December,  1825,  he  obtained  a  position 
in  the  oflSce  of  the  Governor-General,  Prince  Go- 
litzin,  at  Moscow.  In  1828  he  returned  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  there  published  his  second  epic, 
Wallenrody  descriptive  of  the  struggle  of  the 
Lithuanians  against  the  Teutonic  Knights.  In 
1829  the  poet  received  permission  to  travel  in 
Italy,  Germany,  and  France.  In  Weimar  he  met 
Goethe,  who  became  greatly  interested  in  him. 
After  staying  for  a  time  in  Rome,  where  he  met 
James  Fenimore  Cooper,  he  started  for  Poland 
on  hearing  of  the  uprising  of  1830,  but,  unable 
to  cross  the  strictly  guarded  frontier,  he  went  to 
Dresden,  after  lingering  in  Posen  for  a  while, 
and  soon  settled  in  Paris.  In  1832  he  published 
the  third  part  of  his  Dziady.  In  poverty  and  dis- 
tress, he  published  his  masterpiece,  Sir  Thaddeua 
(Pan  Tadeusz),  in  1834.  In  1839  he  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  Latin  literature  at  Lausanne, 
and  in  the  year  following  he  was  appointed  the 
first  incumbent  of  the  newly  founded  chair  of 
Slavic  literatures  at  the  College  de  France.  But 
after  a  year  or  two  he  began  to  intermingle  his 
lectures  with  irrelevant  discussions  on  politics, 
religion,  and  mysticism,  and  the  French  Gov- 
ernment was  forced  to  stop  his  lectures  in  1844. 
In  1848  he  went  to  Italy,  and  there  undertook  to 
form  Polish  regiments  against  Austria.  Then,  in 
1849,  he  edited  at  Paris  the  Tribune  des  Peuplea, 
which  was  soon  stopped  by  the  French  GrovcTn- 
ment.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  a  librarian  in 
the  Arsenal,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean 
War  Louis  Napoleon  sent  him  to  Constantinople 
to  organize  Polish  regiments  against  Russia. 
Here  he  died  shortly  afterwards.  He  was  buried 
in  Paris ;  in  1890  his  body  was  transferred  to 
Cracow. 

The  best  edition  of  Mickiewicz's  works  is  that 
of  1838,  in  eight  volumes,  published  in  Paris, 
under  the  poet's  personal  supervision;  and  the 
latest  by  Dr.  Biegeleisen,  in  four  volumes  (Lem- 
berg,  1893).  They  have  been  translated  into 
most  European  languages.  His  ballads  and  son- 
nets are  to  be  found,  in  German,  in  Reclames 
Universal  Bihliothek:  Dziady  (Ahnefeier),  in 
German  by  Lipiner  (Leipzig,  1887)  ;  OraSyna, 
in  German  by  Nitschmann  in  Iris  (Leipzig, 
1880);  Wallenrod,  by  Weiss  (Bremen.  1^71); 
Herr  Thaddaus,  by  Weiss  (Leipzig,  1882)  and 
Lipiner  (Leipzig,  1883).  Conrad  Wallenrod  was 
translated  into  English  by  Leo  Jablonski,  and  a 
poetical  version  of  it  by  Cattley  appeared  in 
London  in  1840.  The  best  biography  in  French 
is  by  his  son,  Wladislaw  Mickiewicz  (Paris, 
1888)  ;  revised  and  enlarged  in  Polish  (I'osen, 
1890-94).  His  CEuvres  complets  appeared  in 
«leven  volumes  in  Paris,  1860. 

MICKLE,  William  Julius  (1735-88).  A 
Scottish  poet,  bom  at  Langholm,  Dumfries- 
shire.    Mickle   failed   as   a   brewer,   settled    in 


London  as  a  writer,  and  became  corrector  to 
the  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford  (1765).  In  1767 
he  published  a  narrative  poem  called  The  Con- 
cubine, reissued  in  1778,  as  Bir  Martyn.  Ex- 
cepting Thomson's  Castle  of  Indolence^  it  is  the 
best  of  the  eighteenth  century  imitations  of 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  Retiring  to  a  farm  near 
Oxford,  Mickle  made  a  free  version  of  the  Lusiads 
of  Camoens  (1775).  to  Evans's  Old  Ballads 
(1777-84)  he  contributed  the  fine  ballad  Cumnor 
Hall,  which  suggested  Scott's  Kenilworth.  He 
may  also  have  written  the  exquisite  Scotch  song 
There's  nae  Luck  About  the  House  (ascribed  also 
to  Jean  Adams).  In  1779  Mickle  went  to  Lis- 
bon as  secretary  in  the  Romney  man-of-war.  He 
was  most  hospitably  received  and  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Portugal.  He  died 
at  Forest  Hill,  near  Oxford.  (Consult  his  Poetical 
Works,  with  biography,  ed.  by  Sim  (London, 
1807). 

IQCyHAC.  An  important  Algonquian  tribe 
of  Canada,  occupying  all  of  Nova  Scotia,  Cape 
Breton  Island,  and  Prince  Edward  Island,  with 
large  portions  of  New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  and 
Newfoundland.  The  name  is  of  imcertain  etymol- 
ogy. In  all  the  colonial  wars  the  Micmac  sided 
with  the  French,  those  of  Southern  Nova  Scotia 
especially  making  a  reputation  by  their  inroads 
upon  the  New  England  settlements.  They  are 
now  all  civilized,  fairly  industrious  as  hunters, 
fishers,  guides,  and  basket  and  curio  makers,  but 
without  any  appreciable  desire  to  advance  their 
condition ;  moral,  sober,  and  law-abiding,  and  al- 
most solidly  Catholic  through  the  effort  of  early 
French  missionaries  and  their  successors.  They 
number  in  all  about  4000,  and  are  divided  approxi- 
mately as  follows :  Nova  Scotia  ( including  Cape 
Breton  Island),  2050;  New  Brunswick,  950; 
Quebec,  630;  Prince  Edward  Island,  320;  New- 
foundland (not  reported) — ^perhaps  50.  Their 
language  and  traditions  have  been  investigated 
by  the  missionary  Rand. 

Id'CON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MIkup,  Mik6n) .  An 
Athenian  painter  and  sculptor,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  He 
painted  three  of  the  walls  of  the  temple  of 
Theseus  at  Athens,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a 
hand  in  the  great  picture  of  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon in  the  Poikile.  He  was  especially  skillful 
in  the  painting  of  horses. 

MIGBOBE.  A  microscopic  organism;  espe- 
cially applied  to  a  bacterium.  Various  infectious 
diseases  are  caused  by  its  presence.    See  Bactebia. 

MI'CBOCLINE  (from  Gk.  /Luicp6j,  mikros, 
small  +  K\lveip,  klinein,  to  incline).  A  potas- 
sium-aluminum silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the 
triclinic  system,  and  is  near  orthoclase  in  its 
properties,  being  a  member  of  the  triclinic  group 
of  feldspars.  It  has  a  vitreous  lustre  and  is 
white  to  cream-yellow  in  color,  and  sometimes 
red  or  green.  The  green  varieties  are  known  as 
Amazon  stone.  The  ordinary  microcline,  which 
is  found  both  as  crystals  and  in  masses  in  gra- 
nitic rocks,  is  of  common  occurrence;  excellent 
specimens  are  found  at  Magnet  Cove,  Ark. 

MI'CBOCO(yCI.     See  Bacteria. 

MI'CROCON'ODON  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
fUKp^f  mikros,  small  -\-  KQvot,  kdnos,  cone  -h 
65o«^,  odous,  tooth).  A  small  fossil  jaw  of  un- 
certain affinities  found  in  the  Triassic  rocks. 
It  has  been  considered  by  some  American  authors 


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mCBOCOKOBON. 


450 


HICBOMETEB. 


to  belong  to  a  group  of  vertebrates,  intermediate 
in  position  between  the  highest  anomodont  rep- 
tiles, the  Theromorpha,  and  the  lowest  poly- 
protodont  mammals.  Consult  Osbom,  "On  the 
Structure  and  Classification  of  the  Mesozoic 
Mammalia,"  in  Journal  of  the  Philadelphia  Acad- 
emy of  Natural  Sciences  for  1888  (Philadelphia, 
1888). 

MI'CBOCOSM  (Lat.  microcosmus,  Gk.  futcpS- 
.  Kofffiat,  mikrokoamos,  little  world,  from  /uicp6f. 
mikrosL  small  +  Kda/wc^  kosmoa,  world)  and 
KAC^BOCXMSM  (from  Gk.  uaxpdc,  makroa, 
great  +  ic^/tof,  koamoa,  world).  The  belief, 
current  in  ancient  times,  that  the  world  or  cos- 
mos was  animated,  or  had  a  soul,  led  to  the 
notion  that  the  parts  and  members  of  organic 
beings  must  have  their  counterparts  in  the  mem- 
bers of  the  cosmos.  The  natural  philosophers  of 
the  sixteenth  century  took  up  this  notion  anew 
in  a  somewhat  modified  shape,  and  considered  the 
world  as  a  human  organism  on  the  large  scale, 
and  man  as  a  world,  or  cosmos,  in  miniature; 
hence  they  called  man  a  microcosm,  and  the  uni- 
verse itself  the  macrocosm.  With  this  was  as- 
sociated the  belief  that  the  vital  movements  of 
the  microcosm  exactly  corre8]>onded  to  those  of 
the  macrocosm,  and  this  led  to  the  further  as- 
sumption that  the  movements  of  the  stars  ex- 
ercised an  influence  on  the  temperament  and 
for  times  of  men. 

Id'CBOGOS^MIC  SALT,  or  Salt  of  Phos- 
phorus. An  ammoniiun-sodium-hydrogen  phos- 
phate that  crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic  system, 
and  is  found  native  as  the  mineral  atercorite.  It 
was  known  to  the  older  chemists,  who  extracted 
it  from  human  urine.  It  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving crystallized  sodium  phosphate  and  am- 
monium chloride  in  water,  heating  the  solution 
to  boiling,  then  filtering  and  cooling  to  crystalli- 
zation. On  heating,  the  crystals  melt  readily, 
giving  up  water  of  crystallization,  and  later  am- 
monia, and  leaving  sodium  phosphate,  which 
melts  and  solidifies  on  cooling  to  a  clear  color- 
less glass.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  flux  in  blow- 
pipe analysis. 

Id'CBODIS^CTJS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fUKpdg 
mikroa,  small  +  dioKog,  diakoSf  disk).  A  small 
Cambrian  trilobite  with  body  of  oval  outline, 
head  and  tail  shields  alike,  and  only  three  or 
four  thoracic  segments.  See  Agnostus;  Cam- 
BBiAN  System. 

MI'CBO-FAB'AD.      See    Fabad. 

MI'CBOIjES^ES  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiucpdc, 
mikroa,  small  +  At;<Tr3^f,  Ustea,  robber).  A 
small  fossil  jaw  with  multituberculate  teeth 
found  in  the  Triassic  rocks  of  WUrttemberg  and 
England.  This  fossil  has  figured  prominently  in 
discussions  on  the  origin  of  the  mammalia,  and 
it  is  usually  placed  among  the  prototherian  mam- 
mals; but,  as  the  skull  to  wnich  it  belongs  is 
entirely  unknown,  its  exact  systematic  position 
is  undeterminable,  and  it  may  prove  to  be  the 
jaw  of  an  anomodont  reptile  ( Theromorpha )  in- 
stead of  that  of  a  mammal. 

MI'CBOM'ETEB  (from  Gk.  /uicp6f,  mikroa, 
small  -h  lUrpov,  metron,  measure).  Any  device 
by  means  of  which  it  is  possible  to  make  a  linear 
measurement  more  accurately  by  using  levers, 
screws,  or  magnifying  glasses  than  by  using  a 
simple  rule  or  scale.  Fig.  1  shows  a  simple  form 
of  lever  micrometer  adapted  to  the  measurement 


FlO.  1.   LBTEB  MICBOM- 
BTBB. 


of  thicknesses,  diameters,  and  the  like.  Tlie 
movable  lever  AB  turns  on  a  pivot  at  C,  and 
since  the  arm  CB  is  five  times  as  long  as  the 
arm  CA,  the  pointer  at  the  end  of  B  will  move 
over  the  scale  D  five  times 
as  far  as  the  points  are 
opened  at  A;  and  conse- 
quently the  measurement  ia 
about  five  times  as  accurate 
as  if  a  scale  were  applied 
directly.  Fig.  2  illustrates 
a  form  of  simple  screw  mi- 
crometer. The  screw  has 
ten  threads  to  the  inch,  and 
consequently  one  complete 
revolution  will  remove  the 
point  of  the  screw.  A,  from 
the  plate,  C,  one-tenth  of  an 
inch.  The  head,  B,  of  the 
screw  has  its  rim  divided 
into  one  hundred  equal  parts;  hence  a  rotation 
of  the  screw  through  one  of  these  parts  means 
one  one-hundredth  of  a  complete  revolution,  and 
such  a  motion  would  remove 
the  point  from  the  plate  by 
a  distance  of  1/100  of  1/10, 
or  1/1000  inch.  A  veiy 
common  form  of  screw  mi- 
crometer, described  and  il- 
lustrated under  Caufebs, 
has  forty  threads  to  the 
inch,  and  the  head  is  di- 
vided into  twenty-five  parts, 
making  the  accuracy  1/25 
of  1/40,  or  again  1/1000  of 
an  inch. 

In  working  with  the  tele- 
scope and  the  microscope  it 
becomes  necessary  to  make 
measurements  upon  the  image  formed  by  the  ob- 
jective, and  for  this  purpose  a  micrometer  ocular 
is  employed.  The  simplest  form  of  this  device  is  a 
fine  scale  ruled  upon  glass  in  hundredths  of  an 
inch,  or  tenths  of  a  millimeter,  and  so  mounted  in 
the  draw  tube  that  it  will  be  seen  distinctly  by 
means  of  the  eyepiece,  and  hence  will  be  in  the 
plane  of  the  image  formed  by  the  objective.  The 
scale  appears  to  lie  upon  the  object,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  read  oflT  the  dimensions.  A 
revolution  of  the  draw  tube  makes  measurements 
in  different  directions  possible  without  moving 
the  object. 

A  more  accurate  and  satisfactory  micrometer 
ocular  is  that  devised  by  Ramsden,  and  illustrat- 
ed in  Fig.  3.  H  is  the  divided  head  of  a  mi- 
crometer screw,  S,  reading  to  a  hundredth  of  a 
screw  revolution,  1/200  millimeter  for  example. 
The  screw  is  so  arranged  that  it  will  cause  a  rec- 
tangular frame,  AA,  to  move  backward  and  for- 
ward as  the  screw  revolves.  Across  the  middle 
of  the  frame,  AA,  are  stretched  two  fine  spider- 
lines,  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  screw, 
and  quite  close  together.  The  whole  device  is  so 
attached  to  the  draw  tube  of  the  microscope  or 
telescope  that  the  spider-lines  lie  in  the  focal 
plane  of  the  objective,  and  hence  are  distinctly 
seen  magnified  by  the  ocular.  In  making  meas- 
urements with  this  instrument  the  screw  S  is 
turned  until  the  spider-lines  straddle  one  point, 
and  then  a  reading  is  made  of  the  position  of 
the  head,  H.  Next  the  screw  is  again  turned  un- 
til the  lines  straddle  the  other  point,  another 


Fig.    2.    BIMPLB   BBRCH 
MICBOMETEB. 


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MICBOSGOFE. 


reading  is  made,  and  the  difference  of  the  two 
readings  gives  the  distance  between  the  points 
upon  the  image.  By  placing  a  known  scale,  for 
example  a  tenth  of  a  millimeter,  upon  the  stagef 
of  the  microscope,  and  measuring  the  image  as 
above,  the  magnifying  power  of  the  microscope 
objective  is  obtained,  and  it  is  possible  to  cal- 


FlO.  3.   MICROMETER  OCCLAR. 

culate  what  distance  upon  the  stage,  or  in  the 
object,  corresponds  to  one  revolution  of  the  mi- 
crometer screw.  The  whole  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  the  screw  is  sometimes  read  by  means  of 
a  second  wheel,  so  geared  to  H  that  it  makes 
one  revolution  for  twenty  or  thirty  revolutions 
of  the  screw  S.  In  other  cases  a  strip  of  metal 
with  small  teeth  like  saw  teeth,  and  as  far  apart 
as  the  threads  of  the  screw  S,  is  placed  across 
the  side  of  the  opening  so  that  the  double  spider- 
line  appears  to  move  over  it  from  tooth  to  tooth, 
each  tooth  corresponding  to  one  complete  revo- 
lution of  the  screw.  Such  micrometers  are  used 
in  measuring  objects  under  the  microscope,  in 
most  accurate  linear  and  angular  determinations, 
and  in  telescopes  for  obtaining  star  distances,  and 
for  a  great  variety  of  measurements.  A  very 
elaborate  and  delicate  micrometer  attached  to 
the  eye  end  of  the  telescope  and  used  in  star 
work  is  called  a  position  micrometer.  A  special 
form  of  micrometer  is  used  for  measuring  the 
star  distances  on  the  photographic  plates  that 
are  taken  of  ster  groups  and  clusters.  See  Mi- 
GBOscoPE;  Telescope. 

MICBOMETEB  GALIFEBS.  See  Calipers 
and  Micrometer. 

MI'GBONE'SIA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /Luie/>6t, 
mikros,  small  -f  v^of,  nesos,  island).  A  name 
of  Greek  origin,  meaning  'small  islands.'  It  is 
used  to  designate  that  part  of  Oceanica  which 
consists  of  the  Ladrone  and  Caroline  islands, 
Marshall  Islands,  the  Gilbert  group,  and  many 
others  of  small  size.  All  of  these  lie  northwest 
of  Polynesia,  north  of  Melanesia,  and  east  of 
the  Philippines,  being  all  north  of  the  equator, 
and  between  longitudes  130°  and  180°  E.  The 
group  also  forms  an  ethnological  division  of 
Oceanica.  (See  Micronesians. )  The  most  im- 
portent  of  the  groups  are  described  under  the 
proper  titles. 

MI'CBONE^IANS.  The  inhabitants  of 
Micronesia  (q.v.).  They  belong  undoubtedly  to 
the  Malayo-Polynesian  race,  although  the  author- 
ities differ  concerning  their  ethnic  purity.     The 


languages  of  Micronesia  are  probably  Melane- 
sian,  but  the  natives  are  extremely  mixed,  show- 
ing all  shades  of  color  and  transitional  forms  be- 
tween the  Papuan,  Malay,  and  Polynesian  types. 
The  mass  differ  in  type  slightly  from  the  Poly- 
nesians; they  are  more  hairy,  are  shorter,  their 
head  is  more  elongated,  and  they  possess  some 
ethnic  characters  apart.  They  use  rope  armor, 
and  have  weapons  of  sharks'  teeth,  special 
money,  and  other  distinguishing  marks.  The 
Ladrone,  Pelew,  Marshall,  Caroline,  and  Gilbert 
groups,  collectively  called  Micronesia,  would  ap- 
pear to  have  been  originally  peopled  by  Papuans 
from  Melanesia,  and  to  have  afterwards  received 
numerous  colonists  from  both  Polynesia  and 
Malaysia  (the  Philippines),  besides  occasional 
settlers  from  Japan  and  China.  But  the  extent 
of  the  Papuan  element  in  Micronesia  has  yet 
to  be  determined  and  has  probably  been  over- 
estimated. The  Gilbert  group  form  the  natural 
transition  to  Polynesia  proper.  For  information 
in  detail  concerning  the  Micronesians,  the  follow- 
ing works  may  be  consulted:  Kubary,  Ethno- 
graphische  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntnis  des  Karolinen- 
Archipels  (Leyden,  1889-95)  ;  Meinicke,  Die  In- 
8€ln  d€8  sullen  Ozeans  (Leipzig,  1875)  ;  Cabeza 
Pereira,  Estudios  sohre  las  Carolinas  (Manila, 
1895)  ;  Heinsheim,  Sudsee  Erinnerungen  (Ber- 
lin, 1883)  ;  id.,  Beitrag  zur  Sprache  der  Mar- 
shall-Inaeln  (Leipzig,  1880)  ;  Bastian,  Die  mtfc- 
ronesischen  Golonien  aua  ethnologischen  Stand- 
punkten  (Berlin,  1899)  ;  Christian,  "On  Micro- 
nesian  Weapons,"  in  the  Journal  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Institute  (London)  for  1899,  and  The 
Caroline  Islands  (London,  1899)  ;  Bartolis,  Las 
Carolinas  (Barcelona,  1885).    See  Polynesians. 

MI'CBOFHONE.     See  Telephone. 

MI^CBOFYIjE  (from  Gk.  fwcpSt,  mikroSy 
small  -h  TiJXiy,  pyli,  gate)  (in  plants).  In  an 
ovule,  the  passageway  left  by  the  integument  or 
integuments,  through  which  the  pollen-tube 
passes  to  the  nucellus.  It  also  marks  the  point 
in  the  seed  at  which  the  escaping  plantlet  first 
emerges.    See  Ovule. 

MFGBOSOOFE  (from  Gk.  iuKp6s,  mikros, 
small  -f  ffKoxeiPf  skopein,  to  view).  An  instru- 
ment by  which  objects  are  made  to  appear  of 
greater  magnitude.  Undoubtedly  the  oldest  mi- 
croscope on  record  is  a  plano-convex  lens  of 
quartz  found  by  A.  H.  Layard  amid  the  ruins  of 
Nineveh,  surrounded  by  articles  of  bronze  and 
other  materials.  It  is  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, and  is  0.5  cm.  (less  than  0.2  inch)  in 
thickness,  3.5  cm.  ( 1.4  inches)  in  diameter,  and  its 
focal  length  is  10.7  cm.  (about  4  inches).  Many 
authorities  believe  with  good  reason  that  this 
lens  was  used  as  a  burning  glass,  as  similar 
ones  were  used  for  that  purpose  at  the  time  of 
Socrates.  On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  such  lenses  were  used  as  simple  micro- 
scopes, or  magnifying  glasses,  inasmuch  as  the  ap- 
parent increase  of  size  of  an  object  seen  through 
them  must  inevitably  have  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  such  good  observers,  and  moreover  the 
elaborate  and  delicate  engraving  on  many  of  the 
seals  and  gems  of  that  period  furnish  sufficient 
evidence  that  some  means  must  have  been  em- 
ployed to  aid  the  eye  in  executing  this  work. 
Spherical  glass  vessels  filled  with  water  would 
also  have  called  attention  to  their  employment 
as  magnifiers;  spherical  drops  of  glass  would  act 
similarly. 


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HICBOSCOPE. 


During  the  later  Middle  Ages  such  simple 
lenses  came  more  and  more  into  use,  especially 
as  aids  to  the  eye  in  ordinary  vision,  as  spec- 
tacles. A  spectacle-maker  of  Middelburg,  Hol- 
land, Zacharias  Janssen,  undoubtedly  was  the 
first  to  build  a  compound  miscroscope,  and 
about  1590  constructed  such  an  instrument  and 
presented  it  to  Charles  Albert,  Archduke  of 
Austria.  It  was  nearly  six  feet  long,  supported 
upon  brass  dolphins  on  an  ebony  board.  It  con- 
tained only  two  lenses.  Robert  Hooke  (1635- 
1703),  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society,  made 
many  improvements  in  the  construction  and  use 
of  the  microscope,  and  Divini  in  1668  improved 
the  instrument  by  using  two  plano-convex  lenses 
as  an  eyepiece  (see  below).  In  1686  Campani 
improved  the  form  of  the  instrument  apd  intro- 
duced the  use  of  a  screw  for  proper  focusing. 
Nevertheless  the  development  of  the  microscope 
took  a  different  direction,  on  account  of  the  seri- 
ous difficulties  with  aberration  (q.v.)  in  short 
focus  lenses,  and  under  the  influence  oif  Leeuwen- 
hoek  attention  was  returned  to  the  development 
of  the  simple  microscope.  Antony  von  Leeuwen- 
hoek  (1632-1723)  constructed  very  efficient  and 
convenient  simple  miscroscopes,  developing  the 
method  already  tried  by  Hooke  and  Hartsoeker 
of  making  high-power  lenses  by  allowing  a  drop 
of  molten  glass  to  occupy  a  small  hole  in  a  plate 
of  brass.  Even  a  drop  of  water  or  oil  was  also 
used  in  this  way.  Leeuwenhoek  is  said  to  have 
made  247  miscroscopes,  observing  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  in  the  feet  of  frogs,  spermatozoa, 
and  many  other  interesting  things.  To  this  pe- 
riod belong  also  the  names  of  Wilson  (1708-88), 
Hartsoeker  (1656-1724),  Stephen  Gray  (?-1736), 
Jan  van  Musschenbroek  (1687-1748),  Leutmann 
(1667-1736),  and  others. 

About  this  time  Samuel  Reyher  (1635-1714) 
employed  such  a  lens  to  project  an  image  upon 
the  wall,  or  a  screen,  using  the  sunlight  for 
illumination,  and  is  thus  probably  the  inventor 
of  the  *solar  microscope.'  Baker  ( 1698-1774)  with 
the  aid  of  the  mechanic  Scarlett  constructed  in 
1736  a  catoptric  miscroscope,  using  mirrors  in- 
stead of  lenses  in  a  manner  suggested  by  the 
Gregorian  telescope.  But  such  instruments  never 
came  to  be  of  much  importance,  since  Dolland 
(1706-61)  in  1757  confirmed  the  theoretical  con- 
clusions of  Euler  (1707-83)  and  Klingenstierna 
(1698-1765)  that  for  the  same  refraction  the 
dispersion  might  be  different,  and  thereupon  pro- 
ceeded to  construct  an  achromatic  objective,  that 
is,  a  lens  in  which  the  color  effects  are  elimi- 
nated by  the  use  of  two  kinds  of  glass.  Never- 
theless, the  great  difficulty  of  grinding  such  small 
lenses  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  the  correction 
of  the  errors  due  to  aberration  prevented  their 
use  in  a  manner  at  all  commensurate  with  their 
successful  employment  in  astronomical  telescopes. 

In  1823  Selligues  and  Chevalier  departed  from 
the  plan  of  using  only  two  lenses  to  correct  aber- 
ration and  employed  two  or  three  pairs  of 
lenses  (see  Fig.  6),  each  pair  consisting  of  a 
plano-concave  of  flint  glass  which  dispersed  the 
colors  far  apart,  combined  with  a  double  convex 
of  crowTi  glass,  which  has  a  low  dispersion.  In 
this  way  excellent  achromatic  objectives  were 
produced.  In  the  next  year  Tulley  of  London, 
upon  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Goring,  constructed  an 
achromatic  combination  of  three  lenses,  without 
knowing  of  the  work  of  Selligues  and  Chevalier. 
Amici  of  Modena  had  been  endeavoring  to  pro- 


duce achromatic  miscroscope  objectives  as  early 
as  1812,  and,  encouraged  by  the  success  of  Sel- 
ligues and  Chevalier,  he  took  up  the  work  with 
new  energy,  and  produced  in  1827  a  combination 
much  superior  to  any  known  at  that  time.  His 
work  was  soon  rivaled  by  that  of  Andrew  Ross 
and  Powell  in  London.  J.  J.  Lister,  as  a  result 
of  his  theoretical  investigations,  directed  James 
Smith  in  the  construction  of  an  objective  that 
surpassed  all  others  in  the  perfection  of  its  cor- 
rection, angular  aperture,  and  flatness  of  field. 

With  these  lenses  A.  Ross  soon  discovered  that 
the  presence  or  absence  of  a  cover  glass  over  the 
object  affects  the  success  of  the  correction.  In 
other  words,  he  discovered  that  the  cover  glass 
must  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  objective 
system.  He  pointed  out  tnat  its  effect  may  be 
counteracted  by  undercorrecting  the  first  pair  of 
lenses  in  the  objective  and  overcorrecting  the 
other  two  pairs ;  moreover,  if  the  distance  between 
the  first  and  second  pair  of  lenses  of  the  objective 
can  be  varied,  this  makes  it  possible  to  adapt  the 
correction  of  the  objective  to  various  thicknesses 
in  the  cover  glass,  and  to  various  kinds  of  cover 
glasses. 

For  a  long  time  the  best  microscope  objectives 
of  high  power  were  composed  of  three  pairs  of 
achromatic  lenses,  but  Amici  himself  tried  a 
single  plano-convex  lens  next  to  the  object  and 
recently  this  has  become  quite  popular.  (See 
Fig.  7.)  Amici  also  pointed  out  that  where  very 
short  focus  lenses  are  used  a  drop  of  water  may 
be  introduced  between  the  cover  glass  and  the 
first  face  of  the  objective,  thereby  reducing  the 
loss  of  light.  It  is,  however,  evident  that  this 
would  affect  the  refraction  and  dispersion  of  the 
system  and  hence  throw  out  the  correction.  Ap- 
parently Amici  was  never  able  to  adapt  his  sys- 
tems to  this  method  of  use,  and  it  remained  for 
Hartnack  and  Nachet  to  succeed  in  constructing 
objectives  for  such  use,  and  to  point  out  their 
great  superiority  in  many  ways  over  the  older 
form,  which  came  to  be  called  'dry*  objectives,  in 
distinction  from  this  new  form,  which  were 
called  'immersion'  objectives.  The  immersion 
system  has  very  great  advantages  over  the  dry 
on  account  of  the  gain  in  light  by  avoiding  the 
strong  reflection  from  the  front  lens  in  air, 
also  because  the  correction  of  the  cover  glass  is 
greatly  simplified,  and  besides  the  range  or  work- 
ing distance  is  considerably  increased.  Naturally 
a  lense  constructed  for  immersion  cannot  be  used 
satisfactorily  for  dry  work,  but  Messrs.  Powell 
and  Lealand  so  arranged  their  objectives  that  by 
exchanging  the  front  lens  it  could  be  changed 
from  dry  to  immersion,  or  vice  versa.  Wenham 
still  further  improved  upon  this  by  so  construct- 
ing the  system  that  the  objective  could  be 
changed  from  one  form  to  the  other  by  simply 
changing  the  distance  between  the  first  and  sec- 
ond elements  of  the  system,  this  being  accom- 
plished by  turning  a  screw  as  in  correcting  for 
cover  glasses  in  dry  systems.    See  Fig.  6. 

Wenham  also  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
to  suggest  the  advantage  of  substituting  for 
water  a  liquid  which  should  have  the  same  dis- 
persion and  refraction  as  the  cover  glass  and 
first  lens  of  the  objective,  and  it  is  to  the  zeal 
and  enerary  of  Zeis  of  Jena,  under  the  able  guid- 
ance of  Dr.  Abb^,  that  is  due  the  almost  perfect 
objectives  which  are  available  at  the  present  day. 
The  complex  form  sho^vn  in  Fig.  7  is  due  to 
Abb4,  and  is  known  as  an  'apochromat ;'  its  cor- 


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MICROSCOPE 


1.  SIMPLE  MICROSCOPE  on  stand  for  biological  work  5.  HUYQENIAN  EYEPIECE 

2.  HIQH-POWER  COMPOUND  MICROSCOPE  6.  RAMSDEN  EYEPIECE  ;^i+;^oH  hv/ 
8.  PETROORAPHIC  MICROSCOPE  7.  8TEINHEIL  POSITIVE  EYEPIECE' 9 '^'^^*-'  ^y 
4.  ABBg  SUB-STAQE  CONDENSER :  4a  and  4b,  lenses  In  sec-  8.  MICROTOME 

tion 


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MICBOSCOFE. 


rections  are  ao  perfect  that  it  appears  that  the 
theoretically  ideal  conditions  have  been  reached. 
Bausch  and  Lomb  in  America  and  Carl  Zeis  in 
Germany  are  now  constructing  lenses  under  the 
specifications  of  Dr.  Abb6.  It  should  be  stated 
in  this  connection  that  the  present  great  success 
in  the  construction  of  lenses  of  all  sorts  is  in 
large  measure  due  to  the  manufacture  by  Schott 
of  Jena  of  glass  upon  scientific  principles,  so 
that  it  is  not  only  possible  to  get  glass  with  the 
same  optical  properties  in  large  quantities,  and 
at  any  time,  out  it  has  been  possible  to  make 
glass  with  just  those  optical  properties  which 
are  wanted  for  any  particular  purpose.  Objec- 
tives designed  to  be  used  as  immersion  lenses 
with  a  liquid  of  refraction  and  dispersion  identi- 
cal with  that  of  the  glass  in  contact  with  the 
liquid  are  called  'homogeneous'  immersion  lenses. 
Oil  of  cedar  and  oil  of  fennel  are  well  adapted 
to  use  with  such  objectives. 

Simple  Microscope.  A  simple  lens,  or  a 
combination  of  two  or  more  lenses  nearer  to- 
gether than  the  sum  of  their  focal  lengths,  and 
acting  as  a  single  lens,  so  used  as  to  supplement 
the  optical  system  of  the  eye  and  increase  the 
apparent  size  of  an  object,  is  properly  called  a 
simple  miscroscope,  or  magnifying  glass.  The 
observer  judges  of  the  size  of  an  object  by  the 
visual  angle  which  it  subtends.  For  example,  AB, 
Fig.  1,  appears  larger  than  CD  because  the  visual 


C 

r 


A 


B 

Fio.  1. 


1^ 


focus  upon  the  retina  by  the  lenses  of 
the  eye,  and  hence  vision  is  distinct,  and 
the  visual  angle  and  apparent  size  of  the 
object  are  increased.  From  a  considera- 
tion of  Fig,  1  it  is  evident  that  practi- 
cally the  apparent  increase  in  size  is  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  the  decrease  in  distance 
between  the  object  and  the  eye.  Under  the 
normal  conditions  that  the  distance  IE,  Fig.  1, 
is  at  least  20-26  cm.  (8  to  10  inches),  and  we 
can  see  distinctly  only  a  comparatively  small 
area  at  once,  the  angle  AEB  is  small  and  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  the  ratio  of  AB  to  IE, 
hence  AEB  -i-  CED  =  FE  -r-  IE,  and  the  visual 
angle  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  distance 
from  the  eye  to  the  object.  Applying  this  to  Fig. 
2  gives  A'B'  -i-  AB  =  IC  -r-  OC,  inasmuch  as  C 
is  very  close  to  the  eye.  IC  is  the  distance  of 
distinct  vision,  and  OC  is  practically  the  focal 
length  of  the  lens  C.  It  is  hence  evident  that  the 
magnifying  power  of  a  simple  lens  is  equal  to  the 
ratio  of  its  focal  length  to  the  distance  of  distinct 
vision.  For  example^  a  lens  of  a  focal  length  of 
I  cm.  (two-fifths  of  an  inch)  would  magnify  26 
cm.  -T-  1  cm.  or  25  diameters.  Magnifying  powers 
are  always  given  in  'diameters,'  that  is,  in  the 
magnifying  of  any  linear  dimension  and  not  of 
the  area  of  the  object. 

Simple  lenses  of  very  short  focus  are  not  well 
adapted  to  obtaining  very  high  magnifying  power, 
on  account  of  their  chromatic  and  spherical  aber- 
rations, which  render  the  image  so  colored  and 
indistinct  that  accurate  work  is  impracticable. 
A  form  of  stand  for  simple  microscope  especially 
convenient  for  biological  work  is  shown  on  the 


.fr?^mm?n^ 


angle  AEB  is  greater  than  the  visual  angle  CED. 
Any  device  which  increases  the  visual  angle 
which  an  object  subtends  makes  it  appear  larger. 
It  is  impracticable  to  bring  the  object  indefinitely 
near  to  the  eye  and  thus  enlarge  the  visual  angle, 
because  the  accommodation  of  the  normal  eye 
does  not  enable  it  so  to  adjust  its  optical  system 
as  to  see  distinctly  an  object  much  less  than 
20-26  cm.  (eight  or  ten  inches)  distant.  In 
other  words,  the  normal  eye  can  bring  to  a  sharp 
focus  on  the  retina  only  such  rays  of  light  as 
are  parallel  or  slightly  divergent.  If  a  convex 
lens  is  placed  close  in  front  of  the  eye  and  an 


Fia.  2. 


object  in  front  of  it,  and  distant  a  little  less 
than  its  focal  len^h,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the 
lens  will  form  a  virtual  image,  I,  of  the  object, 
O,  at  A'B',  and  the  light  issuing  from  LL  is  of 
such  divergence  as  to  be  readily  brought  to  a 


FlO.  8.     LEN8B8  FOB  SIMPLE  MICROBCOPB. 

accompanying  plate  (Fig.  1).  A  is  the  lens,  or 
lens  combination;  B  is  the  table  for  holding  the 
object,  and  D  is  the  mirror  for  concentrating 
light  upon  the  latter;  C  is  the  rack  and  pinion 
enabling  a  convenient  adjustment  of  the  focus. 
Such  instruments  are  useful  for  dissecting  small 
organisms,  and  can  be  furnished  with  magnifying 
power  up  to  100  diameters.  Fig.  3  shows  several 
methods  of  obtaining  strong  combinations  with 
less  aberration,  and  without  the  cost  of  elaborate 
correction.  Fraunhofer  designed  the  doublet,  a; 
6  is  a  form  used  by  Wilson;  c  is  a  so-called 
aplanatic  triplet  by  Steinheil;  e  is  the  original 
Coddington,  modified  to  the  form  d  by  Brewster, 
and  f  is  the  common  cylindrical  lens  that  obtains 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MICBOSCOFE. 


454 


IdCBOSCOPE. 


good  results  on  account  of  the  slight  curvature 
of  the  face  nearest  the  object;  g  is  the  original 
Holland  triplet  in  which  the  diaphragm  cuts  oflf 
the  stray  light  and  improves  the  correction  great- 
ly, a  result  attained  in  e  and  d  by  the  side  cuts 
in  toward  the  axis.  WoUaston  pointed  out  that 
the  improvemeot  in  using  the  two  lenses  is  in  the 
fact  that  the  aberration  of  one  is  in  large  measure 
corrected  by  the  other,  the  diaphragm  serving  to 
cut  oflf  that  portion  of  stray  light  which  would 
interfere  with  the  distinctness  of  the  image.  The 
field  of  vision  is  also  larger  and  more  nearly 
flat  than  when  a  single  lens  is  used. 

Compound  Microscope.  In  its  simplest  form 
as  invented  by  Janssen  the  compound  microscope 
consists  of  two  lenses  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.    The 


b'V 


Fig.   4.     PIN'PLE    COM- 
POUND. 


FlO.  5.  COMPOUND 
MICnOBCOPB  WITH 
HUYGENS  ISYEPIECB. 


so-called  objective  lens  cd  forms  a  greatly  en- 
larged image  of  the  object,  a6,  at  a'h\  The  eye- 
piece Im  is  a  simple  microscope,  or  magnifying 
glass,  and  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  at  e.  The 
magnifying  power  of  such  a  combination  is  ob- 
tained as  follows:  the  image  a'h'  is  larger  than 
the  object  in  the  proportion  of  6'c  to  ca^  and 
the  eyepiece  Im  magnifies  the  image  a'o'  in  the 
proportion  of  its  focal  length  to  the  distance  of 
distinct  vision,  25  cm.  In  a  particular  case: 
suppose  ca  is  0.2  cm.,  c6'  is  20  cm.,  and  the 
focal  length  of  Im  is  2  cm.  Then  the  image 
a'h'  will  be  larger  than  the  object  in  the  propor- 
tion of  20  to  0.2,  i.e.  100;  and  the  eyepiece  Im 
will  magnify  the  image  in  the  ratio  of  25  cm.  to 
2  cm.,  i.e.  12.5,  and  the  total  apparent  increase  in 
size  will  be  100  X  12.5,  or  1250  diameters.    The 


Huygens  eyepiece,  so  called  from  its  inventor,  is 
also  called  a  negative  eyepiece,  because  the  two  ■ 
lenses  are  too  far  apart  to  make  its  use  possible 
in  the  same  manner  as  other  forms.  The  action 
of  this  eyepiece  is  shown  in  Fig.  5,  and  also  on 
the  accompanying  plate.  The  objective  would 
form  an  image  at  oo  if  it  were  not  that  the  lens 
ff  of  the  eyepiece  is  introduced,  and  consequently 
the  combined  eflfect  is  to  form  the  image  really  at 
66;  this  is  then  viewed  by  the  eye-lens  ee.  A 
diaphragm  is  interposed  at  66  to  cut  off  stray 
light  and  improve  the  distinctness,  ff  is  called 
the  field  lens  of  the  eyepiece,  and  ee  is  the  eye- 
lens.  The  great  advantage  of  this  form  of  eye- 
piece lies  in  the  fact  that  the  chromatic  and 
spherical  aberration  of  the  field  lens,  ff,  is  op- 
posite and  about  equal  to  that  of  the  eye-lens,  ee. 
Although  this  lens  is  very  satisfactory  for  gen- 
eral microscopic  work,  it  is  practically  little  used 
where  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  micrometer  (q.v.) 
in  the  eyepiece,  or  a  cross-hair. 

Naturally  the  most  important  optical  part  of 
the  microscope  is  the  objective,  as  upon  its  per- 
fection depend  the  satisfactory  results  of  the 
whole  combination.  In  its  simplest  form  it  is 
only  a  plano-convex  lens  with  its  flat  side  toward 
the  object.     As  usually  seen  it  is  as  sho\ni  in 


FlO.   6.      SECTION   OP    ZEIS 
OBJECTIVE. 


FlQ.  7.   'APOCHROMAT' 
OP  ABBE. 


Fig.  6,  with  two  or  more  achromatic  pairs;  the 
Zeis  objective  there  shown  also  illustrates  how 
the  cover-glass  correction  is  accomplished  by 
varying  the  distance  between  the  first  two  and 
the  last  two  pairs  of  the  objective,  by  means  of 
a  screw,  E.  Fig.  7  illustrates  the  lenses  of  one 
of  Dr.  Abbe's  most  perfect  objectives,  the  *apo- 
chromat.*  In  general  the  eyepiece  must  not  be 
astigmatic,  i.e.  it  must  be  able  to  form  a 
sharp  image  of  a  point.  It  must  be  orthoscopic, 
i.e.  it  must  magnify  all  parts  of  the  image 
equally.  It  must  be  achromatic,  i.e.  it  must  not 
show  any  colors  not  really  present  in  the  object. 
The  above  characteristics  must  also  be  pos- 
sessed by  the  objective,  even  more  essentially  and 
perfectly  than  the  eyepiece.  In  addition  it  is 
necessary  to  understana  what  is  meant  by  other 
peculiarities  of  the  objective.  Under  *aperture* 
is  meant  the  angle  between  the  limiting  rays  of 
the  effective  beam  in  the  formation  of  the  image 
by  the  objective,  for  example,  the  angle  cad  or 
c6(f,  Fig.  4.  This  is  naturally  aflfected  by  the 
index  of  refraction  of  the  medium  between  the 
object  and  the  objective,  and  would  hence  be  dif- 
ferent with  the  same  objective  if  it  were  used 
dry,  as  water  immersion,  or.  homogeneous  im- 
mersion, and  consequently  it  has  been  proposed 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MICBOSCOFE. 


455 


mCBOSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 


to  use  the  product  of  the  sine  of  half  this  angle 
by  the  index  of  refraction,  as  indicating  the  ef- 
fective aperture  irrespective  of  the  method  of 
using  the  objective,  and  this  constant  is  called 
the  numerical  aperture.  The  resolving  power  of 
an  objective  must  not  be  confused  with  the  mag- 
nifying power,  for  theoretically  any  desired  de- 
gree of  magnification  can  be  obtained,  but  there 
is  a  definite  limit  to  the  resolving  power  set  by 
diffraction  phenomena,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr. 
Abb6.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  lens  on  account 
of  diffraction  is  not  able  to  form  an  actual  point, 
as  the  image  of  a  point,  it  is  evident  that  if  the 
little  rings  which  are  formed  overlap,  then  no 
degree  of  further  magnification  can  separate  them, 
and  thev  will  confuse  the  vision.  It  has  been 
shown  that  the  success  of  an  objective  in  gather- 
ing in  all  the  components  due  to  diffraction  is 
directly  dependent  upon  the  numerical  aperture. 
Abb6  has  calculated  that  the  theoretical  limit 
of  resolving  power  for  an  aperture  of  180°  would 
be  lines  about  120,000  to  the  inch,  falling  to 
about  96,000  for  107**.  This  has  been  nearly 
reached  in  some  of  the  best  instruments.  The- 
oretically two  lines  must  be  distant  from  each 
other  at  least  X  /2a,  in  order  to  be  seen  dis- 
tinctly, where  a  is  the  numerical  aperture  and  X 
is  the  wave  length  of  the  light. 

In  order  to  make  use  of  the  highest  efficiency 
of  the  objective  it  is  necessary  to  devote  much 
attention  to  the  concentration  of  the  light  upon 
the  object  in  order  that  the  image  may  be  well 
lighted  and  also  that  the  full  aperture  of  the 
objective  may  be  utilized.  A  form  of  condenser 
which  is  placed  under  the  object  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  plate  (Fig.  4)*;  Sp  is  the  mirror 
for  reflecting  the  light  into  the  condenser  S,  and 
the  rest  is  mechanism  for  suitable  adjustments. 
The  adjoining  figures  show  the  section  of  such  a 
condensing  lens. 

On  the  accompanying  plate  (Fig.  2)  is  shown 
a  modem  microscope  of  a  high  order  as  fitted  for 
general  and  biological  work.  The  main  stand  S 
IS  so  hinged  that  the  top  may  be  tilted  at  any 
angle  and  clamped  by  the  lever  M.  The  *tube* 
A  carries  at  its  lower  end  a  'triple  nose-piece,' 
D,  enabling  the  observer  rapidly  and  easily  to 
exchange  objectives,  C,  F,  etc.  In  the  upper  end 
of  A  is  the  *draw  tube,'  B,  enabling  the  observer 
to  change  the  distance  between  his  objective,  C, 
and  eyepiece,  E.  LCKJ  is  the  stage  or  table  on 
which  the  objects  are  placed.  K  is  a  vernier 
reading  the  angular  rotation  of  the  stage.  L  and 
J  are  milled  heads  operating  the  mechanical 
stage,  making  it  possible  to  move  the  object 
regularly  up  and  down  or  right  and  left  in 
searching  for  an  object  in  the  slide,  in  counting, 
and  the  like.  I  is  the  substage  condenser  and 
its  mounting,  including  a  diaphragm.  NO  is  the 
rack  and  pinion  for  rough  adjustment  of  the 
focus,  and  G  is  the  fine  adjustment  making  it 
easy  to  adjust  accurately  the  focus  of  a  high- 
power  objective  and  in  some  cases  to  make 
measurements. 

A  similar  instrument  as  fitted  for  petrographic 
work  where  polarized  light  is  used  is  also  illus- 
trated on  the  plate.  This  particular  microscope 
is  not  fitted  with  a  mechanical  stage.  At  P  is  in- 
troduced a  'polarizer,*  Nicol  prism  for  furnishing 
a  beam  of  polarized  light,  and  another  Nicol 
prism  used  as  the  analyzer  is  slid  into  the  side 
of  the  tube  at  R  or  for  other  combinations  at  S. 
U  is  a  rack  and  pinion  for  the  adjustment  of  the 


draw  tube,  B.  For  some  purposes  the  analyzer 
is  put  on  top  of  the  eyepiece  at  T.  Either  the 
polarizer  or  the  condenser  may  be  turned  out 
from  under  the  stage  when  not  wanted.  Between 
the  objective  and  the  analyzer  is  a  side  slot,  into 
which  may  be  introduced  the  quartz  wedge,  mica 
plate,  etc.,  which  are  used  in  the  determination 
of  the  optical  constants  of  the  minerals  under 
study.  For  use  in  such  instruments  the  rock 
to  be  investigated  is  groimd.to  a  very  thin  sec- 
tion mounted  upon  a  glass  strip,  like  any  micro- 
scope preparation.  Under  these  circumstances 
most  minerals  are  quite  transparent  and  the  stu- 
dent is  enabled  not  only  to  learn  the  size  and 
form  of  the  grains,  but  also  to  subject  them  to  an 
investigation  under  polarized  light  and  identify 
their  optical  properties  and  determine  completely 
their  nature.  The  petrographic  miscroscope  has 
revolutionized  the  study  of  rocks. 

There  is  also  the  binocular  microscope,  in 
which  two  eyepieces  are  used  in  order  to  secure 
a  stereoscopic  effect.  (See  Stereoscope.)  In  a 
binocular  microscope  there  is  the  usual  arrange- 
ment of  the  objective,  but  one  or  more  prisms  of 
special  design  are  interposed  so  as  to  deflect  some 
of  the  rays  to  a  second  eyepiece.  It  is  unavoid- 
able that  a  certain  amount  of  light  is  cut  off  in 
passing  through  the  prism,  or  that  the  path  of 
the  rays  is  increasea  so  that  where  the  high- 
est powers  are  employed  the  binocular  is  not 
used. 

There  are  used  in  connection  with  the  micro- 
scope many  forms  of  the  'camera  lucida'  (q.v.), 
a  device  to  enable  the  operator  to  make  a 
drawing  of  the  object  under  study  by  tracing 
over  the  virtual  image  which  he  seems  to  see 
on  the  paper  as  the  eye  of  the  observer  sees  both 
the  light  which  comes  up  from  the  object  and 
that  which  comes  from  the  paper  and  pencil  be- 
low the  miscroscope.  In  preparing  slides  for 
work  in  microbiology  it  is  necessary  that  the  ma- 
terial should  be  in  very  thin  sections,  and  this 
is  accomplished  bv- imbedding  the  whole  object 
in  paraffin  and  then  shaving  off  thin  sections 
with  a  'microtome,*  one  form  of  which  is  shown 
on  the  accompanying  plate  (Fig.  8).  After- 
wards the  paraffin  is  removed,  and  the  shaving 
mounted  upon  a  glass  slide.  These  preparations 
are  usually  hardened  by  chemicals,  and  are  fre- 
quently dyed  with  special  solutions,  which  may, 
for  example,  color  the  nerves  and  not  the  other 
parts,  thus  bringing  out  the  contrast,  and  as- 
sisting the  work.  Under  some  circumstances  the 
object  is  frozen  by  means  of  liquid  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  then  shaved  in  sections. 

It  should  be  evident  that  by  a  simple  device  a 
camera  may  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  the 
eye  in  any  of  the  above  cases,  and  by  that 
means  photographs  may  be  taken  of  the  objects 
under  investigation.  For  the  early  history  of 
the  microscope,  the  reader  should  consult  Ger- 
land  and  Traumttller,  Oeachichte  der  Expert- 
mentierkunst  (Leipzig,  1899).  Drude,  The  The- 
ory of  Optics,  translation  by  Mann  and  Milikan 
(New  York,  1902),  and  Czapski,  Orundzuge  der 
theorie  der  optischen  Instrumente  ( Leipzig,  1904 ) , 
treat  the  theoretical  side.  A  practical  and  com- 
plete treatise  is  Carpenter,  The  Microscope  (8th 
ed.,  edited  by  Dallmeyer,  Philadelphia,  1901). 
See  Microscopy,  Clinical. 

IdCBOSGOPICAL  SOCIETY,  The  Ameri- 
can. An  association  organized  in  1878  and  in- 
corporated in  1891.  at  Washington,  D.  C.    It  has 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HICBOSCOFICAL  SOCIETY. 


456 


MICBOSCOFY. 


a  membership  of  three  hundred,  and  an  extensive 
collection  of  specimens  and  exhibits  at  Pittsburg, 
Pa.  Its  objects  are  the  encouragement  of  micro- 
scopical research,  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge 
on  the  subject  of  microscopy. 

MICBOSCOFY,  Clinical.  With  the  rapid  in- 
crease made  in  comparatively  recent  times  in  the 
perfection  of  instruments  at  our  disposal  and 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  differences  in  normal 
and  pathological  appearances  of  body  tissues  and 
organs  and  their  products,  the  microscope  has 
come  to  be  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  medical 
diagnosis.  (See  the  article  Microscx)PE  for  de- 
scription and  illustration  of  microscopes.)  For 
most  diagnostic  work  two  objectives  are  sufficient, 
a  low  power  having  a  focal  length  of  about  two- 
thirds  of  an  inch,  and  a  high  power  having  a 
focal  length  of  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  For 
a  microscopic  examination  of  bacteria  and  the 
blood  a  higher  magnification  is  in  many  cases 
desirable. 

Before  examining  with  the  microscope  most 
specimens  require  some  special  preparation.  As 
tnese  preparations  differ  for  different  specimens, 
they  will  be  described  under  separate  headings. 

Urine.  Microscopic  examination  of  the  urine 
is  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  disease 


CRYSTALS  OF  CALCIUM   PHOSPHATK  X  160. 

of  the  kidney,  ureter,  bladder,  urethra,  etc.  For 
microscopic  examination  the  specimen  of  urine 
should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  from  eight  to 
twelve  hours  and  the  part  examined  taken  by 
means  of  a  pipette  from  the  bottom  of  the  fluid, 
or  the  urinary  solids  may  be  thrown  down  by 
means  of  a  centrifugal  machine  called  the  centri- 
fuge. A  small  drop  of  the  urine  is  placed  upon 
a  glass  slide  and  covered  by  a  thin  piece  of  glass 
known  as  a  cover  glass.  The  specimen  may  then 
be  examined. 

Cbtstalune  Substances,  (a)  Uric  acid  oc- 
curs as  *whet-stone'  shaped  crystals.  These  lying 
across  one  another  in  groups  form  radiating 
masses  or  rosettes.  Crystals  somewhat  dumb- 
bell in  shape  are  less  common,  and  after  the 
addition  of  acid  to  urine  large  plate-like  crj^stals 
of  uric  acid  may  be  found,  (b)  The  salts  of 
uric  acid  or  urates  may  also  be  seen  under  the 
microscope,  usually  as  a  granular  deposit,  *amor- 
phous  urates.*  In  urine  which  is  undergoing 
ammoniacal  fermentation,  ammonium  urate  crys- 
tals occur  either  as  clumps  of  short  thick  needles 


or  as  rough  spherical  crystals,  (c)  Hippuric 
acid  crystals  are  rather  infrequently  found  in 
acid  urine.  (d)  Phosphates,  ammonium-mag- 
nesium or  *triple  phosphate'  crystals  occur  in 
slightly  acid  and  in  alkaline  urine.     They  are 


CRYSTALS  OF  CALOITTM  OXALATE  X  850. 

large  and  are  usually  described  as  'coflBn-lid'  in 
shape.  In  alkaline  urine  the  phosphates  some- 
times come  down  as  fine  featnery  *snow-flake' 
crystals.  Calcium  phosphate  occurs  as  clear, 
slender,  needle-shaped  crystals.  Large  colorless 
plate-like  crystals  of  basic  magnesium  phosphate 
and  granular  deposits  of  the  basic  phosphates  of 
lime  and  magnesium  may  also  be  found  in  alka- 
line urine,  (e)  Calcium  oxalate  crystals  occur 
in  acid  urine.  They  are  clear  and  diamond  or 
'envelope*  shaped.  Less  common  are  crystals  of  a 
somewhat  dumb-bell  shape,  (f)  Calcium  car- 
bonate is  found  in  alkaline  urine  which  is  under- 
going fermentation.  It  occurs  as  coarse  granules 
which  dissolve  with  gas  formation  on  the  addi- 
tion of  acetic  acid,  (g)  Less  common  crystals 
found  in  urinary  sediments  are  those  of  biliru- 
bin, hiematoidin,  leucin,  tyrosin,  and  cystin. 


®  ^ 

a 

9 

BPITHBLIAL  CELLS. 

(a)  Round;  (d)  columnar;  (c)  squamous. 

Obganio  Substances.  (a)  Epithelial  cells 
mainly  from  the  bladder  and  vagina  occur  in 
normal  urine.  In  inflammatory  conditions  of  the 
bladder  and  vagina  their  number  is  greatly  in- 
creased. Epithelium  from  the  kidney  may  also 
occur  in  the  urine.  It  is  cuboidal  or  columnar  in 
shape  and  most  abundant  in  degenerative  condi- 
tions of  the  kidney,  and  in  disease  of  the  kidney 
pelvis.  Pigmented  columnar  epithelium  from  the 
seminal  vesicles  may  sometimes  be  found.  (6) 
Casts  are  among  the  most  important  of  the  or- 
ganic substances  found  in  urine,  indicating  as 
they  often  do  serious  conditions  in  the  kidneys. 
They  are  formed  by  the  coagulation  of  albu- 
minoid matter  in  the  tubules  of  the  kidney,  thus- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


CLINICAL   MICROSCOPY 


1.  UREA  FROM  WATER  SOLUTION,  magnified  25  times.  4.  UREA  SODIUM  CHLORIDE,  magnified  75  timea. 

2.  UREA  NITRATE,  magnified  75  times.  5.  URIC  ACID  FROM  ACID  URINE,  magnified  25  tim 
8.  UREA  OXALATE,  magnified  75  times.                                    6.  URIC  ACID  FROM  SNAKE'S  EXCREMENT,  magnified 

200  times. 
(These  figures,  together  with  many  of  the  tsxt  Illustrations,  are  from  drawings  by  Prof.  C.  E.  Pellew,  and  are  used 
by  his  permission,  and  that  of  his  publishers,  D.  Appleton  and  Co.) 


joQie 


Digitized  by 


Google 


MICBOSCOPY. 


457 


MICBOSCOPY. 


producing  casts  of  the  tubules.  From  here  they 
are  washed  along  the  urinary  tubules  into  the 
urine.  Casts  almost  clear  composed  of  albumin 
and  a  few  fine  granules  are  known  as  hyaline 
casts.  Occurring  in  small  numbers  hyaline  casts 
may  be  of  little  significance,  being  present  in 
functional  albuminuria  in  the  urine  of  old  per- 


(a)  Hyaline;  (fc)  waxy ;  (c)  hyaline  and  (cranular;  (d) 
hyaline  and  epithelial ;  (e)  hyaline  and  blood ;  (f )  hyaline 
and  pus. 

sons  and  often  in  urine  otherwise  normal.  In 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  kidney  these  casts 
occur  in  large  numbers.  So-called  *waxy'  casts 
are  less  transparent  than  the  hyaline  and  turn 
brown  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  iodine. 
They  are  characteristic  of  the  waxy  degeneration 


0BTBTAL8  OF  OTBTIir. 

of  the  kidney  which  sometimes  accompanies 
chronic  nephritis.  Casts  containing  epithelial 
cells  are  Imown  as  epithelial  casts.  They  are 
associated  with  acute  disease  of  the  kidney. 
Blood  casts,  or  casts  containing  red  blood  cells, 
are  found  in  urine  in  cases  of  acute  exudative  ne- 


(M)  Fine  granular:   (b)  coarse  granular;  (c)  epithelial; 
id)  blood ;  (e)  pus ;  (/)  fatty. 

phritis  and  in  connection  with  the  hemorrhages 
which  sometimes  occur.  Pus  casts,  or  casts  con- 
taining pus  cells,  are  found  in  suppurative  ne- 
phritis and  in  some  of  the  more  severe  cases  of 


acute  nephritis.  Casts  containing  fine  or  coarse 
granules  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Pus  cells  are  found  in  the  urine  in  the  more  se- 
vere forms  of  acute  nephritis  and  in  suppurative 
inflammation  of  any  part  of  the  genito-urinary 
tract.  Pus  is  most  abundant  in  cystitis;  less 
abundant  and  more  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
urine  in  pyelitis;  least  abundant,  and  confined 
mainly  to  the  first  part  of  the  specimen  passed,  in 
urethritis. 

Red  blood  cells  appear  as  roimd  biconcave  disks, 
about  seven  micromillimeters  in  diameter.   They 


HUMAN   8PEBMATOZOA   OBEATLT  MAeNIFIKD. 

(»)  View  of  broad  eurf€M» ;  (b)  view  in  profile. 

may  be  found  in  severe  acute  inflammations  of 
the  genito-urinary  tract  and  in  conditions  deter- 
mining hemorrhage  along  the  tract. 

Spermatozoa  are  frequently  found  in  the  urine 
of  healthy  individuals.  Constant  presence  of 
spermatozoa  in  the  urine  may  occur  in  certain 
diseases  of  the  prostate  and  seminal  vesicles. 
The  condition  is  also  frequently  present  in  sexual 
neuroses. 

Yeast  and  mold  plants  are  frequently  found 
in  the  urine  of  diabetics,  more  rarely  m  other 
conditions. 

Bactebia.  Normal  urine  in  the  normal  blad- 
der contains  no  bacteria.  Non-pathogenic  bac- 
teria are,  however,  frequently  added  to  the  urino 
from  the  urethra  or  from  the  external  genitals. 
Of  these  the  Micrococcus  ureee  is  one  of  the  most 
common.  The  smegma  bacillus  is  also  sometimes 
present  in  large  numbers  and  is  important  from 
the  similarity  which  it  bears  to  the  tubercle 
bacillus  as  regards  its  staining  qualities.  Of 
pathogenic  bacteria  found  in  urinary  sediments 
may  be  mentioned  the  Staphylococcus  pyogenes^ 
Streptococcus  pyogenes,  the  colon  bacillus,  tu- 
bercle bacillus,  and  gonococcus.  In  such  infec- 
tious diseases  as  septicaemia,  pyaemia,  erysipelas, 
diphtheria,  and  tuberculosis  the  specific  germ  of 
the  disease  is  sometimes  found  in  the  urine.  For 
descriptions  of  the  appearance  which  these  dif- 
ferent germs  present  under  the  microscope  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  special  articles  on  the 
diseases  which  they  cause.  For  a  description  of 
the  staphylococcus  and  streptococcus  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  article  on  Bacteria.  In  ex- 
amining urinary  sediment  for  bacteria,  a  small 
amount  of  the  sediment  is  taken  up  with  a  plati- 
num loop  and  smeared  on  a  cover  glass  in  a 
thin  layer.    This  is  allowed  to  dry.    To  fix  the 


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458 


MICBOSCOPY. 


specimen  on  the  cover  glass,  the  cover  glass  is 
passed  through  a  blue  flame  of  sufficient  heat  to 
bring  the  specimen  just  to  the  boiling  point  of 
water.  The  specimen  may  now  be  stained  by 
placing  upon  it  a  few  drops  of  a  waterv  solution 
of  fuchsin,  gentian  violet,  or  methylene  blue. 
After  staining  it  is  washed  in  water  and  may 
then  be  examined. 

For  other  organisms  more  rarely  present  in 
urine  the  reader  is  referred  to  special  works  upon 
microscopical  urinalysis. 

Blood.  The  main  purposes  for  which  blood  is 
examined  microscopically  are  as  follows: 

(1)  To  determine  the  niimber  of  red  blood 
cells. 

(2)  To  determine  the  richness  of  the  red  cells 
in  hsemoglobin. 

(3)  To  determine  the  size,  shape,  etc.,  of  the 
red  cells  and  the  presence  of  forms  of  cells  not 
found  in  normal  blood,  e.g.  nucleated  red  blood 
cells. 

(4)  To  determine  the  number  of  white  blood 
cells. 

(6)  To  determine  the  relative  proportion  of 
the  different  kinds  of  white  blood  cells — ^'differen- 
tial count  of  leucocytes.' 

(6)  For  the  plasmodium  malarise. 

(7)  In  suspected  typhoid  for  WidaPs  reaction. 

(8)  For  bacteria  and  other  foreign  substances. 
For   description   of   the   normal   histology   of 

blood  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on 
Blood. 

Counting  the  Red  Blood  Cells.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  means  of  Thoma's  hsematocyto- 
meter  or  blood-counting  apparatus.  This  consists 
of  a  pipette  with  bulb  and  graduated  capillary 
tube.  The  graduation  of  the  tube  is  0.6  and  1, 
that  of  the  bulb  and  tube  together  100.  By  filling 
the  tube  to  mark  1  with  blood  and  then  the  bulb 
and  tube  to  mark  100  with  an  inert  diluting 
fluid  such  as  normal  saline,  a  dilution  of  1  to 
100  is  obtained.  The  counting  slide  has  in  its 
centre  a  round  chamber,  in  the  centre  of  which 
is  a  raised  flat  glass  surface  which  is  marked 
off  into  400  equal  squares,  each  of  which  is 
one  four-hundredth  of  a  square  millimeter.  The 
surface  of  the  marked-off  area  is  just  one- tenth 
of  a  millimeter  lower  than  the  surface  of  the 
rest  of  the  slide.  A  drop  of  the  diluted  blood 
is  placed  upon  the  centre  of  the  graduated  area 
and  a  flat  cover  glass  placed  over  it.  As  will 
be  seen,  the  amount  of  fluid  over  one  of  the 
small  squares  is  one-tenth  times  one  four-hun- 
dredth or  one  four-thousandth  of  a  cubic  milli- 
meter. The  number  of  cells  in  one  square  is  then 
counted.  This  multiplied  by  4000  and  then  by 
the  dilution,  100,  gives  the  result  desired,  i.e. 
the  number  of  red  cells  in  one  cubic  millimeter 
of  blood  examined.  In  actual  practice  a  large 
number  of  squares  is  counted  and  the  average 
taken.  The  white  blood  cells  may  be  counted  in 
the  same  specimen  if  desired.  Owing,  however,  to 
their  smaller  number,  a  larger  number  of  squares 
should  be  counted  to  avoid  error.  For  determin- 
ing the  richness  of  the  individual  corpuscles  in 
hflpmoglobin,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  cells,  the 
relative  number  of  the  different  kinds  of  white 
cells,  the  presence  of  the  malaria  plasmodium, 
etc.,  the  preparation  of  fixed  and  stained  speci- 
mens is  required  as  follows.  Blood  from  a  needle 
prick  is  taken  up  on  the  end  of  a  glass  slide  and 
this  is  drawn  across  the  surface  of  a  second  slide, 
thus  making  a  thin  'smear*  of  blood.     This  is 


dried  quickly  in  the  air,  after  which  it  is  'fixed' 
by  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  ether,  the  vapor  of 
osmic  acid  or  of  formalin,  or  by  subjecting  to 
the  action  of  dry  heat.  The  specimen  is  now 
ready  for  staining.  A  combination  of  eosin  and 
methylene  blue,  and  Ehrlich's  triacid  stain,  are 
the  most  satisfactory.  After  staining  the  speci- 
men is  washed  in  water.  The  eosin-methylene 
blue  method  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  general 
purposes  and  stains  the  malaria  plasmodium. 
Ehrlich's  stain  is  most  satisfactory  for  making 
a  differential  count  of  the  leucocytes. 

Persistent  marked  reduction  in  the  number  of 
red  cells  occurs  in  primary  pernicious  ansemia 
and  in  the  severe  secondary  ansmias  due  to  some 
of  the  infectious  diseases.  It  may  also  be  due 
to  the  action  of  certain  mineral  poisons  (phos- 
phorus, arsenic,  etc. )  ^  to  long-continued  suppura- 
tive processes,  cancer,  malaria,  conditions  of 
malnutrition,  etc. 

Loss  in  the  haemoglobin  content  of  the  indi- 
vidual cells  occurs  especially  in  that  form  of 
ansemia  known  as  chlorosis.  Moderate  diminu- 
tion in  number  of  cells  may  also  occur.  In  leu- 
cocythaemia  there  may  also  be  both  a  reduction  in 
the  number  of  cells  and  a  reduction  in  haemo- 
globin content.  This  loss  on  the  part  of  the  indi- 
vidual cell  in  haemoglobin  is  shown  in  the  eosin- 
stained  specimen  by  an  increase  in  the  clear  cen- 
tral area  of  the  cell. 

Irregular  red  cells  ( poikilocytes ) ,  small  red 
cells  (microcytes),  and  large  red  cells  (megalo- 
cytes)  are  found  in  severe  anaemias  whether  pri- 
mary or  secondary. 

Nucleated  red  blood  cells  are  found  in  all  forms 


HUMAN  BID  BLOOD  COBPUBCLBS  AND  TWO  LBUCXKJTTBS. 

of  anaemia.  As  they  represent  developmental 
types,  their  presence  may  be  construed  as  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  nature  to  replace  lost 
cells.  Very  large  nucleated  red  cells  (megalo- 
blasts  and  gigantoblasts )  are  sometimes  present 
in  severe  antpmias. 

Moderate  increase  in  the  number  of  white  blood 
cells  occurs  physiologically  during  the  first  few 
days  after  birth,  in  the  later  months  of  preg- 
nancy, and  after  eating.  Pathological  increase  in 
the  number  of  white  cells  occurs  in  many  of  the 
infectious  diseases,  especially  those  accompanied 
by  exudation  or  suppuration.  It  is  notably  ab- 
sent in  typhoid,  typhus,  tuberculosis,  measles,  and 
malaria.    Lymphocytosis,  or  increase  in  the  num- 


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459 


MICBOSCOPY. 


ber  of  lymphocytes,  is  frequent  in  the  later  weeks 
of  typhoid,  in  anaemia,  in  intestinal  diseases  of 
children,  and  in  lymphatic  leucocythsemia.  Per- 
sistent increase  in  the  number  of  white  blood  cells 
independent  of  other  lesions  is  characteristic  of 
leucocythsemia.  This  increase  may  be  very  great, 
and  is  usually  irregular,  i.e.  the  proportionate 
numerical  relation  of  the  different  kinds  of  white 
blood  cells  is  changed.  In  lymphatic  leucocy- 
thsemia  the  greatest  increase  is  in  the  lymph- 
ocytes. In  myelogenous  leucocythsemia  the  in- 
crease in  leucocytes  is  often  enormous,  sometimes 
more  than  a  million  per  cubic  millimeter.  Ab- 
normal forms  of  leucocytes  also  appear. 

In  patients  suffering  from  malaria  the  Plas- 
modium malarise  may  he  found.  The  forms  which 
the  organism  assumes  are  known  as  tertian, 
quartan,  and  (estivo-autumnal.  They  occur  with- 
in the  red  blood  cells,  rarely  in  the  plasma.  The 
recognition  of  the  malarial  parasite  requires  ex- 
tremely careful  technique  and  experience.  For 
more  detailed  description  of  the  parasite  and  of 
the  methods  used  in  the  detection  of  the  same  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Delafield  and  Prudden's 
Handbook  of  Pathological  Anatomy  and  HiatoU 

opy- 

Free  pi^ent  is  sometimes  found  in  the  blood. 
This  condition  is  known  as  melansemia. 

Various  foreign  bodies  such  as  fat,  air,  bac- 
teria, animal  parasites  (distoma  haematobium, 
filaria  sanguinis  hominis,  and  the  eggs  of  the 
trichina  and  echinococcus),  endothelial  cells,  pus 
cells,  tiunor  cells,  etc.,  are  sometimes  found  in 
the  blood. 

Examination  of  the  blood  in  typhoid  for  the  so- 
called  Widal  reaction  should  be  mentioned.  The 
blood  or  serum  to  be  examined  is  mixed  with  ten 
times  its  amount  of  a  twenty-four-hour-old  broth 
culture  of  the  typhoid  bacillus  and  examined 
imder  the  oil  immersion  lens.  A  positive  reaction 
consists  in  the  rendering  motionless  of  the  bacilli 
and  their  collection  into  groups.  If  a  reaction 
with  the  one  to  ten  dilution  occurs,  a  one  to 
twenty  should  be  tried.  Positive  reaction  with 
the  one  to  twenty  dilution  makes  the  diagnosis  of 
typhoid  extremely  probable.  A  negative  result 
is  of  less  value. 

Stains  may  be  examined  to  determine  the 
presence  or  absence  of  blood,  as  follows.  A  drop 
of  normal  saline  solution  to  which  a  few  scrap- 
ings from  the  stain  have  been  added  is  evaporated 
on  a  glass  slide.  This  is  then  covered  and  a  drop 
of  glacial  acetic  acid  allowed  to  run  under  the 
cover.  The  preparation  is  next  heated  until  it 
bubbles.  More  acid  is  added  and  the  slide  heated 
until  a  brownish  color  appears.  The  specimen  is 
then  slowly  dried  and  mounted  in  glycerin.  If 
any  blood  was  present  it  is  shown  by  the  presence 
of  small  rhombic  cryrtals  which  result  from  the 
conversion  of  hflemoglobin  into  hsemin. 

Faeces  may  be  examined  by  mixing  a  small 
amount  with  a  drop  of  normal  saline  solution  on 
a  glass  slide  and  covering  with  a  cover  glass. 
Detritus  from  incomplete  digestion  of  food  forms 
a  large  part  of  normal  faeces.  Thus  it  is  com- 
mon to  find  in  a  specimen  of  faeces  vegetable 
cells  of  various  kinds,  starch  granules,  muscle 
fibres  from  meat,  fat  globules,  coagulated  al- 
bumins, etc.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
usually  found  mucus  and  epithelial  cells,  and  not 
infrequently  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  calcium 
phosphate,  calcium  sulphate,  the  fatty  acids, 
triple  phosphates,  cholesterin,  etc. 
Vol.  XIII.— 30. 


Epithelial  cells  in  large  numbers  are  frequently 
associated  with  intestinal  catarrh,  especially  in 
children. 

Red  blood  cells  may  be  found  in  conditions  as- 
sociated with  hemorrnage. 

Pus  cells  are  frequent  in  catarrhal  inflamma- 
tions of  the  bowels.  They  are  more  abundant 
when  the  inflammation  is  suppurative  in  char- 


BAOTEBIA  X  600. 

acter.  In  typhoid  fever  and  other  ulcerative  con- 
ditions, bits  of  an  ulcer  which  has  sloughed,  or 
groups  of  epithelium  with  pus  cells  attached  may 
be  found  in  the  faeces. 

A  large  variety  of  bacteria  are  present  in 
normal  faeces.  Some  of  these  gain  entrance 
with  the  food;  others  are  normal  habitats  of 
the  gastro-intestinal  canal.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  Bacillus  coli  communis,  Proteus 
vulgaris,  Leptothrix,  and  the  Bacillus  lactis 
acrogenes.  Under  certain  as  yet  little  \mder- 
stood  conditions,  it  appears  that  some  of  these 
micro-organisms  may  assume  pathological  sig- 
nificance. 

The  typhoid  bacillus  occurs  in  the  stools  of 
persons  suffering  from  typhoid  fever.  As  its 
appearance  under  the  microscope  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  Bacillus  coli  communis,  the  two 
must  be  differentiated  by  biological  methods. 

Tubercle  bacilli  may  be  found  in  the  faeces. 
(For  method  of  staining,  see  Tuberculosis.) 
Occurring  with  pulmonary  lesions  and  without 
intestinal  symptoms,  their  source  is  usually  in 
swallowed  sputum.  If,  however,  symptoms  of 
enteritis  are  associated  with  tubercle  bacilli  in 
the  stools,  there  is  certainly  a  strong  probability 
that  the  enteritis  is  tubercular. 

The  'Comma*  bacillus  is  present  in  the  -stools 
of  persons  suffering  from  Asiatic  cholera. 

The  Amoeba  coli  is  found  in  the  faeces  in 
amoebic  colitis.  It  is  best  to  examine  stools  for 
amoeba  as  soon  as  possible  after  their  passage 
and  in  the  warm  stage,  as  their  motility  is  a 
valuable  aid  in  its  detection. 

Sputum  is  examined  microscopically  to  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  secretion  of  the  respira- 
tory tract.  It  may  be  examined  by  smearing  on 
a  cover  glass  or  slide,  fixing  and  staining  with 
dilute  aqueous  solution  of  methylene  blue.  If 
there  are  little  lumps  of  cheesy  matter  scattered 
through  the  sputum,  it  is  well  to  select  one  of 
these  from  which  to  make  the  smear,  especially 


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460 


MICBOSCOPY. 


if  the  tubercle  bacillus  is  to  be  looked  for. 
Photographs  of  typical  bacteria  as  seen  through 
the  microscope  are  shown  in  the  article  Disease, 
Gebm  Theobt  of. 

Epithelial  cells  from  various  parts  of  the 
respiratory  tract  are  often  present.  Their  origin 
can  frequently  be  determined  by  their  appear- 
ance. 

Red  blood  cells  occur  in  the  sputum  in  acute 
bronchitis,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  and  in  any 
condition  which  is  associated  by  hemorrhage  into 
the  respiratory  tract. 

White  blood  cells  are  also  readily  recognized  in 
methylene  blue  stained  specimens  by  their  irregu- 
lar or  multiple  nuclei  and  their  unstained  cell 
bodies.  They  are  found  in  acute  and  chronic 
bronchitis,  in  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  abscess, 
and  gangrene  of  the  lung,  in  fact  in  any  inflam- 
matory condition  of  the  respiratory  tract  which 
is  marked  by  a  catarrhal  or  suppurative  exuda- 
tion. 

Mucus,  fat  droplets,  fibrin,  elastic  fibres,  crys- 
tals of  calcium  carbonate,  of  triple  phosphates, 
of  cholesterin,  of  the  fatty  acids,  and  the  so- 
called  Charcot-Leyden  crystals  may  be  found  in 
sputum  on  microscopical  examination. 


method.  For  the  appearance  of  certain  germs 
see  Disease,  Gebm  Theobt  of.  ■ 

The  'ray'  lungus,  or  fungus  of  actinomycosis  of 
the  lung,  is  sometimes  demonstrable  in  the  spu- 
tum, as  are  also  yeasts,  molds,  and  leptothrix. 

Microscopical  examination  of  specimens  from 
the  stomach  is  often  of  value  in  determining  the 
condition  of  that  organ.    Material  is  obtained  as 


MOLD   PLANTS  X  100. 

vomitus  or  by  introducing  the  stomach  tube.  In- 
completely digested  food  may  be  recognized  as 
muscle  fibres,  fibrous  and  elastic  fibres,  fat, 
starch,  and  various  kinds  of  vegetable  cells. 
Epithelial  cells  from  the  mouth  or  oesophagus  or 
from  the  stomach  itself  may  be  foimd.  Red  blood 
cells  may  come  from  the  stomach  or  may  have 
been  swallowed.  White  blood  cells  are  quite 
commonly  found.  When  in  large  numbers  they 
indicate  suppurative  inflammation.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  stomach  may  sometimes  be  determined 


YEA8T  X  260. 

A  large  number  of  harmless  species  of  bacteria 
are  found  in  sputum,  most  of  these  being  derived 
from  the  mouth,  nose,  and  upper  respiratory 
tract.  Of  disease-producing  species  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  tubercle  bacillus,  the  bacillus  of 
influenza,  the  pneumo-bacillus  of  FriedlUnder,  the 
pneumococcus,  the  streptococcus,  and  the  staphy- 
lococcus. ( For  the  staining  qualities  and  appear- 
ance of  the  tubercle  bacillus,  see  article  on 
Tuberculosis.)  The  bacillus  of  influenza  is  an 
extremely  minute  bacillus  measuring  only  about 
half  the  length  of  the  tubercle  bacillus.  It  is 
apt  to  occur  in  clumps  and  does  not  stain  very 
readily  with  methylene  blue.  A  rather  weak 
solution  of  carbol-fuchsin,  however,  gives  good 
staining  of  the  micro-organism.  The  bacillus  of 
Friedlilnder  is  the  less  common  of  the  pneumonic 
organisms.  It  is  capsulated  and  decolorizes  by 
Gram's  method  of  staining.  The  more  com- 
mon cause  of  pneumonia,  the  pneumococcus  or 
diplococcus  laneeolatus,  is  also  surrounded  by 
a  capsule,  but  is  shorter  than  the  Friedlilnder 
bacillus    and    does    not    decolorize    by    Gram's 


PU8  CKLL8. 

(a)  natural  condition;  (5)  after  the  addition  of  acetic 
acid. 

by  the  forms  of  micro-organism  which  are  found 
growing  there.  Thus  a  long  bacillus  which  oc- 
curs in  chains,  the  so-called  Boas-Oppler  bacillus, 
is  a  common  habitat  of  a  stomach  which  is  free 
from  hydrochloric  acid,  and  whose  contents  are 
undergoing  lactic  acid  fermentation.  The  Sar- 
cinae,  on  the  other  hand,  a  species  of  cocci  which 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MICBOSCOPY. 


461 


MICBOTASIMETEB. 


hang  together  in  cubes  of  eight,  sixteen,  thirty- 
two,  etc.,  occur  in  exactly  opposite  gastric  con- 
ditions, i.e.  where  hydrochloric  acid  is  present 
and  lactic  acid  is  absent.  Yeasts,  molds,  and 
leptothrix  are  also  found. 

Serous  exudates  usually  show  little  of  diag- 
nostic import.  After  standing  or  after  centri- 
fuging,  the  sediment  may  show  some  epithelial 
cells,  red  blood  cells,  leucocytes,  fat  globules, 
cholesterin  crystals,  etc.  Bacteria,  if  present, 
are  usually  in  such  small  numbers  as  to  require 
culture  for  their  recognition.  Fairly  frequently, 
however,  the  gonococcus  may  be  found  in  the 
exudate  of  gonorrhoeal  arthritis,  by  simply  stain- 
ing the  sediment.  Less  frequently  the  tu- 
bercle bacillus  may  be  identified  in  a  similar 
manner. 

Purulent  exudates  when  examined  under  the 
microscope  show  large  numbers  of  pus  cells 
which  are  mainly  polynuclear  leucocytes.  Red 
blood  cells  and  exfoliated  epithelium  are  also 
often  present.  Of  bacteria  mav  be  mentioned 
the  tubercle  bacillus,  the  bacillus  of  anthrax, 
the  diphtheria  bacillus,  the  streptococcus,  sta- 
phylococcus, gonococcus,  and  pneumococcus.  For 
methods  of  examining  for  tubercle  bacillus,  see 
article  on  Tubebculosis  ;  for  streptococcus,  and 
staphylococcus,  see  article  on  Bactebia;  for 
pneumococcus,  see  Pneumonia. 

The  diphtheria  or  Klebs-Loeflfler  bacillus  may 
be  found  in  sputum.  For  examination  it  is 
usually,  however,  obtained  directly  from  the  sus- 
pected membrane.     See  Diphthebia. 

Leptothrix  and  Oidium  albicans  are  organisms 
sometimes  found  in  exudates  associated  with  dis- 
eases of  the  mouth  and  pharynx.  The  former  is 
not  infrequently  the  apparent  cause  of  very  ob- 
stinate pharyngitis,  while  the  latter  is  found  in 
connection  with  the  disease  known  as  thrush. 

Tissues  and  Obgans.  The  examination  of 
pieces  of  tissue  or  of  organs  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  nature  of  the  disease  affecting 
them  is  often  of  great  importance. 

Some  tissues  may  be  examined  in  the  fresh 
state  by  simply  teasing  apart  in  such  an  inert 
fluid  as  normal  saline  solution  (three-quarters 
per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  sodium  chloride). 
The  satisfactory  examination  of  most  tissues  re- 
quires, however,  a  more  or  less  elaborate  prelimi- 
nary preparation.  This  consists  in  (1)  fixing, 
(2)  hardening,  (3)  imbedding,  (4)  section  cut- 
ting,  (5)  staining,  and  (6)  mounting. 

(1)  Fixing. — This  consists  in  placing  the  tis- 
sue, as  soon  as  possible  after  its  removal,  in  a 
solution  which  will  kill  the  tissue  elements  rap- 
idly so  that  they  retain  the  same  form  and 
structure  that  they  had  during  life.  Of  the 
most  commonly  used  fixing  agents  may  be  men- 
tioned alcohol ;  formalin,  in  aqueous  solutions  of 
from  21/^  to  10  per  cent.;  and  MUller's  fluid 
(potassium  dichromate,  2.6  grams;  sodium  sul- 
phate, 1  gram;  water,  100  c.  c). 

(2)  Hardening  and  Preserving. — After  fixing, 
tissues  are  usually  thoroughly  washed  in  run- 
ning water  and  then  hardened  in  graded  alcohols, 
i.e.  first  in  50  per  cent.,  then  in  60  per  cent.,  then 
in  80  per  cent.  For  permanent  preservation  they 
are  usually  left  in  80  per  cent,  alcohol. 

(3)  Imbedding. — This  is  for  the  purpose  of 
impregnating  the  tissues  with  some  substance 
which  will  hold  them  together  during  the  subse- 
quent manipulations.     The  now  most  commonly 


employed  imbedding  mass  is  celloidin,  althougb 
for  special  purposes  parafiSn  is  used. 

(4)  Section  Cutting, — ^This  is  now  accom- 
plished by  means  of  an  instrument  known  as  a 
microtome.  While  many  of  these  instruments 
are  quite  complicated,  the  purpose  of  them  all  is 
to  carry  a  knife  through  the  specimen  in  such  a 
way  that  sections  of  any  desired  thickness  may  be 
obtiEiined. 

(6)  Staining. — Sections  may  be  stained  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways.  For  general  purposes 
what  is  known  as  'staining  double*  gives  satis- 
factory pictures.  This  is  accomplished  by  stain- 
ing the  specimen  first  in  a  watery  solution  of 
hsemotoxylin  and  then  in  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  eosin.  The  specimens  are  next  placed  in  oil 
of  origanum,  which  removes  the  alcohol  and  ren- 
ders the  sections  more  transparent  ('clearing*). 

(6)  Mounting, — From  the  oil  the  section  is 
transferred  to  a  glass  slide,  the  excess  of  oil  re- 
moved by  blotting  with  filter  paper,  a  drop  of 
Canada  balsam  placed  on  the  specimen,  and  the 
whole  covered  by  means  of  a  cover  glass.  This 
makes  a  permanent  mount. 

For  other  methods  of  staining  and  mounting 
the  reader  is  referred  to  special  text-books  on 
histology  and  histological  technique. 

Bibuoqbapht.  Carpenter,  The  Microscope  and 
Its  Revelations  (8th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1901); 
Lee,  The  Microtomist's  Vade-Mecum  (5th  ed., 
Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  Henneguy,  M^thodes 
techniques  de  Vanatomie  microscopique  (Paris, 
1887)  ;  Szymonowicz,  Lehrhuch  dcr  Histologic 
(Wttrzburg,  1900)  ;  Dunham^  Histology,  Normal 
and  Morbid  (Philadelphia,  1898)  ;  Clarkson,  A 
Text-Book  of  Histology  (Philadelphia,  1896)  ; 
Bdhm-Davidoff-Huber,  Lehrbuch  der  Histologic 
des  Menschen  (Wiesbaden,  1903)  ;  St5hr,  His- 
tologie  (10th  ed.,  Jena,  1903)  ;  Abbott,  Princi- 
ples of  Bacteriology  (3d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1895)  ; 
Delafield  and  Prudden,  Pathological  Anatomy 
and  Histology  (6th  ed..  New  York,  1901)  ;  Nich- 
ols, Clinical  Laboratory  Methods  (New  York, 
1902)  ;  Peyer,  An  Atlas  on  Clinical  Microscopy 
(New  York,  1885)  ;  Pellew,  Manual  of  Chemis- 
try  (New  York,  1892). 

MICROSOME  (from  6k.  /uxp6f,  mikros, 
small  -f-  cofMy  sOnuij  body).  A  name  given  to 
minute  granules  which  occur  in  protoplasm. 

MICBOSPOBAN^GIUM  (NeoLat.,  from 
Gk.  fUKp6s,  mikros,  small  +  <rT6pot,  sporos, 
seed  +  dyy€top,  angeion,  vessel,  from  dry©*, 
an^o«,  jar).  The  spore-case  (sporangium)  which 
produces  the  microspores.  For  example,  the  pol- 
len sacs  of  flowering  plants  are  microsporangia. 
See  Hetebospoby;  Spobangium. 

MI^CBOSPOBE  (from  Gk.  tuKp6s,  mikros, 
small  +  axSpos,  sporos,  seed).  In  the  higher 
plants,  the  smaller  of  the  two  kinds  of  spores 
produced.  They  develop  the  small  male  plants 
(male  gametophytes ) .  Pollen  grains  are  micro- 
spores of  flowering  plants.  See  Hetebospoby; 
Spobe. 

MI'CBOSPOB'OPHYIX  (from  Gk.  /uicp6f, 
mikros,  small  -f-  (TTSpot,  sporos,  seed  +  ^i^XXor, 
phyllon,  leaf).  In  higher  plants,  the  leaf  struc- 
tures ( sporophylls ) ,  that  bear  the  microspores, 
e.g.  the  stamen  of  flowering  plants.  See  Hetebo- 
spoby; RPOBOPHYIX. 

MI'CBOTASIM^ETEB  (from  Gk.  fwcp6t,  mt- 
kroSf  small  -f    rdcis,  tasis,  extension  -|-  lUrpov^ 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


laCBOTASIMETES. 


462 


mDDELBXJBG. 


metron,  measure).  An  instniment  invented  by 
Thomas  A.  Edison  in  1877  for  the  purpose  of 
measuring  very  minute  variations  of  tempera- 
ture or  moisture.  The  action  of  the  apparatus 
depends  on  the  effect  which  the  pressure  of  an 
expanding  rod  has  upon  the  electrical  resistance 
of  a  piece  of  carbon  placed  in  the  circuit  of  a 
galvanic  battery.  A  rod  of  vulcanite  is  used  as 
the  expanding  element  when  it  is  desired  to  em- 
ploy the  instnmient  to  ascertain  slight  variations 
in  the  heat  vibrations  coming  from  any  object, 
as  the  sun,  or  a  gas  or  electric  light.  This  rod 
is  adjusted  in  a  strong  frame  kept  at  an  equable 
temperature,  so  that  no  expansions  or  contrac- 
tions shall  exert  any  influence  except  those  which 
take  place  in  the  vulcanite  rod  itself.  In  the 
chamber  which  receives  one  end  of  this  rod  or 
plate  there  is  placed  under  a  follower  or  slide  a 
piece  of  carbon,  which  becomes  compressed  with 
great  force  upon  the  expansion  of  the  vulcanite 
rod.  If  radiant  heat  is  to  be  measured,  a  large 
funnel  is  placed  in  front  of  the  apparatus  to 
gather  the  rays  and  throw  them  upon  the  rod 
or  plate.  When  the  rays  increase  in  intensity 
the  rod  expands,  compresses  the  button,  and 
changes  its  resistance,  the  variation  of  which  is 
indicated  by  a  galvanometer.  The  instrument 
was  used  to  ascertain  the  variations  in  the 
radiation  from  the  sun  during  the  solar  eclipse 
of  July  28,  1878.  It  may  also  be  used  to  note 
the  variations  taking  place  on  a  day  when  clouds 
are  passing  across  the  sun's  disk,  or  when  the 
tcansmission  of  its  rays  is  affected  by  increase 
or  decrease  of  moisture.  It  may  be  used  as  a 
delicate  hygrometer  by  substituting  in  place  of 
the  vulcanite  rod  a  body  containing  gelatin, 
which  expands  under  the  influence  of  moisture. 
The  chief  disadvantage  possessed  by  this  instru- 
ment is  that  the  carbon  does  not  regain  its  orig- 
inal resistance  after  the  pressure  is  removed. 
Modem  micro-radiometers  and  bolometers  are,  in 
addition,  far  more  sensitive  and  are  usually  em- 
ployed for  the  measurement  of  radiation. 

Mi'CEOTOME.  See  Microscope,  and  Plate 
of  Microscope. 

Mia)AS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Midas).  A  common 
name  of  the  more  ancient  Phrygian  kings,  of 
whom  Midas,  the  son  of  Gordius  and  Cybele,  is 
the  most  famous.  According  to  one  legend  he 
captured  Silenus  by  mixing  wine  with  the  water 
of  the  fountain  at  which  the  god  drank,  and  thus 
secured  for  himself  the  wisdom  of  the  god.  Herod- 
otus tells  this  story  as  Macedonian,  but  later 
writers  transferred  it  to  Phrygia.  i^other  ver- 
sion, told  by  Ovid,  relates  that  he  restored  Si- 
lenus to  Dionysus,  and  when  asked  by  the  god 
to  name  his  reward,  prayed  that  whatever  he 
touched  might  become  gold,  from  which  so  great 
inconvenience  ensued  that  he  was  glad  to  get 
himself  relieved  from  the  burden  by  washing,  at 
the  command  of  the  god,  in  the  Pactolus,  the 
sands  of  which  became  thenceforth  productive  of 
gold.  Another  legend  represents  him  as  having 
offended  Apollo  by  assigning  the  prize  in  the 
musical  contest  to  Marsyas,  or  in  later  versions 
to  Pan,  and  as  having  therefore  been  endowed 
by  him  with  a  pair  of  ass's  ears.  These,  con- 
cealed under  his  Phrygian  cap,  were  known 
only  to  his  barber,  who  dared  tell  no  man, 
but,  unable  to  contain  his  secret,  whispered  it 
to  the  earth.  His  precaution,  however,  was 
vain,   for   the   reeds   which   sprang  up   at   this 


spot,  as  they  rustled  in  the  wind,  proclaimed  the 
news  to  the  world.  Midas  seems  an  ancient 
Phrygian  nature-god,  probably  conceived,  like 
Silenus  and  other  similar  fructifying  deities, 
in  animal  form,  but  transformed  by  Greek  story- 
tellers. The  story  of  the  ass's  ears  is  a  common 
folk-tale. 

MI^AS.  A  genus  of  marmosets;  but  some- 
times the  special  name  of  the  marakina  (Midaa 
ro8alia).    See  Marmoset. 

MIDDELBXTBG,  mldM'lb^rG.  The  capital 
of  the  Province  of  Zealand,  Netherlands,  situated 
on  the  island  of  Walcheren  (Map:  Netherlands, 
B  3).  It  is  connected  with  the  sea  by  a  canal 
five  miles  long,  which  admits  ships  of  heavy 
burden.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  broad 
canal,  and  has  handsome  houses,  ornamented 
with  gardens;  the  canals  and  streets  are  shaded 
with  trees.  The  town  house,  built  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  has  a  beautiful  tower,  and  is 
decorated  with  twenty-five  colossal  statues  of 
counts  and  countesses  of  Holland.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  thirteenth  century  an  abbey  was 
founded  here,  which  was  later  enriched  by  Wil- 
liam II.,  Count  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  The 
buildings  are  now  occupied  as  the  meeting  place 
of  the  Provincial  States.  The  new  church  con- 
tains the  tomb  of  the  naval  heroes  J.  and  C. 
Evertsen,  and  a  monument  to  the  German  King 
William  of  Holland.  The  town  possesses  a 
provincial  library,  a  gymnasium,  a  high  school, 
and  a  normal  school,  and  is  the  seat  of  several 
learned  societies,  with  important  collections  of 
antiquities  and  objects  of  local  interest.  The  city's 
commerce  was  formerly  very  large.  It  has  some 
inland  trade  in  grain,  potatoes,  and  madder,  and 
manufactures  of  cotton  goods.  Population,  in 
1892,  17,560;  in  1903,  19,002.  Middleburg  was 
a  Hanse  town  in  the  Middle  Ages,  having  received 
its  charter  in  1226.  In  1574,  during  the  war  for 
independence,  it  was  captured  by  the  Dutch  from 
the  Spaniards  after  a  siege  of  two  years.  It 
suffered  heavily  during  the  wars  between  England 
and  France  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

MIDDELBUBG,  Paul  of  (1445-1534).  A 
Dutch  mathematician,  bom  at  Middelburg, 
whence  his  name.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  took  orders,  became  canon  of 
Saint  Barth^lemy  at  Middelburg,  and  also 
taught  mathematics,  medicine,  philosophy,  and 
theology  there.  For  having  expressed  himself 
regarding  the  faults  of  his  fellow-citizens,  he 
was  banished  froip  the  town.  He  went  to  Lou- 
vain, where  he  lectured  on  mathematics  so  suc- 
cessfully that  the  Grand  Council  of  Venice  of- 
fered him  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  Padua. 
By  1484  he  was  at  the  Court  of  Francesco 
Maria  della  Rovere,  Duke  of  Urbino,  to  whom 
he  became  physician  and  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  to  the  abbacy  of  Castel  Durante.  It 
was  also  at  the  instigation  of  the  Duke  that  he 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Fossombrone  in  1494.  In 
1513  he  presided  at  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council 
(1512-17),  where  he  spoke  on  the  necessity  of  a 
revision  of  the  existing  calendar,  later  under- 
taken by  Gregory  XIII.  He  was  esteemed  the 
first  mathematician  of  his  day.  His  publications 
include:  Practica  de  Partns  ConstelUitionibus 
(1484)  ;  Epistola  Apologetica  Magistri  Pauli  de 
Middelhurgo  (1487),  in  which  he  answers  vari- 
ous objections  raised  by  mathematicians  against 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


lODDELBirBO. 


468 


lODDLB  AGE& 


a  revision  of  the  Julian  calendar ;  and  Paulina  de 
Recta  Paschw  Celehratione  (1613),  in  which  he 
demonstrates  with  much  learning  that,  owing  to 
defective  reckoning,  the  Easter  festival  was  fre- 
quently celebrated  at  a  period  a  month  earlier 
than  that  determined  by  the  Council  of  Nice. 
Consult:  Baldi,  Cronica  de*  matematici  (Urbino, 
1707 )  ;  De  Paquot,  M&moires  pour  aervir  d  Vhis- 
toire  litt^aire  de  dix-sept  provinces  des  Pays- 
Bos   (Louvain,  1763-70). 

MIDDENDOBFFy  mld'den-dOrf,  Alexander 
Theodob  VON  (1815-94).  A  Russian  traveler  and 
naturalist.  He  was  born  in  Saint  Petersburg 
and  studied  medicine  in  Germany.  With  Baer, 
in  1840,  he  made  an  ornithological  expedition 
into  Lapland,  and  four  years  afterwards  made 
an  important  trip  in  Northeast  Siberia.  His 
journeys  were  detailed  in  Government  reports, 
and  in  his  book,  Reise  in  den  Aussersten  Norden 
und  Osten  Sibiriens  (1848-75).  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Saint  Petersburg  Academy  (Zoologi- 
cal Section)  and  for  some  time  its  secretary; 
founder  of  the  Russian  (^reographical  Society; 
and  in  1846  gold  medalist  of  the  London  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

MIDDLE  AGES.  The  designation  applied  to 
the  historical  period  between  the  times  of  clas- 
sical antiquity  and  modem  times.  The  beginning 
and  close  of  this  period  are  not  very  definite. 
It  is  usual,  however,  to  regard  the  Middle  Ages 
as  beginning  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Western 
Roman  Empire  by  the  barbarians  in  the  fifth 
centur}%  and  ending  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
centurA%  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Some  scholars  prefer  to  regard  the  Renais- 
sance (q.v.)  as  the  beginning  of  modern  history, 
©y  some,  who  prefer  to  use  precise  landmarks, 
the  Middle  Ages  are  made  to  extend  from  the 
end  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  476  to  that  of  the 
Byzantine  or  Greek  Empire  in  1453,  when  Con- 
sUintinople  was  taken  by  the  Turks.  Others 
again  make  the  Middle  Ages  terminate  with  the 
discovery  of  America  in  1492.  The  term  Dark 
Ages  is  frequently  used  to  cover  the  greater  part 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  designation  being  applied 
by  some  to  the  period  from  the  fifth  to  the  elev- 
enth century,  and  by  others  made  to  embrace  all 
but  the  last  two  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

In  A.D.  395  the  Empire  was  divided.  Before 
that  there  was  a  single  Roman  Empire,  embrac- 
ing practicttJly  the  whole  Christian  world,  extend- 
ing from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Euphrates,  from  the 
Rhine  and  the  Danube  to  the  great  Sahara,  with 
a  single  government,  the  same  system  of  laws, 
an  official  language.  Christianity  was  the 
recognized  State  religion.  The  Roman  civil- 
ization was  in  its  essential  features  uniform 
throughout  the  Empire ;  a  great  network  of  roads 
bound  all  the  parts  together.  In  the  fifth  century 
the  (Jermanic  barbarians  overran  the  Western 
Empire  and  settled  as  conquerors  in  the  various 
parts.  Thus  the  three  most  important  factors 
which  were  to  influence  the  civilization  of  West- 
em  Europe  during  the  early  Middle  Ages  were 
the  Roman,  the  Christian,  and  the  German.  The 
Roman  civilization  had  absorbed  to  a  considerable 
extent  Greek  art,  Greek  literature,  Greek  philoso- 
phy, and  Greek  science.  It  had  developed  to  a 
marvelous  degree  a  system  of  administration  and 
law.  It  had  so  completely  assimilated  the  vari- 
ous races  in  the  Western  Empire  that  they  were 
proud    to    be    called    Romans.      The    Christian 


(Jhurch  had  brought  in  high  ideals  and  had 
taught  new  duties.  But  at  the  same  time  it 
exalted  asceticism^  and  had  a  tendency  to  oppose 
everjrthing  pagan  which  it  was  possible  to  eradi- 
cate. Much  of  the  classical  literature  and  art 
was  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  because  these 
were  so  intimately  associated  with  the  pagan 
religions.  Consequently  the  Church  diminished 
the  inheritance  which  the  Middle  Ages  would 
otherwise  have  received.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Church  adopted  the  magnificent  Roman  system 
of  administration  and  thus  became  a  great  cen- 
tralizing governmental  force.  The  German  bar- 
barians contributed  to  the  medisBval  civilization 
certain  ideas  of  freedom,  and  of  the  importance 
of  the  individual,  as  shown  in  their  public  as- 
semblies, but  the  most  important  contribution 
was  the  Germans  themselves,  a  strong  race,  capa- 
ble of  rapid  advance,  and  always  ready  to  as- 
similate itself  to  surrounding  conditions.  Fur- 
thermore, those  who  settled  in  the  Empire  were 
relatively  few  in  number,  and  consequently  were 
profoundly  influenced  by  the  more  numerous 
population  among  which  they  dwelt. 

The 'fifth  and  sixth  centuries  were  marked  by 
the  migrations  of  the  German  nations.  One  tribe 
after  another  broke  through  the  Roman  frontier 
and  carved  out  a  territory  for  itself.  By 
600  almost  the  whole  of  the  former  Western 
Empire  was  in  the  power  of  the  (jJermans.  Dur- 
ing the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  the  Ro- 
manic population  and  the  barbarians  were  going 
through  a  process  of  fusion.  By  800  the  two 
formed  practically  a  homogeneous  society  of  a 
composite  nature.  The  civilization  was  far  higher 
than  that  of  the  early  Germans,  far  lower  than 
that  of  the  Romans.  During  this  period  the 
Church  was  converting  and  bringing  under  its 
authority  the  various  peoples  of  the  North  and 
West.  (See  Franks.)  Its  monks  were  mis- 
sionaries of  culture  and  also  political  agents  of 
great  importance  in  binding  the  separate  nations 
to  Rome.  From  800  there  was  again  a  Roman 
Empire  in  the  West.  (See  Charles  the  Great.) 
Although  the  Carolingian  Empire  soon  disin- 
tegrated, its  brief  existence  had  been  of  great 
importance  as  a  precedent,  and  had  had  a  lasting 
effect  upon  the  relations  between  the  Germans 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  the  States 
which  arose  with  the  disruption  of  the  Frankish 
realm  the  absence  of  a  strong  central  government 
threw  each  district  ui>on  its  own  resources.  Local 
rulers  arose,  defended  their  territories  against 
invaders,  and  maintained  a  semblance  of  order. 
These  leaders  were  sometimes  bishops  or  abbots, 
as  well  as  lay  nobles.  The  power  fell  into  their 
hands.  (See  Feudalism.)  The  CJhurch  was  the 
only  bond  of  union  and  the  only  restraining  force 
in  the  disturbed  conditions  of  the  times.  It  be- 
came a  mighty  engine  of  government,  whose 
interests  were  by  no  means  restricted  to  religious 
matters.  From  this  time  until  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  CJhurch  was  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  mediaeval  history.  Its  author- 
ity, wealth,  and  influence  increased  constantly; 
its  members  were  prominent  in  every  sphere. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  tenth  century  Otho 
the  Great  (q.v.)  connected  the  fortunes  of  Ger- 
many and  Italy  by  restoring  the  empire  of 
Charles  the  Great.  His  action  was  to  result  in 
the  weakness  and  disunion  of  both  countries,  but 
for  three  centurieB  the  German  monarch  was  in 
appearance  the  leading  power  in  Western  Europe. 


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464 


laDDLEBUBY  COLLEGE. 


During  this  period  the  Normans  (q.v.)  conquered 
England,  Southern  Italy,  and  Sicily,  and  strong 
monarchies  began  to  develop  in  England,  France, 
and  Spain.  Ever  since  the  early  part  of  the 
eighth  century  Christendom  had  been  waging  a 
fierce  warfare  against  the  Mohammedan  power 
in  the  West.  At  the  close  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury began  a  great  onslaught  of  Western  Europe 
upon  the  Mohammedan  power  in  the  East,  known 
as  the  Crusades.  The  broadening  of  the  horizon, 
the  resultant  skepticism,  and  the  enrichment  of 
Europe,  which  resulted  from  the  Crusades,  caused 
the  progress  in  many  lines  to  be  more  rapid.  The 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  were  periods  of 
great  intellectual  activity,  marked  by  the  founda- 
tion of  universities,  the  prevalence  of  heresy,  the 
development  of  vernacular  literature,  the  rise  of 
the  cities,  the  growth  of  national  feeling.  The 
following  centuries  are  generally  designated  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance    (q.v.). 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  Middle  Ages  as  a 
whole,  because  there  was  a  constant  evolution 
for  over  1000  years.  The  characteristics  which 
contrast  most  sharply  with  those  of  the  classical 
world  are  these :  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  civiliza- 
tion as  a  whole  was  much  ruder  and  mixed  with 
barbaric  elements ;  the  individual  was  of  greater 
importance  than  the  State;  men  were  dominated 
by  a  militant,  vital  religion.  If  contrasted  with 
the  modern  period  which  followed :  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  human  intellect  was  restricted  by  a 
deiference  to  the  authority  of  tradition  in  eveir 
phase  of  life,  which  was  wholly  at  variance  with 
the  critical  and  skeptical  attitude  of  thought. 
Again,  the  physical  world,  the  world  of  investi- 
gation, the  world  of  action,  were  very  limited  for 
the  mediaeval  man.  The  discoveries  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century  which  disclosed  new  con- 
tinents were  coincident  with  the  development  of 
the  printing  press,  the  revolution  in  warfare  due 
to  the  introduction  of  gunpowder,  and  the  dis- 
coveries in  the  various  sciences  which  opened 
new  worlds  of  thought  and  activity.  The  im- 
portant artistic  activity  of  the  Middle  Ages  falls 
into  three  distinct  epochs,  the  Early  Christian 
(see  Christian  Abt),  Romanesque,  and  Gothic, 
under  which  titles  the  art  of  the  period  is 
treated. 

Of  general  works  dealing  with  the  Middle 
Ages  the  following  may  be  noted:  Lavisse  and 
Rambaud,  Histoire  g&n^ale,  vols,  i.-ii.,  with 
helpful  bibliographies  (Paris,  1893-94)  ;  Gib- 
bon, Decline  and  Fall^  ed.  Bury  (London.  1896- 
1900)  ;  Brv'ce,  Holy  Roman  Empire  (ib.,  1873)  ; 
Poole,  Illustrations  of  the  History  of  Mediwval 
Thought  (ib.,  1884)  ;  Milman,  Latin  Christianity 
(ib..  1883)  ;  Assman,  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters 
(Brunswick,  1853-62)  :  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  Her 
Invaders  (Oxford,  1880)  ;  Bury,  Later  Roman 
Empire  (London,  1889)  ;  Gregorovius,  Histori/  of 
the  City  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages  (ib.,  1894- 
1900)  ;  Lacroix,  The  Arts  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(ib.,  1880)  ;  id..  Science  and  Literature  in  the 
Middle  Ages  (ib.,  1880)  ;  Lecky,  History  of  Eu- 
ropean Morals  (ib.,  1875);  Emerton,  IntroduO' 
tion  to  the  Middle  Ages  (Boston,  1896);  id., 
Mcdiwval  Europe  (ib.,  1896)  ;  Oman,  European 
History,  476-918  (London,  1893);  Tout,  The 
Empire  and  the  Papacy,  918-1273  (ib.,  1898); 
Cuningham,  Western  Civilization  (Mediaeval  and 
Modern  Times)  (Cambridge,  England,  1900); 
Pflugk-Hartimg,  Early  Middle  Ages  (London, 
1905) ;  "History  of  All  Nations  Series,"  vol.  6-7. 


See  articles  on  the  various  nations  and  the  sepa- 
rate biographies  of  rulers  and  important  men. 

HUXDLEBOBO.  A  town,  including  several 
villages,  in  Plymouth  County,  Mass.,  35  miles 
by  rail  south  by  east  of  Boston ;  on  the  Nemasket 
River,  and  on  four  branches  of  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  ( Map :  Massa- 
chusetts, F  4).  It  has  a  public  library,  is  an 
attractive  summer  resort,  and  is  noted  as  an  in- 
dustrial centre.  Its  manufacturing  interests  are 
represented  by  several  large  shoe  factories,  wool- 
en mill,  parlor-grate  works,  iron  foundry,  saw 
and  planing  mills,  marble  works,  and  varnish 
factories.  The  town  receives  the  income  of  about 
$500,000,  bequeathed  to  it  by  Thomas  Peiroe,  a 
former  citizen.  The  government  is  administered 
by  town  meetings.  Population,  in  1890,  6065;  in 
1900,  6885.  Settled  about  1662  on  the  site  of  an 
old  Indian  village,  Nemasket,  Middleboro  was  in- 
corporated in  1669.  Consult  Barber,  Historical 
Collections  of  Massachusetts  (Worcester,  1840); 
and  Weston,  History  of  the  Town  of  Middleboro 
(Boston,  1906). 

MIiyDLEBXJBY.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Addison  County,  Vt.;  33  miles  north  by 
west  of  Rutland,  on  the  Rutland  Railroad  (Map: 
Vermont,  B  5).  The  village  is  situated  in  the 
Otter  Creek  Valley,  near  the  Green  Mountains, 
in  a  region  of  picturesque  scenery.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Middlebury  College  (q.v.),  and  has  the  Shel- 
don Art  Museum  and  Library,  a  ladies*  library, 
and  a  fine  court-house  and  opera  house;  also  at- 
tractive fair  grounds.  The  industries  are  repre- 
sented by  agricultural  inter^ts  and  by  several 
marble  quarries,  marble  mills,  iron  foundry,  lime 
kilns,  and  flour,  saw,  door,  8asl>,  and  pulp  mills. 
The  village  possesses  valuable  water-power.  Under 
a  revised  charter  of  1877,  Middlebury  is  gov- 
erned by  a  board  of  trustees,  chosen  annually, 
who  elect  subordinate  administrative  officers. 
Population,  1900,  1897;  1906  (local  est.),  2500. 
Middlebury  was  founded  in  1773,  but  owing  to 
threatened  attacks  from  the  English  and  the 
Indians,  was  almost  completely  deserted  during 
the  Revolutionary  War.  In  1813  it  was  incor- 
porated as  the  borough,  and  in  1832  as  the 
village  of  Middlebury.  Consult  Swift,  History 
of  the  Town  of  Middlebury  (Middlebury,  1859). 

MIDDLEBURY  COLLSaE.  A  •ollege  es- 
tablished at  Middlebury,  Vt,,  in  1800,  under  no 
denominational  control,  although  its  affilia- 
tions are  Congregational.  It  is  a  purely  collegi- 
ate institution,  with  a  curriculum,  partially 
elective,  leading  to  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and 
B.S.  The  departments  of  instruction  are  mental 
and  moral  science,  Greek,  Latin,  English,  mod- 
ern languages,  history  and  political  science, 
phvsics  and  mathematics,  chemistry  and  nat- 
ural history.  In  1906-7  it  had  13  instructors,  177 
students,  a  library  of  32,500  volumes,  an  endow- 
ment of  $400,000,  and  an  income  of  $28,500.  The 
campus,  presented  to  the  corporation  by  Col.  Seth 
Storrs  in  1810,  is  a  beautiful  park  of  30  acres. 
It  contains  five  buildings:  Painter  Hall  (1814), 
Starr  Hall  (1860),  the  Chapel  (1886).  the 
Egbert  Starr  Library  (1900),  and  the  Warner 
Science  Hall  (1901).  Middlfebury  has  been  co- 
educational since  1883,  but  in  1902  a  charter  was 
granted  by  the  I^egislature,  authorizing  the  es- 
tablishment by  the  corporation  of  a  separate  col- 
lege for  women.  The  centennial  of  the  college 
was  celebrated  in  1900.    Its  grounds  and  build- 


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465 


MIDDLETON. 


ings  were  valued  at  $200,000,  and  the  whole  col- 
lege property  at  $651,000. 

MIDDLE  C.  In  music,  the  note  c*,  which  is 
on  the  first  leger   line  below  the  treble  staff, 

,  or  above  the  bass  staff 

The  C  clef  always  represents  the  note  termed 
middle  C,  and  the  lines  and  spaces  above  or 
below  are  designated  accordingly. 

MIDDLE  ENGLISH.  See  English  Lan- 
OUAQE;  English  Litebatube. 

MIDDLE  KINGDOM.  A  native  name  of 
China,  believed  by  its  inhabitants  to  be  the 
middle  point  of  the  earth. 

MIDDLE  LATITXTDE  SAILING.  See 
Saiungs. 

MIDDLEMABCH.  A  novel  by  George  Eliot 
(1872).  It  appeared  serially  in  Blackvx>od*8 
Magazine  in  1871.  The  author  considered  this 
story  of  a  provincial  town  her  greatest  work.  It 
■consists  of  two  stories,  that  of  the  Vincy  family 
and  that  of  Dorothea  Brooke,  who  is  the  chief 
character.  She  marries  a  stiff  clergyman,  Mr. 
Casnuban,  and  is  soon  disillusionized.  Rosa- 
mond Vincy,  a  beautiful  girl,  marries  Dr.  Lyd- 
gate,  and  proves  a  hindrance  to  him. 

MIDDLESBOBO.  A  city  in  Bell  County, 
Ky.,  64  miles  north  by  east  from  Knoxville,  Tenn., 
and  on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  and  the 
Southern  railroads  (Map:  Kentucky,  H  4).  It 
is  a  mining  and  manufacturing  city,  and  has 
considerable  reputation  as  a  summer  resort.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1900,  4162. 

MIDDLESBBOUGH^  mldM'lzb'rOh.  A  man- 
ufacturing town,  port,  and  Parliamentary  bor- 
ough in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, at  the  mouth  of  the  Tees,  48  miles  north 
of  York  (Map:  England,  E  2).  The  town 
is  well  built,  with  handsome  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture, ecclesiastical,  municipal,  and  commercial. 
In  the  royal  exchange,  a  fine  building,  the  weekly 
iron  market  is  held  cm  Tuesdays,  attended  by 
persons  connected  with  the  iron  trade  from  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  as  well  as  foreigners. 
Albert  Park,  containing  72  acres,  is  tastefully 
laid  out.  The  town  owns  its  water,  gas,  abattoirs, 
markets,  and  cemeteries,  and  maintains  baths, 
wash-houses,  and  free  libraries.  Middlesbrough 
was  founded  in  1830,  and  the  following  year  had 
154  inhabitants.  The  opening  of  the  docks  in 
1842  gave  additional  importance,  and  the  popula- 
tion rose  to  6000.  From  the  year  1852,  when 
iron  ore  was  discovered  in  the  Eston  Hills, 
the  town  increased  rapidly,  and  has  acquired  an 
important  position  as  an  iron  manufacturing 
centre,  turning  out  over  2,000,000  tons  per  year 
of  pig  iron  alone,  and  having  smelting  furnaces 
on  an  extensive  scale,  iron  foundries,  manufac- 
tures of  rails,  locomotive  engines,  tubes,  boilers, 
etc.  There  are  also  chemical  works  and  potteries, 
and  shipbuilding  is  extensively  carried  on.  Thore 
are  spacious  docks,  and  a  breakwater  nearl>  2^ 
miles  long.  The  value  of  the  exports  in  1903  was 
$22,492,000,  and  of  the  imports,  $6,673,000.  The 
tonnage  entered  and  cleared,  excluding  coastwise 
vessels,  was  1,801,000  in  1904.  Middlesbrough 
was  incorporated  in  1853.  Population,  in  1891, 
75,532;  in  1901,  91,302;  in  1905  (est.),  98.369. 
Consult  Reid,  Middlesbrough  and  Its  Jubilee 
(Middlesbrough,  1881). 


MUXDLESEX.  The  metropolitan  county  of 
England,  in  the  southeast  of  the  country,  bounded 
north  by  Hertford  and  south  by  Surrey  (Map: 
England,  F  5).  Next  to  Rutland  it  is  the 
smallest  of  the  English  counties,  its  area  being 
only  181,301  statute  acres,  or  283  square  miles, 
a  considerable  portion  of  which  comprises  a  large 
area  of  metropolitan  London.  Outside  of  London 
the  land  is  chiefly  devoted  to  grass  and  hay 
farms  and  to  market-gardens,  the  produce  of 
which  is  sent  to  supply  the  metropolis.  Capital, 
Brentford.    Population,  in  1901,  3,585,100. 

MIDDLE  TEMPLE.  One  of  the  four  Inns 
of  Court.  The  Inns  of  the  Middle  Temple  are  so 
called  from  the  group  of  ancient  buildings  oc- 
cupied by  them,  which  were  the  seat  of  th0 
knights  templars  and  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  lawyers  after  the  dissolution  of  that  famous 
order  of  chivalry.    See  Inns  of  Court. 

MnyDLETON.  A  municipal  borough  in 
Lancashire,  England,  five  miles  north-northeast 
of  Manchester  (Map :  England,  D  3 ) .  Its  chief 
industries  are  the  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
silk;  coal  is  mined,  and  it  has  also  chemical 
works.  It  has  a  grammar  school  dating  from 
1572.  The  municipality  owns  gas  works,  electric- 
lighting  plant,  markets,  and  public  baths,  and 
maintains  free  library,  park,  recreation  grounds, 
and  a  sewage  farm.    Population,  1901,  25,180. 

MIDDLETON.  A  town  of  Annapolis  County, 
Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  102  miles  west-northwest 
of  Halifax,  on  the  Dominion  Atlantic,  and  the 
Halifax  and  Southwestern  railroads,  in  the  centre 
of  Annapolis  Valley  (Map:  Nova  Scotia,  D  5). 
The  town  has  wood-working  and  clay  factories. 
Lucrative  iron  and  copper  mining  is  carried  on 
in  the  neighborhood.    Population,  in  1901,  2000. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur  (1681-1737).  An 
American  colonist,  born  in  South  Carolina.  In 
1719  he  was  president  of  the  convention  which 
placed  South  Carolina  directly  under  the  Crown. 
Later  he  became  president  of  His  Majesty's  Coun- 
cil, and  as  such  was  Acting  Governor  from  1725 
until  the  arrival  of  the  first  regularly  appointed 
royal  Governor  in  1731. 

MIDDLETON,  Arthur  (1742-87).  A  signer 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  bom  in  South 
Carolina.  In  1754  he  went  with  an  uncle  to 
England,  where  he  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
Westminster  School,  and  Saint  John's  Ck)llege, 
Cambridge.  He  returned  to  South  Carolina  in 
1763,  settled  at  Middleton  Place,  became  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  and  from  1765  to  1766  served  in  the 
Commons  for  Saint  Helena.  He  then  again  went 
abroad,,  and  spent  three  years  in  England  and 
Southern  Europe.  On  his  return  in  1772  he  was 
again  elected  to  the  Commons,  and  in  1774  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Upper  House  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Congress.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  and 
boldest  opponents  of  the  royal  authority,  and 
early  in  1775  became  a  member  of  the  Secret 
Service  Committee,  and  in  June  of  the  same 
year  of  the  Council  of  Safety.  Early  in  1776 
he  helped  frame  a  constitution  for  the  State, 
and  later  in  the  same  year  he  was  sent  as'  a 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1778  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature, 
and  was  also  chosen  President  and  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  South  Carolina,  but  declined.  He 
assisted  in  the  defense  of  Charleston,  and  upon 
the  capture  of  that  place  was  imprisoned  in  Saint 


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466 


MIDDLBTOWN. 


Augustine,  and  later  in  the  prison  ship  Jersey, 
Being  exchanged  in  July,  1781,  he  was  again 
elected  to  the  Continental  Congress,  where  be 
served  until  peace  was  declared.  Later  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  and  a 
trustee  of  Charleston  College.  Middleton  was 
a  man  of  much  energy  and  judgment,  an  able 
debater,  and  a  forceful  writer.  Under  the 
pseudonym  of  "Andrew  Marvel"  he  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  effective  political  essays;  he  also  left 
stenographic  reports  of  many  of  the  debates  in 
which  he  participated. 

MIDDLETON,  Conters  (1683-1760).  A 
divine  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  was  bom 
December  27,  1683,  at  York  or  Richmond,  in 
Yorkshire.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1702,  was  elected  a 
Fellow  in  1706,  and  shortly  after  married  a  lady 
of  fortune.  The  views  he  expressed  and  defended 
were  generally  such  as  to  draw  down  upon  him 
the  imputation  of  being  an  "infidel  in  disguise," 
though  some  of  them — such  as  that  the  Jews 
borrowed  some  of  their  customs  from  Egypt, 
that  the  primitive  writers  in  vindicating  Scrip- 
ture found  it  necessary  sometimes  to  recur  to  al- 
legory— are  now  commonly  held.  Middleton  died 
at  Hildersham,  in  Cambridgeshire,  July  28,  1750. 
His  principal  writings  are:  'A  Letter  from 
Rome,  ahoioing  an  exact  Conformity  between 
Popery  and  Paganism;  or  the  Religion  of  the 
present  Romans  derived  from  that  of  their 
Heathen  Ancestors  (1729),  which  provoked  the 
most  violent  indignation  among  Roman  Catholics ; 
and  The  History  of  the  Life  of  M.  Tullius  Cicero 
(2  vols.,  1741),  a  work  both  interesting  and  valu- 
able. All  his  pamphlets,  treatises,  etc.,  were 
collected  and  published  under  the  title  of  Mis- 
cellaneous Works  (4  vols.,  London,  1762). 

MIDDLETON,  Sir  Frederick  Dobson  (1826- 
98).  A  British  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Belfast, 
Ireland,  and  graduating  at  the  Royal  Military 
College  at  Sandhurst  in  1842,  saw  active  service 
in  New  South  Wales,  New  Zealand,  Burma,  and 
India.  In  the  Indian  Mutiny  (1857-58)  he  was 
decorated  with  the  Victoria  Cross  for  gallant 
conduct.  In  1868  he  accompanied  his  regiment 
to  Canada,  but  returned  to  England  in  1870.  In 
1884  he  returned  to  Canada  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  Canadian  militia,  and  in  1885  he  ener- 
getically suppressed  the  Riel  rebellion  in  the 
Northwest,  for  which  he  received  from  the  Cana- 
dian Parliament  a  grant  of  $20,000,  and  the 
honor  of  knighthood  from  the  Queen.  In  1890  he 
returned  to  England,  and  in  1896  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  crown  jewels. 

MIDDLETON, Henrt  (1771-1846).  An  Amer- 
ican politician  and  diplomat,  the  son  of  Arthur 
Middleton  (q.v.).  He  was  born  in  Charleston,  S. 
C,  was  carefully  educated  by  private  tutors  and 
at  South  Carolina  College,  and  in  1801  was 
elected  to  the  South  Carolina  Legislature,  where 
his  brilliant  powers  as  an  orator  attracted  wide 
attention  and  led,  in  1810,  to  his  election  as  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State.  He  held  this  office  until  1812, 
was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  war  policy  of  the 
Madison  Administration,  and  in  1815,  after  a 
brief  retirement  from  politics,  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress, serving  until  1820.  In  that  year  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Monroe  Minister  of  the 
L^nited  States  to  Russia,  where  in  a  service 
of  ten  years  he  did  much  to  strengthen  the  com- 
mercial relations  between  the  two  nations,  ne- 


gotiating in  1824  the  first  treaty  which  provided 
for  the  regulation  of  trade  and  fisheries  in  the 
Pacific.  On  his  return  to  America  in  1830,  he 
retired  from  public  life. 

MIDDLETON,  Thomas  (1570T-1627).  An 
English  dramatist,  bom  probably  in  London. 
Hardly  a  detail  of  his  life  is  known.  He  seems 
to  have  studied  law,  and  may  thus  be  one  of 
the  two  Thomas  Middletons  entered  at  Gray's 
Inn  in  1593  and  1596.  It  is  thought  that  he 
began  writing  for  the  stage  as  early  as  1599. 
But  the  first  mention  of  him  is  in  Henslowe's 
Diary,  on  May  22,  1602.  He  was  then  collaborat- 
ing with  Munday,  Drayton,  Webster,  and  others 
on  a  lost  play  called  Ccesar's  Fall.  In  this  year 
he  published  a  comedy  entitled  Blurt,  Master- 
Constable,  and  in  1603-04  two  prose  tracts.  The 
Black  Book  and  Father  Hubhurd*s  Tales,  lively 
and  highly  colored  satirical  sketches  of  London 
life.  Between  this  time  and  his  death  he  wrote 
more  than  twenty  plays,  and  twelve  masques 
and  pageants.  In  1620  he  was  made  chronologer 
to  the  city  of  London.  He  died  in  London  near 
July  1,  1627.  He  was  successful  in  both  comedy 
and  tragedy.  His  humor  is  seen  at  its  best  in 
A  Trick  to  Catch  the  Old-One  ( 1608)  ;  The  Roar- 
ing Girl  (1611);  The  Spanish  Oypsy,  a  tragi- 
comedv  (acted  as  early  as  1623,  but  not  printed 
till  1653)  J  A  Chaste  Maid  in  Cheapside  (not 
printed  till  1030).  All  except  the  third  in  this 
list  depict  contemporary  London  life.  The  sec- 
ond has  as  heroine  the  notorious  Mary  Frith, 
known  as  Moll  Cutpurse.  Middleton's  dramatic 
power  is  at  is  height  in  Women  Beware  Women 
(first  printed  in  1657).  It  is  a  romantic  tragedy 
founded  in  part  on  the  history  of  Bianca  Capello. 
Almost  equal  to  this  play  are  The  Spanish  Oypsy, 
cited  above,  and  The  Changeling  (printed  1653). 
A  Game  at  Chess,  a  political  drama,  attacking 
Spain,  aroused  such  enthusiastic  hatred  that  the 
Spanish  Ambassador  protested,  and  the  piece  was 
taken  off  the  stage  after  scoring  a  great  success 
( 1624) .  A  play  called  The  Witch  ( printed  1778 ) 
is  of  considerable  interest  because  it  has  the  same 
motive  as  Shakespeare's  Macbeth,  Consult 
Works,  ed.  by  Bullen  (8  vols.,  London,  1886); 
and  selections  from  the  plays,  ed.  by  Havelock 
Ellis,  with  an  introduction  by  Swinburne,  fw 
the  Mermaid  Series  ( London,  1887 ) . 

MIDDLETON,  Thomas  Fanshaw  (1769- 
1822) .  Bishop  of  Calcutta.  He  was  born  in  Kedle- 
ston,  Derbyshire,  England;  was  educated  at 
Christ's  Hospital,  and  graduated  at  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1792;  was  ordained  to  a 
curacy  in  Gainsborough  in  1792,  and  was  after- 
wards incumbent  at  Tansor,  Northamptonshire; 
Bytham,  Lincolnshire;  Saint  Pancras,  London: 
and  other  parishes.  In  1814  he  was  consecrated 
first  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  where  he  did  much  to 
promote  the  advancement  of  Christianity  and 
education,  founded  the  Bishop's  Mission  College 
in  1820,  and  established  a  consistory  court.  He 
was  editor  for  short  periods  of  the  journals  The 
Country  Spectator  at  Gainsborough,  and  The  Brit- 
ish Critic  (new  series)  in  London.  The  work  by 
which  he  was  best  known  was  that  on  The  Doc- 
trine of  the  Greek  Article  Applied  to  the  Criti- 
cism and  Illustration  of  the  New  Testament 
(1808).  A  Life  of  Bishop  Middleton,  by  C.  W. 
Le  Bas,  was  published  in  London  in  1831. 

MnXDLETOWN.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Middlesex  County,  Conn.,  16  miles  south  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIDDLETOWK. 


467 


MIDHAT  PASHA. 


Hartford;  on  the  Connecticut  River,  and  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad 
(Map:  Connecticut,  E  3).  It  is  connected  with 
the  opposite  town  of  Portland,  known  for  its 
brownstone  quarries,  by  an  unusually  long 
drawbridge.  Middletown  is  the  seat  of  Wesleyan 
University  (q^J.) ;  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School 
(Protestant  Episcopal),  opened  in  1864;  the 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane;  and  the  State 
Industrial  School  for  Girls.  Other  features  are 
the  municipal  building,  and  the  Russell  Free  Li- 
brary of  about  14,0(K)  volumes.  The  city  has 
considerable  trade,  as  the  river  is  navigable  as 
far  as  Hartford  for  light-draught  steamers,  thus 
increasing  the  transportation  facilities.  Middle- 
town  is  also  an  important  industrial  centre,  with 
manufactures  of  cotton  webbing,  hammocks, 
pumps,  marine  hardware,  locks,  harness  trim- 
mingS;  silvjr-plated  ware,  and  rubber,  bone,  and 
silk  goods.  There  are  valuable  mineral  deposits 
in  the  vicinity.  Middletown  is  governed,  under 
a  charter  of  1882,  by  a  mayor,  elected  biennial- 
ly, and  a  city  council,  chosen  on  a  general 
ticket.  The  water-works  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  municipality.  Population  of  city  in  1900, 
9589;  of  town,  including  city,  17,486. 

Founded  in  1650,  and  incorporated  as  a  town 
under  the  name  Mattabeseck  in  1651,  Middle- 
town  received  its  present  name  in  1663,  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1784.  Previous  to  the 
Revolution  and  for  some  time  thereafter  it  was 
a  very  important  commercial  port,  a  large  num- 
ber of  its  citizens  being  engaged  in  the  West 
Indian  trade.  For  many  years  prior  to  1886, 
when  the  Custom  House  was  moved  to  Hartford, 
it  was  a  port  of  entry.  CJonsult  an  article 
on  "Middletown"  in  The  Connecticut  Quarterly 
(Hartford,  1898)  ;  aUo  Whittemorer,  History  of 
Middlesex  County,  Connecticut  (New  York, 
1884). 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  town  in  Newcastle 
County,  Del.,  25  miles  south-southwest  of  Wil- 
mington; on  the  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and 
Washington  Railroad  (Map:  Delaware,  P  3).  It 
has  considerable  fruit-canning  interests,  owing 
to  its  location  in  the  noted  fruit-growing  belt  of 
the  State,  also  creameries,  and  manufactures 
farming  implements,  carriages,  harness,  shirts, 
etc.  Population,  1900,  1667;  1906  (local  est.), 
1660. 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  city  in  Orange  County, 
N.  Y.,  67  miles  northwest  of  New  York  City, 
near  the  Wallkill  River,  and  on  the  Erie,  the 
New  York,  Ontario  and  Western,  and  the  New 
York,  Susquehanna  and  Western  railroads 
(Map:  New  York,  F  4).  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  (homoeopathic), 
and  has  a  public  library  and  a  fine  high  school 
building.  The  centre  of  an  agricultural  and 
dairying  district,  Middletown  enjoys  a  consider- 
able trade  in  the  products  of  the  region;  and 
among  its  industrial  establishments  are  straw 
hat  factories,  car  shops  ( N.  Y.,  O.  and  W. ) ,  saw 
and  file  works,  cigar  factories,  a  tannery,  a  milk- 
condensery,  and  manufactories  of  shirts  and  cut 
glass.  The  city  is  governed,  under  a  revised 
charter  of  1902,  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  two 
years,  and  a  common  council  which  elects  the 
city  clerk,  corporation  counsel,  and  engineer,  and 
confirms  the  executive's  nominations  to  the  board 
of  health,  other  municipal  officials  being  chosen 
by  popular  vote.    The  city  owns  and  operates  the 


water-works.  Population,  in  1900,  14,522;  in 
1906,  14,616  (excluding  over  1300  State  Hospi- 
tal patients).  Settled  before  the  Revolution 
and  named  from  its  central  location  between 
Montgomery  and  Mount  Hope,  Middletown  was 
incorporated  as  a  village  in  1848,  and  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1888.  Its  situation  as  the 
half-way  station  between  the  Hudson  and  the 
Delaware  rivers,  on  the  old  Minisink  road  lead- 
ing to  the  "far  West"  of  New  York  State,  made 
it  of  considerable  importance  in  the  later  years 
of  the  eighteenth  and  the  early  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century ;  while  its  position  as  a  termi- 
nal of  the  Erie  Railroad,  and  the  consequent  es- 
tablishment of  a  foundry  about  1846  gave  it  a 
start  as  an  industrial  centre. 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  city  in  Butler  County, 
Ohio,  on  the  Miami  River,  and  the  Miami  and 
Erie  Canal,  35  miles  north  of  Cincinnati;  on 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint 
Ix)uis,  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  and  Dayton,  thb 
Cincinnati  Northern,  and  other  railroads  (Map: 
Ohio,  B  7 ) .  It  has  a  Masonic  Temple  and  a  fine 
opera,  house;  and  there  are  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  tobacco,  paper,  bicycles,  steel,  steel 
sheets,  and  agricultural  implements.  Middle«> 
town,  settled  as  early  as  1794,  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  elected  biennially,  a  unicameral  council, 
and  boards  of  public  service  and  public  safety. 
Pop.,  in  1900,  9215;  in  1906  (local  est.),  12,500. 

MIDDLETOWN.  A  borough  in  Dauphin 
Ck)unty,  Pa.,  9  miles  southeast  of  Harrisburg; 
on  the  Susquehanna  River,  and  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  rail- 
roads (Map:  Pennsylvania,  H  7).  It  is  in  a 
farming  section,  and  has  flouring  and  planing 
mills,  iron  furnaces,  stove  works,  tube  and  iron 
works,  car  shops,  a  furniture  factory,  tannery, 
and  stone  quarries,  the  principal  products  of 
which  constitute  a  considerable  export  trade. 
The  electric  light  plant  is  owned  by  the  munici- 
pality. Middletown  was  founded  in  1756  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1828.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  5080;    in  1900,  5608. 

MIDGE  (AS.  mycg,  OHG.  mucca,  Ger.  MUcke^ 
Icel.  my,  midge,  fly;  connected  with  Gk.  fwTa, 
myia,  fly).  The  popular  name  of  the  little  flies 
of  the  family  Chironomidse,  applied  also  in  Eu- 
rope to  the  Simuliidse,  which  in  this  country 
are  called  T)lack  flies*  and  T)uflfalo  gnats.'  There? 
is  nothing  very  specific  in  the  use  of  the  name, 
and  it  is  generally  applied  to  almost  any  minute 
flying  insect,  most  of  which  are  true  flies. 

MIDHAT  PASHA,  m^'d'hat'  pft-shr  (1822- 
84).  A  Turkish  statesman,  bom  probably  in 
Bulgaria.  His  origin  was  humble,  but  his 
marked  ability  secured  him  rapid  promotion  in 
the  Ottoman  civil  service.  He  visited  England 
and  France;  was  made  a  pasha;  governed  with 
energy  and  wisdom  Bulgaria  and  other  provinces ; 
and  in  1872  was  named  Grand  Vizier.  He  had 
already  identified  himself  with  the  progressive 
party  known  as  Young  Turkey,  and  was  disliked 
and  feared  by  the  reactionaries.  He  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  conspiracy  which  led  to  the  de- 
thronement of  Abd-ul-Aziz  (May  30,  1876),  and 
was  made  Grand  Vizier  December  20,  1876,  by 
Abd-ul-Hamid  II.,  but  was  dismissed  in  Febru- 
ary, 1877,  and  had  to  flee.  A  constitution  which 
he  had  promulgated  failed.  Later,  he  was  per- 
mitted to  return,  and  became  Governor  of  Syria 
and  then  of  Smyrna.    In  1881  he  was  tried,  with 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIDHAT  PASHA. 


468 


MIDWAY  ISLAHB. 


others,  upon  the  charge  of  murdering  Abd-ul- 
Aziz,  and  was  condemned  to  death,  but  the  sen- 
tence was  conmiuted.  He  died  in  Arabia,  May  8, 
1884.  He  was  the  author  of  La  Turquie,  son 
pas84,  son  avenir  (Paris,  1878).  (Consult:  lA- 
ouzon  Le  Due,  Midhat  Pasha  (ib.,  1879)  ;  Bruns- 
wik,  La  v4riU  sur  Midhat  Pasha  (ib.,  1877). 

MIIKIANITES.  A  name  applied  somewhat 
indefinitely  in  the  Old  Testament  to  OToups  of 
Bedouins.  According  to  Gen.  xxv.  2,  Midian,  the 
eponymous  ancestor,  is  a  son  of  Abraham  through 
his  'Arabic'  wife  Keturah.  That  the  Midianites 
are  to  be  reckoned  with  the  Arabs  is  clear,  but 
we  find  them  now  at  Mount  Sinai  (Ex.  iii.  1), 
again  to  the  east  of  Israel  (Gen.  xxv.  4),  while 
in  the  days  of  Gideon  they  advance  from  the 
Syrian  desert  (Judges  vi.),  and  again  (Num. 
xxv.  6-9)  they  occupy  the  northern  portion 
of  Moab.  This  shifting  about  is  to  be  accounted 
for  not  merely  by  the  natural  movements  of 
nomadic  tribes,  but  through  the  generic  mean- 
ing that  Midian  seems  to  have  acquired,  much  as 
in  the  Talmud,  Tai,  which  originally  designated 
a  particular  Arabic  clan,  becomes  the  designation 
for  Arabs  in  general.  The  Midianites  as  de- 
scribed in  Judges  (vi.-viii.)  are  thorough  Bed- 
ouins, whereas  the  Midianites  around  Sinai  are 
a  pastoral  people.  The  latter  seem  to  have  been 
the  original  Midianites,  and  the  fact  that  Jethro, 
Moses'  father-in-law,  is  described  as  a  *Midian- 
ite'  (Ex.  iii.  1),  whereas  in  Judges  i.  16  he  is 
called  the  *Kenite,'  is  due  to  the  more  compre- 
hensive character  of  the  former  term,  which  led 
to  its  gradual  extension  until  it  became  synony- 
mous with  Bedouin.  The  land  of  Midian  ex- 
tended northward  from  Horeb,  or  Sinai,  close 
to  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  A 
place  called  Modiana  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
close  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  about  opposite  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  and  no  doubt 
this  stands  in  some  relationship  in  the  original 
application  of  Midian  in  the  Old  Testament. 
Consult  Burton,  Oold  Mines  of  Midian  (Ix)ndon, 
1878)  ;  Land  of  Midian  Revisited  (ib.,  1879). 

MIDLOTHIAN,  mId-lo'THt-an.  A  county  of 
Scotland.     See  Edinburghshire. 

MIDNAFXTB,  mld'ni-pSSr^.  The  capital  of 
a  district  of  Bardwan,  Bengal,  British  India,  68 
miles  by  rail  west  of  Calcutta,  with  which  it  is 
also  connected  by  a  canal.  It  is  an  educational 
centre  with  a  municipal  college,  high  school,  pub- 
lic library,  and  printing  establishments,  and  is 
also  the  seat  of  an  active  American  missionary 
settlement.  It  has  manufactures  of  copper,  brass, 
silk,  and  indigo,  and  an  important  trade.  Popu- 
lation, in  1891,  32,264;  in  1901,  33,140. 

MIDNIGHT  APPOINTMENTS.  In  Ameri- 
can history,  a  term  applied  to  the  appointments 
made  by  John  Adams  on  the  last  night  of  his 
administration  as  President. 

MIIKBASH  (Heb.,  from  darash,  to  seek, 
search).  The  general  name  given  to  the  expo- 
sition of  the  Old  Testament  which,  for  about 
1500  years  after  the  Exile,  formed  the  centre 
of  all  mental  activity  both  in  and  out  of  the 
schools,  among  the  Jews.  The  prohibitions  and 
ordinances  contained  in  the  Pentateuchal  codes 
were  specified  and  particularized  according  to 
certain  hermeneutical  rules,  and  further  sur- 
rounded by  traditional  ordinances  and  inhibi- 
tions. This  division  of  Midrash  is  represented 
by  the  Halacha  (q.v.),  the  binding  authoritative, 


civil,  and  religous  law  as  laid  down  in  the  Tal- 
mud. Another  branch  of  the  Midrash,  however, 
is  the  Uaggada  (q.v.),  a  kind  of  free  poetical 
homiletics,  on  the  whole  body  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  the  term  Midrash  without  further 
specification  generally  refers  to  this  branch  of 
rabbinical  literature.  The  chief  collections  of 
this  part  of  the  Midrash  are  Midrash  Rdbha  or 
Midrash  haggadol  (on  the  Pentateuch  and  the 
five  scrolls),  and  Pesikta  to  various  sections  of 
the  Bible.  A  complete  German  translation  of  the 
Midrash  Rabba  was  begun  by  August  WQnsche 
in  1880.  Besides  this  there  are  Midrashim  to 
the  separate  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy.  Con- 
sult: Steinschneider,  Jewish  Literature  (Lon- 
don, 1857)  ;  Chenery,  ''Lejgends  from  the  Mid- 
rash," in  L5wy,  Miscellanies  of  Hebrew  Litera- 
ture (ib.,  1877)  ;  Abrahams,  Jewish  Literature, 
c.  iv.    (Philadelphia,   1899). 

MIDBIFE.     The  diaphragm  (q.v.). 

MIDSHIPMAN.  A  title  in  the  United 
States  Navy  abolished  by  act  of  Congress  of  Au- 
gust, 1882;  but  revived  in  1902  and  substituted 
for  the  title  of  naval  cadet.  The  term  is  de- 
rived from  the  fact  that  the  *young  gentlemen' 
under  instruction  on  British  men-of-war  to  be- 
come officers  were  assigned  to  quarters  amidships 
abreast  the  mainmast  on  the  lower  deck.  In  the 
American  navy  midshipmen  rank  next  below 
ensigns.  Formerly,  those  not  yet  graduated 
from  the  naval  academy  were  styled  cadet 
midshipmen. 

MIDSHIPMAN.    See  Sapo. 

MIDSHIPMAN  EASY,  Mb.  A  story  by 
Frederick  Marryat  (1836).  It  sets  forth  the 
perilous  and  amusing  adi^ntures  of  Jack  Easy, 
a  young  scapegrace,  who  enlists  in  the  British 
Navy,  and  after  a  long  course  of  discipline  re- 
nounces his  early  theories  of  the  equality  of 
men. 

MIDSXTMMEB  EVR   See  Saint  John's  Eve. 

MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM,  A.     A 

comedy  by  Shakespeare,  written  about  1595, 
printed  in  1600,  when  two  editions  appeared,  by 
Thomas  Fisher  and  by  James  Roberts,  the  lat- 
ter being  used  for  the  folio  reprint.  It  is  evi- 
dently a  masque  or  festival  play,  and  is  a  jumble 
of  classic,  mediaeval,  and  fairy  lore.  The  parts 
of  Theseus  and  Hippolyta  may  have  been  taken 
from  Chaucer's  "Kuight's  Tale,"  but  more  prob- 
ably from  North's  translations  of  Plutarch's 
"Theseus"  (1579).  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,  drawn 
from  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  may  have  come 
through  Chaucer's  Legend  of  Good  Women,  or 
was  based  on  Robinson's  Handfull  of  Pleasant 
Delights,  Oberon,  originating  in  the  French 
Huon  of  Bordeaux  in  the  Charlemagne  cycle,  is 
found  in  Greene's  James  IV.  (1590).  Titania, 
without  the  name,  can  be  traced  to  Chaucer's 
"Wife  of  Bath's  Tale."  Puck  is  the  Robin  Good- 
fellow  of  old  English  folk-lore.  The  rest  of  the 
fairy  scenery  is  Shakespeare's  own,  except  for  a 
Blight  debt  to  John  Lyly. 

MIDWAY  ISLAND.  A  small  island  in  the 
Pacific  in  about  latitude  28 o  N.  and  longitude 
179°  30'  W.,  important  only  as  the  cable  station 
of  the  Commercial  Pacific  Cable  Company  be- 
tween Honolulu  and  Guam.  The  cable  was  laid 
in    1903.     The   cable   distance   to  Honolulu   is 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIDWAY  ISLAND. 


469 


MIEBOSLAWSEI. 


stated  as  1254  miles  and  to  Guam  as  2603  miles. 
The  island  is  little  more  than  a  rock  rising  at 
its  highest  point  less  than  50  feet  above  the  sea 
and  about  one  and  one-eighth  miles  long  and 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  wide. 

MIDWIFE^    and   MIDWIEEBY.      See   Ob- 

8TETBICS. 

MIDWIFE  EBOGy  or  Obstetrical  Toad.  A 
smooth  toad-like  terrestrial  frog  {Alytes  obHetri- 
cans)  of  the  family  Discoglossidee,  found  along 
the  Mediterranean  coast,  and  numerous  and 
ubiquitous.  From  March  to  August  the  double 
call-note  of  the  male^  sounding  like  a  small  bell, 
is  heard,  but  it  is  difficult  to  see  the  performer. 
The  remarkable  feature  of  this  frog's  life,  how- 
ever, is  its  egg-nurture.  When  the  female  is 
ready  to  extrude  her  eggs,  which  are  of  large  size 
and  attached  to  one  another,  in  two  rosary-like 
strings,  to  the  number  of  several  dozen,  the  ac- 
cepted male  mounts  upon  her  back.  During  the 
expulsion  of  the  eggs  they  are  fecundated  by  the 
male,  who  then  pushes  his  hind  limbs  through 
the  tangled  mass,  after  which  he  releases  the 
female,  and  retires  to  his  hole  dragging  with  him 
the  burden  wrapped  about  his  legs.  He  comes 
out  each  night  to  feed  and  to  moisten  the  eggs 


MIDWIFE  FROa. 


in  the  dew  or  the  nearest  puddle,  and  after  about 
three  weeks,  when  the  eggs  are  nearly  ready  to 
hatch,  he  takes  them  into  the  water,  where  he  re- 
mains until  the  tadpoles  escape  through  the 
softened  envelopes.  Broods  born  in  early  sum- 
mer mature  the  same  autumn,  but  later  broods 
remain  as  tadpoles  until  the  following  May.  A 
second  species  {Alytes  dsternaai) ,  of  similar 
habits,  occurs  in  Central   Spain   and   Portugal. 

MIEB,  m?-ftr^.  A  Mexican  town,  situated 
on  the  Rio  Grande,  110  miles  in  a  straight  line 
from  its  mouth  (Map:  Mexico,  J  4).  It  is  noted 
in  connection  with  an  attempted  invasion  of 
Mexico  by  Texans  in  1842.     Population,  4000. 

MIBBES,  m$-a'rAs.  A  mining  town  of  North- 
em  Spain  in  the  Province  of  Oviedo.  It  is  situ- 
ated 9  miles  southeast  of  the  City  of  Oviedo, 
among  forest-covered  mountains,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  gardens  and  orchards.  It  has  a  score 
of  mines  and  extensive  factories  for  iron  and 
chemical  products.  In  the  neighborhood  are  im- 
portant mines  of  coal,  iron,  and  cinnabar.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  17,867. 

MIBBEVELT,  mg're-v&lt,  Michiel  Jansze 
(1567-1651).  A  Dutch  painter,  bom  at  Delft. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  A.  van  Montfoort,  called  Block- 
landt,  of  Utrecht.  He  recei. ed  a  pension  from  the 
Archduke  Albert  of  Austria,  at  whose  Court  he 


lived  in  Delft.  Mi^revelt's  portraits  are  in 
many  of  the  museums.  They  are  of  varying  im- 
portance, as  he  was  often  assisted  by  his  pupils^ 
particularly  by  his  son,  Pieter  van  Mierevelt 
(1596-1623),  who  imitated  the  manner  of  his 
father  with  much  success.  Among  the  best  por- 
traits by  the  elder  Mierevelt  are  those  of  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  and  others  of  the  Princes  of 
Orange,  John  Bameveldt,  and  several  of  the 
Prince  of  Nassau. 

MIEBIS,  me'ris.  A  family  of  Dutch  painters. 
Fbans  van  Miebis,  the  elder  (1636-81),  a  genre 
painter,  was  born  in  Leyden,  April  12,  1635.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Torenvliet,  of  Gerard  Dou,  and  of 
Adriaen  van  den  Tempel.  His  pictures  are  char- 
acterized by  elegance  of  drawing,  and  his  coloring 
is  clear,  delicate,  and  rich,  especially  in  painting 
velvets,  satin,  and  other  rich  stuffs.  They  are 
treated  too  superficially  and  smoothly,  however, 
to  be  strong.  His  principal  works  include  the 
"Lady  in  the  Crimson  Jacket,"  National  Gallery, 
London;  "Lady  at  Her  Toilet,"  "Two  Ladies 
Drinking  Tea,"  "Interior  of  a  Household,"  and  a 
"Male  Portrait,"  in  the  Louvre;  "Boy  Blowing 
Soap-Bubbles"  and  "Artist  and  His  Wife"  (1663), 
in  the  Hague  Museum ;  a  "Lady  Writing  a  Letter" 
(1680);  a  "Lady  Playing  Guitar,"  Amsterdam 
Museum;  the  "Soldier"  (1662)  ;  "Woman  Faint- 
ing," Munich  Gallery;  and  the  "Tinker,"  Dres- 
den Gallery. — Jan  van  Miebis  ( 1660-90) ,  a  genre 
and  portrait  painter,  son  and  pupil  of  Frans 
the  elder;  he  studied  also  under  Lairesse.  Ex- 
amples of  his  work  are  an  "Assembly  of  Ladies 
and  Gentlemen  with  Lute-Player,"  Gotha  Mu- 
seum ;  "Surgeon  Dressing  a  Wound,"  Hermitage, 
Saint  Petersburg. — Willem  van  Miebis  (1662- 
1747),  a  genre  and  mythological  painter  and 
sculptor,  was  bom  in  Leyden,  the  son  and  pupil 
of  Frans  the  elder.  His  work  represents  the 
school  in  its  decline,  and  is  inferior  to  his  father's 
in  drawing  and  impasto.  He  also  modeled  statu- 
ettes and  vases  adorned  with  bas-reliefs.  Among 
his  works  are  the  "Trumpeter,"  the  "Poultry 
Dealer,"  and  the  "Merry  Toper,"  all  in  the  Dres- 
den Gallery. — Fbans  van  Miebis,  the  younger 
(1689-1763).  A  genre  painter  and  writer.  He 
was  the  son  and  pupil  of  Willem,  and  a  distin- 
guished antiquary,  and  published  works  of  merit 
on  numismatics  and  history.  His  books  in- 
clude the  Historic  der  nederlandsche  vorstcn 
(1732-35)  and  Oroot  ch-arterhoek  dcr  graven 
van  Hvllandf  van  Zeeland  en  Keren  van  YrieS" 
land  (1753-56).  Among  his  paintings  are  the 
"Pharmacy"  (1714),  Amsterdam  Museum;  por- 
trait of  his  father  (1737),  Copenhagen  Gallery; 
and  the  "Fishmonger"  (1747),  Rotterdam  Mu- 
seum. 

MIEBOSLAWSKI,  myg'rd-slav'sk*,  Ludwik 
(1814-78).  A  Polish  revolutionary  leader,  born 
at  Nemours,  France.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Polish 
oflficer  in  the  service  of  France,  received  his  edu- 
cation at  the  military  school  in  Kalisz,  and 
joined  the  Polish  insurgents  in  1830.  Mieroslaw- 
ski  distinguished  himself  greatly,  and  was  made 
an  officer,  serving  until  the  fall  of  Warsaw, 
when  he  settled  in  Paris.  Here  he  published  a 
number  of  books  in  Polish  and  French,  particu- 
larly a  military  history  of  the  Revolution  in  Po- 
land. In  1846  he  was  at  the  head  of  another  rev- 
olutionary movement  in  Poland,  which  resulted 
in  his  being  captured  and  sentenced  to  death. 
From  this  fate  he  was  rescued  by  the  outbreak  of 


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HIEBOSLAWSEI. 


470 


MIGNABD. 


the  general  revolutionary  movement  of  1848. 
After  lighting  in  Posen,  Mieroslawski  resigned  his 
command  in  the  face  of  ultimate  defeat.  In  1849 
he  participated  in  the  revolutionary  movement  in 
Sicily,  and  after  resigning  his  command  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  revolutionary  army  in 
Baden,  but  eventually  retired  to  Paris.  His  last 
appearance  as  a  revolutionist  was  in  Poland  in 
1863,  and,  after  the  failure  of  that  attempt,  he 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  writing  political 
pamphlets.    He  died  in  Paris,  November  23, 1878. 

MLFPUN,  FoBT.    See  Fobt  Miftlin. 

MIFFUy,  Llotd    (1846—).     An  American 

g)et,  bom  in  Columbia,  Pa.  His  father  was  J. 
ouston  Mifflin,  a  portrait  painter  and  writer  of 
verse.  Some  of  his  highly  polished  sonnets  cele- 
brate the  beauties  of  his  birthplace.  These  son- 
nets have  gradually  won  their  author  recognition 
as  a  genuine  poet.  The  following  are  his  prin- 
cipal volumes  of  verse:  The  Hills  (1896)  ;  At  the 
Gates  of  Song  (1897)  ;  The  Slopes  of  Helicon, 
and  Other  Poems  (1898)  ;  Echoes  of  Greek  Idyls 
(1899) ;  paraphrases  in  sonnets  from  Bion,  Mos- 
chus,  and  Bacchylides;  and  The  Fields  of  Dawn 
and  Later  Sonnets  ( 1900) . 

KIFTLINy  Thomas  (1744-1800).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  statesman.  He  was  born  at 
Philadelphia,  of  Quaker  parentage.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Philadelphia  0)llege  in  1760,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature  in  1772  and 
1773,  and  in  1774  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress.  Entering  the  army  as  a 
major  in  1775,  he  became  Washington's  first 
aide-de-camp  with  the  rank  of  colonel ;  was  made 
auartermaster-general  in  August,  1775;  and 
finally  (February  19,  1777)  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  and  appointed  a  member 
of  the  Board  of  War.  During  the  retreat  from 
Long  Island,  he  commanded  the  covering  party, 
and  afterwards  rendered  valuable  service  by 
rousing  the  people  to  enlist,  bringing  essential 
aid  to  General  Washington  before  the  battles  of 
Trenton  and  Princeton.  Becoming  dissatisfied 
with  Washington's  management  of  the  war,  he 
intrigued  for  his  removal,  forming  with  Conway 
and  others  the  so-called  *Conway  Cabal*  (q.v.), 
on  the  failure  of  which  he  was  replaced  (March, 
1778)  by  Nathanael  Greene  as  quartermaster- 
general,  and  in  October,  1778,  was  removed  from 
the  Board  of  War.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
•  1782,  and  became  its  president  the  following 
year.  He  was  a  membier  and  Speaker  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Legislature  in  1785,  and  a 
delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  of 
1787.  From  1788  to  1790  he  was  president  of 
the  Executive  Council  of  Pennsylvania,  and  from 
1790  to  1799  was  Governor  of  the  State.  Con- 
sult Simpson,  Eminent  Philadelphians  (1859). 

MIITLIN,  Warkteb  (1745-98).  An  American 
reformer,  cousin  of  (jreneral  Mifflin.  He  was  bom 
of  Quaker  parentage  in  Accoraac  County,  Va. 
While  a  mere  boy,  he  became  impressed  with  the 
wrong  of  slavery,  and  about  1774  freed  all  his 
slaves  and  gave  them  compensation  for  past  serv- 
ices. From  that  time  forward  he  traveled  about 
frequently  to  the  various  meetings  of  his  sect, 
and  did  much  to  create  a  sentiment  against  slav- 
ery among  his  fellow  Quakers.  His  religious 
principles  led  him  to  oppose  the  Revolutionary 
War,  and  at  the  request  of  the  Yearly  Meeting  at 
Philadelphia  he  visited  both  Howe  and  Wash- 
ington in  order  to  point  out  the  wickedness  of  the 


stmggle.  Mifflin  is  perhaps  best  remembered  for 
having  in  November,  1792,  presented  to  Congress, 
a  memorial  against  slavery  which  resulted  in 
a  spirited  debate  over  the  question  of  the  right 
of  petition. 

MIG^DOL.  A  place  in  Egypt  mentioned  in 
Exodus  xiv.  2,  Ezekiel  xxix.  10  (Authorized  Ver- 
sion, margin),  Jeremiah  xliv.  1.  The  name  is 
identical  with  the  Hebrew  midgaal,  *tower,' 
'castle.'  As  an  appellation  it  occurs  in  Egyptian- 
inscriptions  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century 
B.C.  The  exact  location  of  the  Migdol  referred  to 
in  the  story  of  the  Exodus  is  imcertain,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  determine  whether  the  same  place 
is  meant  in  Ezekiel  and  Jeremiah.  A  MaJctal  is 
spoken  of  in  Papyrus  Anastasi  v.  20  as  the 
*  watch  tower  of  Seti,'  and  this  appears  to  have 
been  somewhat  south  of  Taku,  which  may  be  the 
Succoth  of  Exodus.  But  neither  of  these  places 
can  be  identified.  From  Ezekiel  xxix.  10  it  is 
evident  that  a  locality  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Egypt  is  intended,  as  it  is  contrasted  with  Syene 
in  the  extreme  south.  In  Jeremiah  xliv.  1  it 
is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Tahpanhes- 
(Daphnse)  and  Noph  (Memphis),  and  in  Jere- 
miah xlvL  9  as  a  place  inhabited  by  exiled  Jews. 

MIGNABB,  m^'nyftr^,  Nicolas  (1606-68). 
A  French  painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Troyes. 
He  went  to  Rome  in  the  suite  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Lyons,  and  there  engraved  a  number  of  the 
pictures  of  Annibale  Carracci.  Gn  his  return  to 
France  he  settled  at  Avignon  where  he  lived 
until  1660.  Thus  he  is  often  called  Mignard  of 
Avignon  to  distinguish  him  from  his  famous 
brother,  Mignard  the  lloman.'  Through  Car- 
dinal Mazarin,  the  painter  was  presented  to 
Louis  XIV.  and  painted  the  portrait  of  that 
King,  and  of  many  of  his  courtiers.  In  1663  he 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  of  Painting. 
He  decorated  the  lower  floor  of  the  Tuileries,  and 
also  made  two  religious  pictures  for  the  (Char- 
treuse of  Grenoble  and  a  few  etchings. 

MIGNABD,  tiEBRE  (1612-96).  A  French- 
portrait  and  hbtorical  painter,  a  brother  of 
Nicholas  Mignard.  He  was  born  at  Troyes, 
studied  under  Jean  Boucher  in  Bourges  and 
Simon  Vouet  in  Paris,  and  resided  for  twenty- 
two  years  in  Italy,  where  he  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  works  of  Annibale  Carracci. 
At  Rome  he  painted  the  portraits  of  Pope 
Alexander  VII.  and  many  of  the  Roman  no- 
bility, and  at  Venice  many  Venetian  nobles. 
In  1657  he  was  summoned  by  Louis  XIV.  to 
Paris,  where  he  painted  the  King's  portrait 
and  that  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  In  1664  ne  deco- 
rated the  cupola  of  the  Church  of  Val-de-Grftce,. 
Paris,  where  he  represented  a  colossal  Paradise 
with  two  hundred  figures,  some  of  which  are 
three  times  the  size  of  life.  This  is  the  most 
ambitious  fresco  decoration  in  France,  but  the 
color  has  suffered  much  from  time.  He  also 
painted  decorations  in  the  palace  of  Versailles. 
He  was  famous  in  Paris  as  the  leader  of  the  op- 
position against  Le  Brun  and  the  Academy,  but 
upon  the  latter's  death  in  1690  he  fell  heir  to  all 
his  positions.  He  was  made  director  of  the  Go- 
belins, and  was  elected  director  of  the  Academy. 
He  died  in  Paris.  May  30,  1695. 

Mignard  was  the  leading  French  portrait  paint- 
er of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  other  pictures 
are  rather  cold  and  conventional,  but  his  color- 
ing, derived  from  the  Venetians,  is  good.     The- 


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MIGNABD. 


471 


HIGNOT. 


I^ouvre  contains  a  number  of  his  works,  includ- 
ing the  portrait  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  "Saint 
■Cecilia,  and  *'Saint  Luke  Painting  the  Virgin." 
-Others  are  in  the  galleries  of  Versailles,  Madrid, 
^int  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Berlin,  London,  and 
Florence.  Consult  Lebrun-Dalbanne,  Etude  aur 
Fxerre  Mignard  (Paris,  1878). 

MIGNB,  m^ny^  Jacques  Paul  (1800-75). 
A  Roman  CJatholic  editor.  He  was  born  in  Saint 
Flour,  France,  October  25,  1800,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Orleans.  In  1824  he  became  a  priest 
and  performed  the  functions  of  his  office  till 
1833,  when  a  pamphlet  published  by  him,  entitled 
De  la  liherti,  par  un  pritre,  brought  upon  him 
the  censure  of  the  Bishop  of  Orleans,  who  for- 
bade its  publication.  Migne  went  to  Paris,  and 
the  same  year  established  Wnivers  Religieux 
(later  called  merely  L'Univera),  designed  to  har- 
monize the  Church  with  the  free  spirit  of  civil 
government.  Later  he  commenced  the  publi- 
cation of  a  collection  of  works  called  Coura  com- 
pleta  de  th4ologie  et  d*4criture  aainief  and  founded 
a  publishing  house  on  a  large  scale  called  L*tm- 
primerie  catholique,  designed  to  furnish  standard 
religious  works  at  a  low  price.  He  established 
the  daily  V&rit6,  which  in  1856  became  the 
Courrier  de  Paria,  The  Coura  completa  finally 
.grew  into  a  very  long  series  of  volumes  of  stand- 
ard authors  under  the  general  head  of  Bihlio- 
ihique  univeraelle  du  cUrg6  et  dea  laiquea  in' 
atruita.  The  parts  which  are  best  known  are 
Patrologia  Latina,  in  221  volumes  (Paris,  1844- 
64)  ;  Patrologia  Groeca  (Greek  and  Latin)  in 
165  volumes  (Paris,  1857-66);  and  Patrologia 
Orceca  (in  a  Latin  version), in  86  volumes ( Paris, 
1866-67).  They  are  reprints  of  the  famous 
Benedictine  editions  and  many  others,  and  bring 
together  very  conveniently  well  nigh  the  whole 
library  of  the  ecclesiastical  writers  to  Innocent 
III.  (d.  1216).  Migne  died  in  Paris,  October  26, 
1876. 

MIGNET^  md'ny&^,  FBANgois  Auguste  Mabu: 
(1796-1884).  A  French  historian.  He  was  bom 
May  8,  1796,  at  Aix,  in  Provence,  studied  law  in 
his  native  city  with  his  life-long  friend,  Adolphe 
Thiers,  and  in  1822  went  to  Paris  in  order  to 
devote  himself  to  a  literary  career.  He  found 
employment  in  writing  for  the  public  journals, 
and  after  giving  lectures  on  modern  history, 
which  were  received  with  great  approbation,  he 
wrote  his  Biatoire  de  la  r&colution  frangaiae 
(1824).  In  1830  Mignet  and  Thiers  in  conjunc- 
tion founded  the  liberal  journal  Le  Na- 
tional. After  the  Revolution  of  July  he  be- 
came a  Councilor  of  State,  and  Keeper  of 
the  Archives  of  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, but  he  lost  these  offices  in  1848.  In  1836 
he  was  received  into  the  French  Academy.  He 
edited  tJigociationa  relativea  d  la  aucceaaion 
d'Eapagne  aoua  Louia  XIV,  (1836-42).  Other  of 
his  works  are:  Noticea  et  mSmoirea  hiatoriquea 
(1843-1863,  1854)  ;  Vie  de  Franklin  (1848)  ;  Hia- 
ioire  de  Marie  8tuart  (1851);  Charlea  Quint, 
aon  ahdioatioriy  aon  a4jour  et  aa  mort  au  monaa- 
i^e  de  Tuate  (10th  ed.  1882);  Elogea  hiato- 
riquea (5th  ed.  1884)  ;  and  Rivaliti  de  Francoia 
I.  et  de  Charlea  V.  (1872-76)  ;  also  a  drama  en- 
titled Antonio  Perez  et  Philippe  IT.  (1845-46). 
Mignet  died  in  Paris,  March  24,  1884.  Consult: 
Trefort,  Mignet  und  aeine  Werke  (Budapest, 
1886)  ;  Simon,  Mignet,  Michelet,  Henri  Martin 
(Paris,  1889). 


MIGNON,  m^'nyON'  (Fr.,  darling).  (1)  An 
Italian  girl  in  love  with  Wilhelm,  in  Goethe's 
Wilhelm  Meiatera  Lehrjahre  (q.v.).  Her  love 
is  not  returned,  and  she  dies  broken-hearted. 
(2)  An  opera  founded  on  Wilhelm  Meiater,  with 
music  by  Ambroise  Thomas  and  libretto  by  Carr6 
and  Barbier.  (3)  A  derisive  name  applied  to 
the  effeminate  favorites  of  Henry  III.  of  France, 
and  to  the  King  himself. 

MIGNONy  Abraham  (c.1640-79).  A  German 
painter,  bom  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He 
studied  under  Jacob  Marrel,  who  took  him  to 
Haarlem,  where  he  became  the  pupil  of  Jan 
David  de  Heem,  the  celebrated  fruit  and  flower 
painter.  He  selected  subjects  similar  to  those 
his  master  painted,  but  never  equaled  him.  His 
composition  is  more  formal,  his  color  less  agree- 
able, and  there  is  too  much  detail,  although  his 
better  works  are  rich,  warm,  and  harmonious. 
Among  his  more  notable  works  are  a  study  of 
flowers,  fruit,  and  other  objects,  and  some  "Flow- 
ers in  a  Vase,"  in  the  Amsterdam  Museum.  The 
Van  der  Hoop  Collection  in  Amsterdam  also  has 
a  dish  with  fruit,  oysters,  and  bread,  that  is 
more  broadly  painted  than  is  usual  with  him. 
Of  his  six  pictures  in  the  Louvre,  two  are  very 
fine— a  "Bouquet  of  Wild  Flowers,"  and  "Flow- 
ers and  Fruit."  He  is  also  well  represented  by 
similar  pieces  in  Dresden,  Munich,  Brussels,  The 
Hague,  Vienna,  and  other  European  galleries. 

MIGNONETTE^  mln'ytin-6t'  (Fr.  mignonette, 
diminutive  of  OF.,  Fr.  mignon,  favorite,  dainty, 
from  OHG.  minna,  Ger.  Minne,  love,  Icel.  minna, 
recollection;  connected  with  Goth  gamunan,  AS. 
munan,  Icel.  muna,  to  be  mindful,  Lat.  mena,  Gk. 
/uiwf,  menoa,  mind,  Skt.  man,  to  think),  Reaeda 
odorata.  An  annual  or  perennial  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Resedaoese,  a  native  of  the  north 
of  Africa,  widely  cultivated  in  gardens  during 
summer  and  in  greenhouses  and  windows  dur- 
ing winter  for  its  fragrant  flowers.  It  has  lan- 
ceolate entire  or  trifid  leaves,  and  erect  terminal 
racemes  of  small  yellowish-white  flowers,  which 
have  a  six- parted  calyx  as  long  as  the  corolla, 
and  three-toothed  capsules.  What  is  called  tree 
mignonette  is  not  even  a  distinct  variety,  but 
merely  the  common  kind  trained  in  an  erect  form, 
and  prevented  from  early  flowering  by  pinching 
off  the  ends  of  the  shoots.  White  or  upright 
mignonette  {Reaeda  alha),  a  native  of  Southern 
Europe,  another  very  popular  species,  which 
grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high  and  bears  its 
white  flowers  with  brownish  anthers  in  dense 
erect  spikes,  makes  a  fine  border  plant  and  grows 
well  on  ordinary  garden  soils.  The  seeds  are 
sown  in  the  open  in  April  or  May  and  later  on 
the  plants  are  thinned  to  a  foot  or  18  inches 
apart.  Dyer's  weed,  or  weld  (Reseda  Luteola), 
is  a  tall  species  with  long  spikes  of  yellowish 
flowers.  All  species  are  generally  propagated 
from  seeds,  but  cuttings  are  sometimes  used. 

MIGNOT,  m^n-yd',  Louis  RfiMY  (1831-70). 
An  American  landscape  painter,  born  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.  He  studied  under  Schelfhout  at  The 
Hague,  and  was  elected  a  National  Academician- 
in  1859,  but  during  the  Civil  War  and  afterwards 
he  lived  in  London,  and  traveled  much  abroad. 
His  landscapes  treat  a  variety  of  subjects,  and 
are  painted  with  considerable  skill.  They  in- 
clude: "Lagoon  of  Guayaquil,  South  America" 
(1863);    "Evening    in    the    Tropics"     (1865); 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIQHOT. 


472 


MIQBATIOH. 


"Snow  in  Hyde  Park;"  "Sunset  oflf  Hastings" 
(1870);  and  "Mount  Chimborazo"  (1871). 

MIQBAINE,  ml-grfin'  (OF.,  Fr.  migraine, 
from  Lat.  hemicranion,  from  Gk.  ijiuKpavia,  h^mi- 
krwnia,  pain  in  one  side  of  the  head,  from  ifu-^ 
h^mi-,  half  +  Kpaviov,  kranion,  head),  Meobim, 
Hemicbania,  Sick  Headache.  A  paroxysmal  af- 
fection characterized  by  severe  headache,  usually 
one-sided  and  often  associated  with  disorders  of 
vision.  It  is  sometimes  hereditary.  Women  are 
tlie  chief  sufferers.  Migraine  is  often  associated 
with  gout,  rheumatism,  decayed  teeth,  eye  strain, 
and  uterine  disorders.  It  is  often  due  to  reflex 
causes,  such  as  powerful  emotions,  mental  and 
bodily  fatigue,  disorders  of  digestion,  and  the 
like.  There  are  often  premonitory  signs  of  an 
attack.  There  may  be  spasms  of  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  on  the  affected  side;  or  the  sight  may  be 
blurred  or  there  seem  to  be  balls  of  light  or  zig- 
zag lines,  or  gorgeous  colors.  The  tongue,  face, 
and  hand  may  experience  numbness  or  tingling. 
There  is  sometimes  dizziness.  The  headache  is 
generally  located  on  the  temple,  or  in  the  fore- 
head or  in  the  eyeball;  it  is  penetrating,  sharp, 
and  boring  in  character.  It  spreads  gradually 
over  the  side  of  the  head,  sometimes  extending  to 
the  neck  and  even  to  the  arm.  The  face  may 
then  be  pale  and  there  may  be  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  the  two  sides.  Nausea  or  vomiting 
appears  very  early  in  the  attack.  Few  affections 
are  more  prostrating  than  migraine.  The  attack 
endures  for  a  variable  time ;  the  sufferer  is  usual- 
ly incapacitated  for  about  three  days.  Those 
subject  to  migraine  should  avoid  excitement; 
there  should  be  regular  meals  and  the  diet  should 
be  moderate.  Hydrotherapy  and  out-of-door  life 
are  important  adjuvants.  The  physician  will 
direct  the  treatment  toward  the  removal  of  the 
conditions  upon  which  the  attacks  depend.  The 
eyes  should  be  examined  for  possible  errors  of 
refraction  or  heterophoria,  either  of  which  may  be 
the  underlying  cause  of  migraine.  Among  drugs 
the  bromides,  iron,  arsenic,  nitroglycerin,  can- 
nabis indica,  quinine,  chloroform,  antipyrine, 
caffein,  nux  vomica,  and  ergot  may  be  employed 
according  to  the  cause  which  produces  the  mi- 
graine. None  of  these  drugs  should  be  used 
except  upon  a  physician's  advice.  Dangerous 
symptoms  of  collapse  have  been  known  to  follow 
the  use  of  phenacetin.  Electricity  has  been  found 
helpful.  During  the  paroxysm  the  sufferer  should 
remain  quiet  in  bed  in  a  dark  room.  See  Head- 
ache. 

MIQBATION  (Lat.  migraiio,  from  migrarej 
to  migrate).  The  movement  of  peoples,  with 
all  their  household,  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, usually,  though  not  necessarily,  for  the 
purpose  of  settlement.  General  movements  of 
population  were  no  doubt  common  in  prehistoric 
times,  and  in  the  historic  period  there  have  been 
several  notable  migrations  that  have  largely  af- 
fected the  history  of  civilization.'  Students  of 
African  ethnology'  have  traced  migrations  among 
the  negro  tribes  of  that  continent  that  are  of 
importance  to  the  ethnographer;  and  a  more 
complete  knowledge  of  the  ethnology'  and  pre- 
historic archflpology  of  America  will  probably 
make  it  possible  to  trace  such  migrations  among 
the  American  tribes,  and  perhaps  will  throw 
some  light  upon  their  origin.  But  the  histor- 
ically important  migrations  are  those  that  have 
taken  place  in  the  Eurasian  continent. 


The  Abtans.  The  accepted  hypothesis  until 
very  recently  has  been  that  the  so-called  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  family — embracing  the  Celts, 
Teutons,  Greeks,  Latins,  Slavs,  Letts,  and  Indo- 
Iranians— originated  in  the  Pamir  region  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  whence  the  last-named  group  moved 
into  India  and  the  Iranian  Plateau,  while  the 
remaining  groups  migrated  westward  into  Eu- 
rope, the  Celts  leading  the  way  and  advancing  to 
the  western  confines  of  the  continent,  the  Teu- 
tons settling  about  the  Baltic,  the  Greeks  and 
Latins  finding  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Letts  to  the  Baltic  Provinces  and  Lithuania, 
and  the  Slavs  making  their  home  in  the  great 
region  of  steppes  and  rivers  southeast  of  the 
Letts.  Later  investigation  of  the  remains  of 
primitive  man  in  Europe,  together  with  a  close 
comparative  study  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  has 
cast  grave  doubt  upon  this  theory,  and  made  it 
seem  altogether  possible  that  there  never  was  an 
undivided  Aryan  family,  and  that  the  European 
Aryan  groups  originated  very  near  their  present 
habitats;  that  perhaps  the  Baltic  was  the  origi- 
nal centre  of  diffusion  of  European  races,  and 
that  the  Graeco-Latins  migrated  southward  to  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Indo-Iranians  southeast 
into  Asia.  Another  hypothesis  locates  the  origi- 
nal Aryan  home  in  the  steppes  of  Southeastern 
Europe,  whence  it  is  supposed  that  at  a  very 
early  period  the  Indo-Iranians  moved  southeast- 
ward and  the  European  groups  northwest  and 
southwestward.  See  Aryans;  Indo-Germanio 
Languages. 

The  Germans  and  Huns.  The  migrations  of 
the  Teutonic  or  Germanic  tribes,  during  the 
years  of  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire,  had  a  pro- 
found influence  upon  the  social  and  political  de- 
velopment of  Europe,  and  are  known  preeminent- 
ly as  *the  migrations*  ( V5lkerwanderung ) .  The 
Germans,  in  the  centuries  following  the  period 
when  Tacitus  gave  his  lucid  and  generally  cor- 
rect account  of  them  in  the  Oermania^  were  en- 
gaged in  intertribal  strife,  which  resulted  in  the 
loss  of  identity  of  several  of  the  weaker  tribes, 
the  remnants  of  which  were  merged  in  the  new 
confederacies — Goths,  Vandals,  Alemanni,  Franks 
(qq.v.),  and  Burgundians.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury A.D.  the  Goths  were  spread  over  the 
country  north  of  the  Danube.  There  came  upon 
them  from  Asia  a  great  migratory  wave  of  the 
nomadic  Huns  (q.v.),  an  aggregation  of  Turko- 
Tatar  tribes,  whose  ancestors  had  held  the 
Chinese  Empire  in  temporary  subjection.  The 
Goths  were  unable  to  resist  this  inroad  of  over- 
whelming numbers,  and  a  part  of  them,  the  Visi- 
goths, who  were  nearest  the  Danube,  threw  them- 
selves on  the  mercy  of  the  Emperor  Valens  and 
crossed  the  river  in  376.  Soon  after,  ownng  to 
ill-treatment  at  the  hands  of  Roman  officials,  thev 
revolted  against  the  Empire,  defeated  the  Roman 
army  in  a  battle  under  the  walls  of  Adrianople 
(A.D.  378),  in  which  Valens  was  killed,  and  then 
moved  westward  under  their  King,  Alaric  (q.v.), 
into  the  valley  of  the  Po.  The  forces  of  the 
Western  Empire  under  the  Vandal  Stilicho 
checked  their  progress  temporarily  and  drove 
them  back  into  Pannonia;  but  after  the  murder 
of  Stilicho  in  408  they  returned  to  Italy  and  cap- 
tured Rome  (410),  soon  after  which  Alaric  died. 
His  followers,  at  first  in  the  service  of  the  Em- 
pire, afterwards  on  their  own  account,  went  into 
Southern  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  there  founded  the 
Visigothic   kingdom,   the   Gallic   part   of  which 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIQBATIOH. 


478 


MIGBATIOH. 


continued  until  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks 
(607-10).  The  part  south  of  the  Pyrenees  was 
conquered  in  the  great  Mohammedan  invasion  of 
711.  The  Vandals  left  their  homes,  which  lay 
between  the  Goths  and  the  Baltic,  and  moved 
southeast  and  then  westward  to  Pannonia,  where 
they  were  when  the  battle  of  Adrianople  showed 
conclusively  the  weakness  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
After  a  restless  period  of  several  years  Ihey  were 
again  in  motion  in  406,  united  with  the  Suevi  and 
Alani.  They  swept  forward  through  the  north  of 
Gaul  and  southward  into  Spain,  where  they  pre- 
ceded the  Visigoths,  who  appeared  in  the  Penin- 
sula and  overthrew  them  in  the  name  of  Rome. 
In  429  they  crossed  the  straits,  conquered  the 
North  African  provinces,  set  up  a  Vandal  king- 
dom, and  entered  upon  a  career  of  piracy  on  the 
Mediterranean.  In  455  they  raided  and  sacked 
Rome.  The  Vandal  kingdom  was  overthrown  in 
534  by  the  armies  of  the  Emperor  Justinian 
(q.v.).  The  Burgundians,  living  on  the  Vistula 
near  the  Goths  and  the  Vandals,  migrated  south- 
ward to  the  Rhine  frontier  of  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century,  received 
some  land  from  the  Emperor  Honorlus,  and 
spread  over  the  Rhone  and  Sftone  valleys  soon 
after  the  founding  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom. 
The  Burgundian  kingdom  there  established  was 
conquered  by  the  Franks  in  534. 

The  Ostrogoths,  who  had  as  a  whole  been  sub- 
dued by  the  Huns  when  their  cousins  the  Visi- 
goths escaped  across  the  Danube,  settled  in  Pan- 
nonia  about  453.  In  470  Theodoric,  the  ablest 
of  all  the  barbarian  chieftains  of  the  period  of 
the  migrations,  became  King  of  the  Ostrogoths. 
He  offered  the  services  of  his  people  to  put  down 
the  independent  kingdom  which  had  been  set  up 
in  Italy,  in  defiance  of  the  Empire,  by  Odoacer,  a 
German  adventurer.  With  the  expectation  of 
conquering  for  themselves  new  and  pleasanter 
homes  in  Italy,  the  Ostrogothic  people  set  out 
with  all  their  impedimenta.  The  forces  of 
Odoacer  were  successfully  encountered  in  Lom- 
bardy  and  he  was  driven  back  into  his  capital, 
Ravenna,  where  he  endured  a  long  siege.  The 
city  was  finally  taken  and  the  defeated  King 
was  treacherously  killed.  Theodoric  then  set  up 
a  kingdom,  acknowledging  nominal  subjection  to 
the  Emperor,  but  in  reality  acting  as  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign.  He  developed  the  most  equit- 
able and  enlightened  government  then  existing  in 
the  Roman  world;  but  his  own  strong  head  and 
hand  were  necessary  to  maintain  it,  and  after 
his  death  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  in  Italy  grad- 
ually lost  its  power,  and  was  finally  overthro\vn 
under  Justinian  in  553,  when  Narses  (q.v.)  com- 
pleted the  reconquest  of  Italy  for  the  Eastern 
Empire.  The  Ostrogothic  occupation  left  a  per- 
manent influence  upon  the  laws,  customs,  and 
language  of  Italy,  although  these  remained  at 
bottom  thoroughly  Italian,  the  (jcrman  leaven 
being  a  comparatively  small  one. 

There  was  one  more  German  migration  into 
Italy,  that  of  the  Lombards,  who  entered  the 
country  from  Pannonia,  in  567.  They  settled  in 
the  valley  of  the  Po,  in  the  region  which  has  been 
named  for  them,  Lombardy.  Their  rule  extended 
at  one  time  throughout  the  Peninsula,  except 
over  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna  (q.v.)  and  Rome. 
Their  influence  upon  Italian  life  was  lasting  be- 
cause, although  their  kingdom  was  overthrown 
as  a  political  power  by  Pepin  and  Charles  the 
Great,  they  remained  in  their  Italian  home,  a 


permanent  factor  in  the  population.    See  Italy; 

LOMBABDS. 

These  were  all  true  migrations,  not  simply 
military  invasions,  the  whole  people  in  each  case 
moving  over  the  country  with  all  their  goods,  and 
transferring  their  abodes.  Each  one  of  these 
Germanic  kingdoms  left  a  permanent  impression 
upon  the  life  and  institutions  of  the  country  in 
'^'hich  it  was  established,  although  as  a  formal 
political  institution  each  gave  way  to  others. 
With  the  Huns,  whose  movement  westward  had 
set  the  Visigoths  in  motion,  it  was  different. 
They  had  no  affinities  with  the  Aryan  groups  and 
were  regarded  with  horror  and  detestation  by  all 
of  the  European  peoples  alike.  They  were  not 
home-seekers,  but  natural  nomads,  who  lived  by 
fighting  and  by  plunder.  They  threatened  the 
Danube  frontier  of  the  Empire  for  many  years, 
and  in  449  their  King,  Attila  (q.v.),  led  his  own 
tribes,  with  a  miscellaneous  contingent  of  (Ger- 
man adventurers,  across  to  Northern  Gaul,  where 
a  heavy  blow  was  aimed  at  the  weakened  rem- 
nant of  Roman  power.  The  invasion  was  checked 
by  a  union  of  Visigothic  and  Imperial  forces  un- 
der A6tius  and  Theodoric  (qq.v.)  in  a  great  bat- 
tle near  Chftlons-sur-Mame  (451).  Attila  never 
founded  a  State  that  was  more  than  an  armed 
camp,  and  his  power  went  to  pieces  at  his  death, 
in  455.  From  that  time  the  Huns  disappeared  as 
an  organized  power,  leaving  no  influence  behind, 
as  did  the  abler  and  more  stable  Germans. 

The  conquest  of  Gaul  by  the  Franks  (q.v.) 
beginning  in  486  differed  from  the  other  German 
folk-wanderings  in  that  it  was  effected  primarily 
by  true  military  campaigns  from  a  strategic  base. 
The  Franks  had  their  original  homes  along  the 
Gallic  border,  and  they  made  a  regular  military 
invasion  of  Gaul,  effecting  a  thorough  conquest 
before  making  a  settlement  in  the  country.  This 
gave  the  Frankish  kingdom  a  more  lasting  foun- 
dation than  those  which  were  established  by  the 
migration  of  comparatively  small  bodies  into  the 
midst  of  alien  populations,  with  a  higher  degree 
of  civilization.  There  remains  but  to  mention  the 
migrations  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  living  on  the 
North  Sea  coast  about  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe 
and  the  Weser,  and  northward,  whose  pirate 
forces  in  the  fijfth  and  sixth  centuries  invaded 
Britain  and  made  the  beginning  of  England. 
See  Angles  ;  Anglo-Saxons  ;  Jutes. 

Slavs;  Avars;  Bulgars;  Magyars.  The  mi- 
gration of  the  Germans  was  followed  by  a  great 
movement  of  Slavic  peoples  westward  and  south- 
ward from  the  plains  of  what  is  now  Russia.  At 
the  same  time  the  non-Aryan  Avars  and  Bulgars 
pressed  into  the  regions  of  the  middle  and  lower 
Danube.  At  the  close  of  the  ninth  century  oc- 
curred the  migration  of  the  Magyars  into  what 
is  now  Hungary. 

Asiatic  Tribes.  The  nomadic  habits  of  the 
interior  tribes  of  Asia  of  the  Mongol-Tatar  stock 
have  made  great  migratory  movements  of  these 
warlike  peoples  numerous,  likely  to  occur,  in 
fact,  whenever  a  leader  of  large  capacity  and  am- 
bition has  arisen  among  them.  It  is  diflicult  to 
classify  many  of  these  movements  as  migrations 
or  as  military  invasions,  since  they  partake  so 
much  of  both  characters.  Most  notable  of  these 
was  the  great  Mongolian  movement  set  on  foot 
by  Genghis  Khan  (q.v.),  which  established  Mon- 
gol dynasties  in  CJhina  and  Persia,  threatened 
even  Central  Europe,  and  placed  Russia  under 
the  Tatar  yoke  for  several  centuries.     In  these 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIQBATION. 


474 


MIGBATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


oases  the  tribes  transferred  themselves  to  the 
conquered  countries  to  a  considerable  extent  and 
maintained  a  restless  life  until  their  unstable 
military  States  were  broken  up  by  new  conquerors 
or  by  their  own  dissensions  and  lack  of  capable 
leadership.  See  Mongol  Dynasties;  Temub; 
TuBKEY,  section  Ethnology. 

For  the  eflfect  of  the  Germanic  migrations 
on  the  history  of  Ehiropean  civilization,  see  Eu- 
BOPE,  section  on  History.  For  bibliography,  see 
the  articles  on  the  various  barbarian  nations,  as 
Franks,  Goths,  etc. 

MIGRATION,  Waqneb's  Law  of.  In  evolu- 
tion, one  of  the  main  agencies  leading  to  the 
isolation  of  animals,  and  consequently  to  the  for- 
mation of  local  races,  varieties,  and  species.  This 
was  first  pointed  out  by  Moritz  Wagner  in  1868. 
He  stated  his  views  in  three  general  propositions : 

(1)  The  greater  the  change  in  the  conditions  to 
which  individuals  are  subjected  on  emigrating  to 
another  territory,  the  more  intense  must  be  the 
inherent  individual  variability  of  each  organism; 

(2)  the  less  the  even  tenor  of  this  increased  in- 
dividual variability  of  organisms  is  interrupted 
by  frequent  crosses  with  emigrants  of  the  old 
stock,  the  more  frequently  will  nature  be  success- 
ful in  forming  a  new  variety  or  incipient  species 
by  the  accumulation  and  inheritance  of  fresh  char- 
acteristics; (3)  the  more  advantageous  to  the 
variety  the  change  in  each  single  organ,  the  bet- 
ter it  will  be  able  to  adapt  itself  to  surrounding 
circumstances ;  and  the  longer  the  selection  of  an 
incipient  variety  of  colonists  remains  undis- 
turbed by  the  old  stock,  the  more  frequently  will 
a  new  species  arise  out  of  the  variety.  These 
laws  are  fully  illustrated  by  Wagner  in  his 
works,  and  by  later  observers.  Wagner  claimed 
that  evolution  by  natural  selection  is  impossible, 
unless  it  be  assisted  by  geographical  isolation,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  swamping  effects  of  inter- 
crossing. The  numerous  facts  observed  by  Wag- 
ner and  others  show  that  some  of  the  barriers 
isolating  incipient  species  are  broad  rapid  rivers, 
oceans,  and  mountains.  He  speaks  of  the  ex- 
traordinary phenomena  of  so  many  species  of 
plants  and  animals  peculiar  to  the  volcanoes  and 
isolated  mountains  of  Quito.  "Without  the  dis- 
tribution of  organisms  by  migration  in  connection 
with  local  selection  it  would  be  inexplicable. 
The  gigantic  isolated  mountains  of  this  highland 
act  a  similar  part  in  the  formation  of  varieties 
and  species  as  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  for 
instance,  of  the  Galapagos."  Wagner  also  claimed 
that  adaptation  to  changed  conditions  of  life  and 
transformation  appear  to  be  tantamount  to  a 
renovation.  Species,  he  said,  which  did  not  mi- 
grate, and  consequently  did  not  alter  in  form, 
became  extinct.  Consult  Wagner,  The  Dartcin- 
ian  Theory  and  the  Law  of  the  Migration  of  Organ- 
isms (Munich,  1868;  trans,  by  Laird,  London, 
1873). 

MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS.  The  word  mi- 
gration is  used  in  two  senses:  either  to  refer  to 
those  periodical  changes  of  location  such  as  are 
made  by  many  species  of  birds  and  fishes,  by  some 
mammals,  and  by  a  few  insects:  or  to  those 
irregular  dispersions  caused  by  overcrowding  and 
lack  of  food  or  water. 

Mammals.  Among  mammals  migrations  in 
the  first  sense  are  mainly  confined  to  certain 
Cetncea.  which  regularly  move  from  and  to  the 
polar  seas,  with  the  alternating  seasons.    Regular 


seasonal  movements,  truly  migratory  but  short, 
are  practiced  by  many  land  animals,  especially 
the  herbivores.  All  deer,  goats,  sheep,  antelopes, 
and  the  like,  which  dwell  in  mountainous  regions, 
regularly  ascend  the  heights  in  early  summer  to 
get  the  new  grass^  find  safer  solitudes,  escape 
the  lowland  flies,  and  otherwise  better  themselves. 
In  the  fall  they  come  down  as  the  snow  and  cold 
increase  upon  the  heights,  and  seek  the  valleys 
or  the  neighboring  plains.  The  American  bison 
formerly  was  wont  to  retreat  from  the  moun- 
tains to  the  plains  during  severe  winters,  while 
those  on  the  northerly  plains  tended  to  move 
south.  Before  the  time  of  railroads  the  great 
body  of  the  pronghoms  of  the  plains  us^  to 
migrate  from  the  northern  area  of  their  range  to 
the  milder  regions  south  of  the  Platte  River, 
and  returned  north  in  the  spring.  Still  more 
striking  is  the  regular  and  prolonged  annual 
migration  of  the  caribou  from  the  Arctic  shores 
of  America  to  the  southerly  interior,  especially 
in  the  region  north  and  east  of  Hudson  Bay ;  they 
cannot  live  so  far  north  during  the  winter,  but 
go  back  as  soon  as  the  snow  melts  in  spring.  In 
all  these  cases  there  is  an  accompanying  migra- 
tion of  certain  large  predaceous  animals,  such  as 
wolves,  which  depend  upon  the  grazers  for  food. 
Similar  facts  may  be  cited  from  the  plain  re- 
gions of  Asia,  Australia,  Patagonia,  the  Sahara, 
and  South  Africa,  where  seasonal  changes,  either 
of  cold  or  drought  or  the  parching  of  pasturage, 
compel  annual  migrations  to  and  from  other 
regions  not  far  distant.  It  will  be  seen  that 
these  movements  are  under  compulsion  of  the 
lack  of  food  (or  frequently  in  desert  regions  of 
water),  and  are  contmued  only  when  and  so  far 
as  is  necessary.  Mammals  are  too  slow  and 
hampered  in  their  movements  on  land  to  make 
long,  rapid  journeys,  such  as  a  bird  or  fish  is 
able  to  accomplish  through  the  unobstructed 
air  or  water;  and  most  mammals  either  can 
find  food  all  the  year  round,  or  have  acquired 
the  power,  by  storage  of  provisions  or  by  sinking 
into  dormancy,  of  tiding  over  the  seasons  of 
scarcity. 

Overflows  of  ^Iammalian  Life.  Mammals, 
including  man,  take  part  in  certain  much  more 
rare  but  more  universal  and  permanent  removals. 
The  most  conspicuous  instance  is  afforded  by  the 
lemmings  of  Central  Norway  and  Sweden,  which 
at  uncertain  intervals  come  down  in  vast  hordes 
into  the  lowlands,  as  is  fully  described  under 
Lemming.  They  travel  by  night,  feed  and  mul- 
tiply excessively,  and  in  from  one  to  three  years 
the  few  which  escape  the  hordes  of  enemies 
following  them  reach  the  Atlantic  or  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia.  It  is  believed  that  these  sudden 
incursions  are  the  dispersal  of  an  overpopula- 
tion in  the  ordinary  habitat  of  the  species,  due 
to  a  combination  of  favoring  circumstances  caus- 
ing an  increase  of  a  naturally  fecund  race  until 
the  country  cannot  longer  support  the  numbers. 
The  animals  are  started  abroad  by  famine,  and 
continue  the  flight  in  aimless  restlessness  until 
an  equilibrium  is  restored.  The  same  thing  hap- 
pens occasionally  with  various  other  small 
rodents.  Tlagues'  of  niice  have  broken  out  fre- 
quently in  the  grain-growing  regions  of  Southern 
Russia  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  I-nited  States,  until  hunting 
kept  down  the  stock,  there  used  to  be  irregular 
but  prodigious  movements  of  squirrels  (normally 
extremely  numerous  there) ,  which  would  appear 


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laGBATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


475 


laGBATION  OF  ANIMALS. 


in  droves  over  a  wide  range  of  country,  all  travel- 
ing steadily  in  one  direction,  until  they  gradually 
vanished.  The  writing[8  of  Audubon,  Godman, 
and  other  early  naturalists  contain  many  records 
of  these  movements,  which  did  not  cease  until 
about  1840.  The  theoretic  and  historic  incur* 
sions  of  human  hosts  from  Asia  into  Europe,  the 
spread  of  the  Bantu  races  which  overran  Africa, 
and  similar  'waves'  or  ^migrations'  of  conquering 
men,  fall  into  the  same  category,  but  their 
superior  adaptability  has  enabled  them,  or  some 
of  them,  to  remain  and  possess  the  land. 

Insects.  The  insects  afford  many  cases  of 
mass  movements,  similar  to  those  of  mammals, 
and  also  a  rare  approach  to  true  migrations.  The 
swarms  of  'grasshoppers/  or  locusts,  which  oc- 
caaionally  visit  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  are 
among  one  of  the  most  familiar  phenomena  of 
those  regions;  and  they  are  accompanied  by  a 
rapacious  following  of  birds  and  mammals  feed- 
ing upon  the  traveling  hosts  of  insects,  which 
disperse,  dwindle,  and  finally  disappear.  In  the 
United  States  the  most  disastrous  incursions  of 
these  insects  have  been  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains eastward.  They  are  of  irregular  occur- 
rence and  the  returning  swarm  the  succeeding 
year  is  composed  only  of  the  descendants  of  the 
original  emigrants — a  fact  which  contains  a  hint 
as  to  the  possible  origin  of  the  true  migratory 
habit  in  others.  Irregular  movements,  without, 
so  far  as  we  know,  any  attempc  to  return  to  the 
original  home,  are  illustrated  by  the  army-worm, 
chinch-bug  (qq.v.),  and  cotton-worm  (see  Cot- 
ton-Insects). These  migrations  are  due  to  over- 
crowding and  lack  of  food.  There  are  still  slower 
migrations  among  insects,  which  may  be  termed 
'spreading.'  Thus  the  Colorado  potato  beetle,  a 
native  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau,  spread 
eastward,  when  suitable  food  was  offered  it  by 
the  cultivation  of  potatoes,  until  it  now  occurs 
all  over  the  potato  region  of  Eastern  North 
America,  and,  like  the  brown  rat,  it  permanently 
occupies  all  the  new  territory  it  enters.  A  few 
insects  (butterflies)  are  known  to  migrate  in  the 
sense  that  fish  and  birds  do. 

Reptiles  and  Fishes.  Such  phenomena  are 
entirely  unknown  among  reptiles,  for  obvious 
reasons,  with  the  possible  exception  of  sea-going 
turtles,  which  may  withdraw  into  deeper  water 
or  more  southerly  latitudes  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  Many  fishes  perform  long  and  com- 
plex wanderings,  but  how  they  are  guided  in 
some  cases  across  and  up  and  down  the  ocean 
will  be  a  very  difficult  problem  to  solve.  Salmon 
and  other  anadromes  come  from  the  sea  each 
spring,  and  ascend  hundreds  of  miles  up  rivers 
so  as  to  spawn  in  places  suited  to  the  needs  of 
the  young.  The  fish  so  bred  return  to  spawn 
in  the  water  of  their  birth,  as  has  been  demon- 
strated by  marking  smelt  that  have  been  trans- 
planted and  hatched  in  rivers  previously  un- 
occupied by  them;  the  marked  smelt  returned 
from  the  sea  to  spawn  in  the  river  of  their 
adoption.  Experiments  upon  herring  alonj^  the 
Massachusetts  coast  confirm  this  conclusion.  Soa 
fishes  generally  retire  to  comparatively  deep 
water,  and  probably  many  species  go  southward 
in  winter,  while  in  summer  they  spread  north- 
ward and  approach  the  shores,  river-mouths,  or 
other  spawning  places.  These  migrations  are  in- 
duced by  reproductive  desires  and  necessities, 
and  the  slight  variation  in  the  time  of  the  com- 
ing of  each  species,  which  fishermen  expect  with 
Vol.  Xril.-^L 


fair  regularity,  seems  due  to  variations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  water.  It  is  probable  that 
even  these  ocean  wanderers  return  to  the  same 
part  of  the  coast  where  they  were  bred,  and  that 
in  some  cases,  as  of  the  Atlantic  salmon,  exag- 
gerated notions  have  prevailed  as  to  the  distance 
to  which  they  go  in  winter.    See  Salmon. 

The  ^liGRATioN  OF  Birds.  More  conspicuous 
and  interesting,  and  quite  as  difficult  to  explain, 
are  the  migrations  of  the  birds,  which  have  been 
the  theme  of  poetry,  homily,  and  fable,  as  well 
as  a  baffling  subject  of  inquiry,  ever  since  men 
began  to  notice  the  ways  of  animals. 

Most  persons  have  a  vague  idea  that  the 
habit  of  yearly  migration  among  birds  is  imi- 
form  and  universal;  but  this  is  not  so.  Most 
birds  do  not  migrate  at  all^  and  among  those 
that  do  great  diversity  exists,  so  great  that  the 
custom  seems  almost  an  individual  rather  than 
a  racial  one.  The  whole  body  of  ratite  birds — 
ostriches,  rheas,  cassowaries,  and  the  like — are 
non-migratory.  The  fish-eating  sea-fowl  make  no 
more  of  an  annual  migration  than  is  necessary 
to  escape  from  the  ice  and  darkness  of  their 
most  polar  haunts  to  where  there  may  be  open 
sea.  These  are  wanderers  rather  than  migrants. 
Gulls  and  terns,  geese,  ducks,  and  the  wading 
marsh  and  beach  oirds  are  in  the  main  migra- 
tory, and  include  some  of  the  most  reniarkable 
examples.  Of  the  game-birds  fewer  are  real 
migrants,  but  here  again  a  few  notable  exceptions 
exist,  of  which  one  of  the  most  familiar  is  that 
of  the  common  European  quail,  which  has 
been  taken  so  numerously  for  centuries  on 
both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean^  and  whose 
migratory  flocks  still  feed  travelers  wandering 
in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai.  The  pigeon  tribe  is 
sedentary  as  a  rule,  also,  yet  one  of  its  species — 
the  passenger  pigeon  of  North  America — has  be- 
come the  very  type  and  exemplar  of  a  migratory 
bird.  Many,  but  not  all,  birds  .of  prey  regularly 
migrate,  but  it  is  a  question  whether  they  do 
not,  in  most  cases,  accompany  the  movements 
of  the  smaller  birds  rather  than  travel  of  their 
own  impulse.  Parrots  are  almost  wholly  non- 
migratory.  It  is  not,  then,  until  we  have  passed 
twenty-one  of  the  twenty-three  classified  orders 
of  birds  (with  the  exceptions  above  noted)  that 
we  come  to  those  groups — the  picarian  and  pas- 
serine birds — in  which  the  custom  of  seasonal 
migration  is  a  prominent  characteristic.  These 
are,  to  be  sure^  the  most  numerous  as  well  as 
the  most  highly  organized  orders;  yet  a  large 
number  even  here  do  not  migrate  at  all  from  tem- 
perate regions,  but  form  a  ^resident'  or  'partially 
migrant'  population  in  all  moderate  latitudes, 
where  they  remain  all  the  year  round.  On  the 
whole,  the  large  majority  of  the  total  list  of  the 
birds  of  the  world  are  non-migratory  to  any  con- 
siderable degree. 

When  we  examine  the  minority  which  does  an- 
nually alternate  between  southerly  winter  and 
noi  therly  summer  residences,  many  curious  facts 
ai..  discernible.  First,  it  is  noticeable  that  all 
migratory  birds  belong  to  the  colder  latitudes  of 
the  globe;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  those 
groups  which  are  wholly  non-migratory  represent 
the  primitive  types — birds  whose  ancestry  goes 
back  to  times  when  a  comparatively  warm  cli- 
mate prevailed  over  the  now  unbearably  cold  and 
sterile  polar  regions.  In  general,  two-thirds  of 
the  birds  of  the  middle  temperate  zones,  both 


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MIGBATIOH  OF  ANIMALS.  476 

north  and  south,  are  migrants,  and  the  total  is  a 
very  small  part  of  the  entire  avifauna  of  the 
world.  Taking  up  the  character  of  the  migratory 
birds  as  a  class,  it  appears,  first,  that  they  are 
such  as  either  subsist  wholly  or  mainly  on  soft- 
bodied  insects,  larvs,  worms,  and  the  like,  or  give 
their  young  such  fare ;  second,  such  as  gain  their 
living  from  fresh  or  brackish  waters  or  mud, 
which  is  likelv  to  freeze;  and  third,  such  as  fol- 
low small  birds  in  order  to  prey  upon  them.  It  is 
also  significantly  true  that  they  represent  fami- 
lies whose  mass  and  affiliations  are  found  in  the 
tropics,  in  many  cases  only  one  or  two  species 
being  known  elsewhere.  Europe's  single  cuckoo, 
our  single  (Eastern)  humming-bird,  our  few 
tanagers,  orioles,  and  the  like,  are  familiar  and 
striking  examples  of  this  fact.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  non-migratory  or  'resident'  birds  of  the 
temperate  Eones  belong  to  families  mainly  dis- 
tributed outside  the  tropics,  and  separable,  broad- 
ly speaking,  on  other  grounds.  This  state  of 
things  points  to  the  explanation  that  the  extra- 
tropical  parts  of  the  world,  depopulated  of  birds 
by  the  cold,  ice,  and  excessive  rains  of  the 
Pleistocene  or  *Glacial'  period,  were  restocked 
from  the  crowded  intertropical  preserves  as  fast 
as  the  amelioration  of  the  climate  permitted 
plants  and  animals  to  occupy  the  temperate  and 
sub-arctic  regions;  and  that  the  reactive  effect 
of  the  new  country  steadily  checked  colonization 
by  selecting  only  those  species  adapted  or  adap- 
tive to  the  new  conditions.  In  this  light,  the 
seasonal  migration  of  birds  must  be  viewed  as  an 
annual  excursion,  constantly  repeated  by  certain 
species  that  have  the  habit  (and  not  by  others), 
outward  from  equatorial  regions  to  a  greater  or 
less  distance  poleward. 

Beginning  op  tue  Seasonal  Movement.  As 
the  close  of  the  rainy  season  approaches  in  the 
tropics  migratory  strangers  gradually  separate 
themselves  from  the  resident  birds,  now  beginning 
domestic  cares,  and  disappear.  What  starts  them 
off,  just  as  the  rains  are  bringing  an  increase  of 
both  plant  and  insect  food,  we  do  not  know. 
Their  ovaries  show  little  preparatory  enlarge- 
ment, and  few  or  none  are  mated.  As  they  slowly 
proceed,  keeping  pace  with  the  lifting  sun  and 
the  opening  spring,  they  will  gradually  concen- 
trate upon  certain  highways,  or  'migration 
routes.*  The  old  males  take  the  lead,  probably 
merely  through  superior  strength  of  wing;  and 
it  is  not  until  the  bulk  of  these  have  passed  by 
that  the  females  appear,  followed,  after  an 
interval,  by  yearling  birds. 

The  weather  encountered,  always  uncertain, 
influences  this  progress  decidedly,  warm  souther- 
ly winds  encouraging  the  birds  to  go  forward, 
while  cold  spells  or  northerly  storms  check  them, 
sometimes  for  a  fortnight  or  more,  and  occasion- 
ally destroy  large  numbers.  When  sunshine  and 
southerly  breezes  again  prevail  the  accumulated 
host  goes  forward  in  what  observers  call  a  'wave* 
of  migration.  Such  checks  are  local;  and  larger 
influences  have  an  effect,  so  that  the  movement 
is  uniformly  earlier  in  some  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent than  in  others. 

MiGBATioN  Routes.  It  is  also  true  that  the 
movement  is  not  uniformly  distributed.  On  the 
contrary,  there  are  certain  definite  routes  or 
paths  which  birds  follow  in  especially  great 
numbers.  The  greater  of  these  routes  or  'fly 
lines'  are  generally  recognized  and  seem  to  be 


MIGBATION  OF  ANHCALS. 

determined  partly  by  topography,  but  to  a  greater 
degree  by  considerations  of  security  and  sub- 
sistence. The  most  thickly  frequented  routes  are 
along  ocean  coasts,  riyer-yalleys,  or  mountain 
ranges.  European  specialists,  like  Paknen  and 
Miodendorf,  have  outlined  several  such  'fly  lines' 
with  great  particularity,  and  when  skctch«i  upon 
a  map  they  are  seen  to  coincide  in  a  general  way 
with  the  valley  system  of  that  continent.  Simi- 
lar highways  are  traceable  in  North  America. 
One  runs  along  the  Pacific  coast,  and  another 
up  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  along  the 
connected  valleys  and  parks  between  the  parallel 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  East  of  the 
plains  a  horde  of  spring  birds  enters  the  United 
States  along  the  eastern  lowlands  of  Mexico,  and 
by  way  of  the  West  Indies,  and  soon  divides  into 
definite  streams  of  travel.  Parted  first  by  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Alleghanies  into  two 
main  currents,  one  goes  to  the  right  up  the 
Atlantic  coast  and  through  the  Hudson  Valley 
and  New  England,  while  a  second,  to  the  left, 
ascends  the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  and  Ohio,  di- 
verging more  and  more  up  tributary  valleys, 
until  all  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the 
continent  are  supplied.  A  little  refiection  will 
show  how  likely,  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
are  these  routes.  They  are  natural  bird-roads, 
without  obstacles,  and  they  afford  easy  guidance, 
plentiful  vegetation,  and  consequent  protection 
against  enemies  and  storms,  and  the  abundance 
of  insect  food  belonging  to  watercourses. 

NOCTUBNAI.   AND    HiGH-FlYING    MiGBANTS.       A 

large  part  of  the  migration  of  many  birds  is  made 
at  night,  especially  the  natural  night-fliers,  like 
owls  and  goat-suckers,  and  the  great  body  of  small, 
timid  birds,  that  in  their  dailv  life  seek  conceal- 
ment and  obtain  their  food  in  shady,  secluded 
places.  It  is  only  the  day-goers  that  we  or- 
dinarily see  migrating,  and  these  more  com- 
monly in  spring  than  fall ;  but  every  observer  has 
noted  how  after  a  favorable  night  the  woods 
will  be  full  of  birds  at  dawn  where  none  were  to 
be  seen  the  evening  before.  English  and  American 
ornithologists,  led  by  Baird,  about  1875,  have  col- 
lected at  light-houses  and  other  watching  places 
systematic  data  in  respect  to  night  migration. 

Guidance.  What  guides  these  travelers  on 
their  annual  journeys  across  continents  and  over 
seas?  This  has  been  an  eager  question  ever 
since  men  began  to  watch  the  ways  of  the  birds. 
If  anything  approaching  a  rule  has  been  dis- 
closed, it  is  that  diversity  prevails  rather  than 
uniformity.  Birds  closely  allied  in  structure, 
diet,  nesting  habits,  and  so  forth,  vary  im- 
mensely in  the  extent  and  manner  of  their  migra- 
tions. While  some  travel  twice  a  year  from  the 
equator  to  near  the  poles,  others  of  the  same 
family,  or  genus  even,  never  leave  warm  lati- 
tudes at  all.  The  increasing  perception  of  this 
individuality  in  animals  inclines  one  more  and 
more  to  believe  that  migratory  birds  are  guided 
by  the  teaching  of  their  elders,  and  by  their  own 
observation  and  memory,  rather  than  by  any  ex- 
traordinary faculties  or  process.  Brewster  de- 
clares that  the  manner  of  migration  of  our  birds 
is  determined  by  one,  two,  or  three  of  the  follow- 
ing considerations,  viz.:  (1)  Habitual  manner 
of  procuring  food;  (2)  disposition;  (3)  wing- 
power.  Much  evidence  exists  in  favor  of  this 
simple  and  practical  explanation,  but  unfortu- 
nately contrary  and  unexplained  ifacts  still  con- 


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MIGBATIOH  OF  ANHCALS. 


47T 


MIGUEL. 


front  U8.  European  ornithologists  assert  that 
there  the  young  of  many  species  precede  the 
adults  on  their  journey  southward  in  the  autumn. 
Ck>oke  and  Wichnan,  in  their  elaborate  Report  on 
Bird  Migration  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  say 
the  same  for  the  interior  of  North  America.  On 
the  other  hand,  William  Brewster  who  has  ob- 
served this  matter  with  the  highest  zeal  and 
intelligence,  maintains  the  opposite  view  as  the 
result  of  long  experience  in  New  England  and 
Eastern  Canada,  and  declares  that  the  young 
never  precede  older  birds  in  the  fall,  explaining 
that  the  first  southward  flights  of  adult  birds 
have  been  overlooked  because  they  were  unex- 
pectedlv  early.  He  has  elucidated  this  with 
much  detail  in  the  Memoirs  (No.  1)  of  the  Nut- 
tall  Ornithological  Club, 

That  this  is  the  true  history  of  migration  in 
respect  to  many  and  various  kinds  of  birds  can- 
not be  gainsaid;  that  it  is  an  all-sufficient  ex- 
planation is  not  universally  admitted.  The 
powers  of  recognition  and  recollection  involved 
are  doubted  b^  some;  vet  all  animals  are  strong 
in  this  direction — perhaps  no  mental  faculties 
mre  so  distinctly  manifested  by  brutes  as  ob- 
servation and  memory.  Examples  might  be 
drawn  from  every  class,  but  homing  pigeons  are 
most  closely  to  the  point.  There  can  be  no  reason 
to  suppose  other  birds  are  less  able  in  this  re- 
spect until  we  have  taken  pains  to  exploit  their 
.  abilities.  No  mysterious  ^homing  faculty'  need  be 
summoned.  The  great  height  at  which  pigeons 
usually  fly  enables  them  to  survey  a  wide  extent 
of  country,  and  find  some  points  with  which  they 
have  been  previously  familiarized;  from  this  a 
second  is  visible  and  so  on,  leading  the  pigeon 
straight  home  as  the  pioneer  follows  a  blazed 
trail  through  a  forest.  Wild  birds  may  be  sup- 
posed to  do  the  same,  and  their  wish  to  get  a 
very  wide  view  of  the  landscape  explains  the 
height  to  which  they  rise  in  these  journeys  and 
their  descent  and  confusion  in  murky  weather. 
From  a  height  of  10,000  feet  both  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  for  example,  would  probably  be 
visible  to  a  bird's  eye,  at  any  rate  in  the  nar- 
rower places  where  they  mostly  cross.  It  must 
be  confessed,  however,  that  this  explanation  does 
not  cover  the  case  of  those  birds  which  migrate 
across  ocean  spaces  of  one  or  two  thousand  miles. 
Here  it  seems  necessary  to  believe  that  they  are 
guided  by  an  intuitive  sense  of  direction — a 
feeling  for  the  points  of  the  compass,  so  to  speak. 
Something  so  closely  akin  to  this  instinctive 
power  of  orientation  is  observable  among  other 
animals,  including  the  human  savage,  that  it 
may  be  very  well  conceded  to  the  birds. 

BmuoGBAPHY.  For  references  to  early  essays, 
and  to  many  essays  and  books  in  European  lan- 
guages, consult  Newton,  article  "Migration,"  in 
Dictionary  of  Birds  (London  and  New  York, 
(1893-90),  and  Giebel,  Thesaurus  OmithologicB 
(Leipzig,  1872-77);  Baird,  "Distribution  and 
Migrations  of  North  American  Birds"  (three 
articles),  in  American  Journal  of  Science  and 
Arts,  ser.  2,  vol.  xli.  (New  Haven,  1866)  ;  Allen, 
**Bird8  and  Weather,"  in  Scrihner's  Magazine^ 
Tol.  xxii.  (New  York,  October,  1881)  ;  Brewster, 
**Bird  Migration,"  in  Memoirs  (No.  1)  of  the 
Vuttall  Ornithological  Club  (Cambridge,  1886)  ; 
Cooke,  Report  on  Bird  Migration  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  (United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  1888)  ;  Palmen,  translation 


by  Shoemaker  of  a  report  to  the  International 
Ornithological  Ck>ngress  at  Budapest,  1891,  in 
Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  1892 
(Washington,  1893)  ;  Gatke,  Die  Vogelwarte 
Helgoland  (Brunswick,  1891),  translated  by 
Rosenstock  as  Heligoland  as  an  Ornithological 
Observatory  (Edinburgh,  1895)  ;  Whitlock,  The 
Migration  of  Birds:  A  Consideration  of  Herr 
Qiitke*s  Views  (London,  1897).  This  combats 
many  of  Gtltke's  statements  and  theories.  Dixon, 
The  Migration  of  Birds:  An  Attempt  to  Reduce 
Avian  Season  Flight  to  Law  (amended  edition, 
London,  1897),  an  ambitious  book  of  theory,  not 
well  sustained;  Beddard,  Book  of  Whales;  Scud- 
der.  The  Butterflies  of  New  England  (Boston, 
1886). 

MIGBATION  OF  PLANTS.  The  natural 
movement  of  plants  from  one  area  to  another. 
This  term  is  tnus  somewhat  in  contrast  to  natu- 
ralization (q.v.).  Migration  of  species  is  possi- 
ble by  reason  of  variations  in  the  structural 
adaptations  which  are  found  in  most  plants. 
Among  these  perhaps  the  most  important  are 
the  structures  which  are  concerned  in  the  dis- 
persal of  seeds  and  spores,  which  may  be  scat- 
tered by  means  of  birds,  wind,  or  water  to  very 
great  distances.  Besides  this  type  of  dispersal, 
certain  plants  may  be  scattered  in  a  vegetative 
way  for  great  distances  and  become  established 
far  from  the  original  home.  Thus  the  common 
water  weed  Elodea  is  believed  to  have  spread 
all  over  Europe  vegetatively  from  a  single  plant 
introduced  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  It  seems  likely  that  after  a  time  a 
certain  equilibrium  between  the  various  species 
of  the  world  will  have  been  reached,  and  that 
each  particular  species  will  be  found  in  the  con- 
ditions best  suited  to  it.  When  this  time  comes, 
further  migration  would  seem  to  be  without  re- 
sult, whether  the  scattering  of  seeds  takes  place 
or  not.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
various  factors  enter  in  to  disturb  any  equilib- 
rium which  may  be  formed.  In  the  first  place, 
there  are  changes  in  the  organic  world  itself; 
that  is,  new  species  of  both  plants  and  animals 
are  developed  from  time  to  time  through  evolu- 
tion and  new  disturbances  in  the  so-called  equilib- 
rium must  arise.  In  the  second  place,  the  ex- 
ternal world  suffers  tremendous  changes.  It  is 
probably  this  last  cause  which  has  been  most 
responsible  for  the  migration  of  plants.  Through 
the  geological  ages  continents  have  arisen  and 
passed  away,  and  all  these  changes  must  have 
been  accompanied  by  changes  in  the  mutual  rela- 
tions of  the  species  then  living.  Changes  in 
climate  have  taken  place  many  times  in  the 
world's  history,  and  all  of  these  changes  must 
have  been  attended  with  great  plant  migrations. 
To  illustrate:  the  oncoming  of  the  ice  epoch 
caused  a  southern  movement  of  the  climatic  zones, 
and  the  species  which  had  become  adapted  to  a 
particular  climate  moved  south  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  pari  passu  with  the  climatic  move- 
ment. Post-glacial  times  have  witnessed  north- 
em  migrations  which  are  necessarily  much  slower 
than  the  northern  migrations  of  the  southern 
zones.  Plants  must  not  be  regarded  as  less  active 
migrants  than  animals,  though  they  make  no 
seasonal  migrations. 

MIOTTEI*,  m^-gfll',  Dom  Maria  Evabisto 
(1802-66).  An  aspirant  for  the  Portuguese 
throne,  the  third  son  of  John  VI.  of  Portugal. 


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478 


XIXLOSICH. 


He  was  brought  up  in  Brazil,  and  went  to  Por- 
tugal in  1821  with  very  little  education,  a 
debauchee,  and  a  BU|)er8titious  bigot.  He  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  reactionary  party, 
and  plotted  the  overthrow  of  his  father  and  of 
constitutional  government.  In  1824  he  caused 
his  father  to  be  closely  guarded,  arrested  the 
ministers,  and  sought  to  overthrow  the  Govern- 
ment,  but  failed,  and  was  sent  into  banishment. 
In  1826  his  brother  Dom  Pedro,  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  relinquished 
the  crown  of  Portugal  to  his  young  daughter. 
Dona  Maria  da  Gloria,  and  betrothed  her  to 
her  uncle  Miguel,  who  was  made  regent.  Dom 
Miguel  in  1828  usurped  the  throne,  abolished  the 
Constitution,  and  introduced  a  reign  of  terror. 
Bom  Pedro,  who  had  been  forced  to  abdicate  the 
throne  of  Brazil  in  1831,  placed  himself  in  1832 
at  the  head  of  an  expeditionary  force,  which 
had  been  collected  by  the  opponents  of  Dom 
Miguel,  and  proceeded  to  dethrone  the  usurper. 
He  entered  Oporto  in  July,  and  a  year  later, 
after  the  defeat  of  Dom  MiguePs  fleet,  was  in 
possession  of  Lisbon.  England  and  France  inter- 
vened, and  Dom  Miguel  was  forced  to  give  up 
all  claims  to  the  crown  (1834).  He  died 
at  Brombach,  in  Baden.  To  the  common  esti- 
mate of  Dom  Miguel's  character  exception  is 
taken  by  Cardinal  Hergenrother,  in  the  Hand- 
\%ich  der  allgemeinen  Kirchengeschichte  (1886), 
Tol.  iii.,  p.  847  ff.,  where  he  is  spoken  of  as  a 
noble  prince  who  possessed  the  affection  of  his 
subjects. 

MIHBABy  m^-rab'.    See  Kibulh. 

KIKADO,  m^kU'd6  (Jap.,  Exalted  Gate). 
Formerly  the  popular  and  official  title  of  the 
Emperor  of  Japan,  occurring  in  poetry  and  his- 
tory throughout  the  whole  range  of  Japanese  lit- 
erature. Though  comparatively  obiwlete  in  the 
Japan  of  the  twentieth  century,  the  word  has 
found  a  fixed  and  honored  place  in  the  English 
language  and  literature.  The  dynasty  of  the 
mikados  is  probably  the  oldest  in  the  world,  the 
present  ruler,  Mutiuhito  (q.v.),  being  reckoned. 
by  some  authors  the  123d  of  the  Imperial  line,  the 
&^t  being  Jiramu-Tenno,  who  in  the  official 
chronology  began  to  reign  b.c.  660.  Descent  is 
claimed  from  the  gods  that  created  heaven  and 
earth.  The  origin  of  the  line  is  lost  in  mythol- 
ogy, and  there  is  little  or  no  historical  founda- 
tion for  it  before  the  fourth  century.  The  first 
seventeen  mikados,  B.C.  660  to  a.d.  399,  are  said 
to  have  died  at  agos  ranging  from  100  to  141 
years.  The  average  reign  in  the  whole  line  is 
twenty  years.  Each  mikado  has  a  personal 
name,  but  no  family  name,  nor  is  the  name  of  a 
mikado  ever  repeated.  Each  has  also  a  posthu- 
mous title,  by  which  he  is  known  in  history. 
Seven  of  the  mikados  were  women.  The  mikado's 
person  is  sacred  and  inviolable,  and  he  is  the 
fountain  of  all  authority  and  the  centre  of  all 
government  and  history. 

MIKA^NIA  (Neo-Lat.,  named  in  honor  of 
J.  C.  Mikan,  a  IBohemian  botanist  of  the  nine- 
teenth century).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  (jomposita*,  nearly  allied  to  Eupa- 
torium  (q.v.).  The  heads  are  four-flowerod.  and 
have  four  involucral  scales.  Miknnia  officinalis 
is  a  Brazilian  species,  with  erect  stem,  and  heart- 
shaped  leaves,  abounding  in  a  bitter  principle 
and  an  aromatic  oil,  reputed  useful  in  medicine. 
Mikama  amara  and  Mikaiua  cordifolia  (twining 


herbs),  also  natives  of  the  warm  part«  of 
South  America,  are  among  the  planta  which 
have  acquired  a  high  reputation — deserved 
or  undeserved — for  the  cure  of  snake  bites.  The 
former  is  remarkable  for  the  large  indigo-blue 
spots  on  the  under  side  of  its  ovate  leaves. 
Mikania  scandenSf  sometimes  called  climbing 
bempweed,  is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  grow- 
ing in  moist  soils  from  New  England  to  Texas. 

MTKHAYT.anr  -  SHEIXXR,  m^'ukylVdU 
sh^insr,  Alexander.     See  Shelleb,  Alexandoi 

^ilKUAlLOVlTCH. 

MIKHAf  L0V8KI,  mS'KA-ytl^'sk^,  Nikolai- 
oviTCii  (1826-65).  A  Russian  journalist  and 
novelist,  born  in  the  Ural  Mountains.  He  waa 
educated  in  Saint  Petersburg,  and  began  his  lit- 
erary work  with  translations,  chiefly  from  Heine. 
These  were  collected  in  one  volume  (1858),  and 
his  articles  for  the  Sovremmenik  {Contem- 
porary) and  other  journals,  as  well  as  hia 
stories,  notably  Adcm  Adamovitch  (1851),  were 
published  in  two  volumes  in  1859.  He  shared  the 
dreams  of  the  revolutionists  of  his  o>vn  country, 
and  in  1805  was  exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died. 

MIKHAlfliOVSKI,  me'K&-yll-M'sk«,  Nikolai 
Konstantinovitch  ( 1842-1904 ) .  A  Russian  critic. 
He  translated  Byron  into  Russian,  but  it  was  his 
critical  work  on  the  famous  Annals  of  the  Father- 
land, with  which  he  was  connected  from  1868  to 
its  suppression  in  1884,  that  made  him  famous. 
For  it  he  wrote  literary  notes  regularly,  begin- 
ning in  1872,  and  many  scientific  papers,  on  Dar- 
winism, socialism,  positivism,  and  the  systems  of 
Spencer  and  ^lill.  Best  known  is  the  monograph 
on  The  True  Nature  of  Progress  (translated  into 
French  by  Louis,  Qu*est-C€  que  le  progriisf  1879). 
His  style  is  brilliant. 

KIKHAILO VSKII-DAN¥LEVSK£C,  me'K&- 
yil-6f'8k^  da'n^-lyOf'skA,  Alexandeb  Ivanovitch 
(1790-1848).  A  Russian  soldier  and  historian. 
He  took  part  in  the  war  with  France  (1812-13) 
as  KutusofTs  aide-de-camp,  and  was  head  Chan- 
cellor of  Wolkonski  in  1813-14.  In  the  war  with 
Turkey  (1829)  he  served  as  major-general,  waa 
promoted  to  be  lieutenant-general  in  1835,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  war  council  and  Senator  in 
1839.  He  wrote  a  Eistory  of  the  Turkish  War  of 
1S06-12  (1843),  besides  accouAts  of  his  experi- 
ences in  the  campaigns  of  1812-13  (1834),  and  of 
1814-15  (1849-50).  His  collected  works  were 
publi.shed  (1849-50)  in  seven  volumes.  They 
are  marked  by  a  freedom  of  style  and  a  patriotic 
sentiment  that  sometimes  verged  into  inaccu- 
racies. 

MIKLOSICH,  miklA-shich,  Franz  von  (1813- 
91 ) .  A  Slavic  philologist.  He  was  born  in  Lut- 
tenberg,  Styria,  studied  law  at  Gratz,  and  settled 
to  practice  in  Vienna  in  1838.  He  became  inter- 
ested in  Slavic  philology,  and  first  attracted  at- 
tention by  his  review  of  Bopp's  Comparative 
Grammar  in  1844.  Henceforth  he  devoted  him- 
self to  philolog\',  and  until  his  death  his  produc- 
tivity was  enormous.  In  1844  he  obtained  a  posi- 
tion in  the  Imperial  Library,  and  in  1850  was 
made  professor  of  Slavic  philology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  retaining  his  post  until  1886. 
His  scientific  career  is  remarkable  for  profundity 
of  research.  He  is  the  foimder  of  modem  Slavic 
philolofry.  Aside  from  numerous  articles  on  spe- 
cial points  of  phonetics,  syntax,  arch«ology,  etc., 
the  most  important  of  his  works  are:    Verfflei^ 


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MIKLOSICH. 


479 


mLAH. 


chende  Qrammatik  der  slatcischen  Sprachen 
(1874-79);  Lexicon  Palwoelovenioo  Grwco-Lati- 
nutn (2d  ed.  1805),  the  best  of  its  kind  for  com- 
pleteness and  the  abundanoe  of  material ;  Etymo- 
loffiaches  Worterhuck  der  slawischen  Sprachen 
( 1886)  ;  Formenlchrc  der  altslowenischen  i^prache 
(2d  ed.  1854) ;  Altsloicenische  Lautlekre  (3d  ed. 
1878)  ;  and  Altsloicejiische  Formenlehre  in  Para- 
digmen  (1874). 

HIKIiTrCHO-MACLAY,  m«-kl<5<5'K6-mA-kli', 
Nikolai  (1846-88).  A  Russian  traveler  and 
ethnographer,  born  in  the  Ukraine  of  a  noble 
family.  He  studied  medicine  and  zodlogy  at 
Saint  Petersburg  and  in  Germany.  In  1866  he 
went  with  Haeckel  to  Madeira;  visited  the  Ca- 
nary Islands  in  1867,  and  after  a  trip  to  Morocco 
in  1870  undertook  a  great  anthropological  tour  in 
Oceanica.  At  Sydney  he  founded  a  museum  and 
so5logical  station,  and  in  1885  returned  to  Saint  . 
Petersburg,  where  he  died  before  he  had  classified 
his  collections.  He  wrote  on  his  travels  in  New 
Guinea  in  Petermann's  Mitieilungen  (1874  and 
1878 ) ,  and  on  the  temperature  of  oceanic  depths 
for  the  Bulletin  of  the  Saint  Petersburg  Acad- 
emy (1871),  and  made  many  other  contributions 
to  technical  journals  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralia. 

MTKlTASy  mik^n&8.  A  town  of  Morocco.  See 
Mequinez. 

mKOVECy  m^-kyyeeh,  Fkbdinand  Bkbtislay 
(1826-62).  A  Bohemian  dramatist  and  archse- 
ologist,  bom  at  BUrgstein,  and  educated  at 
CeskA  Lipa  and  Prague,  He  founded  the  literary 
journal  Lumir  { 1850),  and  edited  tiv'o  volumes  of 
Bohemian  antiquities  under  the  title  BtaroHt- 
no9ti  a  pafiUtky  feemi  desk^  ( 1858-64) .  He  wrote 
the  tragedies,  Zdhuha  rodu  Ffemysiovakdho  ( *'The 
Fan  of  the  Pi^emyslids,"  1851)  ;  Dimitri  It>anoviS 
(1856),  and  other  dramatic  works. 

XILA17,  mil'an  or  ml-lftn'  (It.  Milano,  Lat. 
Mediolanum) .  The  second  largest  city  in 
Italy,  the  chief  city  in  Lombardy,  and  the 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Milan.  It  is  situated 
in  the  great  plain  of  Lombardy,  360  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  the  little  river  Olona,  an  affluent  of 
the  Po,  93  miles  northeast  of  Turin  and  166 
miles  west  of  Venice;  latitude  45**  28'  N.,  longi- 
tude 9°  11'  E.  (Map:  Italy,  D  2).  The  climate 
is  rather  changeable  and  trying.  It  is  ex- 
tremely hot  in  summer  and  quite  cold  in  win- 
ter, the  winds  from  the  frozen  Alps  sweeping 
across  the  Lombardy  plain.  The  thermometer  at 
times  drops  below  zero.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  55.4**  F.;  rainfall.  39.37  inches. 

Milan  is  a  fairly  symmetrical  polygon  in  shape, 
the  circuit  of  its  customs  district  being  now 
nearly  twenty  miles.  Its  focus  is  the  splen- 
did Piazzo  del  Duomo  (Cathedral  Square), 
from  which  broad  avenues  and  electric  rail- 
ways radiate  in  all  directions.  These  radials 
are  connected  by  an  inner  circle  of  mod- 
ernized streets  just  outside  the  canal  that 
marks  the  location  of  the  ancient  moat  and  of 
the  inner  and  most  ancient  city.  An  additional 
connection  is  furnished  by  a  splendid  boulevard, 
and  by  a  belt  electric  railway  seven  miles  long 
beyond  the  sixteenth -century  walls  that  are 
pierced  by  a  dozen  gates,  and  are  now  planted 
with  trees  and  used  as  a  promenade,  commanding 
the  view  of  the  suburbs.  The  most  magnificent 
of  the  radials  is  the  modem  Via  Dante,  leading 
trotts  the  handsome  Piazza  de'  Mercanti  to  the 


spacious  Foro  Bonaparte,  and  thence  to  the  New 
Park,  which  was  formerly  a  part  of  a  national 
drill-ground.  This  park  is  paved  with  wooden 
blocks  on  a  concrete  foundation,  and  on  each  side, 
next  to  the  front  foundation  walls  of  the  houses, 
has  large  subways  containing  water  and  gas 
pipes,  efectric  wires,  etc.  It  is  beautified  by  a 
large  pond  and  spacious  promenades,  and  is  faced 
by  the  Castello,  and  also  by  the  Anfiteatro  delF 
Arena,  which  was  constructed  by  Napoleon  I.  for 
races  and  is  capable  of  seating  30,000  persons. 
The  park  is  lighted  by  electrici^  at  night. 
Adorning  the  northeastern  section  of  the  city  are 
the  splendid  Giardini  Pubblici,  surpassed  by  few 
gardens  on  the  Continent.  The  Corso  Vittorio 
Emanuele  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  8hoi>ping 
streets  in  Italy,  and  the  centre  of  traffic  in  Milan. 
The  Galleria  Vittorio  Emanuele,  connecting  the 
Piazza  del  Duomo  with  the  Piazza  della  Scala, 
is  a  splendid  glass-covered  arcade,  with  sbofM, 
designed  by  one  of  Milan's  distinguished  archi- 
tects, Mengoni.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin 
cross,  with  a  cupola  180  leet  in  height. 

Architecture  is  superbly  represented  in  Milan, 
nearly  all  styles  being  dis{^yed  in  rare  ex- 
amples. Bramante  dwelt  here  many  years,  and 
left  his  genius  impressed  on  more  than  one  fine 
monument.  The  city  is  particularly  famous  for 
fine  churches.  Of  these  the  principal  is  the 
world-renowned  Gothic  cathedral,  one  of  the 
finest  of  ecclesiastical  structures,  rankii^  with 
Saint  Peter's  at  Rome  and  the  Cathedral  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  at  Florence.  The  vast 
church  has  an  exterior  of  white  Carrara  marbkr, 
which  is  adorned  by  98  pinnacles  and  with  more 
than  2000  statues,  besides  a  variety  of  carvings 
of  unsurpassable  beauty.  In  form  it  is  a  Latin 
cross,  with  a  length  of  486  and  a  breadth  of  287 
feet.  The  height  of  the  tower  is  356  feet.  Its 
foundation  was  laid  in  1386  by  Gian  Galeazzo 
Visccmti,  and  during  its  erection  many  of  the 
greatest  European  architects  contributed  designs 
for  its  embellishment.  Within  it  Napoleon  was 
crowned  King  of  Italy  in  1805.  The  view  of  the 
Alps,  lombardy,  and  the  city  from  the  top  of  the 
cathedral  is  celebrated.  The  quaint  mediffval 
Church  of  Sant*  Ambrogio,  erected  on  the  site 
of  a  church  founded  by  Saint  Ambrose  in  the 
fourth  century,  possesses  inscriptions,  sarco- 
phagi, and  monuments  full  of  antiquarian  in- 
t4»rest,  and  is  historic  as  the  place  where  the 
German  emperors  were  crowned  kings  of  Italy. 
There  are  also  the  Dominican  Church  of  Santa 
Maria  delle  Grazic,  which  contains  in  its  refec- 
tory the  now  almost  obliterated  picture  of  the 
*'Last  Supper,"  by  I^eonardo  da  Vinci;  the 
Church  of  San  Carlo  Borromeo  (1847);  and 
San  Nazaro,  which  possesses  a  masterful  fresco 
by  Lanino,  and  also  San  Sebastiano,  once  a  Ro- 
man temple.  The  Church  of  San  Satiro  has  a 
beautiful  sacristy — a  creation  of  Bramante. 
The  mural  paintings  of  Luini  in  the  Church  of 
San  Giorgio  al  Palazzo  are  visited  by  all  art 
lovers.  San  I^renzo  is  an  important  church, 
and  is  in  addition  the  oldest  one  in  the  city, 
tracing  its  history  back  to  Roman  times. 

Of  the  secular  buildings  of  Milan,  the  most 
noteworthy  is  the  magnificent  Brera  Palace,  for- 
merly a  Jesuit  college,  and  now  used  for  the  fine 
arts,  with  the  official  name  of  Palace  of  Arts  and 
Sciences.  (For  illustration,  see  Ix>mbardy,  Re- 
naissance Architecture.)  Within  its  vast  pre- 
cincts this  unique  institution  includes  an  academy 


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of  art,  a  choice  gallery  of  paintii^  of  the 
Bolognese  and  Lombard  schools,  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  casts  for  modeling  purposes,  a  splendid 
national  library  containing  about  350,000  vol- 
umes and  pamphlets,  and  a  rare  collection  of 
manuscripts,  medals,  and  antiquities.  It  has  also 
attached  to  it  an  observatory  and  a  botanical 
garden.  The  masterpieces  of  painting  here  include 
Raphaers  far-famed  "Sposalizio,"  Mantegna's 
"Pieta,"  and  Bellini's  "Saint  Mark."  The  Brera 
has  been  greatly  enlarged  latterly,  and  many 
pictures  of  high  rank  have  been  added  to  its  col- 
lection. One  of  the  features  of  the  national  li- 
brary is  a  room  devoted  to  the  editions  and 
autograph  writings  of  Manzoni.  Another  large 
library  is  the  Ambrosian  (q.v.).  The  Borromeo 
Palace  also  has  a  meritorious  collection  of  paint- 
ings. The  Museo  Poldi-Pezzoli  offers  a  fine  col- 
lection of  paintings,  weapons,  furniture,  porce- 
lain, etc.  The  Museo  Civico  is  worthy  of  men- 
tion for  its  superb  ornithological  collection . 
There  is  also  a  permanent  art  exposition,  and 
Milan  now  has  good  scientific  collections. 

The  Palazzo  Reale  and  the  archiepiscopal 
palace  are  old,  and  have  some  attractive  fea- 
tures. The  fine  and  elaborate  Castello  di 
Porta  Giovia  dates  from  1368,  and  is  the 
castle  of  Milan,  being  associated  with  the  city's 
governmental  and  historic  career.  Among  the 
noteworthy  new  and  attractive  secular  buildings 
are  the  Exchange,  finished  in  1901,  the  prefecture, 
and  Palace  of  Justice.  Notable  features  in  the 
city  also  are  the  Court  of  the  Marino  Palace,  the 
Corinthian  Colonnade,  the  finest  relic  of  Roman 
times  in  Milan,  and  the  well-known  triumphal 
arch  begun  by  Napoleon  I.  Other  conspicuous 
public  monuments  are  the  statues  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel II.  and  of  Cavour,  Canova's  notable 
statue  of  Napoleon  I.,  the  huge  equestrian  statue 
of  Garibaldi,  an  equestrian  statue  of  Napoleon 
III.  in  commemoration  of  Magenta,  the  monu- 
ment to  Leonardo  by  Magni,  the  statues  of  Car- 
dinal Borromeo  and  Parini,  and  the  monument 
to  Manzoni.  The  Cimitero  Monumentale,  with 
its  decorative  tombs  and  its  elaborate  cremation 
temple,  is  visited  by  all  tourists.  Milan  is 
famous  for  its  vast  Scala  Theatre,  which  was 
built  in  1178  for  operas  and  ballets.  It  accom- 
modates 3600  persons.  Milan  is  the  centre  for 
music  in  Italy.  The  famous  Conservatory  of 
Music  is  established  in  the  buildings  of  an  an- 
cient monastery. 

Milan  has  an  Academy  of  Science  and  Litera- 
ture, a  college  for  girls,  and  medical,  high,  and 
normal  schools.  The  fine  polytechnic,  dating  from 
1865,  a  commercial  academy,  an  agricultural 
school,  a  royal  astronomical  observatory,  an  Ac- 
eademia  di  Belle  Arti  are  other  educational  in- 
stitutions. There  are  also  a  municipal  zoological 
collection,  and  botanical  gardens,  and  theatres. 
The  government  of  the  city  is  highly  efficient,  and 
enormous  sums  have  been  expended  on  public  im- 
provements. The  new  system  of  sewers  empties 
into  the  swift  covered-over  Seveso,  whence  the 
sewage  passes  to  the  Adriatic  by  way  of  the  Po. 
The  city  water  for  domestic  purposes  comes  prin- 
cipally from  large  artesian  wells,  and  for  indus- 
trial purposes  from  the  canals.  The  different 
philanthropic  organizations  under  the  control  of 
the  Board  of  Charities  have  property  valued  at 
over  $53,000,000,  and  a  j'early  inwme  of  $1,600,- 
000.  The  Maggiore  hospital  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  world,  accommodating  4000  patients.     It 


dates  from  1456.  There  are  deaf  and  dumb  insti- 
tutions, and  institutions  for  surgical  operations 
and  for  ailments  of  the  eyes.  Milan  has  also 
public  dormitories,  soup-kitchens,  etc.  The  Milan 
poor  suffer  greatly  from  overcrowding.  An  offi- 
cial investigation  showed  that  38,000  families 
were  living  in  one  room  each,  and  that  333,000 
persons,  or  70  per  cent,  of  the  population,  were 
living  in  172,417  rooms.  Thousands  of  these 
rooms  had  no  light  except  through  the  entrance 
door.  In  1905  the  citizens  voted  for  municipal 
construction  of  houses  for  the  working  people. 
The  present  plan  contemplates  the  spending  of 
$1,000,000  for  the  erection  of  48  tenement  houses, 
each  of  which  will  contain  500  rooms  divided  into 
one,  two,  and  three-room  apartments.  The  Hu- 
manitarian Society  also  appropriated  $400,000 
for  the  buildinff  of  model  tenements. 

Milan  is  the  leading  financial  city  of  Italy  and 
possesses  vast  wealth.  It  markets  large  quanti- 
ties of  grain,  cheese,  butter,  eggs,  and  poultry, 
and  manufactures  silk,  leather,  and  woolen  goods, 
stationary  engines,  locomotives,  railway  machin- 
ery, carriages,  furniture,  glass  and  earthenware, 
and  chemical  products.  A  royal  mint  and  a  royal 
tobacco  factory  are  situated  here,  and  there  is  a. 
corn  exchange.  It  is  the  centre  also  of  the  Italian 
book  trade.  In  modem  sculpture  likewise  it 
holds  a  leading  rank.  Not  only  are  its  indus- 
tries by  far  the  most  important  in  Italy,  but 
its  commerce  is  very  extensive.  The  Grand  Canal 
connects  the  navigable  Olona  with  Lake  Maggiore 
and  the  Ticino.  The  city  is  also  in  canal  commu- 
nication with  the  Po,  and  with  Lake  Como 
through  the  Adda.  It  is  an  important  centre  of 
the  national  railway  system.  Milan  is  connected 
by  street  railways  with  the  neighboring  towns 
of  Lombardy.  The  local  system  of  electric  street 
railways  is  excellent.  In  the  last  twenty  years 
of  the  nineteenth  century  Milan  grew  more 
rapidly  than  any  other  Italian  city.  Population, 
in  1810,  124,000;  in  1860,  191,000;  in  1881,  321,- 
839;  in  1901,  491,460. 

History.  Milan,  the  ancient  Mediolanum,  ap- 
pears first  definitely  in  history  in  B.C.  222,  when 
it  was  taken  by  the  consuls  Scipio  and  Marcus 
Marcellus  from  the  Gauls.  It  rose  to  great  prom- 
inence at  the  close  of  the  third  century  a.d.,  when 
Diocletian  made  it  the  capital  of  Italy.  There- 
after Milan  was  frequently  a  favorite  Imperial 
residence.  It  was  from  ^Ulan  that  Constantine 
issued  in  313  the  famous  edict  by  which  Chris- 
tianity was  recognized.  Milan  became  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  from  374  to  397  this  office  waa 
held  by  the  celebrated  Ambrose  (q.v.).  He  ea- 
tablished  a  ritual,  which  in  some  points  varied 
considerably  from  the  Roman,  and  for  a  time 
Milan  was  the  religious  metropolis  of  Northern 
Italy,  and  almost  entirely  independent  of  Rome. 
This  first  era  of  prosperity  was  destroyed  by  the 
barbarian  invasions;  in  639  the  city  was  laid 
waste  by  the  Goths,  and  only  in  the  tenth  century 
did  it  begin  to  recover. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages 
the  population  of  Milan  was  divided  into  great 
nobles  (capitanei),  petty  knights  (valvassorea) , 
and  the  general  populace.  For  a  long  time  the 
history  of  the  city  turns  upon  conflicts  between 
these  various  classes.  In  1036  the  Archbishop 
Aribert  sought  to  make  himself  independent  of  all 
ecclesiastical  and  temporal  control,  and  for  this 
purpose  united  with  the  capitanei.  He  waa 
however,  opposed  by  the  Emperor  Conrad  II.,  who 


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was  aided  by  the  valv<iS8ore8.  The  Emperor 
in  1037  gave  his  allies  the  full  inheritance  of 
their  feudal  holdings,  for  which  they  had  been 
struggling;  Aribert  was  overthrown,  but  the 
sudden  death  of  Conrad  in  1039  put  an  end  for  a 
time  to  the  conflict.  Henry  III.  (1039-56)  ruled 
the  whole  Empire  (Italy  included)  with  a  firm 
hand,  but  during  his  reign  the  forces  developed 
which  resulted  in  the  great  conflict  of  the  Pataria 
after  his  death.  According  to  the  Ambrosian 
rules  priests  were  permitted  to  marry,  but  Hilde- 
brand  (later  Pope  Gregory  VII.),  whose  influ- 
ence at  Rome  began  about  1045,  urged  the  sup- 
pression of  this,  and  also  sought  to  connect  the 
Church  of  Milan  more  closely  with  that  of  Rome. 
He  was  aided  in  this  attempt  by  the  lower  classes 
of  the  populace,  who  were  known  as  patarini,  i.e. 
ragamuffins,  and  were  in  reality  infected  with 
the  Manichean  heresy.  Opposed  to  this  whole 
movement  was  the  Archbishop  and  his  party, 
supported  by  the  Empire,  which,  under  Henry 
IV.  (1056-1106),  was  also  at  war  with  the 
Papacy.  The  conflict  was  violent,  and  in  1066 
the  Archbishop  Guido  himself  was  assassinated. 
The  struggle  terminated  with  a  compromise,  by 
which  marriage  of  priests  was  forbidden  for  the 
future,  but  those  who  were  married  might  retain 
their  wives.  The  independent  position  of  the 
archbishops,  however,  was  gone  forever,  and  the 
way  was  clear  for  the  establishment  of  a  repub- 
lican commune,  especially  as  a  very  powerful  ar- 
tisan class  had  gradually  developed. 

The  city  was  ruled  by  consuls  elected  by  the 
three  orders,  and  it  rapidly  acquired  a  hegemony 
over  the  other  Lombavd  cities.  When,  however, 
Frederick  Barbarossa  became  Emperor,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  reestablish  the  old  Imperial  power  in 
Italy,  and  in  1153  began  active  warfare  against 
Milan.  Twice  the  city  was  compelled  to  submit, 
in  1158  and  1162,  and  the  last  time  it  was  razed 
to  the  ground.  Tlie  cities  of  Northern  Italy,  which 
at  first  had  been  glad  to  witness  the  destruction 
of  a  rival,  now,  however,  saw  their  own  danger, 
and  hastened  to  the  assistance  of  Milan  under  the 
leadership  of  Pope  Alexander  111.(1159-81).  The 
Lombard  League  was  formed  against  the  Emperor, 
and  in  1176  Frederick  was  defeated  at  Legnano, 
and  in  1183  by  the  Peace  of  Constance  recognized 
the  independence  of  Milan  and  the  other  cities  of 
Lombardy.  After  these  foreign  dangers  were 
averted,  intestine  strife  again  broke  out  between 
the  three  parties:  between  the  credenza  del  con- 
solif  a  council  of  400  members,  named  by  the 
jrreat  nobility;  the  mottay  a  council  of  100,  named 
by  the  valvdssores;  and  the  credenza  di  SanV 
Ambrogio,  a  council  of  300,  named  by  the  popu- 
lace. Wearied  by  these  continuous  quarrels,  the 
citizens  began  to  call  in  foreigners  to  rule  and 
mediate,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  office  of  the 
podestd.  The  first  one  was  Uberto  Visconti,  who 
was  chosen  in  1186,  and  ruled  for  a  year.  He  had 
several  successors.  In  1226  the  Lombard  League 
was  renewed  to  prev^ent  the  aggressions  of  Fred- 
erick II.,  who  was  finally  defeated  in  1237  at  the 
battle  of  Cortenuova. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  Milan  gradually 
lost  its  republican  liberties.  In  1269  the 
Guelph  leader  Martino  della  Torre  headed  the 
citizens  in  a  struggle  against  the  Ghibelline 
nobles,  and  assumed  the  lordship  of  the  city.  But 
in  1277  a  revolution  was  effected  by  the  Ghibel- 
lines  under  the  Archbishop  Ottone  Visconti,  who  in 
turn  became  the  ruler  of  the  city,  and  in  1295  the 


power  descended  to  his  nephew  Matteo  Visconti. 
From  that  time  the  Visconti  (q.v.)  ruled  Milan 
almost  continuously  until  1447.  Under  their  su- 
premacy was  not  only  Milan,  but  the  whole  of 
Lombardy;  the  arts  were  fostered  and  prosperity 
was  general.  In  1395  the  Emperor  Wenceslas 
granted  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Milan.  The  last  of  the  Visconti,  Filippo 
JVIaria  (1412-47),  was  succeeded  in  1450  by  his 
son-in-law,  the  celebrated  condottiere  Francesco 
Sforza  (q.v.).  The  Sforzas  were  the  typical 
princes  of  the  Renaissance,  patrons  of  art  and 
learning,  but  at  the  same  time  guilty  of  the  great- 
est cruelties.  Milan  became  involved  in  the  many 
Italian  wars  of  the  period,  and  finally,  in  1494, 
Ludovico  Sforza  called  in  the  French.  From  this 
time  on  the  history  of  Milan  as  such  has  little  in- 
terest. Louis  XII.  of  France,  as  a  descendant  of 
the  Visconti,  claimed  Milan,  and  the  city  and 
duchy  for  a  while  changed  hands  repeatedly  be- 
tween the  French  and  the  Sforzas,  the  latter  being 
supported  by  Spain.  In  1535  the  last  of  the  male 
line  of  the  Sforzas  died,  and  Milan  became  a  Span- 
ish possession.  In  1713  the  Peace  of  Utrecht, 
which  ended  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
gave  Lombardy  to  Austria.  In  1797  Milan  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
founded  by  Napoleon,  and  in  1805  the  capital  of 
the  Napoleonic  Kingdom  of  Italy.  The  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1815  gave  Lombardy  back  to 
Austria,  and  Milan  shared  with  the  rest  of  the 
Hapsburg  possessions  the  oppressions  of  the 
Mettemich  regime.  On  March  18,  1848,  the  in- 
habitants rose  in  insurrection,  and  on  March  23d 
General  Radetzky  was  compelled  to  evacuate  the 
city,  which  was  occupied  by  the  Sardinian  forces. 
On  August  6th,  however,  Radetzky  reentered 
Milan.  The  riots  of  March,  1849,  and  Feb- 
ruary 6,  1853,  were  vigorously  suppressed  by  the 
Austrian  commanders.  In  1859,  after  the  battle 
of  Magenta,  the  Austrians  evacuated  the  city, 
which  was  handed  over  to  Napoleon,  who  sur- 
rendered it  to  Sardinia  with  the  rest  of  Lom- 
bardy. In  May,  1898,  it  was  the  scene  of  serious 
bread  riots. 

Bibliography.  Schwarz,  Mailands  Lage  und 
Bedeutung  ala  HandeUatadt  (Cologne,  1890)  ; 
Shaw,  Municipal  Oovemment  in  Continental 
Europe  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Beltrami,  Reminis- 
cenze  di  atoria  e  d'arte  nella  cittd  di  Milano 
(Milan,  1891-92)  ;  and  for  the  history:  Sismondi, 
Hiatoire  dea  r^publiquea  italiennea  du  moijen  Age 
(Paris,  1840)  ;  Cusani,  Storia  di  Milano  (Milan, 
1862-67)  ;  De  Castro,  Milano  e  la  repuhlica  ciaal- 
pina  (ib.,  1880)  ;  Bonfadini,  Milano  nei  auoi 
monumenti  atorici  (ib.,  1883-86)  ;  id.,  Le  origini 
del  comune  di  Milano  (ib.,  1890);  and  Holtz- 
mann,  Mailand,  ein  Gang  durch  die  Stadt  und 
ihre  Oeachichte  (Leipzig,  1899). 

MHjAN.  a  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Sulli- 
van County,  Mo.,  105  miles  by  rail  west  by  north 
of  Quincy,  111 ;  on  the  Quincy,  Omaha  and  Kansas 
City  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
railroads  ( Map :  Missouri,  CI).  It  is  in  a 
farming  and  stock-raising  region,  which  has  some 
mineral  deposits,  particularly  of  coal.  The  prin- 
cipal industrial  establishments  are  flour  and  lum- 
ber mills,  and  shops  of  the  Quincy,  Omaha  and 
Kansas  CMty  Railroad,  Milan  being  a  division 
point  on  that  road.  Population,  in  1890,  1234; 
in  1900,  1757;  in  1906  (local  est.),  2900. 

MILAN  I.,  Obbenovitch,  6'brft-no'vlch  (1854- 
1901).    Prince  of  Servia  from  1868  to  1882,  and 


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MILAN  I. 


489 


MILDEW. 


King  from  1882  to  1889.  He  was  born  August  22, 
1854,  at  Manasueo,  Rumania,  and  was  educate 
at  Paris.  The  assassination  of  Prince  Michael 
III.,  in  1868,  caused  his  recall  to  Servia, 
where  he  was  proclaimed  Prince.  A  council  of 
regency  administered  the  government  till  he  was 
eighteen.  The  revolt  of  Servia  against  the  Otto- 
man power,  its  alliance  with  Russia  in  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  (a.v.),  and  its  resulting  indepen- 
dence and  recognition  as  a  kingdom  ( 1882) ,  made 
his  reign  memorable.  In  1876  he  married  Na- 
talie Ketchko,  the  daughter  of  a  Russian  colonel, 
and  his  quarrels  with  her  and  his  personal  vices 
deprived  him  of  all  prestige.  In  1888  he  wan  il- 
legally divorced,  and  on  March  6,  1889,  he  abdi- 
cated in  favor  of  his  son  Alexander.  He  became 
reconciled  to  Natalie  in  1893;  and  died  at  Vienna, 
February  11,  1901.     See  Sebvia. 

MILAN  DXCBEES.  See  OoNnifENTAL 
SrsTBif. 

MHiAN^S  Y  FXTEKTES,  m&'l&-nils'  6 
fwan'tAs,  Jost  Jacinto  (1814-63).  A  Cuban 
poet,  bom  at  Matanzas.  His  first  verses  ap- 
peared in  the  Aguinaldo  Habanero  (1837),  and 
were  favorably  received.  From  this  time  his 
work  was  well  known.  His  early  life  had  been 
one  of  poverty  and  hardship,  but  afterwards  he 
obtainea  a  satisfactory  position,  and  was  able  to 
travel  abroad  in  1848.  He  had  been  the  victim 
of  a  mental  disease  for  some  time,  and  during 
the  last  years  of  his  life  was  quite  insane.  The 
poetry  of  Milan^s  is  contemplative  and  melan- 
choly, and,  like  that  of  his  fellow  poets  Heredia 
and  Plftcida,  saddened  by  the  thought  of  his  coun- 
try's wrongs.  Editions  of  his  poems  were  pub- 
lished at  Havana  (1846)  and  New  York  (1864). 

MILA  Y  FONTANALS,  m^'W  ^  f^n'tA-nftls^ 
Manuel  (1818-84).  A  Spanish  historian  of  lit- 
erature, bom  at  Villafranca  del  Panad4^s.  He 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  l^niversity  of 
Barcelona  in  1846.  The  influence  of  his  philo- 
sophical studies  is  apparent  even  in  so  early  a 
work  as  his  Arte  poetica  (1884).  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Romancerillo  cataldn  (1848),  a  col- 
lection of  the  lyrics  of  his  native  region,  and  by 
the  Element  OS  de  literaiura  and  the  Teoria  lite- 
raWa,  which  apply  philosophical  methods  to  the 
study  of  literature.  His  Observacioties  sobre  la 
poesia  popular  appeared  in  1853.  His  noblest 
pro<luctions  are  Ta}8  troradores  en  Kspafta  { 1861) 
and  La  poesia  heroico-popular  (1874).  Consult 
Rubio  y  Ors,  yoticia  de  la  rida  y  csrritos  de  D. 
Manuel  MiU  y  Fontanals  (Barcelona,  1887),  and 
the  edition  oif  his  Obras  completas,  prepared  by 
M.  ^lenC'ndcz  y  Polayo  (Barcelona,  1885). 

MILAZZO,  mMiU'sA,  or  MELAZZO.  A  city 
in  the  Province  of  Messina,  Sicily,  16  miles  by 
rail  west  of  the  city  of  Messina,  at  the  base  of  a 
narrow  peninsula,  four  miles  long  (Map:  Italy, 
K  9) .  It  has  a  very  large  and  safe  harbor  which 
in  bad  weather  serves  as  a  refuge  for  vessels 
that  have  just  left  or  are  trying  to  make  the 
northern  entrance  of,  the  Strait  of  ^Messina.  It 
has  a  city  hospital,  a  technical  school,  a  city  li- 
brary, a  municipal  theatre.  It  markets  wine, 
fish,  cattle,  fruit,  and  sulphur,  and  has  a  con- 
siderable foreign  trade.  Population  (commune). 
In  1881.  13.699;  in  1901,  16.422.  Milazzo  is  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Mylflp,  founded  prior  to  the 
eighth  century  B.C.  by  colonists  from  Messina. 
A  great  naval  victory  was  won  here  over  the  Car- 
thaginians in  B.C.  260  by  G.  Duilius.    The  crown- 


ing point  of  Garibaldi's  victorious  Sicilian  cam- 
paign was  his  defeat  of  the  Neapolitans  here> 
July  20,  1860. 

MIL'BXTKN',  William  Henby  (1823-1903). 
An  American  clergyman.  He  was  bora  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  studied  at  Illinois  College.  He 
entirely  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye  and  partially 
that  of  the  other  while  he  was  a  boy,  and  finally 
became  wholly  blind.  He  became  a  traveling 
preacher  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
1843,  and  was  appointed  to  circuits  in  Illinois 
and  the  South,  with  several  appointments  at 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  in  1848,  and  Mobile  in  1850, 
and  for  two  years  after  1852  preached  in  an  in- 
dependent church.  He  was  ordained  a  deacon  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1865,  and 
priest  in  1866,  but  returned  to  the  Methodist 
Church  in  1871.  He  was  elected  chaplain  of 
Congress  in  1845  and  1853,  chaplain  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  in  1885  and  in  succeeding 
terms,  and  was  chaplain  of  the  Senate  from  1893 
to  1902.  He  published  Rifle,  Axe,  and  Saddle- 
bags, Symbols  of  Western  Character  and  Civilisa- 
tion (1856)  ;  Ten  Years  of  Preacher  Life,  Chap- 
ters from  an  Autobiography  (1858);  Pioneers, 
Preachers,  and  People  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
( 1860,  comprising  lectures  given  at  the  Lowell 
Institute  in  1854)  ;  The  Lance,  Cross^  and  Canoe 
in  the  Vailey  of  the  Mississippi  (1893). 

MILDBR-HAUFTMANH^  mMMer-houpt'- 
mAn,  Anna  Paultnb  (1785-1838).  A  German 
opera  singer,  born  at  C<m8tantinople,  the  daugh- 
ter of  an  Austrian  attache.  She  studied  under 
Tomaecelli  and  Salien  in  Vienna;  made  her  first 
appearance  in  that  city  in  1803,  but  was  at  the 
height  of  her  power  in  Berlin  (1815-29).  She 
toured  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  at  the  close 
of  her  stage  career. 

MILDEW  (AS.  meledeatt,  honeydew,  from 
*mele,  Goth.  miliP,  Lat.  met,  Gk.  pi4>u,  melt, 
honey  -f  diaw,  dew).  A  somewhat  indefinite 
term  used  to  designate  a  number  of  plant  diseases 
that  are  caused  by  fungus  parasites,  as  well  as 
spots  caused  by  microscopic  fungi  on  cloth,  paper, 
leather,  glassware,  etc.  In  England  the  term  aa 
applied  to  plant  diseases  has  a  much  wider  sig- 
nittcance  than  in  the  United  States.  It  is  there 
made  to  include  what  are  known  in  America 
as  cereal  rusts  and  smuts,  as  well  as  many  other 
diseases  not  recogniRed  as  due  to  the  mildews 
proper.  In  the  United  States  the  mildews  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  the  true  or  powdery 
mildews,  due  to  fungi  belonging  to  the  order 
Erysiphace^,  and  the  false  or  downy  mildd^-s 
caused  by  fungi  of  the  order  Peronosporaceae. 
The  powdery  mildews  attack  the  leaves,  stems, 
flowers,  and  fruits  of  many  of  our  most  valued 
plants.  For  the  most  part  they  form  superficial 
flour-like  patches  of  white  upon  their  host  plants. 
The  fungus  most  commonly  develops  over  the 
surface  of  the  leaves  and  sends  minute  suckers 
through  the  epidermis,  by  which  they  absorb 
nourishment  from  the  host.'  They  cause  distorted 
and  stunted  growth,  and  often  the  death  of  the 
part  of  the  plant  affected.  During  the  summer 
the  fungus  sends  up  numerous  branches,  which 
bear  myriads  of  one-celled  spores  called  conidia, 
by  which  the  mildew  is  rapidly  spread  to  other 
plants.  Later  in  the  season  thick-walled  resting 
spores  are  produced,  by  which  the  fungus  is  car- 
ried through  the  winter.  These  spores  have  ap- 
pendages of  various  kinds,  by  which  they  retain 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


HJLDEW.  488  MTTiETiTJ. 

their  attachment  to  the  leaves,  and  in  the  spring  present  English  mile  by  from  142  to  144  yards. 
they  develop  a  new  generation  of  thin-walled  On  the  Continent  of  Europe  previous  to  the  gen- 
spores  for  the  spread  of  the  disease.  There  are  eral  adoption  of  the  metric  system,  the  length 
about  150  described  species  of  powdery  mil-  of  the  modern  mile  in  different  countries  exhibit- 
dews,  and  there  are  few  of  our  plants  that  are  ed  a  remarkable  diversity  not  satisfactorily  ac- 
not  subject  to  attack  from  some  of  them.  Among  counted  for.  Before  the  time  of  Elizabeth  scien- 
the  common  ones  injurious  to  economic  plants  title  writers  made  use  of  a  mile  of  5000  English 
are  the  apple,  pear,  and  cherry  mildew  (Pod-  feet,  from  the  notion  that  this  was  the  Roman 
osphcera  oxyoantha) y  rose  mildew  {Sphcerotheca  mile,  forgetting  the  difference  in  value  between 
pannoua),  hop  mildew  {Sphcerotheca  castagnei) ,  the  English  and  Roman  foot.  The  present  Eng- 
grape  mildew  {Uncinula  spiralis) y  mildew  of  lish  statute  mile  was  incidentally  defined  by  an 
wheat  and  other  grasses  {Erysiphe  graminis),  act  passed  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  the  reign 
gooseberry  mildew  {8ph<groth€ca  mors-uvce) ,  cu-  of  Elizabeth  to  be  "8  furlongs  of  40  perches  of 
cumber  mildew  {Erysiphe  cichoracearum) ,  which  16%  feet  each" — i.e.  1760  yards  of  3  feet  each — 
also  attacks  verbenas,  sunflowers,  asters,  and  and  it  has  since  retained  this  value.  The  (/co- 
other  plants,  pea  mildew  {Erysiphe  martii),  etc.  graphic,  nautical,  or  sea  mile  is  variously  de- 
Downy  mildews  are  internal  parasites  which  grow  fined  as  (a)  the  length  of  a  minute  of  latitude 
through  the  tissues  of  the  plants  that  bear  them,  at  any  point,  (b)  the  mean  length  of  a  minute 
and  only  appearin^f  outside  to  shed  their  micro-  of  latitude  (6082.66  feet),  and  (c)  the  length 
scopic  spores.  The  branches  of  the  fimgus  bearing  of  a  minute  of  longitude  on  the  equator  (6087.15 
these  spores  are  often  so  abundant  as  to  give  a  feet).  The  United  States  Coast  Survey  has 
peculiar  downy  or  frosty  appearance  to  the  leaf  adopted  as  the  standard  geographic  mile  the 
or  other  part  of  the  plant  infested.  The  spores  length  of  a  minute  of  latitude  of  a  sphere  having 
(conidia)  are  one-celled,  thin-walled,  and  are  the  same  surface  as  the  earth.  This  gives  a 
readily  blown  about  by  the  wind.  Falling  upon  length  of  6080.27  feet.  The  British  Admiralty 
a  new  leaf  or  plant,  if  the  moisture  conditions  mile  is  6080  feet.  As  the  United  States  statute 
are  favorable,  they  quickly  germinate  and  set  mile  is  6280  feet,  a  nautical  mile  is  1.15155 
up  a  new  infection.  In  this  way  they  spread  statute  miles,  or  1853.24  meters.  For  ordinary 
with  great  rapidity,  and  often  produce  epidemic  purposes, of  navigation  the  nautical  mile  is  as- 
ontbreaks  of  disease.  The  resting  spores  are  sumed  to  be  equal  to  a  minute  of  latitude  in  the 
formed  within  the  tissues  of  the  host,  and  are  region  navigated,  the  error  being  inappreciable 
thus  carried  over  from  season  to  season.     They  in  the  calculations. 

are  liberated  by  the  decay  of  the  tissues  sur-        The  following  table  gives  the  length,  in  English 

rounding  them,  and  from  these  a  new  generation  statute  miles,  of  the  various  miles  that  have  been 

is  derived.    Among  the  downy  mildews  are  some  or  are  commonly  used : 
of  the  most  serious  plant  parasites.     The  more  En^.  miles 

common  ones  are  the  potato  rot  or  mildew  (Phy  ^^?^^^^sS^^—::::::;::::::::—^^^^^^  rV.ifi 

tophthora  tnfestans),  the  grape  downy  mildew  Tuncan  mile —  l.ow 

{Plasmopara  viiicola),  lima-bean  mildew   {Phy-  Ancient  Scotch  mhe —1.127 

tophthora    phaseolih    lettuce    mildew     {Bremia  Qer;;anlhort"mUe .::.:::=  Zl'S^ 

lactucw),  onion  mildew  {Peronospora  schletdent-  pruwian  mile =4.680 

ana),  cucumber  and  melon  downy  mildew  {Plas-  Danish  mile """l"??! 

mopara  cubensis),  downy  mildew  of  radishes  and  g^j^'j^it"  ""^:.:;:;:::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::::::::;:::::::  ZiVS. 

other    cruciferous    plants    {Cystopus  candidus),  German  long  mVie....!!...."................!^^  —6.753 

etc.     Most  of  these  mildews  are  more  fully  de-  Hanoverian  mile "J'SS 

scribed   under   the   diseases   of   their   respective  STi^^^V?!**:::::::;  -o.'Si 

host   plants.     The  problem   of   combating  them        and  29  kii.  =  is  Er^lisii  Btatnte 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  experimentation  in        g^  Weights  and  Measures  and  Metric  Sys- 

America  and  in  Europe.     It  has  been  found  that  ^^     ^^^    ^j^^    various    authorities    referred    to 

many  of  the  powdery  mildews  can  ha  hold  in  check  ^he/punder 

and  often  serious  loss  prevented  by  dusting  the        ,.^».„^L«       ^  x*  1        j      j    -^ 

plants  with  sulphur,  or,  if  in  a  house  or  frame        MLEAGB.      Compensation    reckoned    at    so 

where  it  can  be  done,  exposing  them  for  a  few  mo-  much  per  mile  in  lieu  of  traveling  expenses  usual- 

ments  to  the  fumes  of  boiling,  but  not  burning,  ly  allowed  public  officers,  who  are  compelled  to 

sulphur.  Spraving  thoroughly  and  repeatedly  with  journey  to  the  seat  of  government  m  order  to 

Bordeaux  mixture,  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  discharge    their    official    duti«i.      It    is    usually 

solution,  or  other  standard  fungicide   (q.v.)   will  reckoned  according  to  the  shortest  route  by  which 

prevent    the   serious   attack   of   both    classes   of  the  officer  is  able  to  travel,  although  there  are 

mildews.    Success  in  these  preventive  treatments  sometimes  cases  of  constructive  mileage  where 

depends  upon  thoroughness.     See  Diseases  of  compensation  is  allowed  for  distances  which  are 

Plaxto;  Fungi,  EcoiiroMic.  not   actually   traveled.     The  f^^^^^^^^.^ 

wTT-p       A  ^^=i,«.  r.f  inncrfii  in  r^nminnn  iiRP  compcnsatiou  IS  lu  vcry  general  use  m  the  United 

in^S^BriraXthe^a^'S^l^rdVe"  Bt.C     I^lr«.d  --rR"rre'":^t/;"]^^d"^» 

colonic*.    The  name  U  also  in  use  on  the  Conti-  P««^V".  ^hf ^J^^^  W^v^rll  Stat^  leriL 

j«nt  of  Europe  to  desi^ategenerany^  L^  :' o^.a'4   oTbSan^^prbUc  o'.^l:ia 

larger  measure  of  length    »\"''>''Kh  ""«.  ^ffi*'")  aoceptinK  gratuitous  pasSige  from  public  carriers, 

measure    18    now   generally   the    kilometer       It  ^^e  same  end  is  attained  by  the  propisions  limit- 

i.  derived  from  the  Roman  m.Mu,re,  w^«cl>  con_  -"«  ^^.^giving  of   pai»es  ^ihder*^  the   Interstate 

tained     1000     paces     (mtlle    passuum)     of     5  '"^"      ^^  i-,J?„t  lona 

Koman    feet   each,   the   pace   being   the    length  *-"°»"*!^  jt'' °^^^.,;,     ^  „,„     ^ 

of  the   step   made   by   one   foot.     The   Roman        MILEIiLI,    mi-len^,    DoMHnnco     (18*1-)- 

foot   heing    between    11.62    and    11.65    English  An  Italian  poet,  bom  at  Catanzaro,  m  Calabna. 

Inches,  the  Roman  mile  was  thus  less  than  the  He  was  educated  for  the  priesthood,  but  did  not 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MILELLI. 


484 


MILETUS. 


take  orders,  and  afterwards  taught  for  several 
years.  His  publications  include  several  volumes 
of  poetry,  which  show  much  imagination,  but 
little  sustained  force.  His  volume,  Odi  pagane 
(1879)  was  much  criticised,  not  only  for  its 
pagan  spirit,  but  on  account  of  the  attacks  on 
Manzoni.  Other  works  are:  In  giovinezza 
(1879)  ;  Oioconda  (1874)  ;  Hiemalia  (1874)  ;  Po- 
vertd  (1879)  ;  Discerpta  (1881)  ;  II  rapimento  di 
Elena  (1882)  ;  Canzoniere  (1884)  ;  Verde  antico 
(1885);  and  Miscellanea  (1886),  a  volume  of 
essays. 

mLES,  Nelson  Appleton  (1839—).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Westminster,  Mass. 
He  was  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  in  Boston 
between  1856  and  1861.  In  September,  1861,  he 
was  commissioned  captain  of  the  Twenty-second 
Massachusetts  Infantry;  in  May,  1862,  he  became 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Sixty-first  New  York 
Volunteers,  and  participated  in  the  Peninsular 
campaign  and  the  battle  of  Antietam.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1862,  he  was  promoted  to  be  colonel 
of  volunteers.  He  served  in  the  battle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg, was  wounded  at  Chancellorsville. 
and  took  part  in  the  campaign  before  Richmond 
in  1864.  He  was  commissioned  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  May  12,  1864,  and  was  brevetted 
major-general  of  volunteers  in  August,  1864, 
for  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Reams's  Station. 
On  October  21,  1865,  he  was  commissioned  major- 
general  of  volunteers;  in  July,  1866,  he  was  ap- 
pointed colonel,  Fortieth  Infantry,  Regular 
Army;  and  on  March  2,  1867,  he  was  brevetted 
brigadier  and  major-general,  U.  S.  A.,  for  brav- 
ery at  Chancellorsville  and  Spottsylvania.  Dur- 
ing the  succeeding  years  General  Miles's  chief 
service  was  against  the  Indians  in  the  West.  In 
1875  he  defeated  the  Cheyenne,  Kiowa,  and  Co- 
manche tribes,  and  in  1876  the  Sioux  and  Nez 
Perc(^  in  Montana;  and  in  1886  he  made  a  cam- 
paign against  the  Apaches  and  compelled  their 
chiefs,  Geronirao  and  Natchez,  to  surrender.  For 
this  service  he  received  the  thanks  of  the  legis- 
latures of  Kansas,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona.  In  1890-91  he  suppressed  some  Indian 
outbreaks  in  South  Dakota.  In  1880  he  was 
commissioned  a  brigadier-general.  In  1890  he 
became  a  major-general,  and  on  the  retirement 
of  General  Schofield,  in  1895,  he  became  the  com- 
manding general  of  the  army.  During  the  strike 
riots  of  1894  in  Chicago  he  commanded  the  United 
States  troops,  and  later  visited  the  scene  of  the 
GrsBCO-Turkish  War,  and  in  1897  he  represented 
the  United  States  Army  at  Queen  Victoria's  Jubi- 
lee. During  the  war  of  1898  against  Spain  he 
directed  in  person  the  occupation  of  Porto  Rico. 
Within  two  weeks  the  entire  western  part  of  the 
island  was  cleared.  The  total  loss  of  the  Ameri- 
cans was  only  four  killed  and  forty  wounded.  He 
was  made  lieutenant-general  in  February,  1901, 
in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  Congress  of  June  6, 
1900.  In  1902-3  he  made  a  tour  of  inspection  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  He  retired  from  the  army 
in  1903,  and  in  1905  served  as  adjutant-general 
on  the  staff  of  Governor  Douglas,  of  Massachu- 
setts. He  published  Personal  Recollections,  or 
frofn  New  England  to  the  Oolden  Gate  { 1897 ) . 

MILES  GLOBIOSITS;  milez  glo'rl-O'sfls 
(Lat.,  braggart  soldier) .  An  entertaining  comedy 
by  Plautus.  It  is  a  broad  farce,  with  a  very 
slight  plot  resting  entirely  on  the  exaggerated 
representation  of  the  leading  character. 


MILE'^IANS.  The  original  Gaelic  colonists 
of  Ireland,  so  called,  according  to  the  bardic 
accounts,  from  the  three  sons  of  Mil  (Latinized 
Milesius),  who,  coming  in  force  from  the  opposite 
coast  of  Spain  or  Gaul,  landed  on  the  southern 
end  of  the  island  and  defeated  the  preceding 
colonists  and  conquerors,  the  Tuatha-de-Danaan, 
in  two  great  battles,  thus  making  themselves 
masters  of  the  country.  The  date  is  indefinitely 
placed  some  centuries  before  the  Christian  Era. 
This  was  the  last  of  the  traditional  prehistoric 
colonizations  of  Ireland,  the  dominant  Milesians 
fusing  with  the  Tuatha-de-Danaan  (q.v.)  and 
Firbolg  (q.v.)  to  form  the  Irish  race  as  we  find 
it  at  the  dawn  of  history.  The  native  kings, 
chieftains,  and  prominent  families  up  to  the 
period  of  the  Norman  Conquest  all  claimed  direct 
descent  from  Milesian  ancestry. 

ISXLBBIAN  TALES  {Ui\7f<riaKd,  MiUsiaka). 
The  name  given  to  a  class  of  short,  indecent  anec- 
dotes in  vogue  at  Miletus  and  through  Asia 
Minor  in  the  first  century  B.C.  The  compilation 
of  six  books  of  these  stories  was  ascribed  to  a 
certain  Aristides  of  Miletus.  Specimens  of  these 
works  can  be  seen  in  the  translation  of  Sisenna, 
printed  in  Bttcheler*s  small  edition  of  Petronius 
(Boston,  1882). 

MILES  O'BEILLY,  mllz  A-rlOl.  The  pseu- 
donym of  the  American  soldier  and  poet  Charles 
Graham  Halpine   (q.v.). 

MILET  BE  MUBEAtr,  m^'W  de  my'r^, 
Louis  Marie  Antoine  Destouff,  Baron  (1756- 
1825).  A  French  soldier  and  politician,  bom  at 
Toulon.  He  entered  the  army  and  was  made  a 
captain.  As  a  member  of  the  States-General, 
in  1789,  he  voted  with  the  Right;  afterwards 
he  commanded  the  artillery  in  the  army  of  occu- 
pation in  Italy.  In  1793  he  was  banished  as  a 
suspect,  but  was  permitted  to  return  to  France  two 
years  later,  and  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in 
1796.  He  was  War  Minister  for  a  few  months 
in  1799,  was  created  a  baron  by  Napoleon  in 
1809,  was  a  prefect  of  Corrfeze  in  1802-10,  and 
director  of  the  general  War  Department  in  1814, 
but  retired  two  years  afterwards.  He  edited  the 
P^^rouse  journals,  which  were  published  under 
the  title  Voyage  de  La  P&rouse  autour  du  monde 
1785-88  (1797,  2d  ed.  1798),  and  translated  into 
German,  Swedish,  and  English. 

MILETUS  (Lat,  from  Gk.  mXrrrot,  Miletos). 
Anciently  the  greatest  and  most  flourishing  city 
of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor.  It  was  situated  on  the 
Latmic  Gulf,  at  the  mouth  of  the  MsBander.  and 
was  famous  for  its  woolen  manufactures  and  for 
its  extensive  trade  with  the  north.  The  site  is 
said  to  have  been  occupied  by  a  Carian  town, 
when  the  Ionian  colonists,  under  Neleus,  seized 
the  place,  massacred  the  men,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  their  wives.  Though  the  inhabitants 
prided  themselves  on  their  Ionian  descent,  the 
names  of  their  tribes  show  the  presence  of  a 
foreign  element.  The  city  early  came  to  occupy 
a  commanding  position  in  the  Greek  commercial 
world,  and  established  many  colonies  in  the  north, 
as  Abydos  and  Lampsacus,  on  the  Hellespont; 
Cyzicus,  on  the  Propontis;  Sinope.  Olbia,  Istria, 
Tomi,  and  Panticapjpum.  on  the  Black  Sea.  Un- 
der the  tyrant  Thrasybulus  it  offered  so  resolute 
a  resistance  to  the  Lydian  kings  that  it  was  at 
last  received  into  an  alliance  on  equal  terms.  It 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Ionian  revolt  (B.C. 
500),  and  after  the  battle  of  Lade  was  besieged 


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by  the  Persians,  and  after  a  long  resistance  cap- 
tured and  destroyed  in  B.C.  494.  It  seems  to  have 
revived  after  the  formation  of  the  Athenian 
League,  and  near  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  ventured  to  revolt  and  join  the  Spartans. 
It  also  offered  some  resistance  to  Alexander,  but 
«eems  to  have  declined  from  that  time,  though 
it  continued  to  exist  for  several  centuries.  Saint 
Paul  spent  two  or  three  days  there  on  his  last 
journey  to  Jerusalem  before  his  imprisonment 
at  Rome,  and  delivered  his  farewell  address  to 
the  elders  from  Ephesus,  who  visited  him  at 
his  request  (Acts  xx.  15-xxi.  1).  Another  visit, 
referred  to  in  I.  Timothy  iv.  20,  is  best  placed 
in  a  period  later  than  that  covered  by  the  Book 
of  Acts.  Miletus  has  a  distinguished  place  in  the 
history  of  Greek  literature,  having  been  the  birth- 
place of  the  philosophers  Thales,  Anaximander, 
and  Anaximenes,  and  of  the  historians  Cadmus 
and  Hecatseus.  Its  harbor  is  now  filled  up,  and 
the  site  is  a  swampy  plain,  occupied  by  the  little 
Turkish  village  of  Palatia.  Excavations  were 
4>egun  by  the  Berlin  Museum  in  1899,  and  in 
spite  of  great  difficulties  have  determined  the 
course  of  the  ancient  walls,  some  streets,  the 
Bouleuterion  and  part  of  the  Agora,  and  other 
points  important  for  the  topography  of  the  city. 
Preliminary  reports  are  published  in  the  8itz- 
tmgsherichte  der  Akademie  der  Wissenschaft  zu 
Berlin  for  1900  et  seq.  See  also  the  unfinished 
work  of  Rayet  and  Thomas,  Milet  et  le  Qolf  hat- 
mique  (Paris,  1877  et  seg.). 

MIOiEY,  John  (1813-95).  An  American 
theologian  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  C!hurch. 
He  was  bom  near  Hamilton,  Butler  County, 
Ohio;  graduated  at  Augusta  College,  Ken- 
tucky, in  1838;  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  same  year, 
and  served  churches  in  Ohio  and  Eastern  New 
York  from  1838  to  1873,  except  during  1848-60, 
when  he  was  teacher  in  Wesley  Female  College 
in  Cincinnati.  In  1873  he  became  professor  of 
tsystematic  theology  in  Drew  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Madison,  N.  J.,  which  chair  he  filled  till 
his  death.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Treatise  on 
Class  Meetings  (1851)  ;  The  Atonement  in  Christ 
(1879),  which  advocates  the  governmental  the- 
ory; and  Systematic  Theology  (1892-94).  He 
was  a  progressive  conservative,  holding  to  the 
substance  of  the  traditional  Methodist  theology, 
but  introducing  important  and  some  even  radical 
changes  of  view. 

TWTTiFOIL.    An  herb.    See  Achillea. 

MH/EOBD.  A  seaport  in  Pembrokeshire, 
Wales,  on  the  famous  Milford  Haven,  six  miles 
from  its  entrance,  and  273  miles  west  of 
London  by  rail  (Map:  England,  A  5).  The 
haven  is  formed  by  an  estuary  running  inland  for 
17  miles  to  Langwin  (easily  reached  by  vessels 
of  2000  tons),  and  varies  from  one  to  two  miles 
in  breadth.  It  is  protected  from  winds  by  a 
girdle  of  hills;  its  lower  reaches  are  well  forti- 
fied. The  distance  of  Milford,  however,  from  the 
Channel,  the  highway  of  British  commerce,  is  a 
serious  disadvantage,  and  its  trade  is  not  com- 
mensurate with  its  natural  advantages.  The 
town  has  passenger  and  cattle  traffic  with  Irish 
ports,  and  an  avera^^e  of  2700  vessels  of  575,000 
tons  burden  enter  and  clear  annually.  Area  of 
docks,  60  acres;  depth  of  water  over  sill  (high 
tide),  34  feet.  The  proposition  to  make  Milford 
the  eastern  terminus  of  the  English  transatlantic 


steamers  has  been  long  discussed,  as  it  would 
shorten  by  several  hours  the  time  now  necessary 
for  reaching  London.  The  United  States  is  repre- 
sented by  an  agent.  The  town  owns  its  water  and 
gas  supplies.  The  haven  is  frequently  mentioned 
in  Shakespeare's  Cymheline.  Henry  VII.,  when 
Earl  of  Richmond,  landed  here*  in  1485,  on  his 
way  to  claim  the  crown.  Population,  in  1891, 
4070;  in  1901,  6102. 

MILFOBD«  A  town  in  New  Haven  County, 
Conn.,  nine  miles  southwest  of  New  Haven;  on 
Long  Island  Sound,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wepo- 
waug  River,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Connecticut,  C  5). 
It  is  an  attractive  summer  resort,  with  fine  boat- 
ing and  bathing  facilities.  Its  noteworthy  fea- 
turee  include  the  Taylor  Library  of  12,000  vol- 
umes, an  interesting  Memorial  Bridge,  erected 
(1889)  on  the  two  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  town's  settlement,  a  soldiers*  monu- 
ment, and  the  Broad  Street  Park  of  four  acres. 
The  leading  industries  are  farming,  seed-growing, 
oyster  cultivation,  wood-turning  and  sawing,  and 
the  manufacture  of  straw  hats,  gas  metres,  brasa 
novelties,  car  furnishings,  etc.  Population,  in 
1890,  3811;  in  1900,  3783. 

Milford,  called  Wepowage  by  the  Indians,  was 
settled  in  1639  by  a  company  from  New  Haven 
and  Wethersfield.  In  1644  Milford  became  one 
of  the  six  towns  which  constituted  the  confed- 
erate "Colony  of  New  Haven,"  and  in  1664  it  came 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Connecticut.  Robert 
Treat,  an  early  colonial  Governor,  lived  in  Mil- 
ford, and  here,  from  1661  to  1663,  the  regicides 
Goffe  and  Whalley  were  secreted.  Consult  "Early 
Milford,"  an  article  in  the  Connecticut  Magazine, 
vol.  V.   (Hartford,  1899). 

MILFOBD.  A  town  in  Kent  and  Sussex 
counties,  Del.,  about  73  miles  by  rail  south  of 
Wilmington;  on  Mispitton  Creek,  and  on  the 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Washington  Rail- 
road (Map:  Delaware,  Q  5).  A  steamship  line 
also  connects  the  town  with  Philadelphia.  It  is 
the  shipping  point  for  the  surrounding  agricul- 
tural and  fruit-growing  district,  and  has  various 
industrial  interests.  There  is  a  subscription 
library  of  about  1500  volumes.  Milford  was 
founded  in  1680,  and  was  incorporated  in  1787. 
Population,  1900,  2500;   1906   (local  est.),  3000. 

MILFOBD.  A  town  in  Worcester  County, 
Mass.,  18  miles  (direct)  southeast  of  Worcester; 
on  the  Charles  River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Al- 
bany, and  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hart- 
ford railroads  (Map:  Massachusetts,  D  3).  It 
has  a  fine  high-school  building,  and  a  memorial 
hall  which  contains  the  public  library,  and  is 
noted  as  a  manufacturing  centre,  its  products  in- 
cluding boots  and  shoes,  straw  goodis,  bone-cut- 
ters, foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  etc. 
There  are  also  extensive  quarries  of  granite, 
which  is  used  in  the  construction  of  some  of  the 
largest  buildings  in  the  country,  and  which  is 
shipped  in  large  quantities.  The  government  is 
administered  by  town  meetings,  \vnich  are  con- 
vened at  least  twice  a  year.  Population,  1905, 
12,105.  Settled  as  early  as  1669,  Milford,  with  a 
population  of  750,  was  incorporated  as  a  separate 
town  in  1780,  having  previously  been  the  East 
Precinct  of  Mendon.  Consult  Ballou,  History  of 
the  Town  of  Milford  (Boston,  1882). 

HXLHAJJf  m^'iy.     A  town  of  France.     See 

MiLLAU. 


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MTTiTAUTA. 


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MILITABY  ACADEMY. 


MILIA'IIIA  (Lat.  fern.  sg.  of  tniliarUts,  re- 
lating to  millet,  from  milium,  miikt).  A  struc- 
tural affection  of  the  sweat  glands,  caused  hj 
an  obstruction  to  the  sweat  secretion,  and  gen- 
erally accompanied  by  inflammation.  It  is  classed 
with  the  skin  diseases. 

In  miliaria  crt^taUina,  or  '9udamina,  the  non- 
inflammatory form,  the  lesion  consists  of  minute, 
pearly  vesicles  set  closely  together,  but  alwajrs 
discrete,  generally  appearing  on  the  neck,  chest, 
and  abdomen,  but  sometimes  in  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  vesicles  appear  rapidly,  and  depart 
in  a  few  days.  Invasions  of  fresh  crops  may 
occur,  thus  continuing  the  eruption  for  weeks. 

In  miHctria  ve^iculoaa,  or  rubra,  inflammation 
occurs  in  the  gland,  and  the  vesicles  appear  as  if 
raised  cd  a  red  ba8«.  This  is  the  stro^ulus,  or 
red  gum,  of  the  ancients,  and  is  seen  principally 
in  children  during  hot  weather  and  when  exces- 
sively heavy  clothing  is  worn. 

Miliaria  papulosa,  or  lichen  tropicus,  is  com- 
monly known  as  prickly  beat.  In  this  variety 
red,  pointed  papules  are  crowded  together,  with 
here  and  there  a  vesicle  or  pustule.  It  is  ac^ 
companicd  br  excessive  sweating  and  annoyiBg 
prickling  and  tingling.  It  is  a  tropical  disease, 
of  which  a  milder  form  is  seen  in  this  country. 

The  treatment  of  miliaria  consists  in  removing 
heaAy  clothing,  administering  cool  baths  and 
saline  diuretics,  and  applying  locally  soothing 
and  astringent  lotions,  sudi  as  lead  water,  black 
wash,  dilute  vinegar,  or  powdered  camphor  mixed 
Mith  starch  or  oxide  of  zinc 

MJL'lATBJjrM.  Atr^KUM  (Lat.,  golden 
mile-stone).  A  gilded  column  of  bronze  con- 
nected with  the  rostra  in  the  Roman  Forum . 
On  it  were  engraved  the  distances  of  the  postal 
stations  from  the  city  gates  on  the  great  roads 
leading  out  of  Rome.  It  was  set  up  in  bx.  29  by 
Augustus,  and  portions  of  the  marble  base  on 
which  it  stood  were  discovered  on  the  spot  in 
1849. 

KILIAXrr  FEVEB.     See  Miliaria. 

IdLICZ  (m^llch)  orKsEMSiEB  (1325-74).  A 
predecessor  of  John  Huss.  He  was  born  at 
Kremsier.  Moravia;  entered  holy  orders,  and 
was  attached  to  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV.;  became  a  canon  and  later  archdeacon.  In 
1363  he  resigned  his  appointments,  giving  him- 
self up  to  preaching,  and  was  very  successful. 
He  went  to  Rome  in  1367  to  expound  his  views 
as  to  ecclesiastical  abuses,  but  was  thrown  into 
pri^Kjn  by  the  Inquisition,  from  which  he  was 
released  by  Pope  turban  V.,  on  his  arrival  from 
Avifrnon  in  the  autumn  of  that  year.  He  re- 
tnrne<l  to  Prapriie.  where  he  preached  daily  with 
greater  success  than  ever  till  in  1374  he  was 
summoned  before  the  Papal  Court  at  Avimion, 
upon  complaint  as  to  his  orth(Kloxy,  preferred 
by  the  clergy  of  Prague.  He  obeyed,  and  the 
complaint,  after  invest i nation,  was  dismissed. 
He  died  in  Avignon,  on  June  20,  1374.  Consult: 
Palacky,  Die  Vorlaufer  dcs  Hufi^sitenthums 
(Prague,  1869)  ;  Techier,  Johann  von  Wiclif 
und  die  Vorfjeschichte  dcr  Rrforniatio)if  vol.  ii. 
(Leipzig,  1873). 

KILIN^A.  The  Pali  form  of  the  name  of 
the  Graeco-Bactrian  King  Menander  (q.v.).  In 
the  literature  of  the  Buddhists  his  name  is  im- 
portant through  a  book  entitled  Milindapanha, 
or  "Questions  of  Milinda,"  a  work  which  pro- 
fesses to  give  an  account  of  a  discussion  between 


him  and  the  Buddhist  sage  Xagaseaa.  It  has 
been  translate<l  into  English  by  Davids,  The 
Questions  of  King  Milinda    (Oxford,   1890-W). 

MHiITABY  academy,  Rotal.  An  estab- 
lishment at  Woolwich,  England,  through  which 
must  pass  all  candidates  for  the  Royal  Artillery 
and  the  Royal  Engineers.     See  Miutaby  Educa- 

TIOIJ. 

MIUTABY  ACADEMY,  UifiTED  States. 
The  national  institution  for  the  theoretical  and 
practical  training  of  cadets  for  eommiaaions  im 
the  United  States  Army.  It  is  situated  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y.,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudsoii, 
50  miles  from  its  mouth,  amid  the  pietnreaqiie 
peaks  of  the  Highlands.  This  place  has  been 
occupied  as  a  military  poet  contisuouslv  siBoe 
January  20,  1778,  (See  West  Point  for  herolii- 
tionary  history  of  the  locality  and  description 
of  the  modem  poet  buildings,  surround  iiigSy 
etc)  The  Academy  itself  had  its  origin  in  a 
resolutimi  passed  by  Congress  on  October  1,  1776, 
which  appointed  a  committee  to  prepare  a  plaa 
for  "a  nulitary  academy  for  the  army."  On  June 
20,  1777,  it  was  ordered  that  a  Corps  of  Invalida 
organised  as  '*a  military  school  for  yoang  gea- 
tlemen  previous  to  their  being  appointed  ta 
marcliing  regiments"  be  institute ;  which  order 
was  earned  into  effect  almost  immediately.  Gcs- 
eral  Washington  w^as  untiring  in  his  eflforts  to 
establish  the  academy,  and  it  was  at  his  reqmest 
in  1781  that  the  Corps  of  Invalids  was  marehed 
from  Philadelphia  to  join  the  garrison  at  West 
Point.  Two  years  later  Washington  again 
brought  the  idea  of  a  military  academy  before 
his  officers  at  Newburgh,  and  made  a  special 
reference  to  it  in  his  message  of  December  3, 
1793.  On  May  9,  1794,  his  ideas  and  aspirations 
were  crystallized  in  a  law  approved  on  that  date, 
whereby  was  authorized  the  organization  of  a 
corps  of  engineers  and  artillerists  with  two 
'cadets*  to  each  company,  and  a  school  of  in- 
struction for  them  was  established  at  West 
Point  in  the  same  year. 

Prior  to  1781  there  were  at  West  Point  three 
separate  buildings,  used  as  an  engineer  school, 
laboratory,  and  library  respectively.  In  1796  the 
buildings  occupied  by  the  corps  were  burned 
down,  and  thus  for  a  time  the  work  of  the  Acad- 
emy was  suspended.  Instruction  was  resumed 
on  September  1,  1801,  by  order  of  the  Secretary 
of  War,  who,  on  July  20th  of  that  year,  issued 
an  order  directing  that  all  the  cadets  of  the  Corps 
of  Artillerists  should  report  at  West  Point  for 
instruction.  The  faculty  of  the  Academy  at 
this  time  was  made  up  of  four  army  officers  and 
a  civilian,  who  acted  as  administrators  and  in- 
tjtruotors.  The  actual  creation  of  the  Military 
Academy  as  it  is  known  to-day  occurred  in  1802. 
under  the  authorization  of  an  act  of  Congress 
approved  on  March  16th.  West  Point  was  se- 
lected for  its  location,  and  with  a  class  of  ten 
cadets  present  it  was  formally  opened  on  July 
4,  1802.  The  bill  authorized  the  establishment 
of  a  corps  of  engineers  to  consist  of  five  per- 
sons, a  major,  two  first  lieutenants,  two  second 
lieutenants,  and  ten  cadets,  with  the  pay  of  $18 
per  month.  Provision  was  also  made  for  promo- 
tions in  the  corps,  not  to  exceed  one  colonel,  one 
lieutenant,  two  majors,  four  captains,  four  first 
lieutenants,  and  four  second  lieut^iai^s;  but 
it  was  also  distinctly  ordained  that  the  entire 
corps  should  not  exceed  twenty  offioers  and  cad^ 


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MILITABY  ABCHITECTTTBE. 


The  following  year  an  increase  of  forty  cadets 
-was  authorized,  and  in  1808  15G  became  eligible, 
but,  owing  to  the  lack  of  provision  for  them  at 
the  Academy,  very  few  of  them  were  enabled  to 
report  for  instruction. 

The  Academy  passed  through  many  vicissi- 
tudes about  this  time,  and  in  ^fxireh,  1812,  was 
i^ithout  a  single  instructor,  t^tudents  entered 
■without  any  mental  or  physical  examination  and 
without  any  regard  to  age.  The  War  of  1812, 
however,  called  the  attention  of  the  Government 
to  the  pressing  needs  of  tlie  Academy.  Only  71 
students  had  been  graduated  in  its  first  ten 
years,  and  President  Madison  called  the  attention 
of  Congress  to  the  necessity  of  making  the  Acad- 
emy a  scientific  as  well  as  a  military  oollege,  in 
consequence  of  which,  on  April  29,  1812,  the 
Academy  was  reorganiaed  upon  the  principles 
which  underlie  its  present  organization.  In 
1818  the  rules  approved  by  President  Monroe 
went  into  eflFect  and  provided  that  the  assign- 
ment of  cadets  to  the  different  corps  in  the  army 
and  their  relative  rank  must  depend  upon  their 
general  merits,  to  be  determined  by  a  competent 
board  of  examiners,  and  that  cadets  should  not 
be  promoted  imtil  after  they  had  received  a  di- 
ploma. Colonel  Sylvanus  Thayer  was  appointed 
Superintendent  of  West  Point  in  1817,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  making  the  institution  famous  among 
the  military  schools  of  the  world.  In  1815  he  was 
sent  by  the  Government  to  Europe,  to  study  mili- 
tary schools,  and  during  the  si?rteen  years  of  his 
suppr  in  tendency  (1817  to  1833)  completely  re- 
organized the  curriculum  of  the  United  States 
school.  He  organized  the  system  of  divisions 
of  classes  into  sections;  organized  the  corps  of 
cadets  into  a  battalion;  and  created  the  position 
of  commandant  of  cadets.  In  1833  he  took  is- 
sue with  President  Andrew  Jackson  regarding  de- 
tails of  management  and  resigned  his  post.  In 
1838  it  was  again  offered  him,  together  with  con- 
cessions that  gave  him  almost  absolute  control, 
but  he  declined  to  accept.  From  this  time  on 
little  change  has  been  made  in  the  organization 
of  the  Academy  other  than  those  natural  to  the 
progress  of  time. 

The  Civil  War  (1861-65)  brought  West  Point 
into  considerable  prominence  throughout  the  civ- 
ilized world;  so  much  so  that  since  then  its 
methods  have  been  carefully  studied  by  the  ex- 
perts of  nearly  every  great  European  country. 
Every  one  of  the  commanding  generals  on  both 
sides  in  the  great  W'ar  of  the  Rebellion  who 
«amed  high  military  honors  was  a  graduate  of 
West  Point. 

The  authorized  number  of  cadets  in  1906  was 
522,  and  the  number  of  instructors  85.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  to  a  large  extent  matlie- 
matical  and  professional.  The  curriculum  in- 
cludes: Mathematics,  drawing,  natural  and 
experimental  philosophy,  chemistry,  chemical 
physics,  mineralogy'. .geology,  electricity,  history; 
international,  constitutional,  and  military  law; 
the  French  and  Spanish  languages,  drill  regula- 
tions of  all  arms  of  tlie  service,  civil  and  military 
engineering,  the  art  and  science  of  war,  and 
ordnance  and  gunnery.  The  superintendent  is 
assisted  by  a  military  staff,  and  the  instruction 
is  given  by  an  academic  staff,  consisting  entirely 
of  army  officers,  with  the  additional  rank  of  pro- 
fessors, assistant  professors,  and  instructors  of 
"the  several  departments  in  which  they  serve. 

In  1902  the  requirements  for  candidates  seek- 


ing admission  were  raised,  which,  while  it  mak^s 
the  entrance  examination  more  difficult,  greatly 
assists  the  student  during  liis  period  of  in- 
struction at  the  Academy  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  work  he  is  called  upon  to  do  during 
his  course.  The  system  of  training  officers  at 
West  Point  is  regarded  as  more  complete  than 
that  of  any  other  country;  but  perhaps  the 
greatest  difference  is  the  West  Point  method 
of  holding  the  student  firmly  to  his  studies  dur- 
ing his  four  years'  course.  He  mingles  little 
with  the  outside  world,  except  in  his  furlough 
at  the  close  of  two  years,  so  that  the  four  most 
impressionable  years  of  liis  life  are  spent  in  a 
training  and  environment  well  calculated  to  pro- 
duce a  thorough  soldier.  The  Academy  has  been 
described  as  a  model  institution  by  many  dis- 
tinguished European  military  authorities,  and 
in  the  reorganizaticm  of  the  methods  of  military 
instruction  in  England  many  of  the  West  Point 
ideas  were  suggested.  The  West  Point  cadet  uni- 
form (see  UNiFOftMS,  MiUTARY)  is  the  famous 
cadet  gray. 

BiBLiooBAPHT.  Consult:  Mansfield,  The  United 
States  Academy  at  West  Point  (Hartford,  Conn., 
18G3)  ;  Farley,  West  Point  in  the  Early  Sixties 
(Trov,  N.  Y.,'l902)  ;  Boynton,  History  of  West 
Point  (New  York,  1864)  ;  Hancock,  Life  at  West 
Point  (New  York,  1902);  Cullum,  Biographical 
Register  of  the  Officers  and  Graduates  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  (4  vols.,  New 
York,  1891-1904)  ;  The  Centennial  United  States 
Military  Academy,  1802-1902  (2  vols.,  Washing- 
ton, 1904)  ;  and  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  the  Academy  (United  States  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  Washington). 

MILITABY  ABCUiTECr  U  BE.  The  vari- 
ous branches  of  architecture  and  engineering 
used  by  military  science  in  defensive  works  of 
different  kinds.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Fortification  for  the  military  discus- 
sion of  this  subject.  The  more  important  details 
of  military  architecture  will  be  found  described 
under  their  own  titles. 

Egypt.  The  fortified  cities  and  forts  of  Egypt 
are  the  earliest  yet  explored,  though  doubtless 
earlier  ones  were  erected  in  Babylonia.  The 
earliest  completely  fortified  city  in  good  preserva- 
tion is  El-Kab,  which  formed  a  parallelogram 
of  about  1500  by  2000  feet.  The  walls  were  of 
brick,  over  thirty  feet  thick,  and  less  than 
thirty  feet  high,  with  gates  only  on  two  sides. 
There  were  no  towers,  no  projections,  no  curved 
lines,  no  moats,  simply  a  plain  sharp-angled 
parallelogram,  and  the  gates  were  merely  open- 
ings. Such  walls  have  been  found  at  Thebes, 
Heliopolis,  and  in  many  other  cities.  Egyptian 
engineers,  however,  were  sufficiently  skillful  in 
the  Middle  Empire  to  take  advantage  of  the 
natural  defensive  features  of  rockj'  situations, 
and  to  abandon  the  defective  rectangular  ground- 
plan;  this  is  evident  at  Kumraeh  and  Semneh 
at  the  Second  Cataract,  built  to  protwt  Egypt 
from  Nubian  invasions.  Crude  brick  was  the 
material,  projecting  buttresses  strengthened  the 
walls  at  intervals,  and  there  were  stations  where 
archers  could  protect  the  approaches:  the  wide 
moat  which  encircled  the  fort  wns  defended  by  a 
low  stone  wall ;  the  interior  of  the  fort  was  filled 
up  solid  to  the  level  of  a  chemin-deronde.  The 
Hittite  wars  made  the  Egyptians  acquainted  with 
th€  far  more  advanced  systems  of  ^^>stem  Asia. 
Towers,  bastions,  elaborately  fortified  gates,  and 


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the  use  of  stone  for  brick  were  some  of  the  re- 
sults. 

Western  Asia.  The  use  of  crude  brick  has 
made  impossible  any  detailed  knowledge  of  the 
methods  of  fortification  used  in  Babylonian 
cities,  though  they  are  known  to  have  been  pro- 
tected by  walls  of  immense  thickness  and  height. 
The  plan  of  placing  the  royal  palace  on  one  side 
and  using  it  as  a  citadel,  of  rectangular  shape, 
was  followed  by  the  Assyrians,  as  shown  in  the 
city  of  Sargon,  near  Nineveh.  But  it  was  in  the 
more  mountainous  countries  of  Western  Asia,  es- 
pecially in  Syria  and  Armenia,  that  the  earliest 
really  scientific  types  of  military  engineering 
were  thought  out.  The  rectangular  type  was 
abandoned  in  favor  of  the  circular  or  ovoidal, 
by  which  the  weak  angles  were  entirely  avoided. 
In  place  of  a  single  wall  with  an  advance-wall 
or  scarp,  there  were  usually  three  concentric 
lines  of  increasing  heights,  each  with  towers  and 
battlements  and  chemina-de-ronde.  The  Hittite 
cities  were  the  most  famous  of  such  fortifications, 
from  which  both  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians 
learned  much  of  the  art  of  building,  of  attack- 
ing, and  of  defending  fortresses.  The  mountain- 
ous races  of  Western  Asia  thus  created  a 
type  that  was  to  remain  the  highest  known  to 
military  architecture,  and  to  be  perpetuated  by 
the  successors  of  Alexander,  by  the  Byzantine 
Emperors,  and  by  the  Crusaders. 

^GEAN  Peoples.  The  Pelasgians  and  other 
^gean  peoples  built  also  in  stone,  often  with 
Cyclopean  and  polygonal  masonry.  There  were 
many  types:  first,  the  groups  of  defensive  forts 
on  the  outskirts,  or  constituting  a  citadel;  then 
later,  the  walls  encircling  the  entire  city.  This 
wall  sometimes  rises  sixty  or  seventy  feet;  the 
citadel  as  much  more. 

Greek.  The  great  majority  of  fortifications 
found  in  Greece  belong  to  the  prehistoric  period 
just  described,  for  instance,  those  in  Acarnania, 
at  Orchomenus  and  Phigalia.  The  advances  made 
in  later  historic  times  are  shown,  for  example, 
at  Mantinea,  with  two  round  towers  protecting 
its  double  gate,  and  especially  at  Messene,  with 
gates  within  large  towers  having  a  circular  inner 
court.  The  towers  are  battlemented  and  are 
sometimes  rectangular. 

Roman.  The  walls  of  Pompeii,  of  Aosta,  and 
of  Rome  are  a  few  among  many  examples,  show- 
ing the  use  of  a  simple  encircling  wall.  The 
walls  of  Aurelian  show  three  tiers  of  defenses, 
two  lines  of  embrasures  opening  on  galleries,  and 
the  ckemin-de-ronde  behind  the  battlements,  be- 
sides, a  fourth  and  higher  line  at  the  summit  of 
the  numerous  square  towers.  A  unique  combina- 
tion of  camp,  palace,  and  fortress  was  Diocle- 
tian's palace  at  Spalato,  also  a  superb  work  of 
late  Roman  architecture,  with  heavily  projecting 
circular  and  rectangular  towers. 

Byzantine.  The  Eastern  Empire  continued 
the  traditions  of  the  ancient  Orient.  Antioch, 
Edessa,  Constantinople,  Amida,  and  other  great 
cities  trace  their  genealogy  from  Alexander's  suc- 
cessors to  Justinian.  The  essay  of  Procopius  on 
the  fortresses  of  Justinian  shows  how  the  Byzan- 
tine science  of  fortification  was  then  being  revo- 
lutionized under  this  Oriental  influence,  as  in  the 
great  works  at  Dara.  Between  the  towers  per- 
manent ^haugettes  and  machicoulis,  hurdles,  or 
overhanging  galleries,  were  built — originally  of 
wood,  but  then  of  stone,  in  order  better  to  let 
missiles  fall  on  the  besiegers.    The  system  of  sev- 


eral concentric  walls  triumphed  permanently  over 
the  single  rectangular  Roman  circuit.  The  citadel 
was  not,  as  with  the  Romans,  placed  in  the  cen- 
tre, but  in  touch  with  one  of  the  outer  walls,  so 
that  if  the  city  were  taken,  communication  could 
still  be  maintained  between  the  citadel  and  the 
outside  world.  Their  system  was  adopted  through- 
out the  Empire  and  even  in  Europe,  under  Jus- 
tinian. 

Mohammedan.  In  the  great  wars  with  the 
Byzantine  Empire,  the  swarming  Arabs  and  their 
converts  quickly  learned  the 'Science  of  military 
engineering,  and  exhibited  its  results  throughout 
their  great  empire,  especially  after  the  Titanic 
struggle  with  the  Macedonian  dynasty  in  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  The  great  field  was, 
as  always,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  and 
Asia  Minor.  These  lands  are  still  covered  with 
the  ruins  of  forts,  castles,  and  fortified  cities  of 
this  period.  Even  when  Saladin  had  Cairo  forti- 
fied, its  great  gates  built,  and  its  triple  walled 
citadel  erected,  he  called  architects  from  Syria. 
The  Mohammedans  opposed  to  the  Byzantines 
lines  of  fortresses  corresponding  to  theirs,  whose 
strength  is  celebrated  in  their  literature.  When 
the  Crusaders  came  to  the  East,  they  came  into 
contact  with  these  two  forms  of  Oriental  engineer- 
ing, and  borrowed  its  ideas  for  the  West.  The 
golden  age  of  military  works  in  the  Orient  ex- 
tended from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  century. 
The  combination  of  citadel  and  palace,  which  did 
not  originate  in  Europe  until  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, was  then  a  common  thing  with  the  emirs 
of  the  Mohammedan  world;  many  such  castles, 
of  which  the  Granada  Alhambra  is  an  example, 
are  still  found  in  ruins;  sumptuously  beautiful 
within,   magnificently  strong  without. 

Medieval  Europe.  With  the  barbarian  inva- 
sions of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  there  had 
been  a  veritable  fury  of  haste  to  fortify  the 
cities  throughout  the  Roman  world.  This  wa.s 
particularly  noticeable  in  Gaul,  for  instance  at 
Grenoble  and  Vienna,  and  in  Spain,  as  at  Carta- 
gena. Medifieval  cities  often — as  at  Carcassonne 
— have  their  later  fortifications  based  on  late 
Roman  or  Gothic  prototypes.  But  ordinarily 
the  Roman  fortification  was  a  castrum^  which 
did  not  inclose  the  city.  City  defense  seems  to 
have  remained  at  a  higher  level  than  feudal 
castle  architecture  until  the  twelfth  century,  for 
while  castles  long  remained  mere  earthworks  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  cities  had  stone  walls,  and 
even,  as  at  Piacenza,  two  concentric  circuits; 
and  while  the  castle  keeps  ,were  rectangular  and 
in  the  centre  of  the  circuit,  the  citadels  were 
often  curvilinear  and  astride  the  outer  walls. 
For  a  well-preserved  fortified  city  the  best  ex- 
ample is  Carcassonne  in  Southern  France,  built 
during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  It 
has  an  inner  and  an  outer  circuit  with  towers  of 
several  shapes,  bastions,  and  barbicans,  with 
a  magnificent  citadel  on  the  west  edge.  Cologne, 
Cracow,  Aigues-Mortes,  and  Nuremberg  have 
more  or  less  complete  mediaeval  fortifications, 
usually  of  somewhat  later  date. 

In  so  far  as  military  architecture  is  connected 
with  art  and  not  science,  the  thirteenth,  and  edpe- 
cially  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  were 
the  golden  age  in  Europe,  because  then  strength 
was  no  longer  the  sole  object,  and  sesthetic  beauty 
was  as  much  aimed  at  in  these  structures  as  in 
cathedral,  monastic,  or  private  architecture,  in 
so  far  as  consistent  with  safety.     This  trans- 


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formation  so  far  as  it  affected  feudal  buildings 
has  been  described  under  Castle,  and  is  exem- 
plified by  such  structures  as  Vajda-Hunyad 
castle  in  Hungary,  Marienburg  in  Prussia,  and 
the  ducal  castle  of  Milan.  The  exquisite  de- 
tails of  Gothic  architecture  and  decoration, 
vaulted  halls,  giant  fireplaces,  tracery,  and  sur- 
face decoration  were  multiplied.  The  city  gates, 
as  at  LUbeck,  Cologne,  Tangermiinde,  Stendal, 
became  works  of  municipal  decoration  as  well  as 
defense.  Consult  the  bibliography  at  the  end  of 
the  article  Castle. 

MTLITABY  BRIDGES.  See  Bbibqes  and 
Docks,  Military. 

MTLITABY  COMMISSIONS.  Special  mili- 
tary courts  created  during  the  occupation  of  con- 
quered territory,  for  the  trial  of  offenses  which 
cannot  by  the  rules  of  war  be  tried  or  punished 
by  courts-martial,  and  yet  which  are  not  within 
ther  jurisdiction  of  any  existing  court.  A  mili- 
tary commission,  unlike  a  court  martial,  is  ex- 
clusively a  war  court.  It  may  be  legally  con- 
vened and  assume  jurisdiction  only  in  time  of 
war  or  when  the  civil  authority  is  suspended 
on  account  of  the  existence  of  martial  law  or 
military  government.  The  powers  and  procedure 
of  this  class  of  military  tribunals  have  not  been 
defined  by  statute  law  nor  have  they  even  been 
expressly  authorized  by  any  act  of  Congress, 
although  they  have  repeatedly  been  recognized 
by  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  depart- 
ments of  the  Government.  According  to  usage 
the  same  rules  which  apply  in  the  organization* 
and  procedures  of  courts-martial  are  held  to 
be  applicable  to  military  commissions,  and  their 
proceedings  are  subject  to  review  in  the  same 
manner  and  by  the  same  authority  as  courts- 
martial.  Certain  offenses  which  in  time  of  peace 
are  regarded  as  civil  offenses  become  in  time  of 
war  military  offenses,  and  are  triable  by  mili- 
tary commission,  even  though  the  civil  courts 
may  be  open  and  in  the  unobstructed  discharge 
of  their  duties.  During  the  Civil  War  and  re- 
construction periods  capital  offenses  were  fre- 
quently tried  by  military  commissions  and  the 
parties  punished,  although  they  were  in  neither 
the  military  nor  the  naval  service,  and  in  spite 
of  the  constitutional  provision  that  all  persons 
held  for  capital  or  otherwise  infamous  crimes, 
except  when  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  service, 
shall  be  tried  by  jury.  Consult :  Benet,  Military 
Law  and  the  Practice  of  Courts- Martial  (New 
York,  1868 )  ;  Birkheimer,  Military  Oovernment  and 
Martial  Law  (Wsishington,  1892).  See  Military 
Law;  Coubts,  Military;  Milligan,  Ex  Parte. 

MIIilTABY  COUBTS.  See  Courts,  Mili- 
tary. 

MIIilTABY  EDUCATION.  The  education 
of  the  modern  military  oflBcer  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  preparatory  and  the  techni- 
cal. The  increased  demands  made  upon  him  in 
the  exercise  of  his  profession  entail  a  most 
exacting  and  comprehensive  preliminary  train- 
ing; so  much  so,  that  in  many  countries  candi- 
dates for  army  commissions  are  trained  from 
earliest  youth,  and  molded  mentally  and  physi- 
cally for  their  future  career.  Below  will  be 
fiven  a  review  of  the  systems  of  military  educa- 
ion  as  practiced  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States. 

In  Austria  army  training  for  cadets  begins 
between  the  ages   of   fourteen  and  seventeen — 


there  being  fifteen  schools  (Realschulen)  set 
apart  for  that  work.  On  graduation  cadets  are 
taken  into  the  army  and  granted  commissions 
according  to  seniority,  each  selecting  his 
own  regiment  or  corps  in  the  branch  to  which 
he  is  assigned — subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
officers  of  such  regiment  or  corps.  The  hisher 
academy  of  Wiener-Neustadt,  with  its  three 
years*  course  for  cavalry  and  infantry  officers,  and 
the  Technical  Academy  of  Vienna,  with  a  similar 
course  for  artillery  and  engineer  officers,  receive 
most  of  their  pupils  from  the  higher  military 
preparatory  schools  set  apart  for  the  sons  of 
officers  of  limited  means.  Pupils  capable  of 
passing  the  entrance  examination  of  the  acade- 
mies may  enter  direct.  German  is  the  language 
used  in  all  military  educational  establishments, 
the  curriculum  also  being  based  on  the  German 
system. 

Belgium  trains  the  officers  of  all  arms  at  the 
Eoole  Militwire,  Ixelles,  the  course  covering  a 
period  of  two  years  for  infantry  and  cavalry,  and 
four  for  artillery  and  engineers.  Entrance  is 
gained  by  competitive  examination,  there  being 
an  average  of  eighty  vacancies  in  the  school  each 
year. 

England  possesses  two  military  educational 
institutions:  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich,  which  is  set  apart  for  Royal  Engineers 
and  Royal  Artillery  cadets;  and  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary College  at  Sandhurst  for  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry cadets.  No  one  is  allowed  to  compete  who 
has  not  been  passed  by  the  Armjr  Council,  as 
socially  qualified  to  hold  a  commission.  Both 
institutions  are  organized  on  a  military  basis, 
each  being  governed  by  a  military  officer  styled 
Governor  and  Commandant,  appointed  by  and 
responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War, 
through  the  Army  Council.  The  Governor  is 
assisted  by  a  staff  officer,  with  the  title  of  as- 
sistant commandant  and  secretary,  who  com- 
mands the  cadet  company,  and  takes  charge  of 
all  records  and  correspondence.  The  entrance 
examinations  are  conducted  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners;  and 
there  is  also  a  rigid  physical  examination.  The 
age  of  admission  is  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
'years,  successful  candidates  paying  half-yearly 
fees,  the  amount  of  which  varies  with  the  status, 
official  or  otherwise,  of  their  families.  Sons 
of  private  gentlemen  are  required  to  pay  £150 
each  half-year;  and  sons  of  admirals  or  generals 
£80.  If  the  cadet  is  the  son  of  an  officer  below 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army,  or 
commander  in  the  navy,  he  pays  only  £40;  and 
if  the  son  of  a  deceased  officer  whose  family  has 
been  left  in  poor  circumstances,  only  £20  each 
half-year  is  required.  Cadet  pay  at  the  rate  of 
three  shillings  per  diem  is  granted  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, which  does  not  nearly  suffice  to  meet 
the  regular  and  necessary  expenses  of  the  cadet. 
He  is  also  required  to  pay  £25  to  cover  the  ex- 
pense of  uniform,  books,  etc.,  and  to  supply 
himself  with  all  other  articles  of  clothing,  etc. 
The  period  of  instruction  covers  two  years,  and 
is  divided  into  four  classes,  of  which  the  fourth 
is  the  junior.  The  third  and  fourth  classes  are 
educated  together,  but  on  passing  out  of  the 
third  class  into  the  second,  the  cadets  are  sepa- 
rated into  two  divisions,  engineers  and  artillery, 
where  they  remain  until  graduation.  Those  pass- 
ing out  of  the  third  class  with  the  best  per- 
centage of  marks  go  to  the  engineers,  and  the 


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remainder  to  the  artillery.  Once  the  assignment 
has  been  made  to  any  particular  division  a  trans- 
fer is  never  allowed/  The  Royal  Military  College 
at  Sandhurst  is  confined  to  cadets  for  cavalry 
and  infantry,  the  entrance  examination,  fees, 
academic  terms,  and  cadet  pay  being  similar  to 
the  Royal  Military  Academy.  A  few  cadets  are 
received  as  Royal  cadets,  or  India  cadets,  who 
enter  without  payment,  and  receive  a  small  al- 
lowance. They  are  usually  specially  favored 
sons  of  poor  or  distinguished  officers,  or  have 
served  as  Court  pages.  The  course  of  instruction 
extends  over  a  period  of  eighteen  months,  divided 
into  three  terms,  or  classes  of  six  months  each, 
known  as  junior,  intermediate,  and  senior.  The 
peculiarity  of  the  British  method  of  instruction, 
compared  with  that  of  all  other  countries,  is 
the  brief  period  of  instruction  in  the  schools, 
and  the  very  exacting  competitive  standard  and 
examination  for  admission^  which,  as  well  as  the 
expense  involved  at  the  very  outset,  limits  the 
class  from  which  cadets  are  drawn. 

The  School  of  Military  Engineering  at  Chatham 
is  the  school  at  which  young  officers  appointed 
from  the  Royal  Military  Academy  receive  their 
practical  training.  It  is  a  school  of  applica- 
tion, the  graduate  cadet  remaining  two  years  on 
probation,  after  which  he  is  assigned  to  his 
corps.  Officers  of  other  arras  receive  a  short 
course  of  instruction  in  field  engineering  at  the 
school,  as  do  a  proportion  of  both  commissioned 
officers  and  men  of  other  arms,  and  the  pioneer 
sergeants  of  infantry  regiments. 

The  School  of  Ounncry  at  Shoeburyness  is  the 
school  of  application  for  artillery  cadets  and 
officers,  as  well  as  the  general  training  school 
for  officers  and  men  of  the  Royal  Artillery.  The 
instruction  in  ordnance  manufacture,  laboratory 
work,  chemistry,  electricity,  and  metallurcy,  etc., 
is  given  at  the  Artillery  College,  Woolwich.  The 
Army  Medical  School  at  Netley,  near  Southamp- 
ton, is  for  the  instruction  of  candidates  already 
medically  qualified  in  the  duties  of  military, 
medical,  and  surgical  work,  and  the  system  of 
military  hygiene.  On  conclusion  of  the  course, 
candidates,  if  successful,  are  assigned  commis- 
sions in  the  army  as  vacancies  occur.  The  Staff 
College  at  Camberly,  near  Sandhurst,  receives  a 
limited  number  of  officers  each  year,  for  advanced 
and  special  work  in  the  study  of  modem  lan- 
guages, fortification,  and  artillery,  grand  tactics, 
staff  duties,  military  administration,  topography, 
law  and  equitation.  Admission  is  obtained  by 
competitive  examination,  candidates  being  re- 
quired to  have  served  at  least  five  years,  hold 
at  least  captain*s  rank,  or  have  passed  the  ex- 
amination for  that  rank,  and  be  recommended 
by  their  commanding  officers  as  qualified  physi- 
cally, educationally,  temperamentally,  techni- 
cally, and  to  be  of  good  personal  habits.  They 
must  be  under  thirty-seven  years  of  age.  On 
passing,  graduates  are  attached  for  a  few  ^veeks 
to  each  of  those  branches  of  the  service  with 
which  thoy  hav-  had  no  previous  experience  or 
service.  The  Sc^.^.ol  of  Musketry  (Hythe)  is  to 
the  infantry,  cavalry,  and  engineers  what  Shoe- 
buryness is  to  the  artillery.  For  schools  for 
rank  and  file,  see  Abmy  Schools. 

France  possesses  twenty-three  military  schools, 
grouped  into  hisrher  schools  and  preparatory 
schools.  There  are  seven  of  the  latter,  includ- 
ing the  orphan  school  at  La  Boissi&re.  Of  the 
former  class  the  most  important   is  the  Ecole 


SupMeure  de  la  Guerre,  where  instruction  is 
given  in  tactics,  strategy,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  the 
German  and  Russian  languages.  The  French 
system,  as  a  whole,  is  very  minutely  and  com- 
prehensively organized.  The  Ecole  Polytechnique 
at  Paris  supplies  the  education  necessarj'  to  of-, 
ficers  of  scientific  or  technical  corps  as  engineers, 
artillery,  telegraph,  etc. 

The  Gebman  Abhy  recruits  its  officers  almost 
entirely  from  two  classes:  Avaniageurs  and 
cadets.  The  former  either  submit  to  special 
examination  or  produce  on  demand  a  diploma 
from  an  authorized  public  educational  institu- 
tion. There  are  ten  schools  for  cadets  who  enter 
at  eleven  years  of  age.  At  fifteen  they  graduate 
into  the  Lichtcrfelde  Academy  near  Berlin,  and 
after  completing  its  course,  continue  their  studies 
with  the  avantageurs.  Both  classes  complete 
their  preliminary  education  in  one  of  the  eleven 
war  schools,  the  course  in  which  occupies  four 
terms,  extending  over  a  period  of  three  years; 
in  all,  thirty-five  weeks.  Artillery  and  engineer 
officers  after  one  or  two  years'  army  service  pass 
from  one  to  two  years  in  the  Berlin  or  Munich 
schools  of  military  instruction. 

Military  Scuools  in  Italy  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  (1)  The  College  Militari,  ot 
preparatory  schools.  (2)  The  military  academies 
at  Turin  for  engineers  and  artillery,  and  at 
Modena,  for  infantry  and  cavalrj'.  (3)  Scuole 
militari  complementari  (schools  of  application). 
The  Scuola  di  (Juerra,  the  school  of  application 
for  artillery  and  engineer  officers,  is  at  Turin, 
and  the  cavalry  school  is  at  Pinerola.  The 
courses  of  instruction  at  the  military  acade- 
mies of  Turin  and  Modena  are  three  years  and 
two  years  respectively.  There  is  a  school  for 
under  officers  at  Caserta,  where  approved  non- 
commissioned officers  are  educated  lor  commis- 
sion. In  each  arm  of  the  service  fully  one-third 
of  the  commissions  are  held  by  men  from  the 
ranks. 

The  military  academies  of  Japan  compare  very 
favorably  with  the  best  in  Europe,  being  in  ef- 
fect organized,  as  is  the  army,  on  the  German 
model.  There  are  establishments  devoted  to  mili- 
tary education  under  the  Minister  of  War,  in- 
cluding the  school  of  military  music  and  the 
various  schools  of  application.  In  1902  several 
parties  of  Chinese  army  officers  were  sent  by 
their  Government  to  undergo  a  course  of  in- 
struction at  the  Japanese  Military  Academy. 

Military  Education  in  the  United  States  is 
practically  a  university  system,  bringing  as  it 
does  all  the  different  branches  of  military  educa- 
tion into  one  system  and  under  the  direct  control 
and  supervision  of  a  body  of  specially  qualified 
officers,  making  every  part  of  the  system  effective. 
The  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y.  (see  Military  Academy,  United 
States),  is  the  foundation  of  the  entire  system, 
and  is  generally  conceded  to  be  unequaled  in  the 
thoroughness  and  comprehensiveness  of  its  train- 
ing. The  practical  education  of  the  cadet,  in  its 
broadest  sense,  begins  with  his  assignment  to  his 
regiment  or  corps,  there  being  in  addition  an 
officers*  school  at  each  military  post  for  elemen- 
tary instruction  in  theory  and  practice.  The 
special  service  schools  or  schools  of  application 
are:  (a)  the  Artillery  School  at  Fort  Monroe, 
Va.;  (b)  the  Engineer  School,  Washington  Bar- 
racks, D.  C;  (c)  the  School  of  Submarine  De- 
fense, Fort  Totten,  N.  Y.j  (d)  the  School  of  Ap- 


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MILITABY  maiONIA. 


pUeatioD  for  Cavalry  and  Field  Artillery,  at  Fort 
Riley,  Kan.;  (e)  the  Array  Mtnlical  School, 
WaahingtoD,  D,  C;  U)  the  Signal  School,  the 
Infantry  and  Cavalry  School,  and  the  StaflF  Col- 
lege, Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  and  ig)  the  Army 
War  College  (q.v.)  at  Washington  Barracks,  D. 
C.  A  general  supervision  of  all  the  different 
schools  enumerated  above  is  exercised  by  the 
General  Staff  Oftioera'  schools  at  military  posts, 
<vnd  the  Infantry  and  Cavalry,  Signal  and  Medi- 
-jal  schools  and  the  Staff  CoIle|fe  are  open  to 
National  Guard  and  volunteer  oincers,  as  well  as 
to  graduates  of  military  schools  and  colleges 
whioh  have  had  Regular  Army  officers  as  instruc- 
tors, (For  other  schools,  see  Abmy  Schools.) 
Consult  The  Military  Schools  of  Europe^  War 
Department  (Washington,  1896). 
ICIUTAJtY    ENOIHEBBIHO.     See    Enqi- 

NEEBING,   MlUTABY. 

MILITABY  FBONTIXB.  See  Fbontieb, 
Military. 

MILITABY  GOVEBNMEin^.  The  admin- 
istration of  territory  taken  from  the  enemy 
which  is  authorized  under  martial  law  (q.v.).  It 
is  under  this  j)o\ver,  arising  from  the  necessity 
of  the  case,  that  provisional  governments  are 
instituted  in  conquered  territory'.  AH  proceed- 
ings of  government  under  martial  law  are,  within 
the  scope  of  their  authority,  as  legal  and  consti- 
tutional as  any  other  military'  proceedings. 

MILITABY  HONOBS.  Compliments  paid 
to  certain  officers,  officiaU.  or  other  distinguished 
persons.     See  Salutks. 

MILITABY  INSIGNIA.  Devices  used  to 
dintingiiish  the  various  corps,  branches,  ranks, 
and  grades  of  the  military  and  naval  services. 
In  all  the  armies  of  the  world  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  employ  badges  and  devices  to  mark 
the  necessary  distinctions  incident  to  such  organi- 
zations. The  term  insignia  is  here  employed  to 
include  such  badges,  devices,  etc.,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  equipment,  clothing,  etc.  The  custom 
in  Europe  is  a  natural  result  of  tlie  evolution  of 
the  various  countries  both  politically  and  mili- 
tantly,  and  in  the  ease  of  England  particularly 
the  badges,  mottoes,  and  devices  used  by  the 
various  regiments  are  emblematic  of  conspicuous 
incidents  in  their  history  and  not  infrequently 
have  been  taken  in  battle  from  some  regiment  of 
the  enemy. 

Commencing  with  the  insignia  distinguishing 
the  varioiis  grades  of  rank,  German  usage  may 
be  described  at  length,  seeing  that  its  system  in  a 
large  measure  obtains  in  every  other  army  in 
Europe.  Throughout  the  Imperial  Army  the 
epaulets  of  all  commissioned  ranks  are  creacent- 
snaped.  The  various  grades  are  distinguished  as 
follows:  (1)  General  fleld-marshal,  two  batons 
(staffs  of  command  crosswise  over  each  other). 
(2)  General-in-Chief,  three  stars.  (3)  General 
of  the  infantry,  cavalry,  or  artillery,  colonel, 
captain,  two  stars.  (4)  Lieutenant-general,  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, first  lieutenant,  one  star;  major- 
generals,  majors,  and  second  lieutenants  do  not 
wear  a  star.  Second  and  first  lieutenants  and 
captain  wear  epaulets  having  a  gold  rim  but 
no  trimming;  colonels,  lieutenant-colonels,  and 
majors  wear  epaulets  with  gold  rims  and  silver 
trimming.  The  general  field-marshal,  general- 
in-chief,  lieutenant-general,  and  major-general 
are  distinguished  by  the  silver  rims  and  silver 
trimming  of  the  epaulets.  The  non-commissioned 
"Vol.  XIII.— 32. 


ranks  are  distinguished  bv  the  gold  or  silver  laoe 
on  the  oollars,  cuffs,  and  facings  of  the  tunics. 
On  the  shoulder-straps  is  the  number  of  the 
soldier  and  the  monogram  of  his  regiment.  The 
various  arms  of  the  service  are  also  distiuguished 
by  the  color  of  the  tunic  lace;  for  instance,  in- 
fantry regiments  have  red  lace.  On  the  right 
side  of  every  German  soldier's  helmet  is  placed 
the  black,  white,  and  red  cockade  of  the  German 
Empire,  while  the  cockade  on  the  left  side  indi- 
cates the  particular  State  of  the  German  Con- 
federation to  which  the  regiment  belongs,  as  fol- 
lows: Prussia,  black-white;  Bavaria,  white-sky 
blue;  Hamburg-Bremen-Lubeck,  white  with  red 
cross;  Saxony,  white-green,  Wtirttemherg,  black- 
red;  Baden,  vellow-red;  Ilcsse,  white-red: 
Mecklenburg,  sky  blue-yellow-red;  Oldenburg, 
white-dark  blue  with  red  cross;  Saxe- Weimar, 
yellow-green;  Brunswick,  sky  blue-yellow;  An- 
halt,  green;  Saxon  duchies,  green-white;  Ldppe, 
yellow-red;  Schaumburg-Lippe,  white-red;  Vval- 
deck,  yellow-red;  Schwarzourg-Sondershausen, 
white-dark  blue;  Schwaraburg-Rudolstadt,  dark 
blue-white ;  Keuss,  ycUow-red.  Other  distinguish- 
ing marks  between  the  various  services  of  the 
German  Army  are  found  in  the  color  of  their 
uniform,  for  which  see  Uniforms,  Military. 

In  the  British  Army  insignia  plays  an  impor- 
tant part.  It  is  used  as  much  to  encourage  esprit 
de  corps  a%  a  mark  of  distinction  between  regi- 
ments. There  is  a  large  degii«  of  variety  in  tne 
badges  in  use  among  the  various  regiments  of  the 
army,  most  of  tliem  reminiscent  of  stirring 
periods  in  regimental  history.  In  1836  the  King 
commanded  that  an  account  should  be  published 
concerning  tlie  insignia,  badges,  devices,  etc.,  of 
the  regiments  of  the  army,  together  with  the 
particulars  recounting  the  reasons  for  their  ex- 
istence. The  result  was  a  very  excellent  history 
of  the  British  Army.  The  introduction  of  the 
territorial  system  in  1881  destroyed  in  a  measure 
the  individuality  of  the  regiment  and  made  it  a 
part  of  the  territorial  district  to  which  it  was 
assigned.  In  the  effort  to  still  further  bind  the 
regiment  and  its  district  together  the  attempt 
w^as  made  by  the  military  administration  to 
abolish  much  of  the  insignia  formerly  character- 
istic of  the  different  regiments.  The  attempt, 
however,  created  so  much  opposition  and  ill  will 
among  all  ranks  of  the  army  that  a  compromise 
was  effected,  and  to-day  nearly  all  the  old  de- 
vices are  employed,  the  expense  usually  being 
borne  by  the  officers  of  the  regiment.  The  au- 
thorized and  unauthorized  badges  include  the 
royal  arms  (in  the  case  of  the  guards  and  all 
other  regiments  distinguished  by  the  prefix 
*rovar),  the  whole  or  part  of  numerous  orders, 
and  other  royal  honors.  Still  others  are  purely 
regimental,  i.e.  badges  distinguishing  regiments 
of  the  same  arm,  as  castles,  arms  of  counties  and 
cities,  the  Prussian  eagle,  the  French  eagle,  the 
death's  head,  the  elephant,  the  antelope,  tiger, 
dragon  of  Wales,  dragon  of  China,  the  sphinx  of 
Egypt  (this  is  worn  by  the  thirty  regiments  who 
served  in  the  first  English  expedition  against 
the  French  in  Egypt),  the  Paschal  T^mb,  the 
white  horse  of  Hanover,  the  white  horse  of 
Kent,  the  lion  of  England,  a  gun,  a  grenade,  the 
bugle  (all  light  infantry  and  rifle  regiments  are 
distinguished  by  this  badge) ,  the  bear  and  ragged 
staff,  the  figure  of  Britannia,  Saint  George  and 
the  dragon,  the  harp  and  crown,  the  shamrock 
(as  in  the  ease  of  the  newly  formed  Irish  guards) , 


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MILITABY  INSIGNIA. 


492 


MILITABY  INSIGNIA. 


the  Scottish  thistle,  the  Cross  of  Saint  Andrews, 
and  many  others.  The  royal  arms  are  borne  by 
the  Royal  Engineers  and  the  Royal  Artillery,  the 
difference  between  them  being  in  the  mottoos. 
Quo  Fas  et  Gloria  ducunt  and  L'bique.  With  tlie 
latter  motto  is  coupled  an  artillery  gun. 

As  with  Germany,  the  various  branches,  arms, 
departments,  etc.,  of  the  service  are  distinguished 
by  their  distinctive  uniforms  and  not  by  any 
particular  badge.  In  the  mounted  branches,  rough 
riders  (or  young  horsemen)  are  distinguished  by 
a  spur  worn  above  the  elbow  on  tlie  sleeve  of  the 
tunic;  farriers  and  shoeing  smiths  wear  a  horse- 
shoe. Expert  swordsmen,  and  gymnasium  in- 
structors of  all  branches,  wear  the  crossed  swords. 
Marksmen  (sharpshooters)  of  all  arms  wear  the 
crossed  guns  placed  immediately  above  tlie  cuff 
of  the  tunic.  Pioneers  wear  the  crossed  axes  on 
the  upper  sleeve.  Commissioned  and  non-commis- 
sioned ranks  of  the  infantry  wear  the  sash,  which 
in  the  case  of  officers  is  of  silk  and  is  worn  over 
the  left  shoulder,  and  with  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers is  of  worsted  and  worn  over  the  right  shoul- 
der. Scottish  Highland  regiments  are  further 
distinguished  by  the  differences  in  pattern  of 
their  clan  tartans.     See  Uniforms,  Militaby. 

In  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
army  ranks  were  largely  copied  after  French, 
Prussian,  and  English  usages.  General  and  staff 
officers  were  distinguished  by  the  color  of  their 
sash'  or  *ribband,*  which  was  worn  over  the 
waistcoat  and  under  the  coat.  Cockades  were 
worn  by  all  other  commissioned  officers,  and  the 
non-commissioned  officers  were  distinguished  by 
the  color  of  their  epaulet.  On  June  18,  1780,  a 
general  order  was  promulgated  authorizing  the 
following  insignia  of  rank  and  grade:  Major- 
generals  to  wear  two  stars  on  each  epaulet ; 
brigadier-generals,  one  star;  field  officers  wore 
two  epaulets;  captains,  one  epaulet  on  the  right 
shoulder  only;  and  lieutenants,  one  epaulet  on 
the  left  shoulder.  Other  distinguishing  marks 
were  details  of  uniform.  In  1782  the  system  of 
wearing  stripes  as  badges  of  rank  and  service 
by  the  rank  and  file  was  instituted.  Changes 
were  frequent  up  to  the  Civil  War,  but  the  in- 
signia since  that  time  have  remained  substan- 
tially the  same,  the  more  important  changes, 
particularly  those  of  1002,  having  had  to  do  with 
uniform  and  equipment  rather  than  of  insignia. 
Officers'  insignia  are  as  follows: 

(A)  The  letters  "U.  S.,"  of  gothic  design,  made 
of  gold  or  gilt  metal,  or  dull  finish  bronze, 
worn  on  the  collar  of  the  dress,  service,  or  white 
coat,  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  one  inch  from 
each  end  of  the  collar.  When  worn  upon  the 
dress  or  white  uniform  the  letters  are  of  gold 
or  gilt  metal.  W^hen  worn  upon  the  service  uni- 
form they  are  of  dull  bronze  metal. 

(B)  The  insignia  of  corps,  department,  or  arm 
of  service  are  as  follows:  General  Staff  Corps, 
the  United  States  coat-of-arnis,  of  gold  and 
enamel,  superimposed  on  a  silver  star;  Inspector- 
General's  Department,  gold  or  gilt  sword  and 
fasces  crossed  and  wreathed;  Judgt*  Advocate- 
General's  Department,  sword  and  pen  in  gold 
or  gilt  metal,  crossed  and  wreathed;  Quarter- 
master's Department,  sword  and  key  crossed  on 
a  wheel,  surmounted  by  a  spread  eagle  of  gold 
or  gilt  metal,  platinum  and  enamel ;  Subsistence 
Department,  a  silver  crescent,  one-half  inch  be- 
tween cusps,  cusps  to  the  rear;  Pay  Department, 


a  diamond,  three-quarters  ot  an  inch  by  one  inch 
in  gold  or  gilt  metal,  placed  with  shorter  diam- 
eter vertical ;  Medical  Department,  a  caduceus, 
uf  gold  or  gilt  metal ;  Corps  of  Engineers,  a  silver 
turreted  castle;  Ordnance  Department,  shell  and 
llame,  of  gold  or  gilt  metal;  Signal  Corps,  two 
crossed  signal  flags  and  a  burning  torch,  in  gold 
and  silver;  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Insular  affairs, 
seven  arrows  with  wings  on  sides,  one  inch  high, 
in  gold  or  gilt  metal ;  professors  and  associate 
professors  of  the  United  States  ^lilitary  Acad- 
emy, shield  and  helmet  surrounded  by  a  scroll,  in 
gold  or  gilt  metal;  aides-de-camp,  a  device,  one 
and  one-third  inches  high,  consisting  of  a  shield 
of  the  United  States,  of  properly  colored  enamel 
three-fourths  inch  high  and  thrw-fourths  inch 
wide  at  top,  surmounted  by  a  gold  or  gilt  eagle, 
with  wings  displayed,  on  blue  field  of  the  shield 
a  star  or  stars,  according  to  rank  of  the  general 
on  whose  staff  the  officer  is  serving.  This  de- 
vice is  worn  on  the  collar  in  lieu  of  corps  or 
line  device. 

The  devices  appropriate  to  the  various  arms  of 
the  service  are  as  follows:  Cavalry,  two  crossed 
sabres,  one  inch  high,  with  numl)er  of  regiment 
above  intersection;  of  gold  or  gilt  metal.  Artil- 
lery, two  crossed  cannons,  design  to  be  one  inch 
high,  of  gold  or  gilt  metal,  with  oval  at  inter- 
section having  a  scarlet  centre;  the  red  oval 
in  the  insignia  for  officers  of  coast  artillery 
exhibits  an  oblong  projectile  in  gilt  outline; 
for  officers  of  field  artillery,  a  gilt  wheel  in  out- 
line. Infantry,  two  crossed  rifles,  design  to  be  one 
inch  high,  with  number  of  regiment  above  inter- 
section; of  gold  or  gilt  metal.  Regimental  ad- 
jutants, quartermasters,  commissaries,  artillery 
district  adjutants  and  squadron  and  battalion 
adjutants  wear  in  the  lower  angles  of  their  in- 
signia the  devices  (of  gold  or  gilt  metal)  of  the 
respective  departments  to  which  their  duties  cor- 
respond; the  battalion 'adjutant  and  quartermas- 
ter of  engineer  battalions  wear  the  same  devices 
above  the  centre  turret.  Chaplains,  the  same  as 
for  regimental  staff  officers,  except  that  the  pen- 
dant design  is  a  Latin  cross  of  the  same  material 
and  size.  The  insignia  of  corps,  department,  or 
arm  of  service  is  placed  upon  the  collar  of  the 
dress,  service,  and  white  coat,  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  from  the  letters  **U.  S.,"  and  is  of  gold  or 
gilt  metal  with  the  dress  or  white  uniform  and 
of  dull  bronze  metal  with  the  service  uniform. 

(C)  The  insignia  of  rank  is  placed  on  the 
shoulder  loops  of  the  serWce  coat  and  the  white 
coat  near  the  shoulder  seam  as  follows:  General 
and  lieutenant-general,  such  as  they  may  pre- 
scribe; major-general,  two  silver  stars;  briga- 
dier-general, one  silver  star;  colonel,  one  silver 
spread-eagle;  lieutenant-colonel,  one  silver  leaf; 
major,  one  gold  leaf;  captain,  two  silver  bars; 
first-lieutenant,  one  silver  bar. 

Sleeve  Insignia  of  Rank. — Colonel,  a  single 
knot  composed  of  five  strands  of  gold  wire  lace, 
not  exceeding  one-eighth  inch  in  width,  is  applied 
to  the  sleeve  of  the  full  dress  coat  below  the 
ellK)w,  the  base  resting  on  the  gold  band  of  the 
sleeve;  lieutenant-colonel,  four  strands,  single 
knot;  major,  three  strands,  single  knot;  captain, 
two  strands,  single  knot;  first  lieutenant,  one 
strand,  single  knot;  second  lieutenant,  without 
gold  lace ;  chaplain,  without  gold  lace.  The  out- 
side dimensions  of  the  gold  lace  insignia  are  the 
same  for  all  officers,  the  dimensions  being  made 
bv  taking  strands  from  the  interior. 


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MILITABY  LAW. 


Sleeve  insignia  for  overcoats,  made  of  flat 
black  mohair  soutache  braid  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  width,  follows  the  form  of  the  gold  lace  in- 
signia for  dress  coats,  but  is  applied  with  the  base 
resting  at  lower  end  of  the  sleeve. 

Epaulets. — For  general  officers — Of  gold  with 
solid  crescent,  the  only  device  being  the  coat  of 
arms  of  the  United  States  embroidered  in  gold. 

Shoulder  Knots. — Of  gold  wire  cord  one- fourth 
inch  in  diameter,  formed  of  three  cords  in  four 
plaits  and  rounded  top,  finished  wuth  small  gilt 
regulation  button;  about  five  and  one-half  inches 
long,  extending  from  the  seam  of  the  sleeve  to 
the  seam  of  the  collar;  slightly  stiffened  with  a 
flexible  backing  which  is  covered  with  cloth  of  the 
color  of  the  coat  and  made  detachable. 

Shoulder  straps  are  as  follows :  General — ^Dark- 
blue  cloth,  one  and  three-eighths  inches  and  four 
inches  long,  bordered  with  an  embroidery  of  gold, 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  wide;  two  silver  embroid- 
ered stars  of  five  rays  each  and  gold  embroidered 
"Arms  of  the  United  States"  between  them. 
Lieutenant-General — Dark-blue  cloth,  one  and 
three-eighths  inches  wide  and  four  inches  long, 
bordered  with  an  embroidery  of  gold  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  wide,  three  silver-embroidered  stars  of 
five  rays  each,  one  star  in  the  centre  of  the  strap 
and  one  at  each  end,  equidistant  between  the 
centre  and  outer  edge  of  the  strap,  the  centre 
star  to  be  the  largest.  Major-General — The  same 
as  for  a  lieutenant-general,  except  that  there  are 
two  stars  instead  of  three ;  the  centre  of  each  star 
to  be  one  inch  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  gold 
embroidery  on  the  ends  of  the  straps;  both  stars 
of  the  same  size.  Brigadier-General — The  same 
as  for  a  major-general,  except  that  there  is  one 
star  instead  of  two  at  the  centre  of  the  strap. 
Ck)lonel — The  same  as  for  a  brigadier-general, 
omitting  the  star,  with  a  silver  embroidered 
spread  eagle  on  the  centre  of  the  strap,  two 
inches  between  the  tips  of  the  wings,  having  in 
the  right  talon  an  olive  branch  and  in  the  left  a 
bundle  of  arrows;  an  escutcheon  on  the  breast 
as  represented  in  the  ''Arms  of  the  United 
States."  Color  of  the  cloth  of  the  straps  to  be 
that  selected  for  the  trinmning  of  the  uniforms. 
Lieutenant-Colonel — The  same  as  for  a  colonel, 
according  to  corps,  department,  or  arm,  of  serv- 
ice, omitting  the  eagle,  with  a  silver  embroidered 
leajf  at  each  end,  each  leaf  extending  seven-eighths 
of  an  inch  from  the  end  of  the  strap.  Major — 
The  same  as  for  a  lieutenant-colonel,  with  a  cold 
embroidered  leaf  at  each  end,  instead  of  silver 
leaf ;  each  leaf  extending  seven-eighths  of  an  inch 
from  the  end  of  the  strap.  Captain — ^The  same 
as  for  a  major,  omitting  the  leaves ;  at  each  end 
two  silver  embroidered  bars  of  the  same  width 
as  the  border,  placed  parallel  to  the  ends  of  the 
strap;  the  distance  between  them  and  the  border 
equal  to  the  width  of  the  border.  First  Lieuten- 
ant— The  same  as  for  a  captain ;  at  each  end  one 
silver  embroidered  bar  of  the  same  width  as  the 
border,  placed  parallel  to  the  ends  of  the  strap, 
at  a  distance  from  the  border  equal  to  the  width 
of  the  border.  Second  Lieutenant — The  same  as 
for  a  first  lieutenant,  omitting  the  bars.  Addi- 
tional Second  Lieutenant — The  same  as  for  a 
second  lieutenant.  Chaplain — Of  dark-blue  cloth 
of  the  usual  size  and  pattern,  with  a  plain  Latin 
cross  of  silver  in  the  centre. 

Corps  badges  were  first  employed  during  the 
Civil  War  and  proved  to  be  an  extremely  valu- 
able means  of  identification.     The  devices  em- 


ployed include  a  triangle  (Fourth  Army  Corps) ; 
the  star  and  crescent  (Seventh)  ;  a  six-pointed 
star  (Eighth)  ;  an  acorn  (Fourteenth)  ;  an  arrow 
(Seventeenth);  a  maltese  cross  (Nineteenth); 
a  shield  (Twenty-third).  The  device  for  Wilson's 
cavalry  corps  consisted  of  crossed  swords  sur- 
mounted by  a  carbine.  The  Signal  Corps  was 
distinguished  by  the  crossed  &gs  and  torch. 
Division  headquarters  were  marked  by  a  square 
flag  upon  which  was  a  badge  designating  the 
character  of  the  headquarters.  The  old  Twen- 
tieth Corps  did  not  at  first  wear  a  badge,  but 
when  the  new  Twentieth  was  formed  by  the  con- 
solidation of  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Army 
Corps,  it  adopted  the  badge  of  the  Twelfth,  a 
five-pointed  star.  During  the  Spanish- American 
War  the  various  corps  were  distmguished  by  the 
following  corps  badges:  Artillery  Corps,  crossed 
conical  projectiles,  with  round  shot  above  the 
centre ;  Cavalry  CJorps,  a  winged  horse-foot ;  First 
Corps,  the  letter  "I"  inclosed  in  a  circle;  Second 
Corps,  a  four-leaf  clover;  Third  Corps,  a  three- 
toothed  clutch;  Fourth  Corps,  a  caltrop;  Fifth 
Corps,  a  five-bastioned  fort;  Sixth  Corps,  a  six- 
spoke  hub;  Seventh  Corps,  a  seven-pointed  star; 
Eighth  Corps,  two  overlapping  circles,  very  much 
resembling  the  figure  eight;  Ninth  Corps,  a  nine- 
toothed  buzz-saw;  Tenth  Corps,  two  triangles 
point  to  point;  Eleventh  Corps,  same  design  as 
for  the  Tenth  Corps,  with  the  addition  of  a 
horizontal  bar  through  the  centre ;  Twelfth  Corps, 
a  square  with  a  clover-leaf  at  each  comer;  Thir- 
teenth Corps,  a  palm-leaf;  Fourteenth  Corps,  a 
square  with  half  circles  on  each  side;  Fifteenth 
Corps,  a  bugle;  Sixteenth  Corps,  a  spear-head; 
Seventeenth  Corps,  a  battle-axe;  Eighteenth 
Corps,  an  arch.  The  color  of  the  symbol  deter- 
mines the  division  of  the  corps,  as:  red,  First 
Division;  white.  Second  Division;  blue.  Third 
Division.  Such  badges  are  worn  on  the  hat  or 
cap.  Commissioned  officers  wear  them  on  the 
left  breast,  and  not  on  the  hat.  See  Unifobms, 
Military  and  Naval;  Aiguillettes ;  Chev- 
BONS;  etc. 

MILITABY  JUSTICE,  Bubeau  of.  See 
Military  Law. 

MILITARY  LAW.  That  part  of  the  law  of 
the  land  which  prescribes  and  enforces  the  public 
obligations  of  persons  in  the  military  service. 
The  civil  law  not  being  adequate  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  military  community,  peculiar  laws 
and  institutions  have  been  framed  for  its  regu- 
lation, which  invest  military  authority  with  the 
right  to  punish  offenders  who  are  under  military 
rule  for  offenses  contrary  to  military  discipline, 
or  breaches  of  military  duty,  the  essential  object 
being  to  maintain  order  and  discipline  in  the 
army.  Every  country  that  maintains  a  standing 
army  generally  enacts  articles  for  its  govern- 
ment, and  confers  special  and  limited  powers 
upon  the  military  authorities  to  enable  them  to 
enforce  their  provisions. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  confided 
to  Congress  the  power  to  keep  up  a  standing 
army,  and  to  make  rules  and  regulations  for  its 
government.  Under  this  grant  Congress  has  en- 
acted "Articles  of  War"  and  other  similar  enact- 
ments which  together  constitute  the  statutory 
military  law  of  the  United  States.  These 
statutes  deal  not  only  with  military  offenses  and 
punishments,  but  also  with  the  constitution, 
composition,  jurisdiction,  and  procedure  of  mili- 
tary courts.    The  power  of  the  President  to  issue 


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regulatioiis  and  orders  to  the  army  is  a  right 
iacidental  to  his  constitutional  power  as  Com- 
mander-in-Chief, and  is  a  means  for  carrying 
into  execution  his  sovereign  power.  Such  orders 
of  tlic  President,  as  Commander-in-Chief,  and  of 
superior  officers,  when  not  in  conilict  with  exist- 
ing law  and  regulations,  are  also  a  pert  of  the 
code  military.  To  declare  what  the  law  for  the 
army  shall  be  is  the  province  of  Congress.  But 
to  interpret  this  law  is  a  judicial  function.  While 
ABoerican  military  law  is  mostly  statutory,  we 
must  go  to  the  decisions  of  the  courts  and  to  the 
opinions  of  the  attorneys -general  for  interpreta- 
tion and  exphiiiation  ol  the  enacted  word. 

CuBTOiis  or  TU£  Sebyice  in  peace  and  in  war 
are  a  soiuree  of  military  law.  These  usages  have 
become  to  the  army  a  kind  of  common  Uw,  sup- 
plementing the  statute  law  and  regulations.  The 
oath  administered  to  the  members  of  a  court- 
nartial  requires  them  in  doubtful  cases  to  ad- 
minister justice  according  to  "the  customs  of  war 
in  like  cases."  This  oath  is  almost  identical 
with  the  one  taken  by  members  of  courts-martial 
in  the  British  service,  and  the  term  "custom  of 
wrar"  as  used  in  the  Articles  of  War  of  the  United 
States  must  not  be  understood  as  referring  only 
to  the  usages  of  the  army  of  the  United  States.    . 

PEBSON8  Subject  to  the  Militabt  Law  are 
(1)  officers  and  soldiers  on  the  active  list, 
whether  militia  or  others,  mustered  and  in  pay  of 
the  United  States,  (2)  retired  officers  and  sol- 
diers, (3)  persons  who  fraudulently  enlist  and 
receive  pay  and  allowances  thereunder,  (4)  dis- 
charged officers  and  soldiers  who  have  defrauded 
the  United  States,  (5)  discharged  officers  after 
summary  dismissal  and  general  prisoners.  In 
time  of  war  spies,  retainers  to  the  camp,  persons 
who  relieve  and  aid  the  enemy  in  the  way 
specified  in  the  statutes,  are  included.  When  a 
person  subject  to  military  law  commits  an  of- 
fense he  is  placed  in  arrest  or  confinement.  Ex- 
cept in  cases  of  quarrels,  frays,  and  disorders 
commanding  officers  only  have  power  to  put  offi- 
cers in  arrest.  An  officer  arrested  confines  himself 
to  his  quarters  until  his  arrest  is  made  open  or 
its  limits  extended.  He  is  not  permitted  to  wear 
a  sword  or  to  visit  officially  his  commanding  or 
superior  officer,  unless  directed  to  do  so.  When- 
ever a  commanding  officer  places  an  officer  in  ar- 
rest and  releases  him  without  preferring  charges 
he  makes  a  written  report  to  the  department 
commander  of  the  cause.  When  an  officer  is  put 
in  arrest  for  the  purpose  of  trial,  except  at  re- 
mote stations,  the  officer  ordering  the  arrest  must 
see  that  he  has  a  copy  of  the  charges  on  which  he 
is  to  be  tried  within  eieht  days  aHer  his  arrest. 
Non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  to  be 
tried  by  summary  court  are  generally  placed  in 
arrest  in  their  quarters.  Privates  to  be  tried 
by  general  court-martial  are  confined  in  the 
guardhouse.  Confinement  without  trial  as  a  pun- 
ishment for  an  offense  is  forbidden.  Consequent 
upon  arrest  follows  a  preliminary  investi^tion 
as  to  the  crime  or  offense  charged  against  the 
prisoner  and  the  evidence  upon  which  it  is  to  be 
supported.  If  the  offense  is  one  for  trial  by  a 
superior  court,  the  charges  are  forwarded  by  the 
commanding  officer  with  the  statement  that  he 
has  investigated  them,  and  his  opinion  as  to 
whether  or  not  they  can  be  sustained. 

Certain  various  offenses  against  military  law 
when  committed  in  time  of  war  are  punishable 
with  death.    In  time  of  peace  the  ordinary  pun- 


ishments are  dishonorable  discharge,  confinement 
at  hard  labor,  and  forfeiture  of  pay.  The  aiaxi- 
mum  punishment  is  only  given  when  the  offense 
is  of  the  worst  type,  or  when  an  example  is  nec- 
essary. In  a  few  instances  the  punishments  arc 
peremptory.  The  purposes  of  military  process 
and  proceedings  in  respect  to  offenses  against 
military  law  have  reference  always  to  the  pre- 
vention in  future  of  the  commission  of  these 
offenses.  In  the  military  code  of  England  promi- 
nence is  given  to  the  principle  of  honor,  and  as 
the  life  of  the  military  community  will  always 
depend  on  the  zealous  maintenance  of  this  pro- 
fessk>nal  characteristic,  one  of  the  most  im^r- 
tant  purposes  for  which  the  military  law  exists 
is  to  preserve  the  honor  and  purity  of  the  service. 

American  military  law  began  with  the  W^ar 
of  the  Revolution.  Articles  of  war  were  first 
made  for  the  government  of  the  army  on  the 
30th  of  June,  1775.  In  April,  1806,  the  present 
military  code  was  established.  This  code  was 
derived  immediately  from  the  English  military 
laws,  and  for  many  years  the  American  officer 
was  compelled  to  look  to  English  treatises  on 
military  law  to  solve  questions  which  arose  in 
the  course  of  his  judicial  duties.  In  1864  a 
military  law  department  was  established  by  Con- 
gress, to  be  known  as  the  Bureau  of  Military 
Justice.  In  1883  this  bureau  was  consolidated 
with  the  corps  of  the  judge-advocates  of  the  army 
under  the  title  of  "Judge- Advocates  Department, 
which  it  still  retains.'  This  department  as  now 
organized  consists  of  a  judge-advocate-general, 
and  eleven  judge-advocates,  liolding  permanent 
commissions  in  the  department.  These  judge- 
advocates  are  stationed  in  time  of  peace  at  the 
headquarters  of  the  several  military  depart- 
ments into  which  the  country  is  divided.  In 
time  of  war  they  are  at  the  headquarters  of 
corps  and  divisions.  They  are  consultative  of- 
ficers and  legal  advisers.  In  important  trials 
the  direct  responsibility  of  tlieir  prosecution  is 
upon  them.  They  receive  and  revise  the  pro- 
ceedings of  courts-martial  held  in  their  several 
departments,  give  legal  opinions,  and  administer 
oaths.  In  the  English  Army  a  judge-advocate 
never  acts  as  a  prosecutor  or  witness  for  the 
prosecution.  He  is  a  helper  to  the  court,  and 
the  prosecutor  and  the  prisoner  are  entitled  to 
his  opinicm  on  any  point  of  law  that  is  relevant 
to  the  trial.  The  judge-advocate-general  is  a 
member  of  Parliament,  a  Privy  Councilor,  and  a 
responsible  adviser  to  the  Crown  in  all  cases  of 
general  courts-martial  which  the  Crown  con- 
firms. 

Military  law  requires  that  before  a  sentence 
of  a  court  can  be  executed  it  must  be  con- 
firmed. In  England  the  sentences  of  general 
courts-martial  are  confirmed  by  the  King,  or 
by  an  officer  holding  a  warrant  from  tlie  King. 
In  the  United  States  the  officer  ordering  the 
court,  or  the  ofiicer  commanding  for  the  time 
being,  must  approve  a  sentence  before  it  can  be 
executed.  Except  in  certain  convictions  in  time 
of  war  a  sentence  of  death  must  be  confirmed 
by  the  President.  In  time  of  peace  no  sentence 
of  a  court-martial  directing  the  dismissal  of  an 
officei  can  be  executed  until  approved  by  the 
President.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  confirming  of- 
ficer to  see  that  the  finding  and  sentence  are 
legal,  and  that  the  latter  does  not  award  a  pun- 
ishment in  excess  of  the  punishment  authorized 
by  law.     Where  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial 


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XILITAJtY  POUCE. 


imposes  several  punisfameiits  one  or  more  may  be 
approved. 

The  principa]  offenses  eomnitted  by  soldiers 
are  deserdon,  IranduleBt  CAlistoMBt,  disobedi- 
ence to  superiors^  foitttttf  or  sleeping  on  post, 
drunki  Mfiw^  absence  without  leave,  selling  or 
losing  by  m^eet  dotfaing  or  eq[iupment,  and  mis- 
cellaaeovs  offenses  to  the  prejudice  of  good  or- 
^er  and  solitary  discipline.  A  person  im  the 
military  service  is  not  freed  from  his  civil 
obhgatiinB.  He  ia  still  a  cttioen  and  amenable 
to  t£e  ctvil  authority  lor  violation  of  local  lawa. 
He  as  iiable  to  be  taxed  ior  his  real  estate  or 
household  goods.  He  may  vote  at  the  plaoe 
where  he  has  a  legal  residenoe. 

Fbench  Military  Law  is  administered  by 
means  of  pegukr  trial  and  sentence  belore  a 
milftary  trftwnal,  or  by  infliction  by  any  «n- 
perier  of  inferior  puBishments  for  mere  fanlta. 
The  punishmente  inflicted  npon  officers  for  fanlta 
againsft  discipline  ave:  Simple  airests,  rigorous 
arvecrts,  repmnand  irem  the  colonel,  and  prison. 
Faults  ef  officers  too  grave  for  disciplinaiy  pon- 
is^ment  are  inferred  to  courts  of  inquest.  Cotm- 
oQb  of  war,  answering  to  our  general  court- 
martial,  take  oogmeanoe  of  the  graver  violations 
<of  military  law,  which  can  only  be  pmiished  by 
nffiiotive  or  infamcms  punishments.  The  judg- 
ments of  oooncils  of  war  may  be  revised  by 
oooncils  cf  revision.  If  the  latter  annul  the 
judgment  Tefenod  to  them,  proceedings  and  de- 
cision are  sent  to  a  second  council  of  war  hav- 
ing jvrisdiction  in  cases  of  judgments  annulled 
by  connoite  of  revision.  There  is  also  a  eonrt 
of  appeal  in  cases  of  trial  and  sentence  for  the 
crime  of  capitulation.  This  oourt  is  styled  'The 
Court  of  Cassation.'  Punishments  in  "the  Ger- 
man, Austrian,  and  Enssian  ArmieB  ove  similar 
to  those  in  the  French  service. 

Ekglish  MhjITAbt  Law  bo  nearly  resembles 
the  American  as  to  require  in  this  article  but 
brief  description.  It  is  embodied  in  the  Army 
Act  of  1-881,  and  is  kept  in  operation  from  year 
to  year  by  the  passing  of  the  Array  Annual  Act. 
It  consists  of  a  written  and  unwritt<?n  part.  ( 1 ) 
The  written  part  consists  of  the  Army  Act,  rules 
of  procedure,  King's  Regulations,  general  orders, 
army  circulars  and  orders,  royal  warrants,  and 
orders  in  council.  (2)  The  unwritten  part  con- 
sists of  the  laws  or  customs  of  war.  The  sov- 
ereign has  power  to  make  articles  of  war,  but 
the  articles  ot  war  and  the  Mirtiny  Act  have  been 
consolidated  in  the  Army  Annual  Act,  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  neeessity  for  articles  of  war  will 
ever  arise  again.  The  military  code  of  England 
describes  in  detail  the  serious  offenses  against 
military  law  and  prescribes  the  maximum'  pun- 
ishment that  can  be  awarded  for  them. 

CorbBult:  Winthrop,  Military  Law  and  Prece- 
dents  (Boston,  1896);  Manual  for  Courts-Mar- 
tial, prepared  by  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
War  for  the  use  of  the  army  of  the  United  States 
(ed.,  1901);  Birkheimer,  Military  Government 
and  Martial  Laws  (Kansas  City,  1905)  ;  Sim- 
mons, Courts-Martial ;  and  Pratt,  Military  Law 
(London,  1892).  See  Courts,  Militaey;  Mab- 
TIAL  Law. 

MIUTA3CY  MU6IC.    See  Bawd,  Milttabt. 

inUTABTOBJ>ES07  FOBEIOir  WABS. 

See  FoBEtGN  Wars,  Milltabt  Order  of. 

MILITABY  POI^CE.  A  distinct  corps  of 
military   police,  with   functions   similar   to  the 


provost  guard  in  the  United  States  Amy  (see 
Armt  Obga»I£ation),  is  a  part  of  many  £«' 
ropean  amies.  In  the  British  Army  it  oos- 
sists  of  mounted  and  dismounted  branches,  witii 
headquarters  at  Aldershot  (q.v.).  Their  duties 
are  similar  to  the  civil  police,  but  are  oon- 
fined  to  the  soldiers  of  the  district  in  whick 
they  are  stationed.  In  time  of  peace  they  are 
scattered  in  detachments  of  varying  strength 
throughout  the  standing  camps  and  large  garri- 
sons oi  England  and  Ireland.  On  active  sen'ioe 
they  carry  out  the  orders  of  the  provost-marshal 
(q.v.),  and  maintain  good  ordc^  and  military 
discipline  in  the  command  to  whic^  they  are  at- 
tached. On  the  march  they  are  in  the  rear  of 
the  column,  to  arrest  stragglers,  deserters,  etc. 
(See  MARCHn^G.)  Tbey  are  recruited  from  the 
regular  army,  and  are  confined  exdusively  t» 
noBoomnaissiQned  officers  and  men  ol  several 
years'  service  and  unUemiehed  record.  Everf 
member  of  the  force  is  a  noneommissioned  oiicer« 
and  acts  with  the  full  authority  of  such.  Their 
uniform  is  similar  to  that  of  the  field  artillery. 
In  France  these  duties  are  performed  by  the 
gendarmes  (q.v.).  Tbe  military  police  of  Ger- 
many come  into  active  emplc^maemt  during  war 
time,  when  each  army  corps  mobiliEes  two  de- 
tachments, one  to  accompany  the  corps  itaetf, 
and  one  for  the  line  of  conamimications.  P<diee 
forces  organised  on  a  semi-military  basis  exist 
throughout  the  British  Empire.  The  IBoyal  Irish 
Constabulary  was  the  mod^  oipon  whioh  *td» 
Canadian  Northwest  Mounted  PoHce  was  or- 
ganised, a  force  whidi  is  altogether  military  rin 
organization  and  equipment,  and  whioh  has  xm 
various  occasions  served  as  a  military  corps. 
Their  principal  duties  are  to  patrol  the  frontier^ 
maintain  the  laws,  and  control  ^e  Indians,  in 
which  latter  duties  they  have  been  conspicuous- 
ly successful.  Similar  bodies  were  organised 
tnroughout  Australia,  for  duty  in  the  gold-min- 
ing camps  primarily,  and  afterwards  to  control 
the  natives  and  protect  isolated  ranches  or  sta- 
tions. In  organization  there  is  generally  a  colo- 
nel, lieutenant-colonel,  or  major  at  the  head, 
who  is  in  turn  responsible  to  the  Minister  of  the 
Interior.  Kaiik  and  title  are  tlie  same  as  ^in 
the  rcf^lar  army.  In  South  Africa  the  Cape 
Mounted  Police,  a  force,  consiRting  in  1905  of 
82  officers,  1013  men,  and  1572  horses,  are  avail- 
able for  military  duties  whenever  required,  and 
are  included  in  the  military  defenses  of  the  col- 
ony. The  Britisli  Central  Africa  Protectorate 
employs  a  militaiy  police,  consisting  of  about  160 
Sikh  from  the  Indian  Army  and  1070  trained 
native  troops.  They  are  under  British  oftiecirs, 
and  are  charged  with  the  duties  of  maintaining 
order  and  suppressing  the  slave  traffic.  The  area 
under  their  jurisdiction  covers  40,980  square 
miles,  and  is  divided  into  twelve  distriets.  They 
also  police  the  eastern  portion  of  the  British 
South  Africa  Chartered  ('ompany's  territory, 
north  of  the  Zambezi,  for  which  they  receive  pay- 
ment. The  Uganda  Rifles  constitute  the  armed 
constabulary  of  the  Uganda  Protectorate,  and 
conHist  of  native  levies,  numbering  about  2H00 
men,  under  British  officers.  The  Natal  Mounted 
Police  numbers  about  938  officers  and  men,  and 
constitutes  the  nucleus  of  the  military  forces  of 
the  colony.  The  Rhodesian  military  police  forces 
now  include  all  the  small  bodies  of  men  formerly 
engaged  in  the  division  of  what  is  now  termed 
Rhodesia,  the  corps  as  a  whole  being  under  the 


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MILITABY  POLICE. 


496 


XHiITABY  TESBITOSIB& 


High  Commissioner,  as  are  also  the  forces  of  the 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate  and  Basutoland. 
Similar  forces  are  maintained  throughout  the 
German  possessions  in  Blast  and  Southwest  Af- 
rica.   See  Pbovost  Marshal. 

MILITABY  PBI80H.  A  prison  set  apart 
for  military  prisoners.  In  the  United  States 
soldiers  sentenced  by  court-martial  to  long  terms 
of  imprisonment  are  sent  to  the  military  prison 
at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.  Short  terms  of 
pimishment  are  usually  served  at  the  prison  of 
some  post  in  the  department.  The  same  system 
obtains  in  England. 

MILITABY  PITKISHMEHTS.  See  Mnj. 
a:ABT  Law. 

MILITABY  BBSEBVATIOH,  United 
States.  A  term  applied  to  every  military  post, 
station,  or  other  locality  selected  and  set  apart 
for  present  or  future  military  occupation.  De- 
partment commanders  supervise  all  such  reserva- 
tions within  their  territory,  and  are  responsible 
that  trespass  and  damage  are  prevented.  They 
are  also  required  to  see  that  every  consideration 
is  given  to  their  care,  preservation,  and  adorn- 
ment, and  that  every  available  means  is  em- 
ployed to  make  them'  attractive  homes  for  the 
army.  The  grounds  are  improved  as  far  as 
possible.  Where  the  reservations  are  of  con- 
siderable extent  or  sufficiently  practicable,  they 
are  stocked  with  game,  and  stringent  rules  made 
for  the  protection  of  native  singing  birds.  Lands 
reserved  for  military  use,  and  military  posts 
temporarily  evacuated  by  troops,  are  imder 
charge  of  the  quartermaster's  department.  Per- 
manent works  of  defense,  and  lands  appurtenant 
thereto,  are  under  the  direction  and  charge  of 
the  engineer  department. 

MILITABY  SCHOOLS.  See  Militaby  Edu- 
cation; ^IiiJTABY  Academy,  United  States. 

MILITABY  SCIENCE.  This  subject  may 
be  divided  into  four  general  branches:  Strategy , 
or  the  science  of  manoeuvring  an  army  while 
out  of  the  fire  of  the  enemy  upon  points  the 
possession  of  which  is  of  importance  to  both 
sides;  tactics,  or  the  art  by  which  strategical 
plans  are  carried  into  effect;  engineering,  or  the 
art  of  disposing  troops  and  arranging  or  re- 
moving obstacles;  and  logistics,  or  the  art  of 
moving  and  supplying  an  army.  These  subjects 
will  be  found  fully  treated  under  the  separate 
heads. 

MILITABY  SBBVICE  INSTITTTTIOir 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  An  organization 
controlled  by  officers  of  the  United  States  Army, 
associated  with  the  National  Guard  and  others 
for  professional  improvement,  the  interchange 
of  views  upon  military  matters,  and  such  topics 
in  general  as  may  be  calculated  to  promote  the 
military  interests  of  the  United  States.  In  1877 
General  Stanley,  General  Fry,  General  Roden- 
bough,  and  Colonel  Lieber  issued  a  circular  re- 
questing the  presence  of  the  officers  in  the  army 
at  a  meeting  to  consider  the  practicability  of 
forming  an  association  similar  to  the  Royal 
United  Service  Institution  of  Great  Britain. 
About  forty  officers  responded,  and  the  Institu- 
tion was  organized,  with  General  Hancock  as 
president.  The  headquarters  of  tlie  Institution 
are  at  Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.  The  Journal 
of  the  Military  Service  Institution^  a  bi-monthly, 
published  its  first  number  in  January,  1880,  and 


is  devoted  to  military  history  and  the  discussion 
of  current  military  questions,  domestic  and  for- 
eign. It  is  universally  regarded  as  a  publication 
of  great  international  importance  in  its  own  do- 
main. Under  the  management  of  the  publication 
committee,  essays  upon  military  suojects,  for 
which  prizes  of  gold  and  silver  medals  are  annu- 
ally awarded,  have  been  a  feature.  The  library  of 
the  Institution  contained  in  1906  nearly  10,000 
volumes,  among  which  are  many  rare  books  and 
manuscripts.  There  is  also  a  valuable  collection 
of  military  relics  and  trophies,  together  with 
specimens  or  models  after  the  latest  war  material^ 
open  to  visitors. 

MILITABY  TEHTTBE.    See  Tenure. 

MILITABY  TEBBITOBTES  OF  FBEKCH 
SUDAN.  The  official  name  of  three  territories 
comprising  the  eastern  part  of  the  African  re- 
gion formerly  known  as  French  Sudan  (q.v.), 
and  extending  from  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Prench  Senegal  and  French  Guinea  to  Lake  Chad, 
and  from  the  northern  borders  of  Nigeria,  Da- 
homey, Togo,  the  Gold  Coast,  and  the  Ivory 
Coast  northward  into  the  Sahara  Desert  (Map: 
Africa,  D  3).  The  tot^l  area  is  estimated  at 
over  250,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  at 
2,700,000.  The  first  of  the  three  territories 
covers  the  region  around  Timbuktu,  including 
the  towns  of  Yatenga,  Dori,  and  Macini.  The 
second  comprises  the  Middle  Niger  region,  includ- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  area  within  the  bend 
of  the  Niger,  with  residences  at  Mossi  and  Gu- 
runsi.  In  its  eastern  boundary  are  the  Niger  and 
Dahomey;  on  the  west  the  territory  extends  to 
the  Sankarani  River;  on  the  south  it  is  bordered 
by  the  Gold  Coast  and  by  the  Ivory  Coast  gener- 
ally along  the  parallel  of  latitude  10*  N.  The 
third  territory,  organized  December  20,  1899, 
embraces  all  the  territory  between  the  Niger  and 
Lake  Chad,  with  the  towns  of  Koni  and  Maradi. 
Its  headquarters  are  at  Zinder.  It  extends  into 
the  Sahara  on  the  north,  reaches  the  Wadai  on 
the  east,  and  is  bordered  by  Nigeria  on  the 
south. 

The  territories  are  now  (1903)  administered 
by  three  officers,  assisted  by  residents  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Governor-General  of  French 
West  Africa  (q.v.).  However,  a  French  decree 
dated  October  4,  1902,  proposes  to  group  the 
Middle  Niger  region  (chiefly  embraced  in  the 
second  military  territory  as  above  described) 
with  the  region  of  the  upper  Senegal  River  and 
with  the  Senegal  Protectorate,  so  as  to  form  a 
new  administrative  and  financial  unit  under  the 
name  of  the  "Territory  of  Senegambia  and  the 
Niger."  This  decree  also  proposes  for  the  future 
some  changes  in  the  system  of  administration. 

The  expense  of  the  region  to  the  mother  coun- 
try is  somewhat  heavy,  especially  for  military 
needs.  The  army  numbered  8400  in  1901,  ^.bout 
one-half  natives.  The  region  of  these  territories 
is  little  known.  Many  portions  are  considered 
very  fertile,  and  full  of  agricultural  and  com- 
mercial possibilities.  The  French  are  preparing 
to  make  systematic  and  extensive  investigations 
into  these  subjects,  as  well  as  into  that  of  the 
population.  The  climate  in  general  is  not  un- 
nealthful.  The  natives  raise  rice,  millet,  and 
wheat.  In  the  country  around  Timbuktu  (q.v.) 
and  south  into  the  land  of  the  Mossi  has  sprung 
up  an  active  commerce  since  the  entry  of  the 
French  into  the  region.    Timbuktu  is  a  centre  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HILITABY  TEBBITOBIE& 


497 


MILITIA. 


trade  in  gums.  Rubber  is  the  other  leading  ar- 
ticle of  traffic.  The  railway,  which  has  been 
building  for  many  years  irom  Senegal  west 
through  Kays  and  Kita  to  Bammaku  to  con- 
nect the  Niger  with  the  ocean,  is  now  expected 
to  reach  this  destination  about  1906.  Only  about 
150  miles  remain  to  be  constructed.  The  first 
French  expedition  entered  the  region  of  the  ter- 
ritories in  1860.  The  French  began  an  active 
conquest  in  1880.  In  1894  Timbuktu  fell  into 
their  hands.  French  control  of  the  district  was 
ratified  by  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  in  1898. 

MILITCHEVITCH,  me'16-ch6v1ch,  Miiax 
(1831 — ).  A  Servian  writer,  bom  near  Bel- 
grade. Having  studied  theology  and  done 
some  teaching,  he  obtained,  in  1852,  a  State 
office,  and  was  made  secretary  to  the  Servian 
Minister  of  Education  in  1861.  Among  his  geo- 
graphical and  ethnological  writings  are  an  ex- 
haustive topographical  work,  The  Principality 
of  Servia  (1876);  Servian  Peasant  Life  (1867 
and  1873)  ;  The  Kingdom  of  Servia  (1884)  ;  Let- 
ters on  the  History  of  the  Servians  and  Bul- 
garians (1858-69);  Education  in  America 
11863);  Letters  of  a  Tourist  (1865);  Schools 
in  Servia  (1868);  the  pedagogical  periodical 
The  School  (1868-76),  and  the  short  sketches 
Jurmus  and  Fatima  (1879)  and  Winter  Even- 
ings (1879).  Militchevitch  is  one  of  the  most 
learneid  as  well  as  talented  Servian  authors. 

MIIilTELLO,  me'l^-tend,  in  Val  di  Cata- 
nia. A  town  in  the  Province  of  Catania,  Sicily, 
.situated  about  25  miles  southwest  of  C)atania, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail  (Map:  Italy, 
J  10).  It  trades  in  wine,  fruit,  and  silk.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901   (commime),  11,539. 

MTLITIA  (Lat.  militia,  military  service,  sol- 
dier, from  miles,  OLat.  meiles,  soldier).  An 
organized  military  force.  Originally  organized 
for  national  defense,  it  has,  since  the  advent  of 
standing  armies,  become  practically  the  second 
line  of  defense  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States,  representing  the  entire  able-bodied  part 
of  the  population.  Specifically  the  title  applies 
to  the  purely  defensive  branch  of  the  national 
military  system  of  the  countries  referrM  to, 
the  mobile  and  territorial  militia  of  Italy  and 
the  opoltchenie  of  Russia  closely  resembling  it. 
The  Landwehr  and  Landsturm  of  Germany  and 
Austria,  and  the  territorial  army  of  France,  may 
also  be  regarded  as  the  militia  equivalent.  In 
the  United  States  the  system  differs  somewhat 
from  the  English  in  that  it  is  not  a  Federal  or 
national  force,  imless  called  into  the  service  of 
the  Federal  Government,  it  being  normally  a 
State  organization.  From  1775  to  1783  the  bulk 
of  the  Federal  armies  consisted  of  State  troops, 
a  condition  which  continued  to  exist  long  after 
the  Revolution  itself.  The  United  States  militia 
consists  of  every  able-bodied  male  citizen  of  the 
respective  States,  Territories,  and  the  District 
of  Columbia,  and  every  able-bodied  citizen  of 
foreign  birth  who  has  declared  his  intention  to 
become  a  citizen,  who  is  more  than  eighteen  and 
less  than  forty-five  years  of  ape.  It  is  divided 
into  two  classes — the  organized  militia,  known 
as  the  National  Guards  of  the  State,  Territory, 
or  District  of  Columbia,  or  by  such  other  desig- 
nation as  may  be  given  them  by  the  laws  of  the 
respective  States  or  Territories,  and  the  re- 
mainder known  as  the  reserve  militia.  The  or- 
ganizatioQ,  armament,  and  discipline  are  the  same 


as  those  prescribed  for  the  regular  and  volunteer 
armies  of  the  United  States.  The  President  may 
call  out^  for  a  period  not  exceeding  nine  months, 
such  numbers  of  the  militia  of  the  States,  Ter- 
ritories, or  District  of  Columbia  as  he  may  deem 
necessary.  During  their  period  of  service  they 
become  subject  to  the  same  rules  and  articles  of 
war  as  the  regular  forces.  Each  State  and  Ter- 
ritory and  the  District  of  Columbia  has  an  adju- 
tant-general, who  is  charged  with  the  duties  as 
prescribed  by  the  State,  and  the  rendering  of 
regular  reports  to  the  Secretary  of  War  regard- 
ing the  strength,  condition,  etc.,  of  the  organized 
militia  of  the  State  to  which  he  belongs.  See 
United  States  in  the  article  Armies. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  is  an  abstract 
of  the  militia  force  of  the  United  States  (organ- 
ized), according  to  the  returns  of  the  Adjutant- 
(Jeneral  for  1906. 

The  militia  of  Great  Britain  is  a  constitutional 
force  raised  under  authority  of  Parliament  for 
national  defense  only.  It  cannot  be  used  on 
foreign  service  without  its  consent  and  the  au- 
thority of  Parliament.  Before  the  Norman  Con- 
quest rents  for  land  were  paid  in  body  service, 
the  able-bodied  men  of  each  family  bearing  arms 
in  numbers  proportionate  to  the  land  held  by  the 
family.  This  system  is  attributed  to  the  Saxon 
King  Alfred.  The  country  was  organized  into 
dukedoms,  hundreds,  tithings  (ten  ti things  mak- 
ing the  hundred),  and  families,  the  number  of 
families  in  a  tithing  varying  with  the  necessities 
of  the  times.  After  the  decisive  battle  of  Hast- 
ings (1066)  the  fyrd,  as  the  militia  was  then 
called,  ceased  to  exist  officially,  although  continu- 
ing to  give  the  Normans  considerable  trouble. 
The  national  exigencies  during  the  Seven  Years* 
War  rendered  imperative  the  reorganization  of 
1757,  since  which  period  more  attention  has  been 
devoted  to  it.  In  1871  the  War  Office  assumed 
control,  and  the  county  authorities  ceased  to  have 
any  active  interest  in  it  other  than  the  right  to 
nominate  officers.  It  is  now  (1906)  a  part  of 
the  military  territorial  system,  two  or  more 
local  militia  battalions  being  attached  to  each 
territorial  district,  and  forming  the  third,  fourth, 
or  fifth  battalions  (as  the  case  may  be)  of  the 
regular  regiments  to  which  they  are  attached. 
See  British  Empire  in  the  article  Abmies. 

In  Russia,  what  is  now  the  opoltchenie  was 
originally  a  simple  militia,  which  was  reor- 
ganized in  1888  and  again  in  1891,  when  the 
period  of  service  was  changed  from  forty  to 
forty-five  years  for  the  soldiers  and  from  fifty 
to  fifty-five  for  officers.  The  opoltchenie  is  now 
divided  into  two  parts.  The  first,  pyervi  razryad 
— which  is  practically  a  reserve,  and  includes  all 
who  have  passed  or  served  the  active  term  or 
period — is  intended  principally  as  a  source  of 
supply  for  the  filling  up  of  regiments. 

In  time  of  war  or  national  need  cadres  (q.v.) 
are  formed  in  connection,  so  that  when  the 
opoltchenie  is  mobilized  the  organization  is  com- 
plete. The  vtoroyi  razryad,  or  second  part,  in- 
cludes all  who  have  served  in  the  first  part,  men 
excused  from  other  services  for  physical  reasons, 
or  those  who  have  been  excused  as  being  the  sole 
support  of  their  families.  This  division  can 
only  be  called  out  for  the  organization  of  militia 
corps,  and  then  only  by  Imperial  manifesto.  In 
Italy  the  militia  is  largely  a  reserve  of  the  regu- 
lar army.    The  annual  levies  are  in  three  divi- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


XILITIA. 


4U8 


lOLK. 


SnaMora  or  nn  OwaunaMo  Miutia  or  tbm  VmrwD  Statu 
From  ih«  Report  of  the  MUitary  Seeretary^  United  States  Armyt  far  1906 


State  or  TMritory 


Arisooft   

AritftoaM 

Ci*fonrf» 

Colorado 

Connecticut      

Delaware  

I>i««rirt  of  Coiimi^ia  . 

FlorMa     

Oeonria  

HawaU     

MalM> 

nifnots    

Indiana  

Iowa.    

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Louisiana ,... 

Maine 

MarylaBd  

Mauachuaetta 

Miehii^an    

Mhinesota 

MiMis^ppi.  

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebnwfca    

Nevada  

New  RtimpaUre   

New  Jersey     

NewM<»Kfco  

New  York    

North  OvroUna 

North  Dakota 

OWo 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhod>  Island 

South  ('Ar>lina 

South  Dakota  

T.»iinpssee. 

TOXM     

Uuh    

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington         

Wesl  Virginia   

Wisconsin    

Wyoming    


Total 


XflMa  retnnw  from  the  Inapectioiia  made  daring  aprinff  of  19(>6 


III 


23 

2 

19 

21 

18 

24 

10 

64 

14 

18 

6 

6 

f3 

15 

19 

21 

8 

1 

8 

18 

65 

9) 

28 

19 

20 

8 

6 

I 

21 

M 

3 

CO 

CO 

11 

w 

7 

11 

80 

21 

26 

21 

6 

48 

1 

4 

2 

6 

15 

8 

5 


206 

74    ; 

210     I 
134     j 

58     I 


356 


II 


2S7 
108 


183 


79 
61 


655 


210 
44 


360 


261 


42 
221 


40 

65 
146 
39 


111 
28 
42 
353 
103 

94 
96 
170 
36 


3,970 


765 


1,120 


46 


2,459 


212 


30 
70 

59 

4 

44 


230 
100 


52 

"226 


266 
88 

152 
86 

114 

34 

7« 
118 

868 
t» 
59 

110 

74 
132 

58 


34 

63 
40 
117 

207 


64 


3,340 


II 


eo 


t 
I 
1 

I 


1,096 

255 
1,(r>8 
2,4r,«i 

400 
2,311 

349 
1,097 
1,080 
2,143 

372 

64h 
^099 
1,746 
2.510 
1,070 

965 
1.243 
1,796 
4,149 
2,248 
1,717 
1,M7 
2,075 

392 
1,244 

140 
1,062 
4,016 

256 

I0.ST4 

1,7TJ 

548 
6,10,; 

till 

921 
9,175 

783 
1,621 

622 
1,5W; 
1,807 

281 

i28 
1,924 

C37 

969 
8,706 

344 


m 

9 


21 

€3 

46 
82 

15 
74 

16 
63 

95 


21 
46 

9 

<^1 

174 

102 
49 

19 


63 
8 
50 
W 
26 
22 
17 
17 

124 
89 
48 

12 

48 

4 

70 
69 
69 
42 
16 
44 


223 
36 

166 
32 
15 

144 

28 


2,086 

i.r/r 

3,059 

W9 
2,725 

WW 
1.278 
1.120 
2,7i» 

416 

673 
6,929 
1,996 
2,»509 
1,155 
1,372 
1,521 
1.251 
1.942 
5,r>68 
2,«»7 
1,998 
1,2«2 
2,263 

421 
1,401 

141 
1,242 
4.3?« 

298 
!4,CH7 

1,>M.7 

«'»S5 

771 
1.063 

9,w*4 
1,066 


90.8':2 


11 

'S 

7f-7 

31 

I,7«3 

18 

2,152 

28 

11 

397 

■  ^ 

12 

761 

2,133 

33 

15 

738 

27 

1,011 

61 

2,897 

4 

353 

1,148 

1,682 

106,683 

sions,  the  first  consiRting  of  men  of  the  perma- 
nent army  who  serve  in  the  militia  as  follows: 
Carabineers  and  non-commissioned  officers  of  all 
other  corps  serve  ten  years,  with  unlimited  leave; 
other  corps,  including  cavalry,  serving  in  the 
mobile  militia  three  or  four  years,  and  in  the 
territorial  militia  seven  years.  The  levies  of  the 
second  division  serve  thrt^  or  four  years  (ac- 
cording to  the  branch  of  the  service)  in  the 
mobile  militia,  and  seven  in  the  territorial.  The 
levies  of  the  third  division  serve  nineteen  years, 
with  unlimited  leave,  in  the  territorial  militia. 
The  period  of  training  for  men  of  the  second  di- 
vision is  from  two  to  six  montlis.  s[)rrnd  over  a 
period  of  several  years.  The  third  division  has 
thirty  days'  training.  In  time  of  war  it  does 
garrison  duty,  and  constitutes  the  Inst  reserve. 

The  French  territorial  army,  with  its  reserves, 
la  organized  similarly  to  the  militia  of  Eng- 
land, on  a  purely  local  basis.  After  serving  thir- 
teen years  in  the  active  army  and  its  reserve, 


soldiers  are  assigned  to  twelve  years*  service  in 
the  territorial  army  and  reson'e.  In  Switzerland 
the  entire  army,  comprising  as  it  does  every  able- 
bodied  citizen,  is  a  militia,  regarding  which  see 
^uitzirland  in  the  article  Abuies.  See  La:^d- 
8TURM;  Landweur;  Nation .\l  Gvabd;  Volun- 
teers, AIlLITABy. 

ttILK  (AS.  mcolCy  meolucy  Goth,  mihiks, 
OUG.  miJuk,  Ger.  Milch;  connected  xvith  AS. 
mrlcdn,  OHG.  mrlchan,  Ger.  melkerty  Lat. 
miilfjcrc,  Gk.  d/uAveii',  amclpein,  OChurch  Slav. 
vilvfiti,  Lith.  milsti,  to  milk,  Skt.  marj.  Av. 
innr^z,  to  rub  off).  The  liqiiid  secreted  by 
the  mammary  glands  of  all  mammals,  and 
used  primarily  to  nourish  their  young.  From 
the  earliest  time  it  has  been  esteemed  an  im- 
portant and  necessary  article  of  food,  and 
many  hidden  virtues  were  ascribed  to  it  by 
the  ancients.  Its  exact  composition  continued 
long  unkno\^^,  and  until  the  beginning  of  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MILK. 


499 


MUJL 


seventeenth  century  fat,  casein,  and  whey  were 
the  only  constituents  recognized.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  Leenwenhoeck 
discovered  the  microscopical  characteristics  of 
railk,  and  about  the  same  time  Boerhaave  3nade 
a  qualitative  examination.  The  first  quantitative 
analysis  of  milk  recorded  was  made  in  1737  by 
Geoffrey,  who  determined  with  considerable  accu- 
racy the  casein,  milk  sugar,  and  mineral  matter. 
Woman's  milk  contains  87.4  per  cent,  of  water 
and  12.6  per  cent,  of  solids,  the  latter  including 
3.8  per  cent,  of  fat,  I.O  per  cent,  of  casein,  L3 
per  cent,  of  albumin,  6^  per  cent,  of  milk  aufiar, 
and  6.3  per  cent,  of  ash  (mineral  matter  left 
after  burning) .  The  milk  from  different  animals 
varies  considerably  in  composition,  as  shown  im 
the  following  table: 


minus  the  water  are  designated  total  solids.  The 
proportion  of  total  solids  is  a  general  iadicatioB 
of  the  richness  of  the  milk.  Among  ttae  solids  the 
chief  importance  attaches  to  ^ke  fat.  First,  it  is 
the  measure  of  the  value  of  milk  for  butter-mak- 
ing, and  to  a  very  great  extent  for  cheese-making 
also;  second,  it  is  the  constituent  which  more 
than  any  other  gives  milk  its  appearance  of  rich- 
ness; third,  it  fiuctuates  more  widely  than  a^y 
other  constituent.  ^lilk  fat  is  a  familiar  sub- 
stance in  the  form  of  butter,  which  contains 
about  85per  cent,  of  fat,  some  water,  salt,  and 
casein,  llie  fat  in  milk  is  in  the  form  of  minute 
globules  held  in  suspension,  and  on  standing  it 
rises  to  the  surface  as  cream  (^.v,))  which  con- 
tains some  of  the  other  constitaents  in  smaller 
proportion.    The  globules  may  be  readily  seen  by 


Coui>osrnoN  op  Mili  of  DirratsHT  AmuAL« 


nVD  OF  A^HIIIAL 


Oow 

Buffalo.... 

Goat 

Kwe 

Llama 

Mare 

A88 

Camel 

Sow 

Elepkaiit. 
Porpoise. 

Dog... 

Oat 


W«*er 


PtfTtfeat, 

87.2 
81.4 
85.7 
80.8 
86.« 
01.6 
89.6 
86.  S 
84.0 
67.9 
41.1 
75.4 

sa.i 


Total 
solids 


Per  cent. 
12.8 
18.6 
14.3 
1».2 
13.5 
8.6 
10.4 
13.4 
16.0 
82.1 
68.9 
94.6 
17.9 


In  total  «oli<to 


Fat 


Per  cent. 

3.7 

7.6 

4  8 

6.9 

3.2 

1.2 

1.6 

S.l 

4.0 
19.6 
«6.8 

9.6 

S.S 


Casein 


Per  oeaft. 
8.0 
6.8 
8.2 
5.0 
S.O 
1.2 
.7 
4.6 
7.2 
8.1 
11.1 
6.1 
8.1 


Albumin  I  Milk  stigar         Ash 


9rceat. 

Per  cflBt. 

.5 

4.0 

.3 

4.1 

1.1 

4.4 

1.5 

4.9 

.9 

5.6 

.1 

6.7 

1.6 

«.e 

4.0 

5.« 

7.2 

3.1 

8.1 

8.8 

U.2 

1.3 

6.1 

^.1 

6.0 

4.9 

Per  eeot, 
.7 
.9 
.8 


.8 
.6 
.7 
1.1 
.6 

.7 


The  above  are  general  averages  of  a  greater 
or  less  number  of  analyses,  depending  upon  the 
kind  ol  milk  animal,  each  kind  of  which  gives 
milk  that  varies  more  or  less  with  the  individual 
as  well  as  with  the  species.  There  is,  further- 
more, some  difficulty  in  arriving  «t  a  general 
average  for  any  kind  of  mammal,  since  normal 
milk  is  obtained  with  difficulty  from  animals 
unaccustomed  to  being  milked. 

PBePEBTiES  OF  Oows*  MiLK.  Since,  in  general 
properties  and  composition,  cows'  milk  is  typical 
of  all  milks,  is  of  chief  commercial  interest,  and 
has  been  studied  much  more  in  detail,  it  will  be 
the  main  subject  of  this  article.  The  milk  se- 
creted immediately  after  parturition  is  termed 
ooloatrum  (q.v.),  or  heastings,  and  differs  consid- 
erably from  normal  milk  in  both  physical  and 
chemical  characters.  Milk  from  which  the  fat  has 
been  removed  by  skimming  or  by  the  separator 
is  called  skim  milk  (q.v.),  and  the  residue  left 
after  churning  cream  is  known  as  buttermilk 
(q.v.).  Whey  (q.v.)  is  the  liquid  remaining 
after  the  curd  of  the  milk  has  been  separated. 

Cows'  milk  is  an  opaque,  whitish  liquid,  some- 
times faintly  yellow  or  bluish,  with  a  slight  alka- 
line reaction  and  a  sweetish  taste  when  fresh. 
It  is  heavier  than  water,  its  specific  gravity 
ranging  usually  from  1.029  to  1.035.  the  average 
for  n>ixed  milk  being  about  1.032.  By  removing 
the  lat  (skimming  the  cream)  the  specific  grav- 
ity is  raised,  ^nd  by  addin«7  water  it  is  lowered. 
This  is  the  basis  of  a  simple,  but  (when  taken 
alone)  unreliable,  test  of  the  quality  of  milk  and 
of  the  practice  of  skimming.  Chemically,  milk 
consists  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  milk  sugar, 
casein,  albumin,  and  ash,  with  the  fat  in  snspen- 
sion,  formhig  an  emulsion.  The  water  and  the 
constituents  dissolved  in  it  constitute  the  milk 
serum,  and  the  constituents  (i.e.  the  dry  matter) 


means  of  a  microscope.  For  a  lone  time  fat  glob- 
ules were  believed  to  be  surrounded  by  a  mem- 
brane or  proteid  coating>  which  was  destroyed  by 
churning  the  cream,  and  thus  allowed  the  fat  to 
unite  into  a  solid  mass.  This  view  is  still  held 
by  some,  but  the  prevailing  belief  at  present  is 
that  the  globules  are  free  and  owe  their 
spherical  form  to  the  surface  tension.  The  glob- 
ules vary  greatly  in  size,  being  from  -^^  to 
isjinr  ^^  ^^  ^^^^  '**  diameter.  A  pint  of  average 
milk  has  been  estimated  to  contain  not  far  from 
a  million  globules.  The  size  of  the  globules 
varies  with  the  period  of  lactation,  diminishing 
toward  the  close,  and  to  some  extent  with  the 
breed  and  the  individual.  The  globules  in  the 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  milk  are  relatively  large; 
in  Hoi  stein  milk  very  small.  Tlie  large  globules 
rise  more  rapidly,  and  mitk  containing  them 
creams  more  readily  and  completely. 

Milk  fat  is  a  pale  yellow  substance  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  the  glycerides  of  8  or  more  fatly 
acids.  Of  these  olein  constitutes  about  35  per 
cent.,  palmitin  25.7,  myristin  20,  laurin  7.5, 
butjTin  3.85,  caprin  3.G  per  cent.,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  principally  caprviin  and  srtearin.  By 
the  action  of  caustic  alkali  these  glycerides  are 
broken  up  into  their  respective  fatty  acids  and 
glycerin,  and  a  certain  relatively  small  propor- 
tion of  these,  including  the  butyric,  caproic,  and 
caprjiic  acids,  are  volatile.  The  characteristic 
flavor  and  aroma  of  milk  a^d  butter  are  due 
largely  to  butyrin,  and  this  decomposes  readily, 
forming  bntyric  acid,  which  i«  evident  in  rancid 
or  *frowy'  butter.  The  chief  nitrogenous  or 
albuminoid  constituent  of  milk  is  casein,  which 
is  of  prime  importance  in  cheese-making.  It  is 
coagulated  by  rennet  and  by  acids,  and  this  is 
what  gives  sonr  milk  its  thick  curdled  appear- 
ance.   The  acid  developed  in  souring  precipitates 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KTLK. 


500 


MILK. 


the  casein^  which  gradually  separates  from  the 
soluble  constituents,  inclosing  much  of  the  fat. 
Casein  is  held  in  solution  in  milk  by  the  presence 
of  lime  salts,  and  lime  water  causes  it  when 
curdled  to  separate  in  a  much  more  finely  di- 
vided condition.  The  albimiin  of  milk  is  not 
curdled  by  acids  or  rennet,  but  is  acted  upon 
by  heat.  Fibrin,  similar  to  that  of  blood,  globu- 
lin, nuclein,  and  several  other  nitrogenous  bodies, 
have  been  found  in  milk  in  small  quantities, 
but  are  of  little  importance.  The  sugar 
in  milk,  chemically  known  as  lactose,  is 
not  so  sweet  as  cane  sugar.  It  is  in  solution. 
The  ash  of  milk  consists  of  a  mixture  of  a  num- 
ber of  salts,  but  is  composed  principally  of  the 
phosphates  of  lime  and  potash,  the  chlorides  of 
potash  and  soda,  and  small  amounts  of  phosphate 
of  iron  and  magnesia.  Some  of  the  phosphate  of 
lime  appears  to  be  associated  with  the  casein, 
which  also  contains  some  sulphur.  Most  of  the 
salts  are  in  solution.  Besides  the  constituents 
named,  milk  contains  normally  a  coloring  mat- 
ter, a  trace  of  citric  acid,  urea,  and  several  other 
bodies.  The  fat  and  the  albumin  of  milk  are  the 
most  variable  constituents,  the  ash  and  the  sugar 
the  least  so.  The  casein  bears  a  quite  constant 
ratio  to  the  fat,  rising  and  falling  with  it. 

Vabiations  in  Milk.  The  richness  of  milk 
is  to  a  certain  extent  an  individual  character- 
istic; i.e.  some  individuals  normally  give  rich 
milk,  while  others,  for  no  apparent  reason,  give 
milk  containing  several  per  cent,  more  water. 
The  richness  of  milk  has  been  increased  by  do- 
mestication, care,  and  breeding,  and  certain 
breeds  of  cows,  sheep,  goats,  etc.,  have  been  pro- 
duced which  give  a  characteristically  rich  milk. 
The  quality  also  varies  with  the  stage  of  lacta- 
tion. The  milk  given  early  in  the  lactation 
period  is  usually  poorer  than  that  secreted  later, 
and  grows  richer  toward  the  close  of  the  period 
until  the  animal  'goes  dry.'  Young  animals 
usually  give  poorer  milk  and  less  of  it  than  after 
the  third  or  fourth  parturition,  and  the  milk 
from  the  first  part  of  any  milking  is  poorer  than 
the  last  part,  or  *strippings.*  T^e  kind  of  food 
has  little  effect  on  the  composition  of  milk,  pro- 
vided it  is  wholesome  and  the  amount  suflicient. 
Food  influences  the  proportion  of  the  different 
fatty  acids  composing  the  fat,  and  so  has  an 
effect  on  the  hardness  and  other  qualities  of  but- 
ter. But  the  rather  prevalent  notion  that  the 
milk  fat,  for  instance,  can  be  permanently  in- 
creased by  feeding  has  been  shown  by  much 
careful  investigation  to  be  a  fallacy.  Little 
is  known  of  the  physiological  processes  by  which 
the  constituents  of  the  food  are  transformed 
into  milk  constituents.  In  some  cases  there  ap- 
pears to  be  a  direct  transmission  of  the  con- 
stituents from  the  food  to  the  milk,  as  is  notice- 
able when  cows  eat  garlic,  onions,  etc.  The  ex- 
periments of  Jordan  at  the  New  York  State 
Experiment  Station  have  shown  that  milk  fat 
is  not  derived  solely  from  the  fat  of  the  food,  for 
cows  fed  upon  food  from  which  the  fats  were 
practically  completely  extracted  continued  to  se- 
crete milk  of  normal  composition  for  long  periods, 
and,  judjrfng  from  the  maintenance  of  their 
weight,  did  not  draw  upon  their  body  fat  to  sup- 
ply this  ingredient.  Under  the  conditions  of  the 
experiments,  the  carbohydrates  seemed  to  be 
utilized  to  some  extent  in  the  elaboration  of  milk 
fat.     The  more  the  process  of  milk  secretion  is 


understood  the  more  apparent  it  becomes  that 
richness  and  the  volume  of  the  yield  are 
individual  characters,  and  if  cows  haVe  a  ten- 
dency to  give  poor  miUc  no  amount  of  feeding  will 
overcome  it.  The  remedy  lies  in  getting  better 
cows.  For  general  statements  regarding  the  com- 
position of  the  milk  of  different  breeds  of  cows, 
see  Cattle. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  variation  of  the  milk 
of  ordinary  cows  of  mixed  breeding,  the  data 
obtained  by  Van  Slyke  in  New  York  from  the 
analysis  of  the  mixed  milk  of  15,000  cows  each 
month  from  May  to  October  may  be  cited.  The 
total  solids  ranged  from  11.17  to  13.91  and 
averaged  12.67  per  cent.,  and  the  fat  from  3.04 
to  4.06  and  averaged  3.75  per  cent.  The  content 
of  total  solids  and  of  fat  was  lowest  during  the 
summer  months  and  increased  in  the  fall.  In 
the  analysis  of  over  three  thousand  samples  of 
milk  at  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station, 
the  total  solids  varied  from  10.02  to  19.55  and 
averaged  13.57  per  cent.,  and  the  fat  from  1.5 
to  10.70  and  averaged  4.32  per  cent.  The  anal- 
ysis of  eight  hundred  samples  made  at  the  ex- 
periment stations  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try varied  in  total  solids  from  9.3  to  19.7  per 
cent.,  averaging  12.8  per  cent.,  and  in  fat  from 
1.7  to  6.5,  averaging  3.7  per  cent. 

Milk  Feb  mentations.  Milk  is  subject  to  a 
great  variety  of  fermentations,  for  it  is  a  favor- 
able medium  for  the  growth  of  many  kinds  of 
bacteria,  yeasts,  and  other  fungi  which  cause 
numerous  changes  in  its  constituents.  Thus, 
while  one  class  of  organisms  curdles  milk  by  the 
production  of  lactic  acid,  another  class  gives  it 
an  alkaline  reaction,  at  the  same  time  curdling 
it;  others  impart  to  it  a  deep  blue,  violet,  yel- 
low, green,  or  red  color,  by  the  production  of 
pigments  in  the  milk;  others  give  it  a  bitter  or 
other  unpleasant  taste;  another  class  produces 
alcohol  from  the  milk  sugar,  and  is  taken 
advantage  of  in  the  preparation  of  such  bever- 
ages as  koumiss  and  kephir  (qq.v.),  and  still 
others  cause  putrefaction.  The  most  common  and 
familiar  change  is  the  souring  of  milk,  due  usu- 
ally to  the  action  of  lactic-acid  bacteria.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  normal  milk  nearly  always 
undergoes  some  sort  of  lactic  fermentation  on 
standing.  The  production  of  lactic  acid  soon 
curdles  the  milk  and  obscures  all  other  forms  of 
fermentation,  and  the  acid  stops  the  growth  of 
other  bacteria  so  that  no  subsequent  effects  are 
usually  seen.  The  popular  belief  that  the  elec- 
tricity in  the  air  during  thunderstorms  sours 
milk  appears  to  be  unfounded,  but  its  rapid  sour- 
ing at  such  times  is  due  to  the  climatic  condi- 
tions prevailing,  which  hasten  bacterial  growth. 
The  same  difficulty  in  keeping  milk  is  experienced 
during  very  hot  weather.  Curdling  is  not  al- 
ways due  to  the  formation  of  acid;  milk  appar- 
ently 'sour'  may  have  no  acid  taste.  In  such 
cases  the  cause  is  due  to  alkaline  fermentation, 
induced  by  another  class  of  organisms.  The  milk 
becomes  coagulated  into  a  soft  slimy  mass,  which 
is  usually  bitter  and  has  an  alkaline  or  neutral 
reaction.  Ordinarily  this  form  of  fermentation  is 
not  very  apparent,  as  the  organisms  causing  it 
grow  slowly  and  the  lactic-acid  organisms  get  the 
start  of  them.  The  organisms  which  produce 
butyric  acid  in  milk  attack  and  decompose  the 
fats,  giving  a  rancid  odor.  In  the  ordinary  han- 
dling of  milk  the  latter  are  of  little  importance, 
but  it  is  supposed  that  they  have  an  important 


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MILK. 


501 


MILK. 


effect  upon  the  keeping  properties  of  butter. 
Several  organisms  have  been  described  which  im- 
part a  bitter  taste  to  milk,  due,  in  some  cases  at 
least,  to  the  production  of  a  bitter  principle. 
Milk  which  has  been  boiled  is  likely  to  develop 
a  bitter  taste,  for  the  reason  that  the  heating 
kills  the  lactic-acid  germs,  while  the  bacteria 
causing  the  bitter  taste  usually  possess  endo- 
spores  which  are  not  destroyed  by  heat,  and  so 
have  a  clear  field  for  action.  A  slimy  fermenta- 
tion of  milk  is  a  somewhat  common  occurrence, 
and  occasionally  produces  great  trouble  in  dai- 
ries, since  it  destroys  the  milk  for  all  ordinary 
uses.  Such  milk  becomes  thick  and  ropy,  will 
not  cream,  cannot  be  churned,  and  is  unfit  for 
drinking.  It  may  be  caused  by  a  variety  of  or- 
ganisms. There  are  several  forms  of  the  trouble. 
One  known  as  the  4ange  wei*  (long  or  stringy 
whey)  is  made  use  of  in  the  manufacture  of 
Edam  cheese  in  Holland,  to  control  the  gassy 
fermentation  of  the  curd. 

In  addition  to  the  fermentations  and  other 
changes  in  milk  due  to  micro-organisms,  rennet, 
an  unorganized  ferment  obtained  from  the  stom- 
ach of  the  calf  and  from  some  plants,  ferments 
milk,  causing  it  to  curdle.  This  ferment  is  em- 
ployed in  cheese-making  to  produce  the  curd. 
Babcock  and  Russell  have  discovered  an  unor- 
ganized ferment  termed  galactase  in  milk,  which 
they  believe  to  be  a  normal  and  inherent  con- 
stituent, and  which  is  active  in  the  ripening 
of  cheese,  causing  the  characteristic  changes  in 
the  green  cheese  which  make  it  suitable  for 
eating. 

The  chief  sources  of  bacteria  in  milk  are  the 
cow  herself,  the  milker,  the  dust  of  the  stable, 
and  the  dairy  utensils.  It  has  long  been  believed 
that  pure  milk  drawn  from  a  healthy  cow  con- 
tains no  bacteria,  and  that  all  bacterial  contami- 
nation of  the  milk  comes  from  external  sources. 
However,  the  large  calibre  of  the  milk  duct  makes 
it  possible  for  Iwicteria  to  enter  it  and  grow  to 
a  considerable  extent,  so  that  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  extreme  diflBculty  to  obtain  milk  from  the  cow, 
even  with  the  greatest  precautions,  which  shall 
not  be  contaminated.  Tlie  hairs  of  the  cow  are 
always  covered  with  dirt  and  dust,  and  the  air 
of  the  stable  is  charged  with  dust  from  the  fodder 
and  bedding  material,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
prevent  some  of  this  dirt  falling  into  the  milk 
pail.  Thus  large  numbers  of  bacteria,  especially 
in  poorly  ventilated  stables,  reach  the  milk.  Any 
dirt  upon  the  hands  or  clothing  of  the  milker 
will  have  abundant  chance  to  get  into  the  milk 
pails  and  cans.  Tlie  milk  vessels  themselves  are 
an  important  source  of  contamination,  the  cor- 
ners and  creases  retaining^  bacteria  which  have 
not  been  removed  or  killed  by  the  washing.  The 
warm  milk  furnishes  favorable  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  these  micro-organisms  which  have 
gained  access,  and  which  for  a  time  multiply  rap- 
idly. 

Several  species  of  bacteria  classed  as  patho- 
genic organisms  are  capable  of  living  or  even  in- 
creasing in  milk,  but  since  they  do  not  ferment 
the  milk  or  alter  its  appearance  sufficiently  to  be 
detected  by  a  physical  examination,  their  presence 
is  not  readily  determined.  Except  in  very  rare 
instances  the  milk  becomes  contaminated  after  it 
has  been  drawn  and  in  practically  all  these  cases 
the  cause  of  contamination  is  some  form  of  un- 
cleanliness,  either  of  the  stables,  the  water,  the 
utensils,  or  the  attendants.     It  is  gratifying  to 


know,  however,  that  through  the  efforts  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
agricultural  experiment  stations,  and  the  dairy- 
men themselves,  the  sanitary  management  of 
dairies  is  being  constantly  improved,  and  through 
the  vigilance  of  State  appointed  dairy  inspectors 
unsanitaiy  conditions  are  corrected  as  soon  as 
discovered. 

Milk  Adulteration  and  Control.  The  milk 
supply  of  towns  and  cities  has  for  many  years 
been  regulated  by  laws  and  ordinances,  and  sub- 
jected to  inspection.  The  object  of  this  was  for- 
merly to  prevent  adulteration,  but  of  recent  years 
the  inspection  has  often  extended  to  the  herds 
and  stables  and  all  that  relates  to  the  milk 
trade.  It  has  come  to  be  realized  that  such  fac- 
tors as  the  health  of  the  cows,  hygienic  condi- 
tion of  the  stables,  and  cleanliness  in  the  hand- 
ling of  the  milk  are  quite  as  essential  to  pure 
wholesome  milk  as  freedom  from  adulteration. 
Hence  the  veterinary  inspection,  which  has  been 
introduced  in  some  cities,  should  be  extended. 
Milk  is  most  often  tampered  with  by  removing 
a  part  of  the  cream,  or  by  diluting  it  with  water 
or  skim  milk.  Coloring  matter  is  sometimes 
added  to  make  it  appear  richer,  but  the  addition 
of  chalk,  burnt  sugar,  or  similar  substances  is 
now  rare.  Preservatives,  such  as  formaldehyde, 
borax,  and  salicylic  acid,  are  frequently  addea  to 
prevent  milk  souring.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the 
injuriousness  of  these  preservatives,  but  their 
use  is  generally  condemned  on  the  ground  that 
they  are  unnecessary  in  pure  milk,  and  that  they 
are  a  cloak  for  unsanitary  practices  in  the  dairy. 
The  standards  for  milk  adopted  by  different 
States  vary  from  11.6  to  13  per  cent,  for  total 
solids  and  from  2.6  to  3.6  per  cent,  for  fat.  Milk 
found  below  these  standards  is  held  to  be  adul- 
terated. A  standard  of  12.6  per  cent,  of  total 
solids  and  at  least  3  per  cent,  of  fat  seems  fair. 

Various  means  of  testing  milk  as  to  its  qual- 
ity have  been  suggested  from  time  to  time.  Of 
these  the  lactometer  is  the  simplest,  and  has 
been  extensively  used  by  milk  inspectors  who 
have  a  large  number  of  samples  to  examine  daily, 
to  detect  watering  or  skimming.  It  is  a  form 
of  hydrometer,  which  shows  the  specific  gravity 
of  milk  upon  a  graduated  scale.  But  there 
are  so  many  factors  that  affect  the  specific 
gravity,  and  this  may  vary  so  much  in  pure 
milk,  that  the  lactometer  reading  is  only  an  indi- 
cation and  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  final.  The 
most  reliable  and  satisfactory  of  the  simple  milk 
tests  is  the  Babcock  test,  which  has  come  into 
very  widespread  use  in  the  milk  inspection  of 
towns  and  cities,  and  in  determining  the  fat  con- 
tent of  milk  as  a  basis  for  paying  for  the  prod- 
uct at  creameries.  (See  Creamery;  Butter- 
Making.)  This  test  is  made  in  a  special  bottle 
having  a  narrow  graduated  neck.  A  definite 
quantity  of  milk  is  treated  in  the  bottle  with 
sulphuric  acid  to  dissolve  the  curd  and  set 
the  fat  free.  The  bottle  is  then  whirled  rap- 
idly in  a  centrifugal  apparatus  for  a  few  min- 
utes, to  aid  in  separating  the  fat;  hot  water 
is  added  to  bring  the  fat  up  into  the  neck,  after 
which  the  bottle  is  whirled  a  second  time  and  the 
column  of  fat  read  off  on  the  graduated  scale. 
The  reading  gives  the  percentage  of  fat  without 
calculation.  A  large  number  of  samples  may  be 
tested  simultaneously,  and  the  method  has  been 
shown  to  be  very  accurate  after  a  little  practice. 
It  shows  only  the  fat  content,  which  is  the  com- 


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502 


khjl 


man  meftsure  of  richness;  but  from  it  mnd  the 
laotoneter  reading  the  total  solids  and  other 
constituents  can  lie  oaieulated.  A  bacteriological 
examinatiMi  is  rarely  made  in  connection  with 
the  ordinary  milk  inspection. 

Mujc  AS  Food.  Milk  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
be  a  lood  for  maa  principally  because  it  contains 
the  four  classes  of  nutrients — protein,  fat,  oar- 
bohydrates,  and  mineral  matter — in  more  nearly 
the  proper  proportions  to  serve  as  a  complete  food 
than  perhaps  ai\y  other  single  lood  anaterial.  ( See 
Food.)  A  quart  of  milk  contains  aboat  four 
ounces  of  nutritive  material,  •or  abevt  the  same  as 
three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  beef  or  six  omoes  af 
bread.  Although  these  ^antities  of  milk,  beef, 
and  bvead  supply  Hke  Amounts  ^  total  mitrients, 
their  n«tritiTe  vahtes  «re  not  the  same.  In 
other  words,  tbey  would  not  be  -equally  useful  as 
food,  owing  to  the  relative  proportion  in  whidi 
the  nutrients  are  present.  Protein,  fat,  and  car- 
bohydrates occur  in  milk  in  about  «qual  propor- 
tions. The  chief  nutrients  in  bread  are  oarbe- 
hydrates  and  protein,  and  in  meat  protein  and 
fat.  Either  milk  or  bread  eaten  alone  would 
make  a  better  balanced  food  for  man  than  meat. 
In  general,  milk  and  cream  together  furnish  to 
the  diet  of  average  American  families  about  20 
per  oeut.  of  the  total  food,  11  per  cent,  of  the 
total  protein,  and  also  of  the  total  lat,  and 
about  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  carboli3^ra1e8. 
Dairy  products  (miUc,  cheese,  butter,  and  cveaon) 
furnish  over  22  per  cent,  of  the  total  food,  12 
per  cent,  of  the  protein,  32  per  cent,  of  the  fat, 
and  5  per  cent,  of  the  carboiiydrates. 

As  regards  the  digestibility  of  all  its  ingredi- 
ents, milk  is  one  of  the  most  digestible  of  animal 
foods.  It  has  been  found  that  on  an  average 
an  adult  digests  about  97  per  cent,  of  the  piro- 
tein,  %6  per  cent,  of  the  fat,  and  98  per  cent, 
of  the  carbohydrates  of  milk.  According  to 
American  experiments,  a  child  one  year  old 
eating  milk  digests  on  an  average  only  about 
90  per  cent,  of  the  protein^  ^6  per  cent,  of 
the  fat,  and  86  per  cent,  of  the  carbohydrates  of 
cows'  milk.  When  milk  is  taken  into  the  stomach 
it  is  speedily  curdled  b^'  the  action  of  the  pepsin 
and  acid  of  the  gastric  juice.  When  eaten  alone 
or  in  large  quantities,  the  casein  gathers  in  large 
lumps,  which  in  some  persons  may  be  difficult  to 
digest.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  in- 
fants and  with  adults  whose  digestion  is  weak. 
The  casein  of  human  milk  is  precipitated  in  more 
flocculent  form  than  that  of  cows'  milk,  and  is 
thus  more  easily  digested  and  does  not  oatise 
irritation.  Lime,  which  tends  to  prevent  the 
curdling  of  the  caf*ein  of  cows'  milk  in  lumps,  is 
frequently  added  as  lime  water  to  milk  that  is 
to  be  fed  to  infants  or  to  adults  of  delicate  diges- 
tion. The  result**  of  experiments  upon  the  effect 
of  cooking  milk  are  conflictinir.  The  more  com- 
mon experience  seems  to  indicate  that  cooking 
or  heating  the  milk  renders  it  more  difficult  to 
dige^^t.  Some  persons,  however,  cannot  take 
frc*<h  milk  with  comfort,  but  can  digest  boiled 
milk. 

Milk  is  often  said  to  be  a  ^perfect  food.'  It 
is  so  for  the  young  of  the  species  of  animal 
producing  it,  but  there  are  three  reasons  why  it 
cannot  be  considered  a  perfect  food  for  adults. 
( 1 )  The  proportion  of  water  is  so  large  that  great 
quantities  (from  4  to  5  quarts)  would  have  to 
be  consumed  each  day  in  order  to  oMain  the 
necessary  nutrients.     (2)   The  protein  is  present 


in  rather  large  quantities  as  conpared  with  the 
fats  and  carbohydrates.  Thus  the  milk  necessaiy 
to  furnish  the  0.28  pound  of  pirotein  per  day, 
estimated  to  be  required  by  a  man  at  moderately 
active  work,  would  yield  only  2700  calories  ai 
energy,  while  milk  in  sufficient  quantity  to  fur- 
nish tile  3400  calories  estimated  as  neoessary 
would  yield  0.34  pound  of  protein.  <3)  It  is  a 
well  recognized  fact  that  the  digestive  fiinotions 
require  that  food  itself,  besides  the  wwter  tJbkan 
with  it,  shall  have  m  certain  %Rilk.  Cattle  oannot 
generally  be  maintained  in  health  mspam  m  oon- 
Sensed  ration  siich  as  grain;  they  seem  to  i<equire 
a  certain  distention  of  the  stomaoh,  snc3i  as  is 
brought  about  by  the  fibre  <oelkiil«8e  or  woody 
matter)  of  grass  or  hay.  In  like  noanner  it  seems 
desirable  that  man  should  have  a  ceitain  nmoiurt 
of  bulky  material  to  produce  distention  or  to  pro- 
mote peristaltic  action  of  the  intestines,  or  for 
other  purposes  not  well  understood.  Of  coarse, 
the  nutritive  constituents  of  milk,  ooDsidered 
separately,  are  highly  concentrated  foods.  While, 
therefore,  milk  alone  cannot  be  considered  ns  a 

•perfect  diet  for  adults,  it  is  of  speesal  valtte  as  a 
food  lor  invalids,  because  it  is,  as  a  rule,  easily 
taken,  easily  digested,  and  does  net  generally  ir- 
ritate the  alimentary  oanaL  Furthermore,  a 
milk  diet  is  more  readily  under  the  control  of  the 
physician  both  as  regards  quantity  and  qvality 
than  a  mixed  diet  is.  If  for  any  reason 
a  (^ild  cannot  be  nourished  on  mother's  nsiilk, 
the  most  useful  substitute  is  modified  cows'  nailk. 
Various  infant  foods  and  milk  substitntes  have 
been  proposed  and  are  sold  under  divers  trade 
names. 

As  a  lood  for  adults  cows'  milk  is  nnnsually 
well  adapted  lor  use  in  oonnectaon  with  otber 
foods,  either  in  its  uncooked  form  in  tea  atod 
coffee,  as  a  beverage,  as  bread  and  milk,  etc.,  or 
incorporated  and  cooked  with  other  materials. 
In  many  culinary  products  it  can  he  used  instead 
of  water.  Analysis  of  bread,  rolls,  etc^  made 
with  mUk  would  show  about  one-tenth  more  pro- 
tein and  one-twentieth  more  fuel  value  Uian 
bread  made  with  water.  Milk  is  very  generally 
used  in  many  kinds  of  cake  and  pastiy  and  in 
custards.  Where  desirable  from  economical  rea- 
sons, or  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  propaa-tional 
amount  of  protein  in  a  diet,  skim  miik  can  be 
advantageously  substituted  for  whole  milk.  At 
the  price  ordinarily  paid  in  our  large  cities  milk 
is  a  food  of  reasonable  cheapness,  and  at  the 
prices  prevailing  in  small  cities  and  country 
to\^Tis  it  is  an  economical  food.  CSondensed  milk 
is  a  more  nutritious  food,  pound  for  pound,  than 
fresh  milk,  since  it  has  been  concentrated  by 
evaporation.  It  is,  however,  usually  diluted  be- 
fore it  is  used,  and  then  approximates  fresh  milk 
more  or  less  closely  in  composition  and  food 
value.  If  the  condensed  milk  contains  added 
sugar  its  carbohydrate  content  is,  of  course,  high- 
er than  that  of  unsweetened  condensed  milk,  and 
when  diluted,  proportionally  higher  than  that  of 
fresh  milk.  Cream,  which  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  fat  of  the  milk,  as  well  as  some  pro- 
tein  and   carbohydrates,   is   chiefly   valuable   m 

.  the  diet  as  a  source  of  energy.  Curds  obtained  in 
the  manufacture  of  cheese  are  eaten  to  a  limited 
extent.  They  consist  quite  largely  of  the  casein 
of  milk,  and  hence  supply  the  body  with  building 
material  as  well  as  energy.  Butter  and  cheese 
(q.v.),  the  principal  milk  products  used  as 
food,  are  of  great  importance  as  articles  of  diet. 


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MJUSL 


503 


mhiXfevxb. 


There  are  at  kttst  four  distinct  fermented  bev- 
erages prepared  from  milk — kephir  (q,v.),  kou- 
miss (q.v.),  Duitzoon  (q.T.),  and  leben.  They  are 
properly  classed  as  food  beverages,  and  are  often 
recommended  for  the  sick  and  for  conralet^cents. 
A  number  of  special  foods  are  made  from  the  dry 
casein  of  milk  and  are  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  physicians  to  supply  protein  in  a 
readily  digestible  form.  The  albuminoids  of  milk 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  egg  substitutes. 
Milk  sugar  prepared  from  whey  is  an  important 
article  of  diet  for  invalids  and  is  used  in  medi- 
cine and  in  other  ways. 

BiBLiOGKAPHT.  The  literature  of  milk  is  ex- 
tensive. In  addition  to  the  publications  of  the 
Dairy  Division  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  bulletins  of  the  various  ex- 
periment stations,  the  following  works  may  be 
mentioned:  Fleischmann,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy ^ 
A  Manual  of  the  Science  and  Practice  of  Dairy 
Workf  trans,  by  Aikman  and  Wright    (London, 

1896)  ;  Wing,  Milk  and  Its  Products  (New  York, 

1897)  ;  Snyder,  Chemistry  of  Dairying  (Easton, 
Pa.,  1897)  ;  Aikman,  Milk:  Its  Nature  and  Com- 
position: A  Handbook  on  the  Chemistry  and 
Bacteriology  of  Milk,  Butter,  and  C/iec«e(  London, 
1895)  ;  Richmond,  Dairy  Chemistry :  A  Practical 
Handbook  for  Dairy  Chemists  and  Others  Having 
Control  of  Dairies  (London,  1899)  ;  Russell, 
Dairy  Bacteriology  (Madison,  Wis.,  1897)  ;  Conn, 
Bacteria  in  Milk  and  Its  Products  (Philadel- 
phia, 1903)  ;  Farrington  and  Woll,  Testing  Milk 
and  Its  Products  (Madison,  Wis.,  1898)  ;  Mon- 
rad»  Pasteurization  and  Milk  Preservation  (Win- 
netka.  111.,  1901)  ;  De  Rothschild,  BibUographia 
Lactaria,  contains  8375  titles  (Paris,  1901)  ;  Les 
industries  du  lait,  R.  Lez^  (Paris,  1904)  ;  Hogan, 
How  to  Feed  Children  (Philadelphia,  1896); 
Modern  Methods  of  Testing  Milk  and  its  Products, 
L.  L.  Van  Slyke  (New  York,  1906)  ;  Willoughby, 
Milk:  Its  Production  and  Uses  (Philadelphia, 
1905);  Holt,  Diseases  of  Infancy  and  Childhood 
(New  Y'ork,  1899) ;  Chapin,  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Infant  Feeding  (New  York,  1902)  ;  Farmers* 
Bulletins  Nos,  42,  74,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

MILK  CIJKB.  The  treatment  of  disease  in 
the  adult  by  the  use  of  milk  as  a  diet.  In  the 
milk  cure  all  other  food  and  drink  is  suspended 
lor  a  time.  Acting  upon  the  information  that 
milk  requires  about  three  hours  for  complete 
digestion,  four  ounces  of  milk  are  taken  by  the 
patient  every  three  hours,  beginning  on  rising 
in  the  morning.  In  a  few  days,  one  or  two  tum- 
blerfuls  are  taken  at  a  time,  in  place  of  the 
smaller  quantity.  Usually  a  patient  takes  two 
quarts  a  day;  in  some  cases  the  total  amount 
reaches  five  quarts.  It  is  generally  administered 
warm.  In  cases  of  stomachic  or  intestinal  dis- 
orders, the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  is  then  skimmed  before  being 
administered.  Lime  water,  in  the  proportion  of 
one- fourth  of  the  bulk,  overcomes  the  patient's 
repugnance  to  the  diet  and  renders  it  more  easy 
of  digestion.  Or  the  milk  may  be  flavored  with 
coffee,  cocoa,  salt,  or  caramel.  After  two  or 
three  weeks  of  strict  milk  diet,  it  is  advised 
that  a  little  stale  bread  be  added,  three  times  a 
day.  A  week  later,  about  two  tablei?poonfuls  of 
rice  or  a  little  arrowroot  is  added.  At  the 
fifth  week  a  chop  is  given  once  a  day,  and  a  few 
days  later  two  chops  a  day  are  allowed.    At  the 


end  of  the  sixth  week  fuU  meals  oi  various  foods 
are  resumed,  milk  continuiBg  to  be  a  principal 
part  of  the  diet.  Coffee,  or  aloes,  or  laxative 
mineral  water  is  employed  to  overcome  the  con- 
stipation iacidest  upon  a  milk  diet  in  adults. 

The  milk  cure  is  successful  in  sonke  cases  of 
dyspepsia,  gastric  ulcer,  chronic  intestinal  indi- 
gestion, enteralgia,  chronic  diarrhoea  and  dysen- 
tery. In  the  treatment  of  ascites  of  hepatic 
origin^  it  has  been  used  since  the  days  of  Hip- 
pocrates, who  refers  to  it.  It  has  also  proved 
etlicaeious  in  diabetes,  eczema,  gout,  aneurism, 
and  cardiac  disease. 


MILK  FEVEB  (in  Women).  Coincidently 
with  the  appearance  of  milk  in  the  breasts  of  a 
mother  who  has  given  birth  to  a  child  three  or 
four  days  previously,  there  is  a  slight  general 
rise  of  temperature,  accompanied  by  an  accel- 
erated pulse,  and  in  some  cases  a  diminution  of 
the  lochial  discharge.  The  breasts  become 
swollen,  hot,  and  rosy,  and  somewhat  sensitive. 
Many  women  in  robust  health  suffer  no  discom- 
fort; some  have  no  rise  of  temperature.  No 
treatment  other  than  relief  of  existing  constipa- 
tion is  necessary. 

MrLK  FEVKBiy  Pabtubieivt  Apopuext,  or 
Parturient  Pabesis,  A  disease  of  cows,  espe- 
cially good  milkers  of  improved  breeds  and  in 
good  condition  at  time  of  calving.  As  the  most 
important  predisposing  causes  of  the  disease 
veterinarians  have  long  recognized  confinement  in 
improperly  ventilated  stables,  high  temperature, 
electrical  disturbances,  constipation,  mature  age, 
and  calving.  Later  writers  regard  the  cause  as 
ptomain  poisoning  originating  in  the  udder  and 
affecting  the  brain  and  central  nervous  system. 
The  disease  never  follows  the  first  calving,  and 
rarely  follows  the  second.  One  attack  seems  to 
predispose  toward  another.  It  appears  in  two 
forms,  apoplectic  and  torpid.  In  the  apoplectic 
form  the  cow  suddenly  becomes  dull,  allov^'s  the 
head  to  droop,  and  staggers  in  attempting  to 
walk,  falls,  and  lies  either  on  the  breast-bone, 
with  the  head  turned  around  to  the  right,  and 
resting  on  the  muzzle,  or  stretched  out  on  the 
side.  The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  dilated,  and  the 
head  and  horns  are  hot;  the  bowels  and  bladder 
soon  become  torpid  or  completely  paralyzed,  and 
fail  to  operate  unless  recovery  takes  place. 
In  the  torpid  form  there  is  no  marked  fever 
and  no  congestion  of  the  head.  The  animal 
slowly  becomes  drowsy  and  >veakened,  falls  down, 
and,  unless  relieved,  finally  succumbs.  Insensi- 
bility is  a  pronounced  symptom  in  the  later 
stages  of  both  forms. 

The  usual  treatment  consists  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  Epsom  salts,  and  doses  of  20  to  30 
drops  of  tincture  of  aconite.  Ice  is  applied 
to  the  head  in  the  apoplectic  form.  After 
the  symptoms  of  fever  and  constipation  abate, 
stimulants  are  administered  until  the  cow  is  able 
to  stand.  Recently  satisfactory  results  have  been 
obtained  from  a  method  known  as  the  Schmidt 
treatment,  which  consists  in  injectintf  an  infusion 
of  ten  grammes  of  potassium  idodido  into  the 
udder.  If  no  improvement  is  noted,  the  dose 
may  be  repeated  after  24  hours.  A  large  per- 
centage of  cases  recover  from  the  first  dose.  The 
latest  and  most  successful  treatment  consists  in 
pumping  the  udder  full  of  oxygen  or  filtered 
air. 


Digitized  by 


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MILKFISH. 


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MILK  PBODUGTIOH. 


MILKFISH.  A  large,  silvery,  herring-like 
fish  of  the  genus  Chanos  and  family  Hiodontidse, 
which  inhabit  the  wanner  parts  of  the  Pacific. 
One  well-known  species  {Chanos  chanos) ,  from 
two  to  five  feet  long,  is  a  food  fish  of  some  im- 
portance in  the  South  Pacific,  Japan,  Hawaii, 
and  the  Gulf  of  California.  Foreign  names  for 
it  are  'chani,*  *awa,'  *auged,*  'sabalo,'  etc. 

MILKING  MACHINE.  An  apparatus  de- 
signed to  do  away  with  hand  labor  in  milking 
cows.  Milking  tubes,  inserted  into  the  milk  ducts 
within  the  teats,  have  been  tried,  but  found  un- 
satisfactory. Several  forms  of  milking  machines 
have  been  devised  which  milk  a  number  of  cows 
at  the  same  time.  One  of  the  most  successful 
of  these,  the  Thistle,  operates  on  the  principle 
of  a  vacuum  maintained  by  a  hand  or  power  air 
pump.  Pipes  connected  with  a  large  storage  tank 
from  which  the  air  is  exhausted  pass  to  the  stalls 
and  terminate  in  cups,  which  fit  over  the  cows' 
teats  so  as  to  make  an  air-tight  joint.  A  pulsat- 
ing motion  resembling  hand  milking  or  the  suck- 
ing of  the  calf  is  imparted  by  the  vacuum,  alter- 
nating in  pressure  from  5  to  15  pounds  at  quite 
rapid  inter\'als.  Other  forms  of  milking  ma- 
chines operate  on  a  similar  principle.  They  are 
said  to  be  rapid  and  effective,  but  are  expensive 
to  install  and  maintain,  and  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  or  they  will  soon  become  foul  and  con- 
taminate the  milk.  As  yet  milking  machines 
have  come  into  only  very  limited  use,  either  in 
America  or  Europe. 

MILK  LEG.    See  Phlegmasia  Alba  Dolexs. 

MILKOWSKI,  mll-kdv^skd,  Zygmunt  (1824 
— ),  A  Polish  novelist,  who  wrote  under  the 
pseudonym  Theodor  Thomas  Jez.  He  was  born 
near  Balta,  in  Podolia,  and  was  educated  at  the 
Odessa  Lyceum  and  at  the  University  of  Kiev, 
where  he  made  a  special  study  of  physics  and 
mathematics.    He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Him- 

firian  uprising  of  1848  and  then  traveled  in  the 
ast.  After  identifying  himself  with  the  Polish 
insurrection  of  1863  he  was  obliged  to  live  abroad, 
and  he  settled  in  Geneva  in  1877.  Besides  ro- 
mances founded  upon  Slavic  history,  he  wrote 
stories  of  contemporary  life  in  Poland. 

MILK  PBODUCTION.  In  a  well-conducted 
dairy  farm  the  following  conditions  should  be 
enforced:  The  stable  or  cow  house  should  be 
roomy,  clean,  dry,  light,  and  well  ventilated, 
for  only  under  such  conditions  can  cows  be 
kept  in  the  best  of  health.  The  animals  them- 
selves should  be  clean  and  healthy,  and  should  be 
well  fed  and  contented.  There  should  be  an 
abundance  of  pure  water,  to  which  the  cows 
should  have  access  at  least  twice  a  day.  The 
food  should  be  of  good  quality,  and  the  grain 
and  coarse  fodder  should  be  free  from  dirt  and 
decay,  and  not  in  a  musty  condition.  All  utensils 
which  come  in  contact  with  milk  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed  and  sterilized  or  scalded  after 
using.  After  the  milk  has  been  drawn  from  the 
cow  it  should  be  taken  to  a  milk  room  which  is 
free  from  all  stable  and  other  odors,  poured 
through  a  fine  strainer,  and  run  over  a  cooling 
aerator  (q.v.),  to  free  it  of  animal  and  stable 
odors  and  cool  it  quickly.  The  milk  is  next 
transferred  to  the  shipping  can  and  set  in  cold 
water,  or  bottled  and  stored  in  a  cold  place  until 
needed.  During  transportation  from  the  farm 
to  the  town  or  city  the  milk  should  be  kept  as 
cool  as  possible.     Refrigerator  cars  are  provided 


by  some  railroads  for  that  purpose.  Much  of  the 
milk  that  is  brought  to  large  cities  by  rail  is 
from  24  to  36  hours  old  before  it  reaches  the 
consumer,  lliis  makes  it  necessary  to  exercise 
every  precaution  in  its  handling,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent spoiling,  and  cooling  immediately  after 
milking  is  an  important  factor  in  this  connec- 
tion. 

Not  onl^  has  the  demand  for  clean,  pure  milk 
led  to  an  increased  demand,  but  it  has  led  to  the 
enactment  of  more  rigid  restrictions  and  closer 
supervision  of  dairies,  and  by  the  production  at 
some  dairies  of  so-called  sanitary  milk.  Such 
milk  is  produced  under  the  most  sanitary  and 
hygienic  conditions  as  regards  the  food  and  care 
of  the  animals,  the  stables,  the  milking,  and  the 
care  and  handling  of  the  milk.  The  herds  in  these 
dairies  are  inspected  often  to  determine  their 
freedom  from  disease,  and  not  infrequently  the 
milk  is  'certified*  or  guaranteed  to  contain  a  cer- 
tain fixed  percentage  of  fat,  as  5  per  cent.,  this 
being  maintained  the  year  round  by  the  addition 
of  cream  when  necessary.  Such  sanitary  or  certi- 
fied milk  is  usually  sold  at  an  advanced  price, 
as  the  cost  of  its  production  is  greater  than  that 
of  ordinary  market  milk.  The  so-called  modified 
milk  is  a  prepared  product  used  principally  for 
infant  feeding,  and  usually  made  according  to  a 
physician's  prescription.  'Many  physicians  pre- 
scribe a  milk  with  a  definite  composition,  usually 
resembling  mother's  milk  as  closely  as  possible, 
but  varying  according  to  the  apparent  needs  of 
the  individual.  Such  prescription  milk  is  gen- 
erally prepared  from  cows'  milk  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  fat,  but  more  particularly  that  of 
proteids,  and  increasing  the  proportion  of  sugar. 
Lime  water  is  frequently  added  to  reduce  the 
acidity,  and  at  times  preparations  made  from 
cereals  are  added. 

For  the  preservation  of  milk  pasteurization  is 
now  extensively  practiced.  Pasteurization  con- 
sists in  heating  the  milk  in  closed  vessels  at  from 
60**  to  66°  C.  ( 140**  lo  160 •»  F.)  for  about  half  an 
hour,  and  then  cooling  it  as  quickly  as  possible 
by  cold  water  or  ice.  By  this  means  most  of  the 
organisms  contained  in  it  are  killed,  and  the  milk 
will  keep  much  longer  than  when  it  has  not  been 
so  treated.  Continuous  pasteurizers  are  used  in 
many  creameries  and  large  dairies,  and  there  are 
a  variety  of  small  pasteurizers  for  family  use. 
Where  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  purity  of 
the  milk  it  is  much  safer  to  pasteurize  that  used 
for  children  at  home.  To  a  certain  extent,  how- 
ever, pasteurization  may  be  used  to  cover  up  the 
effects  of  careless  methods,  and  many  people 
prefer  the  sanitary  milk.  In  sterilizing  milk 
the  liquid  is  heated  to  boiling;  but  this  changes 
the  character  of  the  milk,  making  it  less  suitable 
for  drinking,  and  giving  it  a  cooked  taste.  Pas- 
teurization is  sufficient  for  household  purposes. 

Condensed  Milk.  This  is  made  by  evapo- 
rating whole  milk  so  as  to  remove  a  large  portion 
of  the  water.  The  milk  is  first  heated  and  then 
introduced  into  vacuum  pans,  where  it  is  boiled 
until  sufficiently  concentrated,  when  it  is  placed 
in  cans  and  hermetically  sealed.  By  far  the 
greater  portion  is  sweetened,  about  l^^  pounds  of 
cane  sugar  per  gallon  being  added  during  boiling: 
but  some  is  evaporated  without  sweetening,  al- 
though this  does  not  keep  as  long  after  the  can 
is  opened.  Plain  condensed  milk  contains  about 
60  per  cent,  of  wa^r  and  10  per  cent,  of  fat,  while 
the  sweetened  product  contains  from  25  to  30  per 


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cent,  of  water,  about  10  per  cent,  of  fat,  and 
35  to  40  per  cent,  of  sugar.  Evaporated  cream 
and  condensed  cream  are  nothing  more  than  con- 
densed milk,  as  their  composition  shows.  Cream 
or  even  enriched  milk  is  seldom  condensed.  The 
manufacture  of  condensed  milk  has  grown  to 
enormous  proportions,  and  its  use  is  widespread 
where  fresh  milk  of  good  quality  cannot  be  ob- 
tained. 

Statistics.  According  to  the  returns  of  the 
census  of  1900,  over  18,000,000  cows  are  kept  in 
the  United  States  for  the  production  of  milk. 
These  produce  annually  nearly  8,000,000,000  gal- 
lons of  milk.  The  creameries  use  the  milk  from 
about  2,500,000  cows  for  butter-making,  and  the 
cheese  factories  that  from  about  1,130,000  cows. 
The  total  value  of  the  milk  consumed  as  such  is 
estimated  at  $277,645,100,  and  of  the  cream, 
$4,435,444.  There  were  50  condensed-milk  fac- 
tories in  the  United  States  in  1900,  which  used 
421,378,073  poimds  of  milk  and  produced  186,- 
921,787  pounds  of  the  condensed  product,  an  in- 
crease of  nearly  400  per  cent,  over  the  returns 
for  1890.  The  product  was  valued  at  nearly 
$12,000,000.  The  aggregate  value  of*  the  dairy 
products  of  the  United  States  is  given  by  the 
Twelfth  Census  as  $599,827,154.  The  annual 
consumption  of  dairy  products  per  capita,  aside 
from  the  milk  consumed  as  such,  is  estimated  as 
follows:  Butter,  19  pounds;  cheese,  3.3  pounds; 
condensed  milk,  2.3  pounds. 

See  also  Daibying;  Butteb;  Creamebt; 
Cheese;  Buttermilk ;  Whey. 

MILK  SNAKE^  or  House  Snake.  A  common 
widely  spread  North  American  colubrine  snake, 
classified  as  an  Eastern  variety  {triangula)  of 
the  Southern  king-snake  {Osceola  doliata).  It 
sometimes  reaches  a  length  of  four  feet,  and  its 
general  color  above  is  yellowish  gray,  with  a 
dorsal  series  of  large  blotches,  normally  55  in 
number,  and  separated  by  narrow  intervals,  which 
are  dull  chocolate  bordered  with  black.  There 
are  also  a  double  row  of  rounded  spots  along  the 
sides,  and  a  dark  band  from  the  eye  back  to 
the  corner  of  the  mouth.  The  abdomen  is  yel- 
lowish white,  with  square  black  blotches  alterr- 
nating  with  those  above  them.  This  subspecies 
is  abundant  in  the  Middle  States  and  Southern 


MILK  TEST. 
MILKWEED. 


MILL. 

See  Milk;  Dairying. 
See  Asclepias. 


HILK  BKAKE. 


Ontario,  changing  southward  and  west  of  the 
Mississippi  into  other  forms  of  this  far-extended 
and  highly  variable  species.  (See  King-Snake.) 
Everywhere  it  is  an  entirely  harmless  denizen 
of  fields  and  gardens,  and  often  comes  into  barns 
and  out-houses  in  search  of  the  mice  upon  which 
it  principally  feeds,  thereby  deserving  the  pro- 
tection of  farmers.  .  It  is  swift  and  agile.  Its 
name  *milk  snake'  comes  from  the  frequency 
with  which  it  is  seen  in  dairies  or  places  where 
milk  is  kept.  It  is  believed  to  drink  the  milk, 
and  there  seems  to  be  good  evidence  that  it 
does  so.  Another  popular  belief  is  that  this 
snake  sometimes  sucks  the  milk  from  the  teats 
of  cows,  and  this  belief  seems  to  be  founded 
upon  fact,  although  the  occurrence  is  much  less 
common  than  some  persons  believe. 


MILKWEED  BUTTEKFLT.  A  cosmopol- 
itan butterfly  {Anoaia  pleanppus)  which  is  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  where  milkweeds 
(Asclepias)  grow.  It  is  a  large  reddish  species^ 
with  its  wing-veins  blackened,  and  its  larva  is 
striking  in  color,  being  grayish-white  and  yellow- 
ish, transversely  banded  with  black,  giving  it  a 
zebra-like  appearance.  The  chrysalis  is  delicate 
pale  green  with  bright  golden  spots,  and  hangs 
from  the  leaves  or  stems  of  the  food  plant.  The 
milkweed  butterfly  is  a  famous  species  for  sev- 
eral reasons.  It  is  one  of  the  strongest  flyers 
known  among  the  Lepidoptera;  specimens  have 
been  taken  on  vessels  many  hundreds  of  miles 
from  the  land,  and  there  is  in  the  United  States 
an  annual  migration  northward  in  the  spring 
from  the  States  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico. ( See  Migration  of  Animals.  )  These  flights, 
aided  by  the  south  winds,  may  reach  up  into 
Canada,  the  butterflies  occasionallv  alighting 
and  laying  their  eggs  upon  the  milkweeds.  In 
the  autumn  there  is  a  return  migration  south, 
and  the  butterflies  hibernate  only  in  the  Southern 
States,  hidden  away  beneath  the  bark  of  trees 
and  in  other  protected  places. 

Ordinarily  the  butterflies  frequent  open  ground, 
but  when  they  congregate,  as  at  night  and  in 
cloudy  weather,  they  are  found  resting  on  the 
stems  of  herbaceous  plants,  usually  in  the  open 
spaces  of  forests,  and  in  enormous  numbers. 
They  will  alight  upon  the  lee  side  of  a  tree,  and 
particularly  on  the  lower  branches,  in  such  vast 
numbers  as  almost  to  hide  the  foliage  and  to 
give  their  color  to  the  trees.  If  disturbed,  they 
rise  like  a  flock  of  birds,  but  immediately  settle 
again.  Sometimes  a  tree  will  be  so  festooned 
with  butterflies  that  it  appears,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance, to  be  covered  with  dead  leaves. 

This  butterfly  is  one  of  the  especially  protected 
species,  and  is  provided  with  scent-scales,  'an- 
droconia,'  which  are  supposed  to  make  the  insect 
distesteful  to  ite  natural  enemies.  It  is  the 
commonest  and  most  widespread  representative 
of  the  large  group  of  butterflies  which  are  thus 
protected,  and  is  mimicked  in  coloration  by  other 
non-protected  species,  e.g.  in  the  United  States 
by  Basilarchia  disippus.  Consult  Scudder,  The 
Life  of  the  Butterfly  (New  York,  1893).  See 
the  articles  Mimicry;  Viceroy;  and  Butter- 
flies AND  Moths. 

MILKWOBT.  A  plant  conmaon  in  the  north 
temperate  zone.     See  Polyqala. 

MILKY  WAY.     See  Galaxy. 

MILL  (AS.  myletij  myln,  from  Lat.  molina, 
mill,  from  moZa,  millstone,  from  molerCy  to  grind ; 
connected  with  Eng.  meal^  mold).  A  name 
originally  given  to  machinery  for  grinding  grain 
for  food,  or  to  the  factory  where  this  was  done. 
The  term  is  now  applied  in  a  general  way  to 
many  other  kinds  of  manufactories  besides  those 
where  raw  material  is  transformed  by  a  grind- 
ing process,  as  a  saw-mill,  planing-mill,  or  cot- 
ton-mill. See  Flour;  Rolling-Mill ;  Grinding 
AND  Crushing  Machinery. 

MILL,  James  (1773-1836).  A  British  econo- 
mist and  philosopher.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoe- 
maker, born  near  Montrose.  Scotland,  April  6^ 
1773.  He  studied  at  the  I'niversity  of  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  distinguished  himself  in  Greek 


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MTTJ. 


and  in  moral  and  metaphysical  philosophy.  He 
war^  licensed  to  preach  in  1798;  but  instead  of 
following  this  career,  he  went  to  Loudon  in 
1802,  as  tutor  to  Sir  John  Stuart's  children, 
and  there  settled  as  a  literary  man.  He  became 
editor  of  the  Literary  Journal  and  wrote  for 
various  periodicals.  Not  long  after  he  settled 
in  London  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Jeremy 
Bentham,  who  inttuenced  him  greatly  in  his 
views.  In  1806  he  commenced  his  History  of 
British  India,  which  he  carried  on  along  with 
other  literary  work,  and  published  in  the  win- 
ter of  1817-18.  This  important  work,  though 
containing  an  attack  upon  the  administration 
of  the  East  India  Company,  secured  for  him  in 
1819  the  post  of  assistant  examiner  of  Indian 
correspondence.  Before  his  death  he  was  ap- 
pointed head  of  the  examiner's  office,  where  he 
had  the  control  of  all  the  departments  of  Indian 
administration — political,  judicial,  and  financial 
— managed  by  the  secret  committee  of  the  court 
of  directors.  He  contributed  many  important 
articles  to  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  These 
essays  were  printed  in  a  separate  form,  and  be- 
came widely  known.  In  1821-22  he  published 
his  Elements  of  Political  Econoiuy,  a  work  pre- 
pared primarily  with  a  view  to  the  education 
of  his  eldest  son,  John  Stuart  Mill.  In  1829  his 
magnum  opus,  the  Analysis  of  the  Human  Mind, 
appeared.  The  work  is  almost  the  Bible  of  as- 
sociationism,  and  deserves  to  be  classed  among 
the  great  English  philosophical  productions.  He 
attempted  to  simplify  association  ism  by  recogniz- 
ing only  one  principle  at  work,  that  which  was 
later  called  association  by  contiguity.  (See  As- 
sociation OF  Ideas.)  This  principle  can  so  fuse 
various  ideas  and  feelings  that  a  result  may  be 
produced  entirely  different  from  the  original  ele- 
ment. This  has  been  called  'mental  chemistry.* 
!Mill  made  great  use  of  mental  chemistry  in  sup- 
port of  the  doctrine  that  morality  is  based  on 
utility.  (See  Utilitabianism.)  In  this  way  he 
furnished  a  psychological  basis  for  Bentham*s 
ethical  and  legislative  reforms.  He  took  great 
interest  in  political  questions  and  was  a  powerful 
advocate  of  an  extended  suffrage.  ^luch  of  his 
influence  was  due  to  his  strong  personalitv  and 
great  conversational  powers.  In  later  life  he  en- 
tirely broke  away  from  his  early  religious  views 
and  brought  up  his  son  John  Stuart  in  utter  reli- 
gious indifference.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
founding  of  University  College,  London.  He 
died  at  Kensington,  June  23,  1836.  See  Auto- 
biography of  J.  S.  Mill  (London,  1873)  ;  Bain, 
James  Mill:  A  Biography  (London.  1882)  ; 
Bower,  James  Mill  and  Hartley  (ib.,  1881).  All 
of  these  works  are  quite  popular  in  character. 
MILL,  John  (1645-1707).  A  scholar  of  the 
Church  of  England.  He  was  born  at  Shap, 
Westmoreland;  studied  at  Queen's  College.  Ox- 
ford, and  was  elected  a  fellow  in  1670.  He  en- 
tered the  ministry,  and  became  distinguished  as 
a  preacher;  became  rector  in  1681  of  the  college 
living  of  Bletchington,  Oxfordshire,  and  chap- 
lain to  Charles  II.  In  1685  he  was  principal  of 
Saint  Edmund  Hall;  in  1704  he  became  pre- 
bendary of  Canterbury.  The  work  for  which 
he  is  most  distinguished  is  his  new  edition  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  on  which  he  spent  thirty 
years,  and  which  appeared  only  fourteen  days 
before  his  death.  It  was  undertaken  at  the  ad- 
vice and  expense  of  Dr.  Fell,  Bishop  of  Oxford, 
but  after  the  Bishop's  death    (1686)    Mill  con- 


tinued it  at  his  own  expense,  and  repaid  to  tke 
executors  what  he  had  received.  The  text  which 
Mill  adopted  is  that  of  Robert  Stephens  ol  1550, 
and  his  work  contains  30,000  various  re^din^ 
collected  from  manuscripts,  eommeiitaries,  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers,  etc.  Dr.  Daniel  Whitby  at- 
tacixcd  the  work  in  his  Examen  Variantium  Le4^- 
tionum  Johannis  Millii  (London,  1709)  ;  but  Dr. 
Richard  Bentley  approved  the  labors  of  Mill,  and 
Michaelis,  Marsh,  and  other  eritical  schoJara  ac- 
knowledged the  value  of  the  edition. 

MILL,  John  Stuabt  (1800-73).  Aa  Eaglkh 
philosopher,  the  'son  of  Janaee  Mill.  He  waa 
bom  in  London,  Mar  20,  1806,  and  was  educated 
at  home  by  his  father,  who^  however,  itnwisejhr 
forced  the  child  beyond  his  years.  He  is  said 
to  have  begun  Greek  at  three.  He  was  aever 
allowed  to  indulge  in  the  plays  of  (^Idhood. 
In  1820  he  went  to  France,  where  he  lived 
for  upward  of  a  year,  making  himself  mas- 
ter  of  the  French  language,  and  oceasioaally 
attending  public  lectures  on  science,  but  also^ 
now  that  he  was  away  from  his  father,  getting 
some  physical  exercise  in  fencing  and  like  sports. 
This  stav  in  France  gave  him  an  intense  appre- 
ciation for  the  pleasures  of  travel,  and  to  tke 
end  of  his  days  he  was  an  ardent  lover  of  moun- 
tain scenery.  But  the  world  of  men  had  also 
its  interest  for  him  while  he  was  abroad,  for 
then  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  great  famil- 
iarity with  and  interest  in  the  politics  as  well  as 
the  literature  of  the  French  nation.  On  his  re- 
turn he  read  law,  history,  and  philosophy,  and  in 
1823  entered  the  India  House  as  a  clerk  in  the 
examiner's  office,  where  his  father  was  assistant 
examiner.  For  thirty- three  years  he  was  in  the 
service  of  this  company,  gradually  rising  till 
at  last  he  was  head  of  his  department,  as  his 
father  had  been  before  him.  When  the  govern- 
ment of  India  was  transferred  to  the  Cro>»Ti  in 
1858,  he  declined  a  seat  at  the  New  Indian  Coun- 
cil, and  retired  from  office  in  October  of  the 
same  year,  on  a  compensating  allowance.  At  the 
general  election  of  1865  Mill  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Westminster,  and  till  he  lost  his 
seat  at  the  election  of  1868  he  acted  with  the 
advanced  Radicals,  and  urged  the  extensioa  of 
suffrage  to  women.  In  1851  he  married  Mrs, 
John  Taylor,  with  whom  he  had  maintained 
quite  unconventional  relations  before  her  first 
husband's  death.  She  died  in  185»,  but  Hill's 
devotion  to  her  memory  was  his  reli^ikm  till  his 
death,  which  took  place  May  8,  1873,  at  Avignon, 
where  he  had  spent  the  greater  part  of  the  last 
years  of  his  life. 

Mill  became  an  author  at  a  very  early  age, 
and  may  be  looked  upon  as  one  ol  the  fore- 
most thinkers  of  his  time.  His  first  puhlica- 
tions  consisted  of  articles  in  the  Westminster 
Revieic.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  political 
discussions  that  followed  the  revolution  ol  1830 
in  France  and  the  reform-bill  movement  in  Ka^ 
land;  and  from  1835  to  1840  was  editor  and, 
along  with  Sir  W.  Molesworth,  proprietor,  of  the 
London  and  Westminster  Review^  where  many 
articles  of  his  own  appeared.  His  chief  works 
are:  A  System  of  Logic^  RaHodnative  amd  In- 
ductive (1843)  ;  Principles  of  Political  Economy 
(1848);  On  Liberty  (1859);  Discussions  9nd 
Dissertations  (4  vols.,  1859-74);  Utilitarimti^m 
(1863)  ;  Comte  and  Posititnsm  and  the  ^dHuntna^ 
tion  of  fiir  William  HanUlton's  Philosophy 
(1865)  ;  Inaugural  Address  at  the  University  of 


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MHiLBANK  PBISOH. 


Saint  Andrews  (1867);  England  and  Ireland 
(1868);  and  The  Subjection  of  Women  (1869). 
After  his  death  appeared  his  Autobiography 
(1873)  and  Three  Essays  on  Religion  (1874). 
In  philosophy  he  was  an  empiricist,  sensational- 
ist, and  associaticmalist.  In  ethics  he  was  a 
utilitarian,  but  departed  from  the  utilitarianism 
of  Bentham  by  recognizing  differences  in  quality 
as  well  as  in  quantity  of  pleasures.  ''It  is  quite 
compatible,"  he  says,  "with  the  principle  of 
utility  to  recognize  the  fact  that  some  kinds 
of  pleasure  are  more  desirable  and  more  valua- 
ble than  others.  It  is  better  to  be  a  human 
being  dissatisfied  than  a  pig  satisfied;  better  to 
be  Socrates  dissatisfied  than  a  fool  satisfied."  In 
political  theory  Mill  was  a  modified  individualist, 
believing  that  every  man  should  be  allowed 
all  liberty  compatible  with  the  liberty  of  his 
fellows.  The  tendency  of  modern  thought  has 
been  so  far  away  from  individualistic  standards 
that  Mill's  reno%vn  has  been  somewhat  obscured; 
but  his  influence  on  his  own  generation  would 
be  difiScult  to  over-estimate.  His  greatest  work, 
however,  was  in  logic,  to  which  he  added  a  fruit- 
ful treatment  of  the  subject  of  induction  (q.v.). 
His  work  in  this  science  was  considerably  im- 
paired by  his  sensationalistic  empiricism,  but 
when  everything  is  taken  into  account,  it  must 
stand  alongside  that  of  Aristotle  and  of  Hegel. 
His  book  was  for  many  years  the  standard  au- 
thority among  those  who  shared  his  general 
standpoint  in  (questions  of  philosophy,  though  it 
was  keenlv  criticised  from  the  opposite  camp 
by  Wheweil  and  W.  G.  Ward. 

Consult:  Bourne,  Life  of  J.  S.  Mill  (London, 
1873)  ;  Caimes,  J,  8.  Mill  (ib.,  1873)  ;  Courtney, 
Metaphysics  of  J.  8,  Mill  (ib.,  1879);  T.  H. 
Green,  The  Logic  of  J.  S.  Mill,  in  Green's  Works, 
vol.  ii.  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Gomperz,  J.  8,  Mill  (Vienna, 
1889);  Courtney,  Life  of  J.  8.  Mill  (London, 
1889)  ;  Douglas,  John  Stuart  Mill,  a  Study  of 
His  Philosophy  (ib.,  1895);  id.,  The  Ethics  of 
John  Stuart  Mill  (ib.,  1897)  ;  Watson,  An  Out- 
line of  Philosophy  (Glasgow,  1898)  ;  Stephen, 
The  English  Utilitarians  (London,  1900)  ;  Albee, 
History  of  English  Utilitarianism  (ib.,  1902). 
Douglas's  two  works  are  especially  to  be  com- 
mended to  the  reader  who  wishes  to  get  in  com- 
pact form  a  statement  of  Mill's  doctrines  in  his 
own  words. 

KILLAIS,  mll-la'.  Sir  John  Everett  (1829- 
96).  An  English  genre,  landscape,  and  portrait 
painter.  He  was  bom  at  Southampton,  June  8, 
1829,  and  was  brought  up  in  the  Isle  of  Jersey. 
In  1837  he  received  his  first  instruction  in  art 
from  Bessel,  a  drawing-teacher  at  Southampton. 
In  1838  and  1839  he  studied  at  the  School  of 
Henry  Sass  in  Bloomsbury,  and  the  following 
years  at  the  Royal  Academy,  in  which  he 
carried  off  every  prize,  receiving  a  gold 
medal  in  1847.  In  1848  he  became  associated 
with  William  Holman  Hunt,  Dante  Gabriel 
Rossetti,  and  others  in  the  formation  of  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  Brotherhood  (q.v.).  His  work  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Ruskin,  for  whom  he 
made  some  architectural  designs,  and  whose  por- 
trait he  painted.  In  1856  he  married  Ruskin's 
divorced  wife.  He  was  made  associate  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1854  and  member  in 
1863.  From  1860  to  1870  he  was  employed  as 
illustrator,  and  among  other  books  illustrated 
Tennyson's  poems  and  Trollope's  novels.  He  re- 
ceived a  medal  of  honor  at  the  Paris  Exposition 
Vol.  XIII.— 88. 


in  1878  and  was  an  honorary  member  of  several 
foreign  academies.  He  wa^  knighted  in  1885,  and 
a  few  months  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
London,  August  13,  1896,  he  was  made  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy. 

Aside  from  his  landscapes  and  portraits,  his 
subjects  include  Scriptural,  historical,  and  legend- 
ary themes,  scenes  from  every-day  life,  and  a  few 
national  in  character,  such  as  **The  Rescue" 
(1855),  painted  in  honor  of  the  London  firemen. 
From  1847  to  1853  his  work  is  strongly  influenced 
by  Pre-Raphaelite  theories  and  aroused  much 
criticism.  Works  of  this  period  are:  "Isabella" 
(1849)  ;  "Christ  in  the  House  of  His  Parents" 
(1850);  "Ophelia"  (1852);  "The  Proscribed 
Royalist"  (1853)  ;  "The  Huguenot"  (1852),  Bir- 
mingham Art  Gallery.  After  1855  his  work  de- 
veloped greater  individuality  and  breadth.  His 
landscapes  betray  the  ardent  nature  lover;  his 
portraits  are  painted  with  sympathetic  fidelity. 
From  1870  on  he  gave  most  of  nis  time  to  por- 
trait painting,  his  sitters  including  Gladstone 
(National  Gallery)  ;  Leech,  Lord  Beaconsfield 
and  Wilkie  Collins,  in  the  National  Portrait  Gal- 
lery ;  Carlyle,  John  Bright,  Irving,  Tennyson,  and 
others.  His  landscapes  include:  "Spring" 
(1858);  "Chill  October"  (1871);  "The  Vale  of 
Rest"  (1878);  "Dew-Drenched  Furze"  (1881), 
National  Gallery  of  British  Art.  Other  import- 
ant pictures  are:  "The  Northwest  Passage" 
(1874)  ;  "Eve  of  Saint  Agnes"  (1863),  National 
Gallery  of  British  Art;  "Effie  Deans;"  "The 
Black  Brunswicker"  (1860)  ;  "A  Yeoman  of  the 
Guard"  (1877)  ;  the  "Bride  of  Lammermoor,"  in 
the  William  H.  Vanderbilt  collection;  "Saint 
Stephen"  (1891);  "Speak!  Speak!"  (1891);  "A 
Disciple"  (1891),  all  in  the  National  Gallery  of 
British  Art. 

Consult:  Millais*  Life  and  Letters,  by  J.  G. 
Millais  (London,  1899)  ;  Baldry,  Millais:  His 
Art  and  Influence  (ib.,  1899)  ;  Spielmann,  Millais 
and  His  Works  (ib.,  1898). 

MILLAMANT.  In  Congreve's  Way  of  the 
World,  a  willful  coquette,  sought  by  Mirabel.  The 
character  is  modeled  on  that  of  C^limftne  in 
Moliftre's  Misanthrope, 

MILLAU,  m^'ld',  or  MILHAU.  The  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Avey- 
ron,  France,  74  miles  by  rail  from  B6zieTs  (Map: 
France,  S.,  G  4) .  Its  chief  building  of  interest  is 
the  Romanesque  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  with  its 
sixteenth  century  tower.  The  town  is  the  centre 
of  a  cattle-raising  and  grape-growing  section  and 
has  a  variety  of  manufactures,  particularly  of 
kid  gloves.  Millau  was  the  Roman  ^Emilianum 
Castrum;  during  the  religious  wars  it  was  a 
stronghold  of  Calvinism,  and  Louis  XIII.  de- 
stroyed its  ancient  castle  and  walls  in  1629. 
Population,  in  1901,  18,701. 

MILIaBANK  FBISON.  a  famous  London 
penitentiary  in  Westminster,  facing  the  Thames. 
It  was  built  in  1812  (finished  in  1821)  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  plans  of  Howard  and  Bentham. 
It  could  shelter  1100  inmates  and  was  so  con- 
structed that  from  a  central  room  every  cell 
could  be  seen.  The  confinement  was  solitary. 
Those  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  served  a  term 
here  first.  The  prison  was  closed  in  1890  and 
the  buildings  torn  down  in  1891.  Consult  Grif- 
fifths.  Memorials  of  Millbank  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1894). 


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MHiL-BOT  OF  THE  SLASHEa 


508 


MILLENNimC 


MILL-BOY  OF  THE  SLASHES.  A  popu- 
lar nickname  of  Henrj'  Clay,  from  a  tract  of 
swampy  land  called  the  'Slashes'  near  his  birth- 
place  in  Hanover  Coimty,  Va. 

XILL^TJBT.  A  town  in  Worcester  County, 
Mass.,  six  miles  southeast  of  Worcester;  on  the 
Blackstone  River,  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  and  the  Boston  and  Albany 
railroads  (Map:  Massachusetts,  D  3).  It  has  a 
public  library,  and  is  extensively  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  edge 
tools,  foundry  and  machine  shop  products,  loom 
harness  and  heddles,  linen  cloth  and  thread, 
hosiery,  and  lumber  products.  From  1743  to 
1813,  when  it  was  incorporated,  Millbury  was  the 
North  Parish  of  Sutton.  The  Lyceum  Lecture 
System  is  said  to  have  originated  here  about  1820. 
Population,  in  1900,  4460;  in  1905,  4631. 

Mn/LEDGE,  John  (1757-1818).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  statesman,  born  in  Savannah,  Ga. 
When  the  Revolution  began  he  was  one  of  Haber- 
sham's party  which  seized  Wright,  the  royal 
Governor.  Milledge  escaped  from  Savannah 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1778,  and  he 
assisted  in  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  the  town  by 
the  Americans  in  1779.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  made  Attorney-General  of  Georgia.  After 
the  war  he  was  frequently  a  member  of  the  State 
Legislature,  and  was  a  Representative  in  Congress 
from  1792  to  1798,  and  again  from  1801  to  1802, 
when  he  resigned  to  become  Governor.  In  1802 
he  was  one  of  the  three  commissioners  who  nego- 
tiated the  cession  of  Georgia's  western  territory 
to  the  United  States.  From  1806  to  1809  he  was 
a  United  States  Senator.  Milledge  took  an 
active  part  in  establishing  the  University  of 
Georgia,  and  gave  the  institution  700  acres  of 
land,  upon  which  the  university  and  a  part  of 
Athens  now  stand.  The  town  of  Milledgeville 
was  named  in  his  honor. 

MILaiiEDGEVILLE.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Baldwin  County,  Ga.,  32  miles  northeast 
of  Macon;  on  the  Oconee  River,  at  the  head  of 
navigation,  and  on  the  Georgia  and  the  Central 
of  Georgia  railroads  (Map:  Georgia,  C  2).  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Georgia  Military  College  and 
the  Georgia  Normal  and  Industrial  College  for 
Girls,  and  of  the  Georgia  State  Lunatic  Asylum, 
which  accommodates  2500  patients.  The  Trison 
Farm,'  three  miles  northwest  of  the  city,  employs 
some  350  State  convicts.  The  city  is  the  centre 
of  a  cotton-growing  section  and  its  industrial  in- 
terests are  mainly  in  the  preparation  for  market 
of  this  staple.  The  government,  under  a  charter 
of  1900,  is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  every 
two  years,  and  a  unicameral  council,  of  which  the 
mayor  is  a  member,  chosen  on  a  general  ticket. 
Milledgeville,  named  in  honor  of  Gov.  John  Mil- 
ledge of  Georgia,  was  located  in  1803,  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1836,  and  was  the  capital  of 
the  State  from  1807  to  1867.  Population,  in 
1890,  3322;  in  1900,  4219. 

MILLENAItLA.NS.     See  Millennium. 

XILLENABT.  A  period  of  a  thousand 
years,  specifically  the  celebration  of  the  one-thou- 
sandth anniversary  of  any  event.  The  most  im- 
portant millenary  was  that  commemorating  the 
death  of  Alfred  the  Great,  which  was  held  in 
Winchester,  England,  September  18-21,  1901, 
which  culminated  in  the  unveiling  of  a  large 
bronze  statue  of  King  Alfred  by  Hamo  Thomy- 


croft.     A  month  later  commemorative  exercise* 
were  also  held  in  New  York  City. 

MTLLENABT  PETITION  (Lat.  miUe- 
tyariuSy  containing  a  thousand,  from  milleni,  a 
thousand,  each,  from  miiie,  thousand).  A  peti- 
tion presented  by  Puritan  clergy  to  King  James 
I.  in  April,  1603,  when  on  his  way  to  London  to 
take  his  throne.  It  is  so  called  because  it  was 
intended  to  have  1000  signatures,  although  as  a 
matter  of  fact  it  had  only  750.  The  original  of 
the  petition  is  supposed  to  be  lost,  but  Fuller 
gives  it  in  his  Church  History  (Book  x.  27,  ed., 
London,  1837,  vol.  iii.),  and  it  is  thence  re- 
printed by  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  Illustrative 
of  English  Church  History  (London,  1896,  pp. 
508-511).  It  sets  forth  in  firm  but  respectful 
language  those  points  connected  with  the  Church 
service  (cross  in  baptism,  baptism  by  women,, 
public  reading  of  the  Apocrypha,  unabridged 
liturgy,  etc.),  the  Church  ministry  (illiterate 
ministers,  non-residency,  clerical  celibacy),  the 
Church  revenue  (commendams,  pluralities,  im- 
propriations), and  with  the  Church  discipline 
(excommunications  for  trifling  causes,  extor- 
tionate fees,  protracted  ecclesiastical  suits,  fre- 
quency of  marriages  without  banns  asked) ,  w^hich 
the  Puritan  party  would  see  removed  or  modified^ 
The  King's  answer  was  the  calling  of  the  Hamp- 
ton Court  Conference  in  January,  1604,  which 
resulted  in  no  redress,  but  rather  the  confirmation 
of  the  abuses  con^plained  of. 

MILLENNIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  mille, 
thousand  +  annus^  year).  A  period  of  one 
thousand  years  preceding  the  final  judgment 
(q.v.)  during  which,  according  to  a  widely  ac- 
cepted system  of  Christian  eschatology,  the 
Christ  and  his  saints  will  reign  on  the  earth. 
The  division  of  the  world's  course  into  periods 
is  found  among  many  peoples.  Thus  the  Hindus 
divided  the  history  of  the  world  into  kalpas  of 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  years,  and  the  Incas 
made  four  great  periods.  (See  Eschatology.) 
A  long  national  existence  and  a  tradition  of  cer- 
tain epoch-making  events  naturally  account  for 
such  a  partition.  The  Persians  counted  twelve 
periods  each  of  one  thousand  years.  It  is  likely 
that  this  division  into  twelve  parts  was  derived 
from  the  Babylonians,  and  ultimately  goes  back 
to  calculations  of  the  sun's  course  through  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  It  is  significant  that 
the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
thousand  years  are  attributed  respectively  to 
Cancer,  I..eo,  Virgo,  Libra,  Scorpio,  and  Sagit- 
tarius in  Bundahish  34.  The  number  1000  may 
have  a  diflferent  origin,  since  the  great  cosmic  year 
would  demand  a  larger  figure.  According  to  the 
Parsi  doctrine,  six  thousand  of  the  twelve  thou- 
sand years  are  occupied  by  the  history  of  man. 
Zarathustra  appears  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  and  the  Saoshyant  will  come  at  the  end  of 
the  last  to  raise  the  dead  and  to  renew  the  world. 
While  this  doctrine  is  fully  presented  only  in 
late  Pahlavi  wTitings,  such  as  the  Bundahish  and 
the  Dinkartf  there  are  indications  of  a  much 
higher  age,  as  Mani  (c.200  a.d.)  was  familiar 
with  the  Zoroastrian  doctrine  of  a  cycle  of 
twelve  thousand  years,  and  Berosus  (c.300  B.C.) 
seems  to  have  rationalized  the  doctrine  of 
Zrvan  akarano,  boundless  time,  and  its 
period.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  con- 
ception that  human  history  would  endure  600O 
years  before  the  Messianic  Age  came  into  Jewish 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MILLEKNIXTM. 


509 


MILLEKNIT7M. 


thought  from  a  Persian  source.  The  Scriptural 
justitication  was  found  in  Psalm  xc,  4,  "A  thou- 
sand years  in  thy  sight  are  but  as  yesterday  when 
it  is  past/'  and  the  length  of  the  Messianic  Age 
was  inferred  from  an  interpretation  of  Gen.  ii.  2, 
based  on  the  word  of  the  Psalmist,  as  is  seen  by 
utterances  of  rabbis  living  in  the  second  century 
A.D.  (Midraah  Tehillim  to  Ps.  xc.  and  YaUcut 
Shimeoni  to  Ps.  Ixxii.).  Before  the*  fall  of 
Jerusalem  in  a.d,  70  there  is  no  evidence  that 
the  expected  Jewish  world-empire,  whether  with 
or  without  a  Messiah,  was  thought  of  as  being 
of  limited  duration.  That  Israel  would  never 
yield  its  supremacy  to  any  other  nation  was  a 
firm  conviction.  The  Messianic  King  was  prob- 
ably looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  a  dynasty. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  first  century,  however, 
the  conception  of  the  Messiah  became  more  tran- 
scendent, and  his  reign  might  be  thought  to  last 
*until  the  corruption  of  the  world  should  end,' 
characterized  by  great  prosperity  {Apocalypse  of 
Baruch  xl.  3;  xxix.,  Ixxiii.),  or,  more  precisely, 
400  years  to  be  followed  by  seven  days  of  silence, 
the  general  resurrection,  and  the  last  judg- 
ment (q.v.)  as  set  forth  in  the  Apocalypse  of 
Ezra  (vii.  28,  29).  The  first  mention  of  the 
millennium  is  in  the  Slavonic  Enoch  (xxxii.  2- 
xxxiii.  2)  ;  but  in  this  book  there  is  no  Messiah. 
A  summary  of  opinions  in  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud (Sanhedrin  97a,  99a)  shows  that  it  was 
comparatively  seldom  that  a  Jewish  teacher  esti- 
mated at  a  thousand  years  the  length  of  Yahweh*s 
reign,  40,  70,  365,  400,  600,  2000,  and  7000  years 
being  suggested  by  different  teachers. 

In  the  New  Testament  the  doctrine  of  a  mil- 
lennium is  clearly  taught  in  Rev.  xx.  After  the 
returned  Messiah  has  conquered  the  beast,  Satan 
is  cast  into  the  abyss  in  chains  for  1000  years, 
the  martyrs  are  raised  from  the  dead  and  reign 
with  Christ  as  kings  and  priests  during  the  mil- 
lennium. At  the  end  of  the  millennium  the  powers 
of  evil  are  let  loose  again  for  a  short  time,  where- 
upon follow  the  resurrection  of  the  rest  of  the 
dead,  the  last  judgment,  the  destruction  of  death 
and  Hades,  which  is  the  second  death,  and  the 
new  heavens  and  the  new  earth.  Critical  exegesis 
agrees  with  the  Chiliasts  of  the  Early  Church 
and  the  present  pre-millenarians  that  the  author 
of  this  passage  no  doubt  believed  that  Jesus 
would  return  upon  the  clouds  before  the  mil- 
lennium to  reign  with  some  of  His  saints  for  a 
thousand  years  in  visible  form.  It  cannot  be 
proven,  however,  that  other  writers  in  the  New 
Testament  cherished  this  view,  or  that  they  all 
held  the  same  opinion  concerning  the  world's 
future.  The  Gnostics  rejected  this  doctrine  and 
their  opposition  was  continued  by  such  teachers 
of  the  Alexandrian  School  as  Clement  and  Origen. 
On  the  other  hand,  Irenseus  informs  us  {Adv. 
Haer.,  v.  33)  that  Papias,  Bishop  of  Hieropolis, 
had  recorded  as  a  saying  of  Jesus  a  remarkable 
description  of  the  fertility  of  the  vine  in  the 
millennium;  the  epistle  attributed  to  Barnabas 
destTibes  the  millennium  as  a  period  of  rest  fol- 
lowing six  thousand  years  of  work  to  be  ushered 
in  by  the  return  of  Christ  (xv,  5)  ;  and  Justin 
Martyr  likewise  expressed  his  belief  in  the  pre- 
millennial  coming  of  Christ  and  the  thousand 
years  of  His  reign  in  Jerusalem  {Apol.  52;  c. 
Tryph.  45,  49,  113).  Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  and 
Hippolytus  were  also  Chiliasts.  An  ardent  ex- 
pectation of  the  millennial  kingdom  characterized 
the  Montanists,  who  looked  for  its  establishment 


at  Pepuza  in  Phrygia.      The  reaction  against 
Montanism  led  to  a  more  general  rejection  of  the 
doctrine  of  a  millennium.     Dionysius  of  Alex- 
andria attacked  the  very  foundation  of  this  doc- 
trine  in  denying  the  Johannine   authorship  of 
Revelation.     Such   doubts   did   not   disturb   the 
Western  Church,  and  men  like  Commodian  and 
Lactantius  were  Chiliasts.    Only  through  the  in- 
fluence   of    Jerome    and    especially    Augustine, 
whose  Givitas  Dei  identified  the  Church  with  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  the  millennium  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  did  Latin  Christianity  com- 
mit itself  to  an  eschatological   programme  ex- 
cluding the  pre-millennial  advent,  the  first  resur- 
rection, and  the  visible  reign  on  earth.     During 
the  Middle  Ages  earnest  and  spiritually  minded 
men,  grieved  at  the  many  abuses  that  spread  in 
the  Church,  could  not  but  look  for  Divine  chas- 
tisement.   While  there  does  not  seem  to  be  suffi- 
cient foimdation  for  the  current  statement  that 
the   end   of   the   world  was  generally   expected 
about  the  year  1000  a.d.,  there  are  many  indica- 
tions of  the  anxiety  that  at  sundry  times  filled 
pious  hearts  as  well  as  guilty  consciences.     The 
great  hymn  Dies  irw,  dies  ilia  reveals  both  a 
fearful  looking  forward  to  the  impending  judg- 
ment and  the  part  that  the  Sibylline  Oracles  and 
similar  works  played  in  creating  this  mood.  Mil- 
lenarian  views  were  held  by  men  like  Joachim 
of  Floris  and  Occam  and  by  numerous  religious 
bodies.     In  the  Reformation  era  the  hope  of  a 
speedy  establishment  of  the  Messianic  kingdom 
was  especially  cherished  by  many  of  the  Baptists. 
They  were  led  to  it  by  their  doctrine  of  the  inner 
light  and  the  continuance  of  prophecy,  by  their 
sympathy  with  the  oppressed,  and  by  their  dis- 
approval  of   the    union   of   Church   and    State. 
Looking  for  the  establishment  of  the  truth  and 
the  righting  of  social  wrongs  to  God  alone,  and 
expecting  a   direct   revelation  from   Him,   some 
naturally  were  led  astray  by  their  impulses  un- 
der pressure  of  circumstances.     But  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  millennial  kingdom  by  John  of 
Leyden  (q.v.)  at  Mtinster  was  an  error  regretted 
and  condemned  by  the  great  majority  of  Baptists. 
The    Fifth   Monarchy   men   of   Cromwell's   time 
looked  upon  the  millennium  as  having  actually 
begun  with  the  overthrow  of  the  royal  family  in 
England.    Many  English  mystics  looked  forward 
to  the  second  advent  in  the  year  1666,  and  their 
faith  found  a  curious  reflection  even  in  Judaism. 
(See  Messiah.)     Chiliastic  views  were  embraced 
by  Comenius,  who  translated  into  Latin  a  number 
of  recent  prophecies  as  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
Jurieu,  Spener,  and  other  pietists.     Swedenborg 
held  that  the  millennial  dispensation  began  in 
1757.  Bengel  calculated  that  the  millennium  would 
commence  in  1836;  Miller  expected  it  in  1843; 
Channing  in  1867;  Baxter  in  1881.    While  some 
pre-millennians   devote   much   attention   to   pro- 
phetic chronology,  assuming  a  double  fulfillment 
of   the    predictions    in    Daniel    and    Revelation, 
others  refrain  from  all  attempts  at  fixing  the 
date,  but  are  obliged  by  the  natural  interpreta- 
tion of  Rev.  xx.,  with  their  view  of  biblical  in- 
fallibility, to  affirm  the  visible  coming  of  Christ 
before  the  millennium.     Among  the  latter  there 
are   many  learned  theologians  of  recent  times. 
The  opinion  that  this  visible  coming  of  Christ 
will  occur  after  a  long  period  of  universal  prev- 
alence of  Christianity  supposed  to  be  vaguely  in- 
dicated by  the  thousand  years  is  more  widely 
accepted,  but   it  is   further  removed   from  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MILLENNIUM. 


510 


MUXES. 


conceptions  of  early  Christianity  and  cannot 
readily  find  the  Scriptural  support  that  it  de- 
mands. The  distinction  between  pre-millennian- 
ism  and  post-millennianism  is  rapidly  losing  its 
significance,  as  modem  theology  has  a  tendency 
to  look  upon  the  primitive  Christian  expectation 
of  the  return  of  Jesus  as  an  illusion,  historically 
necessary,  but  not  of  permanent  worth ;  to  consider 
the  absolute  victory  of  one  system  of  religious 
faith  and  practice  less  desirable  than  the  ascend- 
ency of  what  is  morally  most  excellent  in  all 
creeds  and  cults;  and  to  expect  a  gradual  im- 
provement of  the  social  conditions  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  human  race  to  be  wrought  by  actu- 
ally operating  forces. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  Consult:  Calixtus,  De  Chilias- 
mo  cum  Antiquo  turn  Pridem  Vena  to  (Helmstedt, 
1692)  ;  Corrodi,  Kritiache  Oeachichte  dea  Chiliaa- 
mua  (Zurich,  1781);  Drummond,  The  Jetciah 
Meaaiah  (London,  1877)  ;  Stanton,  The  Jewiah 
and  Chriatian  Meaaiah  (Edinburgh,  1886)  ; 
Charles,  A  Critical  Hiaiory  of  the  Doctrine  of 
the  Future  Life  (London,  1899)  ;  Soderblom,  La 
vie  future  dana  le  ma^sdaiame  (Paris,  1901)  ; 
Weber,  JUdiache  Theologie  auf  Orund  dea  Talmud 
(Leipzig,  1897)  ;  Otto,  in  Zeitachrifi  fur  wiaaen- 
achaftliche  Theologie  (Leipzig,  1877)  ;  Schultz,  in 
Jahrhiicher  fiir  deutache  Theologie  (Gotha, 
1860)  ;  Mede,  Clavia  Apocalyptica  (London, 
1627)  ;  Jurieu,  L*accompliaaement  dea  proph^tiea 
(Rotterdam,  1686)';  Comenius,  Lux  in  Tenebria 
(Rotterdam,  1657)  ;  Newton,  Diasertationa  on 
the  Propheciea  (London,  1755)  ;  Elliott,  Horas 
ApocalypticcB  (London,  1862)  ;  Hofmann,  Weia- 
aagung  und  Erfiillung  (Nordlingen,  1841-44)  ; 
Auberlen,  Daniel  und  die  Offenharung  Johannia 
(3d  ed.,  Basel,  1874)  ;  Luthardt,  Lehre  von  den 
letzten  Dingen  (Leipzig,  1870)  ;  Bonar,  Prophet- 
ical Landmarka  (London,  1859)  ;  Seiss,  The  Laat 
Timea  (2d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1878)  ;  Guinness, 
The  Approaching  End  of  the  Age  (London,  1879- 
80)  ;  Salmond,  Chriatian  Doctrine  of  Immortal- 
ity (3d  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1897)  ;  Terry,  Biblical 
Apocalyptica  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Schiirer,  Hia- 
iory  of  the  Jewiah  People  in  the  Time  of  Jeau^ 
Chriat  (Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1886-90).  See 
Eschatology;  Judgment,  Fin al  ;  Resurrection. 

MIL^EFOKE  (from  Lat.  mille,  thousand  + 
poruay  passage,  pore).  A  coral-forming  hydroid, 
of  the  order  Hydrocorallina,  so  named  from  the 
numerous  minute  pores  or  calicles  dotting  its 
surface,  which  are  arranged  in  irregular  circular 
groups.  As  the  single  animal  is  microscopic, 
and  as  it  grows  in  compound  coral-like  masses 
on  reefs  in  tropical  seas,  it  was  at  first  con- 
founded with  the  corals,  but  was  eliminated  from 
the  corals  first  by  L.  Agassiz  and  afterwards 
by  Moseley.  The  animal  is  not  a  coral-polyp, 
being  allied  rather  to  Hydra,  and  especially  to 
Hydractinia  and  Clava,  common  on  northern 
coasts.  The  coral-stocks  form  irregular  branching 
masses,  several  inches  high,  and  sometimes  a  foot 
or  more  broad.  The  mass  of  the  coral  incrusta- 
tion consists  of  fibres  (canals  or  tubes)  traversed 
in  all  directions  by  tortuous  spaces  forming  reg- 
ular branching  systems,  like  a  tree,  in  which 
Millepora  differs  from  the  coral-stocks  (coralla). 
The  animals  are  of  two  kinds.  Those  inhabiting 
the  central  cup  or  pore  are  short  thick  zooids. 
(See  Polymorphism.)  These  are  the  'feelers' — 
they  take  in  the  food.  The  zociids  in  the  smaller, 
outer   pores  of  the   circle  are   the  reproductive 


zooids.  That  Millepora  is  a  true  hydroid  is 
proved  by  the  coral-stock  being  at  the  base  pro- 
vided with  canals  by  which  the  several  zo5ids  are 
kept  in  union  with  one  another  by  the  form  of 
the  zodids  themselves,  by  the  absence  of  all  trace 
of  mesenteries  (which  characterize  coral  polyps), 
and  by  the  presence  of  thread-cells   (see  Nema- 


MILL.BPOBB. 

Animal  of  MUleporn  nodosA.  a.  nutritive  soOid ;  b,  re- 
productive so5id ;  c,  lasBo-cell ;  d,  the  same  coiled  op  In  it« 
cell ;  e,  a  third  form.    (All  highly  magnified.) 

TOCY8T)  of  the  form  peculiar  to  hydroids.  Fi- 
nally, the  position  of  Millepora  as  a  hydroid  has 
been  satisfactorily  settled  by  the  discovery,  by 
Duerden  in  1899,  in  Jamaica,  of  free-swimming 
female  medusse.  ( See  H ydrozoa.  )  Our  Floridian 
and  West  Indian  species  is  Millepora  aloicomia. 
Consult  articles  by  L.  Agassiz,  Moseley,  Duerden 
{Nature,  December  28,  1899,  p.  213,  and  Novem- 
ber 29,  1900,  p.  112). 

MII/LEB,  Alfred  Jacob  (1810-74).  An 
American  portrait,  figure,  and  landscape  painter, 
bom  in  Baltimore.  He  studied  under  Thomas 
Sully,  and  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  made  several 
sketches  when  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  1837 
with  Sir  William  Drummond  Stewart,  which  are 
of  value.  The  originals  are  in  Murthley  Castle, 
and  there  are  replicas  in  water  color  in  the 
Walters  collection  in  Baltimore.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent  principally  in  Baltimore, 
where  he  painted  many  portraits.  He  also 
copied  the  old  masters  with  some  success. 

MILIiEB,  Charles  Henry  (1842—).  An 
American  painter,  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
first  studied  to  be  a  physician,  but  his  love  of  art 
made  him  give  up  this  profession,  and  after 
studying  in  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  other  cities  he 
went  to  Munich  in  1867  and  became  a  pupil  of 
Lier,  and  a  student  in  the  Royal  Bavarian  Acad- 
emy. Afterwards  he  went  to  live  in  New  York 
City,  where  he  was  made  an  Academician  in  1875 
and  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Society  of 
American  Artists.  His  landscapes  are  generally 
taken  from  Long  Island  scenery ;  among  these  may 
be  mentioned  "Sunset,  East^Hampton"  (1878). 
Other  fine  works  are  "Old  Oaks  at  Creedmoor," 
and  "High  Bridge,  New  York."  He  wrote  The 
Philosophy  of  Art  in  America  (1885)  under  the 
pen  name  of  Carl  de  Muldor. 

MILLEBy  Cincinnatus  Heine,  better  known 
as  Joaquin  Miller  (1841 — ).  An  American  au- 
thor, born  in  the  Wabash  District,  Indiana,  No- 
vember 10,  1841.  In  1854  his  parents  took  him 
to  Oregon.     Later  he  became  a  miner  in  Cali- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MILLE&. 


511 


lOLLEB. 


fomia.  He  was  a  volunteer  in  Walker's  Nica- 
ragua expedition  of  1855.  From  1855  until  1860 
he  lived  among  the  Indians  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
He  studied  law  for  a  while,  then  edited  a  Demo- 
cratic paper  at  Eugene  City,  Ore.,  which  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  authorities  for  disunion  senti- 
ments. In  1863  he  began  to  practice  law  and  was 
a  district  judge  in  Oregon  from  1866  to  1870. 
After  visiting  the  Eastern  States  Miller  went  to 
England,  where,  in  the  following  year,  he  pub- 
lished his  Songa  of  the  Sierras,  which  made  him 
a  temporary  *lion'  in  London  society,  although 
the  same  poems  had  fallen  flat  in  the  United 
States.  He  afterwards  settled  in  New  York,  but 
he  left  that  city  in  order  to  do  journalistic  work 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  in  Oakland,  Cal. 
(1887).  Among  his  works  in  verse  are:  Songa 
of  the  Sunland  (1873)  ;  Songs  of  Italy  (1878) ; 
Songs  of  the  Mexican  Seas  (1887)  ;  Building  of 
the  City  Beautiful  (1905);  in  prose:  The 
Danites  in  the  Sierras  (a  novel,  1881)  ;  4^,  or 
the  Oold  Seekers  of  the  Sierras  (1884).  Mil- 
ler's play.  The  Danites,  taken  from  his  novel,  had 
considerable  success,  and  his  poetry  has  received 
some  favorable  notice,  more  on  account  of  its 
genuinely  romantic  content  and  its  brilliant  if 
crude  color,  than  on  accoimt  of  its  artistic  excel- 
lence. A  collective  edition  of  his  verses  appeared 
in  1897.  The  name  *  Joaquin*  was  taken  from 
Joaquin  Murietta,  a  Mexican  bandit,  of  whom 
Miller  wrote  a  defense. 

MTLIiEBy  Edwabd  (1760-1812).  An  Ameri- 
can physician,  bom  in  Dover,  Del.  He  graduated 
at  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1784,  and  in  1797,  associated 
with  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Mitchell  and  Dr.  Elihu  H. 
Smith,  he  founded  the  Medical  Repository,  the 
first  American  journal  of  medicine.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  in  New  York,  and  enjoyed  a  high 
reputation  both  in  this  country  and  abroad.  His 
writings  were  published  in  New  York  in  1814. 

MTLLEB,  Ferdinand  von  (1813-87).  A  Ger- 
man bronze- founder,  born  at  Fttrstenfeldbruck. 
He  studied  at  the  Munich  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
and  learned  his  trade  under  his  imcle,  Stigl- 
mayer, and  in  Paris  with  Soyer.  His  reputation 
was  won  by  his  castings  from  the  designs  of 
Schwanthaler,  and  especially  by  his  large  and 
monumental  works.  His  best  known  work  in 
America  is  the  bronze  door  at  the  Capitol  in 
Washington.  Of  his  sons,  Ferdinand  (1842 — ) 
and  Ludwig  (1850 — )  were  bronze- founders,  and 
Fritz  ( 1840 — )  was  a  professor  in  the  Polytech- 
nic School  at  Mimich. 

MTLLEB,  Hugh  (1802-56).  A  Scottish  geolo- 
gist and  man  of  letters,  born  in  Cromarty,  Octo- 
ber 10,  1802.  He  was  descended  from  a  family 
of  sailors,  and  when  he  was  only  five  years  of  age 
lost  his  father  by  a  storm  at  sea.  In  consequence 
he  was  brought  up  chiefly  under  the  care  of  two 
uncles.  He  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish at  the  Cromarty  Grammar  School  and  read 
much.  Prom  his  seventeenth  to  his  thirty-second 
year  he  worked  as  a  common  stonemason,  and 
from  1834  to  1840  was  an  accountant  in  the  Cro- 
marty branch  of  the  Commercial  Bank.  In  1829 
he  published  a  volume  entitled  Poems  Written  in 
the  Leisure  Hours  of  a  Journeyman  Mason.  He 
also  made  researches  in  Scottish  antiquities,  con- 
tributed to  John  M.  Wilson's  Tales  of  the  Borders 
(1834),  and  wrote  Scenes  and  Legends  of  the 
North  of  Scotland   (1835).     But  from  his  ap- 


prenticeship as  a  stonemason,  his  studies  were 
mainly  directed  toward  geological  formations. 
In  1840  he  went  to  Edinburgh  as  editor  of  the 
Witness,  a  newspaper  started  in  the  interests  of 
the  non-intrusion  party  in  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  in  the  course  of  the  same  year  pub- 
lish^ in  its  colunms  a  series  of  geological  ar- 
ticles, which  were  afterwards  collected  under 
the  title  of  The  Old  Red  Sandstone,  or  New 
Walks  in  an  Old  Field  (1841).  These  articles 
contained  a  minute  accoimt  of  the  author's  dis- 
covery of  fossils  in  a  formation  believed,  imtil 
then,  to  be  destitute  of  them,  and  were  written 
in  a  style  which  was  a  harmonious  combination 
of  strength,  beauty,  and  polish.  His  editorial 
labors  during  the  heat  of  the  dlBruption  struggle 
were  immense,  and  so  seriously  injured  his  health 
that  for  the  larger  part  of  1845-46  he  had  to 

five  up  all  literary  activity.  He  then  resumed 
is  pen  as  editor  of  the  Witness,  which,  from 
1845,  when  he  became,  with  Robert  Fairby,  its 
joint  owner,  ceased  to  represent  the  Free  Church. 
After  ten  years  of  hard,  earnest,  fagging  toil,  his 
brain  gave  way,  and  in  a  fit  of  insanity  he  killed 
himself  on  the  night  of  December  2,  1856.  Miller's 
services  to  science  were  undoubtedly  great.  His 
observation  was  keen  and  exact,  his  speculations 
most  valuable.  He  was  the  first  to  make  geology 
known  to  the  general  reader.  He  was  not  less 
distinguished  as  a  man  than  as  a  savant.  His 
principal  works,  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
are:  First  Impressions  of  England  and  Its  Peo- 
ple (1846),  containing  many  fine  specimens  of 
English  descriptive  prose;  Footprints  of  the 
Creator,  or  the  Asterolepis  of  Stromness  (1847) 
designed  as  a  reply  to  the  Vestiges  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Creation;  My  Schools  and  Schoolmas- 
ters, or  the  Story  of  My  Education  {IS52)  ;  and 
Testimony  of  the  Rocks  (1857),  an  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  geology  of  the  Pentateuch  with  that 
of  nature.  Consult  Bayne,  Life  and  Letters  of 
Hugh  Miller  (London  and  Boston,  Mass.,  1871). 

HILLEB^  James  (1776-1851).  An  American 
soldier  and  politician,  bom  in  Peterboro,  N. 
H.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  entered 
the  army  as  major  and  took  part  in  the  frontier 
warfare,  where  he  displayed  great  gallantry.  In 
1812  he  was  brevetted  colonel  for  gallantry  in 
the  engagement  at  Brownstown,  where  he  com- 
manded, and  in  1814  took  part  in  the  Canadian 
invasion  in  command  of  the  Twenty-first  In- 
fantry. In  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy*s 
Lane  he  did  material  service,  the  latter  contest 
being  virtually  decided  by  his  gallant  charge  on  a 
British  battery.  For  these  services  a  gold  medal 
was  presented  to  him  by  Confess  and  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  From 
1819  to  1825  he  was  Governor  of  Arkansas,  then 
a  Territory;  and  from  that  time  until  1849  was 
Collector  of  the  Port  of  Salem,  Mass. 

MILLEB,  JoHANN  Martin  (1750-1814).  A 
(Jerman  poet,  member  of  the  'Gottinger  Bund.' 
He  was  bom  at  Ulm,  studied  theology  at  G6t- 
tingen  and  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Voss, 
the  idyllist  and  translator  of  Homer,  and  of 
H5lty,  the  lyrist.  He  contributed  to  the  G5t- 
tingen  Almanach  poems  which  became  very  popu- 
lar, especially  ^'Was  frag*  ich  viel  nach  Geld  und 
Gut."  But  he  is  better  known  for  Siegipart,  eine 
Klostergeschichte  (1776),  a  sentimental  romance 
of  the  Wertherian  type,  largely  autobiographic 
and  very  didactic.     His  other  fiction  includes: 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MnXEB. 


512 


mLLEB. 


Beitrag  zur  Qeachichte  der  ZUrtlichkeit  (1776) ; 
Briefwechsel  dreier  Freunde  (1776-77) ;  and  Ge- 
achichte  KarU  von  Burgheim  und  Emiliena  von 
Roaenau  (1778-79).  A  collected  edition  of  Mil- 
ler's poems  appeared  in  1783,  and  an  autobiog- 
raphy in  1803.  Consult  Kraeger,  Johann  Martin 
Miller  (Bremen,  1893). 

XILLEB,  John  Fbankun  (1831-86).  A  sol- 
dier and  politician,  bom  in  South  Bend,  Ind.  He 
^aduated  at  the  New  York  State  Law  School 
m  1852,  and  was  elected  to  the  Indiana  Senate  in 
1860,  but  resigned  in  order  to  enter  the  army 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
made  colonel  of  the  Twenty-ninth  Indiana 
Volunteers,  and  fought  in  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant battles  in  the  West.  For  gallantry  at 
the  battle  of  Stone  River  he  was  made  a  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers.  At  Liberty  Gap  he 
was  severely  wounded,  but  he  commanded  a  divi- 
sion at  Nashville,  and  was  soon  afterwards  bre- 
vetted  major-general  of  volunteers.  Soon  after 
the  war  he  removed  to  San  Francisco,  and  was 
for  four  years  Collector  of  the  Port.  He  then 
entered  business,  and  was  one  of  the  originators 
and  also  president  of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Fur 
Company.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics, 
was  several  times  a  Presidential  elector  on  the 
Republican  ticket,  in  1879  assisted  in  framing  a 
new  State  constitution,  and  in  1881  was  elected 
United  States  Senator. 

MILLER,  Joseph,  commonly  known  as  Joe 
MiLLEB  (1684-1738).  An  English  comedian.  With 
slight  interruption  he  was  connected  with  Drury 
Lane  from  1714  to  his  death.  Great  favorites  with 
the  town  were  his  Teague  in  Sir  Robert  Howard's 
Committee  and  Sir  Joseph  Wittol  in  Congreve's 
Old  Bachelor,  He  was  also  popular  in  a  score 
of  other  rOles.  So  ignorant  that  he  was  unable 
to  read,  he  married  that  he  might  have  some  one 
to  read  his  parts  to  him.  Though  he  had  no 
great  reputation  as  a  wit  off  the  stage,  yet  the 
year  after  his  death  appeared  a  small  volume  of 
jests  ascribed  to  him  under  the  title  Joe  Miller's 
Jests.  This  pamphlet  of  72  pages,  contain- 
ing 247  jests,  was  compiled  by  a  certain 
John  Mottley  for  the  publisner,  T.  Read.  WTiy  it 
was  fathered  upon  a  poor  and  illiterate  actor  is 
not  clear;  perhaps  by  mere  accident.  The  jests 
are  taken  in  part  from  earlier  collections  and  in 
part  from  current  witticisms  that  had  not  pre- 
viously found  their  way  into  print.  Only  three 
are  related  of  Miller  himself.  As  a  whole,  they 
are  flat;  their  only  piquancy  is  in  their  coarse- 
ness. But  they  were  exceedingly  popular,  as  is 
shown  bv  the  numerous  editions  that  immediate- 
ly followed  (1st,  2d,  3d,  1739;  4th,  1740;  5th, 
1742;  6th,  1743;  7th,  1744:  8th,  1745).  The 
original  number  of  jests,  which  had  increased  to 
587  in  the  edition  of  1745,  continued  to  grow, 
until  by  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
had  reached  1546.  Consult  the  facsimile  reprint 
of  the  first  editions  by  Bellars  (London,  1861)  ; 
and  Hazlitt,  Studies  in  Jocular  Literature  (Lon- 
don, 1890). 

MILLEB,  Joseph  Nelson  (1836—).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Ohio.  Entering 
the  navy  in  1851,  he  became  commander  in  1870, 
captain  in  1881,  commodore  in  1894,  and  rear- 
admiral  in  1897.  As  executive  officer  on  board  the 
ironclad  Passaic  he  was  present  at  the  attack 
upon  Fort  Sumter  in  1863,  and  for  bravery  in 
this   and   the   action   against   Fort   Fisher   was 


highly  commended.  He  represented  the  Navy  De- 
partment  at  the  Queen's  Jubilee  in  1897,  in  1898 
raised  the  flag  of  the  United  States  over  Hawaii, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish-American  War 
organized  the  Paciflc  naval  reserves.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1898,  he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list. 

IXTTTiLEB,  Lewis  (1829-99).  An  American 
philanthropist  and  inventor,  bom  at  Greentown, 
Ohio.  He  invented  several  important  agricul- 
tural machines,  which  brought  him  a  large  for- 
tune. In  1873  he  suggested  to  Bishop  John  H. 
Vincent  the  plan  of  the  Chautauqua  Assembly, 
and  became  president  of  the  Assembly  after  its 
foundation  the  next  year.  He  gave  largely  to 
the  support  of  the  Assembly  and  to  other  enter- 
prises. 

MTLLEB,  Obbst  Fedobovitch  (1834-89).  A 
Russian  writer,  bom  in  Reval.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Saint  Petersburg  (1851-55), 
and  was  professor  of  early  Russian  literature 
there  until  1888.  His  lectures  on  Russian  Litera- 
ture After  Oogol  were  published  in  1874  (3d  ed, 
1887),  and  his  Slav  World  and  Europe  in  1877. 
Though  a  prominent  Slavophil,  he  was  less  rad- 
ical than  some  writers,  as  is  shown  by  his  book 
on  the  Slav  question  (1865).  He  also  wrote 
works  on  Lomonosoff  and  Peter  the  Great  in  the 
following  year,  but  became  most  widely  known 
through  his  work  on  the  national  mythology,  en- 
titled Ilia  Muromets  i  Bogartyrsvo  Kievskoc 
(1870). 

MILLEB,  Patrick  (1731-1815).  A  Scottish 
inventor,  who  is  asserted  by  some  first  to  have 
invented  the  steamboat.  He  was  bom  in  Glas- 
gow, became  a  banker,  and  having  accumulated 
a  considerable  property,  interested  himself  in 
maritime  inventions.  In  1785  he  bought  the 
estate  Dalswinton  in  Dumfriesshire,  and  there 
conducted  some  experiments  with  a  steamboat  of 
his  construction  which  was  propelled  by  a  Sym- 
ington (q.v.)  engine.  In  1787  he  published  a 
description  of  one  of  his  vessels  under  the  title. 
The  Elevation f  Section,  Plan,  and  Views  of  a 
Triple  Vessel  with  Wheels,  etc.  Consult  Miller, 
A  Letter  to  Bennet  Woodcroft  Vindicating  the 
Right  of  Patrick  Miller  to  he  Called  the  First  In- 
ventor of  Practical  Steanv  Navigation  (London, 
1862). 

HILLEB,  Samuel  Fbebman  (1816-90).  An 
American  jurist.  He  was  bom  in  Richmond,  Ky., 
and  removed  in  1850  to  Iowa,  where  he  became 
conspicuous  as  a  jurist.  In  1862  he  was  ap- 
pointed an  Associate  Justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  by  President  Lincoln.  His  de- 
cisions gave  him  a  national  reputation,  and  he 
was  especially  noted  for  his  opposition  to  the 
encroacnments  of  railroad  corporations.  In  1877 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission, 
and  in  1887  was  the  orator  of  the  Centennial 
Constitution  celebration  held  at  Philadelphia. 

MTLLEB,  Wabneb  (1838—).  An  American 
politician  and  manufacturer,  bom  at  Hannibal, 
Oswego  County,  N.  Y.,  graduated  at  Union  Col- 
lege in  1860,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  enlisted  in  the  Fifth  New  York  Cavalry  and 
was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant.  After  leaving  the 
army  he  became  a  paper  manufacturer  at  Herki- 
mer, N.  Y.  In  1872  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to 
the  National  Republican  Convention,  and  served 
as  a  Republican  in  the  New  York  Legislature  in 
1874-75,  and  in  the  Forty-sixth  and  Forty-seventh 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MHiLEB. 


518 


muxeb's  tale. 


Congresses  (1879-81).  He  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  place  of  Thomas  C.  Piatt, 
who  resigned  in  1881  and  served  until  1887.  In 
1888  be  was  the  unsuccessful  Republican  candi- 
date for  Governor  of  New  York. 

ULLLLER,  William  (1782-1849).  Founder 
of  the  religious  sect  called  ^Millerites*  or  *  Second 
Adventists.*  He  was  bom  in  Pittsfield,  Mass., 
but  when  he  was  four  years  old  his  parents  re- 
moved to  Low  Hampton,  N.  Y.,  which  continued 
to  be  bis  home  during  most  of  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  served  as  a  captain  in  the  American 
Army  during  the  War  of  1812,  but  soon  after  its 
close  became  deeply  interested  in  religion  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  the  Bible.  As  early 
as  1818  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Christ's 
second  advent  had  been  prophesied  for  the  year 
1843,  and  during  the  succeeding  years  became  the 
author  of  a  creed  founded  on  this  basis.  In  1833 
he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Baptist  Church 
in  Hampton  and  Whitehall,  and  in  the  same  year 
issued  a  pamphlet  entitled  Evidence  from  Scrip- 
ture and  History  of  the  Second  Coining  of  Christ 
about  the  Year  1843;  and  of  His  Personal  Reign 
of  One  Thousand  Years  (1833).  Soon  afterwards 
he  began  to  lecture  on  the  same  subject  to  large 
audiences  in  the  New  England  and  Middle  States. 
As  the  year  1843  drew  near  his  followers  awaited 
the  second  coming  with  intense  excitement.  When 
the  year  ended  he  wrote  to  them  confessing  his 
error  and  acknowledging  his  disappointment. 
Later  he  set  October  22,  1844.  Even  after  this 
second  failure  many  of  his  disciples  remained 
faithful  to  him  and  continued  so  till  the  day  of 
his  death.  Consult  White,  Sketches  of  the  Chris- 
tian Life  and  Public  Labors  of  William  Miller 
(Battle  Creek,  1875). 

MTLLEB,  William  Allen  (1817-70).  An 
English  chemist,  bom  at  Ipswich.  He  studied 
medicine  at  King's  College,  London,  and  then 
went  to  Germany,  where,  in  1846,  he  entered 
Liebig's  laboratory.  After  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  became  demonstrator  of  chemistry  at 
King's  College,  and  in  1845  was  promoted  to  the 
professorship.  He  contributed  several  interesting 
papers  on  physical  chemistry,  and  wrote  Ele- 
ments of  Chemistry  Theoretical  and  Practical 
(1855-57). 

MILLEBy  William  Hallowes  (1801-80).  An 
English  mineralogist.  He  was  born  at  Velindre, 
near  Llandovery,  and  was  educated  at  Saint 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  where,  after  graduat- 
ing in  1826,  he  became  fellow  and  tutor.  In  1832 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mineralogy,  and  in 
1838  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
In  1838  appeared  his  famous  system  of  crystal- 
lography, the  most  consistent  and  adaptable  yet 
devised.  From  1843  to  1854  he  was  engaged  as 
member  of  a  Government  commission  in  replacing 
the  standard  of  weights  and  measures,  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  fire.  In  1870  he  served  on  the 
Commission  Internationale  du  M^tre,  and  from 
1856  to  1873  was  foreign  secretary  of  the  Royal 
Society.  He  contributed  frequently  to  the  scien- 
tific press,  and  published  several  text-books  on 
hydrodynamics  and  hydrostatics. 

IfTLTiEB,  William  Henby  Harrison  (1840 
— ).  An  American  lawyer,  Attorney-CJeneral  of 
the  United  States  in  1889-93.  He  was  born  in 
Augusta,  Chieida  Countv,  N.  Y.,  and  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  in  1861.  He 
removed  in  that  same  year  to  Ohio,  taught  school 


at  Maumee  for  six  months,  and  then  enlisted  as  a 
private  in  the  Eighty-fourth  Ohio  Volunteers,  a 
three-months  regiment.  When  his  term  of  enlist- 
ment was  completed,  he  read  law  for  some  time 
at  Toledo,  and  in  1863  settled  in  Peru,  Ind.,  as 
superintendent  of  schools.  There  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  In  1866  he  removed 
to  Fort  Wayne,  where  he  practiced  his  profession 
until  1874,  when,  having  established  his  reputa- 
tion, he  went  to  Indianapolis  to  become  the  law 
partner  of  Benjamin  Harrison  (q.v.).  Their 
association  lasted  until  the  death  of  the  latter, 
continuing  throughout  Harrison's  administration 
as  President,  during  which  period  Miller  served 
as  Attomey-Creneral  of  the  United  States. 

XILLEBAND,  mM'raN',  Alexandre  (1859 
— ).  A  French  Socialist,  bom  in  Paris,  where  he 
was  educated  at  the  Lyc6e  Vanves  and  the  Lyc6e 
Henri  IV.,  and  studied  law  in  the  university.  He 
began  to  practice  in  Paris  in  1881,  was  counsel  to 
the  striking  miners  of  Montceau-les-Mines  in 
1882,  and  was  elected  to  the  mimicipal  council  in 
1884  and  in  1885,  as  a  Radical  Socialist,  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  To  this  office  he  was 
elected  again  and  again,  first  in  1889,  when  he 
carried  on  a  vigorous  anti-Boulangist  campaign. 
In  the  same  year  he  became  proprietor  of  La 
VoiWy  which  he  made  his  personal  organ.  In  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  Millerand  urged  many  re- 
forms, especially  industrial,  and  came  into  promi- 
nence as  editor-in-chief  of  the  Petite  R^publique 
(until  1896)  and  as  an  impassioned  orator.  In 
1899,  as  leader  of  the  Parliamentary  or  Oppor- 
tunist Socialists,  he  was  made  Minister  of  Com- 
merce in  the  Waldeck-Rousseau  Cabinet,  and  in 
this  office  procured,  in  October,  the  passage  of  an 
industrial  bill  assuring  workmen  one  day's  rest 
a  week,  only  a  certain  percentage  of  foreign  labor, 
a  set  rate,  and  a  fixed  day;  in  1900  passed  a  law 
making  ten  hours  the  maximum  day  for  women 
and  children;  and  also  made  many  attempts  to 
procure  the  adoption  of  compulsory  arbitration. 
In  1902,  just  before  the  Cabinet  went  out  of 
office,  a  bill  was  passed  making  eight  hours  the 
maximum  day  for  French  miners.  Later  he 
broke  with  the  official  Socialist  party.  Consult 
haxy,  Vosuvre  de  Millerand  (Paris,  1902). 

MII/LEBITE  (named  in  honor  of  W.  H. 
Miller).  A  native  nickel  sulphide  that  crystal- 
lizes in  the  hexagonal  system,  has  a  metallic 
lustre,  and  is  of  a  yellowish  color.  It  occurs 
usually  in  capillary  crystals  in  cavities  with 
crystals  of  other  minerals,  especially  in  Bohemia, 
in  Saxony,  and  in  Cornwall,  England;  in  the 
United  States  it  is  found  at  Antwerp,  N.  Y.;  in 
Lancaster  County,  Pa.;  and  especially  in  geodes 
in  limestone  near  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  and  Milwau- 
kee, Wis.  Millerite  has  been  made  artificially  in 
groups  of  needle-like  crystals. 

MH/LEBSBUHO.  a  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Holmes  County,  Ohio,  on  Killbuck  Creek, 
87  miles  south  of  Cleveland;  on  the  Cleveland, 
Akron  and  Columbus  and  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  G  4).  It  has  manu- 
factures of  foundry  and  machine-shop .  products, 
flour,  brick,  lumber,  etc.  There  are  deposits  of 
coal  and  iron  ore  in  the  vicinity.  Population, 
1900,1998;  1906  (local  est.),  2100. 

MILLEB'S  TALE,  The.  One  of  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales,  It  is  the  familiar  story  of  an 
old  husband  deceived  by  a  young  wife.  In  this 
case  the  husband  is  a  rich  old  simpleton,  a  car- 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MILLEB'S  TALE. 


514 


MILLET. 


penter  of  Oxford.  The  source  is  unknown,  but 
18  bupposed  to  be  one  of  the  rude  jesting  stories 
of  the  time. 

XILLEB'S  THTTMB  (so  called  from  the 
shape  of  the  head),  or  IUveb  Bullhead.  A 
small,  spiny-rayed  fish  {Cottua  gobio)  common 
in  the  streams  of  England  and  Northern  Europe 
and  Asia.  It  rarely  reaches  five  inches  in  length. 
It  is  brown  above,  varying  in  intensity,  as  in 
many  fishes,  with  the  color  of  the  bottom,  and 
white  beneath.  Its  disproportionately  large,  flat- 
tened head  compared  to  its  body,  and  the  entire 
absence  of  scales,  give  it  an  ugly  appearance. 
The  flesh  is  reddish  when  boiled,  is  said  to  be 
of  excellent  flavor,  and  is  much  sought  after  in 
some  countries.  In  the  United  States  a  related 
species  {Cotttis  ictalops)  is  sometimes  called 
'miller's  thumb.*  It  occurs  in  all  clear  streams  of 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States.  These  fishes 
live  on  small  organisms  and  on  fish-eggs,  and  are 
considered  a  destructive  pest  by  fish  culturiste, 
especially  in  respect  to  trout-eggs.  The  English 
fish  is  a  favorite  among  anglers. 

MILLET  (Fr.  millet,  diminutive  of  mt7,  OF. 
mil,  meil,  It.  miglio,  from  Lat.  miliumy  millet). 
A  name  applied  to  certain  cereal  and  forage 
grasses  of  several  distinct  genera  and  species. 
Millets  are  extensively  used  as  forage  crops  in 
many  countries  and  it  has  been  estimated  that 
they  furnish  food  for  about  one-third  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  globe.  Williams  states  that  "be- 
tween 35,000,000  and  40,000,000  acres  of  millets 


FOZTAII.  MILLET  (SotAFlH  ItallCH). 

are  grown  annually  in  India,  and  Japan  alone 
uses  about  35,000,000  bushels  of  seed  each  year 
for  human  food.*'  In  the  United  States  the  culti- 
vated varieties  of  millet  may  be  divided  into 
three  groups,  namely  foxtail  millets,  barnyard 
millets,  and  broom-corn  millets.  The  foxtail  mil- 
lets, perhaps  the  most  important  group,  are  of 
very  ancient  cultivation.  They  are  believed  by 
some  writers  to  have  been  included  in  the  order 
of  Chinnong,  B.C.  2700,  requiring  certain  plants 
to  be  sown  each  year  by  the  Emperor  of  China  in 
a  public  ceremony.  De  Candolle  considers  this 
kind  of  millet  a  native  of  China,  Japan,  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago.  The  most  common  varieties 
of  this  group  all  belong  to  one  species,  Setaria 


italica,  and  are  grown  in  North  America,  Europe, 
India,  China,  Japan,  and  North  Africa.  The 
barnyard  millets  include  the  cultivated  varieties 
of  the  widely  distributed  species  Panicum  Crus- 
galli,  or  barnyard  grass,  and  also  the  varieties 
belonging  to  other  species  of  the  genus  Panicum, 
especially  Panicum  colanum  and  Panicum  fru- 
mentaceum.  The  varieties  derived  from  Panicum 
Crus-galli  are  considered  the  true  barnyard  mil- 
lets, and  among  them  a  variety  of  Japanese  barn- 
yard millet  and  the  *Ankee*  grass  of  the  South- 
western United  States  are  the  most  important. 
Shama  or  Sanwa  millet,  or  jungle  rice  {Panicum 
colonum)y  a  tropical  plant,  closely  allied  to  true 
barnyard  grass,  is  a  valuable  food  and  forage 
plant  in  many  tropical  and  subtropical  regions 
and  extensively  grown  in  Southern  and  Eastern 
Asia,  but  little  in  the  United  States.  The  third 
group,  or  broom-corn  millets,  comprises  the  varie- 
ties of  Panicum  miliaceum.  This  species,  univer- 
sally known  to  agriculture,  has  been  in  cultiva- 
tion in  Europe  since  prehistoric  times  and  is  still 
the  common  millet  of  the  Old  World.  Ite  origin 
is  very  uncertain,  but  it  is  probably  a  native  of 
the  warmer  regions  of  Asia.  The  classification  of 
varieties  of  this  species  is  based  mainly  upon 
the  color  of  the  ripe  seed — ^yellow,  white,  and  red. 
The  term  Indian  or  African  millet  is  often  loosely 
applied  to  certain  of  the  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums, such  as  durra,  Kafir  com,  and  pearl  millet 
{Pennisetum  typhoideum) ,  which  last  is  also 
called  Egyptian  or  cat- tail  millet. 

Millets  are  not  well  adapted  to  heavy  claj  or 
wet  soils,  but  succeed  best  on  fertile  friable 
loams.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  the  same 
as  for  other  grass  crops.  In  the  United  States 
the  seed  is  usually  sown  late  in  the  spring  to 
prevent  the  harvest  of  the  millet  from  interfering 
with  the  harvest  of  the  cereals.  The  seed  is 
usually  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  one-half 
bushel  to  the  acre.'  It  is,  however,  often  drilled. 
For  hay,  millet  is  usually  harvested  with  a 
mower  when  the  crop  has  just  finished  heading, 
and  for  the  seed  with  a  reaper  like  cereals  a  little 
before  it  is  fully  ripe.  If  harvested  when  fully 
ripe  there  is  usually  a  heavy  loss  of  seed  in 
handling.  Where  the  self-binder  is  used  in  har- 
vesting this  crop,  the  sheaves  are  bound  loosely 
and  put  up  in  shocks  to  cure.  The  yield  of  cured 
hay  per  acre  ranges  from  four  to  six  tons  and 
the  yield  of  seed  from  forty  to  fifty  bushels.  This 
crop  is  practically  free  from  attacks  of  insects 
and  plant  diseases. 

Feeding  Value.  Millet  is  valuable  principally 
as  hay  and  as  a  soiling  crop.  It  is  also  useful 
for  silage.  The  ripened  seeds  are  seldom  fed  to 
stock,  but  are  much  used  as  food  for  poultry  and 
birds.  If  used  as  stock  food  they  should  be 
crushed  or  ground.  The  seed  of  broom-com  mil- 
let has  found  more  favor  in  the  United  States  as  a 
cattle  feed  than  that  of  other  varieties.  German 
millet  cut  when  the  heads  are  well  filled  but  the 
seeds  still  soft  has  the  following  percentage  com- 
position: Water,  71.7;  protein,  2.7;  fat,  0.5; 
nitrogen-free  extract,  14.3;  crude  fibre,  9.3;  and 
ash,  1.5.  German  millet  hay:  Water,  7.7;  pro- 
tein, 7.5;  fat,  2.1;  nitrogen-free  extract,  49.0; 
crude  fibre,  27.7;  and  ash,  6.0.  Other  millets 
fresh  and  cured  resemble  in  composition  the 
examples  quoted  more  or  less  closely.  The  aver- 
age percentage  composition  of  millet  seed  fol- 
lows:   Water,  14.0;  protein,  11.8;  fat,  4.0;  nitro- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HTLIiET. 


615 


MILLET. 


gen-free  extract,  57.4;  crude  fibre,  9.5;  and  ash, 
3.3.  In  the  case  of  barnyard  millet  hay  57.4 
per  cwt.,  of  the  protein  63.7  per  cwt.,  of 
the  nitrogen-free  extract  51.6  per  cwt.,  and 
of  the  crude  fibre  61.6  per  cwt.  was  on 
the  averaffe  found  to  be  digestible.  Millet  hay 
is  a  useful  coarse  fodder  for  cows,  but  not  more 
than  six  or  eight  pounds  should  be  fed  daily. 
When  fed  to  lambs  care  should  be  exercised,  as 
millet  hay  causes  scours  unless  fed  in  small  quan- 
tities. It  has  been  observed  that  when  horses 
were  fed  millet  hay  exclusively  as  coarse  fodder, 
painful  conditions  called  'millet  disease'  were  in- 
duced. It  is  believed  that  the  trouble  may  be 
avoided  by  using  this  hay  in  limited  quantities, 
and  not  continuously.  It  is  also  possible  that 
millet  grown  in  some  regions  is  harmless,  while 
that  grown  in  others  is  harmful.  The  plant  has 
been  used  for  farm  animals  since  very  early  times, 
and  generally  speaking  has  proved  a  satisfactory 
feeding  stuff.    See  Colored  Plate  of  Cebeals. 

Consult  United  States  Department  of  AgriciU- 
iure  Year  Book  for  1898  and  Farmer's  Bulletin 
101. 

MILLET,  mIll&',AiMi:  (1819-91).  A  French 
sculptor  and  painter.  He  was  bom  in  Paris, 
September  27,  1819.  He  received  his  first  in- 
struction in  painting  from  his  father,  and  in 
1842  exhibited  three  pictures  in  the  Salon.  He 
studied  sculpture  with  David  d* Angers,  but  after 
1852  gave  up  painting  entirely.  For  his  work 
in  sculpture  he  won  first-class  medals  at  the  ex- 
positions of  1857  and  1867,  and  a  gold  medal 
at  the  exposition  of  1889.  His  most  ambitious 
work  was  the  erection  for  Napoleon  III.  in  1865 
of  a  colossal  copper  statue  of  Vercingetorix,  at 
Alise-Sainte-Reine.  His  statues  adorn  several 
public  buildings  in  Paris,  among  them  an 
"Apollo"  in  bronze  at  the  New  Opera.  His 
mythological  statues  and  groups  include  "Bac- 
chante" (1885);  "Narcissus;"  "Ariadne"  and 
"Cassandra  Under  the  Protection  of  Pallas,"  both 
in  the  Luxembourg.  Among  his  portrait  statues 
are  those  of  Denis  Papin  at  Blois,  Chateaubriand 
at  Saint  Malo,  Gay-Lussac  at  Limoges,  and  Edgar 
Guinet  at  Bourg.  He  executed  many  portrait 
busts  and  statues  in  marble  and  bronze.  His 
art  is  realistic  in  character,  but  theatrical  in 
pose.  He  died  in  Paris,  January  13,  1891.  Con- 
sult Dumesnil,  Aim6  Millet  (Paris,  1891). 

MII/LET,  Francis  Davis  (1846—).  An 
American  genre  painter,  war  correspondent,  and 
author.  He  was  bom  at  Mattapoisett,  Mass., 
November  3,  1846.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
College  and  took  part  in  the  Civil  War  as  a 
drummer  and  assistant  surgeon.  He  was  a  pupil 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Antwerp, 
1871-72,  and  also  studied  in  France  and  Italy,  at 
the  same  time  writing  illustrated  articles  for 
American  periodicals.  During  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  (1877-78)  he  was  engaged  by  the  New  York 
Herald  and  London  Daily  Sexes  as  war  corre- 
spondent, attached  to  General  Skobelefi^s  staff. 
He  was  director  of  the  decorations  of  the  World's 
Fair  at  Chicago  and  also  at  Saint  Louis  in  1905. 
The  year  1898  saw  him  in  the  Philippines  as  the 
correspondent  of  the  London  Times  and  Harpei''s 
Weekly.  Millet  is  best  known  as  a  painter  of 
genre  subjects  of  England  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury and  of  classic  Rome  and  Greece,  in  which 
costume  and  interior  are  studied  with  much  de- 
tail, showing  the  influence  of  the  Dutch  school. 


His  chief  paintings  include  "At  the  Inn,"  Union 
League  CI  lib.  New  York  City;  "A  Cosy  Comer," 
Metropolitan  Museum;  "Between  Two  Fires," 
National  Gallery  of  British  Art,  London;  a  deco- 
ration in  the  Minnesota  State  Capitol  at  Minne- 
apolis ( 1905 )  ;  portraits  of  Mrs.  Millet,  and 
President  Butler  of  Columbia  University  (1906). 
He  was  prominently  identified  (1905-6)  with  the 
organization  and  endowment  of  the  American 
Academy  at  Rome  (q.v. )  of  which  he  became 
secretary.  He  became  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  (1885)  and  was  awarded 
several  military  orders.  His  literary  works  in- 
clude Capillary  Crime  and  Other  Stories  ( 1892)  ; 
The  Danube  ( 1892)  ;  The  Expedition  to  the  Phil- 
ippines (New  York,  1902). 

MILLET,  mlVW,  Jeaw  Francois  (1814-75). 
A  French  genre  and  landscape  painter  of  the  Bar- 
bison  group.  He  was  bom  at  Gruchy,  near  Gr^- 
ville  (Manche),  October  4,  1814,  and  was  the 
eldest  son  and  second  child  of  a  peasant.  His 
father,  who  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  Mil- 
let's life  and  character,  was  a  man  of  refined 
and  deeply  religious  nature,  and  of  musical 
tfistes,  being  cantor  in  the  village  church.  As  a 
boy.  Millet  was  fond  of  books,  and  under  the 
tuition  of  the  village  priest  learned  to  read,  but 
spent  his  early  years  on  the  farm,  trying,  during 
hours  of  rest,  to  draw  the  familiar  scenery 
and  life  about  him.  His  father  took  him  to  the 
neighboring  town  of  Cherbourg,  where  he  studied 
under  Mouchel,  a  pupil  of  the  school  of  David, 
and  Langlois.  In  1837,  aided  by  a  small  gift  of 
money  from  the  council -general  of  the  (tepart- 
ment  and  by  a  small  pension  granted  by  the  town 
council  of  Cherbourg,  Millet  went  to  Paris.  He 
entered  the  studio  of  Delaroche,  but,  unable  to 
endure  his  master's  conventional  methods,  and 
constrained  by  poverty,  he  soon  withdrew.  With 
Marolle,  a  friend,  he  opened  a  little  studio,  giving 
his  evenings  to  study  and  his  days  to  painting 
cheap  portraits  and  pastel  imitations  of  Boucher 
and  Watteau.  He  won  some  recognition  with  a 
portrait  in  the  Salon  of  1840,  but  soon  returned 
to  Normandy,  where  he  married  (1841).  There 
he  supported  himself  by  painting  sign-boards,  and 
also  produced  "Sailors  Mending  a  Sail"  and 
other  genre  works.  In  1842  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and  in  1844  attracted  the  favorable  attention  of 
artists  by  his  "Milkwoman"  and  "Riding  Lesson.'*^ 
On  the  death  of  his  wife  he  returned  to  Nor- 
mandy, but  remarried  and  came  again  to  Paris 
in  1845.  His  "Saint  Jerome,"  contributed  to  the 
Salon  of  that  year,  was  rejected,  and  Millet 
painted  over  it  "(Edipus  Unbound,"  a  picture  in 
the  classical  style.  **The  Golden  Age,"  "The 
Bird  Nesters,"  "The  Bathers,"  and  other  works 
followed,  and  in  1848  "The  Jews  in  Babylon"  and 
"The  Winnower,"  the  last  obtaining  a' real  suc- 
cess. 

Soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  of 
1848  he  abandoned  Paris  for  the  village  of  Barbi- 
son,  which  he  made  his  permanent  home.  Here 
the  *Norman  peasant,'  as  he  called  himself, 
was  surrounded  by  scenes  he  loved,  and  with  the 
subjection  of  color  to  sentiment  he  gave  up  the 
mjrthological  and  the  nude,  confining  himself  to 
rustic  art.  "The  Sower"  (1850)  was  followed 
by  **Man  Spreading  Manure"  (1852);  "The 
Reapers"  (1853)  ;  "A  Peasant  Grafting  a  Tree" 
(1855);  "The  Gleaners"  (1857,  Louvre),  one 
of  his  very  best  works;  "The  Angelus"   (1859) ; 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


lOLLET. 


516 


MUXIGAN. 


*Tteath  and  the  Wood-Cutter;"  "Feeding  Her 
Bird"  (La  becqu6e,  1860),  in  the  Lille  Museum; 
and  others,  all  produced  while  he  was  hampered 
by  illness  and  debts.  In  1860  he  bound  himself  by 
contract  to  give  all  his  work  for  three  years  for 
1000  francs  a  month,  but  the  contract  was  dis- 
solved in  six  months.  To  this  period  belong  "The 
Sheep  Shearing"  (1860);  "Woman  Feeding 
Child;"  "The  Sheep  Shearer;"  "Waiting"  (all 
in  1861)  ;  "Potato  Planters"  (1862)  ;  "The  Wool 
Carder"  (1863);  and  "The  Man  with  the  Hoe" 
(1863).  From  1860  his  reputation  was  regarded 
AS  established,  and  after  1863  he  no  longer  suf- 
fered want.  In  1864  he  exhibited  "The  Shepherd- 
ess" and  "Peasants  Bringing  Home  a  Calf;"  in 
1865  he  produced  some  decorative  work.  At  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1867  he  received  a  medal  of 
the  first  class,  and  in  1868  the  ribbon  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  Driven  from  Barbison  by  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  Millet  repaired  to  Cher- 
bourg and  did  not  return  until  late  in  1871.  He 
was  deeply  affected  by  the  death,  in  1867,  of  his 
friend  Rousseau,  with  whom,  of  all  others,  he 
was  most  intimate.  Although  the  state  of  his 
health,  which  had  been  failing  for  some  time, 
curtailed  the  hours  of  work,  he  continued  to  paint 
imtil  December,  1874,  when  fever  set  in  and  he 
died  on  January  20,  1875. 

He  was  one  of  the  artists  selected  by  the  Grov- 
ernment  to  decorate  the  Pantheon,  but  did  not 
live  to  complete  the  commission.  A  number  of 
important  works  have  been  acquired  by  Ameri- 
<i&ns,  among  which  are:  "The  Sower"  and  the 
"Water  Carrier"  (Vanderbilt  Collection,  New 
York)  ;  "The  Grafter"  (William  Rockefeller)  ; 
"The  Turkey-Keeper"  (C.  A.  Dana,  New  York)  ; 
"The  Buckwheat  Threshers"  and  the  "Planters" 
(Quincy  Shaw  Collection,  Boston)  ;  'The  Churn- 
er"  (F.  L.  Ames,  Boston)  ;  "Potato  Harvest"  and 
"Breaking  the  Flax"  (Walters  Collection,  Balti- 
more). Millet's  paintings  began  to  increase  in 
value  before  his  death,  but  his  family,  being  left 
in  straitened  circumstances,  was  pensioned  by 
the  Government.  His  principal  pictures  have 
been  etched  and  engraved.  It  was  the  master's 
custom  to  paint  from  memory,  without  using 
models,  and  to  this  is  partially  due  the  simplicity 
and  breadth  with  which  he  treated  his  subjects. 

Equally  famous  with  Millet's  paintings  are 
many  of  his  drawings,  such  as  his  own  portrait 
(1848)  ;  "Woman  Feeding  Chickens;"  "Shepherd 
with  Flock;"  "The  New-Bom  Lamb;"  "Laun- 
dresses on  the  Shore;"  "First  Steps."  His 
pastels,  too,  are  equally  prized;  good  examples 
are  the  "Vine  Dresser  Resting"  and  "Woman 
Churning."  All  show  a  good  draughtsman,  with 
a  fine  feeling  for  form.  His  color  is  sad  in  tone, 
gray  and  brown  usually  prevailing;  and  he 
achieved  harmony  by  a  masterly  treatment  of 
light  and  atmosphere.  The  landscape  background 
and  the  animals  of  his  paintings  are  the  equals 
of  those  done  by  the  greatest  specialists  in  these 
branches.  Among  the  best  of  his  pure  land- 
scapes are  "Church  of  Gr(^ville,"  "Spring,"  and 
"Winter,"  the  first  two  in  the  Louv^re.  He  was 
also  an  etcher  of  great  power,  as  is  evident  from 
his  thirteen  original  plates  of  subjects  of  peasant 
life,  as  well  as  from  a  number  of  others  after 
his  paintings.  His  designs  for  woodcuts,  gener- 
ally carried  out  by  his  two  brothers,  show  great 
originality,  being  executed  in  bold,  coarse  out- 
lines, more  like  those  of  the  old  German  masters 
than  nineteenth   century  etchings.     Monuments 


to  Millet  have  been  erected  in  Cherbourg  and 
Gruchy,  and  a  bronze  plaque  attached  to  a  rock 
at  the  entrance  to  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau  is 
dedicated  to  him  and  Rousseau. 

Bibliography.  Consult  Sensier,  La  vie  et 
Vanivre  de  Jean  Francois  Millet  (Paris,  1881; 
abridged  English  trans.,  Boston,  1896).  See  also 
Piedagnel,  Jean  Francois  Millet:  souvenirs  de 
Barbison  (Paris,  1876)  ;  Naegely,  J.  F.  Millet  and 
Rustic  Art  (London,  1898)  ;  the  biographies  by 
Yriarte  (Paris,  1885)  ;  Emile  Michel  in  Les  art- 
istes c^Uhres;  Eaton,  in  Van  Dyke,  Modem  French 
Masters  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Couturier,  Millet  et 
Corot  (Saint  Quentin,  1876)  ;  Gensel,  Millet  und 
Rousseau  (Bielefeld,  1902);  Tomson,  J.  F.  Mil- 
let and  the  Barbizon  School  ( London,  1904 ) ; 
Muther,  Jean  Francois  Millet  (New  York,  1905). 

MILLI,  m^a*,  GiANNiNA  (1827-88).  An  Ital- 
ian poet.  She  was  born  at  Teramo,  and  when 
but  a  child  of  five  years  is  said  to  have  composed 
verses.  When  seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  age 
she  became  a  pupil  of  the  poet  Regaldi,  the  great- 
est of  Italian  improvisatores,  and  soon  developed 
considerable  power  in  improvising  popular  and 
amatory  verses.  Medals  of  gold  and  silver  were 
awarded  her,  and  after  her  trips  through  the 

Principal  Italian  cities  (1857-60)  a  pension  was 
estowed  upon  her.  She  was  appointed  inspector 
of  elementary  schools  for  girls  and  superintend- 
ent of  the  normal  school  for  young  women  in 
Rome.  Her  poems  were  published  in  two  volumes 
in  1862-63. 

MILO^iaAKy  Ex  Pabte.  The  title  of  an  im- 
portant decision  rendered  by  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  in  1866,  growing  out 
of  the  events  of  the  Civil  War.  The  precise 
question  raised  was  whether  a  citizen  domiciled 
in  a  State  where  peace  prevails,  but  which  is 
adjacent  to  the  theatre  of  war,  may  be  de- 
prived of  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  and  be 
subjected  to  trial  before  a  military  commission 
composed  of  army  officers.  The  case  grew  out 
of  the  arrest  of  one  Million,  a  citizen  of  Indiana, 
by  a  United  States  military  officer  in  1864  on 
charges  of  conspiracy,  disloyal  practices,  inciting 
insurrection,  and  giving  aid  and  comfort  to  the 
enemy.  He  was  tried  before  a  military  commis- 
sion at  Indianapolis,  was  found  guilty,  and  was 
sentenced  to  be  hanged.  His  counsel  thereupon 
filed  in  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  United  States 
a  petition  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  denying 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  military  commission,  on 
the  ground  that  the  civil  courts  in  Indiana  were 
open  and  unobstructed  in  the  performance  of 
their  duties,  that  a  United  States  grand  jury 
which  w^as  then  in  session  failed  to  find  a  bill  of 
indictment,  that  the  plaintiff  was  a  civilian  in 
no  way  connected  with  the  military  service,  and 
that  he  was  not  a  resident  of  a  rebel  State.  The 
case  was  finally  carried  to  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States,  where  it  was  held  that  a  mili- 
tary commission  organized  during  the  war  in  a 
State  not  invaded  or  in  rebellion,  and  where  the 
Federal  courts  were  open  and  unobstructed,  had 
no  jurisdiction  to  try,  convict,  or  sentence  for  a 
criminal  offense  a  citizen  who  was  neither  a  resi- 
dent of  a  State  in  rebellion  nor  a  prisoner  of  war, 
nor  a  person  in  the  military  or  naval  service,  and 
that  Congress  had  no  power  to  confer  such 
authority  on  it.  This  opinion  was  rendered  by 
a  bare  majority  of  the  court,  a  vigorous  dissent- 
ing  opinion   being   delivered   by   Chief   Justice 


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MUXIGAN. 


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MTLLa 


Ohase,  in  which  three  other  justices  concurred. 
The  decision  is  given  in  Wallace's  Reports, 
vol.  iv.    See  Mhjtaby  Law  ;  Mabtial  Law. 

MUXiaAK.  WnjJAM  (1821-93).  A  minis- 
^r  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  bom 
in  Edinburgh.  He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Saint  Andrews  (1839).  He  stood  by  the 
^Auld  Kirk'  at  the  disruption  (1843),  and  was 
ordained  minister  to  the  Parish  of  Cameron,  Fife, 
the  following  year.  He  studied  in  Germany  from 
1845  to  1846,  and  was  placed  at  Kilconquhar 
from  1850  until  1860,  when  he  was  asked  to 
occupy  the  newly  created  chair  of  biblical  criti- 
•cism  in  Aberdeen  University.  He  assisted  in 
the  revision  of  the  New  Testament  in  1870,  and 
published  works  on  the  Higher  Education  of 
Women  (1878)  ;  The  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord 
-(1881)  ;  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  (1883)  ; 
Baird  Lectures  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John 
(1886)  ;  Elijah  (1887)  ;  The  Resurrection  of  the 
Dead  (1890) ;  and  Aims  of  the  Scottish  Church 
Society  (1892)  ;  besides  a  notable  article  for  the 
Encyclopcedia  Britannica  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  (1879).  He  was  sent  to  the  United 
States  Presbyterian  (jreneral  Assembly  (1872)  as 
a  delegate  from  the  corresponding  body  in  Scot- 
land. 

MTTiTiIir,  m^'lftN',  AuBm  Louis  (1759-1818). 
A  French  archa^logist,  bom  in  Paris.  His  first 
literary  attempts  were  translations  from  the  GJer- 
man  and  English,  which  were  published  in  the 
Melanges  de  litt^ature  Stra^gire  (1785-86).  His 
protest  against  the  excesses  of  the  Revolution 
made  it  necessary  for  him  to  fly  from  Paris,  and 
he  was  imprisoned  for  a  year  in  Saint  Lazare  on 
his  return.  In  1795  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
<».binet  of  antiques  and  medals  in  the  National 
Library,  was  instrumental  in  the  creation  of  a 
•chair  of  antiquities,  and  the  same  year  under- 
took the  direction  of  the  Magazin  EncyclopMique. 
Much  of  his  voluminous  writing  on  his  special 
subject  appeared  in  this  periodical,  which,  in 
1817,  became  the  Annales  Encyclop4diques,  and  he 
published  also  Antiquit^s  nationales  (1790-98)  ; 
Introduction  d  VStude  des  m^dailles  (1796); 
Monuments  antiques  in4dits  (1802-04)  ;  Diction- 
naire  des  heaux-arts  (1806)  ;  and  Histoire  m6tal- 
lique  de  la  Revolution  frangaise  (1806).  His 
travels  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  France  in 
search  of  antiques  provided  material  for  Voyage 
dans  les  d&partements  du  midi  de  la  France 
(1807-11);  Peintures  de  vases  antiques  (1808- 
10;  new  ed.  1891)  ;  and  Voyage  en  Savoie,  au 
Pi&monty  dans  le  Milanais   (1816-17). 

MUXING  machine.  See  Metal- Wobk- 
ING  Machtneby. 

MILO^IPEDE.  A  myriapod  of  the  order  Chi- 
lognatha  (or  Diplopoda)  having  adorsally  convex 
body  composed  of  many  segments,  all  of  which, 
except  the  first  four,  bear  each  two  pairs  of  legs ; 
and  lacking  maxillipes.    See  Centipede;  Mybia- 

PODA. 

MII/LIS,  John  (1858—).  An  American  offi- 
cer of  engineers,  bom  at  Wheatland,  Mich.  He 
graduated,  with  first  rank,  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1881,  and  served  at 
Willet's  Point,  N.  Y.  (1881-83),  and  on  light- 
house duty,  especially  in  experiments  with  elec- 
tric lighting  (1883-90).  Millis  was  charged  with 
the  preparation  of  the  lighting  of  the  Bartholdi 
Statue  in  New  York  Harbor.  From  1890  to 
1894  he  managed  Federal  improvements  in  the 


Mississippi  levees  and  New  Orleans  harbor ;  then 
for  four  years  was  chief  engineer  of  the  Light- 
house Board;  and  in  1900  was  delegate  to  elec- 
trical, physical,  and  navigation  congresses  in 
Paris  during  the  Exposition,  and  was  sent  to 
Egypt  to  report  on  the  Assuan  dam.  After  his 
return  to  America  he  was  ordered  to  Seattle  to 
construct  fortifications  in  Puget  Sound  and  Gov- 
ernment improvements  in  Washington,  Idaho, 
and  Montana.  He  was  promoted  to  be  major  of 
engineers  in  1900. 

MTLLOCEEB,  mlin&-k§r,  Kabl  (1842-99). 
An  Austrian  composer  of  light  opera.  He  was 
born  in  Vienna  and  received  his  musical  education 
in  the  Conservatory  of  that  city.  In  1864  he 
was  appointed  kapellmeister  at  the  Gratz  Theatre 
and  from  1869  to  1883  occupied  a  similar  posi- 
tion at  the  Theater  an  der  Wien  in  Vienna.  His 
music  is  marked  by  its  spontaneous  melodiousness 
and  sprightly  instrumentation.  The  principal  pub- 
lished works  include:  Der  todte  Oa^t  and  Die 
heiden  Binder  (1865)  ;  Diana  (1867)  ;  Die  Frau- 
eninsel  (1878);  Der  Regimentstambour  (1869); 
Drei  Paar  Schuhe  ( 1870)  ;  Die  Musik  des  Teufels 
(1870);  Das  verwunschene  Sohloss  (1878); 
Apajune,  der  Wasscmiann  (1880);  Die  Jung- 
frau  von  Belleville  (1881);  Der  Bettelstudent 
( 1881 )  ;  Oasparone  ( 1884)  ;  Der  Viceadmiral 
(1886)  ;  Die  siehen  Schwaiben  (1887)  ;  Der  arme 
Jonathan  (1890);  Das  Sonntagskind  (1892); 
Der  Probekuss  (1895) ;  Das  Nordlicht  (1897). 

HH/LOM.  a  town  in  Cumberland,  England, 
nine  miles  northwest  of  Barrow.  It  is  situated 
on  the  west  coast  of  Duddon  Sands,  and  has 
a  shallow  tidal  harbor.  The  most  productive 
mines  of  red  hematite  ore  in  England  are  worked 
in  the  vicinity,  and  it  has  numerous  blast  fur- 
naces. The  town  owns  its  markets,  water  and 
gas  works,  and  maintains  a  library,  technical 
schools,  recreation  grounds,  and  isolation  hos- 
pital.   Population,  in  1901,  10,400. 

MILLO  MAIZE.    See  Sobghum. 

MILL  ON  THE  FLOSS,  The.  A  novel  by 
George  Eliot  (1860).  It  is  the  story  of  English 
working  people.  The  heroine,  Maggie  Tulliver, 
daughter  of  the  miller,  is  a  girl  of  rich,  pas- 
sionate nature,  restless,  and  unhappy  in  her  nar- 
row life.  Thwarted  in  her  first  love  for  Philip, 
she  becomes  infatuated  with  Stephen  Guest,  and 
is  about  to  elope  with  him.  Her  imprudence  is 
followed  by  misery,  and  she  and  her  brother  Tom 
are  drowned  in  the  river  Floss. 

MILLS,  Albebt  Leopold  (1854—).  An 
American  soldier,  bora  in  New  York  City.  He 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1879,  was  appointed  second  lieuten- 
ant of  the  First  Cavalry,  was  stationed  at  Fort 
Walla  Walla,  Washington  Territory  (1879-82), 
and  engaged  in  frontier  duty  elsewhere.  He  saw 
active  service  against  the  Crows  in  1887  and 
against  the  Sioux  in  1890.  He  was  professor 
of  military  science  and  tactics  at  the  State 
Academy,  Charleston,  S.  C,  for  a  year  (1886- 
87),  held  an  appointment  at  the  United  States 
Infantry  and  Cavalry  School,  Fort  Leavenworth, 
Kansas,  from  1894  until  1898,  and  in  the  Span- 
ish-American War  participated  in  the  Santiago 
campaign  as  captain  and  assistant  adjutant-gen- 
eral of  volunteers.  In  August,  1898,  he  was 
made  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy,  West  Point,  with  the  rank  and 
pay  of  colonel,  and  in  October  of  the  same  year 


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MILLS. 


was  promoted  to  the  regimental  rank  of  captain. 
In  1904  he  was  made  brigadier-general,  and  in 
1906  waa  detached  from  the  command  of  the 
Military  Academy,  the  scope  and  general  effici- 
ency of  which  had  broadened  considerably  under 
his  administration,  and  was  assigned  to  duty  in 
the  Philippine  Islands. 

MILLS,  Chabiss  Kabsneb  (1845—).  An 
American  neurologist,  bom  in  Philadelphia  and 
educated  at  the  Central  High  School  and  the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. He  be^n  to  practice  in  1869;  was 
professor  of  physics  in  Wagner  Institute  (1870- 
73)  and  lecturer  on  electric  therapy  and  neu- 
rology in  the  Philadelphia  School  of  Anatomy 
and  Surgery.  He  held  a  like  position  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  (1877-87)  and  then 
became  professor  of  the  same  subjects.  He  at- 
tained a  high  reputation  as  an  alienist.  He  wrote 
several  monographs  on  mental  and  nervous 
strain,  and  Practical  Lessons  in  Nursing  ( new  ed., 
1904),  and  edited  a  valuable  Treatise  on  the 
Nervous  System  and  Its  Diseases, 

MILLS,  Clabke  (1815-83).  An  American 
sculptor,  bom  in  Onondaga  County,  N.  Y., 
December  1,  1815.  In  his  youth  he  followed 
the  trade  of  a  plasterer,  at  the  same  time 
modeling  ideal  heads  in  clay.  In  1846  he  com- 
pleted a  bust  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  which  was 
purchased  by  the  city  of  Charleston  for  the 
City  Hall.  In  1848  he  furnished  a  design  for 
an  equestrian  statue  of  (]!eneral  Jackson,  to  be 
placed  in  Lafayette  Square,  Washington.  There 
being  no  bronze  foundry  for  such  work  in  the 
United  States,  Mills  erected  in  Washington  an 
experimental  foundry,  where  in  1852  he  succeeded 
in  producing  a  perfect  cast.  It  was  formally 
accepted  January  8,  1853 — the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  New  Orleans.  He  was  next  engaged 
on  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Washington, 
which  was  formally  unveiled  February  22,  1860. 
Milk's  last  work  was  the  casting  of  the  colossal 
statue  of  Liberty  (1863),  modeled  by  Crawford, 
which  crowns  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Wash- 
ington. In  the  light  of  contemporary  sculptors, 
the  works  of  Mills  seem  inferior,  but  they  mark 
a  stepping-stone  in  the  advance  of  American  art. 
He  died  at  Washington,  D.  C,  January  12,  1883. 

'  MILLS,  David  (1831-1903).  A  Canadian 
,  statesman,  bom  in  Orford,  Kent  County,  Ontario. 
He  graduated  in  law  from  the  University  of 
Michigan  in  1855.  After  teaching  for  a  time,  he 
was  school  superintendent  for  Kent  County  imtil 
1865,  and  Liberal  member  for  Bothwell,  Ont.,  in 
the  Dominion  Parliament  from  1867  until  1896, 
when  he  was  raised  to  the  Senate.  He  was  Min- 
ister of  the  Interior  (1876-78)  and  Minister  of 
Justice  (1897-1901).  He  practiced  law  in  Lon- 
don. Ont.,  edited  the  Canada  Daily  Advertiser 
in  that  city  (1882-87),  and  besides  magazine 
articles  published  The  English  in  Africa  (1900). 
From  1887  to  1900  he  was  professor  of  interna- 
tional and  constitutional  law  in  Toronto  Uni- 
versity, and  he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  1901. 

MILLS,  Lawrence  Heywobth  (1837—).  An 
English  Orientalist.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City  and  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York  in  1857.  He  then  studied  for 
orders  at  the  Fairfax  County  Episcopal  Seminary 
near  Alexandria,  Va.,  and  was  ordained  in  1861, 
after  which  he  held  a  charge  in  Brookljm  until 


1867.  Retiring  from  the  ministry,  he  went  to 
Europe  in  1872,  where  he  devoted  himself  first 
to  a  study  of  Gnosticism  and  then  to  the  Avesta^ 
which  was  to  prove  his  life-work.  In  1887  he 
went  to  Oxford  at  the  request  of  Max  Mailer^ 
and  in  1898  he  was  made  professor  of  Zend 
philology  there  for  five  years,  an  appointment 
which  was  renewed  in  1903.  The  researches  of 
Mills  have  been  devoted  chiefly  to  the  older 
portion  of  the  Avesta  texts,  the  Gathas  (q.v.), 
which  he  studied  exhaustively,  adhering  in  the 
main  to  the  system  of  the  traditional  school  of 
interpretation.  He  also  published  man^  con- 
tributions on  the  early  phases  of  Zoroastrianism, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  foremost  of 
Iranian  scholars.  Among  his  works  are:  "Zend 
Avesta,  part  iii.,"  in  Mtiller,  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East,  vol.  xxxi.  (Oxford,  1887);  Study  of  the 
Five  Zaraihushtrian  {Zoroastrian)  Odthds 
(1894)  ;  Odthds  of  Zarathushtra  (Zoroaster)  in 
Metre  and  Rhythm  (1900);  Dictionary  of  the 
Odthic  Language  of  the  Zend-Avesta  ( 1902 ) ; 
Zoroaster,  Philo,  and  Israel  (1903)  ;  and  Zara- 
thushtra, the  Achcemenids,  and  Israel  (1906). 

MUXSy  RoBEBT  (1781-1855).  An  Americas 
engineer  and  architect.  He  was  bom  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  and  studied  under  Benjamin  H. 
Latrobe.  He  erected  several  custom-houses  and 
marine  hospitals,  and  in  1820  was  appointed 
State  architect  and  engineer  of  South  Carolina. 
In  1837  President  Jackson  made  him  the  archi- 
tect of  the  (^neral  €k>vemment.  Under  this  and 
the  next  Administration,  Mills  designed  and  had 
charge  of  the  erection  of  the  Treasury  Building, 
the  (General  Post-Office,  the  Patent  Office  Build- 
ing, and  the  National  Washington  Monument. 

MILLS,  Roger  Quables  ( 1832— ) .  An  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  politician,  bom  in  Todd  County, 
Ky.  He  removed  to  Palestine,  Tex.,  in  1849, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  when 
only  twenty  years  of  age.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Texas  House  of  Representatives  in  1859,  but  en- 
tered the  military  service  of  the  Confederacy  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  took  part  in 
the  battles  of  Arkansas  Post  (January  11,  1863), 
Chickamauga  (September  19-20,  1863),  where 
he  commanded  a  brigade,  New  Hope  Church 
(May  27,  1864),  and  Atlanta  (July  22,  1864). 
In  1873  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  where  he 
continued  as  a  member  of  the  House  until  1892, 
when  he  was  chosen  to  fill  an  unexpired  term  in 
the  Senate,  and  the  next  year  was  reelected  for 
the  full  term.  In  1884-88  he  was  chairman  of 
the  House  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  in 
which  capacity  he  drafted  the  *Mills  Biir  for  the 
regulation  of  the  tariff.  This  measure  was  de- 
feated in  the  Senate. 

MILLS,  Samuel  John  (1783-1818).  An 
American  missionary.  He  was  bom  at  Torring- 
ford.  Conn.,  April  21,  1783,  and  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1809.  While  in  college  he 
formed  an  association  among  students  who  were 
considering  the  question  of  entering  upon  for- 
eign missionary  work.  After  spending  a  short 
time  in  the  study  of  theology  at  New  Haven, 
he  entered  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1810.  With  Judson,  Hall,  Newell,  and  Nott  he 
united  in  a  memorial  to  the  General  Association 
of  Massachusetts  (Congregational),  which  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1812,  and  spent  two 


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MILMAK. 


years  in  mission  work  in  the  Southern  and 
Western  States.  He  suggested  the  formation 
of  a  national  Bible  society,  which  resulted  in 
the  organization  of  the  American  Bible  Society. 
To  him  was  due  the  formation  of  the  United 
Foreign  Mission  Society.  Through  his  exertions 
in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Finley,  the  American 
Colonization  Society  was  formed  in  1817,  and 
he  was  appointed  with  Dr.  Burgess  to  visit  Eng- 
land in  behalf  of  the  society,  and  to  explore 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  for  a  suitable  site  for 
a  colony  of  colored  people  from  America.  He 
sailed  in  November,  1817,  and  arrived  on  the 
coast  March  12th.  He  embarked  for  the  United 
States,  May  22,  1818,  and  died  at  sea  June  16th. 
He  is  called  the  'father  of  foreign  missions  in 
America.'  Consult  the  memoir  by  Spring  (New 
York,  1854). 

MILLS,  Sebastian  Bach  (1838-98).  An 
Anglo-American  piano  virtuoso  and  teacher,  bom 
at  Cirencester,  in  England.  He  was  trained  by 
his  father  and  under  Potter  and  Stemdale  Ben- 
nett, and  was  regarded  as  the  most  precocious 
child  musician  in  Great  Britain.  He  completed 
his  musical  education  under  Moscheles,  Plaidy, 
and  the  other  distinguished  teachers  of  tne 
Leipzig  Conservatory.  After  leaving  Leipzig  he 
studied  for  a  period  under  Liszt,  mio  held  nim 
in  high  estimation.  He  returned  for  a  little 
while  to  England,  where  he  held  the  appointment 
of  organist  at  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  at 
Sheffield  (1855).  Three  years  later  he  returned 
to  Germany,  and  played  at  a  Gewandhaus  con- 
cert (December  2,  1858).  The  following  year  he 
appeared  in  New  York  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society,  and  thereafter  made  his 
home  in  this  country.  He  was  very  successful  as 
a  teacher,  and  was  as  popular  in  Germany  as  in 
the  United  States  as  a  concert  pianist.  His 
compositions  are  few  and  comparatively  unim- 
portant.    He  died  at  Wiesbaden. 

MILLS  COLLEGE  AND  SEMINABY.    An 

educational  institution  for  young  women  at 
Seminary  Park,  Alameda  County,  Cal.,  founded 
in  1871  as  Mills  Seminary  and  chartered  as  a 
collece  in  1885.  It  comprises  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment leading  to  the  degree  of  A.B.,  and  a  sem- 
inary department  leading  to  the  college  and 
accredited  to  outside  universities.  In  1906-7  the 
students  numbered  200  and  the  instructors  44. 
The  endowment  of  the  college  is  $200,000,  and  the 
value  of  the  property  $500,000. 

MILL  SPBINOS,  Battle  of.  A  battle  fought 
at  Mill  Springs,  Ky.,  about  10  mil^  west  of 
Somerset,  on  January  19,  1862,  between  a  Federal 
force  of  about  4000  men  under  General  George  H. 
Thomas  and  an  approximately  equal  Confederate 
force  under  General  George  B.  Crittenden.  The 
Confederates  attacked  with  great  energy,  but  were 
finally  driven  in  some  confusion  from  the  field. 
The  engagement  is  also  sometimes  called  the 
battle  of  Fishing  Creek,  and  the  battle  of  Logan's 
Cross  Roads.  On  the  battleground  a  national 
cemetery  was  subsequently  established,  where  718 
soldiers  lie  buried,  352  known  and  366  unknown. 

MILLSTONE.  A  wheel  or  circular  mass  of 
rock  used  in  grinding  wheat  and  other  grains. 
For  good  millstones  the  rock  must  be  tough, 
hard,  and  possess  a  cellular  structure  so  as  to 
maintain  a  rough  grinding  surface.  Several 
varieties  of  rocks  have  been  found  to  possess 
these  qualities  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and 


have  been  extensively  employed  for  millstones. 
In  the  United  States  the  rock  most  commonly 
used  is  a  coarse  granular  sandstone,  which  is 
obtained  in  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  in  Lancaster 
County,  Pa.,  and  in  Montgomery  County,  Va. 
The  celebrated  French  buhrstones  consist  of  a 
cellular  chert  occurring  in  the  Tertiary  of  the 
Paris  basin.  The  German  millstones  are  largely 
quarried  from  a  sheet  of  basaltic  lava  found  near 
Cologne.  The  foreign  stone  is  imported  into  the. 
United  States  in  small  pieces  and  is  then  built 
up  into  wheels,  while  the  domestic  stone  is 
quarried  and  dressed  to  form  a  solid  wheel.  The 
introduction  of  the  roller  process  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fiour  has  curtailed  the  use  of  mill- 
stones to  a  great  extent.  In  1901  the  production 
of  millstones  in  the  United  States  was  valued  at 
$57,179.    See  Abrasives. 

MILLSTONE  GBIT.  A  hard  siliceous  con- 
glomerate with  quartz  pebbles.  Its  geological 
position  is  at  the  base  of  the  middle  Carboni- 
ferous age.  The  beds  along  the  Appalachian 
range  in  Pennsylvania  are  very  coarse  and  are 
over  1200  feet  thick.  The  rock  here  is  a  light- 
colored  siliceous  conglomerate  known  as  the 
Pottsville  Conglomerate,  interstratified  with  some 
sandstone  and  thin  beds  of  carbonaceous  shells. 
The  formation  is  represented  also  in  New  York 
and  as  far  south  as  Alabama.  See  Cabboxifebous 
System. 

MILL^ALE.  A  borough  in  Allegheny 
County,  Pa.,  on  the  Allegheny  River,  opposite 
Pittsburg,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  oridge, 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Pittsburg  and  West- 
ern, and  the  Bufl^alo,  Rochester  and  Pittsburg 
railroads.  It  has  important  iron  manufactures, 
saw  works,  stone  works,  lumber  mills,  breweries, 
etc.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  burgess, 
elected  every  three  year^,  and  a  borough  council. 
The  water-works  and  electric  light  plant  are 
owned  by  the  municipality.  Population,  in  1900, 
6736;  in  1906  (local  est),  8200. 

MILL^VILLE.  A  city  in  Cumberland  Coun- 
ty, N.  J.,  40  miles  south  of  Philadelphia;  on  the 
Maurice  River,  at  the  head  of  deep-water  naviga- 
tion, and  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  (Map: 
New  Jersey,  B  5).  It  has  city  and  high-school 
libraries,  a  fine  high-school  building,  and  a  large 
public  park  at  Union  Lake,  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water,  three  miles  long  and  one  and  a  half  in 
width.  Millville  is  essentially  a  manufacturing 
centre,  having  extensive  glass  factories,  iron 
foundries,  cotton  mills,  wrapper  and  shirt-waist 
factories,  and  bleach  and  dye  works.  Under  a 
revised  charter  of  1873,  the  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  every  three  years,  and  a  com- 
mon council,  the  thirteen  members  of  which  are 
all,  except  one,  elected  by  wards.  Millville  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1801  and  was  chartered 
as  a  citv  in  1866.  Popidation,  in  1900,  10,583; 
in  1905,' 11,884. 

MIL'MAN,  Henbt  Habt  (1791-1868).  An 
English  poet  and  ecclesiastical  historian.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Sir  Francis  Milman, 
physician  to  (Jeorge  III.,  and  was  bom  in  Lon- 
don, February  10,  1791.  He  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  afterwards  at  Brasenose  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  obtained  the  Newdigate  Prize  with 
an  English  poem  on  the  Apollo  Belvidere  in 
1812  and  graduated  B.A.  in  1814.  He  published 
Fazio,  a  Tragedy,  which  was  successfully  brought 
upon  the  stage  at  Covent  Garden  in  1815;  took 


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orders  in  1817,  and  in  1818  was  appointed  Vicar 
of  Saint  Mary's,  Reading.  In  1818  appeared  his 
Samor,  Lord  of  the  Bright  City,  an  Heroic  Poem, 
which  was  followed  in  1820  by  the  Fall  of  Jeru- 
salem, a  dramatic  poem  with  some  fine  sacred 
lyrics  interspersed.  In  1821  Milman  was  chosen 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford,  and  held  the 
position  for  ten  years.  He  published  three  other 
dramatic  poems,  The  Martyr  of  Antioch  and 
Belshazzar,  both  in  1822,  and  Anne  Boleyn,  in 
1826.  His  Bampton  Lectures  on  The  Character 
and  Conduct  of  the  Apostles  Considered  as  an 
Evidence  of  Christianity  appeared  in  1827,  and 
his  History  of  the  Jews  (3  vols.)  in  1830.  The 
last  of  these  works  did  not  bear  the  author's 
name.  Its  weak  point  was  a  want  of  adequate 
learning,  especially  in  the  department  of  biblical 
criticism.  A  new  edition,  greatly  improved  and 
more  critical,  was  published  in  1863,  and  another, 
with  further  improvements,  in  1867.  He  became 
a  canon  of  Westminster  and  rector  of  Saint  Mar- 
garet's, Westminster,  London,  in  1836,  and  the 
same  year  he  published  certain  translations  of 
Sanskrit  poetry.  In  1840  appeared  a  collected 
edition  of  his  Poetical  Works,  containing  some 
other  pieces  besides  those  already  mentioned. 
The  same  year  witnessed  the  publication  of  his 
History  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth  of  Christ 
to  the  Abolition  of  Pa^janism  in  the  Roman  Em- 
pire (3  vols.).  In  1849  he  was  made  Dean  of 
Saint  Paul's,  and  discharged  the  duties  of  the 
office  in  such  a  manner  as  to  win  the  title  of 
*the  Great  Dean.'  In  1854-56  he  published  his 
masterpiece,  History  of  Latin  Christianity,  In- 
cluding that  of  the  Popes  to  the  Pontificate  of 
'Sicholas  F.  (6  vols.).  Milman  edited  Gibbon 
(1838)  and  an  edition  of  Horace  (1849),  and 
published  translations  of  the  Agamemnon  and 
Bacchw  (1865).  He  contributed  extensively  to 
the  Quarterly  Review.  He  died  in  Simninghill, 
near  Ascot,  September  24,  1868.  A  posthumous 
work  contains  his  Annals  of  Saint  PauVs  Cathe- 
dral (1868),  and  another  Essays  on  8aint  Paul, 
Savonarola,  Erasmus^  etc.  (1870).  His  historical 
works  were  republished  in  15  volumes  (1866- 
67).  Consult  his  biography  by  A.  Milman  (Lon- 
don, 1900). 

MH/MOBE,  Mabtin  (1844-83).  An  Ameri- 
can sculptor.  He  was  bom  at  Sligo,  Ireland, 
September  14,  1844,  and  in  1851  was  taken  to 
Boston.  His  first  instruction  was  in  wood-carv- 
ing, but  in  1860  he  began  his  studies  in  sculpture 
with  Thomas  Ball  in  Boston.  His  first  work  to 
receive  notice  was  his  ideal  alto-relief  "Phos- 
phor" (1863).  In  the  same  year  he  executed 
the  statuette  **Devotion,"  and  also  an  ideal  child 
statue  and  cabinet  busts  of  Longfellow  and 
Charles  Sumner.  In  1864  he  was  commissioned 
to  execute  statues  of  Ores,  Flora,  and  Pomona 
for  the  Boston  Horticultural  Hall.  One  of  his 
most  effective  pieces  is  his  soldiers'  monument 
for  Forest  Hills  Cemetery,  Roxbury  (1867), 
which  ranks  high  among  American  works  of  art 
for  its  conception  and  execution.  The  Soldiers* 
and  Sailors*  Monument  on  Boston  Common,  un- 
veiled in  1877,  is  his  greatest  and  most  elaborate 
work.  While  preparing  designs  for  this  work 
he  resided  at  Rome,  where  he  made  busts  of 
Pope  Pius  IX.,  Wendell  Phillips,  and  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson.  He  died  in  Boston  Highlands, 
Mass..  July  21,  1883.  Among  other  works  are 
his  life-size  bust  of  (Tharles  Sumner,  Metropoli- 
tan Museum,  New  York  City ;  a  statue  of  General 


Thayer,  West  Point,  N.  Y.;  busts  of  General 
Grant,  Lincoln,  Daniel  Webster,  and  others;  war 
monuments  at  Keene,  N.  H.,  £rie.  Pa.,  and. 
Charlestown  and  Fitchburg,  Mass.  With  his 
brother  he  executed  the  great  granite  Sphinx  in 
Moimt  Auburn  Cemetery,  Cambridge,  Maes. 

MILKE^  miln,  John  (1850—).  An  English 
mining  engineer  and  geologist,  born  in  Liverpool. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  College  and  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines  in  London,  and  subsequently 
went  to  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  where  he 
worked  as  a  mining  engineer.  Later  he  was  the 
geologist  of  Dr.  B€ke*s  expedition  into  North- 
western Arabia,  and  was  then  for  twenty  years 
in  the  service  of  the  Japanese  Government. 
During  those  years  he  established  the  Seismic 
Survey  of  Japan,  which  comprises  968  stations. 
In  the  course  of  his  investigations  he  traveled 
over  a  great  part  of  the  world,  visiting  the 
United  States,  Russia,  Siberia,  Mongolia,  Korea» 
China,  the  Kuriles,  the  Philippines,  Borneo,  and 
Australasia,  and  finally  devoted  himself  to  the 
establishment  of  a  seismic  survey  of  the  world. 
He  invented  seismographs  and  instruments  to 
record  vibrations  on  railways,  and  published 
important  works  on  seismology  and  geology, 
including  Earthquakes  ( 1883 )  ;  Seismology 
(1888);  The  Miner's  Handbook  (1894);  and 
Crystallography. 

MHiNE  -  EDWABDS,  miln-M^wards,  Fr. 
pron.  m^l'nA'dwar',  Alphonse  (1835-1900).  A 
French  zoologist,  son  of  Henri  Milne-Edwards, 
bom  in  Pans.  After  holding  the  position  of 
professor  of  zoology,  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  His 
work  on  fossil  Crustacea  appeared  in  1865;  an 
extensive  and  valuable  treatise  on  the  fossil  birds 
of  France  was  published  in  1862-72.  He  also 
described  the  extinct  birds  of  the  Mascarene 
Islands  and  of  Madagascar.  He  worked  long^ 
and  patiently  on  the  Crustacea,  publishin£f  elabo- 
rate reports  on  the  deep-sea  forms,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  E.  L.  Bouvier.  His  work  on  the 
anatomy  of  Limiilus  polyphemus  ( 1872)  was  per- 
haps his  most  important  contribution  to  science. 
He  also  promoted  deep-sea  explorations  and 
studied  the  geographical  distribution  of  birds. 

MILNE-EDWABDS,  Henri  (1800-85).  A 
French  naturalist,  bom  at  Bruges,  October  23, 
1800;  his  father  was  an  Englishman.  He  studied 
medicine  in  Paris,  but  after  taking  his  degree  in 
1823  he  abandoned  medicine  for  natural  history. 
He  was  first  appointed  professor  of  natural 
history  at  the  Jjjc&e  Henri  IV.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1841  to  the  chair  of  entomology  at  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  afterwards  was  professor 
of  zoology  and  physiology  in  the  Faculty  of  the 
Sciences.  He  was  author  of  Histoire  naturelle 
des  crustacis  (1834-41);  Elements  de  zoologie 
(1834-37)  ;  Observations  sur  les  ascidies  com- 
pos^es  ( 1841 )  ;  LcQons  sur  la  physiologic  et  Vana- 
tomie  comparde  de  Vhomme  et  des  animaux 
(1857-83).  He  also  revised  and  completed  the 
second  edition  of  Lamarck*s  Histoire  naturelle 
des  animaux  sans  vertebras  (1836-45).  He  finally 
became  the  dean  of  the  Faculty  of  the  Museum 
at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  Milne-Edwards  pro- 
duced elaborate  and  carefully  illustrated  works 
on  the  anatomy  of  worms,  crustaceans,  and 
tunicates.  In  his  great  work  on  corals  he  was 
assisted  by  Haime.  He  will  be  remembered  for 
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division  of  labor.    His  general  work  on  Crustacea 
is  still  a  valuable  and  standard  work. 

MH/NEB,  Sir  Alfred  ( 1854—) .  An  English 
colonial  Governor,  bom  at  Bonn,  Germany.  He 
studied  at  King's  College,  London,  and  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  studied  law,  and  from  1882  to 
1885  devoted  himself  to  journalism.  His  service 
as  private  secretary  to  G.  J.  (afterwards  Lord) 
Goschen,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  (1887-89), 
began  his  public  career.  He  proved  an  able 
Under-Secretary  for  Finance  in  Egypt  (1889-92), 
and  wrote  England  in  Egypt  (1892).  In  1897 
Milner  was  appointed  High  Commissioner  of 
South  Africa  and  Governor  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  He  held  the  former  post  through  the  dif- 
ficult period  preceding  and  succeeding  the  South 
African  War;  was  created  a  viscount  in  1902, 
and  in  1901  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Trans- 
vaal and  Orange  River  Colonies.  He  resigned 
as  High  Commissioner  and  Grovemor  in  March, 
1905,  and  returned  to  England.  Regarded  by 
many  as  co-author  with  Cecil  Rhodes  and  Mr. 
Chamberlain  of  the  South  African  War,  he  was 
subjected  to  much  criticism  in  Liberal  circles, 
especially  after  the  fall  of  the  Unionist  ministry 
in  December,  1906.  In  March,  1906,  the  House  of 
Commons,  by  355  against  135  votes,  expressed 
its  disapproval  of  his  action  in  permitting  the 
flogging  of  a  Chinese  coolie  in  the  Transvaal.  In 
reply  the  House  of  Lords,  by  an  overwhelming 
vote,  placed  on  record  its  high  appreciation  of 
Lord  \Iilner's  services,  and  in  August  he  was  pre- 
sented with  an  address  of  the  same  nature  signed 
by  more  than  370,000  names. 

ICILNEB,  John  (1752-1826).  An  English 
Roman  Catholic  scholar,  born  in  London.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  1777;  settled  at  Winches- 
ter in  1779,  and  became  titular  Bishop  of 
Castabala  in  1803.  In  1804  he  moved  to  Wolver- 
hampton and  entered  into  the  agitation  which 
finally  led  to  the  removal  of  the  right  of  veto  on 
appointment  of  Roman  Catholic  bishops  as  part 
of  Peel's  Catholic  Relief  Act  passed  in  1829. 
His  firmness  and  courage  in  the  controversy  won 
him  the  sobriquet  'The  English  Athanasius." 
He  wrote:  Antiquities  of  Winchester  (2  vols., 
1798-1801 ;  3d  ed.  with  memoir  by  Husenbeth, 
1839)  ;  Treatise  on  the  Ecclesiastical  Architeo- 
ture  of  England  During  the  Middle  Ages  (1811; 
3d  ed.,  1835)  ;  The  End  of  Religious  Controversy 
(1818).  Constat  his  Life  by  Husenbeth  ( Dublin, 
1862). 

MTLNEB,  Joseph  (1744-97).  An  English 
ecclesiastical  historian.  He  was  born  at  Leeds, 
in  Yorkshire.  He  studied  at  Catharine  Hall, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1766,  and  afterwards  became  head-master  of  the 
grammar  school  at  Hull.  In  1768  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  at  Holy  Trinity  or  High  Church, 
Hull,  and  later  became  also  vicar  at  North  Fer- 
riby,  near  Hull.  Milner's  principal  work  is  his 
History  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  of  which  he 
lived  to  complete  three  volumes,  reaching  to  the 
Thirteenth  Century  (1794-97);  vols.  iv.  and  v. 
(1803-9)  were  edited  from  his  MSS.  by  his 
brother,  Dr.  Isaac  Milner,  dean  of  Carlisle,  who 
also  published  a  complete  edition  of  his  brother's 
works  in  eight  volumes  (1810).  The  principle^ 
on  which  the  History  of  the  Church  of  Christ  is 
written  are  of  the  narrowest  kind  of  Evangeli- 
calism. A  greatly  improved  edition  by  Grant- 
ham appeared  in  1847.    A  life  of  Milner  by  his 


brother  Isaac  is  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  of 
Milner 's  Practical  Sermons  (London,  1804-23). 

MILNEB-OIBSON,  Thomas.  See  Gibson, 
Thomas  Milneb-. 

MILNES,  mlln'z,  Richabd  Monckton,  Baron 
Houghton  (1809-85).  An  English  poet  and  poli- 
tician, son  of  Robert  Pemberton  Milnes,  of  Frys- 
ton  Hall,  near  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  bom  in 
London,  June  19,  1809.  He  was  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  a  member 
of  the  famous  society  called  the  'Apostles,'  which 
included  Hallam  and  Tennyson.  Soon  after  re- 
ceiving the  degree  of  M.A.  (1831)  he  traveled 
in  Germany  and  Italy  and  visited  Greece.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1835.  In  1837  he  entered 
Parliament  for  Pontefract,  which  he  continued 
to  represent  till  1863,  when  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Houghton.  In  politics  he 
was  at  first  a  Conservative,  but  on  Peel's  con- 
version to  free  trade  he  became  an  Independent 
Liberal.  He  was  an  advocate  of  public  education 
and  religious  equality;  labored  for  copyright 
laws  and  the  establishment  of  reformatories  for 
juvenile  offenders;  and  took  a  decided  stand  on 
the  side  of  Italy  against  Austria.  A  friend  of 
literary  men,  he  secured  a  pension  for  Tennyson, 
helped  Hood,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognize 
the  merits  of  Swinburne.  In  1842-43  he  visited 
the  East,  and  in  1875  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  He  died  at  Vichy,  August  11,  1885. 
Among  Lord  Houghton's  works  are:  Memorials 
of  a  Tour  in  Some  Parts  of  Greece,  Chiefly 
Poetical  (1834)  ;  Poems  of  Many  Years  (1838) ; 
Poems  Legendary  and  Historical  ( 1844 )  ;  and 
Palm  Leaves  (1844).  He  edited  The  Life,  Let- 
ters, and  Literary  Remains  of  Keats  (1848). 
Consult  his  interesting  Monographs,  Personal 
and  Social  (London,  1873) ;  Collected  Poetical 
Works  (ib.,  1876)  ;  the  character  of  Vavasour  in 
Disraeli's  Tancred;  and  Reid,  Life,  Letters,  and 
Friendship  of  R.  M.  Milnes  (London,  1890). 

MI^O.    See  Melds. 

MILO  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  M£X«r,  Mil6n)  of  Cro- 
ton,  in  Magna  Grsecia.  A  Greek  athlete  famous 
for  his  great  strength,  who  lived,  according  to 
Herodotus,  about  B.C.  520.  He  won  the  prize  as 
wrestler  in  six  Olympian,  seven  Pythian,  ten 
Isthmian,  and  nine  Nemean  games.  Among  other 
displays  of  his  strength,  he  is  said  to  have  on 
one  occasion  carried  a  live  ox  upon  his  shoulders 
through  the  stadium  of  Olympia,  and  afterwards 
to  have  eaten  the  whole  of  it  in  one  day ;  and  on 
another  to  have  upheld  the  pillars  of  a  house 
in  which  Pythagoras  and  his  scholars  were  as- 
sembled, so  as  to  give  them  time  to  make  their 
escape  when  the  house  was  falling.  He  lost  his 
life  through  too  great  confidence  in  his  own 
strength,  when  he  was  getting  old,  in  attempting 
to  split  up  a  tree,  which  closed  upon  his  hands, 
and  held  him  fast  until  he  was  devoured  by 
wolves. 

MILO,  Titus  Annius  Papiantjs  (b.c.  95-48). 
A  Roman  politician.  He  was  bom  at  Lanuvium. 
and  belonged  to  a  distinguished  family.  Few  de- 
tails of  his  life  are  known  till  his  election  as 
tribune  of  the  people  in  B.C.  57.  He  was  then  a 
partisan  of  Pompey,and  attempted  to  bring  about 
the  recall  of  Cicero  from  exile.  This  measure  was 
bitterly  opposed  by  Clodius,  who,  as  tribune  of 
the  people,  had  been  instrumental  in  passing  the 
law  condemning  Cicero  to  exile.  Milo  attempted 
to  have  Clodius  condemned  as  a  violator  of  the 


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public  peace,  but  tbe  proceedings  were  quashed. 
Both  Milo  and  Clodius  now  hired  a  body-guard  of 
gladiators,  and  armed  collisions  between  their 
retainers  became  almost  every-day  occurrences. 
About  this  time  Milo  married  Sulla's  daughter, 
Fausta,  for  her  fortune.  In  66  Clodius  was  elected 
curule  sdile,  and  accused  Milo  of  being  a  violator 
of  the  public  peace  by  keeping  a  force  of  armed 
retainers.  Pompey  conducted  the  defense  of  Milo, 
but  no  decision  was  ever  reached.  In  53  Milo 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  consulship. 
Clodius  opposed  the  candidature  of  Milo,  who 
was  defended  in  the  Senate  by  Cicero  in  a  speech 
of  which  some  fragments  are  still  extant.  On 
January  20th  of  the  next  year  Milo  was  on  his 
way  to  Lanuvium  from  Rome,  accompanied  by 
his  band  of  gladiators.  Clodius,  also  with  an 
armed  company,  met  him  near  Bovillse.  Milo  and 
Clodius  passed  each  other  without  trouble;  but 
some  of  Milo*s  followers  picked  a  quarrel  with 
the  slaves  of  Clodius,  who  attempted  to  interpose, 
and  was  stabbed  in  the  shoulder  by  one  of  Milo's 
men.  Clodius  was  taken  to  a  tavern  in  Bovillae, 
but  was  dragged  out  by  the  slaves  of  Milo  and 
put  to  death.  The  corpse  of  Clodius  was  placed 
on  the  rostra  of  the  Forum  in  Rome  and  a  mob 
set  fire  to  the  Senate  house.  These  acts  of 
popular  violence  created  a  reaction  in  favor  of 
Milo,  who  ventured  to  return  to  Rome.  Milo  was 
tried  for  the  murder  of  Clodius,  and  though 
defended  by  Cicero,  he  was  condemned  to  exile, 
and  went  to  Marseilles.  In  his  absence  he  was 
tried  and  condemned  on  charges  of  violence,  of 
bribery,  and  conspiracy.  In  48  he  went  back  to 
Italy,  without  permission,  to  join  Marcus  Caelius, 
an  expelled  Senator,  who  was  attempting  to  ex- 
cite a  rebellion  in  South  Italy,  and  he  was  killed 
before  a  fort  near  Thurii.  See  Clodius  Pulcheb. 

MILOBADOVITCH,  m^'lA-rft'dd-vIch,  Mik- 
hail, Count  (1770-1825).  A  Russian  general, 
born  in  Saint  Petersburg.  After  active  service 
in  the  war  with  Turkey  and  in  that  with  Poland, 
he  distinguished  himself  under  Suvaroff  in  the 
campaign  of  the  Austro-Russian  army  against 
the  French  in  Italy  (1799)  and  made  the  famous 
passage  of  the  Alps  by  way  of  the  Saint  Gothard 
Pass  into  Switzerland.  In  1805  he  was  a  division 
commander  at  Austerlitz,  and  in  1812  he  fought 
at  Borodino.  In  1813  he  played  a  prominent  part 
at  LUtzen.  He  was  made  Grovemor  of  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1819,  but  six  years  afterwards,  as 
he  strove  to  quell  the  Decembrist  rising,  he  was 
shot  dead. 

MILOSH,  m§ndsh,  Obbenovitch  (1780-1860). 
A  Prince  of  Servia,  bom  in  Dobrinia.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  spent  his  youth  and 
early  manhooa  as  a  swineherd  in  the  service  of 
his  rich  half-brother,  who  was  a  leader  in  the 
revolt  of  1804.  Milosh  was  his  lieutenant  and 
his  successor,  took  his  half-brother's  patronymic 
in  place  of  his  own,  Todorovitch,  and  became  a 
leader  in  the  opposition  against  Karageorge. 
After  the  latter  fled  into  Austria,  Milosh  stood 
his  ground  against  the  Turks  for  a  time,  then 
surrendered,  and  was  made  commandant  or 
*knez'  of  Rudnik.  In  1815,  what  with  brave 
fighting  and  clever  diplomacy,  he  practically 
made  Servia  independent.  T^vo  years  afterwards 
he  was  named  hereditary  and  supreme  Prince  of 
Servia,  a  title  conferred  in  1822  by  the  National 
Assembly,  and  by  the  Porte  in  1830.  Several  re- 
Tolts  came  to  nothing,  but  in  1839  he  was  forced 


to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son,  Milan.  In  1858 
he  was  recalled  to  power  by  the  National  Assem- 
bly. He  was  a  man  of  no  education,  but,  ener- 
getic, headstrong,  and  rather  cruel  as  he  was,  he 
deserved  the  title  of  Tather  of  His  Country,*  as 
he  gave  Servia  a  place  in  European  politics. 

MILREIS,  mil-res^  or  HII<B£A,  mll-r^ 
(Port.,  from  mt7,  thousand  -{-  rets,  pL  of  real, 
small  coin).  A  Portuguese  silver  coin  and 
money  of  account,  containing  1000  reis.  It  is 
valued  at  $1,075  American.  The  coin  is  common- 
ly known  in  Portugal  as  the  coroa,  or  'crown,* 
and  since  April  24,  1835,  has  been  the  unit  of  the 
money  system  in  that  country.  It  is  used  in 
Brazil,  where  it  is  worth  about  55  United  States 
cents.  The  half-cor5a,  or  half-milrei,  of  500  reia, 
is  also  used  in  both  countries. 

Mn/BOYy  Robert  Huston  (1816-90).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Washington  County, 
Ind.  He  graduated  at  Norwich  University, 
Northfield,  Vt.,  in  1843,  and  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can War  as  captain  of  Indiana  volunteers.  While 
studying  law  he  served  as  a  member  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  in  1849-50,  and  in 
1851  was  made  judge  of  the  Eighth  Judicial  Dis- 
trict of  Indiana.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  made  captain,  colonel,  and  finally 
brigadier-general  in  1861.  In  1862  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  a  major-general  after  his  service  in 
West  Virginia.  At  Winchester,  Va.,  he  opposed 
for  three  days  a  large  part  of  Lee's  army,  then  en 
route  for  the  invasion  of  Pennsylvania,  and  lost 
heavily.  Though  he  claimed  that  this  detention  of 
Lee  was  of  great  advantage  to  General  Meade,  en- 
abling him  to  fight  at  Gettysburg  instead  of 
farther  north,  an  investigation  was  ordered  into 
his  conduct.  The  charges,  however,  were  dis- 
missed. His  commands  afterwards  were  less  im- 
portant, but  while  in  charge  of  the  defenses  of 
the  Nashville  and  Chattanooga  Railroad  his  eon- 
duct  was  again  investigated,  and  he  resigned 
from  the  army.  In  1868  he  was  trustee  of  the 
Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  was  superintendent  of 
Indian  affairs  in  Washington  Territory  from  1868 
to  1874,  and  was  Indian  agent  from  1875  to  1885. 

MILTrADES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  MtXr«i«in). 
A  famous  Athenian  general,  son  of  Cimon.  He 
became  ^tyrant*  of  the  Chersonesus  after  his 
brother  Stesagoras,  and  accompanied  Darius 
Hystaspis  in  his  expedition  against  the  Scyth- 
ians, about  B.C.  508.  He  was  one  of  those  who 
were  left  by  Darius  in  charge  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Danube,  and,  when  Darius  failed  to 
appear  at  the  expected  time,  he  advised  that  the 
bridge  be  destroyed  and  Darius  left  to  his  fate. 
Afterwards  he  took  Lemnos  from  the  Persians, 
but,  when  the  Persian  fleet  came  near  the  Cher- 
sonesus, fled  to  Athens.  Being  chosen  one  of 
the  ten  generals  of  the  year  B.C.  490,  he  defeated 
the  Persians  in  that  year  in  the  great  battle  of 
Marathon.  Later  he  was  intrusted  with  a  fleet 
of  seventy  ships  by  the  Athenians,  with  which 
he  proceeded  against  Paros  for  the  purpose  of 
avenging  a  private  grudge.  The  expedition  hav- 
ing failed,  he  was,  on  his  return  to  Athens,  con- 
demned to  pay  a  fine  of  fifty  talents.  Being  un- 
able to  do  this,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  where 
he  died  of  an  injury  received  at  Paros. 
'  MILTIADES,  less  correctly  called  Mel- 
CHIADE8.  Pope  311-314.  He  was  bom  in  Africa, 
and  his  pontificate  covers  the  eventful  period  of 
Constantine's  conversion.     Under  him  a  synod 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ITTTiTIADES. 


628 


VXLTOTSl. 


was  held  in  Rome  in  313,  and  a  decision  was 
rendered  against  the  Donatists  (q.v.). 

MII/TITZ,  Kabl  von  (c.  1490- 1529).  A  Ger- 
man ecclesiastic  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
the  son  of  a  Saxon  noble.  He  was  canon  at 
Mainz,  Treves,  and  Meissen  before  he  became 
Papal  notary  in  1615.  Three  years  afterwards  he 
was  sent  by  Pope  Leo  X.  to  Saxony  on  the  mis- 
sion to  confer  with  Martin  Luther  and  his  protec- 
tor, the  Elector  Frederick  the  Wise,  in  the  matter 
of  indulgences.  An  able  and  politic  advocate  for  a 
compromise,  Miltitz  so  far  succeeded  that  Luther 
promised  future  submission,  if  not  recantation; 
but  though  later  meetings  took  place  between  the 
two  at  Altenburg,  Liebenwerda,  and  Lichtenberg, 
the  hope  of  reconciliation  was  definitely  aban- 
doned on  the  arrival  of  a  denunciatory  Papal 
bull.  Miltitz  was  charged  also  with  an  investiga- 
tion into  the  conduct  of  Tetzel,  whom  he  con- 
demned absolutely.  According  to  some  authori- 
ties, the  delegate  was  accidentally  drowned  while 
on  his  way  to  Rome. 

Unj/TON,  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Santa  Rosa  County,  Fla.,  20  miles  northeast  of 
Pensacola;  at  the  head  of  Blackwater  Bay,  and 
on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroad  (Map: 
Florida,  A  1 ) .  It  is  in  the  lumbering  section  of 
the  State,  and  has  ship-building  interests,  ice 
plant,  and  a  fiourishing  trade.  There  is  a  public 
library  (Santa  Rosa  Academy)  with  5000  vol- 
umes.   Population,  in  1900,  1204;  in  1905,  1432. 

MILTON.  A  town,  including  the  villages  of 
Blue  Hill,  East  Milton,  Lower  Mills,  and  Mat- 
tapan,  in  Norfolk  County,  Mass.,  seven  miles 
south  of  Boston;  on  the  Neponset  River  and  on 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road (Map:  Massachusetts,  E  3).  It  is  an 
attractive  residential  suburb  of  Boston,  and  has 
a  public  library,  Milton  Academy,  and  other  in- 
stitutions. In  proportion  to  its  size  it  is  a  very 
wealthy  town,  its  valuation  in  1906  being  $22,- 
218,040.  The  crest  of  the  highest  hill  (635  feet) 
of  the  Blue  Hills  is  the  site  of  an  observatory 
and  a  station  of  the  United  States  Meteorological 
Bureau.  A  fine  view  is  aflForded.  The  town  has 
granite  quarries,  chocolate  and  cracker  factories, 
etc.  The  government  is  administered  by  town 
meetings.  Population,  in  1890,  4278;  in  1900, 
6578;  in  1905,  7054.  Settled  in  1637,  Milton  was 
a  part  of  Dorchester  until,  in  1662,  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a  separate  township.  It  was  the  home 
for  many  years  of  Jonathan  Belcher,  a  colonial 
Governor  of  both  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey, 
and  of  Thomas  Hutchinson,  the  historian  and 
colonial  Governor  of  Massachusetts.  Consult 
Teele  (editor).  History  of  Milton,  Mass.  (Milton, 
1887). 

MILTON.  A  borough  in  Northumberland 
County,  Pa.,  50  miles  north  of  Harrisburg;  on 
the  Susquehanna  River,  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Canal,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Phila- 
delphia and  Reading  railroads  (Map:  Pennsyl- 
vania, H  4).  Its  extensive  manufacturing  plants 
include  car  and  wood-working  machinery  works; 
rolling,  flour,  knitting/  planing,  and  saw  mills; 
washer,  nut,  and  bolt  works;  and  furniture,  shoe, 
couch,  nail,  fly  net,  and  paper  box  factories.  The 
borough  has  a  public  park  with  picturesque 
scenery ;  and  a  fine  bridge  spans  the  Susquehanna 
at  this  point.  Settled  in  1770,  Milton  was  incor- 
porated first  in  1817.  It  is  governed,  under  a 
revised  charter  of  1890,  by  a  chief  burgess,  elected 
Vol.  XIII.— 34. 


every  three  years,  and  a  unicameral  council. 
Population,  1900,  6175;  1906  (local  est.),  6700. 
MILTON,  John  (1608-74).  An  English  poet. 
He  was  bom  in  Bread  Street,  London,  December 
9,  1608.  His  father,  also  named  John  Milton,  be- 
longed to  a  Roman  Catholic  family  of  yeomen  liv- 
ing in  Oxfordshire.  The  elder  John  Milton  was 
converted  to  Protestantism  while  a  student  at  Ox- 
ford, and  as  a  result  was  promptly  disinherited 
by  his  father,  Richard  Milton.  The  poet's  father 
settled  in  London,  where  he  prospered  as  a  scrive- 
ner. The  younger  John  Milton  received  instruc- 
tion from  his  father  in  music;  was  taught  by 
a  private  tutor;  and  was  sent  to  Saint  Paul's 
School  (about  1620),  where  he  learned  Latin, 
Greek,  French,  Italian,  and  some  Hebrew,  and 
read  English  literature.  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene 
and  Sylvester's  translation  of  Du  Bartas,  which 
came  into  his  hands  at  this  time,  exerted  much 
infiuence  on  the  formation  of  his  style.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1625,  he  proceeded  to  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge.  He  was  of  less  than  the  middle 
height,  yet  well  made,  with  light  brown  or 
auburn  hair.  In  bearing  he  was  courteous  and 
stately,  though  sometimes  sarcastic.  Owing  to 
a  misunderstanding  with  his  first  tutor,  he  was 
rusticated  for  a  short  time  in  1626,  but  he  re- 
turned and  completed  the  course,  graduating  B.A. 
in  1629  and  M.A.  in  1632.  From  childhood 
Milton  had  been  destined  for  the  Church,  but 
the  policy  of  Laud  led  him  first  to  postpone 
taking  orders  and  then  to  abandon  all  thought 
of  it.  He  retired  to  his  father's  estate  at  Hor- 
ton,  Buckinghamshire,  where  he  passed  nearly 
six  years  (1632-38)  in  reading  the  classics  and 
w^riting  at  intervals  his  choicest  poems.  Believ- 
ing that  he  had  it  in  him  to  write  something 
that  would  live,  he  set  out  for  Italy  in  April, 
1638,  wishing  to  fit  himself  still  more  for  his 
future  work.  Probably  at  Bologna,  which  he 
visited  in  1639,  Milton  wrote  in  excellent  Italian 
five  sonnets  and  a  canzone  wherein  he  expresses 
love  for  a  beautiful  lady  of  Bologna.  For  some 
time  he  stayed  in  Florence,  where  he  visited  in 
prison  the  blind  Galileo.  Thence  he  went  on  to 
Rome  and  Naples.  As  he  was  about  to  pass 
over  to  Sicily  and  from  there  to  Greece,  news 
reached  him  of  *the  civil  commotions  in  England.* 
He  turned  homeward,  reaching  England  toward 
the  end  of  July,  1639.  He  took  a  house  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  London,  where  he  received  as 
pupils  two  nephews,  children  of  an  elder  sister, 
and  occupied  his  leisure  with  plans  for  future 
poems.  From  these  pursuits  he  was  drawn  into 
ecclesiastical  controversies,  writing  pamphlet, 
after  pamphlet.  In  June,  1643,  he  married,  after 
a  brief  courtship,  Mary  Powell,  then  only  seven- 
teen years  old,  the  daughter  of  an  Oxfordshire 
squire  and  Royalist.  After  a  month  the  bride 
returned  to  her  father's  house.  In  the  summer 
of  1645  they  were  reconciled,  and  he  moved  to 
the  Barbican,  a  more  commodious  house  for  the 
increasing  number  of  his  pupils.  She  died  in 
1652,  after  bearing  four  children,  of  whom  the 
one  son  died  in  infancy.  A  fortnight  after  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.  (January  30,  1649),  Mil- 
ton issued  a  memorable  defense  of  the  deed,  and 
this  led  to  other  pamphlets  which  gave  him 
European  fame  as  controversialist.  On  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Commonwealth  Milton  was 
appointed  Latin  secretary  to  the  Council  of  State 
(March  15,  1649).  For  this  office,  involving  the 
duty  of  turning  into  Latin  all  foreign  dispatches. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


HILTON. 


524 


HILTON. 


be  was  eminently  fitted.  In  1652  he  lost  his 
eyesight,  already  long  impaired,  but  with  the  aid 
of  assistants — one  of  whom  was  Andrew  Marvell 
— he  performed  the  duties  of  his  post  till  the 
abdication  of  Richard  Cromwell  (1669).  In  the 
meantime  (November,  1656)  he  had  married  a 
Catharine  Woodcock,  who  died  in  February,  1658. 
She  was  honored  by  one  of  Milton's  most  beauti- 
ful sonnets  (xxiii.).  The  Restoration  put  an 
end  to  his  active  career.  In  1661  he  settled  in 
Jewin  Street,  Aldersgate,  from  which  he  removed 
two  years  later  to  a  house  in  Artillery  Walk, 
Bunhill  Fields,  his  last  residence.  Here  he  ful- 
filled the  literary  task  he  had  long  ago  planned 
and  since  begun.  To  the  annoyance  of  his  daugh- 
ters, he  married  a  third  wife,  thirty  years  nis 
junior,  named  Elizabeth  Minshull.  His  relations 
with  these  daughters  were  most  unhappy. 
Brought  up  in  ignorance,  they  revolted  from  the 
service  that  he  demanded  of  them — reading  to 
him  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  which  of  course 
they  could  not  understand.  Toward  the  end  Mil- 
ton stood  aloof  from  religious  sects  and  never 
went  to  religious  services.  He  died  November  8, 
1674,  and  was  buried  in  Saint  Giles's,  Cripple- 
gate. 

Milton's  literary  career  is  clearly  divided  by 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  and  by  the  Res- 
toration into  three  periods:  (1)  1626-40;  (2) 
1640-60;  (3)  1660-74. 

First  Period.  Milton  began  writing  English 
and  Latin  verse  while  a  schoolboy.  The  earliest 
extant  specimens  of  these  exercises  are  para- 
phrases of  the  114th  and  136th  Psalms,  composed 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  Other  early  poems  are 
a  group  of  graceful  Latin  elegies  and  sylvse 
(1626-29);  On  the  Death  of  a  Fair  Infant 
(1626)  ;  Af  a  Vacation  Ewerciae  (1628)  ;  Hymn 
on  the  Nativity  (1629);  At  a  Solemn  Music 
(1630)  ;  On  Shakespeare;  and  sonnets  To  the 
Nightingale  and  On  Arriving  at  the  Age  of 
Twenty -three.  The  Latin  verses  are  undoubtedly 
the  best  ever  written  by  an  Englishman,  and 
the  last  five  of  the  English  poems  display  high 
poetical  genius.  While  at  Horton,  Milton  com- 
posed four  absolutely  perfect  poems:  the  two 
descriptive  lyrics,  U Allegro  and  II  Penseroso 
(1634)  ;  ComuSy  a  masque  performed  at  Ludlow 
Castle  on  Michaelmas  nijjht,  1634,  in  honor  of 
Lord  Bridgewater's  appointment  to  the  warden- 
ship  of  the  Welsh  marches;  and  Lycidas,  a  pas- 
toral elegy  in  memory  of  his  college  friend  Ed- 
ward King,  drowned  on  his  passage  to  Ireland 
(August  10,  1637).  Of  these  poems,  which  by 
.themselves  would  place  Milton  among  the  great 
names  in  English  literature,  only  a  few  had  been 
published.  The  lines  on  Shakespeare  appeared  in 
the  second  folio  of  the  dramatist's  works  ( 1632)  ; 
Henry  Lawes.  who  composed  the  music  for 
Comus,  published  the  masque  anonymously  (I^n- 
don,  1637),  and  Lycidas  formed  one  in  a  collec- 
tion of  memorial  poems  (Cambridge,  1638).  To 
this  period  belong  six  sonnets  in  Italian  and 
Milton's  two  finest.  Latin  poems:  Mansus 
(1638),  addressed  to  the  Marquis  of  Manso,  the 
friend  of  Tasso,  who  in  his  old  age  hospitably 
received  Milton  at  Naples;  and  Epitaphium  Da- 
monis.  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  his  college  friend 
Charles  Diodati. 

Second  Period.  For  full  eighteen  years  Milton 
was  distracted  from  poetry  by  domestic  per- 
plexities and  the  revolutions  in  Church  and 
State.     The    separation    from    his    wife    led    to 


pamphlets  on   divorce,  of  which   the  most  im- 
portant   are    The    Doctrine    and    Discipline    of 
Divorce  (August  1,  1643),  and  The  Tetrachordon 
(1645).     Against    episcopacy    he    launched,    in 
1641-42,  five  tracts,  of  which  the  best  known  is 
The    Reason    of    Church    Qovemment    Against 
Prelaty.    In   1644  appeared  the  valuable  letter 
Of  Education  and  a  noble  plea  for  the  freedom  of 
the  press  under  the  title  Areop<igitica.  The  execu- 
tion of  Charles  I.  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Commonwealth  were  defended  against  Continental 
criticism  in  The  Tenure  of  Kings  and  Magistrates 
(1649),  Eikonoklastes    (1649),   Pro  Populo  An- 
glicano  Defensio,  and  sequels.    These  tracts,  vehe- 
ment and  often  scurrilous  in  style,  contain  auto- 
biographical  passages  of  interest.     Throughout 
this  period  Milton  wrote  almost  no  verse.     He 
composed,  however,  at  intervals  his  magnificent 
sonnets,  as  On  His  Blindness,   To  Fairfax,   To 
Cromwell,  and  The  Massacre  in  Piedmont;  and 
in  1645  appeared  a  volume  of  collected  poems  in 
English  and  Latin.     Besides  this  he  wrote  some 
Greek  and  Latin  verse  and  made  a  few  transla- 
tions.    In  1902  there  appeared  a  valuable  work 
called  Nova  Solyma:  the  Ideal  City  of  Zion;  or 
Jerusalem  Regained;  translated  from  the  Latin 
by  the  Rev.  Walter  Begley,  and  by  him  attributed 
to  John  Milton.    This  romance  was  published  in 
London  ( 1648)  with  the  title  Nova;  Solymee  Libri 
Sex.    Whether  or  not  the  work  belongs  to  Milton, 
it  undoubtedly  shows  strongly  many  of  his  char- 
acteristics in  thought  and  style.    The  romance  is 
written  in  prose  and  in  verse,  and  is  wholly  in 
Latin.    It  shows  advanced  theories  on  education, 
it  considers  love  philosophically,  and  deals  with 
the  philosophy  of  religion,  with  conversion,  sal- 
vation, the  brotherhood  of  man,  with  almsgiving, 
self-control,  angels,  the  fall  of  man,  and  man's 
eternal  fate.     It  contains  some  256  hexameters 
of  a  projected  epic  on  the  Armada,  and  there 
runs  through  it  a  vein  of  adventures  with  tales 
of  outlaws,  robbers,  sea-rovers,  and  fighting  on 
sea.     There  is  an  account  of  a  man  possessed  by 
the  devil,  and  an  allegory  of  Philomela's  King- 
dom of  Pleasure. 

Third  Period.  The  great  epic  that  Milton  now 
composed  is  the  spiritual  summary  of  his  life  of 
lost  ideals.  As  early  as  his  return  from  Italy^ 
he  had  meditated  the  production  of  some  great 
poem.  By  1642  his  mind  was  turning  toward 
a  mystery  play  on  the  loss  of  paradise.  When 
he  resumed  the  subject  in  1658,  it  took  the  form 
of  an  epic.  Paradise  Lost,  in  ten  books,  com- 
pleted by  1665,  perhaps  even  by  1663,  was  first 
published  on  August  10,  1667.  After  several 
reprints  with  slight  changes,  it  was  enlarged 
to  twelve  books  (1674).  For  this  poem,  of 
which  1300  copies  were  sold  in  eighteen  months, 
Milton  received  from  his  publisher  in  all  £10. 
At  the  suggestion  of  Thomas  EUwood,  a  Quaker 
friend  of  the  poet,  Milton  wrote  Paradise  Re- 
gained, which  was  published  with  Samson  Ago- 
nistes,  an  intense  lyrical  drama,  in  1671.  Once 
Milton  was  known  mainly  as  the  author  of  Para- 
dise Lost.  Since  the  romantic  revival,  this  epic 
has  been  unfavorably  compared  with  the  so- 
called  minor  poems.  The  fascinating  imagina- 
tive state  in  which  the  early  lyrics  were  con- 
ceived certainly  departed  from  Milton  during 
the  civil  conflict.  But  as  years  went  on,  his 
imagination  became  invested  with  sublimity. 
Had  Paradise  Lost  been  written  in  1642,  it  would 
have  been  a  perfect  mystery  play,  as  Comus  is  & 


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JOHN  MILTON 

FROM   AN    ENGRAVING   BY   GEORGE   VERTUE 


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MILWAXTEEE. 


perfect  masque.  Delayed  twenty  odd  years  it 
became  a  sonorous  epic,  which,  though  barren  in 
places,  abounds  in  the  noblest  English  poetry. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  For  his  biography,  consult: 
Phillips's  memoir  in  his  Letters  of  State  { 1694) ; 
Masson,  Life  of  John  Milton,  Narrated  in  Connec- 
tion with  the  Political,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Lit- 
erary History  of  His  Time  (6  vols,  and  index, 
London,  1859-94),  an  exhaustive  work;  Patti- 
son  in  the  "English  Men  of  Letters  Series"  (New 
York,  1880) ;  Gamett  in  the  "Great  Writers 
Scries"  (London,  1890) ;  and  Masterman  and 
Mullinger,  The  Age  of  Milton  (ib.,  1897) ;  Wil- 
liamson, Milton  (New  York,  1905).  For  works, 
consult:  Prose  Works,  ed.  by  Saint  John, 
Bohn's  Library  (5  vols.,  London,  1848-53)  ;  Po- 
etical Works  ed.  by  Masson  .  (Cabinet  edition, 
3  vols.,  ib.,  1890;  Globe  ed.,  1  vol.,  ib.,  1877, 
often  reprinted) ;  Poetical  Works  after  the 
Original  Teats,  i.e.  reprints,  ed.  by  Beeching 
(Oxford,  1900)  ;  and  Facsimile  of  Milton's  Minor 
Poems,  from  manuscripts  in  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  ed.  by  Wright  (Cambridge,  1899). 
For  estimate,  consult:  essays  by  Dr.  Johnson 
(London,  1779),  Macaulay  (ib.,  1840),  Lowell 
(ib.,  1845),  and  A  Short  Study,  by  Trent  (New 
York,  1899)  ;  Corson,  An  Introduction  to  Works, 
containing  the  prose  autobiographical  pieces 
(ib.,  1899)  ;  and  the  notable  Study,  by  Raleigh 
(London  and  New  York,  1900).  The  student 
will  find  of  much  value:  Osgood,  The  Classical 
Mythology  of  Milton's  English  Poems  (New 
York,  1900)  ;  and  Lockwood,  Lexicon  to  the 
Poetical  Works  of  John  Milton  (ib.,  1902).  A 
contemporary  biography  of  Milton,  discovered 
in  1889  in  a  volume  of  Anthony  Wood's  papers 
in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  was  edited 
and  published  by  E.  B.  Parsons  in  1903,  under 
the  title,  "The  Earliest  Life  of  Milton,"  in  the 
Colorado  College  Studies  (Colorado  Springs, 
March,  1903). 

MUiTON  COLLEOE.  A  coeducational  insti- 
tution at  Milton,  Wis.,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Seventh  Day  Baptists.  It  was  organized  as  Du 
Lac  Academy  in  1844,  renamed  Milton  Academy 
in  1848,  and  incorporated  as  Milton  0)llege  in 
1867.  It  has  collegiate  and  academic  depart- 
ments and  a  school  of  music.  In  1906-7  it  had  13 
instructors  and  167  students,  43  attending  the 
college.  Its  property  was  valued  at  $185,000,  the 
buildings  and  grounds  at  $60,000,  and  the  equip- 
ment at  $10,000.  The  endowment  was  $115,000, 
and  the  income  about  $12,000.  The  library  con- 
tained 7842  volumes  and  2500  pamphlets. 

Mn/VIAN  BBIBGE.  An  ancient  bridge 
over  the  Tiber  at  Rome,  built  in  B.C.  109  by 
Marcus  ^milius  Scaurus.  At  this  bridge,  in 
B.C.  63,  Cicero  caused  the  arrest  of  the  ambassa- 
dors of  the  Allobrogi,  who  were  conspiring  with 
Catiline,  and  Maxentius  was  drowned  there  after 
his  defeat  by  Constantine  in  a.d.  312.  On  the 
foundations  of  the  ancient  bridge  stands  the  mod- 
em Ponte  Molle. 

MILWATT^KEE.  The  largest  city  in  Wiscon- 
sin, a  port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of  Mil- 
waukee County.  It  is  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mil- 
waukee River,  85  miles  north  of  Chicago  and  83 
miles  east  of  the  State  capital,  Madison  (Map: 
Wisconsin,  F  5). 

The  city  occupies  an  area  of  about  22  square 
miles,  divided  by  the  Milwaukee  River  and  its 


affluents,  the  Menominee  and  Kinnickinnic,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of  the  Northwest. 
It  has  an  elevation  of  from  600  to  700  feet  above 
sea  level,  rising  from  80  to  150  feet  above  Lake 
Michigan,  and  reaching  its  greatest  height  in 
Kilbourne  Park,  which  affords  a  fine  view.  The 
business  quarter  is  near  the  Milwaukee  River, 
while  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  residence 
sections  lie  to  the  west  and  east,  and  are  charac- 
terized by  shaded  avenues  and  detached  houses. 
The  accessibility  of  popular  health  and  pleasure 
resorts  and  the  beauty  of  its  suburbs  add  to  the 
attractions  of  Milwaukee.  Among  these  suburbs 
are  Wauwatosa — the  seat  of  a  group  of  county 
institutions:  almshouse,  hospital,  hospital  for 
the  insane,  chronic  insane  asylum,  and  a  chil- 
dren's home ;  and  West  AUis,  the  seat  of  the  State 
Fair  Grounds.  Milwaukee  is  laid  out  in  broad 
streets,  310  miles  of  which  are  paved  out  of  a 
total  street  mileage  of  520.  The  famous  cream- 
colored  Milwaukee  brick,  which  is  largely  used 
in  the  construction  of  the  buildings,  lends  a  dis- 
tinctive architectural  appearance  to  the  city. 
The  rivers  are  spanned  by  a  number  of  bridges, 
and  there  are  three  viaducts,  one  of  which,  over 
the  Menominee  Valley,  is  nearly  a  mile  long. 

BuDLDiNGS  AND  INSTITUTIONS.  Among  the  most 
prominent  buildings  are  the  city  hall,  occupying 
a  triangular  block  and  commanding  from  its 
tower  a  good  view  of  the  city ;  the  county  court- 
house of  brown  sandstone;  the  United  States 
Government  building,  a  massive  granite  struc- 
ture, erected  at  a  cost  of  $1,750,000;  and  the 
public  library  and  museum.  The  library  has 
175,000  volumes  and  maintains  a  number  of 
branches  in  various  parts  of  the  city.  The  Lay- 
ton  Art  Gallery  is  located  in  a  fine  building  and 
possesses  a  valuable  collection.  The  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  AthensBum,  Light-Horse  Squadron 
Armory,  Saint  PauFs  Church  (Protestant  Epis- 
copal ) ,  Church  of  Gesu  ( Roman  Catholic ) ,  and  the 
Wells  Building,  the  Railway  Exchange  Building, 
and  the  Germania,  Pabst,  Mitchell,  and  New  In- 
surance buildings  also  are  noteworthy  structures. 
A  mile  west  of  the  city  limits  is  a  National  Sol- 
diers' Home,  accommodating  2400  inmates  and 
surrounded  by  400  acres  of  well-kept  grounds.  . 

Milwaukee  is  the  seat  of  Concordia  College 
(Lutheran)  and  Marquette  College  (Roman 
Catholic),  both  opened  in  1881,  and  of  Milwaukee 
Downer  College  for  women,  opened  in  1895,  hav- 
ing been  established  on  the  foundation  of  the 
Milwaukee  Female  College,  which  was  organized 
in  1849.  There  are  also  a  State  Normal  School, 
the  National  German-American  Seminary,  and 
two  medical  colleges,  besides  a  large  number 
of  public  and  parochial  schools.  The  Johnston 
Emergency  Hospital,  the  Milwaukee  General  Hos- 
pital, the  United  States  Marine  Hospital,  and  the 
State  Industrial  Home  for  Girls  are  among  a 
large  number  of  charitable  institutions  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  Owing  to  the  large  population  of 
German  birth  and  descent,  Turner  and  musical 
societies  play  an  unusually  important  part  in  the 
club  and  society  life  of  the  city.  Milwaukee  is 
the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  and  of 
a  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop. 

Parks.  The  public  park  system  comprises 
about  500  acres.  It  includes  Lake  Park  (124 
acres)  on  the  lake,  laid  out  with  fine  drives  and 
bicycle  paths;  Washington  Park  (148  acres) 
with  an  island-studded  lake,  a  dense  growth  of 


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timber,  picnic  and  athletic  grounds,  and  a  deer 
preserve;  Riverside,  Sherman,  Humboldt,  Mitch- 
ell, and  Kosciusko  parks;  and  Juneau  Park  on 
the  lake  front.  The  last  commemorates,  by  its 
name  and  a  monument,  the  founder  of  the  city; 
it  has  also  a  statue  of  Leif  Ericson.  Statues  of 
Washington  and  Bergh,  and  a  Soldiers'  Monu- 
ment are  in  other  sections  of  the  city.  The  city 
water  tower,  near  Lake  Park,  marks  the  North 
Point  Pumping  Station.  There  are  also  several 
parks,  from  1  to  20  acres  in  area,  in  various 
parts  of  the  city.  These  smaller  resorts  are 
owned  by  the  wards  in  which  they  are  situated. 
Forest  Home  Cemetery  is  worthy  of  mention  as 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  United  States, 

Ck)MMEBCE  AND  INDUSTRY.  Milwaukee  is  fa- 
vorably located  with  reference  to  extensive  re- 
sources of  farm,  mine,  and  forest.  It  enjoys 
the  advantages  of  water  transportation  afforded 
by  the  Great  Lakes,  in  addition  to  excellent  rail- 
road facilities.  Among  the  railways  that  enter 
the  city  are  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint 
I'aul,  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Wis- 
consin Central,  and  by  ferry,  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  the  Pere  Marquette.  The  city  has  become 
important  both  as  a  collecting  and  a  distributing 
centre,  and  is  noted  also  for  its  manufacturing 
enterprises.  Its  wholesale  trade  exceeds  $300,- 
000,000  annually.  There  is  an  excellent  harbor 
protected  by  a  breakwater.  In  the  shipments 
eastward  there  is  competition  between  the  lake 
system  of  transportation  and  the  railroads,  while 
a  considerable  traffic  crosses  Lake  Michigan  and 
finishes  its  transit  east  by  rail.  In  the  lake  com- 
merce the  shipments  far  exceed  the  receipts.  The 
principal  commodity  received  from  the  East  is 
coal,  which  reaches  Milwaukee  by  way  of  the 
lakes.  Milwaukee's  foreign  trade  is  comparative- 
ly inconsiderable.  The  following  table  shows  the 
receipts  and  shipments  of  some  of  the  principal 
articles  for  the  nrst  six  months  of  1006: 


Receiptfl 

Shipments 

Floor 

Barrel. 

1,229,G16 

1,566,120 

WhMkt 

Biuhel0 

2,316,ie0 

329,036 

Corn 

♦* 

4,162,460 

3,527,383 

0»U 

44 

4,612,400 

3,697,662 

Barley 

44 

6,880,600 

3,329,393 

Rye 

*• 

420,000 

263,977 

Lumber 

Feet 

28,991 ,000  • 

29,148,000* 

Cold 

Tom 

1,056,776  • 

6,386  • 

*  Lake  trafBo  only. 

With  respect  to  corn  and  oats,  the  city  is 
primarily  a  distributing  rather  than  a  consum- 
ing centre.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  there 
is  a  marked  difference  between  the  receipts  and 
the  shipments  of  barley  and  wheat,  Milwaukee 
being  a  large  consumer  of  these  products  in  the 
milling  and  brewing  industries.  Barley  is  used 
principally  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  notable  industries  of  the  city. 
No  other  American  city  enjoys  so  high  a  reputa- 
tion for  its  beer.  The  value  of  the  malt  liquors 
produced  in  the  census  year  1900  was  $13,899,390, 
and  of  malt  $2,317,870.  In  1905  the  value  of 
Milwaukee's  beer  product  had  increased  to  $23,- 
965,845.  The  manufacture  of  beer,  however,  is 
not  the  most  important  industry  of  the  city.  In 
1905  the  product  of  Milwaukee's  chief  manufac- 
turing industries,  according  to  local  fiifures,  was 
valued  as  follows:  Iron,  steel,  and  metal  products, 
$89,414,390;  clothing,  $35,469,030;  leather  and 
shoes,  $34,635,620;   beer,  $23,965,845;   meat  and 


packing-house  products,  $21,794,715;  flour  and 
mill  products,  $4,272,970.  The  value  of  all 
manufactured  products,  according  to  the  census 
of  1900,  was  $123,786,449.  Statistics  compiled 
by  local  authorities  show  an  immense  increase 
during  the  succeeding  five  years.  In  1905  the 
value  of  manufactured  products  of  all  kinds  was 
$285,435,941,  an  increase  of  over  130  per  cent, 
within  the  space  of  five  years.  The  gain  in  the 
production  of  iron,  steel,  and  metal  products  is 
especially  noteworthy. 

Government.  Milwaukee  is  governed  by  a 
mayor  and  a  board  of  aldermen,  consisting  of  46 
members — two  from  each  ward.  Other  elective 
officers  are  the  treasurer,  comptroller,  attorney, 
justices  of  the  peace,  and  constables.  The  term 
of  all  officers,  except  the  city  attorney,  who  serves 
four  years,  is  two  years.  The  various  administra- 
tive boards  and  heads  of  departments — the  board 
of  public  works,  commissioner  of  health,  board  of 
fire  and  police  commissioners — are  appointed  by 
the  mayor  with  the  approval  of  the  board  of  alder- 
men. The  mayor  also  appoints  the  commissioners 
of  the  public  debt.  The  board  of  school  directors, 
consisting  of  twelve  members,  is  chosen  by  a' 
direct  vote  of  the  people  of  the  city,  the  term  of 
the  members  being  six  years,  and  four  directors 
being  chosen  each  alternate  year.  The  mayor, 
city  clerk,  tax  commissioner,  and  ward  assessors 
constitute  a  board  of  review  for  correction  of 
assessment  rolls.  The  civil  service  system  is  un- 
der the  supervision  of  a  board  of  civil  service 
commissioners.  The  bonded  debt  of  Milwaukee  in 
1904  was  $7,256,750,  and  the  floating  debt  $1,812,- 
791,  making  a  total  debt  of  $9,069,541.  The  legal 
borrowing  limit  is  6  per  cent,  of  the  average 
assessed  valuation  for  five  years.  The  legal  basis 
of  assessment  is  the  full  value  of  both  personal 
and  real  property,  but  in  practice  the  basis  is 
about  70  per  cent.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real 
and  personal  property  in  1904  was  $184,321,691. 
The  tax  rate  was  1.75  per  cent.  The  actual  in- 
come of  the  city,  including  proceeds  from  the  sale 
of  bonds,  was  $5,663,453.  The  expenditures  for 
maintenance  and  operation,  including  cost  of  new 
buildings,  etc.,  were  $5,370,905;  the  main  items 
being  $984,252  for  schools,  $388,601  for  the  police 
department,  $521,663  for  the  fire  department, 
$321,567  for  interest  on  debt,  and  $158,333  for 
the  water-works.  Milwaukee  owns  and  operates 
its  water- works,  which  were  built  in  1872.  The 
system  has  cost  $5,068,443^  and  now  includes  360 
miles  of  mains. 

Population.  Milwaukee  ranks  fifth  among  the 
Lake  cities  and  fourteenth  in  the  United  States. 
The  population  by  decades  has  been  as  follows: 
1840,  1712;  1850,  20,061;  1860,  45,246;  1870, 
71,440;  1880,  115,587;  1890,204,468;  1900,285,- 
315;  1905,  312,948.  There  is  a  large  foreign-bom 
population,  amounting  in  1900  to  102,647,  of 
whom  63,952  were  Germans. 

History.  Probably  as  early  as  1790,  Jean 
Baptist  Mirandeau,  an  emigrant  from  France,  set- 
tled within  the  present  limits  of  Milwaukee, 
where  a  Potawatami  village  of  this  name  was 
then  situated.  Here  he  lived  continuously  until 
his  death  in  1819,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time 
being  the  only  white  man  in  the  vicinity.  In  1818 
Solomon  Juneau  came  hither  and  established  a 
trading  station,  but  a  town  was  not  laid  out 
until  1835.  In  1836  there  was  a  big  'boom,*  and 
settlers  came  in  considerable  numbers;  but  in 
the  following  year  a  reaction  set  in  and  retarded 


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MILWAUKEE. 


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MIMIOBY. 


the  growth  of  the  village  for  several  years.  In 
1847,  with  a  population  of  12,000,  Milwaukee 
was  chartered  as  a  city,  and  Juneau  was  elected 
the  first  mayor. 

Consult:  Wheeler,  Chronicler  of  Milwaukee 
(Milwaukee,  1861)  ;  Buck,  Pioneer  History  of 
Milwaukee  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1876-84),  the  third  vol- 
ume of  which  is  entitled  Milwaukee  Under  the 
Charter, 

ISILYVKOYE^  Pavel  Nikolaievitch  (1859 
— ).  A  Russian  historian  and  political  leader, 
bom  near  St.  Petersburg.  He  studied  in  Moscow, 
and  was  tutor  in  history  at  the  university  from 
1886  to  1895.  Banished  because  of  his  liberal 
views,  he  became  professor  of  history  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Sofia,  Bulgaria,  in  1897-98,  and  from 
1901  to  1905  was  on  the  faculty  of  the  university 
of  Chicago.  He  returned  to  Russia  in  that  year, 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  movement 
following  the  St.  Petersburg  massacre  of  January 
22,  was  imprisoned  for  some  time,  was  active  in 
forming  the  powerful  Union  of  Unions  compris- 
ing the  professional  classes  in  the  Empire,  and 
was  elected  to  the  first  Duma  as  a  Constitutional 
Democrat.  His  election  was  annuled,  but  he 
remained  nevertheless  the  most  prominent  leader 
of  his  party  while  the  Duma  was  in  session 
(1906).  He  wrote:  Main  Currents  of  Russian 
Historical  Thought  (1893-95);  Sketches  of  the 
History  of  Russian  Culture  (1895-96)  ;  and  Rus- 
sia and.  Its  Crisis  ( 1905 ) . 

MILYITTIN,  mll-y5?5'tln,  Dmitri,  Count 
(1816 — ).  A  Russian  general  and  military  re- 
former. He  was  born  in  Moscow;  entered  the 
army  in  his  youth,  and  was  appointed  chief  of 
staff  in  the  Caucasus  in  1856.  In  1862,  after  sub- 
mitting his  programme  for  a  reform  of  the  Rus- 
sian army,  he  was  made  Minister  of  War.  In 
1898  he  was  made  field-marshal.  Milyutin  wrote 
on  the  campaign  of  1839  in  Northern  Daghestan 
(1856),  and  on  Suvaroff's  campaign  of  1799 
against  France  (1856). 

MHiYITTIN,  Nikolai  (1818-72).  A  Russian 
statesman,  brother  of  Count  Dmitri.  In  Alex- 
ander II.'s  reforms  he  took  a  prominent  part, 
especially  in  the  reorganization  of  credit,  in  the 
introduction  of  provincial  institutions  centring 
on  the  mtr,  in  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  and 
in  agrarian  commissions  in  Lithuania  in  1863 
and  in  Poland  in  1864.  He  was  Secretary  of 
State  for  Poland  from  1866  to  1868.  He  wrote 
on  Russian  military  statistics.  Consult  Leroy- 
Beaulieu,  Un  homme  d^Hat  russe  (Paris,  1884). 

MIMAMSA,  m^-m^m^sA  (Skt.  mimamsa,  in- 
vestigation, discussion).  The  collective  name 
of  two  of  the  six  orthodox  systems  of  Hindu  phi- 
losophy. The  two  Mimamsa  divisions  are:  first, 
the  PQrva-mimdms/l,  Trior  Inquiry*  or  Karma- 
mim6ths&y  ^Inquiry  concerning  Works';  the  sec- 
ond is  Uttara-mimdihsdf  'Later  Inquiry*  or  Brah- 
ma-mimamsd,  'Inquiry  concerning  the  Supreme 
Spirit,*  or  more  commonly  simply  Veddnta 
(q.v.).  The  former  deals  chiefly  with  the  Vedic 
ritual  and  its  significance,  the  latter  with  specu- 
lations as  to  the  nature  of  the  Supreme  Spirit. 

The  reputed  founder  of  the  system  is  Jaimini, 
and  the  principles  are  embodied  in  a  series  of 
HAtraSf  or  aphorisms,  in  twelve  books,  discussing 
the  sacred  ceremonies  of  the  Veda  and  the  merit 
accruing  from  their  proper  performance.  The 
oldest  extant  commentary  on  this  obscure  work 


is  the  Bhdshya  of  Sabara-Svamin,  whose  date  is 
placed  long  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  This  com- 
position in  turn  was  critically  annotated,  about 
A.D.  700,  by  the  great  Mimamsa  authority,  Ku- 
marila.  An  early  treatise  on  the  subject  was  an 
essay  on  the  Mimamsa  by  Colebrooke  in  1826, 
reprinted  in  his  Miscellaneous  Essays  (London, 
1873).  Consult:  Garbe,  Philosophy  of  Ancient 
India  (Chicago,  1897) ;  Mtiller,  The  Six  Systems 
of  Ancient  Indian  Philosophy  (New  York,  1899)  ; 
Cowell  and  Gough,  The  Sarva-DarSana-Samgraha 
of  Madhava  Achdrya  (London,  1894). 

MIME  (Lat.  mimuSf  from  Gk.  /it/uos,  mtmos, 
imitator,  actor,  sort  of  drama.  A  species  of 
popular  comedy  among  the  ancients,  m  which 
scenes  of  common  life  were  represented  with  imi- 
tative gestures  and  dancing,  and  with  jocose 
dialogue  more  or  less  freely  improvised.  It  was 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Sophron  of  Syra- 
cuse, who  wrote  in  the  Doric-Greek  dialect. 
Mimes  were  a  favorite  amusement  of  convivial 
parties,  the  guests  themselves  being  commonly 
the  performers.  In  the  hands  of  such  writers 
as  Laberius  and  Publilius  Syrus  the  mime  in- 
cluded much  homely  wisdom  in  the  shape  of 
familiar  saws  and  proverbial  lines.  In  the 
theatres^  mimes  came  to  be  used  later  as  after- 
pieces. The  actors,  themselves  called  mimes 
(mimi),  appeared  in  front  of  the  stage,  'without 
buskins  or  masks,  but  attired  in  patch-work 
cloaks  ( centunculi ) ,  as  were  the  harlequins 
(q.v.)  of  a  later  day.  Consult:  Teuffel  and 
Schwabe,  History  of  Roman  Literature  (Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1900)  ;  Friedlftnder,  Sittenge- 
schichte  Roms,  vol.  ii.  (Leipzig,  1890);  Patin, 
Etudes  sur  la  podsie  latine  (Paris,  1875)  ;  Grj^- 
sar,  Dcr  romische  Mimus  (Vienna,  1854). 

MIM^EOOBAPH.     See  Coptino  Machines. 

MIMETITE,  a  lead  arsenate  and  chloride 
closely  resembling  pyromorphite,  occurring  in 
yellow,  brown,  or  white  hexagonal  crystals. 

MIMESIS.     See  Obthographt,  Figures  of. 

MIMICBY  (from  mimiCy  from  Lat.  mimicus, 
mime).  A  form  of  protective  resemblance  by 
which  one  species  so  closely  resembles  another 
in  external  form  and  coloring  as  to  be  mistaken 
for  it,  although  the  two  may  not  be  really  allied 
and  often  belong  to  distinct  families  or  orders. 
As  early  as  1746  Rttsei  von  Rosenhof  in  his 
Insekten-Belustigungen  drew  attention  to  the 
resemblance  which  geometric  caterpillars,  and 
also  certain  moths  when  in  repose,  present  to  dry 
twigs,  and  thus  conceal  themselves;  and  after- 
wards Erasmus  Darwin,  in  his  Zoonomia  (1794), 
sketched  out  the  subject. 

Bates's  Theory  of  Mimicby.  These  facts  re- 
ceived little  attention,  however,  until  1862,  when 
Bates  proposed  a  general  theory  to  accoimt  for 
them.  He  found  during  many  years*  residence  in 
Brazil  strikingly  colored  butterflies  belonging  to 
the  brilliantly  colored  family  Heliconidse,  and 
associated  with  them  and  indistinguishable,  ex- 
cept on  close  examination,  certain  butterflies  be- 
longing to  the  structurally  very  different  family 
of  Pieridfle;  also  certain  swallow-tail  butterflies 
and  day-flying  moths.  None  of  the  mimicking 
insects  were  as  abundant  as  the  Heliconidee  they 
resembled.  The  Heliconidae  have  an  offensive 
taste  and  odor,  in  consequence  of  which  they  are 
immune  from  attacks  by  insectivorous  animals; 
they  fly  deliberately,  and  they  make  no  attempt  at 
concealment   although    their   bright,   distinctive 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIKICBY. 


528 


MIMICBY. 


colors  permit  them  to  be  recognized  and  avoided, 
as  obnoxious.  If  any  other  butterflies  in  the 
same  region  were  to  become  indistinguishable 
from  the  Heliconidce  they  would  profit  by  a  cor- 


iriiriCBT  IN  IKBBCTS. 


MIMICBY  nr  BUTTEBFLIBS. 

a,  Methona  psIdU  (Heliconida);   b,  Lept&lla  orise  (Pie- 
ridsB). 

responding  immunity  from  attack.  The  theory 
assumes  that  some  of  the  Pieridse  happened  at 
the  start  to  resemble  the  primitive  Heliconid« 
and  received  a  partial  immunity  as  a  result ;  that 
such  PieridsB  alone  survived  and  produced  de- 
scendants of  like 
character ;  and 
that  a  selection 
of  the  most  heli- 
conid-like  of 
these  followed. 
By  a  continua- 
tion of  this  proc- 
ess the  pierids 
and  the  other 
Lepidoptera 
gai  n  ed  their 
present  close  re- 
ft. A  leaf-like  grasshopper  {Pbyl-  semblance  to  the 
Hum  BicclfoUum) ;  b,  a  mantis  (a  Heliconidse.  The 
canthops)  which  feeds  on  Insects  f  Uporv  ia  a  broad 
found  among  dry  leaves,  and  Is  ^^^^^Y  >8  a  oroaa 
benefited  by  resembling  them.  one,  ana  accounts 

for  cases  of  mim- 
icry in  other  groups  of  Lepidoptera  as  well  as  in 
other  orders  of  animals.  It  is  not  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  go  to  South  America  for  examples  of  mim- 
icry. In  North  America,  as  well  as  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  occurs  the  genus  Danais,  which  is  also  a 
protected  form.  Our  common  American  species 
Anoaia  plexippus  is  closely  mimicked  by  Basil- 
archia  disippuSy  a  butterfly  of  rather  remote 
affinities.  Three  genera  of  Danaidte  in  tropical 
Asia,  Eupltea,  Danais,  and  Hestia,  are  very  dif- 
ferent, but  are  all  protected.  In  each  genus  cer- 
tain species  are  mimicked  with  extraordinary  ac- 
curacy by  species  of  the  genus  Papilio. 

But  mimicry  is  not  confined  to  the  lepidoptera. 
Especially  well  protected  wasps  and  bees  have 
many  imitators,  and  there  are  cases  of  mimicry 
even  in  vertebrates. 

MClleb's  Theoby  of  Mimicby.  In  1879  Fritz 
MUller.  as  the  result  of  many  years*  obsen^ation  in 
Southern  Brazil,  proposed  a  modification  of  and 
addition  to  the  foregoing  explanation  of  Bates. 
Bates  himself,  when  first  describing  the  cases 
he  observed,  had  suggested  that  they  might  be 
due  to  some  forms  of  parallel  variation  depend- 
ent on  climatic  influences,  and  Wallace   {Island 


Life,  p.  255)  adduced  other  cases  of  coincident  lo- 
cal  modifications  of  color,  which  did  not  appear 
to  be  explicable  by  any  form  of  mimicry.  Miiller'a 
theory  is  founded  on  the  assumption  that  insect- 
eating  birds  only  learn  when  young  and  by  ex- 
perience to  distinguish  the  edible  from  the 
inedible  butterflies,  and  in  doing  so  necessarily 
sacrifice  a  certain  number  of  distasteful  butter- 
flies. **  Now,"  says  MttUer,  "if  two  distasteful 
species  are  sufficiently  alike  to  be  mistaken  for 
one  another,  the  experience  acquired  at  the  ex- 
pense of  one  of  them  will  likewise  benefit  the 
other;  both  species  together  will  only  have  to 
contribute  the  same  number  of  victims  which 
each  of  them  would  have  to  furnish  if  they  were 
diflferent.  If  both  species  are  equally  common, 
then  both  will  derive  the  same  benefit  from  their 
resemblance — each  will  save  half  the  number  of 
victims  which  it  has  to  furnish  to  the  inexperi- 
ence of  its  foes.  But  if  one  species  is  commoner 
than  the  other,  then  the  benefit  is  unequally  di- 
vided, and  the  proportional  advantage  for  each 
of  the  two  species  which  arises  from  their  re- 
semblance is  as  the  square  of  their  relative  num- 
bers." Wallace,  who  fully  accepts  MUller*s 
theory,  in  his  statement  of  the  theory  (Dar- 
winism, p.  263)  adds:  "But  if  the  two  species  are 
very  unequal  in  numbers,  the  benefit  will  be 
comparatively  slight  for  the  more  abundant  spe- 
cies, but  very  great  for  the  rare  one.  To  the 
latter  it  may  make  all  the  difference  between 
safety  and  destruction." 

The  facts  of  mimicry  are  very  remarkable ;  as 
to  causes  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion. 
The  theory  of  Bates  is  accepted  by  many — also 
that  of  MUller.  Others,  like  Eimer,  ElwVs,  and 
Piepers,  deny  that  the  mimicry  is  due  to  natural 
selection,  but  rather  to  definitely  directed  evolu- 
tion, the  result  of  "outward  infiuences  such  as 
climate,  nutriment,  etc.,  acting  on  a  given  con- 
stitution." Others,  rejecting  the  Mfillerian  theory, 
accept  Bates's  facts,  but  ascribe  more  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  local  environment,  such  as  the 
action  of  light,  heat,  dryness  or  moisture,  etc., 
yet  allowing  that  in  the  end  natural  selection 
may  act  as  a  preservative  agent. 

The  objections  to  the  Milllerian  theory  are 
the  following:  Neither  Bates  nor  Wallace 
himself,  though  each  lived  for  several  years 
and  collected  butterflies  in  the  American  tropics, 
ever  actually  saw  a  bird  chase  and  devour  a  but- 
terfly, although  insectivorous  birds  are  said  by 
them  to  be  abundant  in  Brazil  and  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  Piepers,  Pryor,  Skertchley,  and 
other  tropical  naturalists  of  long  and  intelligent 
experience  agree  that  very  rarely  has  any  bird 
been  seen  even  to  chase  a  butterfly;  while  Judd 
concludes  from  an  examination  of  stomachs  of 
insectivorous  birds  that  none  of  the  American 
birds  feeds  upon  butterflies  "during  any  month 
of  the  year  to  the  extent  of  one-tenth  of  1  per 
cent,  of  its  food."  Ornithologists  confirm  this 
abstinence  from  eating  butterflies.  From  these 
and  numerous  other  cases  it  appears  that  butter- 
flies enjoy  a  peculiar  immunity  from  the  attacks 
of  birds. 

It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  it  is  difficult  to 
tell  which  is  the  model  and  which  the  mimic.  On 
the  Solomon  Islands  a  dark  brown  Eupliea  and 
a  Danais.  both  inedible,  ivere  accompanied  by  a 
Hypolimnas  butterfly,  also  inedible,  all  three 
genera  being  avoided  by  birds  both  in  the  larva 
and  imago  stages.    The  fact,  says  Packard,  that 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIMICBY. 


529 


MINJEAKS. 


the  mimickers  belong  to  more  primitive  groups 
than  the  models,  and  that  they  are  as  a  rule  rare, 
and  apparently  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  indi- 
cates that  they  are  the  relics  of  an  earlier  geo- 
logical period,  and  having  been  exposed  to  the 
same  local  and  modifying  changes  in  the  environ- 
ment as  the  models,  have  thus  been  preserved. 
Most  of  the  cases  of  mimicry  are  really  cases  of 
convergence  produced  by  similar  conditions  of 
life.  Moreover,  the  ground  colors  of  butterflies 
are  restricted  in  range  to  reds,  shades  of  brown, 
yellow,  white,  and  more  rarely  blue  and  green. 
Also  the  patterns  are  limited;  nature  has  re- 
peated them  over  and  over  again.  It  is  no  won- 
der that  there  should  be  apparent  cases  of 
mimicry,  in  regions  so  similar  as  the  hot  and 
damp  forest-covered  plains  of  Brazil,  or  the  up- 
land hot  plains  of  Southern  Africa,  and  the  deep 
forests  of  the  East  Indies. 

As  authorities  differ  so  greatly  in  their  inter- 
pretations of  the  facts,  the  subject  may  be  con- 
sidered an  open  one.  That  the  bad-tasting  but- 
terflies are  not  eaten  by  birds  any  more  than 
hairy  and  bad-tasting  caterpillars,  is  an  acknowl- 
edged fact;  that  the  edible  species  mimicking 
and  flying  with  them  are  in. very  rare  cases  de- 
voured by  birds,  may  be  allowed,  but  its  impor- 
tance as  a  factor  in  evolution  has  been  in  some 
quarters  unduly  magnified.  For  other  cases  of 
mimicr}%  see  Pigment;  Pbotective  Coloration 
AND  Resemblance. 

Bibliography.  Bates,  "Insect  Fauna  of  the 
Amazon  Valley,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Linnean 
Society,  vol.  xxiii.  (London,  1862)  ;  Wallace,  Dar- 
winism (London,  1891);  Wallace,  Tropical  Nor 
ture  (London,  1891)  ;  F.  MUller,  "Ituna  and  Thy- 
ridia:  A  Remarkable  Case  of  Mimicry  in  But- 
terflies," in  Kosmos,  May,  1879  (trans,  by  Mel- 
dola  in  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society 
of  London,  1879,  p.  20)  ;  "Mimicry  in  Butterflies 
Explained  by  Natural  Selection,"  in  American 
Naturalist,  vol.  x.  (Salem,  1876);  R.  Trimen, 
"On  some  Remarkable  Mimetic  Analogies  Among 
African  Butterflies,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Lin- 
nean Society,  vol.  xxvi.  (London,  1867)  ;  Mar- 
shall and  Poulton,  "'Bionomics  of  South  African 
Insects,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Entomological 
Society  (London,  1902)  ;  Poulton,  Colors  of  Ani- 
mals (London,  1890)  ;  Beddard,  Animal  Colora- 
tion (New  York,  1896). 

TJ/rrMTTt,  m§^mlr.  A  water  giant  of  Norse 
mythology,  who  dwelt  beneath  the  world-ash 
Yggdrasil  and  guarded  a  spring,  considered  the 
source  of  memory  and  wisdom  and  called  Mimir's 
well.  Odin  in  his  wanderings  asked  for  a  drink 
from  the  well  and  was  obliged  in  exchange  to 
give  one  of  his  eyes,  the  moon,  which  Mimir 
sank  deep  in  the  spring. 

MIMNEB^MUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ml/iwep/Mt) 
OF  Colophon  (or  Smyrna).  A  Greek  poet,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventh  century. 
His  book  Nanno  was  so  named  from  a  flute- 
player  whom  he  had  loved  in  vain;  it  is  a  col- 
lection of  elegies  that  were  models  for  later  poets 
in  sustained  calmness  and  tender  sentimentality 
as  opposed  to  the  political  elegiac  verse  previous- 
ly in  vogue.  Mimnermus  is  credited  with  having 
brought  the  elegy  back  to  its  original  design  of 
expressing  personal  grief,  and  his  musical  tem- 
perament found  it  a  fitting  medium. 

MIHSy  Fort.    See  Fort  Mims,  Massacre  of. 


MIN,  mSn.  An  Egyptian  deity,  the  local  god 
of  Panopolis  or  Akhmim  (q.v.)  and  of  Koptos 
( q.v. ) .  He  was  the  god  of  agriculture,  typifying 
the  generative  forces  of  nature,  and  annual  har- 
vest festivals  were  held  in  his  honor.  He  is  gen- 
erally represented  as  an  ithy phallic  human  figure 
wearing  a  headdress  of  two  enormous  feathers, 
and  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  flail.  Behind 
him  is  a  shrine  with  trees  upon  it  or  near  it. 
His  sacred  animal  was  the  ram.  In  later  times 
he  was  often  identified  with  Ammon-R^.  The 
Greeks  identified  him  with  their  god  Pan.  Con- 
sult: Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians (New  York,  1897)  ;  Erman,  Life  in  Ancient 
Egypt   (London,  1894). 

MI^A,  or  MNA  (Lat.  mina,  from  Gk.  fipci, 
mna,  measure  of  weight,  sum  of  money,  from 
Heb.  nUlneh,  weight,  from  nUin&h,  to  divide, 
measure  out).  A  Greek  weight  and  sum  of 
money,  equal  to  100  drachmas  (q.v.),  and  the 
sixtieth  part  of  a  talent.  The  value  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  talent  used.  The  Attic  mina  was 
worth  about  $18.  It  was  used  for  purposes  of 
account,  and  was  never  minted  as  a  coin. 

MINA;  me'nA,  Francisco  Javier  (1789- 
1817) .  A  Spanish  soldier.  He  was  bom  at  Otan 
in  Navarre,  took  part  with  his  uncle  in  the 
guerrilla  warfare  of  1808-09  against  the  French, 
but  was  taken  prisoner  in  1810,  and  detained 
four  years  at  Vincennes.  In  1814  he  was  in 
arms  against  Ferdinand  VII.,  but  was  forced  to 
flee  to  France.  Thence  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  interested  himself  in  the  cause  of  the  Mexican 
patriots,  and  with  the  aid  of  some  prominent 
Englishmen  organized  an  expedition  and  sailed 
for  America.  In  the  United  States  he  received 
sympathy  and  substantial  support,  and  took  200 
volunteers  with  him,  arriving  at  Galveston  in 
November,  1816.  Soon  afterwards,  crossing  over 
to  New  Orleans,  he  obtained  more  assistance,  and 
after  being  reinforced  by  100  Americans  at  Gal- 
veston, landed  at  Soto  Marina,  Province  of 
Tamaulipas,  April,  1817.  At  the  head  of  300 
men  he  defeated  Generals  Armiilan  and  Or- 
dofiez,  and  took  the  towns  of  Le<5n  and  Guana- 
juato with  the  fortress  of  Sombrero.  Deserted 
by  most  of  his  followers,  he  was  surprised  on 
October  17th  by  an  overwhelming  force,  taken 
to  Mexico  and  shot,  November  11,  1817. 

MINA  BIBD.    See  Mtna  Bird. 

MIN.2/ANS.  A  Yemenite  people  who  played 
an  important  part  in  the  early  history  of  Arabia. 
The  native  name  was  MaHn;  hence  the  Greek 
MecKitbt  or  Mtratbc.  It  is  possible  that  the  name 
was  originally  Ma'dn,  which  has  been  identified 
by  some  scholars  with  Magdn,  a  country  south- 
east of  Babylonia,  referred  to  as  early  as  the  in- 
scriptions of  Naram  Sin  of  Agade  in  the  fourth 
millennium  B.C.  and  Gudea  of  Lagash  c.3000  B.C. 
But  the  identification  is  doubtful.  There  is  good 
reason  for  supposing  that  the  Minseans  are 
mentioned  in  Judges  x.  12;  in  I.  Chron.  iv.  41,  in 
connection  with  the  Amalekites  against  whom 
the  tribe  of  Simeon  made  a  raid  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah ;  in  II.  Chron.  xx.  1  among  the  enemies 
of  Jehoshaphat;  in  II.  Chron.  xxvi.  7  in  con- 
nection with  Philistines  and  Arabs  in  the  days 
of  Uzziah;  and  in  Job  ii.  11,  where  the  Greek 
rendering  suggests  that  Zophar  was  a  Minspan. 
Wliile  there  are  many  references  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  to  Kedar,  Nebayoth,  Aribi,  and 
Sheba   (q.v.),  there  is  no  mention  of  a  kingdom 


Digitized  by  LrpOOQlC 


MINJBANa 


530 


MINJBAKS. 


of  if  a'm.  Among  classical  writers,  Eratosthenes 
(c.276-196  B.C.),  Agatharchides  (c.l20  B.C.), 
Strabo  (died  c.24  a.d.),  Pliny  (a.d.  23-79),  the 
Periplus  Maris  Erythrcei  (c.66-57  a.d.),  and 
Ptolemy  (second  century  a.d.),  speak  of  the  Min- 
seans  as  one  of  many  peoples  in  Southwest  Arabia, 
but  have  no  knowledge  concerning  the  earlier  his- 
tory of  this  nation.  The  fact  that  there  was  an 
extensive  and  flourishing  Minsean  kingdom  in 
Arabia  is  known  only  through  the  native  inscrip- 
tions. These  have  been  secured  chiefly  through  the 
personal  efforts  of  Hal6vjr,  Doughty,  Euting,  and 
Glaser.  Many  of  these  inscriptions  still  remain 
unpublished.  Most  of  them  are  very  brief  and 
are  readily  interpreted,  but  a  few  of  the  longer 
ones  present  considerable  difficulty.  As  to  the 
period  from  which  these  inscriptions  come  there 
was  practical  imanimity  among  scholars  until 
1889.  It  seemed  impossible  that  they  could  be 
older  than  the  earlist  SabsBan  inscriptions  (see 
Sab^ans),  and  it  was  supposed  that  the  Min- 
sean and  Sabiean  kingdoms  flourished  side  by 
side.  Such  eminent  scholars  as  D.  H.  Mtiller, 
Mordtmann,  Hartmann,  and  Eduard  Meyer  still 
adhere  to  this  view,  granting  that  some  may  be 
as  old  as  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  but  maintaining 
that  the  bulk  of  them  were  written  nearer  the 
era  that  begins  in  B.C.  115.  They  point  out  that 
while  the  earlier  inscriptions  of  the  Sabsean 
officials  known  as  mukarrib  are  written  boustro- 
phedon,  there  is  no  Minsean  inscription  thus 
running  both  ways;  that  in  the  famous  inscrip- 
tion, Hal6vy  635,  there  seems  to  be  a  reference 
to  the  Medes  which  would  place  it  in  the  sixth 
century;  that  Eratosthenes  apparently  knows  of 
Minsean  kings  reigning  at  Kama,  and  that  the 
name  Ptolemy  occurs  in  a  Minsean  inscription 
on  an  Egyptian  sarcophagus.  Glaser,  however, 
in  1889,  presented  strong  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  Minsean  kingdom  preceded  the  Sabsean; 
and  Hommel,  Winckler,  Schmidt,  Derenbourg, 
Margoliouth,  and  Weber  have  advanced  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  his  position.  The  silence  of  5ie 
Sabsean  inscriptions  concerning  a  Minsean  king- 
dom would  be  very  strange,  if  these  nations  were 
for  a  long  time  powerful  rivals;  and  the  casual 
references  to  Sheba  in  Minsean  inscriptions  do 
not  seem  to  harmonize  with  the  position  of  this 
power  in  the  centuries  preceding  B.C.  115.  That 
the  Assyrians  make  no  mention  of  Ma* in,  while 
they  are  frequently  occupied  with  Sheba,  ap- 
parently indicates  the  decline  of  the  former  and 
the  rising  importance  of  the  latter.  In  its  most 
flourishing  period  the  Minsean  kingdom  extended 
far  to  the  north,  as  is  evident  not  only  from 
the  inscriptions  found  at  El-Oela,  but  also  from 
the  mention  of  the  MaHnu  Muzran  in  Hal^vy 
635.  So  extensive  a  kingdom  with  its  centre  in 
the  South  Arabian  Jauf,  where  its  great  cities 
Ma'in.  Kamawu,  and  Yathil  were,  can  scarcely 
have  existed  side  by  side  with  a  strong  Sabsean 
kingdom  with  the*  neighboring  Marib  for  its 
capital.  A  long  inscription  found  at  Sirwah, 
unfortunately  not  yet  published,  according  to 
competent  testimony,  describes  the  destruction 
of  the  Minsean  kingdom  by  a  Sabsean  makrib 
about  B.C.  550.  Sargon's  (b.c.  721-705)  contem- 
porary Itamar  is  not  yet  designated  as  king. 
As  Mtiller  has  clearly  proved  that  the  mukarrib 
preceded  the  kings  of  Sheba,  the  inference  seems 
necessary  that  the  Minsean  kingdom  flourished 
before  the  Sabsean  mukarrib  period  and  fell 
before  the   rise  of  the   Sabsean   kingdom.     The 


Miniean  system  of  writing  shows  in  many  re* 
spects  a  closer  afllnitv  to  the  earlier  rather  than 
the  later  Sabsean  script;  and  the  oldest  Sabsean 
inscriptions  indicate  a  long  period  of  develop- 
ment of  the  South  Arabian  system  of  writing. 
Hence  the  fact  that  the  earliest  Sabsean  in- 
scriptions are  written  boustrophedon  does  not 
show  that  this  script  has  been  recently 
introduced.  A  comparison  of  the  language 
clearly  manifests  the  higher  age  of  the  Mi- 
nsean which  has  preserved  the  8  in  the  causa- 
tive and  in  the  pronominal  suffixes  against 
the  h  in  the  Sabsean.  The  identification  of  the 
Madhay  as  Medes  is  extremely  doubtful.  That 
the  Minseans  continued  to  exist  as  a  people  long 
after  their  power  in  Arabia  had  passed  to  others 
is  evident  from  the  Greek  writers.  Whether 
Eratosthenes  drew  upon  older  sources  accessible 
to  him  in  Alexandria,  was  imperfectly  informed, 
or  actually  knew  of  petty  kings  reigning  in 
Kama  in  his  day,  no  scholar  would  seriously 
maintain  that  the  power  reflected  in  the  Minsean 
inscriptions  could  have  been  exercised  from 
Kama  in  the  third  century  B.C.  If  the  sarcoph- 
agus inscription  is  really  Minsean  rather  than 
Hadramautian  and  Talmith  is  Ptolemy,  its  con- 
tent shows  not  more  clearly  the  survival  of 
ancient  forms,  along  with  some  very  late  ones, 
among  the  Minseans  of  the  period  than  the  ab- 
sence of  any  important  Minsean  kingdom  at  that 
time.  It  thereiore  seems  exceedingly  probable 
that  the  twenty-six  kings  of  Ma*in  known  from 
the  inscriptions  reigned  before  there  was  any 
Sabsean  king  in  Marib.  As  it  is  scarcely  credi- 
ble that  chance  should  have  given  us  the  name 
of  all  Minsean  kings  or  that  the  twenty-six 
names  represent  an  unbroken  succession,  it  would 
be  hazardous  to  infer  that  the  earliest  of  them 
cannot  have  reigned  more  than  four  or  five  cen- 
turies before  the  last.  There  may  have  been 
more  than  one  dynasty.  As  among  the  Sabseans, 
so  in  the  kingdom  of  Jfo'w  each  year  seems  to 
have  been  named  after  two  fnukarrib  or  high 
officials,  like  the  limmi  in  Assyria,  the  archons 
in  Athens,  the  ephors  in  Sparta,  or  the  consuls 
in  Rome.  The  absolute  age  of  the  Minsean  king- 
dom cannot  be  determined.  The  early  occurrence 
of  numerous  place-names  in  Southern  Syria  and 
Northwestern  Arabia  which  seem  to  have  been 
transferred  from  Yemen,  the  raids  of  Minseans 
upon  Palestine  in  the  period  of  the  Judges,  and 
the  essentially  Yemenite  character  of  the  tradi- 
tions brought  by  clans  afterwards  forming  a  part 
of  the  people  of  Israel,  from  the  North  Arabian 
Muzri  (see  Plagues  of  Egypt)  to  Canaan,  ren- 
der it  probable  that  kings  of  MaHn  extended  their 
power  to  the  borders  of  Palestine  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century  B.C.  The  Minseans  were  to  a 
large  extent  a  settled  people  living  in  cities,  cul- 
tivating the  soil,  worshiping  in  sanctuaries. 
Their  chief  gods  were  a  male  deity,  Athtar  (see 
ISHTAR),  the  solar  goddess  Shamsi,  Wadd,  and 
Ankarih.  They  had  priests  and  priestesses,  hiero- 
dules  and  sacred  prostitutes,  a  sacrificial  cult, 
and  many  rules  of  taboo.  A  deeper  religious 
sense  is  apparent  than  in  the  period  of  skepticism 
and  syncretism  preceding  Mohammed. 

The  language  of  the  Minieans  is  only  dia- 
lectically  different  from  the  Katabanian,  Hadra- 
mautian, and  Sabsean,  and  is  closely  akin  to  the 
Ethiopic  and  the  classical  Arabic.  As  to  the 
origin  of  the  system  of  writing  used  by  the 
South  Arabian  peoples,  it  is  supposed  by  Uai^yy 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINJEAKS. 


581 


MINABET. 


and  Lidzbarski  to  have  been  formed  from  the 
Phoenician  alphabet  by  a  modification  of  certain 
signs  to  denote  kindred  sounds  and  by  changes 
rendering  the  signs  generally  symmetrical.  There 
is  indeed  good  reason  to  suppose  that  many  new 
signs  were  added  in  Arabia  by  slight  changes  in 
those  already  existing,  and  that  the  characters 
were  given  a  squarer  form.  But  there  are  some 
letters  that  are  so  different  from  those  of  the 
Phoenician  alphabet  as  to  raise  the  question 
whether  other  extraneous  influences  may  not  have 
been  at  work.  Whatever  the  relations  of  the 
various  Egypto-Libyan,  Mycensean,  and  Anato- 
lian alphabets,  the  contact  of  the  Minseans  with 
Egypt  and  the  Philistine  coast  makes  it  probable 
that  it  was  in  the  northwest  rather  than  on  the 
Persian  Gulf  that  this  alphabet  grew  up.  A 
tablet  foimd  at  Lachish  shows  that  not  only 
cuneiform  signs,  but  also  the  Mycenaean  signary 
was  to  some  extent  used  in  the  Philistine  cities  in 
the  fourteenth  century  B.C.  Signs  have  been 
found  on  Egyptian  pottery  that  can  scarcely 
have  originated  in  the  hieroglyphs  that  gave  rise 
to  the  hieratic  script.  It  may  have  b^n  from 
Gaza  that  the  Minseans  brought  the  prototype 
signs  of  their  alphabet.  As  our  oldest  inscrip- 
tions in  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  dating  from  the 
ninth  century,  show  that  this  system  of  writing 
must  have  been  long  in  use,  so  our  earliest 
Minsean  inscriptions  indicate  that  the  South 
Arabian  alphabet  already  had  a  long  and  as  yet 
quite  obscure  history  of  development. 

BiBLiooRAPHT.  Osiander,  **Zur  himjarischen 
Altertumskunde,"  in  Zeitachrift  der  deutschen 
morgerddndiachen  Oesellschaft,  vol.  xix.  (Leip- 
zig, 1865)  ;  Hal6vy,  Etudes  sah^ennes^  (Paris, 
1875)  ;  D.  H.  MUller,  Die  Burgen  und  Schlosaer 
Siid-ArahienSy  i.,  ii.  (Vienna,  1879-81)  ;  id.,  Epi- 
graphische    Denkmaler    aus    Arabien    (Vienna, 

1889)  ;  id.,  SUd-arahische  Alterthumer  (Vienna, 
1899)  ;  Eduard  Glaser,  Skizze  der  Oeschichte 
Arabiens  (Munich,  1889)  ;  id.,  Oeschichte  und 
Geographic  Arabiens    (i.,  ib.,   1889;   ii.,   Berlin, 

1890)  ;  id..  Die  Abessynier  in  Arabien  und  Afrika 
(Munich,  1895)  ;  Hommel,  Aufsdtze  und  Abhand- 
lungen,  i.-ii.  (ib.,  1892-1901);  id.,  Siidarabische 
Chrestomatie  (ib.,  1893)  ;  id.,  Altisraelitische 
Veberlieferung  (ib.,  1897)  ;  N.  Schmidt,  in  He- 
braica,  vol.  x.  (Chicago,  1894)  ;  Winckler,  Oe- 
schichte Israels  (Leipzig,  1896)  ;  id.,  Muzri, 
Meluhha,  Main,  i.-ii.  (Berlin,  1898)  ;  Mordtmann, 
Beitrage  zur  mindischen  Epigraphik  (Weimar, 
1896)  ;  Hartmann,  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyrio- 
logic,  vol.  X.  (ib.,  1895)  ;  H.  Derenbourg,  Nou- 
reau  m&moire  sur  V^taphe  min^en  (Paris, 
1895)  ;  Margoliouth,  "Arabia,"  in  the  Hastings 
Bible  Dictiona/ry  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Lidzbarski, 
in  Ephemeris  fiir  semitische  Epigraphik  ( Giessen, 
1902)  ;  Otto  Weber,  Studien  zur  sUdarabischen 
Altertumskunde  (Berlin,  1901);  id.,  Eine  neue 
mindische  Inschrift  (ib.,  1901)  ;  Corpus  Inscrip- 
tionum  Semitioarum,  part  iv.,  Inscriptiones 
Eimjariticw  et  Saboew  (Paris,  1889  seq.). 

MINAEPF,  m^-na'&f,  Dmitri  (1835-89).  A 
Russian  poet,  bom  at  Simbirsk.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  a  military  school,  and,  after  brief  serv- 
ice as  secretary  in  the  Department  of  the  In- 
terior, from  which  he  resigned  in  1857,  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  His  most  important  work 
was  as  a  translator  of  parts  of  Dante's  Inferno, 
and  of  some,  of  the  works  of  Victor  Hugo,  and, 
among  English  poets,  of  Shelley,  Byron,  and 
Marlowe.     His   original   works   include   poetry. 


especially  satire,   and  a  comedy  which  won  a 
prize  from  the  Saint  Petersburg  Academy. 

MIN'AHAS^AS.  The  natives  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Minahassa  in  Northern  (Celebes,  called  by 
some  authorities  Alfuros.  A  mixture  of  types 
certainly  exists.  Semi-Papuan  somatic  features 
have  been  detected  among  some  of  the  less  civi- 
lized tribes,  while  in  many  of  the  villages  the 
Malay  type  of  Olebes  prevails.  In  this  prov- 
ince, particularly  in  the  Tondano  district,  the 
so-called  'Indonesian*  type  is  to  be  seen,  and 
infiltrations  from  Borneo  and  the  Philippines  are 
suspected.  The  Malayan  language  proper  has  in 
recent  years  made  considerable  inroad  upon  the 
native  dialects.  Among  the  Minahassas  women 
are  on  an  equal  footing  with  men,  although  from 
Mohammedan  influences  some  modifications  have 
been  made  upon  the  ancient  monogamy  of  this 
people.  The  best  account  of  the  Minahassas  in 
English  is  in  Hickson,  A  Naturalist  in  North 
Celebes  (London,  1889). 

MINAMOTO  YOSHITSUNE,  m^'uk-mC/t6 
yo'sh^tsSS'ni  (1158-1189).  A  Japanese  chief- 
tain. Japanese  history  in  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  a.d.  is  concerned  with  the 
struggles  of  the  Taira  and  the  Minamoto  clans. 
In  1159  Yoshitomo,  the  head  of  the  Minamoto, 
was  killed  and  his  clan  defeated.  His  three  sons 
escaped,  and  after  years  of  adventure  defeated 
the  Taira  finally  in  1186.  Yoshitsune,  the  young- 
est of  the  three,  was  the  lieutenant  of  his  elder 
brother  Yoritomo,  and  the  most  efficient  warrior 
in  his  army.  Yoshitsune  was  in  command  when 
the  last  battle  was  fought,  but  his  success  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  his  brother,  who  sought 
his  death.  Escaping  with  eleven  comrades,  Yo- 
shitsune was  pursued,  and  committed  suicide  in 
1189.  His  history,  with  its  adventures,  triumphs, 
and  tragic  end,  is  the  favorite  theme  of  romance, 
poetry,  and  drama.  In  one  form  of  the  story  the 
hero  escaped  with  his  life,  and  found  refuge 
among  the.Aino  in  Yezo,  where  he  is  still  wor- 
shiped as  a  god.  Another  legend  represents  him 
as  going  to  the  continent  of  Asia  and  identifies 
him  with  Genghis  Khan. 

MIN^ABET.  The  tower  of  a  mosque  (q.v.), 
corresponding  to  the  bell-tower  or  campanile  of 
Christian  churches,  and  so  called  ( *light-tower* ) 
because  on  feast  days  it  was  illuminated  at  night. 
The  Mohammedan  call  to  prayer  is  not  by  bell, 
but  by  the  voice  of  the  official  termed  muezzin 
who  at  stated  times  (five  times  daily)  mounts 
to  the  summit  of  the  minaret  and  summons  the 
people  from  its  upper  balcony  with  the  pre- 
scribed formula.  Each  mosque  has  one  or  more 
minarets.  The  normal  number  for  the  largest 
Djami  mosques  is  four,  one  at  each  angle  of  the 
inclosure.  Some  have  as  many  as  six,  e.g.  the 
Ahmed  mosque  at  Constantinople.  The  mosque 
at  Mecca  has  the  exceptional  number  of  seven. 

The  usual  type  is  a  slender  polygonal  and 
cylindrical  structure  of  stone  or  brick,  often 
rising  from  a  square  base  and  consisting  of  sev- 
eral stories  marked  by  balconies,  either  pro- 
jecting on  stalactite  supports,  or  with  a  receding 
story  above ;  it  is  crowned  by  a  pinnacle  or  small 
dome.  The  summit  is  reached  by  a  winding  inner 
stairway;  only  the  old  stone  minaret  of  Tulun 
at  Cairo  has  an  external  winding  staircase. 

The  earliest  mosques  had  no  minarets.  They 
were  first  built  during  the  seventh  century,  the 
Khalif  Omar  being  said  to  have  erected  two  at 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


XOTABST. 


533 


MJLHCH. 


Kufa  and  Medina.  Those  earlier  than  the  twelfth 
century  were  usually. heavy  square  structures  of 
stuccoed  brick  or  stone  without  much  ornament. 
This  type  is  preserved  at  the  mosque  of  Sidi 
Okba  at  Kairwan  in  Tunis.  Among  the  finest 
groups  of  the  middle  period  is  that  of  Cairo— 
the  mosques  of  Ihn  Tulun,  Hassan,  Barkuk, 
Kalaun,  Bordel,  and  Kait  Bey.  The  Tulun 
mosque  had  a  stone  minaret  in  the  centre  of  one 
of  the  sides  on  a  square  plan  passing  first  to  a 
cylindrical  and  then  to  an  octagonal  shape.  The 
Hassan  mosque  has  two  minarets;  that  of  Kait 
Bey  only  one. 

The  minarets  of  Egypt,  Spain,  Syria,  India, 
Persia,  and  Turkey  built  between  the  thirteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries  are  among  the  most 
original  and  graceful  works  of  Eastern  archi- 
tecture. The  Giralda  at  Seville  shows  that  the 
Spanish  moors  maintained  the  early  square  type 
with  added  delicacy  and  richness;  generally  the 
circular  and  octagonal  types  prevail.  The  old 
heavy  simplicity  has  been  replaced  by  a  wealth  of 
surface  decoration  in  relief  and  color  and  by 
great  slendemess.  Stalactite  corbels  support 
the  balconies,  arabesques  and  colonnettes  break 
up  the  surfaces,  and  glazed  tiles,  especially  in 
Persia,  add  a  brilliant  coloring.  Damascus  and 
Bagdad  preserve  some  of  their  medijeval  ex- 
amples. The  minarets  of  Ahmedabad  rival  those 
of  Cairo;  those  of  Delhi  and  Agra  are  hardly 
less  interesting.  Those  of  the  Constantinople 
mosques,  such  as  Saint  Sophia^  Ahmed,  etc., 
are  exceedingly  graceful.  Sometimes  the  colleges 
or  madrasah  had  minarets  of  similar  style  to 
those  of  the  mosques,  as  in  that  of  Sultan 
Husein  at  Ispahan,  where  the  towers  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  great  mosque  of  Ispahan.  The 
height  varies  exceedingly;  among  the  highest  are 
<3iralda  (formerly  230  feet,  now  308  feet),  Ka- 
laun  ( 193  feet),  and  Hassan  (280  feet)  at  Cairo, 
and  the  Kutub  Minar  near  Delhi  (242  feet). 
Consult. the  bibliography  of  Mohammedan  Art. 

MINABy  me^n&sh,  more  properly  Bexlo 
HoBizoNTE,  1)6116  0'r^-z5n'tA.  The  capital  of  the 
"State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil.  It  is  situated  on 
a  plateau  60  miles  northwest  of  the  late  capital, 
Ouro  Preto  (q.v.).  Though  founded  as  late  as 
1894,  it  has  now  grown  into  a  large  and  flourish- 
ing city  of  30,000  inhabitants,  with  broad  streets, 
public  gardens,  fine  public  buildings,  and  official 
residences.  It  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  has 
an  excellent  supply  of  pure  spring  water.  It  is 
connected  by  a  branch  line  with  the  Central 
Railroad  of  the  State. 

MINAS,  m^nAs.  Capital  of  the  department  of 
the  same  name  in  Uruguay.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  55  miles  northeast  of  Montevideo,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail  (Map:  Uruguay, 
G  10).  It  is  surrounded  by  well-cultivated  grain- 
producing  lands,  and  there  are  quarries  of  marble 
and  granite  in  the  neighborhood.  Population, 
about  5000. 

MINAS  DE  BIO  TINTO,  m&'nAs  dft  re'd 
t^n'to.  An  important  mining  town  in  Southern 
Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Huelva,  situated  among 
the  mountains,  32  miles  northeast  of  the  city  of 
Huelva  (Map:  Spain,  B  4).  The  surrounding 
country  contains  almost  inexhaustible  deposits 
of  copper  ore,  which  were  exploited  by  the  an- 
cient PhoBnicians.  In  1873  the  mines  were  taken 
over  by  a  London  company,  and  the  methods 
of  obtaining  the  ore  revolutionized.     The  mines 


now  employ  10,000  workers;  in  1900  the  quin- 
tity  of  ore  produced  amounted  to  1^94,000  tons, 
from  which  21,120  tons  of  pure  copper  were 
derived.  The  town,  which  in  1845  had  a  popu- 
lation of  only  800,  numbered  in  1900,  9956. 

MDTAS  OEBAES,  mi^nkah  zhA-rish'.  An 
eastern  State  of  Brazil,  bounded  by  BahiA  oo 
the  north,  Espirito  Santo  on  the  east,  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Sfto  Paulo  on  the  south,  and  Goju 
cm  the  west  (Map :  Brazil,  H  7 ) .  Area,  221,952 
square  miles.  The  State  lies  wholly  in  the 
Brazilian  Plateau,  with  an  average  elevation  of 
2000  feet,  and  is  traversed  by  a  number  of 
mountain  ranges,  which,  although  the  highest  in 
Brazil,  are  not  very  prominent,  owing  to  tlie 
general  elevation  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  principal  ranges  are  the  Serra  da  Manti- 
queira  along  the  southern  frontier,  and  the  Serra 
do  Espinhago,  running  north  and  south  through 
the  centre  of  the  State.  At  their  junction  is 
Mount  Itatiaia,  about  9000  feet  hi^  and  the 
highest  point  in  Brazil.  Only  the  mountain 
ranges  and  the  river  valleys  are  forested;  be- 
tween them  are  extensive  steppes  covered  only 
with  grass  and  scanty  shrubbery.  Minas  Geraes 
is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  including  the 
Sfto  Francisco  (with  its  numerous  tributaries 
which  take  in  the  larger  portion  of  the  State), 
the  headstreams  of  the  Paranfi,  and  the  Doee. 
Of  these  only  the  Sao  Francisco  is  navigable, 
but  it  does  not  afford  direct  conmiunication  with 
the  Atlantic  owing  to  its  numerous  rapids.  The 
climate  differs  according  to  the  formation  of  the 
surface.  It  is  very  hot  in  the  thickly  wooded 
valleys,  but  moderate  and  not  imhealthful  in  the 
more  elevated  portions,  where  the  temperature 
may  even  reach  the  freezing  point  during  the 
night.  In  former  years  the  chief  economic  in- 
terest of  Minas  GJeraes  was  centred  in  its  gold 
and  diamond  mines.  At  present,  however,  mining 
is  in  a  state  of  decline.  Iron  ore  is  found  in 
great  quantities ;  and  gold  is  still  mined  to  some 
extent,  but  the  diamond  mines  are  well-nigh 
abandoned.  The  chief  industries  are  in  connec- 
tion with  agriculture  and  stock-raising,  the 
leading  agricultural  products  being  coffee,  su- 
gar, com,  beans,  and  potatoes.  Stock-raising 
is  carried  on  extensively,  and  cheese  is  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities.  The  chief  man- 
ufactures are  those  of  cotton,  textiles,  and 
cigars.  Railway  lines  traverse  the  southern 
portion  of  the  State  and  are  connected  with 
the  Rio  de  Janeiro  lines.  Minas  Geraes  had 
a  population  of  3,184,099  in  1890  and  3,594,471 
in  1900.  The  inhabitants  are  largely  of  mixed 
origin,  and  the  number  of  aborigines  is  still  con- 
siderable; negroes  are  also  numerous.  Minas 
Geraes  was  settled  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  immigrants  being  attracted  there  by 
the  gold  and  diamond  deposits.  It  was  separated 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1709  and  several  times 
rose  in  revolt  against  the  central  government. 
Up  to  1894  the  capital  was  Ouro  Preto  (q.v.),  but 
the  seat  of  government  was  then  removed  to 
Bello  Horizonte  or  Minas  (q.v.). 

MINBU,  mln'blJ^.  A  division  of  Upper  Burma 
comprising  the  districts  of  Minbu,  Magwe,  Pa- 
kokku,  and  Thayetmyo.  Area,  17,170  square 
miles;  population,  in  1891,  996,873;  in  1901 
1,077,978.     Capital,  Minbu. 

MINCH.  The  channel  which  separates  the 
island  of  Lewes  in  the  Hebrides  from  the  north- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


MINCH. 


588 


MINDANAO. 


west  of  Scotland  (Map:  Scotland,  CI).  Its 
shores  are  exceedingly  irregular,  and  its  average 
width  is  about  30  miles.  It  connects  with  the 
Sea  of  the  Hebrides  to  the  south  by  the  Little 
Minch,  which  is  about  15  miles  wide,  and  which 
separates  the  island  of  Skye  from  that  of  North 
Uist  and  the  neighboring  islands  in  the  outer 
Hebrides. 

MINCIO,  mgn'chd.  A  left  affluent  of  the 
River  Po,  Italy,  which  it  joins  near  Govemalo, 
ten  miles  southeast  of  Mantua,  after  a  south- 
eastern course  of  about  120  miles.  Its  source 
is  at  Pescheria,  where  it  flows  from  Lake  Garda. 
It  is  the  ancient  Mincius,  and  during  the  Austro- 
Italian  wars  was  an  important  strategical  base, 
several  battles  being  fought  along  its  banks. 

MINCEWITZ,  mlok'vlts,  Johannes  (1812- 
85 ) .  A  Crerman  poet  and  classical  scholar,  bom 
at  LUckersdorf.  He  was  educated  at  Leipzig,  was 
appointed  professor  there  in  1861,  and  in  1883 
removed  to  Heidelberg.  He  first  gained  fame  by 
his  translations  into  German  of  Homer,  ^schy- 
lus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Aristophanes,  Pin- 
dar, and  Lucian.  He  also  wrote  Vorachule 
zum  Homer  (1863).  In  the  field  of  German 
criticism,  Minckwitz  wrote  Platen  als  Mensch 
und  Dichter  (1836)  and  Lehen  Platens  (1838), 
and  edited  Platen's  posthumous  papers  ( 1852 )  ; 
and  he  also  published:  Lehrhuch  der  deutschen 
Verskunst  (1844);  a  play,  Der  Prinzenrauh 
(1839)  ;  and  a  volume  of  popular  poems  (1847). 

MINCOPIE&  The  native  inhabitants  of  the 
Andaman  Islands.  They  are  in  general  of  very  low 
stature,  averaging  1.49  meters,  and  are  sub- 
brachyoephalic  with  an  index  of  82.6.  They  have 
a  verj'  low  grade  of  civilization,  living  in  huts 
called  *chongs,*  which  consist  merely  of  a  roof  on 
four  stakes,  and  going  naked.  They  live  by  hunt- 
ing and  use  a  peculiar  bow  in  the  shape  of  an 
S,  which  presents  a  curious  analogue  to  certain 
Eskimo  bows  and  also  to  the  bows  of  some  Bantu 
tribes  in  East  Africa.  Consult  Man,  "Aborigines 
of  the  Andaman  Islands,"  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Anthropological  Institute,  vol.  xi.  (London, 
1882)  ;  Deniker,  Races  of  Man  (ib.,  1901).  See 
Andamans. 

MIND  (AS.  gemyndy  Icel.  minni,  Goth,  gam- 
undSf  memory,  from  AS.  munan,  Icel.  muna, 
Goth,  gamunany  to  remember ;  ultimately  connect- 
ed with  Lat.  mens^  Gk.  fUvoij  menoSy  mind,  Skt. 
man,  to  think).  The  collective  term  for  the 
subject-matter  of  psychology  (q.v.).  The  com- 
mon-sense view  of  mind  makes  it  a  mind-sub- 
stance, a  spiritual  agent,  a  real,  simple,  and 
unitary  being,  sharply  opposed  to  material  sub- 
stance as  'thought*  is  opposed  to  'extension,*  yet 
interacting  with  the  physical  universe  under 
some  form  of  the  causal  law.  This  conception 
of  mind  has  its  root  in  primitive  reflection  upon 
the  phenomena  of  sleep,  dreams,  trance,  and 
death.  It  received  philosophical  treatment  at 
the  hands  of  the  scholastic  psychologists ;  and,  in 
its  current  form,  is  practically  a  legacy  from 
Descartes.  It  is  doubtless  kept  alive  by  its 
emotional  value;  it  satisfies  human  aspirations, 
and  accords  well  with  the  natural  anthropocentric 
notion  of  the  world  at  large.  It  is  still  held  by 
some  psychologists:  Ladd  openly  accepts  it,  and 
James,  while  rejecting  it  for  his  psychology,  yet 
admits  that,  for  his  personal  thinking,  it  appears 
**the  line  of  least  logical  resistance.'*  Neverthe- 
less, such  a  view  of  mind  is  wholly  foreign  to 


the  spirit  and  to  the  requirements  of  modem 
psychology.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  unsupported 
by  psychological  evidence.  Had  there  been  the 
same  emotional  temptation  to  reject  minds  as 
there  has  been  to  posit  them,  we  may  be  sure 
that  the  arguments  ordinarily  urged  in  their 
favor  would  have  received  but  scant  attention. 
Secondly,  the  assumption  of  a  real  mind  is  super- 
fiuous.  **The  substantialist  view  of  the  soul,** 
says  James,  "is  at  all  events  needless  for  ex- 
pressing the*  actual  subjective  phenomena  of 
consciousness  as  they  appear:**  "the  substantial 
soul  explains  nothing  and  guarantees  nothing." 

In  so  far,  then,  as  this  theory  of  mind  is  con- 
cerned, modem  psychology  is  what  Lange,  the 
historian  of  materialism,  named  it:  a  psychology 
without  a  mind,  a  Psychologic  ohne  Seele,  Even 
the  few  writers  who  still  cling  to  the  substan- 
tialist view  make  no  use  of  the  assumption  in 
their  actual  presentation  of  psychological  facts 
and  laws :  it  is  only  in  their  concluding  remarks, 
at  the  point  of  transition  from  psychology  proper 
to  metaphysics,  that  mind,  the  'unit  being,'  is 
introduced.  At  the  same  time,  it  would  be  en- 
tirely erroneous  to  apply  Lange*s  phrase,  with- 
out qualification,  to  mental  science.  A  psychol- 
ogy without  some  sort  of  mind  would  be  impos- 
sible. The  new  psychology  keeps  the  term  mind, 
but  defines  it  as  the  sum-total  of  an  individual's 
mental  experience.  Just  as  a  'plant'  is  the 
organized  whole  of  root,  stem,  leaves,  and 
flowers,  and  not  something  above  and  behind 
these  'parts,*  so  is  mind  the  organized  whole  of 
our  mental  processes  (q.v.),  the  interwoven 
totality  of  thoughts,  feelings,  desires,  volitions, 
etc.,  and  not  something  above  and  behind  these 
'manifestations'  of  mentality. 

BiBiJOORAPHY.  James,  Principles  of  Psychol- 
ogy,  vol.  i.  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Ebbinghaus, 
Orundmge  der  Psychologic,  vol.  i.  (Leipzig, 
1905);  Wundt,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (trans., 
ib.,  1902) ;  Titchener,  Outline  of  Psychology  {'Sevr 
York,  1902)  ;  Kuelpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology 
(trans.,  ib.,  1896);  id..  Introduction  to  Philos- 
ophy (trans.,  ib.,  1897)  ;  Ladd,  Elements  of 
Physiological  Psychology  (ib.,  1889)  ;  id..  Phi- 
losophy of  MiTtd  (ib.,  1895).  See  Body  and 
Mind;  Consciousness;  Elements,  Conscious. 

MIND^  nfint,  Gottfried  (1768-1814).  A 
Swiss  painter,  born  at  Bern.  He  was  educated 
at  Pestalozzi's  charity  school,  and  studied  under 
Freudenberger.  Naturally  eccentric,  and  subject 
to  a  deformity,  he  studiously  avoided  society. 
He  was  fond  of  cats,  his  pictures  of  which  are  his 
most  characteristic  works.  He  was  also  suc- 
cessful in  the  delineation  of  bears.  Although  he 
died  poor,  some  of  his  pictures  have  since  been 
sold  at  very  high  rates,  and  have  been  frequently 
lithographed.  Consult  Wiedemann,  Der  Katzen- 
raffael  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1887). 

MINDANAO,  m^n'dft-na'A.  One  of  the  most 
important  and,  according  to  the  latest  official 
estimate,  the  second  in  size  of  the  Philippine 
Islands.  It  is  the  southernmost  of  the  large 
islands  of  the  archipelago,  between  latitude  5° 
21'  and  9o  50'  N.,  and  between  longitude  121  o  53' 
and  1260  28'  E.,  about  220  miles  northeast  of 
Borneo  and  270  miles  north  of  Celebes  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  D  7).  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  channels  and  seas  separating  it 
from  the  islands  of  Leyte,  Bohol,  CebO,  and 
Negros,  the  narrowest  of  these  channels  being 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MINDANAO. 


684 


MINDEN. 


the  Strait  of  Surigao,  7  miles  wide,  separating 
the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  island  from 
Leyte.  On  the  east  Mindanao  is  bounded  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Celebes  Sea, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Sulu  Sea. 

AfiEA  AND  Configuration.  As  Mindanao  has 
never  been  thoroughly  surveyed,  its  area  can  only 
be  given  approximately.  It  has  been  estimated 
as  low  as  33,767  square  miles,  and  as  high  as 
46,721  square  miles.  The  latest  official  estimate, 
however,  gives  as  the  area  of  the  mainland,  36,- 
292  square  miles,  or  4677  square  miles  less  than 
Luzon,  and  of  the  264  dependent  islands,  1165 
square  miles,  making  a  total  of  37,467,  which, 
even  excluding  the  dependent  islands,  is  larger 
than  that  of  the  State  of  Indiana.  Mindanao, 
like  Luzon,  is  very  irregular  in  outline.  It  con- 
sists of  a  main  body  about  300  miles  long  from 
north  to  south  and  150  miles  broad,  with  a  long, 
irregular  peninsula  stretching  in  a  semi-circle 
for  180  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  western 
coast,  where  it  is  connected  by  an  isthmus  be- 
tween the  Bay  of  Iligan  on  the  north,  and  the 
Bay  of  I  liana  on  the  south.  There  are  numerous 
other  large  and  small  bays  on  all  sides  of  the 
island,  among  which  the  large  and  deep  Bay  of 
Dflvao  indenting  the  south  coast  is  one  of  the 
finest  and  largest  of  the  archipelago.  Of  the 
dependent  islands  the  principal  (with  their  areas 
in  square  miles)  are  the  following:  Camiguln 
(94)  off  the  north  coast,  Dinflgat  (309)  and 
Siargao  (151)  on  the  northeast,  Sfimal  (147)  in 
the  Bay  of  Dflvao,  Balut  (42)  and  Sarangani 
(25)  to  the  southeast,  Olutang^  (36)  south  of 
the  western  peninsula,  and  Basilan  (478)  form- 
ing with  about  50  small  islets  a  separate  prov- 
ince at  the  extreme  southwestern  end. 

Topography.  The  coasts  as  a  rule  consist  of 
sandy  beaches  interrupted  by  numerous  rocky 
headlands.  Almost  everywhere  the  forest-cov- 
ered mountains  approach  close  to  the  shores,  and 
the  interior  is  in  general  very  mountainous,  con- 
taining the  highest  peaks  in  the  Philippines,  such 
as  Mount  Malindang,  8697  feet  high,  in  the 
northwestern  part,  and  the  volcano  of  Apo,  10,312 
feet,  west  of  Dftvao  Bay.  The  mountain  system 
consists  of  a  number  of  irregular,  broken,  and 
roughly  parallel  chains  traversing  the  island 
from  north  to  south,  and  inclosing  between  them 
large  and  fertile  river  valleys.  The  configuration 
of  the  mountains  in  many  places  bears  evidence 
of  having  been  influenced  and  even  originated  by 
volcanic  action.  There  are  several  active  and  a 
number  of  extinct  volcanoes,  while  plains  of  vol- 
canic matter  as  well  as  sulphur  and  hot  springs 
occur,  and  the  island  is  subject  to  frequent  and 
violent  earthquakes.  Very  little,  however,  is 
known  of  the  geology  of  Mindanao. 

Hydrography.  The  two  principal  river  sys- 
tems lie  on  either  side  of  the  central  mountain 
range,  both  of  them  running  almost  the  entire 
length  of  the  island.  On  the  east  is  the  Agusan, 
running  northward  into  the  Bay  of  Buttian;  on 
the  west  is  the  Rio  Grande  de  Mindoro,  running 
south,  then  west  into  the  Bay  of  Illana,  and 
rivaling  in  size  the  Cagayftn  of  Luzon.  Both  of 
these  systems  include  several  large  lakes.  Owing 
to  the  proximity  of  the  mountains  to  the  coasts, 
most  of  the  remaining  rivers  of  Mindanao  are 
short  and  torrential. 

Climate.  Being  situated  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  archipelago,  within  10**  of  the  equator, 
and  being  less  exposed  to  cooling  winds  than  the 


northern  islands,  Mindanao  has  a  hot  and  humid 
climate.  The  warm  and  moisture-laden  south 
winds  are  particularly  enervating,  though  the 
land  breezes  frcnn  the  mountains  are  cool  and 
refreshing.  The  climate  is  more  equable  than 
that  of  Luzon,  and  the  island  is  seldom  touched 
by  the  typhoons,  which  rage  only  among  the 
northern  islands.  The  rainfall  is  very  heavy,^ 
often  exceeding  100  inches,  and  reaching  some- 
times 140  inches  in  a  year.  Several  parts  of  the 
island  are  subject  to  destructive  inimdations. 

Flora  and  Fauna  (for  general  description  see 
Philippines).  The  vegetation  of  Mindanao,^ 
even  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  archipelago, 
is  remarkably  luxuriant.  Almost  the  whole  is- 
land is  covered  with  forests  so  interwoven  with 
canes  and  vines  as  to  form  in  many  places  an 
impenetrable  jungle.  The  flora  partakes  of  the 
character  of  that  of  Celebes  and  the  Moluccas; 
cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and  other  spices,  and  betel- 
nuts  grow  wild,  and  the  forests  abound  in  the 
most  valuable  building  timber  and  cabinet  woods. 

The  animal  life  is  equally  abundant  and  varied, 
including,  besides  the  species  common  to  all  the 
islands,  many  species  peculiar  to  Mindanao. 
Monkeys  are  very  numerous,  and  especially  char- 
acteristic is  the  white  monkey  {Maoacua  Philip- 
pinensia).  Reptiles,  including  venomous  snakes,, 
aboimd,  and  the  rivers  are  infested  with  croco- 
diles. Consult :  Mindanao,  au  historia  y  geografia 
(Madrid,  1894)  ;  Gonz&lez  Parrado,  Memoria 
acerca  de  Mindanao  (Manila,  1893).  See  Phil- 
ippine Islands. 

MIND  CUBE.  See  Hypnotisic;  ^£esmeb- 
ISM;  Suggestion. 

MIKa)ELEFP,  Cosmos  (1863—).  An  Amer- 
ican archaeologist,  of  Russian  parentage.  From 
1882,  when  he  was  attached  to  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  aboriginal  habitations  of  New  Mexi- 
co and  Arizona.  He  wrote  articles  upon  ''The- 
Influence  of  (geographic  Environment'*  {Bui-- 
letin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society, 
xxix.,  1897 ) ,  and  a  series  upon  "Pueblo  Arts  and 
Sciences"  {Scientific  American,  1898).  He  and 
his  brother,  Victor  Mindeleff,  prepared  the  first 
exhaustive  report  on  Pueblo  architecture,  and 
Cosmos  made  plans  (1891)  for  the  restoration 
of  the  Casa  Grande  cliff  dwellings  in  Arizona. 

MINDEN.  An  ancient  town  in  the  Province 
of  Westphalia,  Prussia,  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  navigable  Weser,  39  miles  by  rail  west- 
southwest  of  Hanover  ( Map :  Prussia.  C  2 ) .  It 
is  an  old-fashioned  town  with  modem  suburbs 
laid  out  on  the  site  of  the  fortifications  demol- 
ished in  1873.  Its  public  buildings  include  the 
thirteenth  century  cathedral,  a  fine  early  Gothic 
structure  with  valuable  works  of  art  in  its  treas- 
ury; the  town  hall;  the  government  buildings; 
and  the  gymnasium.  Minden  manufactures  ci- 
gars, glassware,  chemicals,  chicory,  iron  prod- 
ucts, etc.  Charlemagne  made  Minden  the  seat  of 
a  bishopric,  which  was  converted  into  a  secular 
principality  in  1648,  and  united  with  Branden- 
burg. Near  Minden  an  Anglo- Prussian  force 
under  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  defeated  a  French 
army  under  Contades,  August  1,  1759.  See 
Seven  Years'  War.  Population,  in  1900,  24,327;. 
in  1905,  25,425,  chiefly  Protestants. 

MINDEN.  A  city  and  the  coimty-seat  of 
Kearney  County,  Neb.,  128  miles  west  by  south 
of    Lincoln;    on   the    Chicago,    Burlington   and 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIHDEN. 


685 


MINER. 


Quincy  Railroad  (Map:  Nebraska,  F  3).  It  is 
the  centre  of  a  farming  and  stock-raising  dis- 
trict, and  has  some  manufactures.  There  is  a 
public  school  library  of  3000  volumes.  Popula- 
tion, 1900,  1238;  1906   (local  est),  1730. 

MIKDOBO,  m^n-dC/rd.  One  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  among  which  it  ranks  seventh  in 
size.  It  is  situated  south  of  the  main  body  of 
Luzon,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  sea  chan- 
nel, 7%  miles  wide  (Map:  Philippine  Islands, 
C  4).  Its  extreme  length  from  northwest  to 
southeast  is  100  miles,  and  its  greatest  width 
is  58  miles.  The  area  of  the  mainland  is  3851, 
and  of  the  26  dependent  islands  173  square  miles, 
making  a  total  of  4024  square  miles.  The  island 
has  an  oval  shape  with  no  large  indentations, 
though  there  are  a  number  of  small  bays  and 
several  almost  land-locked  harbors.  The  coasts, 
though  generally  having  deep  water  close  to 
shore,  are  lined,  especially  along  the  west  Bide, 
with  submarine  reefs.  Mindoro  is,  next  to  Min- 
danao, the  most  elevated  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands. The  whole  interior  forms  a  mountainous 
plateau,  reaching  in  Mount  Halc6n  the  height 
of  8860  feet.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  island, 
from  the  mountain  summits  to  high-water  mark, 
is  covered  with  unbroken  virgin  forests,  though 
in  the  narrow  strip  of  lowland  along  the  west- 
em  coast  there  are  some  prairie  and  marshy 
regions.  The  rivers  are  all  short  and  simple 
streams  running  down  from  the  edge  of  the 
plateau  on  all  sides,  there  being  no  large  river- 
system.  The  climate  is  more  variable  than  that 
prevailing  in  the  southern  islands,  and  Mindoro 
18  especially  exposed  to  the  monsoons.  The 
proximity  of  the  forests  to  the  coast  towns  ren- 
ders these  unheal thful  and  subject  to  inter- 
mittent and  typhoid  fevers. 

In  spite  of  the  fertility  and  natural  wealth 
of  the  island,  its  economic  conditions  are  in  a 
very  backward  state.  A  very  small  portion  of  it 
is  cultivated,  and  the  yield  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts is  scarcely  enough  for  home  consumption. 
The  cultivation  of  sugar,  cotton,  and  hemp  is 
increasing,  and  a  little  of  the  latter  is  exported. 
The  mineral  wealth  is  believed  to  be  considerable, 
but  only  the  coal-beds  and  sulphur  springs  have 
begun  to  be  exploited.  The  principal  exports  are 
forest  products,  such  as  timber  and  pitch,  and  the 
forests  also  are  the  basis  of  the  principal  indus- 
tries— ^wood-cutting  and  rattan-splitting.  Com- 
munication is  almost  exclusively  carried  on  in 
coasting  vessels,  the  interior  being  a  rough  and 
pathless  wilderness. 

The  population  of  Mindoro  in  1901  was  28,361, 
including  7264  savages.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Tagalogs,  who  number  18,185,  with  7266 
Mangyans,  2088  Visayans,  and  630  Ilocanos.  The 
island  of  Mindoro,  together  with  its  dependent 
islands,  forms  the  Province  of  Mindoro,  which 
had  in  1903  a  population  of  39,682.  The  most 
important  tribes  were  represented  as  follows: 
Tagalogs,  26,408;  Mangyans,  7268;  and  Visay- 
ans, 4962.    See  Philippine  Islands. 


MIND-BEADIira. 
Telepathy. 


See    Muscle-Reading  ; 


MIND-STTTFP  THEOBY.  A  metaphysical 
theory  which  explains  the  relation  of  matter 
and  mind  by  affirming  their  identity  under  the 
form  of  atoms  of  mind-stuflf.  These  atoms  are  of 
a  nature  between  physical  atoms  and  psychical 
monads,  representing  an  indivisible  element,  as 


the  former,  but  being  qualitatively  rather  than 
quantitatively  determined,  as  the  latter.  Mind 
and  matter,  according  to  this  theory,  are  but 
forms  of  composition  of  the  atoms  of  mind-stuff; 
only  under  the  most  rarely  favorable  conditions 
does  this  composition  result  in  intelligence,  as  in 
the  higher  animals,  but  at  the  same  time  no  mat- 
ter is  to  be  conceived  as  'dead'  matter,  since  it  is 
built  up  of  elements  whose  essential  character  is 
psychical.  The  theory  is  expounded  by  W.  K. 
Clifford,  in  Mind  (old  series),  vol.  iii. 

MINE,  Submabine.    See  Torpedo. 

MINE  QAS.  An  explosive  gas  encountered 
in  coal  mines,  also  known  as  fire-damp.  It  con- 
sists principally  of  marsh  gas  (CH|),  which  is 
the  combustible  element,  but  it  contains  also 
small  proportions  of  nitrogen  and  carbon  dioxide. 
Owing  to  its  light  specific  gravity — about  one- 
half  that  of  air — it  is  always  found  in  the  upper 
portions  of  the  workings.  The  explosive  quali- 
ties are  first  show|i  when  the  gas  is  mixed  with 
from  four  to  five  volumes  of  air;  when  free  from 
air  it  will  not  take  fire.  The  danger  resulting 
from  the  presence  of  this  gas  in  coal  mines  has 
largely  been  removed,  in  recent  years,  by  the 
use  of  the  safety  lamp  (q.v.)  and  by  improved 
methods  of  ventilation.    See  Coal. 

MINEO,  m^na'6.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Catania,  Sicily,  27  miles  southwest  of  Catania 
(Map:  Italy,  J  10).  It  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Mense,  founded  by  Ducetius,  459  B.C., 
and  captured  by  the  Saracens  in  840.  In  the  vi- 
cinity is  the  famous  Lago  de'  Palici,  the  Lacua 
Palicorum  of  volcanic  origin.  Population,  in 
1901,  of  commune,  9828. 

MI^EB,  Alonzo  Ames  ( 1814-96) .  A  Univer- 
salist  minister.  He  was  born  at  Lempster,  N. 
H.  He  received  an  academical  education,  and 
after  teaching  for  several  years  was  ordained  to 
the  Universalist  ministry  in  1839,  and  served 
as  pastor  to  churches  in  Methuen,  Lowell,  and 
Boston,  Mass.  He  was  president  of  Tufts  Col- 
lege, Medford,  Mass.,  from  1862  to  1874,  when 
he  returned  to  his  former  pastorate  of  the  Second 
Universalist  Church,  Boston.  He  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  Board  of  Overseers  of  Harvard 
University  in  1863;  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  of  Massachusetts  from  1869, 
serving  twenty-four  years,  and  chairman  of  the 
iBoard  of  Visitors  to  the  State  Normal  School 
from  1873;  was  for  twenty-one  years  president 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  Temperance  Alliance, 
and  was  the  ProhibiUon  candidate  for  Governor 
in  1878.  He  was  the  original  projector  of  the 
Universalist  Publishing  House  in  Boston,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  anti-slavery  agitation. 
He  edited  the  journal,  The  Star  of  Bethlehem ^ 
contributed  to  periodicals,  and  published  Bible 
Exercises  (1864)  ;  Old  Forts  Taken  (1878)  ;  and 
Doctrines  of  Universalism.  His  Life  has  been 
published  by  Emerson   (Boston,  1896). 

MINEB,  Charles  (1780-1866).  An  Ameri- 
can author,  bom  at  Norwich,  Conn.  When  nine- 
teen vears  old  he  removed  with  his  family  to 
the  \^yoming  Valley  in  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
became  interested  in  various  newspapers.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1825  till  1829. 
The  most  important  of  his  publications  is  a 
History  of  Wyoming  (1846),  which  contains  a 
description  of  the  Wyoming  massacre  given  by 
eye-witnesses. 


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HINEBAL  ACID. 


586 


HINEBALOGY. 


MINE&AL  ACID  (in  Medicine).  An  acid 
not  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin.  The  ordinary 
mineral  acids  are  sulphuric  (oil  of  vitriol), 
nitric  (aqua  fortis),  hydrochloric  (muriatic), 
nitrohydrochloric,  and  phosphoric.  In  their 
medicinal  action  they  have  many  properties  in 
common. 

The  strong  acids  are  escharotic,  abstracting 
the  waters  of  the  tissues,  combining  with  the 
albumin  and  other  bases,  and  destrovinc  the 
protoplasm.  They  are  very  diffusible.  Sulpnuric 
and  phosphoric  acid  have  a  strong  affinity  for 
water,  completely  decomposing  tissues  to  which 
thev  are  applied;  they  are  therefore  powerfully 
escharotic.  Sulphuric  acid  makes  a  black  eschar, 
while  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acid  turn  the  tis- 
sues yellow. 

These  acids  diluted  produce  a  peculiar  taste 
in  the  mouth  and  a  sensation  of  roughness  on 
the  teeth.  They  stimulate  the  flow  of  saliva 
from  the  parotid  and  submaxillary  glands.  They 
promote  the  alkaline  secretions  of  the  intestines 
and  of  glandular  organs  (bile,  etc.),  but  check 
the  secretions  of  acid  fluids,  as  the  gastric  juice. 
Given  before  meals,  in  small  doses,  they  relieve 
undue  acidity  of  the  stomach  by  checking  the 
production  of  the  acid  gastric  juice.  At  first 
they  aid  digestion,  being  helpful  to  the  action 
of  pepsin,  but  if  continued  they  impair  digestion 
by  lessening  the  production  of  the  gastric  juice. 
They  check  fermentation  and  constipate  the 
bowels,  except  nitric  acid,  which  relaxes  them. 
They  are  all  astringent  to  the  tissues,  hydro- 
chloric being  the  weakest  and  sulphuric  the 
strongest  in  this  respect. 

Antidotes  for  poisoning  by  these  acids  are: 
alkalies,  such  as  bicarbonate  of  soda,  lime  water, 
or  plaster  from  a  wall  mixed  with  water  to 
neutralize  the  acid;  oil,  albumin,  and  milk  to 
protect  the  mucous  membranes.  For  stimulants, 
opium  and  ammonia  (intravenously)  may  be 
used  to  coimteract  the  resulting  depression  of  the 
vital  powers. 

All  these  mineral  acids,  if  well  diluted,  are 
useful  in  fevers,  especially  in  typhoid.  Hydro- 
chloric is  here  preferable.  Nitric  is  the  acid  gen- 
erally preferred  as  a  caustic,  its  action  being 
eff'ectual  and  superficial;  it  may  be  applied  un- 
diluted to  phagedenic  ulcers  and  sloughs,  warty 
growths,  and  indolent  sores.  Dilute  nitric  and 
nitrohydrochloric  acids  are  used  internally  in 
oxaluria  and  lithamia,  intermittent  and  remit- 
tent fevers,  and  aphonia  of  singers,  and  in  chronic 
hepatic  disorders  due  to  malaria.  Sulphuric 
acid,  dilute,  is  appropriate  in  cases  of  hemor- 
rhage, diarrhoea,  colliquative  sweating,  and  as  a 
prophylactic  against  lead-poisoning:  it  is  used 
also  as  an  acid  drink  in  fevers  and  before  meals 
in  acidity  of  the  stomach.  Phosphoric  acid  is 
considered  of  special  value  in  tissue  waste,  and 
it  is  thought  to  diminish  the  growth  of  osseous 
tumors,  and  to  dissolve  phosphatic  deposits.  All 
these  acids  act  injuriously  on  the  teeth,  by  at- 
tacking the  enamel.  They  should  always  be  ad- 
ministered largely  diluted,  taken  through  a 
straw  or  glass  tube:  and  the  mouth  should  be 
thoroughly  rinsed  at  once  with  an  alkaline  wash. 
See  Nitric  Acid;  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

MINEBAL  COLOBS.  A  term  applied  to  a 
number  of  inorganic  substances  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paints.  The  principal  mineral  colors 
include  the  following:  white  lead,  consisting 
chiefly  of  lead  carbonate;  zinc  whitCy  or  oxide 


of  zinc;  antimony  white,  or  oxide  of  antimony; 
fixed  white,  or  barium  sulphate;  mineral  white, 
or  calcium  sulphate;  china  clay,  or  aluminum 
silicate;  whiting,  or  calcium  carbonate;  native 
or  artificial  yellow  ochres,  i.e.  earths  colored  by 
iron  oxide;  massicot,  or  oxide  of  lead;  stron- 
tian  yellow,  or  chromate  of  strontium ;  the  chro- 
mates  of  cadmium,  mercury,  and  barium;  min- 
eral yellow,  or  oxy chloride  of  lead;  Naples  yel- 
low, or  antimonate  of  lead;  orpiment,  or  sulphide 
of  arsenic ;  rouge,  or  red  oxide  of  iron ;  vermilion 
and  cinnabar,  or  sulphide  of  mercury ;  Derby  red, 
or  basic  chromate  of  lead;  minium  (*red  lead'), 
or  lead  ortho-plumbate ;  realgar,  or  red  sulphide 
of  arsenic;  Brunswick  green,  or  oxy  chloride  of 
copper;  8oheele*s  green,  or  copper  arsenite; 
Schweinfurt  green,  a  mixture  of  copper  acetate 
and  Scheele's  green;  cobalt  green,  or  cobalt  and 
zinc  oxide;  umber,  or  brown  silicate  of  iron  and 
manganese;  native  or  artificial  broum  ochres, 
i.e.  earths  colored  by  iron  oxide;  Berlin  blue, 
or  ferrocyanide  or  iron;  Th^nard's  blue,  or  alu- 
minate  of  cobalt;  ultramarine  blue,  a  compound 
of  aluminum,  sodium,  silicon,  oxygen,  and  sul- 
phur; etc.  The  principal  mineral  colors  are  de- 
scribed in  special  articles  or  in  connection  with 
the  metals  or  acids  combined  in  them.  See  also 
Paints;  Painters'  Colors. 

MINEBAL  DEPOSITS.  See  Ore  Deposits; 
and  the  articles  on  the  different  ores  and  min- 
erals. 

MIKEBALO0Y  (by  haplology  for  *mineral' 
ology,  from  mineral,  OF.  mineral,  Fr.  mineral, 
from  ML.  minerall,  ore,  from  minera,  mineria, 
minaria,  mine,  from  minerarius,  pertaining  to 
mines,  from  minare,  to  mine,  lead  here  and  there, 
Lat.  to  drive,  from  minari,  to  threaten,  from 
mince,  threats,  from  minere,  to  jut  out  -+-  -Xoy/a, 
-logia,  account,  from  X^ctv,  legein,  to  say). 
The  science  of  those  natural  substances  known 
as  minerals  which,  together  or  separately,  form 
the  material  of  the  earth's  crust,  and  also,  as 
far  as  our  knowledge  extends,  that  of  other  celes- 
tial bodies.  A  mineral  is  a  substance  of  definite 
chemical  composition  which  has  been  directly 
produced  by  the  processes  of  inorganic  nature.  It 
must  be  homogeneous  even  when  submitted  to 
minute  microscopic  examination,  and  must  pos- 
sess a  definite  composition  capable  of  being  ex- 
pressed by  a  chemical  formula.  Laboratory  and 
furnace  products,  or  such  substances  as  shells  and 
bones  of  animals,  cannot  be  included  in  the  range 
of  mineralogy.  It  is  the  function  of  the  mineralo- 
gist to  investigate  the  form,  properties,  and  com- 
position of  minerals;  their  genesis;  their  rela- 
tions to  one  another,  and  to  the  accompanying 
rocks;  the  places  where  they  are  found;  and  the 
geological  conditions  under  which  they  are  formed. 
A  knowledge  of  mineralogy  is  of  importance  to 
the  geologist  in  his  study  of  the  rock  formations, 
to  tne  mining  engineer  in  his  search  for  metal- 
producing  minerals,  and  to  the  metallurgist  in 
the  extraction  of  metals  from  minerals.  Many 
of  the  useful  arts  are  directly  dependent  for  their 
raw  materials  upon  minerals,  while  some  mineral 
species  occur  in  such  brilliancy  and  beauty  of 
color  as  to  be  highly  prized  as  gems. 

The  Branches  of  Mineratxksy.  The  general 
subject  of  mineralogy  may  be  divided  into  four 
sections:  (1)  Crystallography,  which  includes 
the  description  of  crystals,  their  character,  clas- 
sification,  the   mathematical   relations   of  their 


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MINERALOGY 


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1.  Normal  crystal  form  davaioped  aqually  In  all  dirao- 

tlons. 

2.  Sama  cryatal  form  as  1,  diatortad. 

8.  Crystal    molacula    ahowing  an  arrangamant  of  at- 
traotlva  and  raoallant  forcaa. 


4.  Natwork   of    molaculaa   formad    on  tha    llnaa 

crystallizing  forcas  shown  In  3. 

5.  Furthar   davalopmant    of  natwork   ahown  I 

axplain  claavaga. 

6.  Twin  cryatal  formad  by  two  Intarpanatratad  cubaa. 


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MINEBALOGY. 


587 


MINEBALOGY. 


faces  and  the  methods  of  expressing  them  graphi- 
cally and  symbolically.  (See  Crystallograjph Y. ) 
(2)  Physical  mineralogy,  which  describes  the 
physical  characters  of  minerals  and  deals  with 
the  properties  related  to  their  molecular  struc- 
ture. (3)  Chemical  mineralogy,  which  has  for 
its  object  the  determination  of  the  chemical  com- 
position of  each  mineral  species  and  the  relation 
in  composition  between  species  in  the  same  chemi- 
cal group.  (4)  Descriptive  mineralogy,  which 
includes  ihe  detailed  description  of  each  mineral 
species  with  respect  to  its  form,  structure,  physi- 
cal properties,  chemical  composition,  and  geo- 
graphical and  geological  occurrence.  The  division 
of  physical  mineralogy  is  replete  with  interest- 
ing problems  of  cohesion,  optics,  heat,  and  elec- 
tricity, and  suggests  to  the  investigator  along 
physical  lines  many  fields  for  research.  The 
problems  connected  with  chemical  mineralogy, 
while  covering  a  narrower  and  less  varied  field 
than  those  of  physical  mineralogy,  are  none  the 
less  replete  with  interest.  To  the  chemist  work- 
ing in  the  field  of  mineralogy  belongs  the  task  of 
determining  the  part  played  by  the  various  ele- 
ments which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
hundreds  of  mineral  species,  many  of  which  are 
rare  and  exceedingly  complex  in  composition ;  the 
phenomena  of  isomorphism  and  dimorphism,  and 
the  chemical  alteration  of  mineral  species  under 
the  action  of  natural  agencies,  which  is  known 
as  pseudomorphism. 

Cbystallography.  With  very  few  exceptions 
(mercury  and  water),  minerals  are  limited  to 
solid  substances;  that  is,  they  are  solid  at  the 
present  temperature  of  the  earth.  In  discussing 
their  formation  and  character,  we  must,  how- 
ever, revert  to  the  period  when  the  mineral  con- 
stituents of  the  earth  existed  in  a  fluid  or  semi- 
fluid state.  When  a  homogeneous  substance 
passes  from  a  fluid  to  a  solid  condition,  its  par- 
ticles mutually  attract  each  other  along  certain 
definite  lines  and  a  solid  is  built  up  which  shows 
a  definite  structural  relation  between  all  its  in- 
tegral parts,  which  relation  finds  expression  in 
its  outward  form.  Such  a  solid,  formed  from  a 
nucleus  by  the  piling  up  of  accretions  from  with- 
out, is  known  as  a  crystal  and  is  characterized 
by  a  regular  polyhedral  form,  bounded  by  more 
or  less  smooth  surfaces.  A  crystal  is  then  the 
normal  form  of  a  mineral  which  has  solidified 
under  ideal  conditions  and,  should  its  formation 
be  uninterrupted  by  external  agencies,  its  ap- 
pearance would  be  that  of  a  symmetrical  geomet- 
ric solid  with  smooth  faces  and  sharp  edges  and 
angles.  Such  are  the  ideal  representations, 
which  serve  to  illustrate  the  crystallization  of 
mineral  species  and  which  are  to  be  found  in  all 
text-books  on  the  subject.  But  inasmuch  as  the 
ideal  conditions  mentioned  above  are  of  compara- 
tively rare  occurrence,  it  is  far  more  common  to 
find  minerals  in  more  or  less  distorted  forms. 
( See  Figs.  1  and  2. )  Large  and  well-formed  crys- 
tals are,  in  general,-  produced  by  a  slow  process 
of  crystallization,  whereas  a  rapid  cooling  or 
concentration  of  a  mineralizing  solution  tends  to 
form  aggregates  often  resembling  the  forms  of 
animate  nature;  such  are  the  frost  patterns 
which  form  on  window  panes,  the  coral-like 
forms  of  calcium  carbonate  to  be  found  in  some 
caves,  and  many  other  imitative  forms  described 
in  the  terminology  of  mineraloiiy.  Where  indi- 
vidual crystals  are  entirely  lacking,  the  mineral 
is  said  to  be  massive,  although  its  structure  as 


determined  by  optical  and  other  methods  may  be 
distinctly  crystalline. 

Begarding  the  nature  of  the  crystalline  units 
of  accretion,  there  is  at  present  very  little 
knowledge.  They  are  without  doubt  extremely 
minute  and  may  possibly  consist  of  a  number  of 
chemical  molecules.  Whatever  may  be  the  size 
or  shape  of  the  crystal  units  or  crystal  mole- 
cules, it  is  suflicient  for  the  purpose  of  discussion 
to  regard  them  as  points.  A  fuller  discussion  of 
this  subject  will  be  found  under  Chemistry. 
The  crystal  molecules  of  any  chemical  substance 
crystallizing  under  given  conditions  are  believed 
to  be  identical  in  size  and  shape.  They  are  never 
in  contact  with  each  other,  but  are  held  in  equi- 
librium by  attractive  and  repellent  forces  acting 
along  lines  which  difi'er  for  each  type  of  crystal 
molecule.  A  crystal  molecule  having  these  lines 
of  crystallizing  force  at  right  angles,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  3,  would  attract  like  molecules,  which  would 
arrange  themselves  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The 
theoretical  grouping  of  molecules  has  been  dis- 
cussed by  Sohncke,  Fedorow,  SchOnflies,  and  Bar- 
low, who  have  developed  230  possible  groupings. 
These,  however,  divide  themselves  into  32  dis- 
tinct groups  identical  with  the  32  groups  men- 
tioned under  Crystallography. 

If  we  assume  the  molecules  of  a  substance  to 
be  grouped  as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  it  will  be  readily 
seen  that  the  lines  of  minimum  cohesion  will  be 
aa  and  66  rather  than  mm,  because  the  former 
planes  are  further  separated  from  the  next 
adjacent  parallel  plane.  This  explains  in  a  meas- 
ure the  fact  that  crystallized  substances  often 
tend  to  break  or  cleave  parallel  to  a  primary 
crystallographic  face.  Assuming  a  crystal  mole- 
cule of  any  given  mineral  to  be  held  in  equi- 
librium by  forces  acting  in  definite  directions,  it 
will  be  readily  seen  that  the  crystal  built  up 
from  accretions  of  such  molecules  will,  of  neces- 
sity, present  faces  which  are  symmetrically  dis- 
posed with  respect  to  those  lines  of  crystallizing 
force.  Thus  we  have  as  a  fimdamental  law  of 
crystallization  the  principle  that  a  mineral  can 
only  crystallize  in  forms  whose  symmetry  is 
referable  to  one  of  the  32  groups  mentioned  in 
the  foregoing  paragraph.  This  is  known  as  the 
law  of  symmetry.  The  number  of  planes  possible 
from  the  grouping  together  of  crystal  molecules 
of  a  substance  is  invariably  greater  than  the 
number  occurring  on  any  given  crystal ;  and  modi- 
fying planes  are  common,  often  running  to  great 
complexity,  and  under  unusual  conditions  pre- 
dominating over  the  commoner  types.  Hence  we 
frequently  find  great  variety  of  form  in  crystals 
of  the  same  substance,  as  is  the  case  with  the  min- 
eral calcite  ( q.v. ) .  It  should,  however,  be  noted 
that  crystals  of  a  mineral  from  a  certain  locality, 
which  are  presumably  formed  under  the  same 
conditions,  show  a  marked  similarity  of  type  and 
are  readily  distinguishable  from  those  of  the 
same  mineral  from  a  diff'erent  locality.  This 
variation  in  type,  which  is  known  as  crystal  habit, 
is  particularly  noticeable  in  large  and  widely  dis- 
tributed species.  Certain  mineral  species  exhibit 
a  tendency  to  join  two  crystals  or  two  halves  of 
the  same  crystal  in  such  a  manner  that  some 
crystallographic  plane  or  axis  is  common  to 
both.  This  juxtaposition,  which  is  ordinarily 
distinguished  by  reentering  angles,  is  known  as 
tmnning.    See  Fie.  6. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  from  the  above  that  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  occurring  crystal  forms 


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is  of  primary  impK)rtance  in  the  investigation  of 
any  mineral  species.  The  identification  of  the 
faces  of  the  crystal,  which  is  often  attended  with 
considerable  difficulty,  is  accomplished  by  meas- 
uring the  interfacial  angles  by  means  of  an  in- 
strument called  a  goniometer  (q.v.)  and  compar- 
ing these  with  the  calculated  relations  obtamed 
from  simple  mathematical  formulas  based  on 
spherical  trigonometry.  The  optical  properties  of 
minerals  as  well  as  their  presence  and  relations 
in  rocks  are  determined  by  means  of  the  petro- 
graphic  microscope.  (See  Microscope.)  For 
exhaustive  study  along  the  line  of  physical  char- 
acters, elaborate  and  accurate  apparatus  is  re- 
quired, while  a  well-equipped  chemical  laboratory 
is  almost  indispensable  to  the  mineralogical  in- 
vestigator. 

MiNEBAXS  AND  RocKS.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant phases  of  mineralogical  study,  and  one 
which  is  replete  with  interest  to  thejgeologist,  is 
the  relation  of  minerals  to  rocks.  The  division 
known  as  the  crystalline  rocks,  in  particular, 
presents  a  wide  and  varied  series  of  rock-forming 
minerals.  These  may  be  classed  as  essential  and 
accessory  constituents  according  as  they  give  char- 
acter in  the  rock  in  which  they  occur  or  are 
present  only  in  insignificant  proportions.  Quartz, 
the  feldspars,  the  micas,  hornblende,  augite, 
€nstatite,  nypersthene,  chrysolite,  garnet,  leucite, 
serpentine,  calcite,  and  dolomite  are  essential 
constituents  of  many  crystalline  rocks,  while 
such  minerals  as  gypsum,  salt,  limonite,  hematite, 
siderite,  kaolin,  magnetite,  and  apatite  often  oc- 
cur in  such  extensive  deposits  as  to  constitute 
rock  masses.  Among  the  accessory  rock-forming 
minerals  may  be  mentioned  ^aphite,  corundum, 
vesuvianite,  chiastolite,  cyanite,  tourmaline,  zir- 
con, titanite,  etc.  Many  geologists  have  made  use 
of  the  minelralogical  character  of  rocks  as  a  basis 
of  classification,  particularly  in  the  case  of  the 
igneous  rocks,  and,  though  open  to  some  objection 
from  the  standpoint  of  geological  inauiry,  the 
aystem  as  applied  to  crystalline  rocks  has  much 
to  commend  it. 

Mineral  Chemistry.  Comparatively  few  ele- 
ments exist  in  nature  uncombined;  the  great 
majority  of  minerals  occur  as  salts  of  relatively 
few  mineral  acids.  Minerals  crvstallizing  from 
a  mineralizing  fluid,  whether  it  be  a  solution  or 
a  fusion,  combine  the  elements  existing  in  that 
fluid  in  strict  accordance  with  the  laws  of  chem- 
istry. The  resulting  minerals  may,  however,  be 
somewhat  modified  by  the  presence  of  elements 
foreign  to  their  typical  formulas,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  emerald  variety  of  beryl,  which  owes  its 
brilliant  green  color  to  the  presence  of  a  small 
amount  of  chromium  not  represented  in  the  nor- 
mal composition  of  beryl.  Again,  certain  ele- 
ments closely  related  in  chemical  character  fre- 
quently replace  one  another  in  mineral  composi- 
tion, the  relative  proportions  varying  between 
limits  and.  giving  rise  to  a  group  of  closely  re- 
lated compounds.  Such  is  the  columbite-tanta- 
lite  group,  which  presents  all  the  gradations  from 
normal  columbite  (FeNbjOo)  to  normal  tantalite 
(FeTaaOe).  Minerals  closely  related  in  compo- 
sition often  exhibit  a  striking  similarity  in  crys- 
tal form.  When  such  isomorphous  compounds 
are  present  in  the  same  magma  they  are  not 
separable  in  the  process  of  crystallization,  but 
tend  to  produce  a  mineral  intermediate  in  com- 
position; as  when  the  isomorphous  carbonates 
-dolomite   and   siderite   grade   into   the   interme- 


diate compound  ankerite.  An  extremely  inter- 
esting group  is  that  of  the  triclinic  feldspars  or 
plagioclases  which  are  regarded  as  isomorphous 
mixtures  of  the  molecules  of  the  two  isomorphous 
species  albite  and  anorthite.  Mineralogy  afi'ords  • 
several  examples  of  mineral  species  identical  m 
chemical  composition,  but  crystallizing  in  forms 
which  are  essentially  different.  This  condition, 
which  is  known  as  dimorphism,  is  represented 
by  the  two  calcium  carbonates  calcite  and  arago- 
nite  and  by  the  two  iron  disulphides  pyrite  and 
marcasite.  Titanium  dioxide,  which  is  trimor- 
phous,  occurs  as  rutile,  octahedrite,  and  brookite. 
Classification  of  Minerals.  The  most  logi- 
cal and  convenient  scheme  of  classification  of 
minerals  is  that  which  is  adopted  by  Dana  in  his 
System  of  Mineralogy  and  which  is  now,  with 
slight  modifications,  universally  used.  By  this 
method  mineral  species  of  similar  composition 
are  placed  together  in  classes  which  are  subdi- 
vided into  divisions.  These  in  turn  are  split  up 
as  far  as  possible  into  isomorphous  groups.  The 
principal  classes  are: 

(1)  Native  elements. 

(2)  Sulphides — Sulphides,  selenides,  tellurides, 
arsenides,  and  antimonides. 

( 3 )  Sulpho-salts — Sulpharsenides,  sulphanti- 
monides,  and  sulphobismuthites. 

(4)  Haloids — Chlorides,  bromides,  iodides, 
and  fluorides. 

(5)  Oxides. 

(6)  Oxygen  Salts — Carbonates,  silicates,  and 
titanates;  niobates  and  tantalates;  phosphates, 
etc. ;  borates  and  uranates ;  sulphates,  etc. ;  tung- 
states,  molybdates. 

(7)  Salts  of  the  organic  acids. 

(8)  Hydrocarbons. 

Uses  of  Minerals.  By  far  the  most  Important 
of  the  uses  to  which  minerals  are  put  is  that  of 
producing  metals  from  those  of  them  which  con- 
tain metal  constituents  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
render  their  mining  profitable.  The  discussion 
of  the  distribution  and  mode  of  occurrence  of 
metallic  ores  involves  many  questions  of  a  purely 
technical  nature  and  belongs  essentially  to  the 
province  of  ore  deposits  (q.v.).  A  few  metals 
such  as  gold,  platinum,  copper,  arsenic,  and  to 
some  extent  silver,  antimony,  bismuth,  and  mer- 
cury are  found  native,  that  is,  uncombined  with 
other  elements.  The  majority  of  the  metallic 
ores,  however,  occur  as  sulphides,  oxides,  or  car- 
bonates of  the  various  metals,  or  more  rarely  as 
arsenides,  tellurides,  chlorides,  or  silicates.  Asso- 
ciation of  metallic  minerals  in  more  or  less  inti- 
mate mixtures  often  gives  rise  to  highly  complex 
ores.  Many  ores,  which  are  essentially  com- 
pounds of  the  base  metals  contain  gold  and  silver 
m  appreciable  amounts  and  are  profitably  mined 
for  the  latter  metals,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
argentiferous  galena  of  Colorado,  Montana,  and 
Utah. 

The  non-metallic  minerals,  although  of  less 
importance  commercially  than  the  metallic  ores, 
are  none  the  less  of  great  and  increasing  value  in 
the  arts.  These  are  grouped,  with  reference  to 
their  application,  into :  ( 1 )  Substances  used  for 
chemical  purposes,  embracing  the  minerals  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  acids,  chemicals, 
soda,  alum,  plaster  of  Paris,  etc.  (2)  Ceramic 
materials  used  in  making  pottery,  bricks,  tilin?, 
paving  blocks,  terracotta,  porcelain,  and  glass. 
(3)  Refractory  materials,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fire-proofing,  linings  of  furnaces,  cruci- 


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589 


MTNERALOGY. 


bles,  and  asbestos  fabrics.  (4)  Abrasives,  em- 
bracing diamonds,  emery,  garnet,  and  quartz 
sand.  (5)  Graphic  material,  embracing  chalk, 
graphite,  pencil  stone,  lithographic  limestone, 
etc  (6)  Pigments,  including  minerals  ground 
for  paints,  and  paint  adulterants.  (7)  Fer- 
tilizers, represented  by  the  lime  phosphates, 
marls,  and  land  plaster.  (8)  Mineral  fuels,  in- 
cluding coal,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas.  The 
use  of  certain  minerals  for  gems  is  probably  of 
very  ancient  origin.  The  extreme  hardness  of  the 
diamond,  sapphire,  ruby,  emerald,  chrysoberyl, 
and  other  precious  stones  protects  them  from 
injury  and  renders  them  capable  of  being  highly 
polished. 

Synthetio  Minebaloot.  Almost  all  of  the 
important  minerals  have  been  successfully  pro- 
duced artificially,  and  much  light  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  formation  of  natural  minerals  in  this 
way.  The  methods  applied  to  this  line  of  re- 
search involve  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  fusion 
at  a  high  heat  for  a  lon^  period.  In  a  number 
of  instances  artificial  mmerals  have  been  acci- 
dentally produced  in  the  course  of  various  metal- 
lurgical operations,  and  the  interiors  of  retorts 
and  furnaces  often  furnish  interesting  examples 
of  this  phase  of  mineral  genesis.  In  point  of 
economic  importance  these  experiments,  though 
interesting,  have  not  as  yet  achieved  a  marked 
degree  of  success  in  the  production  of  gems,  and 
although  both  the  ruby  and  the  diamond  have 
been  made  in  this  way,  the  crystals  in  every  case 
have  been  comparatively  small. 

Analysis  of  Minebals.  The  determination 
of  minerals  is  largely  a  question  of  experience 
gained  by  the  study  of  large  and  varied  collec- 
tions of  specimens.  The  eye  becomes  trained  by 
practice  to  recognize  crystallizations  even  in  dis- 
torted and  imperfectly  exposed  forms,  to  asso- 
ciate certain  colors,  lustre,  and  structure  with 
definite  species,  and  to  associate  certain  min- 
erals with  certain  rock  matrix.  Several  phys- 
ical properties  are  of  considerable  aid  in 
identifying  questionable  specimens,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  color  of  the  powdered  mineral  as 
shown  by  rubbing  it  on  imglazed  porcelain,  the 
approximate  relative  hardness  as  determined  by 
scratching  the  specimen  with  a  knife  point,  and 
the  relative  weight  as  roughly  determined  bv 
weighing  the  specimen  in  the  hand.  These  rough 
determinations  which  are  of  particular  value  as 
field  methods  may  be  supplemented,  with  the 
addition  of  some  simple  and  portable  apparatus, 
by  determinations  of  solubility  and  fusibility.  A 
more  detailed  examination  of  the  composition  of 
a  mineral  involves  recourse  to  the  blowpipe 
analysis.  Some  idea  of  the  results  obtained  by 
this  form  of  analysis  will  be  gained  by  an  exami- 
nation of  the  accompanying  plate,  which  shows 
the  reactions  obtained  from  some  of  the  fusible 
metals  by  heating  their  compounds  with  suitable 
fiuxes  on  charcoal  and  plaster  supports.  The 
coatings  of  iodides  are  produced  by  using  a  fiux 
composed  of  two  parts  sulphur  and  one  part  each 
of  potassium  bisulphate  and  potassic  iodide.  Re- 
actions for  iron,  copper,  manganese,  nickel,  co- 
balt, chromium,  and  other  metals  are  obtained  by 
dissolving  small  portions  of  their  compounds  in 
hot  beads  of  borax  or  microcosmic  salt  and  sub- 
jecting the  resulting?  fusion  to  the  oxidizing  and 
reducing  action  of  the  blowpipe  flame.  The  color 
imparted  to  the  blowpipe  flame  serves  as  a  test 
for  compounds  of  calcium,  strontium,  lithium, 

You  X111.-35. 


barium,  sodium,  and  other  elements.  These  tests 
as  well  as  others  of  similar  nature  merely  an- 
noimce  the  presence  or  absence  of  an  element; 
the  relative  amount  when  required  must  be  deter- 
mined by  a  systematic  quantitative  analysis. 

HiSTOBY.  Although  a  few  mineral  species  were 
known  to  philosophers  at  an  early  date  in  the 
world's  history,  it  was  not  until  the  development 
of  chemistry  from  alchemy  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury that  savants  approached  the  subject  of 
mineralogical  knowledge  in  the  true  spirit  of 
scientific  investigation.  As  a  natural  outcome 
of  the  comparatively  advanced  state  of  mathe- 
matical knowledge  at  the  period  of  this  scientific 
awakening,  the  subject  of  crystallization  early 
developed  a  marked  importance.  In  1783  De- 
lisle,  with  the  aid  of  a  primitive  form  of  goni- 
ometer, measured  the  interfacial  angles  of  a  num- 
ber of  crystals  and  established  the  law  of  con- 
stancy of  interfacial  angles.  The  Abb6  Hatiy 
about  the  same  time  developed  a  theory  corre- 
lating the  internal  structure  of  crystals  with 
their  outward  form.  He  practically  formulated 
the  law  of  rational  indices  which  constitutes  the 
comer-stone  of  crystallography.  HaHy  was  fol- 
lowed by  Hausmann  with  his  application  of 
spherical  trigonometry  in  1803,  Weiss  with  a 
development  along  purely  mathematical  lines  in 
1814,  Mohs  with  a  division  of  crystals  into  six 
systems  in  1822,  Naumann  in  1823,  and  W.  H. 
Miller  in  1839.  In  recent  years  the  science  has 
made  vast  strides,  and  new  methods  and  lines 
of  research  are  being  constantly  developed.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  science  of  mineralogy  is  con- 
stantly enriched  by  the  discovery  of  new  species, 
while  mining  and  quarrying  operations  are  con- 
tinually bringing  to  light  new  and  interesting 
crystalline  forms  and  varieties  of  well-known 
minerals. 

Research  in  physical  mineralogy  is  being  ex- 
tended, notably  in  Germany,  along  a  number  of 
lines,  and  from  time  to  time  valuable  additions 
are  made  to  our  store  of  knowledge  by  careful 
and  exhaustive  studies  of  the  optical,  thermal, 
and  electrical  properties  of  certain  mineral  spe- 
cies. A  method  by  which  the  symmetry  of  crys- 
tallized minerals  may  be  investigated  has  been 
developed  by  Baumhauer,  Beck,  and  others.  This 
method  depends  upon  the  development  of  minute 
angular  cavities  upon  crystal  faces  by  means  of 
the  interrupted  action  of  some  dissolving  medium. 
The  symmetry  of  these  pits,  which  are  known  as 
etch  figures,  conforms  to  the  crystallographic 
symmetry  of  the  mineral  experimented  upon.  Of 
a  similar  nature  in  their  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  crystal  structure  are  the  percussion  fig- 
ures and  solution  planes  which  have  been  made 
objects  of  special  study  by  several  authors. 

The  artificial  formation  of  minerals  opens 
another  line  of  research  upon  which  much  valu- 
able work  has  been  done  by  Daubr6e,  Fouqug, 
Michel  L^vy,  Friedel,  Bourgeois,  Meunier,  and 
others. 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  Among  valuable  works  on  gen- 
eral mineralogy  may  be  mentioned:  Bauerman, 
Text- Book  of  Descriptive  Mineralogy  (London, 
1884)  ;  J.  D.  Dana,  System  of  Mineralogy  (6th 
ed.,  New  York,  1892)  ;  E.  S.  Dana,  Text-Book  of 
Mineralogy  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Des  Cloizeaux, 
Manuel  de  min^alogie,  with  atlas  (vol.  i.,  Paris, 
1862;  vol.  ii.,  part  i.,  1874)  ;  Tschermak,  Lehr- 
huch  der  Mineralogie  (Vienna,  1885).  Of  a 
rather  more  elementary  nature  but  of  consider- 


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KINEBAIi  WATEBS. 


able  value  to  the  student  of  mineralogy  are : 
Moses  and  Parsons,  Mineralogy,  Crystallography, 
and  Blowpipe  Analysis  (New  York,  1900)  ;  E.  S. 
Dana,  Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them  (1805). 

In  addition  to  the  above  the  following  works 
are  especially  devoted  to  crystallography  and 
physical  mineralogy:  Mallard,  Traits  de  crystal- 
lographie  g^omStrique  et  physique  ( Paris,  vol.  i., 
1879;  vol.  ii.,  1884);  Story-Maskelyne,  Crystal- 
lography: The  Morphology  of  Crystals  (London, 
1895)  ;  Williams,  Elements  Qf  Crystallography 
(New  York,  1891)  ;  Groth,  Physikalisohe  Krys- 
iallographie  (Leipzig,  1894-95) ;  Liebisch,  Oeo- 
metrische  Krystallographie  (ib.,  1881)  ;  id., 
Physikalisohe  Krystallographie  (ib.,  1891)  ; 
Moses,  Character  of  Crystals  (New  York,  1899). 

Valuable  text-books  on  determinative  mineral- 
ogy are:  Brush,  Determinative  Mineralogy  and 
Blowpipe  Analysis  (ed.  by  Penfield,  New  York, 
1896) ;  Endlich,  Manual  of  Qualitative  Blowpipe 
Analysis  (New  York,  1892). 

Of  value  in  the  study  of  minerals  in  rock 
sections  are :  Rosenbusch,  Mikroskopische  Physio- 
graphie  der  petrographisch  imchtigen  Mineralien 
(Stuttgart,  1873;  3d  ed.  1892),  translated  and 
abridg^  by  Jddings  (New  York,  1888)  ;  Luquer, 
Minerals  in  Rock  Sections  (New  York,  1898). 

The  following  works  are  useful  for  reference  on 
subjects  connected  with  economic  mineralogy: 
Dewey,  Preliminary  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the 
Systematic  Collections  in  Economic  Geology  and 
Metallurgy  in  the  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum (Bulletin  42,  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum, Washington,  1891 ) ;  Merrill,  Ouide  to  the 
Study  of  the  Collections  in  the  Section  of  Applied 
Geology:  The  V on-Metallic  Minerals  (United 
States  National  Museum,  Washington,  1901); 
Rothwell  and  Struthers,  The  Mineral  Industry 
(New  York,  annually,  1892  et  seq.). 

In  addition  to  these  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  volumes  on  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United 
States,  published  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  (Washington,  1882  et  seq.)- 

XIKEBAL  PAINTS.  A  term  applied  to 
mineral  substances  which  are  mined,  groimd,  and 
sometimes  purified  for  use  as  pigments.  It  in- 
cludes a  variety  of  natural  materials  as  well  as 
some  artificial  products.  The  essential  character- 
istics of  mineral  paints  are  permanence  of  color 
and  sufficient  adhesion  when  applied  to  a  surface 
to  prevent  scaling  and  to  keep  out  moisture. 
Among  the  important  substances  included  under 
the  heading  of  mineral  paints  are  ochre,  sienna, 
and  umber.  These  are  clays  which  owe  their 
color  largely  to  limonite,  although  sienna  and 
umber  are  colored  in  addition  by  manganese. 
Ochre  occurs  at  a  number  of  localities  in  the 
United  States,  the  larger  supply  being  obtained 
from  Pennsylvania  and  Georgia.  It  is  usually 
ground,  washed  to  remove  sand,  and  screened 
before  shipment.  Umber  and  sienna  are  found 
in  but  small  quantities  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  chief  supply  of  them  is  obtained  from  abroad. 
Slate  and  shale  are  ground  for  paint,  the  former 
being  the  refuse  from  slate  quarries.  The  colors 
obtained  from  them  are  usually  red,  green,  blue, 
yellow,  and  brown.  Barite,  or  harytes  as  it  is 
called  commercially,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for 
or  an  adulterant  of  white  lead  in  the  manufacture 
of  white  pigments:  for  this  purpose  it  must  be 
free  from  iron,  and  therefore  its  preparation  for 
market  consists  not  only  in  grinding,  but  in  some 


cases  may  include  treatment  with  sulphurie 
acid  to  remove  the  stains.  The  main  supply  of 
barite  is  obtained  from  Missouri,  North  Carolina, 
Virginia,  and  Tennessee.  It  is  dieaper  than 
white  lesid,  and  does  not  turn  yellow  on  exposure 
to  the  air.  Metallic  paint  is  a  tenn  applied  to 
certain  materials  obtained  by  the  grinding  of 
hematite  ores.  The  color  of  the  paint  is  oftea 
changed  or  improved  by  previous  roasting;  the 
iron  ore  most  frequently  employed  is  that  knownt 
as  the  Clinton  ore,  occurring  in  the  Clinton  divi- 
sion of  the  Silurian  system  of  rocks.  Metallic 
paint  is  mined  in  several  States,  notably  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  and  Tennessee^ 
it  is  frequently  employed  for  coloring  mortars^ 
Graphite  and  graphitic  shale  are  used  for  mak- 
ing black  paint,  and  have  been  found  specially 
desirable  for  the  coatinff  of  metallic  surfaces^ 
The  main  supply  of  hig^  grade  graphite  is  ob- 
tained from  Ceylon,  although  small  quantities- 
are  mined  in  the  United  States. 

Artificial  Mineral  Paints.  Under  this  head- 
ing are  included  Venetian  red  and  Indian  red, 
which  are  pigments  obtained  by  roasting  iron 
sulphate  or  copperas;  white  lead,  a  basic  car- 
bonate of  lead  of  varying  composition;  red 
lead,  formed  by  roasting  of  litharge;  litharge,, 
the  reddish,  partially  roasted  protoxide  of  lead; 
orange  mineral,  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  white 
lead  on  the  hearth  of  a  reverberatory  furnace; 
and  zinc  white,  or  zinc  oxide,  which  is  produced 
by  the  roasting  of  zinc  ores. 

The  production  of  mineral  paints  in  1905 
amounted  to  318,769  short  tons,  valued  at  $27,- 
785,599,  while  the  import^  were  valued  at  $473,- 
483.  Consult:  Jones,  Testing  and  Valuation  of 
Raw  Materials  Used  in  Paint  and  Color  Manu- 
facture (London,  1900).  For  statistics  of  pro- 
duction, consult  Mineral  Resources,  issued  by 
United  States  Geological  Survey  (Washington, 
annually). 

MIKEBAL  TALIiOWy  or  Hatchettite.  A 
yellowish-white,  soft,  flexible  mineral  wax  or 
tallow  that  melts  at  46**  or  47 **  C,  and  consists 
of  about  86  per  cent,  of  carbon  and  14  per  cent, 
of  hydr9gen.  It  is  found  in  the  coal  measures 
in  Glamorganshire,  Wales;  Argyleshire,  Scot- 
land; and  Moravia,  Austria.     See  Ozocebitb. 

MINEBAL  WATEBS.  The  term  usually 
applied  to  spring  waters  which  have  a  variable 
quantity  of  solid  substances  in  solution,  and  on 
this  account  may  exert  effects  on  the  human 
body  different  from  those  of  ordinary  water. 
Mineral  waters  have  been  used  as  remedial  agents 
from  a  very  early  period.  The  oldest  Greek 
physicians  had  great  faith  in  their  curative 
power,  and  the  temples  erected  to  i£sculapiu8 
were  usually  close  to  mineral  springs.  We  are 
indebted  to  the  Romans  for  the  discovery  not 
only  of  the  thermal  springs  in  Italy,  but  also 
of  some  of  the  most  important  springs  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  as  those  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Baden-Baden,  Bath,  and  Spa  in  Belgium.  In  the 
United  States  mineral  springs  have  also  attract- 
ed attention  since  an  early  period.  At  Saratoga 
Springs,  for  example,  the  High  Rock  Spring  was. 
known  to  the  white  people  as  early  as  1767, . 
and  the  American  aborigines  seem  to  have 
been  acquainted  with  its  important  properties 
even  before  that  date.  In  West  Virginia  and 
Virginia  seven  springs  were  already  noted  in 
1831,  and  of  these  the  Bath  mineral  spring,  noir~ 


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MINEBAL  WATEBS. 


known  as  the  Berkeley  Spring,  was  visited  as 
early  as  1777,  while  the  White  Sulphur  Springs 
were  utilized  in  1778.  The  therapeutic  action 
of  mineral  waters  or  spas,  as  they  are  fre- 
quently termed,  depends  largely  on  their  chemical 
composition  and  their  temperature,  although  a 
variety  of  other  circumstances,  such  as  situation, 
elevation,  climate,  mean  temperature,  and  above 
all  the  regular  habits  of  the  patient,  have  no 
doubt  an  important  bearing  on  the  success  of  the 
treatment. 

Obigu^.  The  origin  of  mineral  waters  is  often 
looked  upon  with  much  curiosity,  and  yet  there 
is  nothing  unnatural  about  it.  The  rain  water 
falling  on  the  surface  soaks  down  through  the 
soil  into  the  rocks  and  may  slowly  filter  through 
them  to  a  considerable  depth,  coming  out  to  the 
surface  at  a  lower  level  in  the  form  of  a  spring; 
or  again  the  water  may  reach  sufficient  depths 
to  be  subjected  to  great  pressure  or  even  heat, 
and  coming  to  a  fissure  or  being  struck  by  an 
artesian-well  boring,  it  will  tend  to  escape  to 
the  surface  through  such  an  outlet.  Many  min» 
eral  springs  are  found  along  lines  of  faulting, 
since  fault  fissures  afiford  a  means  of  escape.  The 
dissolved  mineral  substances  no  doubt  are  ob« 
tained  from  the  rocks  through  which  the  water 
has  flowed.  In  some  cases  the  waters  in  seeping 
through  one  type  of  rock  may  take  up  certain 
acids  which  later  react  on  basic  elements  con- 
tained in  other  rocks,  thus  producing  salts.  Most 
waters  contain  some  carbonic  acid,  which  greatly 
increases  their  solvent  powers  in  the  presence  of 
lime,  magnesia,  and  iron;  while  if  the  waters 
are  alkaline  they  may  take  up  substances  which 
are  ordinarily  rather  insoluble,  such  as  silica. 
The  attacking  power  of  the  water  may  be  still 
further  increased  if  it  is  hot.  There  seems  to 
be  some  relation  between  hot  springs  and  the 
geological  structure  of  a  region,  as  thermal 
springs  are  more  abundant  in  areas  where  the 
rocks  have  been  highly  faulted  or  where  there  has 
been  volcanic  activity  in  comparatively  recent 
geological  tiroes.  Mineral  springs  commonly  con* 
tain  more  dissolved  material  in  regions  of  sedi- 
mentary rock  formation  than  in  igneous  or  meta* 
morphic  areas. 

Tempebatube.  Springs  are  commonly  charac- 
terized as  thermal  when  they  have  a  temperature 
of  over  70**  F.  If  the  temperature  is  between  70** 
and  98**  they  are  called  tepid,  while  all  exceeding 
the  latter  limit  are  included  under  hot  springs. 
The  following  examples  will  serve  to  show  the 
degrees  of  temperature  found  in  different  thermal 
springs:  Sweet  Springs,  W.  Va.,  74**  F.;  Warm 
Springs,  French  Broad  River,  Tenn.,  95**; 
Washita,  Ark.,  140**  to  156**;  San  Bernardino 
Hot  Springs,  Cal.,  108**  to  172°;  Las  Vegas, 
N.  M.,  no**  to  140**;  Sulphur  Springs,  Aix-les- 
Bains,  France,  108**;  Kaiserquelle,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  Prussia,  131**;  Karlsbad  (Sprudel), 
Bohemia,  162**. 

Flow  of  Springs.  The  amoimt  of  water  which 
a  mineral  spring  may  discharge  is  quite  variable ; 
thus  500  springs  in  Central  France,  which  were 
tested,  yielded  2,628,000  gallons  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  the  famous  Orange  Spring  in  Florida 
is  said  to  discharge  5,000,000  gallons  per  hour. 
The  discharge  per  hour  of  some  of  the  principal 
American  springs  is  as  follows:  Champion 
Springs,  Saratoga,  2500  ^llons;  Boanoke  Bed 
Sulphur  Springs,  Va.,  1278  gallons;  Warm  Sul- 
phur Springs,  Bath,  Va.,  350,000  gallons;  Hot 


Springs,  Ark.,  20,100  gallons;  Glen  Springs,  Wau» 
kesha,  Wis.,  45,000  gallons;  Horeb,  Waukesha, 
Wis.,  1500  gallons. 

Classification.  A  classification  of  mineral 
waters  may  be  geographic,  geologic,  therapeutic, 
or  chemical.  The  following  scheme  of  classifica- 
tion is  one  adopted  by  A.  C.  Peale,  a  noted  au- 
thority on  the  subject  of  mineral  waters,  and 
more  especially  those  of  the  United  States: 

CLASSmCATlON  OF  MINBHAL  WAT£BB. 

Alkaline 


Saline 


Acid 


( Sulphated 
)  Mniiated 
1  Sulphated 


Springs  included  in  the  above  groups  may  be 
either  thermal  or  non-thermal,  and  they  may  be 
either  free  from  gas  or  contain  carbonic  acid  gas 
(carbonated  springs),  sulphureted  hydrogen 
(sulphureted),  nitrogen  gas  (azotized),  and 
carbureted  hydrogen  (carbureted).  The  alka- 
line waters  include  all  those  containing  alkaline 
carbonates,  such  as  carbonates  of  alkalies,  alka- 
line earths,  alkaline  metals,  or  iron.  About  one- 
half  of  the  alkaline  springs  of  the  United  States 
are  calcic  alkaline,  that  is,  containing  calcium 
carbonates  or  bicarbonates  as  the  predominant 
ingredient.  The  water  of  the  Hot  Springs  of 
Virginia  is  a  hot,  carbonated^  calcic  'alkaline 
water.  The  alkaline-saline  waters  include  those 
containing  combinations  of  alkaline  carbonates 
with  sulpnides  (sulphated)  or  chlorides  (muri- 
ated),  there  being  in  the  United  States  one-third 
as  many  as  of  the  saline  waters.  In  the  saline 
waters  sulphides  and  chlorides  predominate;  in 
the  United  States  there  are  about  one-third  more 
springs  of  this  class  than  of  the  alkaline  springs. 
Springs  which  are  classified  as  purgative  or 
aperient  will  fall  in  the  subclass  of  sulphated 
salines.  The  salines  may  be  sodic  sulphated  or 
muriated,  or  calcic  sulphated  or  muriated;  the 
sodic  muriated  constitute  about  88  per  cent, 
of  the  muriated  saline  waters  of  the  United 
States.  The  acid  class  includes  all  waters  con- 
taining free  acid,  whether  silicic,  sulphuric,  or 
hydrochloric.  In  addition  to  having  free  acid  a 
spring  may  also  contain  salts  of  the  acid. 

Geographical  Distribution.  There  are  at  the 
present  time  between  eight  and  ten  thousand 
mineral  springs  in  the  United  States,  and  of  this 
number  484  were  listed  as  commercial  producero 
in  1904.  Most  of  the  mineral  springs  of  com- 
mercial value  are  found  in  the  Eastern  United 
States  and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley ;  west  of  the 
lOlst  meridian  they  are  largely  confined  to  the 
Pacific  Coast.  No  hot  springs  are  known  in  the 
New  England  States.  In  Maine  the  springs  are 
slightly  alkaline-saline  and  chalybeated,  with  a 
few  of  carbonic  character.  Their  temperature 
ranges  from  40**  to  46**  F.  Chalybeated  spring* 
are  abundant  in  Massachusetts.  Many  of  the 
springs  of  the  New  England  States  are  utilized 
for  commercial  purposes,  but  among  the  Eastern 
States  as  a  whole  New  York  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  producers.  The  springs  at  Sara- 
toga have  an  international  reputation,  and  com- 
pare favorably  with  any  of  the  foreign  spasj 
they  attract  great  numbers  of  tourists  and  health- 
seekers,  and  their  waters  are  extensively  used 
throughout   the   United   States.     These    waters 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MTNERAT.  WATEBS.  ^^ 

are  effectual  in  diseases  of  the  liver,  spleen, 
and  skin,  in  neuralgia,  and  rheumatic  ana  dys- 
peptic troubles.  Farther  south  in  the  Appala- 
chians are  the  celebrated  Hot  Springs  of  Vir- 
ginia, including  the  Berkeley  Springs  and  the 
White  Sulphur  Springs.  The  waters  of  the  for- 
mer are  used  chiefly  for  certain  forms  of  dys- 
pepsia, diseases  of  the  liver  and  bowels,  while 
those  of  the  latter  are  of  special  value  in  the 
treatment  of  chronic  diseases,  gout,  rheumatism. 


XINEBa 

from  France,  and  the  Karlsbad  Sprudel  waters 
are  extensively  imported  into  the  United  States. 

PBODUonoir.  The  production  of  mineral  waters 
in  the  United  States  in  1905  amounted  to  47,590,- 
081  gallons,  valued  at  $6,811,611.  The  imports 
in  the  preceding  year  amounted  to  2,901,828 
gallons,  valued  at  $868,262. 

Chemical  Analyses.  The  following  table 
shows  the  important  constituents  of  some  of  the 
American  mineral  waters: 


AVALTSBS  OF  AMBSIOAH  MlHBJIAIi  WATBBS 


CHBMIOAL  OOKS TITUBHTS 


Sodium  carbonate 

Sodinm  bicarbonate 

Sodium  sulphate 

Calcium  carbonate 

Magnesium  carbonate.... 

Calcium  bicarbonate 

Magnesium  bicarbonate. 

Litnlum  bicarbonate 

Iron  bicarbonate 

Magnesium  sulphate 

Potassium  sulphate 

Sodium  chloride 

Pot€Mslum  chloride 

Potassium  bromide 

Sodium  bromide 

Sodium  iodide 

SUlca 

Calcium  sulphate 


1^1 

ox,   3 
22**3 

ill 

Hot  Springs. 

Ark. 
Tbermah 

carbonated 

m  -§3 

m 
III 

Grains 
Per  gallon 

Grains 
per  gallon 

"s.'to 

Grains 
per  gallon 

6.M 

i.'x 
i.n 

14.68 

Grains 
per  gallon 

12.66 

a.'i7 

.88 
3.64 

Grains 
per  gallon 

".« 

13.98 
.69 

18.'96 
".88 

.46 
96.64 

Parts 

per  2000 

6.00 

16.37 
11.41 

Trace 
37.84 

3.61 

GrtUns 
pergmnoa 

10.77 

l.M 

"ii.a 

99.84 

143.40 

131.76 

4.76 

17.03 
13.99 

.84 

8.00 
3.16 

166.'8i 

1.67 

4.67 
.68 

.04 

.89 

400.44 

8.06 

.46 
1.16 

8.06 
.14 
.84 

.74 

etc.  The  general  character  of  the  sprines  of 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia  is  saline;  sulphu- 
reted  waters  are  the  most  numerous,  but  alkaline 
and  chalybeate  and  acid  springs  also  occur.  The 
saline  springs  are  found  m  excess  of  all  others 
in  the  South  Central  States,  and  thermal  springs 
are  few.  In  this  region  the  States  of  Kentucl^, 
Tennessee,  and  Arkansas  are  the  chief  producers 
of  mineral  waters.  The  Hot  Springs  of  Arkansas 
are  among  the  most  important  thermal  springs 
foimd  in  the  entire  country,  and  of  value  for  dis- 
eases of  the  blood.  The  Texas  springs  are  peculiar 
from  the  fact  that  many  of  them  show  free  sul- 
phuric acid.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  lime- 
stone formations  in  the  North  Central  States, 
calcic  springs  are  quite  numerous,  and  in  Wis- 
consin those  of  Waukesha  are  widely  known.  In 
the  Cordilleran  region  the  most  noted  occurrence 
of  hot  springs  is  that  of  the  Yellowstone  Park, 
but  they  are  not  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  In 
New  Mexico  the  Las  Vegas  Hot  Springs  are 
often  visited,  and  in  Washington  the  Medical 
Lake  is  the  source  of  one  of  the  best  known  min- 
eral waters  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

FoBEiON  Waters.  A  number  of  foreign  min- 
eral waters  are  imported  into  the  United  States 
and  find  a  considerable  sale.  Chief  among  these 
is  the  Apollinaris  water  which  comes  from  Ahr- 
weiler,  Germany,  and  which  is  largely  used  as  a 
table  water,  and  in  cases  of  nervous  irritation 
attended  with  dyspepsia.  The  Friedrichshall 
bitterwater,  from  the  Friedrichshall  Springs, 
near  Hildenburg,  Germany,  is  largely  used  for 
habitual  constipation,  as  is  the  Hunyadi-JAnos 
water  from  Budapest,  Hungary,  which  is  a 
remedy  also  for  congestive  and  gouty  disorders. 
The  Kissingen  waters  from  Bavaria,  the  Vichy 


BiBLiOGRAPHT.  Bailey,  "Mineral  Waters  of 
Kansas,*'  in  Kansas  Oeologioal  Survey,  vol.  vii. 
(Topeka,  1902) ;  Branner,  "Mineral  Waters  of 
Arkansas,"  in  Arkansas  Oeologieal  Survey  Re- 
port (Little  Rock,  1891) ;  Crook,  Mineral  Waters 
of  the  United  States  and  Their  Therapeutic  Uses 
(Philadelphia,  1899) ;  De  Launay,  Recherche, 
captage  et  am^nagement  des  sources  thermo- 
min^ales,  origins  des  eaua  minSrales,  g&ologie, 
propriet4s  physiques  et  chimiques  (Paris,  1899) ; 
Peale,  "Natural  Mineral  Waters  of  the  United 
States,"  in  United  States  (Geological  Survey,  19ih 
Annual  Report  (Washington,  1898)  ;  Peale, 
"Lists  and  Analyses  of  the  Mineral  Springs  of 
the  United  States,"  in  United  States  (Geological 
Survey,  Bulletin  No,  S2  (Washington,  1886) ; 
Schweitzer,  "A  Report  on  the  Mineral  Waters 
of  Missouri,"  in  Missouri  (Geological  Survey,  vol. 
iii.  (Jeflferson  City,  1892).  For  statistics  of  pro- 
duction, see  Mineral  Resources,  issued  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  (Washington, 
annually).     See  Bottuwq  and  Bottling  Ma- 

CHINEBY. 

MINEBS,  Western  Federation  of.  A  cen- 
tralized association  of  persons  working  in  and 
around  mines,  mills,  and  smelters,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  abolishing  the  truck  system,  child  labor, 
the  use  of  priva^  detectives  in  labor  disputes, 
'government  by  injunction,'  the  importation  of 
laborers  under  contract,  and  of  improving  gen- 
erally conditions  of  employment  with  respect  to 
wages  and  the  hours  of  labor.  The  officers  of  the 
association  consist  of  a  president,  vice-president, 
secretary-treasurer,  and  an  executive  board  com- 
posed of  these  officers  and  one  organizer  from 
each  of  the  six  districts  into  which  the  territory 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINEBa 


548 


HINEBVA. 


covered  by  the  Federation  is  divided.  The  execu- 
tive board  acts  as  a  board  of  conciliation  and 
arbitration  (which  are  strongly  recommended 
by  the  Federation),  may  levy  assessments  in  case 
of  emergency,  must  approve  every  strike  and 
joint  contract  entered  into  by  local  unions,  and 
between  the  annual  conventions  has  full  power 
to  direct  the  workings  of  the  Federation.  The 
Western  Federation  of  Miners  officially  indorses 
socialism  and  advocates  participation  of  labor 
organizations  in  politics  with  the  view  of  se- 
curing to  the  working  classes  the  ownership 
and  operation  of  the  means  of  production. 
It  was  founded  May  15,  1803,  largely  as 
an  outcome  of  the  notorious  Coeur  d'Aldne 
strike  of  1892.  In  April,  1809,  it  again  became 
involved  in  the  Coeur  d'Altoe  strike  of  that  year 
and  in  the  later  period  of  the  strike  controlled 
and  directed  it.  During  this  conflict  several  per- 
sons were  killed,  martial  law  was  declared,  and 
certain  county  officers  were  impeached  for  failure 
to  perform  their  duties  in  suppressing  violence. 
A  large  number  of  miners  were  arrested  by  the 
temporary  authorities  and  imprisoned  in  a  stock- 
ade known  as  the  *bull  pen.'  Persons  desirous  of 
securing  work  in  the  mines  at  that  time  were 
forced  to  obtain  a  permit,  which  was  issued  only 
after  the  applicant  had  signed  a  statement  deny- 
ing that  he  had  participated  in  the  riot  of  April 
29th,  declaring  his  belief  that  it  was  incited  and 
perpetrated  by  the  miners*  unions,  expressing 
disapproval  of  the  riot,  renouncing  membership 
in  the  miners'  union,  and  pledging  himself  there- 
after to  obey  the  law.  There  are  at  present  189 
unions  affiliated  with  the  Western  Federation, 
the  aggregate  membership  of  which  is  officially 
estimated  at  60,000  persons,  residing  almost  ex- 
clusively in  Canada  and  the  States  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  It  is  affiliated  with  the  Amer- 
ican Lalx>r  Union.  The  official  organ  is  the 
Miners*  Magazine,  published  monthly  at  Den- 
ver, Col. 

MIOfEBSVUiliE.  A  borough  in  Schuylkill 
County,  Pa.,  four  miles  west  of  Pottsville,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  an  electric  road;  on  the 
west  branch  of  the  Schuylkill  River,  and  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading, 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  People's  railroads  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  J  6).  It  is  in  the  anthracite 
region,  and  has  extensive  coal-mining  interests, 
besides  several  factories.  Population,  in  1900, 
4815;  in  1906   (local  est.),  6000. 

MINEB^A  (Old  Lat.  Menervay  from  root  in 
mens,  Skt.  man-,  Gk.  /tipof^  menos,  strength). 
A  Roman  goddess  identified  with  the  Greek 
Athena.  Though  the  two  divinities  have  some 
resemblance,  it  will  be  best  to  treat  them  sepa- 
rately. 

Gbeek.  Athena  was  a  universally  worshiped 
Hellenic  divinity,  and  there  is  no  satisfactory 
evidence  of  a  foreign  origin  for  her  cult.  In  the 
earliest  literature,  we  find  Athena  already  a 
fully  developed  personality,  the  favorite  daugh- 
ter of  Zeus,  wielder  at  times  of  his  aegis,  and 
but  little  inferior  to  him  in  power.  In  general 
the  goddess  was  warlike.  Hence  she  was  wor- 
shiped in  the  citadel  of  many  towns,  and  her 
sacred  images,  the  Palladia,  which  were  often 
said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  were  kept  with 
great  care,  for  their  possession  made  the  town 
impregnable.  She  is  not,  however,  connected  with 
the  mere  lust  of  battle,  but  with  military  wisdom 


and  patient  strategy  as  well  as  with  heroic 
prowess  in  actual  conflict.  Wisdom  is,  in  fact, 
so  prominent  in  the  conception  that  later  she  be- 
came the  patron  of  learning.  Even  in  early 
times  she  is  Ergane,  the  goddess  of  crafts,  espe- 
cially the  peculiarly  feminine  occupations  of  spin- 
ning and  weaving,  which  may  have  arisen  from 
the  custom  of  weaving  for  the  statue  of  the  god- 
dess a  peplus  or  mantle.  Athena  was  also  the 
goddess  of  smiths,  and  even  of  agriculture,  so 
that  at  Athens  the  smiths  and  potters  celebrated 
the  Chalkeia,  as  a  joint  festival  of  Hephaestus 
and  Athena.  As  a  battle  goddess,  she  was  wor- 
shiped at  Athens  as  Athene  Nike,  bearing  the 
spear  and  shield,  and  wearing  the  aegis,  which  is 
commonly  adorned  with  the  Gorgon's  head,  of 
petrifying  power.  She  also  carries  the  spindle  as 
Ergane,  and  a  pomegranate  as  Nike.  Sacred  to 
her  were  also  the  snake  and  the  owl,  and  especial- 
ly the  olive,  which  she  was  said  to  have  given  to 
Athens,  her  favorite  city.  In  the  Greek  belief 
she  was  the  pure  virgin,  but  there  are  plain 
traces  that  ^is  was  not  original. 

Athens  is  for  us  the  great  centre  of  Athena 
worship,  and  here  there  were  two  ancient  shrines, 
the  Palladium  in  the  lower  town,  the  seat  of  an 
ancient  court  for  the  trial  of  involuntary  homi- 
cide, and  the  Acropolis,  where  were  the  house  of 
Erechtheus  and  the  shrine  ot  the  Polias.  Here 
was  an  ancient  temple,  burned  by  the  Persians, 
but  possibly  rebuilt  at  least  in  part.  Close  to 
its  site  was  built,  near  the  end  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, the  somewhat  complicated  Erechtheum 
(q.v.),  and  earlier  (b.o.  437)  the  Acropolis  was 
crowned  by  the  magnificent  Parthenon  (q.v.), 
containing  the  gold-ivory  statue  of  the  goddess  by 
Phidias.  In  her  honor  were  celebrated  the 
Panathenaea,  and  other  smaller  festivals,  at  some 
of  which  mystic  rites  were  prominent.  According 
to  the  common  legend  she  wsis  bom  from  the  head 
of  Zeus,  who  produced  her  by  his  own  power. 
Other  versions  told  how  Zeus  had  swallowed 
Metis  (Wisdom)  when  pregnant  by  him  of 
Athena.  In  the  fullness  of  time  Hephaestus  or 
Prometheus  or  Hermes,  to  relieve  the  pains  in 
the  head  of  Zeus,  split  it  with  an  axe,  whereupon 
the  goddess  leaped  forth  full-armed— a  scene  fre- 
quent in  the  earlier  vases.  The  nature  of  Athena 
is  still  a  matter  of  dispute,  but  there  is  much  in 
favor  of  the  view  that  she  is  a  goddess  of  the 
lightning. 

Roman.  Minerva  seems  to  be  an  old  Italian 
goddess,  whose  worship  was  also  common  in 
Etruria,  but  who  was  not  originally  one  of  the 
leading  Roman  divinities,  for  her  name  is  absent 
from  the  oldest  religious  calendars.  When  the 
worship  was  introduced  is  not  known,  but  it  was 
certainly  early,  for  Minerva  is  one  of  the  Capi- 
toline  triad,  and  had  also  an  ancient  temple  on 
the  Aventine,  which  was  the  religious  centre 
for  the  guilds  of  craftsmen,  as  whose  patron  the 
goddess  appears.  The  festival  of  this  temple 
was  celebrated  on  March  19th,  the  fifth  day  after 
the  Ides  (whence  the  name  Quinquatrus ) ,  and 
seems  to  have  formed  originally  part  of  a  festi- 
val of  Mars.  It  was  chiefly  celebrated  by  the 
guilds,  including  physicians  (whence  was  wor- 
shiped a  Minerva  Medica),  and  was  of  a  dis* 
tinctly  popular  character.  On  the  Capitol  Mi- 
nerva appears  in  her  Greek  aspect  as  protector 
of  the  city,  but  this  and  her  worship  as  a  goddess 
of  battle  or  victory  seem  due  entirely  to  foreign 
influence.    In  the  later  Republic  and  the  Empire, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HINEBVA.  544 

thef  Greek   conception   of   Athena   almost   com- 
pletely supplanted  the  earlier  Italian  belief. 

MINEBVA  MEIKICA^  Temple  of.  The  name 
erroneously  given  in  the  seventeenth  century  to 
the  ruins  of  a  decagonal  nymphseum  on  the  Esqui- 
line  in  Rome,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Licinian 
Gardens.  The  name  was  wrongly  based  on  that 
of  the  famous  statue  of  Minerva  in  the  Vatican 
Museum,  which  was  not  found  on  the  Esquiline, 
but  near  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra  Mi- 
nerva. The  title  medica  also  rests  on  a  miscon- 
ception, as  the  serpent  at  the  foot  oi  the  statue 
is  not  the  serpent  of  ^sculapius,  but  the  protec- 
tor of  the  olive  gardens.  The  ten  sides  of  the  nym- 
phffium,  once  adorned  with  mosaics  and  porphyry, 
are  occupied  on  the  lower  story  by  a  door  and 
nine  niches,  with  ten  windows  above  them.  It 
was  covered  by  a  dome  which  was  destroyed  in 
1828.  When  tne  ruins  were  excavated  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  numbers  of  statues  and  architec- 
tural marbles  were  recovered. 

MINEBVA  PBE8S.  The  name  of  a  London 
printing  house,  from  which  issued,  late  in  the 
eighteenth  and  early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
an  immense  number  of  sentimental  and  trashy 
novels. 

HINEBVINO  MXTBGE,  mS'nfir-ve'nft  m55r'- 

I'k.  A  walled  town  in  the  Province  of  Bari, 
taly,  situated  about  25  miles  southwest  of  Bar- 
letta  (Map:  Italy,  L  6).  It  produces  fruit  and 
vegetables.     Population,  in  1901,  17,353. 

MINES  AND  MINING.     See  Mining. 

MINES  AND  MINING  (in  Law).  The  law 
relating  to  mines  in  the  United  States  has  been 
almost  wholly  developed  within  the  last  fifty 
years.  By  the  laws  of  England  all  mines  of  gold 
or  silver,  wherever  found,  belonged  not  to  the 
owner  of  the  land,  but  to  the  sovereign.  There  is 
some  doubt  as  to  whether  this  doctrine  was  ever 
generally  adopted  in  the  United  States.  It  was, 
however,  undoubtedly  recognized  by  several  East- 
ern States  immediately  after  the  Revolution,  and 
in  New  York  a  statute,  still  in  force,  expressly 
reserves  to  the  State  the  right  to  mines  of  gold 
and  silver.  In  general,  however,  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  was  considered  to  reserve  all 
mineral  rights  in  lands  conveyed  or  given  to  citi- 
zens, unless  such  rights  were  expressly  granted. 
For  a  time  the  Government  leased  mineral  lands 
on  royalties,  or  fixed  rents,  but,  owing  to  the 
great  difficulty  in  ascertaining  and  collecting  the 
amounts  due,  the  policy  was  finally  abandoned, 
and  rights  to  take  minerals  were  granted  out* 
right. 

The  law  was  in  this  condition  when  gold  was 
discovered  in  California,  and  thousands  of  per- 
sons, many  of  them  without  previous  experience, 
rushed  there,  and  discovered  and  opened  up  mines. 
To  avoid  the  frequent  shedding  of  blood  and  other 
disagreeable  consequences  of  disputes  over  the 
extent  of  each  other's  rights,  it  became  the  cus- 
tom for  the  miners  in  a  new  district  to  meet  and 
pass  rules  and  regulations  on  every  subject  relat- 
ing to  their  calling,  and  these  were  enforced  by 
committees  appointed  for  the  purpose.  Subse- 
quently, when  courts  were  established  in  Cali- 
fornia] they  adopted  those  rules  and  regulations 
which  had  become  so  recognized  and  fixed  in  min- 
ing communities  as  to  become  in  effect  the  common 
law  of  mines.  The  claims  of  the  miners  were 
protected  upon  the  fiction  that  they  had  origi- 


MINES  AND  MINING. 

nally  obtained  a  license  from  the  Government,  and 
if  they  followed  the  rules  of  their  particular  dis- 
tricts they  were  held  to  have  a  property  right  in 
their  mines  or  claims,  as  ^ey  were  called.  These 
rights  or  claims  could  be  conveyed,  would  descend 
to  the  heirs,  and  were  in  every  way  treated  as 
real  property .  In  July,  1866,  Congress  passed  a 
law  providing  that  title  to  public  mineral  lands 
might  be  acquired  by  payment  of  a  small  price 
or  fee  and  by  complying  with  certain  prescribed 
formalities.  This  act  was  superseded  by  an  act 
in  1873  {Rev.  Stat.,  tit.  xxxii.,  ch.  6)  which  sub- 
stantially incorporated  the  provisions  of  the  for- 
mer act,  and  supplemented  them  with  others  sug- 
gested by  the  new  development  in  mining  law. 

The  act  of  1873  also  provided  for  the  judicial 
recognition  of  the  rules  and  regulations  then 
prevalent,  and  such  as  might  thereafter  obtain 
recognition  in  mining  districts,  where  they  were 
not  contrary  to  its  own  provisions  or  the  laws  of 
the  States  in  which  such  districts  were  situated. 
One  of  the  important  provisions  of  the  last  act 
was  to  prescribe  the  maximum  limits  of  claims. 
The  extent  of  a  lode  claim,  that  is  one  where  the 
ore  runs  in  a  well-defined  vein,  is  fixed  at  300 
feet  on  either  side  of  the  vein  by  1500  feet  in 
length;  and  placer  claims,  that  is  where  the  ore 
is  loosely  mingled  with  the  surface  earth,  are  not 
to  exceed  20  acres  to  one  individual,  or  160  acres 
to  an  association  of  individuals.  The  areas  of 
both  lode  and  placer  claims  may  be  changed  by 
the  statutes  of  the  various  States  or  by  the  rules 
of  a  mining  district,  provided  they  do  not  exceed 
the  above  fixed  limits.  The  owner  of  a  claim  may 
follow  a  well-defined  vein  of  mineral  for  3000 
feet  from  the  opening  of  the  shaft  in  any  direc- 
tion, and  he  may  follow  a  vein  the  general  course 
of  which  is  downward  through  its  'dips'  and  vari- 
ations indefinitely. 

The  common -law  rule  that  a  man  owns  every- 
thing beneath  the  surface  of  his  land  is,  there- 
fore, not  followed  in  our  modem  law  relating 
to  mines.  It  often  happens  that  two  lodes  inter- 
sect, and  in  such  a  case  the  one  who  first  opened 
his  mine  is  entitled  to  the  ore  at  the  point  of 
intersection;  but  each  is  entitled  to  follow  his 
lode  farther,  and  each  has  an  easement  or  right 
to  cross  the  tunnel  of  the  other  at  that  point  in 
the  proper  working  of  his  mine.  Owing  to  the 
great  difficulty  in  ascertaining  whether  a  person 
is  trespassing  in  this  manner,  any  owner  of  lands 
who  has  reasonable  cause  to  suspect  that  another 
is  doing  so  may  obtain  from  a  court  of  equity 
an  'order  of  inspection*  to  determine  whether  he 
is  encroaching  on  the  land  of  the  complainant  or 
not. 

Rights  to  water,  which  is  so  essential  in  min- 
ing operations,  vary  in  different  jurisdictions; 
but  in  general  the  one  who  first  appropriates  the 
waters  of  a  stream  for  his  use  in  mining  is  con- 
ceded the  right  to  use  all  that  is  reasonably  neces- 
sary in  his  operations.  However,  when  some  one 
else  locates  on  the  same  stream  the  first  person 
can  only  continue  to  take  the  amount  he  was 
using  when  the  second  person  located  his  claim. 
The  owner  of  a  mine  must  properly  support  the 
earth  surrounding  his  tunnels,  and  is  liable  for 
any  damage  caused  to  the  lands  of  others  by 
settling  of  the  earth  if  he  is  negligent  in  this 
particular.  The  rules  and  customs  of  the  miners 
which  were  given  the  effect  of  law  by  the  statute 
of  1873,  and  those  which  have  since  come  into  ex- 
istence, are  too  numerous  and  complicated  to  be 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINES  AND  MINING. 


545 


MINES  AND  MINING. 


set  forth  in  the  scope  of  this  article.  However, 
it  may  be  said  that  in  the  present  state  of  the 
law  the  courts,  in  deciding  a  case  involving  min- 
ing law,  take  into  consideration,  in  the  order  men- 
tioned, the  statutes  of  the  United  States,  the 
laws  of  the  State  in  which  the  property  in  ques- 
tion is  situated,  and  the  rules  and  customs  above 
referred  to. 

Anv  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  a  person 
who  has  declared  his  intention  to  become  such, 
may  locate  and  obtain  a  patent  for  a  mining 
claim  on  public  lands.  Before  a  person  can  ac- 
quire any  rights  he  must  have  actually  discov- 
ered the  presence  of  minerals,  as  it  is  then  cer- 
tain he  comes  within  the  law  as  to  mineral  lands. 
The  first  step  thereafter  is  to  make  a  'location' 
on  it;  that  is,  to  perform  certain  acts  which  are 
deemed  to  constitute  sufficient  evidence  of  an  in* 
tention  to  claim  the  benefits  of  the  discovery. 
The  United  States  statutes  provide  that  a  claim 
must  be  "distinctly  marked  on  the  ground  so 
that  its  boundaries  can  be  readily  traced."  This 
is  usually  done  by  setting  up  boundary  monu- 
ments, such  as  posts  or  stones  at  the  four  cor- 
ners of  the  claim.  In  most  States  the  locator, 
as  the  prospector  is  called,  is  required  to  post  a 
written  notice  of  his  claim  on  some  object  on 
the  land.  This  notice  consists  of  a  description 
of  the  land  thus  appropriated  and  a  declaration 
of  his  intention  to  occupy  it  for  mining  purposes. 
Such  notice  of  claim  must  also  be  filed  with  a 
recording  officer,  usually  the  register  of  deeds  of 
the  county.  After  a  miner  has  located  his  claim 
in  the  above  manner  he  must  continue  his  mining 
operations  or  he  will  be  deemed  to  have  forfeited 
it.  The  labor  may  consist  in  actual  mining,  or 
in  improvements  in  the  mine  for  preservation  or 
increased  convenience  in  working  it.  When  a 
claim  is  forfeited  by  a  failure  to  perform  labor 
of  the  required  value  it  is  open  to  relocation  by 
any  one.  However,  under  this  statute  the  claim 
is  not  forfeited  until  the  expiration  of  a  year 
from  the  time  operations  ceased.  A  claim  may 
also  be  lost  by  abandonment,  which  consists  in 
leaving  a  claim  with  an  intention  not  to  return 
and  work  it  again. 

Where  a  mining  prospector  complies  with  all 
the  formalities  to  obtain  a  location  he  has  a  good 
title  against  every  one  except  the  United  States. 
In  order  to  complete  his  title  and  make  it  a  mat- 
ter of  record,  the  locator  may  obtain  a  patent, 
that  is  a  grant,  of  the  claim  from  the  Federal 
Crovemment,  by  having  a  survey  and  an  abstract 
of  his  possessory  title  made  and  filing  them  in 
the  United  States  Land  Office,  together  with  a 
formal  applicaticm  for  a  patent,  and  a  certificate 
to  the  effect  that  he  has  expended  at  least  $500 
on  the  claim,  either  in  improving  or  working  it. 
The  application  consists  of  an  affidavit  to  the  ef- 
fect that  he  has  complied  with  all  local  mining 
customs  and  regulations  as  well  as  the  statutory 
requirements  to  obtain  a  good  possessory  title. 
One  copy  of  this  application  must  be  posted  on 
the  claim  and  a  notice  thereof  must  be  published 
in  the  nearest  newspaper. 

The  rules  of  law  in  regard  to  the  ownership, 
conveyance,  and  descent  of  real  property  are,  in 
general,  applicable  to  mining  property.  A  lessee 
or  owner  of  a  life  estate  in  lands  is  entitled  to 
work  open  mines  thereon,  but  cannot  open  new 
mines  imless  this  right  is  expressly  given.  See 
Land;  Real  Property;  Water  Rights. 


BiBLiooRAPHY.  Cousulti  Barringer  and 
Adams,  Mines  and  Mining  (1897)  ;  Copp,  Ameri- 
can Mining  Code  (7th  ed.,  Washington,  1893); 
Copp,  United  States  Mineral  Lands  (2d  ed.» 
Washington,  1892) ;  Lindley,  American  Law  of 
Mining  (1897);  Morrison,  Mining  Rights  (10th 
ed.,  Denver,  1900)  ;  White,  Late  of  Mines  and 
Mining  Injuries  (St.  Louis,  1903)  ;  Wyman, 
Public  Land  and  Mining  Laws  (1898);  Clark, 
Miners*  Manual  (1898). 

MINES  AND  MINING,  Military.  The  term 
military  mining  is  used  in  two  senses.  The  fir^t 
refers  to  the  broad  subject  of  the  placing  and  ex- 
plosion of  charges  of  explosive  underground  with 
a  view  to  destroying  men  and  material.  This 
includes  the  ordinary  use  of  mines  as  an  obstacle 
to  the  approach  of  an  attacking  force.  The 
other  and  more  generally  accept^  use  of  the 
term  is  to  denote  one  of  the  stages  in  a  stub- 
bom  siege.  In  the  discussion  of  siege  and 
siege  works  (q.v.)  it  is  shown  that  when  troopa 
are  no  longer  able  to  advance  in  the  open,  prog- 
ress is  made  by  approaches  and  parallels,  in  the 
hope  that  if  the  besieged  is  not  first  starved,  the 
besieger  may  advance  close  enough  under  the  pro* 
tection  of  his  own  trenches  for  the  delivery 
of  an  assault.  Occasionally  the  relative  force 
and  skill  of  the  combatants  are  such  that  the 
besieged,  by  virtue  of  his  heavier  fire  and  skill  in 
handling  it,  may  be  able  to  bring  the  approach  of 
the  besieger  by  trenches  to  a  st^dstill.  He  may 
accomplish  the  same  result  by  running  under- 
ground tunnels  and  placing  countermines  which 
so  threaten  an  overland  advance  as  to  make  it 
impracticable.  When  this  happens,  the  usual 
method  of  advance  is  by  military  mining. 

From  the  last  advanced  open  position  he  has 
been  able  to  construct,  the  besieger  proceeds  un- 
derground by  a  system  of  shafts  and  galleries. 
These  vary  in  size.  In  general  the  start  is  made 
with  large  galleries  gradually  ramifying  into 
smaller  but  more  numerous  galleries  whose  heads 
are  close  together.  The  principal  types  are 
great  galleries  with  a  height  of  6  feet  and  width 
of  7  feet,  common  galleries  with  the  same  height 
and  half  the  width,  half  galleries  with  a  height 
of  4%  feet  and  width  of  3  feet,  and  branches  with 
a  height  of  3i^  feet  and  width  of  2%  feet.  The 
accompanying  cut  indicates  the  methods  in  which 
these  branches  develop.  The  shafts  and  galleries 
usually  are  lined  with  board  casings  two  to  four 
inches  thick,  or  with  heavy  frames  placed  at  in- 
tervals and  holding  in  position  thin  sheeting.  For 
the  work  of  excavating,  special  tools  are  pro- 
vided shorter  than  those  used  above  ground.  Pro- 
vision must  be  made  at  frequent  intervals  for 
ventilating  the  tunnels  sufficiently  to  permit  the 
miners  to  work  in  them.  Passage  from  one  level 
to  another  is  by  shafts  or  by  inclined  slopes. 
Great  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation  of  a  map, 
which  is  kept  corrected  to  date,  and  shows  the 
position  of  tne  various  tunnels  and  branches,  and 
their  relations  to  each  other,  both  in  plan  and  in 
elevation.  A  similar  system  of  tunnels  is  con- 
structed by  the  besieged.  As  the  two  systems 
approach  near  to  each  other,  it  becomes  the  ob- 
ject of  each  combatant  to  destroy  the  system  of 
the  other.  In  doing  this  the  besieger  is  usually 
desirous  of  forming  a  crater  reaching  to  the 
ground  above  which  he  can  occupy  with  his 
troops,  thus  obtaining  new  points  of  vantage  on 
the  surface.     For  similar  reasons  the  besieged 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINES  AKB  MIKING. 


546        MINE  WOBKEBS  OF  AMEBICA. 


is  desirous  of  effecting  his  explosions  without 
breaking  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  explosive  used,  in  all  soils,  so  far  as  known, 
has  been  gunpowder.  Experiments  have  been 
conducted  with  guncotton  and  other  high  explo- 


1854  and  1855,  where  the  Russians,  under  the 
lead  of  the  accomplished  engineer,  General  Todle- 
ben,  were  able  to  withstand  the  Allies  a  period  of 
340  days.  Mining  was  carried  on  in  tne  sieges 
of  Vicksburg  and  Petersburg  in  the  Civil  War, 


BESIEGER'S    GALLERIES    S^SIS  ^^^S  IJLM.V.Y^  COUNTERMINE  GALLERIES 
PERMANENT  GALLERIES  IN  OUTLINE      RMTTS  DESTROYED 

MXROro  OPBBATJtfn  AT  0KA17])Bn,  1862. 


MINES  1  TO  14. 


sives,  but  they 
have  not  yet  been 
used  in  mining 
operations  in  ac- 
tual warfare.  The 
quantity  of  powder 
to  be  used  depends 
upon  the  result  de- 
sired. A  common 
mine  is  one  in 
which  the  crater 
formed  has  a  di- 
ameter at  the  sur- 
face approximately 
twice  the  depth. 
Mines  with  larger 
charges  of  powder 
than  will  produce 
this  result  are 
known  as  over- 
char  ged  mines; 
with  less,  as  under-' 
charged  mines. 
When  given  a 
charge  so  small 
that  no  crater  is 
produced  on  the 
surface,  they  are 
called  camouflets. 
To  produce  a  common  mine  the  charge  varies 
considerably  with  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The 
general  rule  for  them  in  ordinary  earth  is  that 
the  charge  must  be  equal  in  pounds  to  one-tenth 
the  cube  of  its  distance  in  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. 

The  last  instance  of  mining  operations  upon  a 
large  scale  was  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  in 


8BAFT-LIMIMO. 


and  in  that  of  Port  Arthur  in  the  Russo-Japan- 
ese War.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  in  the  past 
military  mining  has  played  such  an  important 
part  at  critical  times,  the  subject  is  studied  by 
military  engineers,  and  it  is  quite  within  the 
range  of  possibility  that  in  a  form  adapted  to 
.modern  conditions  it  may  at  some  time  in  the 
future  serve  to  decide  the  fate  of  a  war.  The  sub- 
ject of  siege  works  and  military  mining  is  treated 
in  Mercur,  Attack  of  Fortified  Places  (New  York, 
1894),  and  in  the  Chatham  Manuals,  especially 
part  iv.  (London,  1883).  For  submarine  mines 
and  torpedo  defenses,  see  Torpedo. 

MINETTE,  m6'n6t'  (Fr.,  diminutive  of  mine, 
mine,  whence  Rhenish  Ger.  Minette,  iron  ore). 
An  igneous  rock  of  granular  or  porphyritic  tex- 
ture, composed  essentially  of  orthoclase  feldspar 
and  biotite.  In  contrast  with  the  granites,  syen- 
ites, and  diorites,  to  which  it  is  related,  it  is 
rich  in  ferro-magnesian  minerals,  and  hence 
has  a  darker  color.  Minettes  generally  occur  in 
dykes,  and  are  quite  susceptible  to  weathering 
agencies. 

MINE    WOBKEBS    OF    AMEBICA,    The 

United.  The  largest  American  labor  union, 
whose  declared  object  is  "to  unite  mine  employees 
that  produce  or  handle  coal  or  coke  in  or  around 
the  mines,  and  ameliorate  their  condition  by 
means  of  conciliation,  arbitration,  or  strikes.** 
The  oflScers  consist  of  a  president,  vice-president, 
and  secretary-treasurer,  who,  together  with  one 
delegate  from  each  of  the  23  districts  into  which 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  Mine  Workers  is 
divided,  constitute  the  National  Executive  Board, 
which  has  the  power  to  levy  assessments  and  to 
order  general  strikes  by  a  two-thirds  vote.    The 


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MINGBELIANS. 


^vemment  of  the  union  is  thus  highly  central- 
ued.  In  organization  the  United  Mine  Workers 
is  an  'industrial  union/  aiming  to  unite  not  only 
miners,  but  all  skilled  and  unskilled  laborers 
working  about  coal  mines,  except  mine  managers 
and  top  bosses.  This  policy  of  industrial  organ- 
ization has  brought  the  union  into  conflicts  with 
the  unions  of  the  Stationary  Firemen  and  of  the 
Blacksmiths.  In  operation  the  United  Mine 
Workers  is  a  typical  'new  union'  of  the  aggressive 
type.  It  maintains  no  extensive  system  of  fra- 
ternal benefits,  but  devotes  the  greater  part  of 
its  revenue  to  the  support  of  strikes  and  the  or- 
ganization of  new  unions.  Thus,  out  of  the  total 
expenditures  of  $1,355,010  in  1904,  $109,726  was 
devoted  to  salaries  and  expenses  of  organizers  and 
$1,067,300  to  the  relief  of  strikers,  leaving  only 
$77,993,  less  than  6  per  cent.,  for  all  other  pur- 
poses. The  control  of  local  strikes  rests  partly 
with  the  national  officers.  Any  local  union  may 
strike  provided  it  obtains  the  consent  of  the  dis- 
trict officers  and  the  national  president,  but  in 
case  either  disapprove,  an  appeal  for  the  per- 
mission "to  strike  may  be  made  to  the  executive 
board.  Any  local  union  striking  in  violation  of 
the  above  provisions  shall  not  be  sustained  or 
recognized  by  the  national  officers."  This  seems ' 
to  constitute  the  only  penalty  for  unauthorized 
strikes.  In  the  bituminous  districts  of  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania  strikes  have 
been  practically  eliminated  by  the  annual  joint 
conference,  or  collective  bargaining,  between  the 
miners  and  operatives,  in  which  a  scale  of  prices 
for  the  following  year  is  adopted  and  the  settle- 
ment of  further  differences  provided  for  by  local 
boards  of  arbitration.  The  United  Mine  Workers 
was  organized  January  25,  1890,  but  its  member- 
ship decreased  rather  than  increased  until  the 
great  bituminous  coal  strike  of  1897,  during 
which  year  the  average  membership  was  only 
0731.  Since  that  time  the  membership  has  in- 
creased by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  in  1905,  the 
national  union  had  over  300,000  paid  up  mem- 
bers, distributed  among  23  districts  and  about 
2700  local  unions.  The  greatest  gains  were 
coincident  with  the  anthracite  strikes  of  1900 
and  1902,  the  latter  of  which,  lasting  more 
than  five  months  and  involving  147,000  work- 
men, is  perhaps  the  most  important  strike 
in  American  history.  Mr.  John  Mitchell  was 
elected  president  of  the  union  in  1898,  and  now 
receives  a  salary  of  $3000  per  annum.  The 
official  journal  is  The  United  Mine  Worker, 
published  weekly  at  Indianapolis.     See  Tbadb 

UlfION8. 

IdNGHETTI,  mln-get't^,  Marcx)  (1818-86). 
An  Italian  writer  and  statesman.  He  was  born 
at  Bologna,  November  8,  1818,  of  a  wealthy  fam- 
ily, and  after  a  university  course  in  political 
science  made  a  study  of  the  institutions  of 
France,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Italy  he  published  an  essay  on  the  great 
commercial  advantages  of  free  trade,  as  existing 
in  England,  and  espoused  with  warmth  the  eco- 
nomic views  of  Richard  Cobden,  for  the  assimila- 
tion of  which  he  had  been  prepared  by  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  teachings  of  the  Tuscan  economist 
Bandini.  In  1846  Minghetti  began  his  political 
career  by  starting  at  Bologna  a  journal  of  liberal 
tendencies,  Jl  FeUineo;  by  1847  he  had  made  such 
a  name  for  himself  that  he  was  called  to  Rome 
by  Pius  IX.  to  become  a  member  of  the  Conaulta 


delle  Finame,  and  in  1848  he  became  Minister  of 
Public  Works.  After  the  Papal  change  of  front, 
however,  Minghetti  withdrew  from  office  and 
joined  the  army  of  Charles  Albert  in  Lombardy, 
where  he  was  warmly  received  by  the  King 
and  appointed  to  the  royal  staff  with  the 
rank  of  captain.  After  the  battle  of  Goito  he 
was  made  a  major,  and  distinguished  himself 
in  the  engagement  of  Custozza  (July  25, 
1848).  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year 
Minghetti  was  invited  to  Rome  by  his  friend 
Count  Rossi  as  a  member  of  the  new  con- 
stitutional Ministry.  He  arrived  the  day  of 
Rossi's  assassination,  and  after  refusing  the 
Pope's  request  that  he  take  the  place  of  the 
murdered  Minister  he  returned  to  the  Piedmont- 
ese  army.  On  the  disastrous  conclusion  of  the 
war,  Minghetti  resumed  his  study  of  political 
economy,  and  gained  the  confidence  of  Cavour,  by 
whom  he  was  consulted  during  the  conferences  of 
Paris.  In  1869  he  became  ^retary-General  in 
the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  but  resigned 
with  Cavour  upon  the  conclusion  of  the  armis- 
tice of  Villafranca.  Minghetti  became  Minister 
of  the  Interior  imder  Cavour  in  1860,  and 
after  the  death  of  Cavour  held  the  portfolios 
of  the  Interior  under  Ricasoli  and  of  Finance 
imder  Farini.  In  March,  1863,  he  became  Prime 
Minister.  He  left  office  in  1864.  He  went 
as  Ambassador  to  London  in  1868,  and  was  sub- 
sequently for  a  short  time  at  the  head  of  the 
agricultural  and  commercial  department  in  the 
Menabrea  Ministry  ( 1869) .  He  was  Ambassador 
to  Vienna  in  1870-73.  From  1873  to  1876  he  was 
again  at  the  head  of  the  Cabinet,  first  as  Minis- 
ter of  Finance  and  later  as  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  He  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in 
study  and  partial  retirement,  and  died  at  Rome, 
December  10, 1886.  Among  his  chief  writings  are: 
Delia  economia  puhhlica,  etc.  (1859)  ;  Optiscoli 
letterari  ed  economici  (1872);  Stato  e  chiesa 
(1878).  He  was  also  a  student  of  the  fine  arts, 
and,  besides  lecturing  on  Raphael  and  Dante,  he 
produced  a  work,  Le  donne  italiane  nelle  helle 
arti  al  aecolo  XV,  e  XVI,  (1877),  and  a  biog- 
raphy of  Raphael  (1885).  His  autobiography, 
/  miei  ricordi  (Turin,  1888),  appeared  after  his 
death. 

MINGBE^IA.  A  former  independent  feudal 
State  of  the  Caucasus,  bordering  on  the  Black  Sea, 
now  included  in  the  Russian  Government  of  Ku- 
tais  (Map:  Russia,  H  6).  It  was  a  vassal 
State  of  Georgia  until  1414,  when  it  became  inde- 
pendent under  its  own.  princes,  although  tribu- 
tary to  Turkey  and  Persia.  Russia  obtained 
control  over  it  in  1803,  but  the  internal  admin- 
istration was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  native 
chiefs  until  1867,  when,  as  a  result  of  a  series 
of  peasant  uprisings  begun  in  1857,  it  was  final- 
ly annexed  by  Russia.  The  inhabitants,  229,200 
in  1897,  are  mostly  Mingrelians,  closely  allied 
to  the  Georgians.  Mingrelia  is  the  ancient  Col- 
chis. 

KINGBEOiJANS.  A  tribe  of  the  Kutais 
region  belonging  to  the  GJeorgian  group  of  peo- 
ples of  the  Caucasus.  (See  Mingrelia:)  In 
stature  they  are  above  the  average,  and,  like 
the  (Georgians  proper,  many  of  them  are  of 
great  physical  beauty.  The  Mingrelian  lan- 
guage varies  considerably  from  the  Georgian 
prototype.  Of  the  character  of  the  Mingrelians 
many  investigators  have  entertained  no  high  opin- 


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iaHIKITE& 


ions,  setting  them  down  as  lazy  and  unprogres- 
sive.  The  Mingrelians,  as  are  the  other  Georgi- 
ans, are  more  or  less  Christian.  They  have  a 
folk-literature,  consisting  of  legends,  songs,  etc., 
the  people  being  fond  of  music,  the  dance,  etc. 
Consult:  Erckert,  Der  Kaukcums  und  seine 
Volker  (Leipzig,  1887) ;  Telfer,  The  Crimea  and 
Transcaucasia  (London,  1876)  ;  Chantre,  Re- 
eherches  anthropologiques  dans  le  Caucase  (Paris, 
1885-87) ;  Bryce,  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat 
(London,  1897).    See  Geobgians. 

MINHOy  mA^ny6.  A  river  of  the  Iberian  Pen- 
insula.   See  Ming. 

MINHO.  A  Province  of  Portugal.  See 
Entre-Doubo-e-Minho. 

MINIATXJBE  PAINTIHa.  A  late  develop- 
ment of  the  art  of  manuscript  illumination  ap- 
plied to  portraiture.  (See  Manusobipts,  Illumi- 
I7ATION  OF.)  The  illuminators  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  headed  by  Giulio  Clovio, 
had  made  the  art  in  its  dying  days  far  more 
transparent  in  coloring,  more  cameo-like.  Ef- 
fects in  grisaille  and  camaXeu  led  the  way  to 
miniatures.  When  there  were  no  longer  any 
manuscripts  to  illuminate,  the  art  turned  to 
minute  detached  and  framed  pictures  still  paint- 
ed on  vellum,  and  related  to  these  were  minute 
paintings  on  copper,  especially  by  the  Dutch 
School.  The  new  branch  of  minute  portraiture 
was  essentially  a  creation  of  North  European  art 
of  the  seventeenth,  and  especially  the  eighteenth, 
century.  It  was  foreign  to  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Southern  France  and  flourished  in  Germany, 
England,  Northern  France,  and  the  Nether- 
lands. It  was  especially  suited  to  portraying  the 
Court  costumes  of  the  times  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
XV. 

The  miniature  portraits  were  usually  of  oval 
«hape  and  only  two  to  four  inches  high;  they 
were  usually  painted  on  vellum  or  ivory,  but 
sometimes  on  heavy  glazed  paper,  wood,  enamel, 
or  porcelain.  The  forerunners  of  the  true  minia- 
turists had  often  painted  in  oils  on  copper  or 
silver;  vellum  was  the  favorite  material  of  the 
48eventeenth  century,  and  ivory  was  largely  in- 
troduced during  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  normal  method  was  to  use  opaque  body- 
•colors  on  the  vellum,  that  is,  colors  mixed  with 
white  and  other  opaque  pigments ;  but  when  ivory 
came  into  use,  transparent  colors  were  used  large- 
ly on  faces  and  all  other  nude  parts,  the  opaque 
colors  being  confined  to  the  draperies,  hair,  and 
accessories.  Transparent  effects  gradually  passed 
from  the  flesh  tints  even  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
picture,  so  that  but  little  that  was  opaque  re- 
mained. The  practice  up  to  about  1750  was  first  to 
lay  the  colors  on  in  broad  flat  tones  and  then  to 
work  over  with  dotting  or  stippling  until  an  ex- 
quisite but  somewhat  finical  jewel-like  effect  was 
attained.  But,  toward  1760,  a  Swede  named 
Hall  utilized  the  natural  tones  of  the  newly 
popular  ivory  ground  in  favor  of  new  transparent 
effects  and  textures,  using  gouache  water-color 
•effects.  Afterwards,  the  breadth  of  effects  waa  in- 
creased by  the  use  of  hatching  as  a  method.  Isaac 
Oliver  and  his  son  Peter  Oliver  were  among  the 
earliest  in  England,  and  were  followed,  later  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  by  Samuel  Cooper,  whose 
reputation  spread  to  France  and  Holland.  Blaeren- 
berghe,  of  tlie  Dutch  School,  was  prominent  under 
Louis  XV.   Rosabela  Carriera,  Isabey,  some  pupils 


of  Mass^,  like  Lebrun,  Prevot,  and  CJherlier,  made 
his  delicate  style  popular,  until  Francois  Dlimont 
in  the  time  of  Marie  Antoinette  combined  it  with 
the  more  transparent  and  free  style  of  Hall  and 
BO  set  a  new  fashion.  The  name  of  Angelica 
Kauffmann  is  popularly  well  known  in  this  con- 
nection. The  art  has  lately  been  revived  with 
success.  Museums  have  made  collections;  there 
are  over  two  hundred  in  the  Dresden  Gallery. 
Private  individuals  own  by  far  the  larger  num- 
ber of  extant  miniatures. 

The  American  Society  of  Miniature  Painten, 
founded  in  1899,  holds  annual  exhibitions. 
Among  the  best-known  American  miniature 
painters  are  Wm.  F.  Baer,  Mrs.  Laura  C.  Hills, 
Isaac  A.  Josephi,  Wm.  F.  Whittemore,  and 
Thomas  R.  Manley. 

Consult:  Bradley,  Dictionary  of  Miniatumit 
(London,  1887-89) ;  Proport,  History  of  Minia- 
ture Art  (ib.,  1887) ;  Williamson,  Portrait  JfMi- 
iatures  from  Holbein  to  Ross  (ib.,  1897).  Set 
also  MAiaJscRiFTS,  Illumination  of. 

MINli!^  m«'ny&^  Claude  Etiennb  (1814-79). 
A  French  soldier,  ordnance  expert,  and  inventor. 
He  was  bom  in  Paris,  entered  the  army  as  a 
volunteer,  and  served  in  Algeria  during  several 
campaigns.  He  became  captain  in  1849,  and 
superintendent  of  the  school  of  ordnance  at  Via- 
cennes  in  1862.  In  1858  he  was  employed  by  the 
Egyptian  Qovemment  to  superintend  a  manu- 
factory of  arms,  and  a  school  of  gunnery  at 
Cairo.  He  invented  the  Minie  rifle,  which  was 
brought  out  in  1849,  and  adopted  by  the  French 
Government,  and  is  especially  noteworthy  in  that 
it  was  the  first  practical  introduction  of  the 
principle  of  expansion  in  the  manufacture  of  pro- 
jectiles, and  gave  a  precision  and  range  previous- 
ly unknown.  The  Mini6  bullet  was  a  conical 
projectile  of  lead,  hollowed  out  at  the  base. 
When  fired  the  base  of  the  ball  expanded,  ta 
take  the  rifling.    See  Small  Abms. 

MINIM  (in  music).  See  Mensuiabij 
Music. 

MIN1MITES  (Lat  fratres  minimi,  least 
brethren,  so  called,  in  token  of  still  greater  hu- 
mility, by  contrast  with  the  fratres  minores, 
lesser  brethren,  the  original  name  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans). A  Reman  Catholic  religious  Order, 
founded  by  Saint  Francis  of  Paola  (q.v.).  De- 
vout hermits  began  to  gather  round  him  as  early 
as  1435,  and  in  1454  a  community  life  was  begun. 
The  Order  received  Papal  confirmation  in  1474. 
It  spread  first  into  France,  when  the  founder  was 
summoned  thither  by  Louis  XI.  In  Paris  they 
were  commonly  known  as  Sons  Hommes,  from  the 
popular  name  of  an  older  community  to  whose 
house  at  Vincennes  they  succeeded ;  and  in  Spain, 
to  which  they  next  spread,  they  got  the  name  of 
Fathers  of  Victory,  from  the  fact  that  the  recov- 
ery of  Malaga  from  the  Moors  was  ascribed  to 
their  prayers.  The  Emperor  Maximilian  invited 
them  to  Germany  in  1497.  Their  first  definite 
rule  was  not  drawn  up  by  the  founder  until  1493; 
it  was  exceedingly  austere,  forbidding  the  use 
not  only  of  meat,  but  of  all  animal  products, 
such  as  butter,  eggs,  cheese,  and  milk.  The 
Order  at  one  time  numbered  450  houses,  but  later 
fell  into  decay  and  is  now  represented  only  by  a 
few  convents  in  Italy.  The  superior  of  a  convent 
has  the  title  of  corrector,  the  head  of  the  whole 
Order  being  the  corrector-general.     Francis  also 


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MINING. 


founded  an  Order  for  women  which  never  had 
more  than  fourteen  convents  and  is  now  almost 
extinct,  and  a  third  Order  (see  Tebtiaby),  for 
persons  living  in  the  world.  Consult  d'Attichy, 
Histoire  g&nirale  de  Vordre  sacrS  de  Minimea 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1824). 

MINIKTTM  DEVIATION,  Angle  of.  See 
Light. 

MINING.  The  art  of  obtaining  from  the 
earth  the  metallic  ores  and  other  useful  minerals 
in  an  economical  and  profitable  manner.  The 
earliest  metals  employed  by  man  were  those 
found  in  the  native  state.  Gold  is  the  most  wide- 
ly distributed  of  these,  and  has  been  mined  and 
utilized  from  very  remote  times.  Meteoric  iron 
was  also  known  and  utilized  by  many  ancient 
peoples,  and  the  native  copper  of  Lake  Superior 
was  extensively  mined  and  utilized  by  the  aborig- 
ines of  America.  As,  however,  the  knowledge 
of  metals  increased  and  civilization  advanced, 
the  ores,  or  metals  in  combination,  were  recog- 
nized and  utilized  and  mining  proper  began. 
Reference  to  mining  is  made  in  the  Bible,  and 
other  ancient  records  prove  that  the  Phoenicians 
navigated  the  seas  as  far  as  CTomwall,  England, 
in  order  to  obtain  tin  ores  for  the  manufacture 
of  bronze.  The  Romans  had  extensive  mines  for 
iron  ore  in  the  island  of  Elba  that  are  still  in 
operation.  They  also  worked  the  vreat  copper 
veins  at  the  Rio  Tinto,  Spain,  and  the  timbennff 
left  by  them  is  still  visible.  The  mines  at  LaurT 
um,  Greece,  were  famous  in  ancient  times  for 
their  yield  of  silver.  From  the  old  mining 
districts  of  Cornwall  and  from  the  Erzgebirse 
(Ore  Mountains)  and  the  Harz  Mountains  m 
Germany  miners  have  sone  all  over  the  world^ 
and  by  their  skill  and  experience  have  aided 
greatly  in  development  of  mining  practice  as  it 
exists  to-day. 

Problems  in  mining  to-day  may  be  grouped 
into  those  relating  to:  (1)  mining  geology;  (2) 
mining  engineering ;  (3)  mechanical  engineering ; 
and  (4)  metallurgy.  The  problems  of  each 
group  overlap  to  some  extent  those  of  the  other 
groups,  but  the  division  adopted  serves  for  a 
general  consideration  of  the  subject  of  mining. 
In  this  article  particular  attention  will  be  de- 
voted to  mining  as  involving  the  problems  of 
mining  engineering  and  mechanical  engineering. 
These  problems  embrace  the  operations  of  dis- 
covering and  locating  mineral  deposits,  of  open- 
ing the  earth  and  excavating  the  ores,  of  trans- 
porting the  ores  to  the  surface,  and  of  handling 
mechanically  the  ores  during  their  metallurgical 
treatment.  As,  however,  the  handling  of  the  ores 
preparatory  to  and  during  the  processes  involved 
in  extracting  the  metals  is  of  a  different  nature 
than  mining  proper  and  is  frequently  done  at 
places  far  from  the  mines,  these  operations 
are  considered  in  the  article  on  Ore-Dbessino 
and  in  the  section  devoted  to  Metallurgy  in 
the  articles  on  the  various  metals  and  the  ad- 
junct articles  there  mentioned. 

Pbospectino.  The  search  for  and  location  of 
deposits  or  veins  of  metal -bearing  ores  is  called 
prospecting,  and  the  men  who  perform  this  kind 
of  work  are  called  prospectors.  The  first  proce- 
dure in  prospecting  a  tract  of  land  suspected 
to  contam  mineral  wealth  is  thoroughly  to 
traverse  it  and  to  note  carefully  the  familiar 
indications  of  the  presence  of  minerals.  These 
indications  are  often  numerous  in  kind  for  each 


mineral  and  they  also  vary  for  different  minerals. 
Generally  speaking,  coal,  gypsum,  salt,  and  simi- 
lar minerals  occur  in  unaltered  deposits,  that  is, 
in  rocks  which  have  not  undergone  metamorphism, 
while  the  metallic  minerals  are  found  in  rocks 
that  have  undergone  more  or  less  metamorphism. 
These  are  among  the  broad  indications  of  the 
presence  or  absence  of  certain  minerals.  The 
geological  age  of  the  rocks  is  in  respect  to  certain 
minerals  a  pretty  certain  indication  whether 
these  minerals  are  likely  to  be  found  or  not.  For 
example,  the  bulk  of  the  coal  deposits  of  the 
world  has  been  foimd  in  rocks  of  the  Carbonif- 
erous age ;  they  exist  in  rocks  of  subsequent  ages, 
but  almost  never  in  rocks  of  preceding  ages.  Re- 
ferring to  specific  indicati(Mis,  the  prospector  for 
coal  will  search  for  traces  of  smut  or  coal  dust 
in  the  streams  and  water-worn  banks,  and  for 
the  presence  of  outcropping  seams. 

The  presence  of  iron  is  indicated  by  mineral 
springs  and  rust-like  stains  of  earth  and  rock. 
The  presence  or  absence  of  vegetation  may  also 
indicate  the  existence  of  minerals;  for  example, 
a  bed  of  phosphate  rock  is  commonly  indicated  by 
a  line  of  liixuriant  vegetation  and  the  outcrop  of 
a  mineral  deposit  by  a  lack  of  vegetation.  Beds 
of  magnetic  iron  are  frequently  located  by  their 
attraction  for  the  magnetic  needle.  Placers  are 
fragmental  deposits  from  water  in  which  the 
heavier  minerals  have  been  concentrated  in  cer- 
tain portions,  usually  next  the  underlying  or  bed 
rock.  When  prospecting  for  placers  the  prospec- 
tor examines  the  country  for  the  presence  of  any 
existing  or  ancient  watercourses  in  which  de- 
posits of  placer  material  are  likely  to  have  been 
formed.  Metallic  gold  and  precious  stones  occur 
frequently  in  placers.  In  prospecting  for  petro- 
leum, natural  gas,  and  bitumen,  the  surface 
indications  looked  for  are  springs  of  petroleum 
oil  and  naphtha;  porous  rocks  saturated  with 
bitumen  or  cracks  in  slate  and  other  rocks  filled 
with  the  same  material ;  springs,  pools,  or  creeks 
showing  bubbles  of  escaping  gas  or  an  iridescent 
coating  of  oil. 

The  presence  of  a  mineral  deposit  having  been 
established,  the  next  procedure  is  to  determine  its 
extent  and  richness.  The  richness  of  the  ore  is  de- 
termined by  assaying  average  samples.  ( See  As- 
saying. )  To  determine  the  thickness  of  the  veins 
or  beds  and  their  lateral  extent,  borings  are  simk 
at  more  or  less  close  intervals  and  records  taken 
of  the  continued  presence  of  the  ore  vein  and  of 
its  thickness.  These  coupled  with  a  geological 
survey  of  the  region  give  fairly  reliable  data  as 
to  the  quantity  of  ore  and  its  location  with 
respect  to  the  ground  surface.  Upon  these  data 
the  miner  estimates  the  value  of  the  deposit 
and  decides  whether  it  will  pay  to  work  it  or 
not. 

If  the  deposit  is  located  on  Government  land,  a 
'claim*  of  variable  size,  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  country  or  district,  is  staked  out,  and  when 
this  is  opened  up  sufficiently  to  have  necessitated 
the  expenditure  of  a  certain  specified  sum  of 
money,  a  permanent  title  can  be  obtained.  In 
the  Western  States  of  the  United  States  claims 
usually  extend  1500  feet  along  the  vein,  and  either 
150  feet  or  300  feet  on  each  side  of  it.  The  owner 
can  then  follow  the  vein  where  it  leads  him  be- 
tween the  vertical  planes  of  his  end  lines.  The 
outcrop  is  called  the  apex.  As,  however,  veins 
are  so  irregular  and  obscure  underground,  great 
uncertainty  may  arise  as  to  title,  and  expensive 


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litigation  may  ensue.  For  these  reasons  many 
authorities  consider  it  better  practice  to  adopt 
square  claims,  say  1500  feet  on  each  side,  convey- 
ing the  rights  to  all  the  ore  lying  vertically  be- 
neath them.  This  is  the  practice  in  Western  Can- 
ada and  is  practically  so  in  most  Eastern  States 
of  the  United  States,  where  title  to  the  land,  un- 
less special  reservations  are  made,  carries  title 
to  the  mineral  rights.  In  some  States,  notably 
New  York,  and  in  many  foreign  coimtries,  the 
State  claims  peculiar  and  special  proprietary 
rights  to  deposits  of  useful  minerals.  Much 
variety  also  prevails  in  America  in  the  size  of 
claims  other  than  for  deep  mines.  Gold-bearing 
placers,  for  instance,  have  special  sizes  depending 
on  local  regulations;  they  may  be  very  small  in 
rich  diggings  or  of  great  extent  where  large  hy- 
draulic enterprises  are  necessary. 

Mining.  The  methods  of  mining  differ  ac- 
cording to  the  form  and  geological  relations 
of  the  mass  of  ore  or  other  minerals  to  be 
won.  If  the  mass  is  of  considerable  size  and 
extent  and  lies  on  the  surface,  one  method 
is  necessary;  if  it  is  a  relatively  flat  and 
very  widely  extended  bed,  as  in  the  case  of  most 
coal  seams,  another  must  be  adopted;  and  if  a 
steeply  inclined,  but  relatively  thin,  and  extend- 
ed, tabular  sheet  of  ore  is  to  be  removed,  it  may 
be  to  great  depths,  still  a  third.  A  mine  resem- 
bles a  huge  well,  and  it  is  in  the  keeping  of  it  free 
from  water,  in  the  support  of  the  walls  when  the 
ore  has  been  removed,  in  the  ventilation,  and  in 
the  cheap  and  quick  removal  of  the  broken  rock 
and  ore,  that  the  difficult  problems  arise,  which 
often  demand  the  highest  grade  of  engineering 
skill  and  courage.  The  development  of  modem 
hoisting  machinery,  of  rock  drills  operated  by 
steam,  compressed  air,  or  electricity,  of  high  ex- 

Slosives,  especially  dynamite,  and  of  cheap  and  ef- 
cient  means  of  transportation  both  on  and  under 
the  surface,  has  been  the  cause  of  our  great  mod- 
ern advances  and  has  made  possible  operations  be- 
yond the  reach  of  our  forefathers.  Electricity  is 
finding  one  of  its  principal  fields  in  mining  to-day, 
and  as  it  proves  a  very  cheap  and  convenient 
method  of  transmitting  power  down  the  shafts 
and  through  devious  passages,  it  has  great  possi- 
bilities. Water-power,  even  at  a  distance  from  the 
mine,  can  often  be  employed  to  generate  it,  and 
notable  economy  introduced. 

The  methods  of  mining  will  be  briefiy  outlined 
under  the  topics — A.  Surface  deposits ;  B.  Under- 
ground deposits:  (1)  Flat;  (2)  Highly  inclined 
or  vertical. 

Surface  Deposits.  When  a  mass  of  some  use- 
ful material,  metalliferous  or  otherwise,  is  found 
on  or  near  the  surface,  the  first  step  is  to  uncov- 
er it.  This  is  technically  known  as  atrippingy 
and  the  overlying  worthless  material  is  called 
the  burden.  If  the  burden  is  soft  earth  or  gravel, 
it  is  removed  with  the  pick,  shovel,  and  wheel- 
barrow or  by  a  steam-shovel  and  small  tram-cars, 
operated  by  horses,  mules,  or  locomotives.  In 
quarries  of  building  stone,  the  decomposed  rock 
is  blasted  off  and  removed.  When  the  useful 
mineral  is  exposed,  its  most  favorable  position 
is  on  a  hillside,  because  then  the  pit  or  open 
cut  will  drain  itself,  and  the  ore  or  rock  will 
have  the  grade  favoring  its  transportation  in  re- 
moval. If  the  pit  is  in  level  or  depressed  ground, 
pumping  usually  becomes  an  immediate  and 
heavy  charge  on  the  work.  In  either  case  the 
operations  of  extraction  are  carried  on  by  benches 


or  terraces.  A  slice  of  convenient  thickness  is 
taken  off  by  the  first  party  or  machines,  and 
when  they  have  advanced  far  enough  a  second  is 
started,  and  so  on  as  many  as  there  may  be  room 
for.  The  outcrops  of  many  large  but  inclined 
veins  of  ore  have  been  worked  in  this  way  in 
their  early  development,  but  it  places  subsequent 
undergroimd  operations  at  a  disadvantage,  be- 
cause it  exposes  them  to  the  weather.  Open  cuts 
are  the  simplest  form  of  excavation,  but,  as  just 
stated,  the  men  and  machinery  are  subjected  to 
all  the  inclemency  of  the  seasons,  and  usually 
in  winter  have  to  cease  work  entirely.  One  form 
of  surface  mining  remains  to  be  mentioned,  and 
that  is  the  meth<^  which  has  been  developed,  espe- 
cially in  California,  for  working  auriferous 
gravels.  (See  Gold.)  Water  is  brought  often 
from  a  great  distance  and  with  heavy  fall,  and 
is  then  directed  through  large  nozzles,  called 
^giants,'  against  the  bank  to  be  removed.  This  is 
washed  away  and  the  gold  is  separated  from  the 
moving  rock  material.  The  destructive  power  of 
a  swift  and  large  stream  of  water  directed  against 
a  bank  is  almost  beyond  belief  until  seen.  The 
method  is  economical  where  the  topography 
favors  it,  and  profit  is  realized  when  the  gold 
averages  but  a  few  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

Undebqround  Deposits.  In  the  winning  of  the 
useful  minerals  from  undergroimd  deposits  com- 
plications are  introduced  which  are  not  met  in 
open  cuts.  The  overlying  rock  is  always  to  be 
supported  as  long  aa  that  portion  of  the  mine  is 
being  operated  or  is  used  as  a  passageway.  This 
may  require  the  leaving  of  much  of  the  useful 
mineral  as  pillars  to  support  the  overhanging 
wall  or  roof,  or  the  use  of  heavy  timbering  or 
even  of  masonry.  Ventilation  also  becomes  an 
important  item,  and  all  these  charges,  it  must  be 
appreciated,  have  to  be  borne  by  tJe  product  be- 
fore any  profit  is  realized. 

The  mining  of  metallic  ores  and  minerals 
occurring  in  fiat  or  slightly  inclined  beds  or 
deposits  does  not  differ  materially  from  the 
methods  pursued  in  the  mining  of  coal 
(q.v.). 

Almost  all  metal  mining  is  concerned  with 
steeply  inclined  beds,  veins,  and  irregular  masses. 
In  the  past  history  of  the  earth,  especially  in 
moimtainous  regions,  and  where  eruptive  rocks 
have  come  up  from  the  depths  below,  cracks  of 
greater  or  less  size  have  been  formed  in  the 
solid  rocks,  and  often  in  numbers.  Up  through 
these  have  come  waters,  as  a  rule  at  elevated 
temperatures  and  charged  with  minerals.  Where 
they  have  brought  in  metallic  ores  they  have 
often  deposited  them  in  the  fissures,  along  with 
more  or  less  barren  material  called  gangue, 
and  in  this  way  have  produced  'veins'  or  Modes.* 
Where,  coming  through  a  crack  as  a  channel  of 
supply,  they  have  met  some  soluble  rock  like  lime- 
stone, they  have  often  replaced  it  with  valuable 
ore,  the  limestone  acting  like  a  precipitant  upon 
the  dissolved  metals.  If  a  porous  rock  has  been 
met  the  solutions  have  at  times  impregnated  it 
with  ore.  Ore  bodies  of  great  size  and  of  more  or 
less  irregular  character  have  thus  resulted,  and 
problems  of  varying  degrees  of  complexity  are 
met  by  the  mining  engineer  in  developing  thcra. 
The  ore  is  seldom  uniformly  distributed  through- 
out a  vein  or  other  deposit,*  but,  on  the  contrary, 
occurs  in  rich  portions  called  chutes  or  bonanzas, 
with  intervening  spaces  of  barren  ground.  It 
is   advisable   therefore   to  keep   the   mine  well 


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opened  up  ahead  of  actual  extraction  of  ore,  so 
as  to  average  the  rich  and  lean  portions  and 
make  the  enterprise  a  permanent  one.  Veins 
often  fork  and  tend  off  stringers  into  the  walls; 
they  pinch  and  swell  along  their  length  and 
depth.  They  usually  run  out  at  their  ends  into 
small  ramifications  and  finally  cease.  They  may 
be  cut  off  sharply  by  other  cross-fractures  and 
disturbances.  They  extend  to  considerable  depths, 
having  been  followed  in  some  cases  as  deep  as 
3000  feet  or  more. 

As  a  tjrpical  case  by  which  to  illustrate  the 
usual  methods  of  procedure,  we  may  assume  that 
a  vein  has  been  located  on  the  surface,  that  it 
extends  a  considerable  distance,  say  a  half-mile 
or  mile,  and  dips  at  60  degrees  into  the  earth. 
Test  pits  and  snallow  shafto  have  indicated  its 
value.  The  engineer,  in  opening  a  new  deposit 
like  this,  would  select  as  suitable  a  place  as  pos- 
sible for  his  surface  works,  such  as  engine  house, 
ore  bins,  and  dump  for  waste  rock,  all  in  con- 
nection with  a  spot  where  the  vein  showed  good 
ore.  He  would  then  sink  a  shaft  or  slope  on  the 
vein,  and  if  it  held  good,  would  start  drifts  or 
levels  at  each  60  to  100  feet  of  descent.  As  soon 
as  a  level  had  advanced  some  distance  from  the 
shaft,  say  100  feet  or  more,  another  party  would 
be  started  near  the  shaft,  working  on  the  vein 
in  the  roof  of  the  level.  At  first  propped  up  on 
timbers,  they  would  excavate  a  space,  and  clear 
away  a  working  face,  so  that  while  the  level  was 
being  driven  ahead  they  could  follow  a  short  dis- 
tance back,  taking  off  a  slice.  Now  in  order  that 
the  loose  rock  and  ore  that  are  blasted  down 
should  not  block  the  passageway,  timbers  would 
be  set  across  the  top  of  the  level  as  at  first  run. 
The  timbers  called  stulls  would  fit  into  sockets 
in  the  walls  and  on  them  would  be  laid  rough 
plank  or  lagging,  with  taps  or  little  hatchways 
at  intervals  for  tapping  out  into  cars  the  ore  that 
would  be  blasted  down  upon  them.  This  method 
is  called  'overhand  stoping,'  and  is  the  one  usual- 
ly adopted.  When  the  first  party  of  stopers  had 
advanced  far  enough  to  warrant  it,  a  second,  and 
later  a  third,  would  be  set  at  work  following 
them  up  on  other  and  higher  slices.  As  soon  as 
the  levels  had  gone  some  distance,  another  shaft 
would  be  sunk  to  connect  with  them,  not  alone 
for  hoisting,  but  to  afford  ventilation  after  blast- 
ing and  for  a  safe  line  of  escape  for  the  men  in 
case  of  accident. 

Another  method  somewhat  different  from  over- 
hand stoping  is  sometimes  adopted  that  is  called 
underhand  stoping.  Suppose  levels  one  and  two 
had  advanced  some  distance  from  the  shaft,  a 
small  connecting  shaft  is  then  cut  between  them 
called  a  winze.  It  may  be  opened  by  sinking 
from  the  upper  level  or  by  an  upraise  from  the 
lower.  After  it  is  cut,  a  party  may  begin  on  the 
upper  level,  and  drilling  in  its  floor  may  blast 
away  the  vein  into  the  winze  and  allow  it  to  fall 
to  the  level  below  to  be  removed.  They  may  take 
off  a  vertical  slice  of  the  vein  in  this  way,  and 
gradually  work  each  way  from  the  winze.  The 
upper  level  must  then  be  kept  passable  with  a 
floor  of  timber. 

As  these  inclined  shafts  deepen  and  the  vein 
is  found  to  be  rich  and  permanent,  it  is  often 
advantageous  no  longer  to  use  the  inclined  shaft, 
but  rather  to  go  out  from  the  vein  into  the  hang- 
ing wall  on  the  surface,  and  sink  a  vertical  shaft 
that  will  intersect  the  vein  at  some  desirable 
depth.     Above  this  point  connections  are  made 


with  the  levels  b^  cross-cuts  through  the  hanging 
wall,  and  below  it  by  cross-cuts  through  the  foot- 
wall.  Vertical  shafts  are  always  to  be  preferred, 
on  account  of  the  greater  ease  and  speed  of  hoist- 
ing, but  in  a  new  enterprise  the  safer  rule  is  to 
follow  the  ore  until  its  quantity  is  proved.  Va- 
riations on  the  above  simple  methods  are  intro- 
duced by  the  character  of  the  wall-rock  and  the 
size  of  the  ore  body.  If  the  wall-rock  is  bad,  and 
tends  to  scale  off  and  impede  the  workings,  it 
must  be  propped  up  with  heavy  timbering.  If 
the  vein  is  thick,  the  timbers  are  built  up  either 
rough  or  squared,  and  so  mortised  at  the  ends 
that  they  fit  together  like  the  edges  of  a  cube, 
six  feet  on  the  side.  Others  fit  in  with  them, 
each  stick  entering  into  the  four  adjacent  cubes, 
and  in  the  end  a  framework  of  timber  of  great 
strength  is  built  up.  As  soon  as  possible  this  is 
filled  in  with  waste  rock,  which  finally  settles 
down  and  is  practically  as  solid  as  the  original 
vein.  Unless  precautions  are  observed  in  con- 
nection with  keeping  the  walls  firm  and  im- 
movable, they  may  settle  and  do  great  damace 
both  to  surface  buildings  and  underground  work- 
ings. 

In  the  Lake  Superior  iron  mines  producing 
soft  ore,  that  lies  under  a  too  heavy  burden  (d 
gravel  to  warrant  stripping,  a  syst^  has  been 
adopted  called  the  'caving  system.'  The  ores  of 
this  character  on  Lake  Superior  lie  in  great 
troughs  or  elongated  basins.  A  shaft  is  sunk  in 
the  rock  beyond  the  limits  of  the  ore  and  drifts 
at  various  levels  are  nm  out  into  it.  From  the 
uppermost  level  upraises  are  made  to  the  top  of 
the  ore  and  minor  drifts  extended  to  its  outer 
limits.  Light  timbering  and  lagging  protect  the 
miner,  who  then  at  these  outer  limits  begins  to 
mine  out  the  ore  on  each  side  of  the  end  of  his 
drift,  letting  the  burden  gradually  cave  in  to  the 
place  whence  the  ore  is  taken.  By  multiplying 
these  drifts  in  every  direction  all  the  ore  is  re- 
moved, and  the  burden,  closing  in  all  the  time, 
keeps  the  mine  shut  and  the  miners  protected 
from  the  weather.  In  the  end  a  great  pit  results, 
sunk  in  the  natural  surface. 

In  small  mines  no  particular  system  of  timber- 
ing or  taking  out  the  ore  is  necessary,  especially 
if  the  wall-rock  is  firm.  Beyond  the  general  plan 
of  shafts  and  levels  the  workings  follow  the  ore, 
and,  without  much  systematic  exploration,  blast 
it  and  remove  it  to  the  surface.  The  objection  to 
this  method  is  that  when  the  known  rich  spots 
are  exhausted,  further  operations  until  more  ore 
is  located  are  all  dead  work,  yielding  no  return 
and  often  causing  the  enterprise  to  shut  down. 
In  large  mines  where  the  wall-rock  is  firm,  great 
excavations  may  be  made  with  no  timbering 
whatever. 

If  the  vein  or  series  of  veins  outcrop  on  a  hill- 
side, either  parallel  with  its  surface  or  crossing 
the  neighboring  valley,  the  ore  mav  be  won  by 
adits  or  timnels  run  in  on  a  slight  up  grade. 
Such  a  tunnel  will  automatically  drain  all  the 
portions  of  the  vein  above  it  and  will  make  it  an 
easy  matter  to  take  out  the  ore,  which  is  merely 
loosened  and  sent  down  to  the  tunnel  in  winzes 
and  shoots.  But  the  portions  below  the  tunnel 
will  of  necessity  be  reached  by  shafts  from  it 
and  will  require  pumping.  For  this  reason,  unless 
the  advantages  of  a  tunnel  are  very  great,  most 
engineers  prefer  a  vertical  shaft  at  as  early  a 
sta^e  in  the  mine  as  possible,  because  it  is  so  easy 
and  convenient  to  handle  ore  quickly  and  cheaply 


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MINING  ENGINEEB8. 


hy  vertical  hoistiDg.  Nevertheless  some  long  and 
famous  tunnels  have  been  excavated  in  former 
years  to  drain  important  veins. 

In  the  handling  and  transportation  of  ore 
imderground,  important  problems  are  met  in 
large  works.  It  is  accomplished  in  the  levels  by 
small  cars,  usually  built  of  boiler  plate  to  with- 
stand the  pounding  that  they  receive,  and  these 
are  pushed  along  by  men  on  light  tracks  to  the 
shaft.  The  operation  is  called  tramming.  If  the 
shaft  is  vertical  the  cars  are  run  directly  on  the 
cage,  and  hoisted  to  the  surface,  where  they  are 
dumped  and  returned.  Large  mines  may  have 
cages  with  two  or  even  three  decks,  bringing  thus 
two  or  three  tram-cars  at  a  trip.  If  the  shaft  is 
inclined,  the  tram-cars  are  dumped  at  the  landing 
of  the  level  into  a  car  in  the  shaft  that  is  open 
at  the  ^id  instead  of  at  the  top.  This  is  called  a 
skip  and  its  track  is  the  skipway.  The  skip 
dumps  automatically  at  the  top  of  the  shaft.  In 
small  mines  an  iron  bucket  is  used  instead  of  a 
skip  or  cage,  but  as  soon  as  the  output  becomes 
at  all  large,  buckets  have  to  be  abandoned.  The 
transportation  of  the  miners  up  and  down  deep 
shafts  is  also  an  important  matter.  They  may, 
and  as  a  rule  do,  ride  on  the  skips,  cages,  or 
buckets  used  for  the  ore,  special  trips  being  made 
for  them.  Ladders,  except  for  shallow  depths, 
are  no  longer  used  in  good  practice  unless  in 
emergencies,  as  the  climbing  is  too  slow  and  ex- 
hausting. ' 

In  all  mines  one  of  the  most  dreaded  things  is 
fire.  The  forests  of  underground  timber  in 
many  old  workings  make  it  a  very  dangerous 
accident,  and  even  when  in  shaft  houses  at  the  en- 
trances it  often  entails  disastrous  consequences 
on  the  men  below.  In  coal  mines  there  is  the 
added  danger  of  explosions  and  even  of  com- 
bustion of  the  coal.  It  is  more  and  more  custom- 
ary, therefore,  to  locate  boilers  and  engines  in 
separate  buildings  from  shaft  houses,  and  to  use 
every  precaution  against  an  outbreak. 

In  the  organization  of  the  force  of  miners  the 
relations  of  employer  and  employed  in  mines  are 
somewhat  diiTerent  from  those  of  operations  on 
the  surface.  The  men  are  distributed  as  individ- 
uals and  small  parties  in  places  more  or  less 
scattered  and  beyond  regular  superintendence. 
It  is  therefore  often  customary  to  let  out  work  by 
contract  rather  than  by  day  wages.  A  fair  price 
is  oiTered,  based  on  experience,  and  usually  esti- 
mated by  the  cubic  yard  or  fathom  of  ore  or  rock 
excavated,  and  a  party  of  miners  organize  and 
assume  the  contract.  Active  and  energetic  men 
do  well  under  these  circumstances,  but  as  a  rule 
the  prices  soon  adjust  themselves  to  about  a  fair 
average.  The  company  furnishes  supplies  of  ex- 
plosives, drills,  timber,  etc.,  to  the  men  at  rates 
agreed  upon.  It  also  has  a  mine  foreman,  with 
subordinates  to  see  that  the  work  goes  on  satis- 
factorily, and  at  the  end  of  each  month  the  sur- 
veyor or  engineer  or  superintendent  measures  up 
the  work.  In  case  the  owners  lack  capital,  or  the 
vein  is  pockety  and  not  adapted  to  systematic 
work  in  the  large  way,  the  'tribute*  system  may 
be  adopted.  The  parties  of  men  then  lease  a  cer- 
tain block  of  ground  and  mine  at  their  own  ex- 
pense and  risk,  paying  to  the  owners  a  graded 
percentage  of  the  value  of  the  ore.  If  the  men 
strike  rich  ore  they  realize  high  returns,  but  if 
it  proves  lean  and  low-grade  they  may  actually 
lose.  Old  miners  who  know  a  mine  thoroughly 
may  often  thus  work  to  a  great  advantage.    Own- 


ers of  small  capital  sometimes  get  a  new  mine 
developed  by  leasing  it  to  a  party  of  practical 
miners  for  a  percentage  of  the  ore  values  for  a 
limited  time  period.  In  this  way  the  ore  body 
is  opened  up  without  expense  to  the  owners, 
but  the  leasers^  who  take  the  risks,  naturally 
reap  the  lion's  share  of  the  profits.  The  rela- 
tions of  employers  to  men  in  remote  settlements 
are  also  peculiarly  clo^.  The  mining  company 
of  necessity  furnishes  houses,  supplies,  and  all 
necessaries  of  life. 

The  production  of  the  metals  and  useful  min- 
erals the  world  over  has  increased  remarkably. 
Nowhere  has  the  advance  been  more  pronounowl 
than  in  the  United  States,  which  is  the  foremost 
of  mining  nations,  leading  in  1905,  in  the  pro- 
duction of  iron  and  steel,  copper,  gold,  silver, 
mercury,  coal,  salt,  and  petroleum.  Of  the  other 
more  prominent  metals  and  minerals,  Spain  is 
the  chief  producer  of  lead,  Germany  of  zinc,  and 
Russia  of  platinum.    See  article  on  Metal. 

BiBLiOQBAPHY.  The  Transactions  of  the  Atneri- 
can  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  contain  many 
papers  relating  to  mining.  Also  the  Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal  ( New  York )  ;  The  Mineral 
Industry  (New  York);  Mines  and  Minerals 
{ Scranton )  ;  the  Engineering  Magazine  { New 
York )  ;  Mining  and  Scientific  Press  ( San  Fran- 
cisco) ;  Trautwine*s  Engineers*  Pocket-Book 
(New  York,  1902)  contains  many  valuable  data 
grouped  for  easy  reference,  and  among  other 
works  may  be  mentioned  H.  M.  Chance,  "Coal- 
Mining,"  Report  AC.f  Pennsylvania  Geological 
Survey;  R.  Peel,  Coal- Mining  (Philadelphia); 
E.  H.  Davies,  Machinery  for  Metalliferous  Mines 
( London ) ;  F.  A.  Abel,  Mining  Accidents  and 
their  Prevention  (New  York);  Barringer  and 
Adams,  T?i€  Law  of  Mines  and  Mining  in  the 
United  States  ( Boston ) ;  The  Coal  and  Metal 
Miners*  Pocket-Book  (Scranton,  Pa.,  1900); 
Foster,  A  Text-Book  of  Ore  and  Stone  Mining 
(Philadelphia,  1900);  Stretch,  Prospecting,  Lo- 
cating, and  Valuing  Mines  (New  York,  1902); 
Wilson,  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining  (2d  ed.,^ 
New  York,  1903)  ;  Ihlseng,  A  Manual  of  Mining 
(3d  ed.,  New  York,  1901) ;  Miller,  Field  Book  of 
Practical  Mineralogy  (New  York,  1901);  C.  le 
Neve  Foster,  Elements  of  Mining  and  Quarrying 
(New  York,  1904) ;  Ihlseng  and  Wilson,  Manual 
of  Mining  (New  York,  1905);  Rickard,  Econo- 
mics of  Mining   (New  York,  1904). 

MINING  CLAIM.  The  claim  of  a  person  ta 
the  exclusive  right  to  work  land  in  which  he 
supposes  he  has  discovered  deposits  of  a  precious 
metal;  hence,  the  parcel  of  land  supposed  to 
contain  the  metallic  deposits.  The  term  is  spe- 
cifically used  to  designate  the  area  of  such  metal- 
liferous land  which  may  be  held  under  one  lo- 
cation under  the  statutes  of  the  United  States, 
in  which  case  the  claim  and  location  are  iden- 
tical if  there  is  but  one  location;  but  if  the 
miner  acquires  two  or  more  locations  the  claim 
is  usually  used  to  designate  the  whole  tract  of 
land. 

A  mining  claim  is  real  estate,  and  descends 
to  the  heir,  and  is  subject  to  taxation,  execution, 
etc.,  as  is  any  other  real  estate,  and  may  also, 
in  like  manner,  be  protected  by  the  action  of 
ejectment.    See  Mines  and  Mining. 

MINING  ENGINEERS,  American  Insti- 
tute OF.    A  society  founded  in  1871,  for  the  pro- 


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HINISTEB'S  WOOIKQ. 


motion  of  the  arts  and  sciences  connected  with 
the  economical  production  of  minerals  and 
metals,  the  discussion  of  professional  papers, 
and  the  circulation  of  information  connected 
with  mining  interests.  It  had  a  membership  at 
the  close  of  1906  of  4300,  made  up  of  honorary, 
elected,  and  associate  members.  The  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  Institute  is  held  in  February,  with 
other  meetings  during  the  year  as  authorized 
by  the  coimcil.  The  Institute  publishes  a  volume 
of  Transactions  each  year,  besides  the  papers 
read  before  the  Institute  and  accepted.  The 
headquarters  of  the  Institute  are  in  New  York. 

MINING  LOCOMOTIVES.  See  Electbio 
Railways;  Locomotive;  Compressed  Aib  Lo- 
cx)M0TivE;  Steam  Engine. 

MINISTER  (Lat.,  servant).  A  public  func- 
tionary who  has  the  chief  direction  of  any  de- 
partment in  a  State.  (See  MmiSTBY.)  Also  the 
delegate  or  representative  of  a  sovereign  at  a 
foreign  court  to  treat  of  affairs  of  state.  Every 
independent  State  has  a  right  to  send  public 
ministers  to,  and  receive  them  from,  any  other 
sovereign  State  with  which  it  desires  to  preserve 
relations  of  amity.  Semi-sovereign  States  have 
generally  been  considered  not  to  possess  the 
jus  legatUmis,  unless  when  delegated  to  them  by 
the  State  on  which  they  are  dependent.  The 
right  of  confederated  States  to  send  public  min- 
isters to  each  other,  or  to  foreign  States,  de- 
pends on  the  nature  and  constitution  of  the 
union  by  which  they  are  bound  together.  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries and  of  the  old  German  Empire  preserved  this 
right  to  the  individual  States  or  princes,  as  do 
the  present  constitutions  of  the  German  Empire 
and  Swiss  confederation.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  Stetes  either  greatly  modifies  or  entirely 
takes  away  the  jus  legationis  of  each  individual 
State.  Every  sovereign  State  has  a  right  to 
receive  public  ministers  from  other  powers,  un- 
less where  obligations  to  the  contrary  have 
been  entered  into  by  treaty.  The  diplomatic 
usage  of  Europe  recognizes  three  orders  of 
ministers.  Ministers  of  the  first  order  possess 
the  representative  chaiacter .  in  the  highest  de- 
gree, representing  the  State  or  sovereign  sending 
them  not  only  in  the  particular  affairs  with 
which  they  are  charged,  but  in  other  matters; 
they  may  claim  the  same  honors  as  would  be- 
long  to  their  sovereigns,  if  present.  A  prin- 
ciple of  reciprocity  is  recognized  in  the  class 
of  diplomatic  agents  sent.  States  enjoying  the 
honors  of  royalty  send  to  each  other  ministers 
of  the  first  class;  so  also  in  some  cases  do  those 
States  which  do  not  enjoy  them;  but  it  is  said 
that  no  State  enjoying  such  honors  can  receive 
ministers  of  the  first  class  from  those  who 
are  not  possessed  of  them. 

Besides  these  orders  of  ministers,  there  are 
other  diplomatic  agents  occasionally  recognized 
— as  deputies  sent  to  a  congwss  or  confederacy 
of  States,  and  commissioners  sent  to  settle  ter- 
ritorial limite  or  disputes  concerning  jurisdic- 
tion. These  are  generally  considered  to  enjoy 
the  privileges  of  ministers  of  the  second  and 
third  orders.  Ministers-mediators  are  ministers 
sent  by  two  powers  between  which  a  dispute  has 
arisen  to  a  foreign  court  or  congress  where 
a  third  power,  or  several  powers,  have,  with 
the  consent  of  the  two  powers  at  variance, 
offered  to  mediate  between  them. 


Ministers  sent  to  a  congress  or  diet  have 
usually  no  credentials,  but  merely  a  full  power, 
of  which  an  authenticated  copy  is  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  a  directing  minister,  or  min- 
ister-mediator. 

The  title  'excellency'  has  since  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  been  accorded  to  all  diplomatic  agents 
of  the  first  class;  and  in  some  courts  it  is  ex- 
tended to  ministers  of  the  second  class,  or  at 
least  to  those  sent  by  the  Great  Powers. 

By  the  American  system  ministers  to  exercise 
diplomatic  fimctions  at  foreign  courts  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and  confirmed  by  the 
Senate.  See  Ambassadob  ;  Envoy  ;  Consul,  Meb- 
CANTiLE;  Diplomacy;  Diplomatic  Agents; 
Inviolability.  See  also  Cabinet.  Consult  the 
authorities  referred  to  under  the  last  three  of 
these  titles. 

MINISTEBIAL  OFFIGEB.  An  officer 
whose  functions  consist  in  executing  the  com- 
mand of  a  superior,  or  in  performing  a  duty 
definitely  prescribed  by  law.  Its  propriety  is  not 
left  to  his  judgment  or  discretion.  He  is  legally 
bound  to  perform  it;  and  for  a  failure  to  do  his 
duty  he  is  liable  in  damages  to  the  person  in 
whose  favor  the  duty  was  to  be  discharged.  A 
policeman,  sheriff,  or  marshal  having  a  writ  for 
the  arrest  of  a  designated  person  is  liable  for 
false  imprisonment  if  he  arrests  any  other 
person  than  the  one  named.  Or,  he  may  have 
arrested  the  wrong  person,  because  of  misteken 
information,  yet  having  acted  with  due  caution 
in  making  his  inquiries.  In  both  cases  he  is 
liable.  As  a  rule,  the  ministerial  officer  acts 
at  his  peril.  Perhaps  the  harshest  application  of 
this  rule  is  seen  when  he  enforces  legal  process 
under  an  imconstitutional  statute.  If,  on  ap- 
peal, the  stetute  is  declared  unconstitutional 
by  the  highest  court  of  the  State,  the  judges  of 
the  lower  court  are  not  civilly  responsible  for 
their  blunder,  but  the  sheriff  who  seized  and  sold 
property  under  the  execution  must  respond  to 
the  owner  for  ite  value. 

Oftentimes  a  judicial  officer  or  a  legislative 
body  is  required  to  act  in  a  ministerial  or  execu- 
tive capacity.  Generally  speaking,  a  judge  acte 
ministerially  when  an  application  for  a  writ  of 
habeas  corpus  is  made  to  him.  The  law  does 
not  leave  the  granting  or  withholding  of  this 
writ  to  his  discretion.  A  justice  of  the  peace 
who  has  rendered  judgment  in  a  case  before 
him  is  under  a  peremptory  duty  to  issue  an 
execution  thereon  at  the  request  of  the  judgment 
creditor.  In  issuinff  or  refusing  it  he  acts 
ministerially,  not  ludicially.  If  a  statute 
charges  a  county  judge  with  the  duty  of  select- 
ing jurors  for  the  various  courte  sitting  in  the 
county,  his  acts  under  the  statute  are  minis- 
terial. Whether  an  act  required  by  law  of  an 
officer  is  judicial  or  ministerial  depends  upon  its 
character,  and  not  on  the  rank  of  the  actor. 
See  Officer,  and  the  articles  there  referred 
to. 

MINISTER'S  WOOING,  The.  A  story  by 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  published  as  a  serial  in 
the  Atlantic  Monthly  (1859).  The  scene  is  New 
England  in  the  Revolution,  when  Mary  Scud- 
der's  lover  is  supposed  to  have  been  drowned, 
and  the  girl  is  persuaded  to  marry  old  Dr.  Hop- 
kins, the  minister.  The  lover  returns,  Mary 
is  true  to  her  promise,  but  the  minister  frees  her 
at  the  suggestion  of  Miss  Diamond. 


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MIKISTBY.  A  body  consisting  usually  of 
the  heads  of  the  chief  executive  or  administra- 
tive departments  of  a  government,  and  consti- 
tuting an  advisory  council  of  the  soverei^. 
In  several  European  countries  there  is  a  chief 
minister  who  has  a  certain  precedence  in  rank 
and  authority  over  his  colleagues,  and  who  is 
known  as  the  premier  or  prime  minister.  In 
several  others,  the  chief  minister  bears  the 
title  of  minister-president,  and  enjoys  a  cer- 
tain precedence  in  dignity  over  his  colleagues, 
but  exercises  no  authority  over  them.  Every- 
whore,  the  right  of  selecting  the  members  of  the 
ministry  belongs  to  the  chief  executive.  In 
those  countries,  like  England,  where  the  Crown 
is  only  the  nominal  executive,  the  head  of  the 
State  selects  only  the  prime  minister,  and  in- 
trusts the  selection  of  the  others  to  him.  In  the 
German  Empire,  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  the 
Empire  of  Japan,  and  the  American  republics, 
where  the  ministers  are  not  responsible  to  the 
legislature  for  their  political  policy,  they  are 
all  appointed  directly  by  the  chief  executive 
without  being  restricted  to  acknowledged  party 
leaders.  It  is  a  general  rule  in  European  coun- 
tries that  meml^rs  of  Parliament  may,  with 
the  approval  of  their  constituents,  serve  as  min- 
isters. But  whether  members  of  Parliament  or 
not,  ministers  are  entitled  to  sit  in  either 
House,  and  to  participate  freely  in  the  discussion 
of  measures  in  which  they  are  interested. 

In  general,  the  term  'ministry'  is  synonymous 
with  the  term  'cabinet'  (q.v.),  but  there  are 
exceptions.  Thus,  in  Great  Britain,  the  'minis- 
try* includes  in  addition  to  members  of  the 
cabinet,  all  those  political  under-secretaries  who 
have  seats  in  Parliament  (at  present  about 
forty  in  number),  and  who  are  expected  to  re- 
sign when  their  policy  is  defeated  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  while  the  'cabinet'  consists  of  a 
certain  number  of  ministers  (at  present  nine- 
teen) who  control  the  policy  of  the  government 
and  preside  over  the  chief  administrative  de- 
partments. Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  not  all 
the  ministers  are  members  of  the  cabinet.  Gn 
the  other  hand,  it  may  happen  that  some  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  will  have  no  administrative 
duties.  Such  members  are  known  as  ministers 
without  portfolios.  Departments  of  adminstra- 
tion  over  which  ministers  are  generally  placed 
are:  foreign  affairs,  war,  finance,  justice,  public 
education,  public  worship,  navy,  commerce,  post 
and  telegraphs,  and  colonies.  In  those  countries 
where  ministers  are  responsible  to  the  chief  exec- 
utive, they  act  independently  of  one  another  in 
the  conduct  of  their  administrative  departments, 
and  their  responsibility  is  individual  rather  than 
collective. 

MINITABI,  m^'n^Wr^,  or  Hidatsa,  h«- 
dUt^sA.  A  tribe  of  Siouan  stock  (q.v.),  orig- 
inally a  part  of  the  Crow,  whose  language  they 
speak,  but  from  whom,  for  some  petty  tradi- 
tional quarrel,  they  long  since  separated.  Since 
known  to  the  whites  they  have  resided  nearly 
in  their  present  position  on  the  Missouri  River 
in  North  Dakota  in  close  alliance  with  the 
Mandan  and  Arikara  (q.v.).  They  call  them- 
selves Hidatsa^  their  popular  name  being  of 
Sioux  or  Mandan  origin,  and  said  to  signify 
'people  who  have  crossed  over  the  wa£er.'  Both 
they  and  a  detached  band  of  Arapaho  were  known 
to  the  French  as  Oros  Ventres  (q.v.).  They  oc- 
cupied permanent  stockaded  villages  of  circular 


earth-covered  loff  houses  along  the  bluffs  of 
the  Missouri,  where  they  had  fields  of  corn, 
pumpkins,  and  sunfiowers,  and  made  periodic 
excursions  into  the  open  plains  to  hunt  the 
buffalo,  at  which  times  they  lived  in  tepees. 
Like  their  allied  tribes,  they  had  elaborate 
ceremonials  and  social  organization.  They  have 
been  uniformly  friendly  to  the  whites.  In  1804 
they  were  estimated  at  2500,  but  have  decreased 
rapidly,  first  from  the  smallpox  of  1837,  and 
later  from  the  diminished  food  supply  conse- 
quent upon  the  destruction  of  the  buffalo.  They 
number  now  about  460,  and  live  with  the  Man- 
dan and  Arikara,  upon  the  reservation  at  Fort 
Berthold.  The  population  of  the  three  tribes 
for  some  years  has  remained  about  stationary. 
The  Minitari  are  the  most  industrious  of  the 
three,  having  the  largest  herds  and  earning 
more  than  the  other  two  together.  Consult 
Matthew,  Ethnology  and  Philology  of  the  Hi- 
datsa Indians, 

MIN^IUli;  or  Red  Lead.  A  beautifully  scar- 
let crystalline  substance  consisting  chiefly  of  lead 
ortho-plumbate,  2PbC.PbO,.  It  is  made  by  cau- 
tiously heating  massicot  or  white  lead  in  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace  or  in  special  barrel-shaped 
ovens  open  at  both  ends.  If  heated,  minium 
gradually  changes  its  color,  becoming  violet  and 
ultimately  black;  but  it  regains  its  original 
color  on  cooling.  If  ignited  in  the  air,  minium 
is  converted  into  the  monoxide  of  lead.  Minium 
is  used  as  a  mineral  color,  yielding  a  fine  paint. 
It  is  also  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  flint- 
glass.  The  commercial  product  usually  contains 
more  or  less  litharge  and  is  often  found  adul- 
terated with  iron  oxide,  brick-dust,  red  bole, 
powdered  heavy  spar,  etc.,  the  most  objectionable 
adulterant  being  iron.  Minium  has  also  been 
found  native  in  certain  localities  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, Russia,  etc. 

MIK^IVET.  One  of  a  group  of  about 
twenty  species  of  small  shrike-like  birds  of  the 
Oriental  region.  The  males  are,  in  general, 
black  and  rose,  while  the  females  are  gray 
and  saffron.  Consult  Blythe,  Mammals  and 
Birds  of  Burma  (London,  1875) ;  and  other 
authorities  on  Oriental  ornithology  cited  under 

BiBD. 

MINK  (probably  from  Swed.  mdihhf  mink). 
Any  of  several  species  of  weasel-like  animals  of 
the  genus  Putorius,  family  Mustelids,  distin- 
guished from  the  martens,  stoats,  ete.,  by  their 
semi-aquatic  habits  and  certain  peculiarities 
of  dentition.  The  American  mink  {Putorius 
vison)  is  found  throughout  North  America,  but 
especially  in  the  northern  and  mountainous  parts. 
The  European  mink  {Putorius  lufreola),  usually 
called  'norz*  or  'mfink,*  occurs  in  Finland,  Poland, 
Scandinavia,  and  Russia,  and  formerly  extended 
as  far  west  as  (Central  Germany.  The  mink  of 
Siberia  {Putorius  Sihirica)  is  a  quite  distinct 
but  little  known  species.  The  American  mink 
is  somewhat  larger  than  the  European  species 
(15  to  18  inches  long,  besides  the  tail,  9  inches), 
and  is  further  distinguished  by  the  black  upper 
lip;  in  the  European  mink  the  upper  lip  is 
white. 

Minks  are  inhabitants  of  well-watered  areas, 
haunting  the  banks  of  streams  and  borders  of 
ponds  in  search  of  their  food,  and  making  their 
homes  in  burrows,  which  open  near  the  water. 
They  are  excellent  swimmers,  having  the  feet 


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partially  webbed,  and  spend  much  time  in  the 
water.  Although,  like  other  Mustelidse,  they 
eat  birds,  small  mammals,  and  eggs,  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  minks  comes  from  the  water;  thus 
tish,  frogs,  salamanders,  crayfish,  and  even  mol- 
lusks,  form  their  chief  diet,  and  muskrats  and 
other  water-loving  mammals  also  fall  prey  to 
their  voracity.  The  fur  of  the  mink  is  of  great 
value  commercially,  though  the  price  varies  much 
with  color  and  quality.  (See  Fub  and  the  Fub 
Trade.)  Minks  are  usually  brown,  sometimes 
rather  light,  but  more  often  very  dark,  especially 
along  the  mid-dorsal  line.  The  darker  the  animal 
the  more  valuable  it  is.  The  fur  is  made  up 
of  a  dense  undercoat  and  an  outer  coat  of  long, 
shining  hairs,  and  the  skins  from  the  coldest 
regions  are  usually  the  most  valuable.  Like 
all  its  near  relatives,  the  mink  is  bloodthirsty 
and  cruel.  It  is  very  courageous,  and  when 
cornered  is  savage.  The  young  are  bom  in 
the  early  spring,  usually  in  a  hole  in  the 
bank  of  some  body  of  water,  where  plenty 
of  food  is  easily  obtained.  The  number  of  young 
is  about  six  in  a  litter.  The  mink  is  second  only 
to  the  skunk  in  the  strength,  penetrating  power, 
and  nauseousness  of  the  odor  of  the  secretion  in 
the  anal  glands,  but  fortunately  it  is  only  when 
the  animal  is  greatly  enraged  that  the  odor 
becomes  very  disagreeable.  Minks  are  said  to 
be  easily  tamed  if  taken  young,  and  to  enjoy 
being  petted,  but  their  temper  is  capricious, 
and  as  they  grow  old  they  become  dangerous. 
Civilization  seems  to  have  little  effect  upon 
them,  there  being  few  districts  so  completely 
cleared  or  densely  settled  as  not  to  afford  them 
refuge. 

Consult:  Audubon  and  Bachman,  Quadrupeds 
of  North  America  {'Sew  York,  1851)  ;  Coues,  Fur- 
hearing  Animals  (Washington,  1879)  ;  Stone 
and  Cram,  American  Animals  (New  York,  1902). 
See  Fub-Beabinq  Animals. 

MINK-FBOO,  or  Hoosier-Fboo.  A  small 
frog  {Rana  septentrionalis)  of  the  Northwestern 
United  States.  It  is  2^4  inches  long  from  nose 
to  vent,  dark  olive  green  above,  with  sooty  brown 
bars  and  blotches,  and  pure  white  underneath. 
Its  hazel  iris,  minky  color,  and  quiet  solitary 
habits,  distinguish  it  from  others.  A  detailed  ac- 
count of  its  features  and  ecology  was  given  by  J. 
H.  Gamier  in  The  American  Naturalistf  vol.  xvii. 
(Philadelphia,  1883). 

MIN^OPIS.  The  inhabitants  of  the  An- 
daman Islands.    See  Mincopies. 

MINNA  VON  BABNHELM,  mln'n&  f6n 
barn'h^lm.  A  comedy  by  Lessing,  produced 
at  Hamburg  in  1767.  The  action  occupies  part 
of  a  single  day,  and  the  scene  throughout  is  an 
inn.  The  plot  rests  on  the  ruse  employed  by 
the  heroine  to  overcome  the  false  sense  of  honor 
of  her  fianc^,  Major  von  Tellheim,  who  refuses  to 
bind  her  to  him,  because  of  his  poverty. 

MIN'NEAP'OLIS.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Ottawa  County,  Kan.,  128  miles  by  rail 
west  of  Topeka ;  on  the  Solomon  River,  and  on  the 
Union  Pacific  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  railroads  (Map:  Kansas,  £  2).  It 
derives  considerable  trade  from  the  adjacent 
farming  and  stock-raising  coimtry,  and  has  grain 
elevators,  flour-mills,  carriage  shops,  a  foundry, 
etc.  Building-stone  is  quarried  in  the  vicinity. 
There  is  a  public-school  library  of  3000  volumes. 
Population,  1900,  1727;  1905,  1772. 
You  xui.— »6. 


MINNEAPOLIS.  The  largest  ci^  of  Min- 
nesota, and  the  county-seat  of  Hennepin  County, 
situated  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony,  on  tlie 
Mississippi  River,  above  Saint  Paul,  the  suburbs 
of  which  join  those  of  Minneapolis,  the  two 
municipalities  being  termed  Twin  Cities.'  The 
river,  which  divides  the  city  into  unequal  por- 
tions, the  main  portion  being  on  the  right  bank, 
is  crossed  by  a  number  of  massive  highway  and 
railroad  bridges.  The  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  are 
in  the  heart  of  the  manufacturing  district. 

Minneapolis  stands  on  a  gently  imdulating 
plateau,  800  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a  pictur- 
esque lake  region  much  frequented  as  a  place  of 
resort.  There  are  several  lakes  within  the  city 
limits,  and  of  others  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
Lake  Minnetonka  is  the  largest  and  most  popu- 
lar. The  city  is  about  10  miles  long  by  6  in 
width,  and  has  an  area  of  53  square  miles.  Its 
streets  are  broad  and  regular.  An  extensive 
park  system  has  been  developed.  There  are 
some  twenty  parks,  comprising  a  proportionately 
large  area  of  1826  acres.  Attractive  driveways, 
of  which  the  Kenwood  Boulevard  ( 150  feet  wide) 
is  an  example,  skirt  the  lakes,  constituting  a 
picturesque  feature  of  the  park  system.  Loring 
Park,  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  contains  a  fine 
lake  and  Fjelde's  statue  of  Ole  Bull.  Minnehaha 
Park,  of  133  acres,  is  a  picturesque  tract,  embrac- 
ing the  Falls  of  Minnehaha,  50  feet  in  height, 
which  have  beeen  immortalized  by  Longfellow's 
Hiawatha.  Adjoining  the  park  are  the  beautiful 
grounds  of  the  State  Soldiers*  Home,  occupying 
60  acres.  Minneapolis  has  many  handsome  edi- 
fices, both  public  and  private.  The  Court  House 
and  City  Hall  was  completed  at  a  cost  of  more 
than  $3,000,000  in  1902.  It  is  built  of  Min- 
nesota granite,  and  is  300  feet  square,  inclosing 
a  large  open  court.  The  tower  commands  a  su- 
perb view  of  the  city  from  its  height  of  345 
feet.  The  post-office  and  the  public  library 
are  fine  Romanesque  structures.  The  latter 
contains  a  collection  of  12,000  volumes,  an  art 
gallery  and  school  of  art,  and  the  Museum  of  the 
Minnesota  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  The 
Guaranty  Building,  12  stories  high,  is  conspicu- 
ous among  the  office  buildings  of  the  city.  Other 
prominent  structures  are  the  New  York  Life  In- 
surance Building,  Masonic  Temple,  West  Hotel, 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  Andrus  Building,  Secur- 
ity Bank  Building,  and  the  Lumber  Exchange. 
Minneapolis  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota  (q.v.),  on  the  grounds  of  which  is  a 
statue  of  ex-Governor  John  S.  Pillsbury,  by 
French.  Other  educational  institutions  are 
Augsburg  Seminary  (Lutheran),  established  in 
1869;  the  Northwestern  Conservatory  of  Music, 
Graham  Hall,  and  Stanley  Hall.  There  are 
numerous  private  and  public  charitable  institu- 
tions, and  a  bureau  of  associated  charities  which 
is  organized  for  cooperation  and  general  super- 
intendence. 

Commebce  and  Industry.  The  conditions 
which  have  contributed  most  to  the  industrial 
development  of  Minneapolis  are  the  advantages 
afforded  by  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  and  their 
convenient  location  in  relation  to  the  abundant 
grain  and  timber  of  the  Northwest.  Excellent 
transportation  facilities  give  the  city  command 
over  these  supplies  and  over  the  markets  of  the 
country.  Twenty-two  lines  of  railway,  operated 
under  ten  systems,  enter  the  city.  With  these 
advantages,  Minneapolis  has  developed  into  the 


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MINNEDOSA. 


foremost  city  of  the  Northwest,  heing  noted  par- 
ticularly for  its  manufacturing  and  wholesale 
interests.  The  first  manufactory  in  the  State 
was  established  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony.  It 
was  used  first  as  a  saw-mill  and  then  as  a  flour- 
mill.  The  power  afforded  by  the  Falls  has  been 
utilized  more  and  more,  until  Minneapolis  has 
become  the  largest  flour  and  lumber  market  in  the 
world.  The  water  power  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  An- 
thony was  developed,  previous  to  1879,  to  yield 
30,000  horse  power,  and  in  1897  a  new  dam,  giv- 
ing 10,000  horse  power,  was  completed.  The 
United  States  Government  is  (1903)  construct- 
ing a  system  of  locks  and  dams  below  the  Falls 
which  will  add  10,000  horse  power.  For  a  num- 
ber of  years  the  lumber  industrv  was  most  im- 
portant, but  after  the  introduction  of  improved 
processes  of  flour-milling  in  the  seventies,  the 
latter  industry  surpassed  lumber  manufacturing, 
and  has  since  rapidly  outstripped  it.  This  rela- 
tion, imdoubtedly,  will  continue  to  exist,  as  the 
tributary  grain-producing  area  is  constantly  in- 
creasing, while  the  timber  supply  is  diminishing. 
The  value  of  lumber  and  timber  products  cut  by 
Minneapolis  mills  in  1900  was  $12,285,305;  in 
1905  it  was  $5,816,726.  The  value  of  planing 
mill  products  including  sashes,  doors,  and  blinds, 
increased  from  $2,329,769  in  1900,  to  $4,144,116 
in  1905.  The  value  of  flouring  and  grist-mill 
products  was,  in  1900,  $49,673,568  and  in  1906, 
$62,745,446.  In  1905,  it  constituted  more  than 
one-half  the  value  of  the  products  of  all  the  in- 
dustries of  the  city.  Other  prominent  industries 
are  the  manufacture  of  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  malt  liquors,  and  linseed  oil. 

Among  the  railroads  that  contribute  to  the 
high  commercial  and  industrial  rank  of  Min- 
neapolis are ;  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern ; 
the  Burlington  Route;  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  Saint  Paul;  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific;  the  Northern  Pacific;  the  Great  North- 
ern; the  Minneapolis,  Saint  Paul  and  Sault 
Sainte  Marie;  the  Chicago  Great  Western;  the 
Minneapolis  and  Saint  Louis;  and  the  Wisconsin 
Central.  The  Mississippi  River  is  navigable  as 
far  as  Minneapolis,  but  vessels  practically  go 
no  higher  than  Saint  Paul.  In  the  first  six 
months  of  1906  there  were  received  in  Minne- 
apolis 37,767,600  bushels  of  wheat,  2,217,740 
bushels  of  corn,  10,264,330  bushels  of  oats,  4,226,- 
790  bushels  of  barley,  and  4,772,630  bushels  of 
flax. 

Government.  Minneapolis  is  governed  under 
a  charter  of  1872,  granted  at  the  consolida- 
tion of  Minneapolis  with  Saint  Anthony.  This 
charter  has  been  frequently  amended  by  the 
Legislature.  The  city,  through  a  commission 
consisting  of  fifteen  resident  freeholders  ap- 
pointed by  the  district  court,  now  has  the  power 
to  draft  a  new  charter  and  amend  it,  subject  to 
ratification  by  the  people.  The  main  elective 
officers  of  the  city  are  the  mayor,  treasurer, 
compti:oller,  two  municipal  judges',  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  city  council,  twenty-six  in  number, 
two  from  each  ward  elected  for  four  years, 
one  being  chosen  in  each  ward  at  every' bien- 
nial election.  The  council  is  a  unicameral  body. 
The  mayor,  treasurer,  and  comptroller  arc  elect- 
ed for  two  years.  The  mayor's  veto  may  be 
overridden  by  a  two- thirds  vote  of  the  council. 
There  are  also  the  following  elective  boards: 
Library  board,  park  board,  and  board  of  edu- 
cation.   The  police  department  is  under  the  con- 


trol of  the  mayor,  who  appoints  the  superin- 
tendent and  all  members  of  the  police  force,  the 
appointment  of  the  superintendent,  however,  re- 
quiring confirmation  by  the  city  council.  The 
mayor  is  ex-oflScio  member  of  the  park  board, 
the  library  board,  the  board  of  sinking-fund 
commissioners,  and  the  board  of  charities  and 
corrections.  The  last-named  board  consists  of 
five  members,  the  other  four  being  appointed  by 
the  mayor. 

Finance.  The  city  had  in  1905  a  bonded  debt 
of  $9,384,000,  which  was  partially  covered  br 
a  sinking  fund  of  $2,228,503.  The  charter  limits 
the  municipal  debt  to  5  per  cent,  of  the  assessed 
valuation.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real  and 
personal  property  in  1905  was  $138,600,000.  The 
legal  basis  for  assessment  of  property  is  100  per 
cent.,  or  the  full  market  value,  but  in  practice 
the  basis  is  about  60  per  cent.  The  tax  rate 
for  1905  was  2.775  per  cent.  The  total  receipts 
in  1905  were  $5,536,537.  The  expenditures  for 
maintenance  and  operation  were  $4,899,009;  the 
main  items  being:  for  schools,  $1,298,431;  for  the- 
fire  department,  $364,984;  for  interest  on  debt,. 
$329,002;  for  the  police  department,  $235,938. 
Minneapolis  owns  and  operates  its  water-works, 
which  represent  an  outlay  of  $4,602,708. 

Population.  Minneapolis  is  the  largest  of  the 
American  cities  which  have  developed  wholly 
since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Its 
population  bv  decades  has  been  as  follows:  1870, 
13,066;  1880,  46,887;  1890,  164,738;  1900,  202,- 
718;  1905,  261,974.  The  total  population  in  1905 
included  more  than  77,400  persons  of  foreign, 
birth,  or  33.7  per  cent.,  while  the  persons  of  for- 
eign paternity  represented  59  per  cent,  of  the 
total.  Scandinavians  compose  the  majority  of 
the  foreign-bom  element. 

History.  Father  Hennepin  visited  the  Falls  of 
Saint  Anthony  in  1680  and  gave  them  their  name. 
Though  the  United  States  Government  in  1819 
built  Fort  Snelling  at  the  mouth  of  the  Min- 
nesota, and  in  1822  erected  a  large  mill  within 
the  present  limits  of  Minneapolis  (then  included 
in  the  'Military  Reservation  of  Fort  Snelling*), 
no  real  settlement  on  the  west  side  of  the  river 
was  made  until  1850,  when  Colonel  J.  H.  Stevens 
established  a  claim  overlooking  the  falls.  Owing^ 
largely  to  the  uncertainty  of  land  titles,  few  set- 
tlers came  until  after  1855,  when  Congress  first 
granted  a  right  of  preemption.  The  settlement, 
having  previously  borne  several  names  in  suc- 
cession, was  incorporated  in  1856  as  the  town, 
and  in  1867  as  the  city  of  Minneapolis.  In  1872  the 
city  of  Saint  Anthony,  directly  across  the  river, 
which  had  been  settled  in  1837,  and  incorporated 
in  1855,  was  annexed.  After  1860  the  growth 
of  the  city  was  exceedingly  rapid.  From  1886 
to  1803  a  large  Industrial  Exposition  was  held 
here,  and  in  1892  the  Republican  National  Con- 
vention met  in  the  Exposition  Building.  On  Sep- 
tember 23,  1891,  there  was  a  notable  ^Harvest 
Festival*  to  celebrate  the  return  of  agricultural 
prosj)erity  in  the  Northwest  after  a  period  of 
poor  crops  and  general  depression.  Consult 
Atwater,  History  of  the  City  of  Minneapolis 
(New  York,  1893). 

MIN'N£D(ySA.  A  town  of  Marquette  Elec- 
toral Division,  Manitoba,  Canada,  on  the  Little 
Saskatchewan  River,  and  on  the  Canadian  Paci- 
fic Railway,  135  miles  northwest  of  Winnipeg 
(Map:  Manitoba,  J  4).  It  is  a  railway  division 
point  and  the  busy  centre  of  a  rapidly  colonizing 


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657 


MINNESOTA. 


agricultural  region  and  has  a  grist-mill,  sash 
factory,  etc.  Population,  in  1891,  614:  1901, 
1052;  1906,  1378. 

MINNEHAHA,  mln'n6-ha'h&.  The  heroine 
of  Longfellow's  Indian  poem,  Hiatoatha,  who  is 
represented  as  the  daughter  of  an  old  arrow- 
maker.  The  name  Minnehaha  (Sioux  Mini-haha, 
*curling  water*)  is  borne  by  a  picturesque  cas- 
cade, about  50  feet  high,  in  the  Minnehaha  River, 
a  small  stream  emptying  into  the  Mississippi  at 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  It  may  be  mentioned  that 
in  Longfellow's  work  the  hero  has  an  Iroquois 
name,  the  heroine  a  Sioux  name,  while  the  poem 
itself  is  based  upon  the  Ojibwa  legends  published 
in  Schoolcraft's  Algic  Researches. 

MIN^ESING'EB.  The  common  name  for 
those  German  poets  who  flourished  at  the  vari- 
ous feudal  courts  of  Germany  in  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  The  themes  of  the 
minnesingers  are  first  epic,  then  mainly  religious 
in  inspiration.  They  also  described  the  beau- 
ties of  nature.  More  often  than  the  troubadours 
they  were  of  noble  birth,  but,  like  the  trouba- 
dours, they  roved  from  court  to  court.  Minne- 
poetry  has  three  epochs.  In  the  first,  a  little 
after  1150,  lyric  poetry  begins  to  free  itself  from 
the  epic;  the  second  is  its  brilliant  period;  the 
third,  beginning  about  1300,  marks  its  decline 
and  the  rise  of  the  meistergesang,  cultivated  by 
the  meistersinger  (q.v.).  The  minnesingers  em- 
ploy either  the  verse  with  four  beats,  or  the  long 
line  with  rhymes  in  pairs,  and  often  their  songs 
are  only  a  strophe  long.  Remnants  of  old  Ger- 
man poetry  show  that  the  chanted  long  line 
and  the  rhymed  verse  with  a  regular  beat  were 
collaterally  employed.  The  former  was  better 
suited  to  heroic  songs  or  narrative;  the  latter, 
being  lively,  fitted  the  lyric.  The  oldest  extant 
love  songs  in  German  are  in  rhymed  verses  with 
fourfold  arsis,  or  they  are  in  the  long  line. 
Not  seldom  variety  was  obtained  by  the  intro- 
duction of  an  'orphan'  or  rhymeless  verse,  or  by 
having  long  and  short  lines  in  one  and  the  same 
strophe.  The  ditties  of  early  singers  such  as 
Dietraar  von  Aist,  von  Ktirenberg,  Meinloh  von 
Seveningen,  and  the  burgraves  of  Regensburg  and 
Rietenburg,  are  marked  by  simplicity  of  thought, 
by  absence  of  repining,  and  by  the  use  of  as- 
sonance. The  minnesingers,  like  the  troubadours 
(q.v.),  throve  in  the  heyday  of  chivalry.  How 
deeply  each  of  the  minnesingers  was  influenced 
by  the  troubadours,  and  to  what  degree  they 
drew  upon  the  traditions  and  customs  of  their 
own  land,  or  finally  to  what  extent  they  imitated 
once  genuine  emotions  or  spoke  from  their  hearts, 
is  often  extremely  problematical.  Certainly,  the 
oldest  poems  utter  true  experience,  though  we 
must  allow  for  the  fiction  which  presents  the 
lover  and  his  lady  in  colloquy.  Some  of  the 
most  ancient  German  poems  are  put  into  wo- 
man's mouth,  but  we  can  scarcely  conclude  that 
women  were  therefore  among  the  minnesingers, 
though  several  ladies,  as,  for  instance,  the  Count- 
ess of  Dia,  wrote  love  poems  in  Provencal. 

With  the  more  artful  verses  of  the  Bursrrave 
Rietenburg,  Provencal  influence  becomes  clear. 
To  all  people  minne  meant  love,  but  to  the  lord- 
lier poets  or  to  those  who  sang  in  their  halls 
minne  had  an  exalted  significance.  Platonic  love 
had  ousted  the  older  and  far  more  jjenuine 
sentiment  between  men  and  women.  We  shall 
find  that  the  minnesingers  were  merely  doing 


what  had  been  done  a  little  sooner  by  the  trouba- 
dours, but  the  minnesong  was  not  so  brilliant, 
though  it  was  almost  as  artificial  as  the  poems 
written  in  the  best  period  (1100-1260)  of  Pro- 
vencal literature  (q.v.).  The  Germans  culti- 
vated such  forms  as  were  popular  in  Southern 
France,  as  the  love-poem  proper,  the  sirventes 
(q.v.)  and  the  tenzon  (q.v.).  Like  the  trouba- 
dour, the  minnesinger  sang  the  praises  of  his 
lady,  who  was  often  his  patron's  wife.  Of  her 
he  made  an  earthly  angel,  and  whatsoever  boon 
she  might  grant  him  was  his  bliss.  The  minne- 
singers whose  dialect  puts  them  on  the  western 
boundary  of  Germany  first  show  French  in- 
fluence. Provencal  influence  is  earliest  percep- 
tible in  Friedrich  von  Hansen,  a  Franconian 
from  the  Rhine.  The  dactylic  rhythm  bears  wit- 
ness also  to  a  romantic  origin.  Minnesingers 
who  used  it  were,  besides  Friedrich  von  Hansen, 
Heinrich  von  Veldeke,  Heinrich  von  Morungen, 
Hartmann  von  Aue,  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide, 
Hildbold  von  Schwangau,  and  Ulrich  von  Liech- 
tenstein. 

With  Friedrich  von  Hansen  we  first  meet  the 
Crusading  song.  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide 
gave  the  fullest  utterance  to  the  minnesong.  In 
him  we  find  both  courtly  and  popular  elements. 
Walther  also  modeled  poems  after  romantic  pat- 
terns. Austria  was  the  centre  of  court  poetry. 
There  Reinmar  had  lived  and  there  Walther  had 
learned  his  art.  Neidhart  had  first  composed 
for  peasants  songs  and  dances,  but  his  ambi- 
tious tendencies  displeased  them  and  he  turned 
to  the  Court.  With  Walther  and  Neidhart  the 
road  goes  in  twain,  and  each  had  his  followers. 
Princes  had  been  among  the  troubadours.  So  it 
was  in  Germany,  where  Henry  VI.  and  Conradin 
were  singing  in  the  south,  while  farther  north 
were  Duke  Henry  II.  of  Anhalt,  Margrave  Gtho 
IV.  of  Brandenburg,  and  Henry  III.  of  Meissen. 

Consult:  Pfaff,  Der  Minnesang  des  12,  his  IJf. 
Jahrhunderts  (Stuttgart,  no  date);  Uhland, 
"Der  Meistergesang,"  in  Schriften  zur  Geschichte 
der  Dichtung  und  Sage,  vol.  v.  (Stuttgart,  1870)  ; 
Scherer,  Deutsche  Studien  (Vienna,  1870,  1874)  ; 
Burdach,  Reinmar  der  Alte  und  Walther  von  der 
Vogelweide  (Leipzig,  1880)  ;  Lyon,  Minne-  und 
Meistergesang  (ib-»  1883)  ;  Lechleitner,  Der 
deutsche  Minnegesang  (Wolfenbtittel,  1893)  ; 
Grimm,  Oeschichte  der  Minnesinger  (Paderbom, 
1897).  For  the  history  of  the  German  gnomic 
poetry  consult  Roethe's  edition  of  the  (7e- 
dichte  Reinmars  von  Zweter  (Leipzig,  1887). 
For  a  general  collection  consult  von  der  Hagen, 
Minnesinger  (ib.,  1838)  ;  for  a  selection  consult 
Bartsch,  Deutsche  Liederdichter  des  12.  his  H. 
Jahrhunderts  ( 3d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1893 ) . 

MIN'NESCyTA  (Indian,  sky-tinted  water). 
One  of  the  North-Ontral  States  of  the 
American  Union.  It  lies  around  the  head 
waters  of  the  Mississippi  River,  between 
43°  30'  and  49**  25'  north  latitude,  and  between 
89''  29'  and  97**  5'  west  longitude.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Canadian  provinces  of  On- 
tario and  Manitoba,  on  the  east  by  Lake  Supe- 
rior and  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  on  the  south 
by  Iowa,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Dakotas.  It  has 
an  extreme  length  north  and  south  of  about  400 
miles,  and  east  and  west  of  380  miles,  averaging 
240  miles  in  width,  and  comprising  an  area  of 
84,682  square  miles,  of  which  3324  square  miles 
are  water.  It  ranks  tenth  in  size  among  the 
States. 


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558 


KnmESOTA. 


Topography.  Northern  Minnesota  is  an  ex- 
tension of  the  Laurentian  highlands — ancient 
rocks  smoothed  down  to  moderate  relief.  The  sur- 
face here  is  rolling,  is  densely  covered  with  pine 
forests,  except  in  the  western  part,  and  abounds 
in  lakes  and  swamps.  Southern  Minnesota  is 
largely  prairie,  wide  expanses  of  gently  rolling, 
grassy,  and  generally  treeless  plains  of  boulder- 
clay,  belted  with  moraines.  The  greater  part  of 
the  surface  is  young,  the  plains  are  as  yet  \m- 
dissected,  and  lakes  still  remain  in  the  moraines. 
In  the  southeastern  and  southwestern  comers  of 
the  State  the  old  surface  was  not  covered  over 
by  the  later  Wisconsin  glacial  sheet,  and  here 
we  find  the  surface  has  weathered  smooth  and  the 
lakes  have  disappeared.  The  surface  of  the  State 
has  as  its  central  feature,  in  the  north- 
central  part,  an  elevated  plateau,  which 
rises  1750  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
From  this  plateau  the  country  slopes  off  north, 
south,  east,  and  west,  reaching,  however,  2200 
feet  in  the  northeast  in  the  Mesabi  Mountains 
north  of  Lake  Superior,  and  after  a  considerable 
decline  rising  again  in  the  southwest  comer  of 
the  State  to  1800  feet  in  the  Coteau  des  Prairies. 
The  average  elevation  is  1200  feet,  or  600  feet 
above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior.  The  surface 
is  unbroken  by  any  sudden  uplifts,  and  the  slope 
from  the  central  plateau  in  each  direction  is 
very  gradual.  The  lowest  portions  of  the  State 
are  the  region  around  the  head  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  the  southeast  section  of  the  State  where  the 
land  falls  to  an  elevation  of  about  600  feet. 

The  rivers  of  Minnesota  radiate  in  all  direc- 
tions from  the  central  plateau  mentioned  above. 
The  two  principal  drainage  systems  are  those 
of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red  River  of  the 
North.  The  Mississippi  rises  in  the  Itascan  lake 
group,  and  with  its  two  large  tributaries,  the 
Saint  Croix  on  the  eastern  boundary,  and  the 
Minnesota  in  the  west,  drains  more  than  one- 
half  the  State.  The  Red  River  of  the  North, 
which  drains  the  western  slope,  flows  northward 
on  the  western  boundary  through  a  flat  lacustrine 
basin  to  Lake  Winnipeg.  The  northern  and  north- 
eastern slopes  are  small  in  area  and  drained  by 
short  streams  flowing  into  the  Rainy  River  and 
Lake  system  on  the  northern  boundary,  and  into 
Lake  Superior.  The  largest  of  these  streams  is 
the  Saint  Louis  River,  which  flows  into  the  west- 
em  extremity  of  Lake  Superior.  The  Mississippi 
River  alone  is  used  for  navigation;  the  Minne- 
sota and  the  Red  River  are  reported  'navigable,' 
but  are  little  used.  The  direction  of  the  rivers, 
as  well  as  the  position  and  formation  of  the  in- 
numerable lakes  dotting  the  surface  of  the  State, 
have  been  determined  by  glacial  action.  In  the 
north  the  lakes  are  usually  cut  out  of  the  old 
rock  and  display  bold  tortuous  shores.  In  the 
south  the  lakes  are  often  broad  and  shallow. 
Three-fourths  of  the  lakes  of  the  State  are  those 
occupying  the  luidrained  hollows  in  the  morainal 
deposits,  which  cover  the  greater  portion  of  the 
surface  of  the  State;  others,  such  as  Lakes 
Pepin,  Traverse,  and  Big  Stone,  are  river  expan- 
sions. The  lakes  vary  in  size  from  mere  ponds  up 
to  Red  Lake,  with  an  area  of  340  square  miles. 
The  other  more  important  lakes  are  Leech  and 
Winnibigashish  in  the  plateau  region;  Mille  Lac; 
and  Minnetonka,  a  popular  summer  resort  for 
Minneapolis  and  Saint  Paul. 

The  most  important  lacustrine  feature  of 
Minnesota  is  the  extinct  Lake  Agassiz.    An  inci- 


dent in  the  recession  of  the  Pleistocene  ice  was 
the  ponding  of  the  marginal  drainage  of  the  ice 
sheet  in  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  as  fast  as 
it  was  uncovered  by  the  melting  ice.  A  great 
lake  was  formed  which  has  b^n  called  Lake 
Agassiz.  At  its  largest  stage  it  has  a  maximum 
width  of  nearly  700  miles,  and  drained  through 
the  Minnesota  River  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
On  the  disappearance  of  the  ice,  and  the  draining 
out  of  Lake  Agassiz  by  the  Nelson  River,  its 
bed  was  left  as  a  level  alluvial  plain. 

Climate  and  Soil.  Minnesota  lies  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  north  temperate  zone,  and  in  the 
geographical  centre  of  the  continent.  This  gives 
it  a  continental  climate,  with  marked  extremes 
of  temperature.  The  average  temperatures  for 
January  are  15**  F.  at  the  southeastem  comer, 
and  at  the  northwestern  comer  only  1*  or  2* 
F.  For  July  it  is  70**  F.  in  the  south  and 
65**  F.  in  the  north.  Maximum  shade  tempera- 
tures rise  above  100**  F.  over  all  the  State  west 
of  Duluth,  while  the  minima  are.  40**  F.  below 
zero  in  the  southern  and  northeastern  counties 
and  50®  F.  below  in  the  extreme  northwestern, 
thus  giving  a  range  of  150**  degrees  or  over  for 
Red  River  Valley.  The  annual  rainfall  ranges 
from  20  inches  in  the  northwest  to  over  30 
inches  in  the  southeast.  The  rainfall  is  charac- 
terized by  a  scant  precipitation  in  the  winter 
season,  and  moderately  heavy  rains  during  the 
crop  season.  There  is  an  average  annual  snow- 
fall of  20  inches  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
State,  which  increases  gradually  to  80  inches  at 
Pigeon  Point.  The  southern  counties  have  an 
average  annual  relative  humidity  of  less  than 
70  per  cent.,  rising  steadily  northward  to  75  per 
cent,  in  the  northwestem  counties.  The  average 
velocity  of  the  wind  is  8  miles  per  hour  in  the 
east,  and  almost  11  miles  per  hour  at  Crooks- 
ton,  which  is  the  highest  inland  average  velocity 
recorded  in  America.  The  average  path  of  the 
northwest  cyclones  passes  through  the  southern 
counties.  Between  300  and  350  such  storms  occur 
in  ten  years.  The  prevailing  wind  is  west  in  the 
northern  half  and  southwest  in  the  southern  half. 
The  climate  on  the  whole  is  rigorous  in  winter, 
though  mild  and  even  occasionally  hot  in  the 
southern  counties  in  summer.  But  the  nights 
are  always  cool,  and  the  air  dry,  making  the 
whole  State  a  favorite  summer  resort. 

The  soils  of  the  State  are  wholly  glacial,  and 
since  the  outcropping  stratified  rock  is  largely 
limestone,  most  of  the  soil  derived  from  this 
source  is  extremely  rich — a  black  and  finely 
comminuted  loam.  On  the  older  drift  in  the 
southeastern  counties,  for  30  to  40  miles  back  from 
the  Mississippi  River,  there  is  a  coating  of  loess, 
an  extremely  fine  black  loam  of  great  fertility. 
Where  the  Cambrian  sandstone  outcrops  in  the 
east  central  part  of  the  State,  considerable  areas 
are  covered  with  a  light  sandy  soil,  not  at  all 
encouraging  for  agriculture.  In  the  old  land  of 
the  northeast  and  north  central  counties  t^ere 
are  large  areas  almost  denuded  of  soil,  or  cov- 
ered with  a  scanty  coating  of  granitic  drift.  In 
the  Valley  of  the  Red  River  the  silts  of  the  ex- 
tinct Lake  Agassiz  occur,  a  fine  black  soil  of 
almost  incomparable  richness,  constituting  some 
of  the  best  wheat  lands  in  the  world. 

Geology.  The  northwestem  comer  of  the  State 
formed  a  part  of  the  old  Archaean  continent,  and 
its  east  central  portion  was  in  Archiean  times 
occupied  by  a  large  island.     These  areas  now 


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MINNESOTA. 


559 


SilNNESOTA. 


consist  of  granites  and  gneisses  of  the  archsBan 
basal  compfex,  parts  of  which  have  also  been  un- 
covered along  the  upper  valley  of  the  Minnesota 
River,  where  there  are  valuable  granite  quarries. 
Shore  deposits  and  lava  flows  of  the  Huronian 
age  outcrop  as  highly  metamorphosed  rocks  in 
broad  zones  along  the  margins  of  these  Archsean 
old  lands,  cutting  into  the  latter  in  deep  tongues 
and  bands,  some  of  which  contain  iron-bearing 
beds  of  great  wealth.  The  broad  Huronian  belt 
extending  southwestward  from  the  Minnesota 
River  contains  the  Sioux  quartzites,  a  most  beau- 
tiful and  valuable  building-stone,  and  beds  of 
metamorphosed  red  mud,  the  catlinite,  or  far- 
famed  red  pipestone  of  the  Indians.  The  Lake 
Superior  s^^iiclinal  trough  is  occupied  by  Cam- 
brian sandstones  and  limestones,  and  Ordovician 
rocks  occur  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State, 
consisting  of  the  Saint  Peter  sandstone  beds  cov- 
ered with  Trenton  limestone,  a  combination  which 
has  given  rise  to  the  bluffs  along  this  part  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  to  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony. 
Silurian  rocks  occur  in  the  valley  of  the  Red 
River  and  in  some  of  the  southeastern  counties, 
and  slight  cretaceous  deposits  are  found  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  State.  The  Pleistocene  ice  in- 
vasion is  most  largely  responsible  for  the  present 
surface,  the  State  lying  in  a  sort  of  focus  of 
glacial  activity.  It  was  entirely  covered  by  ice 
m  the  Kansan  and  lowan  epochs,  and  in  the  Wis- 
consin epoch  two  great  lines  of  invading  ice  met 
at  the  centre  of  the  State,  and  flowed  south  in 
a  great  tongue  into  Iowa. 

Mining.  The  prominence  of  Minnesota  as  a 
mining  State  is  based  principally  on  its  iron  de- 
posits. The  mineral  is  found  in  an  almost  pure 
state  in  the  Vermilion  and  Mesabi  ranges.  Al- 
though the  existence  of  iron  in  Minnesota  was 
known  as  early  as  1860,  nothing  was  done  toward 
exploitation  before  1884.  The  State  occupied 
the  second  position  among  the  iron-producing 
States  until  1901,  since  when  its  output  has 
exceeded  that  of  Michigan.  Prior  to  1892  the 
Vermilion  Range  was  the  only  source  of  iron  in 
the  State.  In  that  year  operations  were  begun 
in  the  Mesabi  Range,  the  output  of  which  ad- 
vanced from  29,245  tons  in  1892,  to  1,913,234  tons 
in  1894.  Since  1895  the  Mesabi  Range  has  been 
the  largest  iron-producing  range  in  the  Lake 
Superior  region  (and  probably  the  largest  in  the 
world).  Its  output  advanced  in  1906  to  23,759,- 
156  tons,  against  1,799,247  from  the  Vermilion 
Range,  making  the  total  output  of  the  State  for 
that  year  25,558,403  tons,  or  51  per  cent,  of  that 
of  the  United  States.  The  value  of  the  output  at 
the  mines  in  that  year  approximated  $40,900,000. 
In  the  same  year  25,483,390  tons  of  iron  ore  were 
shipped  from  the  Vermilion  and  Mesabi  ranges, 
from  the  ports  of  Two  Harbors,  Duluth,  and  Su- 
perior. Minnesota  has  building-stone  and  slate, 
and  produces  cement  on  a  small  scale.  The  slate 
deposits  are  believed  to  be  considerable,  but  they 
are  not  much  exploited.  The  local  clay  is  used 
chiefly  for  the  manufacture  of  brick. 

AoBicuLTURE.  Although  only  a  little  over  one- 
half  (51.8  per  cent.)  of  the  land  area  is  in- 
cluded in  farms,  the  State  has  attained  the 
first  rank  in  the  cultivation  of  certain  crops. 
Every  decade  since  1850  has  witnessed  a  large 
gain  in  the  farm  acreage,  the  largest  being  made 
from  1890  to  1900.  The  percentage  of  improved 
farm  land  has  also  constantly  increased,  reach- 
ing 70.3  per  cent,  in  1900.    The  land  not  included 


in  farms  is  found  mainly  in  the  extensive  forest 
areas  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  From 
1901  to  1905  an  annual  average  of  about  600,- 
000  acres  of  homestead  lands  were  entered.  The 
recent  expansion  of  the  farming  area  has  been 
greatest  in  the  Northwest.  The  formation  of 
many  large  farms  in  that  section  tends  to  increase 
the  average  size  of  farms  for  the  State,  notwith- 
standing the  division  of  farm  holdings  going  on 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  In  1900  there 
were  365  farms  containing  each  1000  acres  or 
more.  The  average  size  in  1900  was  169.7  acres, 
as  compared  with  139.4  acres  in  1870.  The  rent 
system  is  becoming  very  common,  the  percentage 
of  rented  farms  having  increased  from  9.2  in 
1880  to  17.3  in  1900.  About  four-fifths  of  these 
were  rented  according  to  the  share  system.  It 
is  in  this  region — particularly  the  Red  River 
Valley — that  wheat-growing  has  been  so  exten- 
sively developed.  For  a  number  of  years  there 
was  little  indication  that  the  crop  would  attain 
much  prominence  in  the  State.  The  processes 
of  milling  then  in  use  could  obtain  only  an  in- 
ferior quality  of  flour  from  the  "spring  wheat," 
such  as  was  raised  in  the  State.  With  the  in- 
troduction of  modern  methods,  however,  this 
difficulty  was  obviated,  and  the  State  mills  be- 
came famous  for  the  high  quality  of  their  prod- 
uct. The  cultivation  of  wheat  then  increased 
rapidly,  and  in  1890  the  State  had  become  first 
in  both  acreage  and  production.  From  1890  to 
1900  the  increase  was  unprecedented,  the  acreage 
for  the  latter  year  being  94.5  per  cent,  greater 
than  for  the  former,  and  constituting  58.5  per 
cent,  of  the  area  devoted  to  cereals.  The  per 
acre  production  is  high,  and  North  Dakota  is  the 
State's  only  rival  in  the  production  of  spring 
wheat.  In  parts  of  the  State  the  sowing  and 
harvesting  of  wheat  are  done  with  the  large 
type  of  machinery  which  performs  a  number  of 
processes.  Oats  has  about  two-fifths  as  great 
an  acreage  as  wheat,  and  ranks  next  to  it  in  im- 
portance. It  has  always  been  a  prominent  crop 
in  the  State,  and  continues  to  increase  in  acreage. 
Owing  principally  to  the  shortness  of  the  season, 
corn  has  never  been  a  favorite  crop,  and  in  this 
respect  the  State  stands  in  striking  contrast 
to  Iowa  and  most  of  the  other  Mississippi  Val- 
ley States.  Both  corn  and  oats  are  grown  most 
extensively  in  the  Southwestern  part  of  the  State. 
In  barley  and  flaxseed  raising  also,  the  State 
takes  a  high  rank,  holding  second  place  in  the 
production  of  each  in  1906.  The  hay  acreage 
shown  in  the  table  following  is  for  tame  hay 
only,  more  than  twice  as  much  area  being  given 
to  wild,  salt,  and  prairie  grasses.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  Irish  potatoes  are  raised,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  the  sugar  beet  has  been  introduced. 
Fruit  culture  is  mainly  confined  to  the  southern 
part  of  the  State  and  is  not  yet  extensively  de- 
veloped. 

The  little  attention  given  to  the  raising  of 
corn  is  largely  responsible  for  the  poor  showing 
of  the  State  in  the  raising  of  stock.  Most  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  States  far  excel  Minnesota 
in  this  respect.  Nevertheless,  every  decade  since 
1850  shows  an  increase  for  all  varieties  of  farm 
animals,  except  sheep,  and  mules  and  asses,  for 
the  decade  1890-1900.  The  relative  gain  in  the 
number  of  dairy  cows  was  greatly  excelled  by  the 
increase  in  the  dairy  produce.  Of  a  total  value 
of  $16,623,460  for  the  year  1900,  66.9  per  cent, 
represented  the  amount  derived  from  sales.    The 


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MINNESOTA. 


560 


MINNESOTA. 


value  of  poultry  products  for  the  census  year 
1900  amounted  to  $7,364,865. 

The  following  tables  show  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  leading  varieties  of  crops  and  farm 
animals  for  the  years  1900  and  1906: 


Wheat  . 

Oitto 

Com  . . , 
Barley. . 

aye 

Flaxseed 
Hay .  . . 
Potatoes, 


1906 


1900 


Aent 

Aent 

6,119,412 

e,BG0,7m 

2,216,728 

2,201,326 

1,492,638 

1,441,680 

1,128,266 

877,846 

88,448 

118,869 

431,048 

666,801 

868,466 

969,940 

131,782 

146,669 

Dairy  cows 

Other  neat  cattle . 

Horses 

If  ules  and  asses.  . 

Bheep A 

Bwine 


1906 


1900 


903,796 

763,632 

1,035,987 

1,117,698 

723,141 

696,469 

8,406 

8,600 

404,253 

369,328 

1,293,932 

1.440,806 

Manufactubes.  Minnesota  has  won  much  re- 
nown by  virtue  of  its  manufacturing  enterprises. 
The  success  of  these  is  mainly  attributable  to  the 
abundance  of  its  grain  and  forest  products,  and 
the  excellence  of  its  water  power  and  transporta- 
tion facilities.  Lake  Superior,  touching  the  State 
on  the  northeast,  gives  access  to  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  lake  transportation,  while  the  Mississippi 
River  and  the  railroad  development  in  the  south 
give  superior  advantages  to  that  section.  In  but 
few,  if  any,  States  has  the  industrial  development 
been  so  rapid.  The  census  of  1900  showed  11,114 
establishments  in  the  State,  with  77,234  wage- 
earners  and  products  valued  at  $262,655,881. 
Of  these,  4096  establishments,  with  68,930  wage- 
earners,  and  products  valued  at  $223,692,922,  are 
of  the  class  of  those  included  in  the  census  of 
1905,  when  their  number  was  4756,  the  number 
of  their  employees  69,636  and  the  value  of  their 
products,  $307,858,073.  The  beginning  of  the 
manufacturing  industry  in  the  State  was  pro- 
phetic of  the  course  of  its  development.  In 
1822  a  sawmill  was  erected  at  the  Falls  of  Saint 
Anthony,  and  two  years  later  was  fitted  up  for 
the  grinding  of  flour.  In  1905  the  value  of  the 
products  of  these  and  certain  allied  industries 
was  over  one-half  of  the  total  for  the  State,  and 
around  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  had  grown 
up  the  twin  city  of  Minneapolis-Saint  Paul — 
one  of  the  three  large  industrial  centres  located 
on  the  Mississippi  River. 

For  a  long  time  the  flour  and  grist-milling 
industry  made  but  little  progress.  About  1870 
the  method  of  reducing  the  grain  to  flour  by  a 
number  of  distinct  processes  began  to  replace  the 
old  method  by  which  the  flour  was  obtained  by  a 
single  grinding,  and  marked  a  new  epoch  in  the 
development  of  the  industry.  The  flour  now 
produced  was  of  the  best  quality,  and  heavy  ship- 
ments were  made  to  home  and  foreign  markets. 
The  power  aflforded  by  the  Falls  of  Saint  An- 
thony gave  the  millers  who  utilized  them  a  de- 
cided advantage  over  those  of  other  portions  of 
the  country,  and  tended  to  centralize  the  industry 
at  that  point.  However,  from  1890  to  1905,  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  mills  was  greatest  out- 
side of  Minneapolis.  The  total  increase  in  the 
value  of  products  1890  to  1900  was  39.4  per 
cent.,  and  from  1900  to  1905,  47.1  per  cent.  Wheat 


flour  formed  84.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  in 
1905.  The  value  of  the  State  products  was 
17.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the  country,  and 
more  than  twice  as  great  as  the  combined  values 
of  the  next  two  raiScing  States,  New  York  and 
Ohio. 

The  manufacturing  industry  has  recently  taken 
on  a  much  broader  scope  than  formerly,  reflect- 
ing the  more  diversified  aspect  which  agriculture 
is  now  assuming  in  that  section.  The  dairy  in- 
dustry— the  manufacture  of  cheese,  butter,  and 
condensed  milk — has  attained  its  present  large 
proportions  almost  wholly  since  1880.  The  in- 
crease in  the  value  of  the  product  from  1890  to 
1900  was  186.6  per  cent.,  and  from  1900  to  1905, 
51.8  per  cent.  The  slaughtering  and  meat-pack- 
ing industry  and  the  manufacture  of  malt  liquors 
and  linseed  oil  are  also  of  recent  development. 
The  rate  of  their  increase  is  significant  of  their 
future  possibilities.  These  three  industries  are 
centred  mainly  in  Minneapolis  and  Saint  Paul. 

The  extensive  iron-mining  in  the  north  does  not 
benefit  the  State's  manufacturing  interests  great- 
ly, since  there  are  no  coal  or  limestone  deposits 
in  proximity  to  the  ore.  The  latter  can  be  ex- 
ported more  economically  than  the  former  can 
be  imported.  The  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
however,  are  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Other 
important  industries  are  those  required  by  the 
growing  railroad  interests  of  the  State,  the  manu- 
facture of  boots  and  shoes,  and  the  printing  and 
publishing  of  newspapers  and  periodicals.  The 
table  on  the  following  page  covers  the  eleven  most 
important  industries  for  the  period  1900-1905. 

FOBEST3  AND  FoREST  PRODUCTS.  Minnesota  is 
one  of  the  richest  States  in  forest  resources,  hav- 
ing in  1900  a  woodland  area  of  about  52,200 
square  miles,  including  stump-lands.  The  forest 
area  extends  well  over  the  northern  two-thirds 
of  the  State,  excluding  the  Red  River  Valley. 
Hardwood  forests  border  the  prairies,  while  far- 
ther north  the  white  pine  predominates,  Nor- 
way pine  and  spruce  being  also  abundant.  Al- 
thougn  the  white  pine  has  been  heavily  drawn 
upon,  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
was  estimated  that  there  were  over  12,000,000,- 
000  feet  of  this  variety  still  standing,  and  the 
merchantable  forest  pine  was  estimated  to  be 
greater  than  in  any  other  State.  The  lumber  in- 
dustry of  the  State  increased  but  slowly  until 
1880.  The  value  of  the  product  rose  from  $7,- 
366,000  in  1880  to  $25,075,000  in  1890;  the  in- 
crease in  value,  1890-1900,  was  greater  than 
in  any  other  State.  In  order  to  make  the  figure 
given  in  the  table  below  for  1905  comparable  with 
that  for  1900,  it  should  be  increased  by  $11,599,- 
178,  giving  a  total  value  in  1905  of  $44,782,487. 
The  unusual  facilities  for  water  transportation 
afforded  by  the  large  number  of  streams  and 
lakes  have  been  of  advantage  to  the  industry. 
But  recently  railroads  have  been  extensively 
used  for  timber  transportation.  The  State  has 
displayed  a  greater  interest  in  forest  preser\-a- 
tion  than  have  most  other  States.  ITie  three 
elected  town  supervisors  are  fire  wardens,  and 
have  the  authority  of  impressing  men  into  ser- 
vice to  prevent  forest  fires.  The  system  has 
worked  so  effectively  that  for  a  number  of  years 
the  State  has  wholly  escaped  destructive  fires. 
The  State  has  encouraged  tree-planting  in  the 
prairie  region,  and  about  $600,000  in  bounties 
has  been  expended  for  this  purpose. 

Tbanspobtation.     Minnesota  is  favored  with 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINNESOTA. 


561 


MINNESOTA. 


Total  for  aeleoted  Indufltriet  for  State I 

Incraaae,  1900  to  1905 

Per  cent,  of  increase 

Per  cent,  of  total  of  all  manufacturinf  indaatriea  in  State | 

Boota  and  ihoea | 

Cart  and  ffeneral  ahop  oonatruction  and  repairs  by  steam  railroad  ( 
companies 1 

Cheese,  butter,  and  condensed  milk | 

Floor  and  grist-mill  products | 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products | 

Liquors,  malt | 

Lumber  and  timber  products { 

Lumber,  planing-mill  products,  including  sash,  doors,  and  blinds  | 

on,    linseed { 

Printing  and  publishing | 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing | 


Number 

ATorage 

Value  of  products,' 

Year 

of  estab- 

number  of 

lishments 

wage-earners 

work  and  repairing 

1906 

2,934 

44,256 

$240,609,506 

1900 

2.498 

43,242 

180,038,306 

.... 

436 

1,018 

160,671,200 

.... 

17.6 

2.3 

33.6 

1905 

61.7 

63.6 

78.2 

1900 

61.0 

62.8 

80.6 

1905 

17 

1,714 

4,169,732 

1900 

16 

2,025 

8,615,801 

1906 

24 

6J67 

7,379,627 

1900 

39 

4,700 

6,319,876 

1906 

771 

1,041 

12,871,129 

1900 

696 

740 

8,479,896 

1905 

363 

4,481 

122,059,123 

1900 

336 

4,036 

82,988,054 

1906 

173 

2,738 

6,550,040 

1900 

176 

3,139 

5,975,077 

1906 

76 

1,035 

6,177,628 

1900 

78 

866 

4,456,928 

1906 

222 

17,213 

33,183,309 

1900 

288 

20,6M 

42,689,932 

1906 

M 

2,858 

7,949,212 

1900 

61 

1,639 

3,988,276 

1906 

6 

363 

7,018,234 

1900 

5 

166 

3,272,598 

1906 

893 

4,346 

11,105.368 

1900 

705 

3,788 

7,680,824 

1905 

24 

1,362 

17,526,707     • 

1900 

20 

668 

7,810,566 

the  advantages  of  both  the  Saint  Lawrence  and 
the  Mississippi  systems  of  navigation.  The  lat- 
ter is  becoming  relatively  less  important  o\ving 
to  the  development  of  railroads,  and  the  former 
is  becoming  rapidly  more  important  with  the  in- 
dustrial development  of  the  North.  The  possi- 
bility of  lake  transportation  has  been  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  development  of  the  State's  min- 
ing industry,  and  Duluth  has  become  one  of  the 
leading  lake  ports.  It  has  immense  shipments 
of  ore,  grain,  and  lumber.  But  few  regions  of 
the  country  are  better  supplied  with  railroads 
than  are  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the 
State.  Minneapolis-Saint  Paul  is  the  objective 
point  of  most  of  the  great  lines  northwest  of 
Chicago,  and  the  transcontinental  Great  Northern 
and  Northern  Pacific  cross  the  State  from  east 
to  west.  Among  the  lines  which  have  a  large 
mileage  in  the  State  are  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  Saint  Paul;  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western; the  North-Western  Line;  the  Chicago 
Oreat  Western;  and  the  Minneapolis  and  Saint 
Louis.  The  total  mileage  increased  from  1092 
miles  in  1870  to  5545  in  1890  and  8157  in  1906. 
The  State  has  a  railroad  and  warehouse  com- 
mission which  hears  and  passes  judgment  upon 
complaints,  with  due  notice  to  carriers  to  ar- 
range a  tariff  of  freight  in  pursuance  thereof. 
Upon  refusal  of  the  carriers  to  adopt  such  rates 
the  commission  publishes  the  same. 

Banks.  The  first  banking  law  of  Minnesota 
was  passed  in  1858,  at  the  first  session  of  the 
Legislature;  the  law  was  amended  in  1878,  plac- 
ing the  banks  under  the  control  of  the  public  ex- 
aminer, who  is  ex-officio  superintendent  of  banks. 
The  law  was  amended  and  made  more  stringent 
in  1881,  1889,  and  1895.  Banking  business  in  the 
State  was  unprofitable  at  first,  and  all  the  State 
banks  organized  in  1858-68  were  discontinued. 
In  1878  there  were  17,  and  in  1898,  161  banks  in 
operation.  Savings  banks  are  regulated  by  the 
law  of  1879,  which  placed  them  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Bank  Commissioner.    In  1906  there 


were  240  national  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capi- 
tal of  $19,183,000;  surplus,  $7,207,000;  cash,  etc., 
$10,667,000;  loans,  $98,794,000;  and  deposits, 
$96,481,000;  427  State  banks  with  capital  of  $9,- 
851,600;  surplus,  $2,548,600;  cash,  $3,723,000; 
loans,  $56,625,000;  and  deposits,  $58,121,000. 
There  were  also  6  trust  companies,  29  private 
banks,  and  14  savings  banks. 

Finance.  The  Constitution  of  1857  prohibited 
debts  for  public  improvement,  and  prohibited  any 
State  debt  above  $250,000.  But  an  amendment 
in  1858  enabled  the  State  to  issue  $5,000,000  of 
7  per  cent,  bonds  to  lend  to  the  railroads  of  the 
State  under  guaranty  of  first  mortgage  bonds. 
Less  than  half  of  these  bonds  were  sold,  the  rail- 
roads defaulted  the  interest  on  their  mortgage 
bonds,  and  the  State  acquired  their  property  by 
foreclosure.  Nevertheless  the  State  w^as  unable 
to  meet  the  interest  payment,  and  in  1860  the 
debt  on  these  bonds  was  repudiated.  The  obliga- 
tions were  resumed  in  1881,  when  the  old  bonds 
were  exchanged  for  new  ones  at  the  rate  of  60 
per  cent.  This  gave  the  State  a  debt  of  $4,253,- 
000,  which  was  quickly  reduced  in  the  eighties, 
amounting  to  $2,154,000  in  1890  and  $050,000 
in  1906.  The  original  constitutional  prohibition 
of  State  debts  is  in  force,  and  no  further  exten- 
sion of  the  debt,  is  possible.  The  budget  rose 
rapidly  from  less  than  a  million  in  1870  to  more 
than  five  millions  in  1890,  and  in  1906  the  re- 
ceipts amounted  to  $10,162,396,  and  disburse- 
ments to  $0,533,563,  leaving  a  balance  of  $1,- 
810,904.  The  receipts  included  the  permanent 
school  fund,  $1,304,106,  the  general  school  fund, 
$1,487,174;  the  general  univer.sity  fund,  $453,- 
496,  and  the  revenue  fund,  $6,211,811. 

Population.  The  population  of  Minnesota  by 
decades  is  as  follows:  1850,  6077;  1860,  172,023; 
1870,  439,706;  1880,  780,773;  1890,  1,301,826; 
1900,  1,751,394;  1905,  1,979,912.  The  rank  of 
the  State  has  risen  e^^ery  decade,  standing  nine- 
teenth in  1900.  The  largest  absolute  gain  was  in 
the  decade  1880-90.     From  1890  to  1900  the  in- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINNESOTA. 


562 


MINNESOTA. 


crease  amounted  to  34.5  per  cent.,  as  compared 
with  20.7  for  the  United  States.  From  1890  to 
1900  every  county  in  the  State  shared  in  the  in- 
crease, but  it  was  generally  greatest  throughout 
the  northern  ones,  where  the  increase,  1900-5, 
was  84  per  cent,  of  the  State's  total.  The  move- 
ment of  the  population  turned  toward  Minnesota 
at  a  period  when  the  German  immigration  was 
still  great  and  the  Scandinavian  peoples  were 
just  beginning  to  come  in  large  numbers.  As  a 
result  these  elements  are  heavily  represented. 
No  other  State  contains  so  large  a  number  of 
Swedes  and  Norwegians.  In  1905  the  foreigfn- 
bom  population  numbered  537,041.  The  colored 
population  numbered  only  6029,  of  whom  5113 
were  negroes,  695  Indians  taxed,  and  221  Chinese 
and  Japanese.  As  is  common  in  newly  settled 
States,  there  is  a  large  excess  of  the  male  sex. 
At  the  last  census  ( 1905 )  there  were  23.3  inhabi- 
tants to  the  square  mile.  The  State  contains  the 
two  large  metropolises  of  the  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley — Minneapolis  and  Saint  Paul — and  the 
per  cent,  of  urban  population  is  therefore  high 
for  so  new  a  State.  In  1905  the  29  places  which 
exceeded  4000  inhabitants  each  constituted  35.4 
per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  The  figures  for 
the  four  largest  cities  m  1906  were  as  follows: 
Minneapolis,  273,825;  Saint  Paul,  203,815;  Du- 
luth,  67,337 ;  Winona,  20,458. 

Religion.  The  noteworthy  characteristic  of 
the  religious  situation  in  Minnesota  is  the  great 
predominance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  the 
Lutheran  Churches.  The  strongest  of  the  other 
denominations  represented  are  the  Methodists, 
Baptists,  Presbyterians,  Congregationalists,  and 
Protestant   Episcopalians. 

Education.  The  census  of  1900  reported  4.1 
of  the  population  ten  years  of  age  and  over  as 
being  illiterate;  for  the  native  white  population 
alone  it  was  only  0.8  per  cent.  The  average 
length  of  the  school  year  in  1900  was  169  days, 
which  was  greater  than  that  of  any  other  State 
west  of  the  Appalachians.  The  State  has  been 
very  zealous  in  building  up  a  complete  and  su- 
perior system  of  public  schools,  and  its  success 
has  been  greatly  aided  by  the  large  State  endow- 
ment. The  apportionment  of  the  current  school 
fund  is  based  upon  the  number  of  pupils  attend- 
ing school  forty  days  in  the  year,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  this  there  are  State  appropriations  to 
such  schools  as  attain  a  certain  meritorious  rank, 
the  test  of  merit  being  the  employment  of  teach- 
ers holding  the  higher  certificate,  and  meeting  the 
requirements  of  duration,  of  equipment,  and  of 
gradation.  In  1906  additional  aid  was  re- 
ceived bv  192  higli  schools,  142  graded  schools, 
309  semi-graded  schools,  and  1586  rural  schools. 
The  policy  of  causing  the  special  appropriation 
to  depend  in  part  upon  the  grade  of  certificate 
held  made  it  necessary  to  establish  a  uniform 
test,  to  secure  which  the  State  took  over  the  ex- 
amination of  candidates  for  that  grade  of  certi- 
ficate. The  counties  still  examine  the  candidates 
for  the  lower  certificates,  Tlie  total  number  of 
teachers  in  1906  was  13,587,  of  whom  11,908  were 
females.  Provision  was  made  in  1903  and  1905 
for  the  consolidation  of  schools  and  the  trans- 
portation of  pupils.  The  State  provides  oppor- 
tunity for  pedagogical  training  at  the  normal 
schools  at  Mankato,  Moorhead,  Saint  Cloud, 
Duluth,  and  Winona.  The  policy  of  supporting 
summer  schools  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  has 
been  adopted.  The  State  University,  located  at 
Minneapolis,  is  one  of  the  foremost  educational 


institutions  in  the  West.  The  enrollment  has 
reached  about  3800.  There  are  also  a  number  of 
small  denominational  colleges  in  the  State.  In 
July,  1906,  the  total  permanent  school  fund 
amounted  to  $17,824,135,  the  principal  sources  of 
which  were  the  sale  of  lands  ($11,923,374)  and 
the  sale  of  pine  timber  ($4,459,514).  The  per- 
manent university  fund  of  that  date  amounted 
to  $1,388,858.  The  apportionment  for  the  cur- 
rent school  fund  in  1906  was  $1,712,851,  and  the 
total  paid  to  teachers  amounted  to  $5,594,799. 

Chabitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  A  law 
was  passed  in  1901  for  the  creation  of  a  Board  of 
Control,  consisting  of  three  members  appointed 
by  the  Governor  and  Senate  for  the  term  of  six 
years,  and  having  full  power  to  manage  and  con- 
trol the  State  charitable  and  penal  institutions, 
and  authority  in  financial  matters  in  certain 
State  schools,  including  those  for  the  deaf  and 
blind.  Under  the  new  system  each  institution 
has  but  one  head,  the  superintendent.  To  prevent 
nepotism,  the  board  has  ordered  that  superintend- 
ents or  wardens  cannot  employ  or  retain  any 
relative,  or  any  relative  of  the  officer  to  whom 
such  an  employee  would  be  directly  responsible; 
nor  does  the  board  itself  appoint  any  relative 
of  any  member  to  office  under  it.  A  uniform 
system  of  records  and  accounts  has  been  intro- 
duced, and  the  first  report  of  the  Board  of  Con- 
trol shows  a  general  decrease  in  expenses  over 
the  preceding  year.  The  following  table  gives  a 
summary  of  the  institutions,  with  the  number 
of  inmates  July  31,  1906,  and  the  per  capita  cost 
of  maintenance  for  the  year  ending  on  that  date: 


umii'U'i'JURs 


Anoka  Aajlum 

HMtinga  Asylum. 

Fergus  Falls  Hospital 

SaiDt  Peter  Hospital 

Rochester  Hospital 

Sohool  for  Deal,  Faribault 

School  for  Blind,  Faribault 

Sohool  for  Feeble-Minded  and  Colony 

for  Epileptics,  Faribault 

State  Public  School,  Owatonna . . 
Bute  Training  School,  Red  Wing . 

Reformatory,  Saint  Cloud 

Prison,  Stillwater 


P*r  capita 

Number  of 

cost 

inmates 

$116.97 

324 

150  92 

341 

143.58 

1.606 

195.42 

933 

171.92 

1.079 

221.56 

263 

284  22 

83 

165.72 

1,048 

198.56 

196 

197.01 

348 

320.86 

300 

167.10 

680 

The  State  public  school  is  for  dependent  and 
neglected  children.  The  Reformatory,  at  Saint 
Cloud,  is  for  criminals  within  the  age  period  of 
sixteen  to  thirty  years,  while  the  older  age  group 
is  sent  to  the  prison  at  Stillwater.  The  convicts 
at  the  State  prison  are  worked  under  the  piece- 
price  and  public  account  systems,  and  also  manu- 
facture supplies  for  the  use  of  the  public  insti- 
tutions. A  State  Sanatorium  for  Consumptives 
is  being  erected   (1906)   at  Walker. 

Militia.  In  1900  the  population  of  militia  age 
of  the  State  amounted  to  399,734.  The  aggregate 
strength  of  the  militia  in  1906  was  1998  men. 

(JovEBNMENT.  The  present  Constitution,  which 
is  the  only  one  the  State  has  had,  was  adopted  by 
an  almost  unanimous  vote  of  the  people,  in  Octo- 
ber, 1857.  Proposed  amendments  upon  receiving 
a  majority  vote  of  both  Houses  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  people  at  a  general  election,  when 
each  amendment  is  voted  upon  separately,  and 
becomes  a  part  of  the  Constitution  if  it  receives  a 
majority  of  the  votes  cast.  A  two-thirds  vote 
of  each  House  and  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote 
are  necessary  to  call  a  constitutional  eonventioiK 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIKNESOTA. 


568 


HINKESOTA. 


Voters  must  have  resided  in  the  State  six 
months  and  in  the  election  district  thirty  days 
and  have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States  for 
three  months.  Women  may  vote  for  school  and 
library  officers,  or  upon  any  measure  pertaining 
to  schools  and  libraries,  and  are  eligible  to  school 
and  library  offices.  Registration  is  required  by  law. 

Legislature.  Senatorial  and  Representative 
districts  are  composed  of  contiguous  territory, 
and  no  Representative  district  can  be  divided  m 
the  formation  of  a  Senate  district.  Senators  serve 
four  and  Representatives  two  years.  State  elec- 
tions occur  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Mon- 
day in  November.  The  Legislature  meets  bien- 
nially on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
January,  and  is  limited  to  a  session  of  90  days. 
Except  on  request  of  the  Grovemor  no  new  bill  can 
be  introduced  during  the  last  twenty  days  of  the 
session.  Revenue  bills  originate  in  the  Lower 
House.  No  law  can  be  passed  imless  voted  for 
by  a  majority  of  all  the  members  elected  to  each 
House.  The  power  of  impeachment  rests  with  the 
House,  the  trial  of  impeachment  with  the  Senate. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  Lieutenant-Governor, 
Secretary  of  State,  Treasurer,  and  Attorney-Gen- 
eral are  elected  for  two  years,  and  an  Auditor  for 
four  years.  The  Governor  may  convene  extra  ses- 
sions of  the  Legislature;  he  may  veto  any  bill 
or  any  item  of  an  appropriation  bill,  but  a  two- 
thirds  vote  of  both  Houses  overrides  the  veto. 

Judiciary.  The  Supreme  Court  judges  cannot 
exceed  five  in  number,  and  are  elected  by  the 
electors  of  the  State  at  large.  The  State  is 
divided  into  districts,  in  each  of  which  one  or 
more  judges  are  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
There  is  a  probate  court  in  each  county,  elected 
for  two  years.  Justices  of  the  peace  are  elected 
for  a  term  of  two  years. 

Local  Government.  New  counties  may  be  or- 
ganized or  old  ones  altered  (subject  to  their  own 
consent),  but  not  reduced  below  400  square  miles 
in  area.  Cities  of  20,000  inhabitants  may  be  or- 
ganized into  separate  counties.  Any  city  or 
village  may  frame  a  charter  subject  U>  the  gen- 
eral limits  prescribed  by  State  laws,  which  must 
receive  a  four-sevenths  vote  of  the  electors  vot- 
ing. State  laws  provide  for  the  election  of 
county  and  township  officers. 

Other  Constitutional  or  Statutory  Provi- 
sions. Married  women  retain  the  same  legal  ex- 
istence and  personality  as  before  marriage,  may 
sue  or  be  sued,  and,  with  the  exception  of  voting, 
receive  equal  protection  of  all  their  rights.  The 
legal  rate  of  interest  is  7  per  cent.;  10  is  allowed 
by  contract;  the  penalty  for  usury  is  forfeiture 
of  debt  if  the  interest  is  over  12  per  cent.  A  local- 
option  liquor  law  is  in  force,  and  high  license  ob- 
tains in  places  that  do  not  prohibit.  Combina- 
tions to  monopolize  the  markets  for  food  products, 
or  restrict  the  freedom  of  such  markets,  are  crim- 
inal conspiracies. 

The  State  has  eleven  votes  in  the  United  States 
Electoral  College.     Saint  Paul  is  the  capital. 

History.  The  first  European  to  visit  the  re- 
Ifion  now  included  within  the  State  was  Duluth, 
who.  in  1678,  built  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Pigeon  River,  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Superior.  In  1680  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony 
were  discovered  by  Louis  Hennepin,  a  Fran- 
ciscan priest.  Before  1700  there  were  trading 
posts  on  Lake  Pepin  and  on  the  Minnesota 
River.     A  part  of  Minnesota  was  included   in 


the  extensive  territory  ceded  by  France  to 
Great  Britain  in  1763.  In  1766  it  was  explored 
by  Capt.  Jonathan  Carver,  of  Connecticut.  In 
1783  it  became  a  possession  of  the  United  States. 
The  part  of  the  State  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi 
belonged  in  turn  to  the  Territories  of  Indiana, 
Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  The  region  west 
formed  part  of  the  Territories  of  Louisiana,  Mis- 
souri, and  Iowa.  In  1805  a  tract  of  land  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Croix  and  another  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Minnesota  were  purchased  of  the 
Indians,  but  the  number  of  settlers  was  smalL 
The  exploring  expedition  of  Lieutenant  Pike  in 
1805  was  followed  by  many  others  within  the 
succeeding  forty  years;  and  with  an  increased 
knowledge  of  the  country  came  the  first  impor- 
tant beginning  of  immigration.  Fort  Saint  An- 
thony (Snelling)  was  built  in  1819-21;  in  1822 
a  clearing  was  made  at  the  Falls  of  Saint  An- 
thony, and  a  mill  was  built,  and  in  1823  the 
first  steamboat  ascended  to  the  falls.  The  next 
settlements  made  were  by  a  colony  of  Swiss,  near 
Fort  Snelling  in  1827,  and  at  Stillwater  in  1843. 
Two  years  before  this  latter  date  Father 
Galtier  had  erected  a  log  chapel  a  little 
southeast  of  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony 
and  dedicated  it  to  Saint  Paul.  This  was 
the  nucleus  of  the  present  city  of  that  name. 
The  Indian  titles  to  the  lands  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi were  not  extinguished  until  the  year 
1838,  and  it  was  not  until  March  3,  1849,  that 
the  Territory  of  Minnesota  was  organized,  with 
the  Missouri  River  as  its  western  boundary.  In 
1851  the  Indian  titles  to  the  lands  (except  reser- 
vations) between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red 
River  of  the  North  were  extinguished,  and  immi- 
gration increased  rapidly.  On  May  11,  1858, 
^linnesota  was  admitted  as  a  State.  The  excel- 
lent educational  institutions  for  which  Minne- 
sota is  noted  took  their  rise  early  in  the  history 
of  the  Territory.  Hamline  University,  at  Ham- 
line,  was  founded  in  1854,  and  Saint  John's  Uni- 
versity at  Col  lege  ville,  was  established  three 
years  later.  In  1862  the  Sioux  Indians,  under 
Little  Crow,  angered  at  the  continuous  inroads 
made  upon  their  lands,  attacked  and  destroyed 
many  of  the  frontier  settlements.  Over  500 
white  settlers  and  soldiers  were  killed  and  25,000 
people  were  driven  from  their  homes.  The  In- 
dians were  decisively  defeated  at  Wood  Lake  on 
September  22,  1862,  and  after  engaging  in  spo- 
radic raids  in  1863  were  removed  west  of  the 
Missouri.  In  spite  of  the  horrors  of  Indian  war, 
immigration  continued  undiminished;  it  was 
stimulated  by  the  activity  of  immigration  agents 
in  the  Eastern  States  and  Europe,  and  was  en- 
couraged by  the  enactment  of  liberal  homestead 
laws.  From  the  sale  of  its  extensive  public 
lands,  the  State  obtained  a  very  large  school 
fimd,  which  it  employed  in  building  up  an  ad- 
mirable school  system.  Legislation  after  the 
Civil  War  was  concerned  largely  with  the  regu- 
lation of  railway  corporations,  and  the  most  de- 
bated question  of  policy  for  a  long  time  was  that 
of  the  redemption  of  $2,275,000  in  bonds,  which 
the  State  had  issued  in  1858  to  aid  in  the  con- 
struction of  railways,  and  had  repudiated  in 
1860.  For  more  than  twenty  years  a  large  party 
in  the  State  urged  the  redemption  of  the  bonds  as 
a  measure  necessitated  by  public  honor,  and  in 
1881  the  Legislature  accepted  the  offer  of  the 
bondholders  to  surrender  their  bonds  at  half  the 
face  value. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINNESOTA. 


564 


MINNEWAX7K0N. 


After  1860  Minnesota  was  steadily  Republican 
in  national  politics.  In  1898,  however,  th« 
Democrats,  Populists,  and  Silver  Republicans 
elected  their  candidate  for  Grovemor.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  the  Governors  of  Minnesota  since 
its  organization  as  a  Territory: 

TBBBITORIjLL 

Alexander  Ramsey 1849-68 

WlUiB  A.  Gorman 1863-67 

Samuel  Medary 1867-68 

8TA.TB 

Henry  H.  Sibley Democrat 1868-60 

Alexander  Ramsey Republican 1860^ 

Stephen  Miller ••         1864-66 

William  R.  MarshaU "         1866-70 

HoraceAuetin ••         1870-74 

Cuahman  K.  Davla "         1874-76 

John  8.  Pillsbury **         1876^ 

Lucius  F.  Hubbard "         1882-87 

Andrew  R.  McGiU **         1887-89 

WiUlam  R.  Merriam "         1889-98 

Knute  Nelson "         1893-96 

David  M.  Clou«h "  1896-99 

John  Lind Democrat-Populist 1899-1901 

Samuel  R.  VanSant Repnblicaii 1901-06 

John  A.  Johnson "         1906— 

Bibliography.  Bond,  Minnesota  and  Its  Re- 
sources (New  York,  1854)  ;  Geological  and  Nat- 
ural History  Survey  Annual  Reports  (Saint 
Paul,  1873  et  seq.)  ;  O'Brien,  Minnesota  Pioneer 
Sketches  (Minneapolis,  1906);  McVey,  Oov- 
ernment  of  Minnesota^  Its  History  and  Ad- 
ministration (New  York,  1901);  Williams, 
^'Outline  History  of  Minnesota  from  1858-81,"  In 
Warner  and  Foote,  History  of  Dakota  (Minne- 
apolis, 1881) ;  Neill,  Concise  History  of  the  State 
of  Minnesota  (Minneapolis,  1887);  Flandrau, 
History  of  Minnesota  (Saint  Paul,  1900)  ;  Gil- 
fillan.  Early  Political  History  of  Minnesota 
(Saint  Paul,  1901);  Minnesota  Historical  So- 
ciety Collections,  vol.  iii.,  contains  bibliography 
(Saint  Paul,  1880). 

MINNESOTA,  Unu-ersity  of.  A  coeduca- 
tional State  institution  of  higher  learning  in 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  established  by  an  act  of  the 
Territorial  Legislature  in  1851  and  confirmed  by 
the  State  Constitution  adopted  in  1857.  The  pres- 
ent charter  was  adopted  in  1868,  and  the  first 
•collegiate  work  was  begun  in  the  following  year. 
Its  government  is  vested  since  the  death  in  1901 
of  the  life  regent,  John  S.  Pillsbury,  in  a  board 
of  twelve  regents,  nine  appointed  by  the  Governor 
of  the  State  and  holding  office  for  six  years,  and 
three  ex-officio  members,  the  Governor,  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  and  the 
president  of  the  university.  The  university 
comprises  the  following  colleges,  schools,  and  de- 
partments: (1)  The  graduate  departments,  with 
advanced  courses  in  all  branches.  (2)  The  col- 
lege of  science,  literature,  and  the  arts,  offering 
four-year  courses,  largely  elective,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  and  including  the 
School  of  Technical  and  Applied  Chemistry.  A 
summer  school  for  teachers  offers  a  six  weeks' 
course  in  various  university  subjects.  (3)  The 
College  of  Engineering  and  the  Mechanic  Arts, 
oflfering  four-year  courses  in  civil,  mechanical, 
and  electrical  engineering,  and  in  science  and 
technology,  leading  to  the  bachelor's  degree. 
(4)  The  School  of  Mines,  with  a  four  years* 
course  in  mining  and  metallurgy,  leading  to  the 
degrees  of  engineer  of  mines  and  metallurgical 
engineer.  (5)  The  College  of  Agriculture,  with 
a  four  years'  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
bachelor'  of  agriculture.     There  is  also  a  School 


of  Agriculture,  giving  training  for  practical 
farm  life  and  in  domestic  economy,  and  a  dairy 
school.  (6)  The  College  of  Law,  giving  a  three 
years'  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  laws.  (7)  The  department  of  medicine,  in- 
cluding (a)  the  College  of  Medicine  and  Sur- 
gery, and  (b)  the  College  of  Homoeopathic  Medi- 
cine and  Surgery,  with  four-year  courses,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine;  (c)  the 
College  of  Dentistry,  with  a  three  years'  course, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  dental  surgery ; 
and  (d)  the  College  of  Pharmacy,  with  a  two 
or  three  years*  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
pharmaceutical  chemist.  (8)  The  College  of 
Education  for  the  training  of  teachers.  Lender 
the  control  of  the  university  authorities  are  also 
the  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and 
the  Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey. 
The  degrees  conferred  for  graduate  work  are  the 
master's  degree  in  arts,  science,  laws,  and  phar- 
macy, and  the  doctor's  degree  in  philosophy,  civil 
law,  medicine,  and  pharmacy.  No  honorary  de- 
grees are  conferred.  Students  are  admitted  on 
examination  or  on  certificate  from  accredited 
schools  of  the  State.  Tuition  is  free  in  most 
departments  except  law  and  medicine.  In  19(M>-7 
the  faculty  numbered  300  and  the  attendance  was 
4025,  of  whom  1 100  were  women.  Of  this  number 
the  College  of  Science,  Literature,  and  the  Arts 
had  about  1400.  The  general  library  contained 
96,000  volumes,  and  there  were  special  libraries 
in  connection  with  the  various  departments  of 
instruction.  The  laboratories  are  extensive  and 
well  equipped.  There  is  a  herbarium,  with  over 
200,000  specimens,  and  a  museum.  There  is  no 
dormitory  system  except  in  connection  with  the 
department  of  agriculture.  Tlie  university 
grounds  comprise  about  forty-five  acres,  valued 
at  $350,000.  The  buildings  are  nineteen  in  num- 
ber and  are  valued  at  over  $1,500,000,  and  their 
equipment  at  about  $400,000.  The  State  experi- 
mental farm  consists  of  250  acres  between  Minne- 
apolis and  Saint  Paul  and  is  valued  at  $300,000. 
The  buildings  and  equipment  of  the  department 
of  agriculture  are  estimated  at  over  $300,000. 
The  university  is  supported  by  the  income  of  its 
permanent  endowment  of  national  lands,  a  State 
tax  of  three-twentieths  of  a  mill,  and  special 
legislative  appropriations  for  buildings  and 
equipment.  The  gross  income  for  1906,  exclusive 
of  special  appropriations,  wps  $500,000.  The  en- 
dowment was  $1,500,000,  and  the  value  of  all 
the  university  property  $4,000,000.  The  presi- 
dent since  1884  has  been  Cyrus  Northrop. 

MINNESOTA  BIVER.  An  affluent  of  the 
Upper  Mississippi  (Map:  Minnesota,  D  6).  It 
rises  in  the  northeastern  comer  of  South  Dakota 
and  flows  through  Big  Stone  Lake  on  the  bound- 
ary between  South  Dakota  and  Minnesota,  after 
which  it  traverses  the  latter  State,  first  in  a 
southeast  direction  to  Mankato,  where  it  makes 
a  sharp  bend,  after  which  it  flows  northeast, 
entering  the  Mississippi  opposite  Saint  Paul  and 
just  south  of  Minneapolis.  Its  valley  is  the 
dividing  line  between  the  Big  Woods  to  the 
north  and  the  prairie  regions  to  the  south.  It  is 
navigable  for  steamers  45  miles,  and  at  high 
water  small  vessels  can  ascend  it  295  miles,  be- 
yond which  it  is  obstructed  by  falls  and  rapids. 
Its  total  length  is  470  miles. " 

MINNEWAUKOlf,  mln'n^-wft'kftn.  Lake,  or 
Devil's  Lake.  The  largest  lake  of  North  Dakota, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KIKNEWAX7K0N. 


565 


MINOB. 


-situated  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State 
(Map:  North  Dakota,  G  1).  It  is  40  miles  long, 
and  from  two  to  twelve  miles  broad.  It  receives 
the  Coulee  Creek,  but  has  no  outlet,  and  its  water 
18  brackish. 

MINNOW  (ME.  metiow,  from  AS.  myne, 
minnow,  probably  from  AS.  min,  Icel.  minnr, 
Goth,  minniza,  OHG.  minniro,  (jrer.  minder,  Lat. 
minor,  less,  Gk.  fuv6v6€iv,  minynthein,  to  lessen. 
Ski.  mi,  to  diminish).  The  name  popularlj^  ap- 
plied to  almost  any  small  fish.  More  technically 
it  applies  to  members  of  the  family  Cyprinidae, 
which  includes  the  roach,  dace,  carp,  etc.;  spe- 
cifically, in  England,  L€uci9CU8  phoxinua.  This  is 
a  small  fish  about  three  inches  long,  abundant 
in  gravelly  bottomed  streams.  It  is,  of  course, 
unimportant  as  food  except  for  larger  fishes.  In 
the  United  States  the  name  usually  belongs  to 
various  small  cyprinodonts,  mainly  of  the  large 
genus  Notropis,  living  in  the  lesser  streams,  and 
frequently  called  'shiners.'  The  largest  and  best 
known  of  these  is  the  golden  shiner  (Notropia 
Hudsonius),  which  has  a  very  small  head,  but 
is  sometimes  a  foot  in  length.  (See  Dace.)  These 
fishes  are  mostly  bottom-feeders,  are  oviparous, 
carnivorous,  and  devour  much  spawn  of  their 
own  and  other  kinds  of  fishes.  The  *top-minnows' 
are  of  a  different  group,  being  killifishes  (q.v.) 
of  the  genus  Gambusia,  and  take  their  name  from 
their  surface-feeding  habits.  Along  the  eastern 
and  southern  coast  the  common  'minnow*  of 
brackish  water  is  the  mummichog  (q.v.).  Con- 
sult Jordan,  Manual  of  the  Vertebratea  of  the 
Northern  United  Statea  (Chicago,  5th  ed.  1890). 
See  Plates  of  Dace  and  Minnows;  Killifishes 

AND  TOP-MINNOWS. 

Mlitoy  or  in  Portuguese  MINHO,  m^nyA 
(Lat.  Miniua) .  The  principal  river  of  Galicia,  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Spain  (Map:  Spain,  B 
1 ) .  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  the  Province  of 
Lugo,  and  flows  in  a  southern  and  southwestern 
direction,  forming  a  part  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween Spain  and  Portugal,  until  it  enters  the 
Atlantic  through  a  wide  estuary.  Its  total 
length  is  211  miles,  for  the  last  25  of  which  it 
is  navigable  for  small  vessels,  but  it  is  much  ob- 
structed by  reefs,  islands,  and  shifting  sand 
banks. 

MINO  DA  FIESOLB,  mg'nd  dA  fyft'zA-lft 
(1431-84).  A  Florentine  sculptor  of  the  Early 
Renaissance.  He  was  bom  at  Poppi  in  the 
Casentino  Valley.  While  employed  as  a  stone- 
mason at  Florence  he  became  the  friend  and 
pupil  of  Desiderio  da  Settignano.  His  home 
was  at  Florence,  but  there  is  documentary 
evidence  to  show  that  he  was  employed 
at  Rome  in  1454,  1463,  and  1464.  From  1475 
till  1480  he  was  employed  upon  the  monument 
to  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  of  which  there  are  fragments 
in  the  Grotte  Vaticane,  under  Saint  Peter's 
Church.  He  died  at  Florence,  July  11,  1484.  His 
work  possesses  beauty  and  delicate  finish,  but  is 
lacking  in  originality.  Its  high  reputation  is  due 
to  rich  decoration  and  to  a  certain  naivete  of 
expression,  especially  in  his  numerous  portrait 
busts,  which  are  his  best  work.  His  chief  works 
are  in  the  churches  of  Florence,  Fiesole,  and 
Rome.  His  most  important  achievements  in 
Florence  are  in  the  Church  of  La  Badia:  the 
monuments  of  Bernardo  Giugni  (1466)  and 
of  the  Margrave  Hugo  of  Tuscany  (1481). 
In  the  Museo  Nazionale  at  Florence  are  busts 


of  Piero  de'  Medici  (1453),  Giuliano  de*  Medici, 
and  Rinaldo  della  Luna  (1461).  One  of  his 
best,  if  not  his  most  important  work,  belongs 
to  his  early  period:  the  monument  of  Leonardo 
Salutate,  Bishop  of  Fiesole  (d.  1466),  in  the 
cathedral  of  that  city ;  it  is  surmounted  by  a  fine 
bust.  A  beautiful  piece  of  Renaissance  decora- 
tion is  the  Tabernacle  at  Santa  Maria  in  Traste- 
vere,  Rome,  in  which  city  is  also  his  monument 
of  Cardinal  Fonteguerra  in  Santa  Cecilia.  His 
other  works  include  busts  of  Niccold  Strozzi,  in 
the  Museum  of  Berlin;  San  Giovannino,  in  the 
Louvre;  and  five  reliefs  in  South  Kensington 
Museum.  Consult  Semper  and  Barth,  Hervorra- 
gende  Bildhauer-Architekten  der  Renaiaaance 
(Dresden,  1880). 

MINOBIES^  The.  A  London  parish  and 
street  leading  northward  from  the  Tower  to  Aid- 
gate,  now  fprming  with  Houndsditch  the  Jewish 
quarter  of  the  city.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  nuns  of  Saint  Clare,  called  Sorores  Minores, 
or  Minoresses.  The  Church  of  the  Trinity,  once 
belonging  to  a  nunnery  of  the  Order,  still  exists 
in  the  Minories. 

MINOB  (Lat.,  less).  A  term  in  music  ap- 
plied to  intervals  and  modes.  (1)  The  interval 
between  any  note  and  another  is  named  according 
to  the  number  of  degrees  between  them  on  the 
scale,  both  notes  included.  The  interval  between 
C  and  E  is  called  a  third;  that  between  E  and 
G  is  also  a  third ;  but  these  intervals  are  unequal, 
the  one  consisting  of  four  semitones,  the  other 
of  three;  the  former  is  therefore  distinguished  as 
a  major,  the  latter  as  a  minor  interval.  (2)  There 
are  two  modes  in  which  a  musical  passage  may 
be  composed.  Whereas  the  major  mode  makes 
use  of  but  one  form  of  scale,  which  is  the  same 
whether  ascending  or  deacending,  the  minor  mode 
recognizes  two  forms  of  scale,  the  harmonic  and 
melodic.  Modem  music  conceives  a  mode  as  a 
system  of  three  fundamental  chords,  which  con- 
tain all  the  tones  proper  to  the  scale  of  that 
mode.  These  chords  are  the  tonic,  dominant,  and 
subdominant.  Arranging  the  tones  of  the  pure 
minor  scale  as  elements  of  these  three  chords  we 
have  the  following: 

tonic 

i  i 

d  —  f  —  a  —  c  —  e  —  g  —  o, 
I I  I I 


subdom. 


dom. 


where  all  three  chords  present  themselves  as 
minor  (because  having  the  minor  third),  just  as 
the  corresponding  chords  are  major  in  the  major 
mode.  (See  Major.)  Arranging  these  tones  in 
this  diatonic  order  as  a  descending  scale,  begin- 
ning with  the  highest  tone  of  the  tonic  chord 
(e),  the  following  results:  e,  d,  c,  b,  a,  g,  f,  e. 
Here  we  have  a  pure  minor  scale  which  is  iden- 
tical with  the  Dorian  mode  of  the  Greeks.  (See 
Greek  Music.)  Comparing  this  descending 
minor  with  the  ascending  major  scale,  we  find 
each  to  be  the  exact  opposite  of  the  other,  thus 
establishing  the  polarity  of  major  and  minor 
already  known  to  Zarlino  and  Tartini,  but  fully 
developed  only  in  1853  by  Hauptmann.  Where 
the  ascending  major  has  the  major  third  (on 
third  degree)  and  semis teps  (3-4.  7-8)  the  de- 
scending minor  has  the  same  in  the  same  place: 


c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  a,  b,  c. 
e,  d,  c,  b,  a,  g,  f,  e. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


MINOB. 


566 


MINOBCA. 


For  practical  composition,  however,  the  scale 
always  begins  with  the  tonic.  In  the  progression 
a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  a,  the  whole  step  from  7  to  8 
was  found  unsatisfactory  to  the  ear,  which  im- 
peratively demanded  a  semistep.  By  raising  g  a 
semistep  this  leading  tone  was  obtained,  but  the 
step  from  6  to  7  was  augmented.  It  was  only 
during  the  nineteenth  century  that  this  form  of 
the  minor  scale  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g$,  a,  which  Is 
known  as  the  harmonic  minor  scale,  was  pro- 
claimed as  the  normal  form.  Before  that  the- 
orists had  been  afraid  of  the  augmented  sec- 
ond from  6  to  7  (a  dissonance)  and  had  over- 
come the  difficulty  by  also  raising  the  sixth  de- 
gree a  semitone,  so  that  ascending  the  minor 
scale  had  this  form:  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  ft,  gt,  a,  while 
descending  the  7th  and  6th  degrees  were  restored 
to  their  original  pitch.  Thus  what  is  known  as 
the  melodic  minor  scale  has  two  forms,  one  when 
ascending  the  other  when  descending.  Now,  con- 
sidering the  harmonic  form  as  the  normal  minor 
scale,  modem  musical  theory  establishes  the  dom- 
inant chord  of  both  the  major  and  minor  modes  as 
a  major  triad.  Thus  the  three  fundamental 
chords  of  the  modern  minor  mode  present  them- 
selves as  two  minor  triads  (tonic  and  subdom- 
inant)  and  one  major  triad  (dominant).  See 
Interval:  Modes. 

MINOB.  In  the  law,  a  person  who  has  not 
attained  the  age  of  full  legal  capacity,  or  the  age 
of  legal  capacity  with  respect  to  the  performance 
of  certain  acts.  The  term  minor  belongs  strictly 
to  the  civil  law,  in  which  a  person  of  full  legal 
capacity  is  called  'major;'  but  generally  the  term 
minor  is  used  in  English  as  synonymous  with 
Infant,  under  which  title  the  statement  of  the 
general  law  of  the  subject  will  be  found.  In 
Scots  law  *minor'  is  sometimes  specifically  used 
of  an  infant  above  the  age  of  a  pupil  (12  years 
for  females,  14  for  males),  and  under  the  full 
age  (21  years)  of  majority.  See  Infant; 
Parent  and  Child. 

MINOBy  m^nOr,  Jakob  (1855—).  An  Aus- 
trian scholar  in  Teutonic  philology  and  litera- 
ture, bom  at  Vienna.  He  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Vienna  (1874-78)  and  Berlin  (1878- 
79),  became  a  lecturer  at  the  former  (1880),  in 
1882-84  held  a  chair  in  the  Accademia  Scientifico- 
Letteraria  of  Milan,  and  from  1884  to  1885  was 
professor  of  the  German  language  and  literature 
in  the  University  of  Prague.  In  1885  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Teutonic  philology  at  Vi- 
enna. His  numerous  publications  include  many 
editions  of  texts,  such  as  volumes  73  {Fahel- 
dichter^  Satiriker^  und  Popularphilosophen  des 
achtzehnten  Jahrhunderts) ,  145  {Tieck  und 
Wackenroder) ,  and  151  {Das  Schick salsdra ma ) , 
with  introductory  essays  and  annotations,  in  the 
"Deutsche  National-Li tteratur"  series,  and  the 
Archduke  Ferdinand's  Speculum  Vitce  HumancB 
( 1889)  ;  'Seuhochdrutsche  Metrik  ( 1893) ,  a  valu- 
able manual  of  German  prosody,  based  on  lec- 
tures given  at  Vienna  in  1882;  and  important 
works  in  literary  history,  such  as  Die  Schick- 
salstragodie  in  ihren  Hauptt'ertretem  (1883), 
and  an  uncompleted  study  of  Schiller,  Schiller, 
sein  Lehen  und  seine  Werke  (vols.  i.  and  ii., 
1890),  ranked,  so  far  as  it  extends,  among  the 
best  on  the  subject. 

MI^OB,  LrciAN  (1802-58).  An  American 
lawyer  and  author,  bom  in  Virginia.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  in  1823, 


and  five  years  later  became  Commonwealth  attor- 
ney for  Louisa  County,  Va.,  an  office  which  he 
held  until  1852.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  William  and  l^lary.  He  wrote  a 
part  of  John  A.  G.  Davis's  Guide  to  Justices 
(1838),  and  contributed  the  notes  to  Daniel 
Call's  Virginia  Reports.  A  tract  of  his,  Re€ison8 
for  Abolishing  the  Liquor  Traffic,  had  a  large 
sale;  and  after  his  death  his  Travels  in  New 
England  were  edited  by  J.  R.  Lowell  for  appear- 
ance in  the  Atlantic, 

MINOB,  Robert  Crannell  (1840-1904).  An 
American  landscape  painter,  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  studied  under  Diaz  at  Barbizon, 
France,  and  under  Van  Luppen  and  Boulanger 
in  Antwerp,  and  traveled  in  Germany  and  Italy. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Society  of  American  Art- 
ists and  the  National  Academy  of  Design.  His 
pictures  have  been  exhibited  in  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  Chicago,  and  elsewhere  in  this  country, 
as  well  as  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  London  and 
salons  of  Paris  and  Antwerp.  His  works  include 
"Dawn,"  "SundowTi,"  "The  Stream,"  "October 
Days,"  "The  Vale  of  Kennet,"  "Edge  of  the 
Wood,"  "Interior  of  the  Forest,"  "Morning  in 
June,"  "Sunrise  on  Lake  Champlain,"  "Cradle 
of  the  Hudson,"  "Close  of  Day,"  and  "A  Moun- 
tain Path." 

MINOB^  ViRGiNLA  Louisa  (1824 — ).  An 
American  woman  suffragist,  bom  in  Goochland 
County,  Va.  She  was  educated  at  a  seminary 
in  Charlottesville  in  Virginia,  but  in  1846  went 
to  live  in  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  three  years  after  her 
marriage.  She  was  a  nurse  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  in  1867  organized  the  Missouri  Wom- 
an's Suffrage  Association.  In  1872  sh»  appealed 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  for 
woman's  right  to  vote.  She  was  the  first  woman 
in  this  country  to  take  this  question  to  the  courts. 

MINOB  BABONS.  The  term  applied  in  the 
early  Middle  Ages  in  England  to  those  tenants-in- 
chief  of  the  King  who  did  not  receive  a  special 
summons  to  council  and  to  military  service,  but 
were  summoned  by  a  general  proclamation  of 
the  sheriff  given  in  the  county  courts.  The  term 
was  not  used  in  England  after  the  thirteenth 
century. 

MINOB/CA  (Sp.  Menorca).  The  second  lar- 
gest of  the  Balearic  Islands  (q.v.) .  It  is  the  east- 
ernmost of  the  group,  and  lies  20  miles  north- 
east of  Majorca  (Map:  Spain,  G  3).  Area,  264 
(with  adjacent  islets,  293)  square  miles.  Its 
northern  half  consists  of  rather  low,  rolling  hills, 
generally  arid  and  covered  with  heath;  the  south- 
ern half  is  an  undulating  plateau  cut  by  deep, 
fertile  valleys.  There  are  numerous  bays  on  the 
northeastern  coast,  in  one  of  which  is  the  harbor 
of  Port  Mah6n  ( q.v. ) ,  the  principal  town.  Though 
minerals  are  found  on  the  island,  agriculture  is 
the  chief  occupation,  the  principal  products  being 
wine,  oil,  grain,  flax,  and  sweet  potatoes.  The 
island  is  not  prosperous,  and  its  population  is  de- 
clining, largely  by  emigration.  Population,  in 
1887,  39,041 ;  in  1900,  37,512.  Minorca  was  taken 
by  the  British  in  1713  and  held  by  them,  with  sev- 
eral intermissions,  until  1802,  when  it  was  finally 
secured  by  Spain  by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens. 

MINOBCA.  A  class  of  domestic  fowls  re- 
sembling Leghorns,  but  of  more  length  of  body 
and  heavier  mold.  Their  flesh  is  good  for  table 
purposes,  but  their  chief  value  is^as  egg-layers, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINOBCA. 


567 


HINOT. 


in  which  they  excel,  producing  very  lai^e  white 
eggs.  They  are  hardy,  active  in  hunting  for  their 
food,  and  generally  commendable.  A  Minorca 
cock  should  weigh  eight  pounds;  a  hen  six  and 
a  half  pounds.  This  breed  should  be  long-bodied 
and  stand  high  upon  strong,  slate-black  legs;  the 
comb  is  larger  than  that  of  the  Leghorn;  the 
wattles  thin  and  pendulous,  and  the  ear-lobes 
pure  white.  Two  varieties  are  recognized — ^the 
black  and  the  white.  In  each  case  the  color 
must  be  absolutely  pure ;  the  comb,  face,  and  wat- 
tles bright  red;  eyes  dark  hazel  or  red.  See 
Colored  Plate  of  Fowls,  imder  Poultby. 

MINOBITY     BEPBESENTATION.       See 

Cumulative  Voting;   Representation. 

MINOR  PBOPHETS.  A  common  designa- 
tion for  a  group  of  twelve  prophetical  books  in 
the  Hebrew  canon,  which  in  the  English  Bible 
form  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  was  em- 
ployed as  early  as  the  time  of  Augustine  and  Ru- 
finus,  who  are  careful  to  explain  that  its  use  is 
occasioned  by  the  brevity  of  the  books  and  does 
not  characterize  their  merit  or  importance.  The 
corresponding  designation,  major  prophets,  is 
applied  to  the  longer  books  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  Daniel.  The  Hebrews  called  this 
group  of  writings  *the  Twelve*  and  this  nomen- 
clature was  followed  by  the  Greeks.  (See  the 
article  Bible.)  The  first  reference  to  the  collec- 
tion is  in  Ecclus.  xlix,  10,  a  section  probably 
written  in  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus.  The 
books  included  in  the  collection,  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  arranged  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  are 
Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Na- 
hum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah, 
Malachi.  This  order  is  retained  in  the  Enji^lish 
Bible.  In  the  Greek  version  the  arrangement  is 
as  follows:  Hosea,  Amos,  Micah,  Joel,  Obadiah, 
Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  Malachi.  Both  arrangements  no 
doubt  were  intended  to  be  chronological.  There  is 
a  general  advance  from  the  Assyrian-  to  the 
ChaldsBan  and  Persian  periods.  The  three 
prophets  of  the  Chaldaean  period  (Nahum, 
Habakkuk,  Zephaniah)  and  the  three  of  the 
Persian  period  (Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi)  are 
given  in  the  same  order.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
earlier  prophets  seem  to  have  formed  two  groups 
in  the  Greek,  viz.  Hosea,  Amos,  Micah,  and  Joel, 
Obadiah,  Jonah.  It  is  significant  that  of  these 
six  only  the  first  group  of  three  can  be  assigned 
to  the  Assyrian  period  in  the  light  of  modern 
criticism.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the 
late  books,  Joel,  Obadiah,  and  Jonah,  once  were 
appended  to  the  others,  but  subsequently  were 
copied  after  the  prophets  of  the  Assyrian  period 
on  account  of  the  reference  to  Jonah  in  II.  Kings 
xiv.  25.  The  same  consideration  may  have  led 
to  the  placing  of  Jonah  before  Micah  as  in  the 
Hebrew  recension.  For  the  dates  of  the  books  and 
further  information,  consult  the  articles  upon  the 
individual  books. 

BiBLiOGR.\PHY.  Many  commentaries  have  been 
written  upon  the  twelve  minor  prophets  as  a 
whole.  The  following  are  the  more  recent: 
Rosenmflller,  Prophetce  Minores  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1827)  ;  Hitzig,  Die  zwolf  kleinen  Propheten  (ib., 
1838;  4th  ed.  by  Steiner,  1881)  ;  Ewald,  Prophe- 
ten des  alien  Bundes  (Gttttingen,  1840-41;  2d 
ed.  1867)  ;  Henderson,  Commentary  on  the  Twelve 
Minor  Prophets  (London,  1860-61)  ;  Pusey,  The 
Minor  Prophets    (ib.,   1860  seq.)  ;   Keil,  Kleine 


Propheten  (Leipzig,  1866;  3d  ed.  1888)  ;  Reuss, 
La  Bible,  voL  ii.  (Paris,  1876);  Knabenbauer, 
Commentariua  in  Prophetas  Minores  (ib.,  1886)  ; 
Orelli,  Kleine  Propheten  (Munich,  1888;  2d  ed. 
1896) ;  Farrar,  The  Minor  Prophets,  "Men  of  the 
Bible  Series"  (London,  1890)  ;  Wellhausen,  Die 
kleinen  Propheten  {Skizzen  und  Vorarheiten,  v., 
Berlin,  1892;  3d  ed.  1898);  Deane,  "Minor 
Prophets"  {Pulpit  Commentary,  London,  1893)  ; 
George  Adam  Smith,  "The  Book  of  the  Twelve 
Prophets"  {Expositor's  Bible,  London,  1896)  ; 
Nowack,  Die  kleinen  Propheten (GiMtingeu,  1897 ) . 
Consult  also  Robertson  Smith,  Prophets  of  Israel 
2d  ed.,  London,  1895).  For  other  works,  see  the 
articles  upon  the  different  prophets. 

MI^OS  (Gk.  M/wf).  A  legendary  King  of 
Crete,  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa,  and  brother  of 
Rhadamanthus  and  Sarpedon.  In  the  ordinary 
version  he  appears  as  a  just  and  wise  ruler,  giv- 
ing to  Crete  a  code  of  laws  received  from  his 
father,  Zeus.  He  was  also  a  powerful  monarch, 
establishing  the  first  fleet  and  clearing  the  ^gean 
of  pirates.  He  thus  exercised  a  sway  over  the 
Greek  coast-lands.  After  his  death  his  reputa- 
tion for  justice  led  the  gods  to  make  him  a 
judge  in  the  lower  world,  where  with  Rhada- 
manthus and  ^acus  he  passed  sentence  on  the 
souls  of  the  dead.  In  contradiction  to  this  char- 
acter is  the  group  of  legends  which  gather  about 
the  Minotaur,  wnere  he  appears  as  at  first  de- 
priving Poseidon  of  his  due  offering,  the  bull 
sent  by  the  god  from  the  sea  in  answer  to  his 
prayer.  From  this  bull  and  PasiphaS,  wife  of 
Minos,  sprang  the  Minotaur  (q.v.),  for  whose 
keeping  Daedalus  (q.v.)  built  Minos  the  Laby- 
rinth. When  his  son  Androgeos  was  slain  by  the 
Athenians,  Minos  made  war  upon  them,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  pay  the  tribute  of  seven  youths 
and  seven  maidens  to  be  food  for  the  Minotaur, 
imtil  Theseus  (q.v.)  released  them  by  killing  the 
monster.  The  cruel  character  of  Minos  in  this 
legend  led  later  writers  to  distinguish  two  kings, 
the  elder,  a  son  of  Zeus,  who  was  just,  and  his 
grandson,  who  was  cruel.  The  recent  discoveries 
of  a  splendid  palace  at  Cnosus  and  the  evidences 
of  a  very  powerful  and  splendid  kingdom  in 
Crete  during  the  Mycenaean  age  warrant  the  be- 
lief that  the  story  of  Minos  contains  reminis- 
cences of  an  early  Cretan  supremacy  in  the 
^gean. 

MIITOT,  Chables  Sedgwick  (1862—).  An 
American  biologist,  bom  in  Roxbury,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1872,  studied  biology  at  Leipzig 
and  Paris,  and  completed  his  studies  at  Harvard, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  S.D.  in  1878.  In 
1880  he  became  a  lecturer  in  embryology  in  the 
Harvard  Medical  School  and  an  instructor  in 
oral  pathology  and  surgery,  and  in  1892  was 
appointed  professor  of  histology  and  embryology. 
He  made  important  investigations  and  discoveries 
in  the  fields  of  muscular  physiology,  respiration, 
and  human  embryology.  In  1887  he  invented  the 
automatic  microtome  which  is  now  in  general  use. 
He  was  president  of  the  American  Society  of 
Naturalists  in  1894,  and  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1900. 
In  addition  to  many  papers  and  monographs,  his 
publications  include  Human  Embryology  (1892), 
which  has  been  translated  into  (German  and  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on  the  subject. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MINOT. 


568 


UIKSTBEL, 


MINOT,  George  (1817-56).  An  American 
jurist,  born  in  Haverhill,  Mass.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1836,  and  at  the  law  department 
of  that  institution  in  1838,  studied  under  Rufus 
Choate,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839. 
He  edited,  in  association  with  Kichard  Peter, 
Jr.,  eight  volumes  of  the  U,  8.  Statutes  at 
Large,  and  was  sole  editor  of  that  work  from 
1848  to  1856.  He  published  A  Digest  of  the  De- 
cisions of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts 
(45  vols,  with  supplement,  1844-52)  ;  and  edited 
English  Admiralty  Reports  (9  vols.,  1853-54). 

MINOT,  Geoboe  RiCHAKDS  (1758-1802).  An 
American  jurist.  He  was  bom  in  Boston,  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1778,  and  soon  afterwards 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  From  1781  to  1791 
he  was  clerk  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of 
Representatives.  He  was  secretary  of  the  con- 
vention called  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution. 
In  1792  he  was  appointed  judge  of  probate  for 
Suffolk  County;  in  1799  he  was  made  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  from 
1800  until  his  death  was  judge  of  the  Municipal 
Court  of  Boston.  He  published  a  History  of  the 
Insurrection  in  Massachusetts  in  1786  (1786); 
and  a  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay  (1798- 
1803).  The  latter  work  is  in  continuation  of 
Hutchinson's  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

MINOT,  Laubence  (13007-52?).  An  English 
lyric  poet,  bom  and  bred  probably  in  the  north- 
east midlands  of  England.  He  was  no  doubt  a 
layman.  Professor  Herford  agrees  with  other 
scholars  in  thinking  that  Minot  was  probably  a 
soldierly  minstrel,  who  sang  also  at  Court.  Minot 
wrote  in  haste,  with  the  warlike  or  political 
events  that  he  describes  still  fresh  in  his  mind. 
His  style  is  rough.  He  is  preeminently  a  war 
poet  and  a  patriot,  full  of  love  for  a  united  Eng- 
land, though  he  was  himself  in  all  likelihood  of 
Norman  origin.  He  wrote  eleven  spirited  political 
songs  (in  the  Northern  dialect)  celebrating  the 
military  events  of  the  time.  They  begin  with  the 
Battle  of  Halidon  Hill  (1333)  and  close  with  the 
Capture  of  Guisnes  (1352).  Among  the  best  is 
How  Edward  Came  to  Brabant  ( 1339) .  They  ex- 
ist in  only  onp  manuscript  (British  Museum), 
discovered  by  Tyrwhitt.  The  best  editions  are 
Laurence  Minot's  Lieder,  ed.  by  William  Scholle 
in  Quellen  und  Forschungen  (Strassburg,  1884), 
and  The  Poems  of  Laurence  Minot,  ed.  by  Hall 
(Oxford,  1887). 

MIN'OTAITB  (Gk.  mvdrraupos,  MinOtauros). 
The  bull  of  Minos.  According  to  the  Greek  legend, 
son  of  the  wife  of  Minos,  PasiphaS,  and  a  bull 
sent  by  Poseidon.  For  it  she  conceived  a  pas- 
sion which  the  skill  of  Daedalus  enabled  her  to 
gratify.  Her  offspring,  a  human  body  with  a 
bull's  head,  was  shut  up  by  Minos  in  the  myste- 
rious Labyrinth  at  Cnosus,  where  he  was  fed  on 
human  victims.  Yearly  (or  every  three  or  nine 
years,  according  to  other  version's  of  the  story) 
the  Athenians,  who  had  been  conquered  by  Minos, 
were  compelled  to  send  seven  youths  and  seven 
maidens  for  this  monster,  till  Theseus  (q.v.) 
slew  him.  The  origin  and  nature  of  this  story 
have  as  yet  received  no  adequate  explanation,  but 
the  frescoes  of  the  palace  at  Cnosus  showing  men 
and  girls  performing  gymnastic  feats  upon  wild 
bulls  suggest  that  the  origin  of  the  legend  is  to 
be  sought  in  dim  reminiscences  of  the  Mycensean 
bull -ring.    See  Minos. 

MINOT'S  LEDGE.    See  Lighthouse. 


MINSK,  minsk.  A  government  of  West  Rus- 
sia, in  Lithuania,  bounded  by  the  Government  of 
Vitebsk  on  the  north,  Mohilev  and  Tchemigov  on 
the  east,  Kiev  and  Volhynia  on  the  south,  and 
Grodno  and  Vilna  on  the  west  (Map:  Russia,  E 
4).  Area,  35,293  square  miles.  The  northwestern 
part,  about  one-fifth  of  the  entire  area,  is  some- 
what elevated.  It  forms  the  water-shed  between 
the  Dnieper  and  the  Niemen.  The  remainder  of 
the  government  is  low,  marshy,  thickly  wooded„ 
and  very  sparsely  inhabited,  forming  the  larger 
portion  of  Poliessie  (q.v.).  Minsk  is  watered 
chiefly  by  the  Beresina,  the  Pripet,  and  the 
Niemen;  lakes  abound  in  the  southern  part,  and 
the  climate  is  unheal thful.  By  the  nature  of  its 
surface  Minsk  is  not  well  fitted  for  agriculture, 
and  the  industry  is  in  a  primitive  state.  Stock- 
raising  is  favored  by  the  abundance  of  pasture 
land.  The  forests,  mostly  pine,  occupy  over  one- 
third  of  the  total  area  and  form  one  of  the  chief 
natural  resources  of  the  region.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  timber  are  floated  to  Prussia  by  the 
Beresina,  the  Pripet,  and  the  canal  which  con- 
nects the  Dnieper  with  the  Bug,  a  tributary  of 
the  Vistula.  Considerable  quantities  of  wood 
for  fuel  are  also  exported  to  Kiev  and  used  on 
the  local  railroads.  The  extent  of  this  industry 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  about  70.000 
people  are  employed  annually  in  the  transporta- 
tion of  the  timber  down  the  rivers.  Spirits, 
yeast,  flour,  and  wooden  products  of  all  kinds 
are  the  chief  manufactures.  The  ship-building 
industry  deserves  special  mention.  The  govern- 
ment is  traversed  oy  two  important  railways, 
one  connecting  Warsaw  with  Moscow,  and  the 
other  running  from  the  Baltic  Provinces  to- 
Southern  Russia.  Population,  in  1897,  2,147,621, 
composed  chiefly  of  White  Russians,  Poles,  Jews, 
and  Lithuanians.  Over  70  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation belong  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church. 
Capital,  Minsk. 

MINSK.  The  capital  of  the  Government  of 
Minsk,  Russia,  situated  in  a  hilly  region  on  the 
Svislotch,  a.  tributary  of  the  Beresina,  468  miles 
by  rail  southwest  of  Moscow  ( Map :  Russia,  E  4 ) . 
It  is  an  old  and  irregularlv  built  town  with  two 
cathedrals,  pf  which  that  of  ^aint  Catharine  ( 1611 ) 
is  especially  worthy  of  mention.  Among  ite  educa- 
tional institutions  are  two  classical  gymnasia 
and  one  real  gymnasium,  a  theological  seminary, 
a  museum,  and  a  theatre.  Minsk  manufactures 
leather,  agricultural  implements,  soap,  spirits, 
tebacco  products,  etc.  The  commerce  is  mostly 
in  agricultural  and  forest  products  and  leather. 
Minsk  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  Orthodox  and 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  The  municipality 
maintains  a  pawn-shop.  Population,  in  1897, 
91,494,  of  whom  about  50,000  were  Jews,  21,000 
Greek  Orthodox,  15,000  Roman  Catholics,  and 
over  1700  Mohammedans.  The  town  is  first  men- 
tioned in  1066  as  a  dependency  of  the  princes  of 
Podolsk.  After  a  short  existence  as  the  capital 
of  a  separate  principality,  it  fell  at  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century  into  the  hands  of  Lithu- 
ania. In  1499  it  obtained  Magdeburg  rights,  and 
in  1793  passed  to  Russia.  During  the  Polish 
uprising  in  1831  several  engagements  took  place 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  town. 

MINSTBEL  (OF.  menestrel,  menestereh  men- 
estral,  Fr.  menestral.  It.  ministrello,  menestrello, 
from  ML.  ministralis,  ministrel,  retainer,  Lat. 
minister,    attendant,    retainer,    minister    from. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HINSTBEL. 


569 


HINSTBEL. 


minor,  less).  The  term  seems  to  have  been  em- 
ployed at  first  to  designate  a  retainer  who 
amused  his  lord  with  music  and  song.  It  has 
now  come  to  be  the  generic  name  for  the  poet- 
musician,  the  verse-reciter,  the  mountebank, 
merry  Andrew,  juggler,  and  acrobat  of  tlie  Mid- 
dle Ages,  as  well  as  for  certain  modem  entertain- 
ers. ( See  below. )  Before  the  Norman  Conquest, 
the  professional  poet  was  known  in  England  as 
a  8c6p  (shaper  or  maker).  *Maker'  sometimes 
signified  a  poet  in  Shakespeare's  time.  The 
scOp  shaped  or  composed  his  own  poems,  and 
chanted  or  sang  them  to  the  accompaniment  of 
a  rude  harp.  Widsith  (i.e.  Long-travel),  per- 
haps the  oldest  of  extant  English  poems  (for  it 
is  earlier  than  the  Angles*  inroad  of  Britain), 
is  an  account  of  the  scOp's  wandering  and  recep- 
tion among  the  Huns,  Goths,  Danes,  and  other 
peoples.  For  the  tales  he  recited  in  the  mead 
hall,  the  scOp  was  rewarded  with  many  treasures, 
including  golden  rings  and  bracelets.  The  scdp 
was  not  commonly  a  wanderer.  He  was  rather 
attached  to  the  household  of  some  chief,  by  whom 
he  was  maintained,  and  in  some  cases  rewarded 
^  with  gifts  of  land.  The 
V  y  scCp  was  held  in  creat 
honor.  He  composed  his 
poems  in  solitude  and  re- 
cited them  in  the  hall 
where  his  master  feasted. 
The  recitation  was  doubt- 
less accompanied  by  ges- 
ture as  well  as  by  music. 
The  scCp  was  first  of  all 
a  poet,  diff'ering  from  the 
modem  poet  mainly  in 
the  fact  that  he  not  only 
shaped  but  also  recited 
his  compositions.  His 
theme  was  the  glorious 
deeds  of  his  chieftain  or 
of  some  hero  of  his  race. 
To  him  we  are  indebted 
for  our  primitive  and 
narrative  poems  like  Beo- 
wulf. The  spread  of 
Christianity  in  England 
broke  up  the  old  tribal 
relation,  and  therefore 
the  standing  of  the  scOp 
was  changed.  In  a  rank 
much  beneath  the  scAp 
were  the  gleemen,  who, 
though  they  no  doubt  sometimes  improvised  songs 
and  modified  the  matter  that  came  to  them,  were 
satisfied  for  the  most  part  to  render  what  others 
had  composed.  They  had  no  settled  abode,  but 
strolled  far  and  near,  earning  what  they  could 
by  their  minstrelsy.  (The  accompanying  illus- 
trations, derived  from  medieval  manuscripts, 
give  some  notion  as  to  the  strolling  minstrels' 
looks  and  demeanor.)  Among  their  accomplish- 
ments were  tumbling,  rope-walking,  and  feats  of 
jugglery.  Some  of  them  chewed  stones  or  ap- 
peared to  swallow  knives  or  fire.  Others  had 
performing  animals,  such  as  bears,  goats,  mar- 
mots, dogs,  and  monkeys. 

The  Normans  brought  not  a  few  jongleur 8 
(q.v.)  and  troubadours  (q.v.)  to  England.  The 
minstrels  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  in  part  de- 
scendants of  the  Teutonic  sc6pas  and  gleemen 
who  took  root  in  Gaul  with  the  invasion  of  the 
Franks,  or  of  those  who  went  along  with  the 


▲     SOPE-WA.LKKR     A.ND 
JUGGLER. 


Teuton  invaders  into  Italy,  England,  and  else- 
where, in  part  of  the  niimi  and  scurrw  who  had 
once  overrun  the  Roman  Empire.  With  the 
Celtic  bards  they  have  probably  no  kindred.  At 
the  battle  of  Hastings  Taillefer,  minstrel  and 
warrior,  rode  before  the  Norman  chivalry,  tossing 
his  shield  aloft,  and  stirring  their  courage  with 
the  Song  of  Roland,  and  there  bravely  met  his 
death.  By  the  fourteenth  century  the  poet  and 
the  performer  in  England  were  usually  distinct. 
The  scOp  and  the  troubadour  were  transformed 
into  poets  like  Chaucer  and  Gower.    True,  there 


lONBTREL  WITH  DRUM,  FLAOBOLET,  AND  PBRPORMIMO  BEAR. 

still  survived  in  the  structure  of  their  tales  sev- 
eral devices  of  the  singers,  such  as  the  address  to 
an  audience,  but  the  audience  was  wholly  imag- 
inary. The  gleemen  and  jongleurs  were  then 
known  as  minstrels,  of  whom  the  more  reputable 
were  still  held  in  great  honor.  At  feasts  and 
festivals  they  swarmed  in  great  numbers  with 


MINSTREL  PLATING  A  RBBXa 

harps,  fiddles,  bagpipes,  fiutes,  flageolets,  cit- 
terns, and  kettle-drums.  Such  an  occasion  is  de- 
scribed by  Chaucer  in  the  Squire's  Tale :  As  Cani- 
buskan  dines,  the  "minstralles"  play  **beforn  him 
at  the  bord  deliciously."  When  he  goes  out  he 
is  preceded  by  "loude  ministralcye," 

Ther  as  the.v  sownen  diverse  Instnimenti 
That  it  Is  lyk  an  heven  for  to  here. 

But  the  decline  of  minstrelsy  had  already  set  in, 
as  we  know  from  Langland's  Piers  Plowman,  the 
best  single  source  of  information  for  England. 
Minstrels  as  a  class  Langland  severely  satirized, 
calling  them  prattlers  and  buffoons,  foul  and 
scurrilous  of  speech,  indeed  the  very  children  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MINSTBEL. 


57a 


MINSTBEL. 


Satan.  Yet  in  England  minstrels  may  have  had 
a  closer  connection  with  genuine  poets  than  they 
had  on  the  Continent,  where  from  the  outset 
these  sons  of  the  Roman  mimi  and  scurrw  (com- 
pare ^scurrilous* )  and  of  the  old  bards  of  the 
North  were  abhorred  by  the  Church.    Mass  and 


A.  KINO  MINSTREL. 

Head  of  a  minstrel  troupe. 

absolution  were  denied  them;  indeed,  they  were 
under  perpetual  excommunication,  and  were  as- 
sured that  they  would  spend  eternity  at  the  bot- 
tom of  hell.  Nor  had  they — on  the  Continent, 
at  all  events — any  standing  before  the  secular 
law.  Those  who  harmed  them  went  unpun- 
ished; yet  if  a  minstrel  was  ill  handled,  he  had 
the  privilege  of  beating  the  shadow  of  his  of- 
fender. 

Most  minstrels  were  itinerant;  others  were 
retained  by  lords  as  jesters.  Not  seldom  they 
were  women,  or,  at  all  events,  women  followed 
many  a  band  of  minstrels  and  lived  their  hard 
and  dissolute  life.  The  very  name  of  minstrel 
was  a  byword,  but  everywhere  they  were  wel- 
come. After  the  invention  of  printing,  there 
was  little  place  for  the  minstrel  as  an 
intermediary  between  author  and  public.  He 
gradually  found  his  main  occupation  as  a  ballad- 
singer  at  street  corners  or  at  the  wassails  of 
the  more  ignorant  barons.  Musicians  still  con- 
tinued, it  is  true,  to  be  retained  at  Court,  and 
ample  provision  was  made  for  their  maintenance. 
But  by  an  act  of  Parliament  in  the  thirty -ninth 
year  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  'ministrels  abroad* 
were  classed  as  'rogues  and  vagabonds,'  and  were 
ordered  to  be  punished  as  such. 

In  spite  of  new  social  conditions,  minstrelsy 
was  slow  in  dying  out.  George  the  Second  main- 
tained a  company  of  twenty-four  musicians,  who 
were  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Chapel  Royal 
and  in  rendering  odes  on  birthdays  and  New 
Year's.  Scott,  as  is  well  known,  collected  the 
minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  border,  consisting  of 


traditional  ballads  that  were  still  recited.  And 
in  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Mmatrel  is  described  a 
wandering  harper  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived 
at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Re- 
cently, too,  W.  B.  Yeats  has  discovered  *the  last 
gleeman  in  Ireland,'  a  certain  Michael  Moran, 
blind  almost  from  birth.  "He  was,"  says  Yeats, 
"a  true  gleeman,  being  alike  poet,  jester,  and 
newsman  of  the  people."  The  descendant  of  the 
old  gleeman,  it  is  said,  is  still  not  unkno\s^  in 
the  Orkneys. 

American  Minstrels.  Toward  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  a  new  type,  the  South- 
ern negro,  appeared  on  the  American  stage.  At 
first  he  was  accepted  merely  as  a  comic  char- 
acter, but  gradually  his  songs  and  eccentricities 
overshadowed  his  personal  characteristics,  and 
he  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  'feature'  in  the 
performance.  Before  the  advent  of  Thomas  D. 
Rice,  the  reputed  founder  of  negro  minstrelsy, 
there  had  been  a  score  of  actors,  w^ho,  as  negro 
comedians,  had  sung  and  danced  their  way  into 
popular  favor;  but  Rice  was  the  first  minstrel 
whose  performances  received  universal  recog- 
nition. His  most  famous  character,  'Jim  Crow.' 
was  drawn  from  life,  its  original  being  an  old 
Louisville  slave.  In  1836  Rice  went  to  England, 
where  he  duplicated  his  American  successes.  In- 
dividual negro  minstrels  now  became  very  nu- 
merous, and  in  1843  the  first  company,  the  '^''ir- 
ginia  Minstrels,'  was  formed.  It  consisted  of 
'Dan'  Emmett,  Frank  Brower,  'Billy'  Whit- 
lock,  and  'Dick'  Pelham.  The  style  of  per- 
formance adopted  by  them  has  remained  much 
the  same  ever  since,  for  they  danced,  sang,  played 
their  instruments,  and  carried  on  a  running 
dialogue  of  jokes.  Among  the  more  famous  bands 
of  minstrels  may  be  'mentioned :  White's  'Kitchen 
Minstrels,'  his  'Virginia  Serenaders,*  his  'New 
York  Minstrels;'  'Christy's  Minstrels,'  which 
made  a  tremendous  sensation;  'Bryant's  Min- 
strels,' 'Wood's  Minstrels,'  and  the  companies 
formed  by  'Tony'  Pastor,  Thatcher,  Primrose, 
Dockstader,  West,  Buckley,  Backus,  Birch,  and 
Bailey.  Minstrel  performances  are  usually  of 
one  general  character.  The  performers,  who  are 
always  men  and  who  number  from  15  to  40,  sit 
in  a  semicircle.  At  either  end  sit  the  'end  men,* 
or  'bones,'  while  in  the  middle  of  the  line  is  the 
'interlocutor,'  who  gravely  asks  his  companions, 
especially  the  'end  men,'  such  questions  as  shall 
bring  out  their  stock  of  jests.  Each  member  of 
the  troupe  takes  some  part  in  the  performance. 
The  minstrel's  characteristic  instruments  are  the 
guitar,  the  banjo,  tambourine,  and  the  'bones,' 
which  are  two  pairs  of  ebony  sticks,  about  an 
inch  wide  and  six  inches  long,  and  are  clapped  to- 
gether in  the  performer's  fingers. 

Consult,  in  general:  Wilhelm  von  Hertz,  "Die 
Spielleute,"  an  essay  in  his  delightful  Spielmanns- 
huch,  second  edition  (Stuttgart,  1900)  ;  Percy, 
Reliques  of  Ancient  Poetry^  vol.  i.  (1765); 
Ritson,  Ancient  English  Metrical  Romances, 
vol.  i.  (1802);  and  Chappell,  National  Eng- 
lish Airs  (1838);  Langland's  Piers  Plowman 
(The  G.  Text  Passus  i.  and  xvi. ;  and  the 
Prologue  of  the  A.  Text).  For  the  sc6p, 
consult :  Stopford  Brooke,  English  Literature  from 
the  Beginning  to  the  Norman  Conquest  (New 
York,  1898)  ;  and  Henry  Morley,  English  Litera- 
ture, vol.  ii.  (New  York,  1888).  For  the  later 
minstrelsy,  consult  W^.  G.  Courthope,  "The 
Decay  of  English  Minstrelsy,"  in  A  History  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KOrSTBEL.  571 

English  Poetry,  vol.  i.   (New  York,  1896).     See 

MiNNESINGEBS ;    SkALD;   TbOUBADOUBS. 

UIKSTBEL  BOYy  The.  A  favorite  song  in 
Hoore's  Irish  Melodies,  The  music  is  that  of 
**The  Moreen,"  an  old  Irish  air. 

MINT  (AS.  mynet,  mynit,  mynyt,  from  Lat. 
fnoneta,  mint,  epithet  of  Juno,  whose  temple  at 
Rome  was  the  mint,  from  monere,  to  warn) .  An 
establishment  for  making  coins  or  metallic  money. 
See  Monet. 

The  earliest  regulations  regarding  the  English 
mint  belcmg  to  Anglo-Saxon  times.  An  officer 
<»klled  a  reeve  is  referred  to  in  the  laws  of  Canute 
as  having  some  jurisdiction  over  it,  and  certain 
names  which,  in  addition  to  that  of  the  sovereign, 
■appear  on  the  Anglo-Saxon  coins,  seem  to  have 
been  those  of  the  moneyers,  or  principal  officers 
of  the  mint.  Besides  the  sovereign,  barons,^ 
bishops,  and  the  greater  monasteries  had  their 
respective  mints,  where  they  exercised  the  right 
of  coinage,  a  privilege  enjoyed  by  the  archbishops 
of  Canterbury  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
and  by  Wolsey  as  Bishop  of  Durham  and  Arch- 
bishop of  York. 

After  the  Norman  Conquest  the  officers  of  the 
royal  mint  became  to  a  certain  extent  subject 
to  the  authority  of  the  exchequer.  Both  in 
Saxon  and  Norman  times  there  existed,  under 
control  of  the  principal  mint  in  London,  a  num- 
ber of  provincial  mints  in  different  towns  of 
England;  there  were  no  fewer  than  thirtv-eight 
in  the  time  of  Ethelred,  and  the  last  of  them 
were  only  done  away  with  in  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.  The  officers  of  the  mint  were  formed 
into  a  corporation  by  a  charter  of  Edward  II.; 
they  consisted  of  the  warden,  master,  comptroller, 
assay-master,  workers,  coiners,  and  subordinates. 

The  seigniorage  for  coining  at  one  time  formed 
no  inconsiderable  item  in  the  revenues  of  the 
Crown.  It  was  a  deduction  made  from  the 
bullion  coined,  and  comprehended  both  a  charge 
for  defraying  the  expense  of  coinage  and  the 
sovereign's  profit  in  virtue  of  his  prerogative. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  the  seigniorage 
amounted  to  6d.  in  the  pound;  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.,  Is.  2^d.  Tne  seigniorage  on  gold 
was  abolished  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
and  has  never  since  been  exacted.  The  shere,  or 
remedy,  as  it  is  now  called,  was  an  allowance 
for  the  imavoidable  imperfection  of  the  coin. 

A  new  mint  was  erected  on  Tower  Hill  in 
1810.  In  1815  some  alterations  were  made  in  the 
eonstitution  of  the  mint,  and  in  1851  a  complete 
change  was  introduced  in  the  whole  system  of 
administration.  The  control  of  the  mint  was 
vested  in  a  master  and  a  deputy  master,  and 
comptroller.  The  mastership,  which  had  in  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century  become  a  political 
appointment  held  by  an  adherent  of  the  Govern- 
ment, was  restored  to  the  position  of  a  perma- 
nent office,  the  master  being  the  ostensible  execu- 
tive head  of  the  establishment.  Further  changes 
were  made  in  the  administration  of  the  mint  in 
1869.  The  mastership  was  added  to  the  duties 
of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  without  any 
addition  of  salarv,  and  the  offices  of  deputy  mas- 
ter and  comptroller  were  amalgamated. 

A  mint  was  established  at  Sydney  in  1853  and 
at  Melbourne  in  1869  to  coin  the  gold  so  largely 
found  in  Australia. 

The  first  mint  in  the  United  States  was  estab- 
lished at   Philadelphia  by  the  coinage   act  of 
Vol.  X1II.-87. 


MINT. 


April  2,  1792;  the  first  production  of  the  new 
mint  was  the  copper  cent  of  1793.  Silver 
dollars  were  first  coined  in  1794,  and  gold 
eagles  in  1795.  At  present  (1907)  there  are 
four  mints,  located  at  Philadelphia,  San  Fran- 
cisco, New  Orleans,  and  Denver,  respectively. 
Assay  offices  are  located  at  New  York,  Car- 
son City,  Helena,  Boisd,  Charlotte,  St.  Louis, 
Deadwood,  and  Seattle.  The  act  of  April 
1,  1873,  put  all  the  mints  and  assay  offices 
on  the  same  footing  as  a  bureau  of  the  Treasury 
Department,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Director  of  the  Mint,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
President  for  a  term  of  five  years  and  is 
subordinate  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
The  Philadelphia  mint  has  an  engraver  who 
supervises  the  manufacture  of  the  dies  used  in 
all    the    United    States    mints. 

Pbocesses  of  CoiiaNO.  Down  to  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  little  or  no  improvement 
seems  to  have  been  made  in  the  art  of  coining 
from  the  time  of  its  invention.  The  metal  was 
simply  hammered  into  slips,  which  were  after- 
wards cut  up  into  squares  of  one  size  and  then 
forged  round.  The  required  impression  was  given 
to  these  by  placing  them  in  turn  between  two 
dies  and  striking  them  with  a  hanuner.  As  it 
was  not  easy  by  this  method  to  place  the  dies 
exactly  above  each  other,  or  to  apply  proper 
force,  coins  so  made  were  always  faulty  and 
had  the  edges  im finished,  which  rendered  them 
liable  to  be  clipped.  The  first  great  step  was 
the  application  of  the  screw,  invented  in  1553  by 
a  French  engraver  of  the  name  of  Brucher.  The 
plan  was  found  expensive  at  first,  and  it  was  not 
till  1662  that  it  altogether  superseded  the  ham- 
mer in  the  English  mint.  In  1882  the  lever- 
press  was  introduced. 

The  following  description  of  the  method  of 
coining  money  is  based  on  a  pamphlet,  "Mint 
Processes  of  the  United  States,"  issued  by  the 
Treasury  Department.  The  processes  required  for 
converting  tne  crude  metal  into  monev  are :  ( 1 ) 
Assaying;  (2)  refining  or  parting,  which  reduces 
the  material  into  ingots  or  bars  of  standard  pu- 
rity; (3)  reducing  the  bars  to  coinage  ingots  by 
mixing  with  them  the  proper  amount  of  copper 
alloy;  (4)  coining,  or  transforming  the  coina^ 
ingots  into  money.  The  gold  and  silver  which  is 
brought  to  the  mint  may  be  in  a  crude  or  manu- 
factured condition  and  is  of  everv  degree  of  fine- 
ness. The  initial  process,  therefore,  is  to  assay 
the  metal,  in  order  to  determine  both  its  value 
and  the  subs^uent  minting  operations  necessary 
to  refine  it.  This  process  and  the  succeeding  one 
of  rerfining  are  described  in  the  metallurgical 
articles  on  Gold  and  Silver  and  under  Assaying. 
The  bullion  thus  purified  is  reduced  to  bars,  a 
gold  bar  usually  weighing  400  ounces,  worth 
about  $8000.  It  is  now  ready  to  be  used  for 
industrial  purposes,  or  for  the  next  stage  in  the 
coinage  process. 

The  consumption  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  arts 
and  industries  i?  very  great.  During  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1895,  gold  and  silver  bars  for 
industrial  use,  in  about  equal  ratio,  were  manu- 
factured in  the  Philadelphia  mint  and  in  the 
assay  office  at  New  York  to  the  coinage  value  of 
$17,818,581.  Private  refineries  furnished  not  less 
than  $5,000,000  more.  These  bars  are  0.999  fine. 
A  depositor  may  bring  crude  bullion  in  any  <^uan- 
tity,  of  $100  or  more  in  value,  and  receive  either 
fine  gold  bars  or  coin,  at  his  option,  a  charge 


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572 


MINT. 


of  not  more  than  fiye  cents  an  ounce  being  made 
for  assaying  and  refining.  For  the  silver  alloy  in 
the  gold  the  owner  will  be  paid  either  in  silver 
bars  or  silver  dollars,  at  the  market  value  of 
silver. 

If  the  gold  or  silver  is  to  be  coined  into 
money  the  pure  bars  must  be  mixed  with  cop- 
per alloy;  standard  gold  coin  is  composed  of  75 
parts  of  copper  and  ^  of  silver  in  1000.  The  law 
allows  a  slight  variation  from  this  standard,  but 
in  actual  practice  a  single  gold  coin  rarely  varies 
more  than  0.03  per  cent,  from  the  standard, 
either  way,  and  a  silver  coin,  which  is  much  more 
difficult  to  manage,  not  more  than  0.1  per  cent., 
while  the  average  is  almost  exactly  correct. 
Weighed  quantities  of  gold  and  copper,  or  of 
silver  and  copper,  are  melted  together  in  a 
black-lead  crucible,  the  molten  metals  thoroughly 
stirred  together,  and  then  poured  into  cast-iron 
molds  to  form  ingots.  These  vary  in  size  ac- 
cording to  the  denomination  of  the  coins  to  be 
made  from  them.  The  following  table,  compiled 
by  William  E.  Morgan,  Coiner  of  the  United 
States  Mint  at  Philadelphia,  gives  the  sizes  and 
approximate  weights  of  gold  ingots: 


while  those  that  are  above  weight  are  filed  down. 
The  standard  weight  for  gold  coins  is  as  follows: 
Double  eagle,  616  grains;  tolerance  allowed  by 
law,  0.50  grain.  Eagle,  258  grains;  tolerance. 
0.50  grain.  Half  eagle,  129  grains;  tolerance, 
0.25  grain.  Quarter  eagle,  64.5  grains;  toler- 
ance, 0.25  ^in. 

Next  comes  the  process  of  milling,  or  produc- 
ing a  raised  rim  around  the  edge  of  the  coin,  to 
prevent  abrasion.  This  is  accomplished  in  a 
milling  machine,  into  which  the  blanks  are  placed 
one  by  one  by  hand.  The  blanks  rotate  in  a  hori- 
zontal plane  in  a  groove  formed  on  one  side  by 
a  revolving  wheel  and  on  the  other  by  a  fixed 
segment  of  corresponding  groove.  Each  piece,  as 
it  passes  through  this  narrow  groove,  has  its 
edges  forced  up  into  an  even  rim.  After  an- 
nealing and  cleaning,  the  coins  are  now  ready 
for  the  final  process  of  stamping.  The  planchet, 
fed  to  the  press  through  a  vertical  tube,  is 
automatically  placed  in  a  steel  collar,  whose 
inner  surface  is  reeded  to  produce  the  fluted 
surface  on  the  milled  edge  of  the  coin.  Here 
it  is  firmly  held  while  the  dies  close  upon  it 
with  enormous  force,  producing  impressions  on 


DBNOMINATIOHS 


Double  eagles.. 

Eagles 

Half  eagles 

Quarter  eagles 


Approximate 
weight  in  ounces 


80 
62 
40 
83 


Length  in  inches 


12% 
12% 


Thickness  in  inches     Width  In  Inches 


% 
% 


IH 
H 


The  ingot  for  silver  dollar  coinage  is  1% 
inches  wide,  %  inch  thick,  and  12%  inches  long. 
The  ingots  are  passed  repeatedly  between  heavy 
rollers  to  form  them  into  strips,  a  process  which 
is  called  'breaking  down.'  After  each  passage 
the  rollers  are  screwed  tighter,  the  amount  of 
pressure  being  regulated  exactly  by  a  clock-dial. 
The  strips  are  annealed  during  the  process  to 
prevent  their  breaking.  The  strips,  having  been 
greased  with  tallow,  are  finally  reiiuced  to  stand- 
ard thickness  by  drawing  out  in  draw-benches 
by  a  process  similar  to  that  of  wire-drawing. 
(See  Wire.)  Having  been  drawn  to  the  required 
weight,  which  is  ascertained  by  weighing  sample 
blanks  cut  from  each  end,  the  strips  are  cut  into 
planchets,  by  means  of  a  steel  punch,  working 
into  a  matrix.  (See  Dies  and  Die-Sinking.) 
These  planchets  are  now  cleaned  and  carefully 
sorted,  all  that  are  not  perfect  or  are  under  the 
standard  weight  being  set  aside  to  be  remelted, 


both  sides  of  the  coin.     (This  process  and  the 

Sreparatory  one  of  engraving  and  stamping  the 
ies  are  described  under  Dies  and  Dk-Sinkinq.) 
The  pressure  required  to  produce  a  clear,  sharp 
impression  on  the  various  gold  coins  is  as  fol- 
lows: Double  eagle,  175  tons;  eagle,  120  tons; 
half  eagle,  75  tons;  quarter  eagle,  40  tons. 
Double  eagles  and  eagles  are  struck  at  an  average 
rate  of  80  per  minute;  half  eagles  and  quarter 
eagles  at  a  rate  of  100  per  minute.  The  pressure 
required  for  stamping  silver  coins  is:  Dollar, 
150  tons;  half  dollar,  110  tons;  quarter  dollar, 
80  tons;  dime,  40  tons.  The  first  three  are 
struck  at  an  average  rate  of  80  per  minute,  and 
dimes  at  the  rate  of  100  per  minute. 

The  total  coinage  of  gold  by  the  mints  of  the 
United  States  from  1792  to  June  30,  1900,  was 
$2,167,088,113,  of  which  it  is  estimated  that 
$923,653,642  is  still  in  existence  as  coin  in  the 
United   States,  while  the   remainder   represents 


€k>iNAOB  OF  Silver  Conrs.  by  Acts  and  DEifomHATioHs,  from  1792  to  JtmB  80.  1900 
(From  Circular  No.  118,  issued  by  the  United  fltates  Treasury  Department,  July  2, 1»00) 


DBNOMIIfATION 

1792  to  1863 

1868  to  Feb. 
12,  1§73 

Feb.  12. 1878.  to 
June  80. 1900 

Total  silver 

Dollars 

2,606.890.00 

6.624,348.00 

498.496,216.00 

86.966.924.00 

60,000.00 

606  627,453.00 

Trade  dollars 

85,966.924.00 

Lafayette  dollars 

60.000.00 

Total  dollars 

2.606,890.00 

6.624,348.00 

584.612.139.00 

642.543.877.00 

Half  dollars 

66.280,610.60 

32,666.882.60 

46.011.086.00 

2.601,062.60 

41.889,190.60 

10.006.76 

271.000.00 

27.138,111.10 

144.968.609.00 

Half  dollars.  Columbian 

2.601,062.60 

Quarter  dollars 

'3.994','64b.66 

17.879,790.60 

68.763.031.50 

Quarter  dollars,  Columbian 

10.006.75 

Twenty -cent  pieces * 

271.000.00 

Dimes 

3,890.230.10 

1,826.126.40 

744.927.00 

4.908.620.00 

3.066,093.00 

637,160.20 

85.981,861.20 

Half  dimes        

4,880,219.40 

Three-cent  pieces 

1.282.067.20 

Total  subsidiary 

76,734.964.60 

69.017.396.20 

117.845.395.86 

268.627,766.56 

Total  silver 

79.241.864.60 

64.671.744.20 

"662^7^684.85" 

796,171.183.65 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


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1 


MtNT,    ETC. 


f.   NEW  JERSEY  TEA    ^Cflanotho*  Amarlcanus),  3-  TALL  MEADOW-RUE  lTh*Uclryn|   poJyg^mwtn^,      > 

2.  SPEARMINT  S Mentha  apicaMK  4.   FOUR- LEAVED    MrLK^*^fa)Bwa^1*pi«9   asi^^fffottii, 

5.  VrRGIN(A  QOAyS-BEAR0<Kflf|ta  V>rqlnTc»>. 


nusrr. 


678 


MINTJCITTS  FELIX. 


the  excess  of  exports  over  imports  and  the 
amount  consumed  in  the  arts.  (See  Circular 
No,  113,  issued  by  the  United  States  Treasurv 
Department,  July  2,  1900.)  The  amount  of  sil- 
Ter  coinage  for  the  same  period  is  given  in  the 
accompanying  table. 

The  coinage  for  1900  in  the  mints  of  the 
United  States  amounted  to  184,373,793  pieces, 
having  a  value  of  $141,351,960.36.  The  seign- 
iorage on  the  coinage  of  silver  dollars,  subsid- 
iary and  minor  coins  during  that  year  amounted 
to  $10,286,302.60.  (See  Seigniobage. )  During 
1904  the  coinage  in  the  mints  of  the  United 
States  was  gold,  $233,402,408;  silver,  $15,695,- 
610,  the  gold  coinage  alone  exceeding  the  total 
coinage  of  any  previous  year.  Consult  the  annual 
reports  of  the  director  of  the  mint,  and  also  the 
various  pamphlets  on  coinage  issued  by  the 
Treasury  Departoient  at  Washington. 

MINT  (AS.  minte,  Icel.  minta,  OHG.  minza, 
munzaj  Ger.  Mime,  Munze,  from  Lat.  menta, 
mentha,  from  Gk.  fdvOa,  mintha,  fdpBrj,  minthS, 
mint),  Mentha.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Labiatse;  with  small,  funnel-shaped, 
4-fid  corolla,  and  four  straight  stamens.  The 
species  are  perennial  herbs,  varying  considerably 
in  appearance,  but  all  with  creeping  rootstocks; 
The  flowers  are  whorled,  the  whorls  often  grouped 
in  spikes  or  heads.  The  species  are  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  world;  some  of  them  are  very 
common.  Water  mint  {Mentha  aquatica)  grows 
in  wet  grounds  and  ditches,  and  com  mint 
(Mentha  arvensia),  which  abounds  as  a  weed,  in 
European  fields  and  gardens.  These  and  most 
of  the  other  species  have  erect  stems.  All  the 
species  contain  an  aromatic  essential  oil,  in  vir- 
tue of  which  they  are  more  or  less  medicinal. 
The  most  important  species  are  spearmint,  pep- 
permint, and  pennyroyal;  spearmint  or  green 
mint  {Mentha  viridis  or  spicata),  a  native  of 
almost  all  the  temperate  parts  of  the  globe, 
has  erect,  smooth  stems,  from  one  foot  to 
two  feet  high,  with  the  whorls  of  flowers  in 
loose  cylindrical  or  oblong  spikes  at  the  top; 
lanceolate,  acute,  smooth,  serrated  leaves,  desti- 
tute of  stalk,  or  nearly  so.  It  has  a  very  agree- 
able odor.  Peppermint  {Mentha  piperita),  a 
plant  of  equally  wide  distribution  in  the  temper- 
ate parts  of  the  world,  is  very  similar  to  spear- 
mint, but  has  stalked  leaves  and  flowers  in  short 
spikes,  the  lower  whorls  somewhat  distant  from 
the  rest.  It  is  very  readily  recognized  by  the  pe- 
culiar pungency  of  its  odor  and  of  its  taste.  Pen- 
nyroyal ( Mentha  Pulegium ) ,  also  very  cosmopol- 
itan, has  ovate,  stalked  leaves,  a  much-branched 
prostrate  stem,  which  sends  down  new  roots  as  it 
extends  in  length,  and  the  flowers  in  distant 
globose  whorls.  Its  smell  resembles  that  of  the 
other  mints.  All  these  species,  in  a  wild  state, 
l^row  in  ditches  or  wet  places.  All  are  cultivated 
in  gardens.  Mint  sauce  is  generally  made  of 
spearmint,  which  is  also  used  for  flavoring  soups, 
etc.  A  kind  of  mint  with  lemon -scented  leaves, 
called  bergamot  mint  {Mentha  citrata) ,  is  found 
in  some  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in 
gardens.  Varieties  of  peppermint  and  horse-mint 
{Mentha  sylvestris),  with  crisped  or  inflated  ru- 
gose leaves,  are  much  cultivated  in  Germany  under 
the  name  of  curled  mint  (Kratise-minze)  ;  the 
leaves  are  dried  and  used  as  a  domestic  medicine, 
and  in  poultices  and  baths.  All  kinds  of  mint  are 
easily  propagated  by  parting  the   roots  or  by 


cuttings.  It  is  said  that  mice  have  a  great 
aversion  to  mint^  and  that  a  few  leaves  of  it  will 
keep  them  at  a  distance. 

Peppermint,  pennyroyal,  and  spearmint  are 
used  in  medicine.  The  pharmacopceias  contain 
an  aqua,  apiritu^s,  and  oleum  of  each  of  them, 
the  officinal  part  being  the  leaves  and  stems,  which 
should  be  collected  when  in  flower.  Peppermint 
is  extensively  used  to  flavor  candy  and  mixtures 
to  cover  the  taste  of  drugs.  Nearly  one-half  of 
the  oil  of  peppermint  and  spearmint  now  used  in 
the  world  is  produced  and  distilled  in  Michigan, 
the  great  seat  of  this  industry  being  in  Saint 
Joseph  County. 

MINT  FAMILY.  An  order  of  plants.  See 
Labiate. 

MIN'TO,  Gilbert  Elliot,  first  Earl  of  (1751- 
1814).  A  British  diplomatist  and  administrator. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Oxford,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1774.  In  1776  he  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Whig.  From  1794  to  1796  he 
was  Viceroy  of  Corsica.  In  1797  he  was  created 
Baron  Minto,  and  two  years  later  became  Am- 
bassador to  Vienna.  On  his  reappearance  in  the 
House  of  <  Lords  he  became  an  advocate  of  the 
union  of  Ireland  with  England,  and  afterwards 
strenuously  opposed  Roman  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion. He  was  Governor-General  of  India  from 
1807  to  1813,  and  did  much  to  suppress  Internal 
disorder  in  the  regions  under  his  government. 
Consult  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Minto, 
edited  by  the  Countess  of  Minto,  his  great-niece 
(1874). 

MINTO,  William  (1845-93).  An  English 
literary  critic.  He  was  bom  at  Alford,  Scotland, 
and  graduated  at  Aberdeen  in  1865.  He  edited 
the  London  Examiner  from  1874  to  1878,  and  in 
1880  became  professor  of  logic  and  English  litera- 
ture at  Aberdeen.  He  wrote  three  stories,  The 
Crack  of  Doom  (1886),  The  Mediation  of  Ralph 
Hardelot  (1888),  and  Was  She  Good  or  Badf 
(1889),  but  is  chiefly  known  as  a  critic.  In  this 
latter  field  he  published  many  well-known  works, 
including:  Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature, 
Biographical  and  Critical  (1872);  Characteris- 
tics of  English  Poets  from  Chaucer  to  Shirley 
(1874)  ;  and  Daniel  Defoe  (for  the  "English  Men 
of  Letters  Series,"  1879).  There  appeared  post- 
humously University  Extension  Manual  on 
Logic  (1893)  ;  Plain  Principles  of  Prose  Compo- 
sition (1893)  ;  and  English  Literature  Under  the 
Georges  (1894).  Original  in  method,  he  ably  de- 
fended many  novel  hypotheses. 

MINTONV  Thomas  (1765-1836).  An  English 
manufacturer  of  porcelain.  He  was  bom  in 
Wyle  Cop,  Shrewsbury;  studied  engraving  under 
John  Turner,  who  is  said  to  have  invented  blue 
printing  on  china;  and  between  1788  and  1793, 
after  working  for  Soode  in  Tx)ndon,  settled  at 
Stoke  and  built  a  pottery.  Joseph  Poulson  and 
William  Pownall  were  for  a  time  members  of  the 
firm;  and  afterwards  (1817)  Hebbert  Mittton 
(1793-1858),  a  son  of  Thomas,  who  succeeded 
him  in  1836.  In  1883  the  firm  became  Mintons, 
Ltd.  Herbert  Minton  devised  methods  of  making 
hard  pottery  (1849)  and  encaustic  tiles,  and 
produced  a  marble-like  porcelain  called  'Parian.' 
He  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  English  manu- 
facturer of  majolica. 

MINTJCrUS    (mI.n?55'8hI-«8)    FEOiIX,  Mab- 

cus.     The  first  Latin  apologist  of  Christianity. 


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MINTTCrCJS   FELIX. 


574 


ISXNTJTE  XEH. 


He  was  a  heathen  by  birth  and  followed  his 
profession  of  lawyer  at  Rome.  His  work  entitled 
Octavius  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  a 
Christian  called  Octavius  and  a  heathen  called 
Csecilius.  Octavius  defends  the  Christians  from 
the  calumnies  which  were  circulated  against 
them,  charging  them  With  crimes  in  their  secret 
religious  meetings,  and  exposes  the  licentious 
practices  of  the  heathen.  The  style  of  the  work 
is  argumentative  and  pure,  and  much  informa- 
tion is  given  concerning  the  manners,  customs, 
and  opinions  of  the  period.  As  an  apology  of 
Christianity,  it  compares  favorably  with  those 
of  Justin,  Tertullian,  and  other  early  advocates 
of  the  Christian  faith,  and  with  those  of  Lactan- 
tius,  Ambrose,  and  Eusebius  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. Its  date  has  been  disputed,  but  the  best 
opinion  now  places  it  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines, 
between  150  and  180.  The  text  is  in  Migne, 
Patrol.  Lat.y  in.,  and,  edited  by  Halm,  in  the 
Corpus  Scriptorum  Eccleaiastioorum  Latinorum 
(Vienna,  1867)  ;  Eng.  trans,  in  the  Ante-Nicene 
Fathers,  vol.  iv.  Consult:  KUhn,  Der  Ooiaviua 
des  Minuciua  Felix  (Leipzig,  1882)  ;  Bahlen, 
Questxones  Minuciams  (Berlin,  1894). 

MINUET  (Fr.,  small,  diminutive  of  menu, 
from  Lat.  minutes,  small,  p.p.  of  minuere,  to 
diminish,  from  mtnor,  less;  connected  with  Gk./ur^y 
minys,  small,  Skt.  ml,  to  make  small,  Goth,  min- 
niza,  OHG.  minniro,  Ger.  minder,  AS.,  archaic 
Eng.  min,  less;  so  called  because  of  the  small 
steps  taken  in  the  dance) .  A  graceful  and  state- 
ly dance  of  French  origin.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  Poitou,  and  was  introduced  into 
Paris  in  1650.  The  first  known  minuet  tunes 
were  written  by  Lully  (q.v.)  in  1653.  The 
minuet  was  a  favorite  at  the  Court  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  was  carried  over  into  England  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  where  it  continued  popular 
until  the  time  of  (jreorge  II.  In  Russia  it  flour- 
ished during  the  reigns  of  Peter  the  Great  and 
Catharine  II.  At  first  the  minuet  was  In  three- 
quarter  time  and  consisted  of  two  eight-bar 
phrases,  each  of  which  was  repeated.  Mozart's 
minuet  in  Don  Giovanni  shows  the  form  of  the 
early  dance.  It  was  soon,  however,  extended  by 
the  addition  of  a  second  movement  (written  in 
three-part  harmony  and  hence  called  Trio)  and 
by  increasing  the  number  of  bars.  Bach  and 
Handel  often  introduced  the  minuet  into  their 
suites.  Those  of  the  former  are  especially  fa- 
mous, and  Handel  also  used  it  as  a  concluding 
movement  for  operatic  and  oratorio  overtures. 
The  minuet  is  of  particular  importance  because 
of  the  position  it  still  occupies  in  the  symphony, 
which  is  an  evolution  of  the  suite.  Haydn  was 
the  first  to  employ  it  in  the  symphony,  but  he 
changed  its  character  by  quickening  the  time  and 
making  it  vivacious  rather  than  stately.  Mozart 
used  Haydn's  form,  retaining  the  rapid  tempo, 
but  gave  it  a  tender,  graceful  significance.  With 
Beethoven  its  history  practically  ceases,  for  he 
transformed  it  into  the  schereo,  thus  making  it 
an  integral  part  of  the  symphony.  Its  use  by 
later  composers,  Schumann,  Mendelssohn,  and 
others,  is  comparatively  rare.  See  Dancing; 
Suite;  Symphony. 

MINTTIT,  mln'ATt,  MINTTITS,  or  MINNE- 
WIT,  Peter  (1580-1641).  An  early  Governor  of 
New  Netherland.  He  was  bom  in  Wesel,  on  the 
Rhine ;  was  a  deacon  for  a  time  in  the  Protestant 
or    Walloon    Church    there,    removed    to    Hoi* 


land  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
in  December,  1625,  received  from  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company  the  appointment  of 
Governor  and  Director-General  of  New  Nether- 
land. He  reached  Manhattan  Island  May  4, 
1626,  and  soon  afterwards  purchased  the  island 
from  the  Indians,  obtaining  it  for  the  sum  of 
sixty  guilders  (about  twenty-four  dollars).  He 
built  Fort  Amsterdam,  defended  with  great  cour- 
age and  determination  the  claim  of  the  Dutch 
to  rightful  possession  of  the  island,  and  adminis- 
tered the  affairs  of  his  office  judiciously  and  to 
the  general  satisfaction  of  the  colony.  The  fact 
that  the  patroons  were  successful  in  establishing 
titles  to  enormous  tracts  of  land  became  objec- 
tionable to  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  who 
£  laced  the  responsibility  on  the  shoulders  of 
[inuit.  In  1631  he  was  accordingly  recalled  by 
the  company,  and  sailed  for  Holland  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  but  was  driven  into  Plymouth, 
Engkmd,  by  a  gale.  Here  he  was  charged  with 
having  prosecuted  illegal  trading  within  English 
dominions,  and  his  vessel  was  attached  on  com- 
plaint made  by  the  CV>uncil  for  New  Eng- 
land. In  May,  however,  his  vessel  was  re- 
leased. Minuit  made  every  effort  to  reestablish 
himself  in  the  favor  of  the  Dutch  West  India 
Company,  but  without  success,  and  finally  offered 
his  services  to  the  Government  of  Sweden. 
Through  the  influence  of  Oxenstiem,  then  Chan- 
cellor, a  Swedish  West  India  Company  was  or- 
ganized, and  Minuit  was  commissioned  to  estab- 
lish a  Swedish  colony  in  America.  He  accordingly 
gathered  together  a  sufficient  number  of  Swedes 
and  Finns  for  this  purpose,  sailed  from  the  port 
of  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  in  1637,  and,  early  in 
1638  built  Fort  Christiana,  near  where  the  city 
of  Wilmington,  Del.,  now  stands.  The  Swedish 
colonization  scheme  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the 
Dutch,  who  threw  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
its  success,  and  eventually  captured  the  colony 
and  annexed  it  to  their  possessions  in  1655.  For 
a  biographical  sketch  consult  Kapp,  "Peter  Min- 
newet  aus  Wesel,"  in  Historische  Zeitschrift,  voL 
XV.  ( 1866)  ;  and  Mickley,  "Some  Account  of  Wil- 
liam Usselinx  and  Peter  Minuit,"  in  the  Dela- 
ivare  Historical  Society  Papers,  No.  vi.  (Wil- 
mington, 1886). 

MINTJSINSKy  mft'n^-stosk^.  A  town  of 
Southern  Siberia,  in  the  Government  of  Yenise- 
isk, situated  on  the  Yenisei,  300  miles  south- 
east of  Tomsk.  It  has  a  high  school  for  girls, 
a  good  museum  and  library,  and  considerable 
trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  placer  gold.  The 
neighboring  country  is  rich  m  coal,  iron,  and 
salt  lakes.  Population,  in  1897,  10,255.  Minu- 
sinsk is  the  capital  of  a  district  bearing  the  same 
name,  with  an  area  of  43,388  square  miles,  and 
a  population  in  1897  of  182«649. 

MINUTE  (OF.,  Pr.  minute,  from  Lat.  minu- 
turn,  small  portion,  from  minuere,  to  make 
small).  A  term  applied  to  the  60th  part  of  an 
hour  and  to  the  60th  part  of  a  degree  of  a  circle. 
In  architecture  the  term  minute  is  applied  to  the 
60th  part  of  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  of  a  classic 
column,  measured  at  the  base;  it  is  used  as  a 
measure  to  determine  the  proportions  of  the 
order. 

MINUTE  MEN.  In  American  history,  those 
civilians,  in  Massachusetts  and  several  other  col- 
onies, who,  on  the  approach  of  the  Bevolutionaiy 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


JMLINTXTE  HEN. 


575 


MIR. 


War,  pledged  themselves  to  take  the  field  at  a 
minute's  notice.  In  Massachusetts  .  they  were 
enrolled  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  the  Provincial 
Congress  passed  November  23,  1774. 

MINT7T0LI,  mft-n^R/tA-lft,  Heinrich,  Baron 
Menu  von  (1772-1846).  A  Prussian  officer  and 
archaeologist.  He  was  bom  in  Greneva  of  an 
old  Italian  family,  early  entered  the  Prussian 
army  J  and  distinguished  himself  in  1793  in  the 
Rhenish  campaign  against  France,  being  severely 
wounded  at  Bitsch.  Frederick  William  III.  pro- 
moted him  to  be  major-general,  and  in  1820  made 
him  head  of  the  Prussian  archaeological  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt.  His  valuable  Egyptian  collection 
was  bought  for  the  Berlin  Museum.  Minutoli's  last 
years  were  spent  in  retirement  at  Lausanne.  He 
wrote:  Ueher  antike  OUismosaik  (with  Klaproth, 
1814) ;  the  important  Reise  zum  Tempel  dea  Jupi- 
ter Ammon  und  nach  Oheragypten  ( 1824-27 ) ; 
and  Ueher  die  Anfertigung  und  Nutzamoendung 
der  farbigen  Oldser  hei  den  Alien  (1837);  as 
well  as  a  biography  of  Frederick  William  III. 
(1838-44),  and  an  account  of  the  campaign  of 
1792  (1847). 

MINNAS  (Gk.  Mivhag,  Minyas) ,  A  legend- 
ary hero  connected  with  the  Boeotian  city  Orcho- 
menos.  He  is  called  son  of  Poseidon  in  the  ear- 
lier writers,  but  in  Pausanias  his  father  is 
ChryseSy  and  he  is  famed  for  his  riches,  and  as 
builder  of  the  first  great  treasury — really  the 
domed  tomb  of  Orchomenos.  His  fame  in  legend 
is  connected  with  the  fate  of  his  three  daughters, 
Leucippe  (or  LeuconoS),  Arsippe  (or  ArsinoS), 
and  Alcatho§,  who,  refusing  to  take  part  with 
the  Msenads  in  the  orgies  of  Dionysus,  were  visit- 
ed by  the  god  with  Bacchic  madness,  in  which 
they  tore  to  pieces  the  young  son  of  Leucippe. 
Their  story  was  acted  at  the  festival  of  the 
Agrionia,  where  the  priest  of  Dionysus,  with  a 
drawn  sword,  pursued  women  of  the  family  of 
the  Minyadse.  The  Argonauts  from  lolcos  in 
Thessaly  were  also  called  MinycB,  but  the  origi- 
nal connection  with  Minyas  is  very  doubtful,  and 
the  statements  of  the  ancients  are  obviously  mere 
attempts  to  explain  the  identity  of  name. 

MIOCENB  EPOCH  (from  Gk.  fuUav,  meidn, 
less  -f-  /ca(p6r,  kainoa,  new).  A  division  of  geo- 
logic time  following  the  Oligocene  and  preceding 
the  Pliocene  epochs  of  the  Tertiary  period.  The 
Miocene  is  represented  in  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States  by  a  series  of  unconsolidated  sands  and 
gravels  (rarely  conglomerates  and  limestones), 
which  attain  a  thickness  of  from  400  to  1500 
feet.  In  the  interior  region  it  includes  the  Loup 
Fork  formation  of  fresh-water  strata,  occurring 
in  Montana,  South  Dakota,  and  the  States  south- 
ward to  Mexico,  and  the  John  Day  beds  of  east- 
em  Oregon,  which  are  largely  composed  of  vol- 
canic tuflfs  and  ashes.  In  Europe  the  Miocene 
strata  are  extensively  developed.  Great  geo- 
graphical changes  were  accomplished  during  this 
epoch,  one  of  the  most  important  being  the  up- 
heaval of  Central  America,  by  which  the  conti- 
nents of  North  and  South  America  were  joined. 
See  Tertiaby  System. 

MIOGA.     A  kind  of  ginger   (q.v.). 

MI'OHIP^TXS  (from  Eng.  mio-cene  +  Gk. 
fenrof,  hippos,  horse).  A  name  sometimes  used 
to  designate  the  Upper  Miocene  stage  of  evo- 
lution of  the  horse,  represented  by  the  genus 
Anchitherium. 


MIOULN,  my6'l&N^  Fiux.  A  name  some- 
times used  by  the  French  singer  Marie  Caroline 
F^lix  Carvalho  (q.v.). 

MlOmifET,  my6'n&^  Theodore  Edke  (1770- 
1842).  A  French  numismatist,  born  in  Paris, 
where  he  studied  in  the  Coll^  du  Cardinal  le 
Moine,  and  in  the  Ecole  de  Droit.  After  four 
years  of  legal  practice  and  a  short  term  in  the 
army,  from  which  he  retired  because  of  illness, 
he  became  assistant  in  1800  in  the  numismatic 
cabinet  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale,  and  there 
began  to  catalogue  the  collections.  He  traveled 
in  Italy,  made  many  valuable  numismatic  finds, 
and  in  1830  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions. His  great  works,  which  still  have  a 
distmct  scientific  value,  are  Description  des 
m4dailles  antiques,  grecques  et  romaines  (1806- 
30,  in  17  vols.)  and  De  la  raret4  et  du  priw  des 
m^dailles  romaines  (1815;  3d  ed.  1847).  Consult 
Walckenaer,  Notice  historique  sur  la  vie  et  lea 
ouvrages  de  M,  Mionnet  (Paris,  1846). 

MIQUEL,  m^kel^  Johai^nes  yon  (1829- 
1901 ) .  A  German  statesman,  bom  in  Neuenhaus, 
Hanover,  of  a  family  of  French  emigres,  and  edu- 
cated for  the  bar  at  Heidelberg  and  G5ttingen. 
In  his  student  days  he  was  a  rabid  revolutionist 
and  something  of  a  Socialist,  but  when  the  period 
of  reaction  set  in  he  soon  forsook  his  earlier 
sentiments.  His  practice  in  Gottingen  was  very 
successful,  and  in  1864  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Hanoverian  Diet,  and  in  1865  Burgomaster 
of  Csnabrfick.  Removing  to  Berlin  in  1870,  he 
was  a  director  of  the  Diskontogesellschaft  until 
1873,  and  then  president  of  {is  advisory  board 
until  1876.  Then  he  was  again  made  Chief  Burgo- 
master of  Csnabrfick,  and  in  1880  of  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main.  But  his  greater  field  of  usefulness 
was  in  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies  and  in 
the  Imperial  Diet.  There,  as  in  the  Prussian 
House  of  Lords,  of  which  he  was  ex-officio  a  mem- 
ber as  Burg[omaster  of  Frankfort,  he  was  a  leader 
of  the  National  Liberal  Party  and  one  of  Bis- 
marck's most  able  and  forceful  lieutenants.  In 
1890  he  became  Prussian  Minister  of  Finance, 
and  was  hailed  as  the  *Emperor*s  man,*  no  doubt 
to  reassure  the  country  in  face  of  its  fear  that 
the  new  Imperial  policy  was  to  be  merely  reac- 
tionary. In  this  office,  which  Miquel  held  up  to  a 
few  months  before  his  death,  he  showed  himself 
an  able  financier,  and  a  bold  reformer  in  his 
attempt  to  liberate  the  Imperial  Treasury  from 
depending  on  the  contributions  of  the  various 
States.  As  a  politician  he  was  an  opportunist 
driven  to  intrigue  with  any  party  and,  above  all, 
to  any  sacrifice  of  conviction  to  the  policy  of  the 
Kaiser,  in  the  hope  that  he  might  be  made  Chan- 
cellor. But  if  he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  pro- 
gramme of  Imperial  finance,  in  his  more  proper 
sphere  of  Prussian  finance,  by  playing  somewhat 
into  the  hands  of  the  Agrarian  Party,  he  secured 
the  adoption  of  a  new  tax  system,  which  greatly 
benefited  the  working  classes  and  at  the  same 
time  tremendously  increased  the  revenue.  On  his 
Prussian  policy,  consult:  Zedlitz  und  Neukirch, 
"Miquel  als  Finanz-  und  Staatsminister,"  in 
Preussische  Jahrhiichcr  (1901). 

DOQTTELON,  m^'k'-K^N^  An  island  near 
Newfoundland.  See  Saiitt  Pierre  and  Miquelon. 

Mnt,  mSr  (Russ.,  (X^hurch  Slav.  mirHj  union, 
peace,  world,  Lith.  mers.  Alb.  mtr,  peace).  The 
name  of  the  civil  communities  qf  the  Russian 
peasants.     All  land  is  held  in  common  and   is 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


ms. 


676 


ICmABEATX. 


divided,  usually  according  to  the  number  of 
males  at  the  last  census,  being  redistributed 
whenever  necessary.  £ach  family  receives 
meadow,  forest,  and  arable  land,  the  meadow 
being  sometimes  kept  in  common  and  only  the 
grass  divided.  The  mir,  or  village  commune,  as 
a  body  is  assessed  for  taxes  by  the  Central  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  burden  of  taxation  is  distributed 
among  the  heads  of  families,  according  to  the 
amount  of  land  occupied  by  each.  Each  mir  is 
self-governing  with  elected  officers,  and  adjoining 
mirs  may  be  grouped  in  volasts  or  small  cantons. 
The  system  is  very  old,  but  is  gradually  chang- 
ing, as  a  mir  may  now  go  over  to  private  owner- 
ship of  land  and  inheritance  of  property  on  vote 
of  two-thirds  of  its  members.  Consult:  Wallace, 
Russia  (London,  1877)  ;  Keussler,  Zur  Oeschtch- 
ie  und  Kritik  des  hduerlichen  Qemeindehesitzes 
in  Ruasland  (Saint  Petersburg,  1876-87). 

MIBABEATT,  m^'ik'hy,  Gabriel  Honor6 
RiQUETi,  Count  de  (1749-91).  A  French  writer, 
orator,  and  statesman.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  Victor  Riqueti,  Marquis  de  Mirabeau,  a  cele- 
brated economist,  and  was  bom  at  Bignon,  near 
Nemours,  March  9,  1749.  After  several  years 
imder  a  tutor,  the  young  Mirabeau  was  placed 
(1767)  in  a  fashionable  military  school  in 
Paris,  where  he  became  proficient  in  languages 
and  in  the  accomplishments  of  good  society.  In 
1767  he  joined  the  Berry  cavalry  regiment  and 
the  next  year  he  received  a  second  lieutenant's 
commission,  but  his  freaks  of  conduct  and  his  love 
affairs,  one  of  which  brought  him  into  rivalry 
with  his  colonel,  caused  his  imprisonment  in 
the  citadel  of  the  island  of  R^,  from  which 
he  was  released,  at  his  father's  instigation, 
in  March,  1769.  The  condition  of  his  release 
was  that  he  should  join  the  expedition  to  Corsica, 
and  as  a  member  of  the  Legion  of  Lorraine  he 
served  with  credit  in  the  subjugation  of  that 
island.  In  1771  he  was  commissioned  captain 
of  dragoons,  and  in  1772  he  was  married  at  Aix 
to  Marie  Emilie  de  Covet,  only  daughter  of  the 
Marquis  de  Marignane.  Of  this  union  one  son, 
Victor,  was  bom  in  1773,  but  he  died  in  1778. 
Debts,  quarrels  with  his  father  and  wife,  and  an 
altercation  with  the  Marquis  de  Villeneuve- 
Monans,  led  to  his  iniprisonment  by  lettre  de 
cachet  in  the  Castle  of  If  in  1774,  whence  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Castle  of  Joux,  near  Pontarlier, 
the  next  year.  Being  at  freedom  to  visit  Pontar- 
lier, he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Mar- 
quis de  Monnier,  an  old  man  of  seventy,  and  his 
twenty-two-year-old  wife,  Marie  Th^r^se  Richard 
de  Ruffey.  Forgetful  of  his  obligations  to  the 
Marquis,* Mirabeau  fell  violently  in  love  with  the 
young  Marquise;  trouble  ensued,  and  Mirabeau 
finally  escaped  to  Switzerland,  where  he  was 
joined  by  Sophie,  as  he  called  his  mistress,  and 
in  October,  1776,  they  settled  in  Amsterdam, 
where  Mirabeau  gained  a  livelihood  as  a  hack 
writer.  In  the  meantime,  the  French  courts 
passed  sentence  upon  the  runaway  lovers,  who 
were  arrested  in  May,  1777,  and  brought  to  Paris, 
where  Sophie  was  kept  under  close  surv^eillance, 
while  Mirabeau  was  imprisoned  at  Vincennes. 
For  three  years  and  a  half  he  was  kept  in  close 
confinement,  but  through  his  guard,  a  brother 
Freemason,  he  was  able  to  carry  on  his  famous 
correspondence  with  Sophie.  These  letters  mark 
the  culmination  of  Mirabeau*s  wild  and  vicious 
career.    As  a  prisoner  he  devoted  himself  to  the 


translation  of  numerous  classics,  and  to  the  pro- 
duction of  various  original  works,  some  of  which 
were  later  published.  After  his  release  in  Decem- 
ber, 1780,  he  forsook  Sophie,  who,  after  another 
love  affair,  committed  suicide  in  1789.  Then 
he  returned  to  Pontarlier,  secured  the  revocation 
of  the  death  sentence,  which  had  been  passed  on 
him  for  the  seduction  of  Sophie,  and  later  went 
to  Aix,  where,  after  a  trial  in  which  he  ably 
conducted  his  own  suit,  he  was  legally  separated 
from  his  wife  in  1783. 

Because  of  his  suits  at  Pontarlier,  he  found 
it  advisable  to  leave  France  for  a  few  months, 
which  he  spent  at  NeuchAtel,  where  he  met  the 
Genevese  Liberals  Clavi^re  and  Duroveray,  and 
where  he  published  his  Des  lettres  de  cachet  et 
des  prisons  d'etat,  the  best  known  of  his  earlier 
writings.  From  September,  1783,  to  August, 
1784,  he  was  in  Paris,  where  be  seems  to  have 
begun  his  life-long  intimacy  with  Henriette  van 
Haren,  a  young  woman  of  nineteen,  known  as 
Madame  de  Nehra,  whose  influence  over  Mira- 
beau was  exerted  entirely  for  his  good.  In  August, 
1784,  he  withdrew  to  London  to  allow  another 
storm  to  blow  over.  In  England  he  met  his  old 
schoolfellow,  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot  (later  first  Earl 
of  Minto),  Mr.  (later  Sir)  Samuel  Romilly,  Lord 
Lansdowne,  and  other  well-known  men.  He 
there  wrote  the  Consid^ations  sur  Vordre  de 
Cinoinnatus,  which  caused  a  sensation  in  the 
United  States.  After  nine  months  in  Eng- 
land, the  intercessions  of  Madame  de  Nehra 
enabled  him  to  return  to  Paris,  where  he  en- 
tered into  intimate  relations  with  the. Genevese 
exiles  and  other  Liberals,  like  Brissot,  and 
wrote  numerous  pamphlets  on  financial  ques- 
tions, published  during  1785.  These  were  followed 
(1787-1789)  by  his  attacks  on  stock-jobbing  and 
his  criticisms  on  Necker's  administration  of  the 
finances.  In  the  meantime,  he  had  twice  visited 
Prussia,  once  on  a  secret  mission  for  the  Govern- 
ment. On  his  first  visit  (December,  1785,  to 
May,  1786)  he  was  received  by  Frederick  the 
Great,  whose  death  occurred  during  his  second 
visit  at  Berlin  (July,  1786,  to  January,  1787). 
In  1787  he  failed  in  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
position  of  Secretary  to  the  Assembly  of  Nota- 
bles, and  his  attacks  on  Necker  drove  him  to 
take  refuge  in  Prussia.  Returning  from  this 
third  visit  to  Berlin,  he  published  in  1788  his 
most  famous  work,  De  la  monarchie  prussienne 
sous  Fr^diric  le  Grand  ( 8  vols,  and  atlas,  London, 
1788).  In  October,  1788,  Mirabeau  once  more 
was  reconciled  with  his  father,  and  in  January, 
1789,  he  arrived  at  Aix  to  participate  in  the  elec- 
tions to  the  States-General.  In  April,  having 
been  ejected  by  his  own  order,  the  nobility,  he 
was  elected  by  the  Third  Estate  both  of  Aix  and 
of  Marseilles  to  the  States-General,  and  he  chose 
to  represent  the  former  city.  He  was  in  Paris  in 
time  to  publish  on  May  2, 1789,  the  first  number  of 
his  newspa|>er,  which,  after  some  changes  of  title, 
finally  took  the  name  of  Courrier  de  Provence, 
and  a  few  days  later  to  be  present  at  the  opening 
of  the  States-General  at  Versailles.  He  never  had 
a  following  upon  whom  he  could  depend  in  the 
States-General,  where  his  success  was  always  a 
result  of  his  ability  to  take  advantage  of  tem- 
porary enthusiasm  or  excitement — an  ability 
which  gave  him  a  reputation  for  boldness,  for 
knowing  his  own  mind,  for  oratorical  powers, 
and  for  many  of  the  arts  of  the  demagogue. 
The  true  greatness  of  Mirabeau  was  not  revealed 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HIBABEATX. 


577 


MIBABEATX. 


until  the  publication  of  his  works,  and  especially 
his  correspondence  with  La  Marck,  many  years 
after  his  death.  From  the  first  Mirabeau  saw 
that  the  royal  and  ministerial  scheme  of  financial 
reform  would  be  insufficient  to  cure  the  existing 
evils,  but  he  likewise  saw  that  reforms  could  be 
successfully  carried  out  only  by  a  strong  €rOV- 
emment.  From  the  opening  of  the  States-Gene- 
ral until  his  death  two  years  later,  Mirabeau  was 
undeniably  the  most  important  figure  in  public 
life  in  France,  and  the  story  of  his  life  is  that  of 
the  Revolution.  He  took  part  in  the  debates  con- 
cerning the  status  of  the  members  of  the  Third 
£state,  and  his  bold  attitude  as  their  spokesman 
at  the  royal  session  of  June  23d  marked  him 
as  the  champion  of  the  Third  Estate  in  the 
struggle  which  ended  in  the  reorganization  of  the 
States-General  as  the  National  Assembly.  He 
protested  vigorously  against  the  attempt  to  over- 
awe the  Assembly  by  the  mobilization  of  troops 
around  Paris,  but  his  father's  death  on  July  13th 
prevented  his  participation  in  the  stirring  events 
of  the  following  day  when  the  Bastille  was 
stormed  and  destroyed  by  the  populace  of  Paris. 
The  protracted  debates  on  the  rights  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  the  reckless  haste  in  the  destruction 
of  the  old  order  by  the  Assembly  on  August  4th, 
called  forth  his  protests.  Still  he  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  the  proposed  Declaration  of  the  Rights 
of  Man,  and  tcK)k  an  active  part  in  framing  it. 
Mirabeau,  however,  saw  that  neither  theoretical 
nor  destructive,  but  constructive  statesmanship 
was  the  need  of  the  hour.  One  by  one  he  brought 
forward  his  favorite  constitutional  measures  and 
defended  them  with  all  his  powers  of  logic,  elo- 
quence, and  persuasion,  only  to  see  them  voted 
down.  After  the  failure  of  his  proposition  to 
choose  the  royal  Ministers  from  the  members 
of  the  National  Assembly,  on  November  7,  1789, 
Mirabeau  strove  earnestly  to  put  his  great  abili- 
ties at  the  service  of  the  King,  whom  he  had 
attempted  to  advise  as  early  as  October  15th. 
He  tried  to  work  with  Lafayette  and  Necker,  but 
everywhere  he  was  viewed  with  suspicion,  his 
advice  was  never  followed,  and  his  assistance  was 
rejected  entirely  or  accepted  with  ill  grace.  Fi- 
nally in  May,  1790,  he  abandoned  his  attempts 
to  cooperate  with  Necker  and  Lafayette,  and, 
through  La  Marck,  entered  into  regular  relations 
with  the  King  and  Queen,  for  whom  he  wrote  his 
famous  series  of  notes  of  advice.  This  change 
was  marked  in  the  Assembly  by  his  speech  in 
favor  of  the  royal  prerogative,  especially  in  ques- 
tions of  peace  and  war,  which  directed  suspicion 
toward  him,  and  caused  a  temporary  outburst  of 
popular  indignation  against  him.  He  was  large- 
ly responsible  for  Necker*s  resignation  in  Septem- 
ber, 1790,  and  for  the  appointment  of  Clavifere 
in  his  place.  In  July  he  had  been-  placed  on  the 
Diplomatic  Committee  of  the  Assembly,  and,  in 
co<>p€ration  with  his  old  friend  Montmorin,  the 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  had  dealt  with  the 
perplexing  questions  of  foreign  relations,  such 
as  the  annexation  of  Avignon  and  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Family  Compact  with  Spain.  He 
insisted  that  no  other  country  should  interfere 
in  the  internal  affairs  of  France;  that  other  coun- 
tries must  keep  their  agreements  with  France; 
and  that  France  must  respect  her  agreements 
with  other  countries.  On  November  30.  1790,  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Society  of  the 
Friends  of  the  Constitution,  popularly  known  as 
%he  Jacobin  Club,  and  on  January  29,  1791,  he 


received  the  coveted  honor  of  election  as  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Assembly.  His  last  note  to 
the  Court,  through  La  Marck,  was  sent  on  Feb- 
ruary 3d.  His  last  appearance  in  the  Assembly 
was  on  March  27th.  On  April  2,  1791,  he  died 
in  the  Rue  de  la  Chauss^  d'Antin  in  Paris.  He 
was  buried  in  the  Church  of  Sainte-Genevifeve 
(the  Pantheon),  but  three  years  later  his  remains 
were  removed  to  make  room  for  those  of  Marat. 

The  greatness  of  Mirabeau  has  been  generally 
recognized,  but  in  estimating  the  details  of  his 
life  and  policy  there  has  been  the  widest  di- 
vergence of  opinion.  French  republicans  have 
condemned  him  unsparingly  for  his  monarchical 
sympathies,  but  most  of  all  because  in  return  for 
his  services  the  Court  paid  his  debts  and  supplied 
him  with  funds.  In  his  defense  it  must  be  said 
that  Mirabeau  regarded  himself  as  de  facto  prime 
minister,  charged  with  the  duty  of  saving  France, 
a  task  to  which  he  felt  he  alone  was  equal.  The 
keynote  of  his  advice  to  the  Court  was  that  the 
ELing  should  transfer  the  Court  and  the  Assembly 
from  Paris  to  Fontainebleau,  or  Compifegne,  or 
some  other  small  town  of  Central  France,  where 
the  influence  of  the  mob  of  Paris  would  cease  to 
control  the  Assembly,  and  the  King  and  the  As- 
sembly would  be  free  to  give  France  a  strong 
monarchical  constitution.  Mirabeau  had  great 
power  over  men,  and  made  those  who  came  tuider 
his  fascination  willing  to  merge  their  personali- 
ties in  his  and  allow  him  to  take  all  the  credit 
for  their  labors.  The  Souvenirs  of  Etienne  Du- 
mont,  one  of  his  collaborators^  first  showed  fully 
Mirabeau's  methods  of  work,  and  the  way  in 
which  he  made  regular  use  of  the  services  of 
Dumont,  Reybaz,  Pellenc,  and  even  better  known 
persons  like  Clavifere  and  the  Abb6  Lamourette. 
In  Mirabeau  everything  was  on  a  colossal  scale ; 
in  personal  appearance  and  moral  character  he 
was  almost  a  monster ;  in  intellect  and  powers  of 
endurance  he  was  a  titan.  In  his  personality  all 
that  was  noblest  and  best  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion seemed  combined  with  the  greatest  of  its 
characteristic  evils.  The  philosophers  of  history 
have  mourned  Mirabeau's  death,  because  they  be- 
lieved that  had  he  lived  he  would  have  saved 
France  from  the  excesses  of  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
It  would  be  safe  to  say  that  he  was  the  only  one 
who  might  have  rendered  France  that  service,  but 
it  is  to  be  doubted  whether  even  the  man  whose 
character  can  best  be  summed  up  in  the  word 
excess  could  have  saved  his  nation  from  the  evil 
of  excess.  Alike  terrible  in  their  greatness, 
Mirabeau  and  Napoleon  were  the  greatest  men 
of  the  French  Revolution. 

BiBUOGBAPHY.  Mirabeau,  (Euvres  (9  vols., 
Paris,  1825-27),  is  the  most  complete  collection 
of  his  writings,  but  lacks  the  Monarchie  prus- 
sienne.  M&moires  de  Mirabeau  Merits  par  lui- 
m&me,  par  son  p^re,  son  oncle,  et  son  fils  adoptif 
(9  vols.,  Paris,  1834-35),  is  still  the  most  im- 
portant authority,  in  spite  of  many  defects. 
Consult  Willert,  Mirabeau  (London,  1898)  ; 
Morse  Stephens,  The  French  Revolution;  Carlyle, 
The  French  Revolution;  and  Von  Hoist,  The 
French  Revolution  Tested  by  MirabeaWs  Career 
(Chicago,  1894);  Warwick,  Mirabeau  and  the 
French  Revolution  (Philadelphia,  1905).  For 
Mirabeau's  relations  with  the  Court,  consult  Cor- 
respondance  entre  le  Comte  de  Mirabeau  et  le 
Comte  de  La  Marck  pendant  les  ann6es  1789, 
1190  et  1191  (Paris,  1851 ).  For  Mirabeau  as  an 
orator,    see    Aulard,    L*6loquence   parlementaire 


Digitized  by 


Laoogle 


MTRABEATT. 


678 


MIBACLB8. 


pendant  la  Revolution  fran^aise  (ib.,  1882) ;  for 
his  methods  of  work,  Dumont,  Souvenirs ;  and  Rey- 
baz,  Un  collahorateur  de  Miraheau  (ib.,  ?874) ; 
for  his  election  to  the  States-GJeneral,  Guibal, 
Miraheau  et  la  Provence  (ib.,  1887-91) ;  for  his 
career  in  the  Assembly,  Reynald,  Miraheau  et  la 
Conatituante  (ib.,  1872).  The  best  lives  are 
Stern,  Das  Lehen  Miraheaua  (Berlin,  1889); 
M4zi§res,  Vie  de  Miraheau;  and  Lom4nie,  Les 
Miraheaua  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1889-91). 

MIBACLE  PI^AY  (OF.,  Fr.  miracle,  from 
Lat.  miraculumf  miracle,  from  mirari,  to  wonder, 
from  mirus,  wonderful;  connected  with  Gk.  /mi^ 
datw,  meidan,  Skt.  ami,  to  smile).  Strictly,  the 
second  stage  in  the  development  of  the  modem 
drama  under  religious  auspices,  though  it  is 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  first,  for  which, 
and  for  a  general  account  of  this  development, 
see  Mystebt.  The  distinction  between  the  two, 
where  it  is  made,  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
whereas  the  mysteries  proper  took  their  subjects 
from  the  Scripture  narrative,  centring  about  the 
life  of  Christ,  the  miracle  plays  were  taken 
rather  from  the  lives  of  the  saints.  The  signifi- 
cant features  of  this  change  were  that  by  getting 
away  from  the  sacred  text  of  the  Scriptures 
greater  latitude  was  gained,  and  a  greater  range 
of  characters;  a  nearer  approach  to  a  repre- 
sentation of  contemporary  life  was  thus  also 
permitted,  and  a  freer  introduction  of  the  comedy 
element  than  reverence  would  allow  in  the  earlier 
form.  Matthew  Paris  mentions  a  miracle  play, 
Ludus  de  Sanota  Katharina,  that  was  performed 
at  Dunstable  about  1110,  under  the  direction 
of  a  certain  Geoffrey,  afterwards  Abbot  of  Saint 
Albans.  Again,  William  Fitz-Stephen,  in  his 
Life  of  Thomas  Becket  (about  1182),  writes 
approvingly  of  London  plays  on  the  miracles 
and  sufferings  of  martyrs  and  confessors.  Other 
miracle  plays,  based  on  the  lives  of  Saint  Fabian, 
Saint  Sebastian,  Saint  Botolph,  Saint  George, 
and  Saint  Crispin,  were  performed  in  the  four- 
teenth, fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Very 
few  texts  of  English  miracle  plays  have  been 
preserved;  but  from  numerous  Continental  speci- 
mens, it  may  be  inferred  that  they  were  in  aim 
and  structure  similar  to  the  mysteries.  For 
bibliography,  see  Mystery. 

KIBACLES.  The  view  to  be  taken  of  these 
extraordinary  events  is  very  largely  a  question 
of  what  definition  of  them  is  presupposed.  A 
miracle  w^as  for  a  long  time  held  to  be  "a  viola- 
tion or  suspension  of,  or  an  interference  with,  the 
laws  of  nature.'*  A  later  typical  definition 
makes  it  "an  extraordinary  operation  cognizable 
by  the  senses,  which  has  its  course  not  in  the 
order  of  nature,  as  known  to  us,  but  in  God." 
Another,  not  antagonistic  to  this,  but  perhaps 
more  in  accordance  with  the  most  recent  scien- 
tific and  relif^ious  thought,  understands  a  mira- 
cle as  "a  revelation  of  a  higher  life,  the  prophecy 
of  a  new  stage  in  the  development  of  creation." 

The  old  definition  upon  which  Hume  trained 
his  intellectual  artillery  has  disappeared  with 
the  eighteenth  century  Deism  which  gave  it 
birth.  Hume's  argument  and  the  replies  of  the 
Christian  apolo^'sts  of  his  day  are  no  longer 
factors  in  the  discussion  of  the  miraculous.  The 
theory  of  special  creations  has  been  supplanted 
by  that  of  organic  growth.  The  divine  being 
is  recognized  as  immanent  as  well  as  transcend- 
ent. He  is  neither  banished  from  the  world 
nor  buried  in  it.     As  a  result,  God  and  man 


are  closer  together.  The  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween the  natural  and  the  supernatural  is  finer. 
Some  writers  even  insist  that  the  common  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  is  unreal  and  mislead- 
ing. We  are  told  that  there  are  not  and  cannot 
be  any  divine  interpositions  in  nature,  for  God 
cannot  interfere  with  Himself.  His  creative 
activity   is   everywhere   present. 

Man,  though  made  in  the  image  of  God,  is  not 
the  measure  of  God.  If  he  were,  nothing  would 
be  more  supernatural  to  him  than  the  visible 
and  known  course  of  thin^  is  now.  To  men 
thinking  along  these  lines  miracles  are  no  longer 
interferences  with  or  violations  of  the  fixed  laws 
of  nature.  They  are  but  the  manifestations  of 
a  Higher  Life — the  expression  among  the  lower 
sequences  of  life  of  that  which  a  larger  vision 
may  one  day  make  our  own.  Man  himself^ 
by  the  exercise  of  his  personality,  works  wonders 
among  the  laws  or  forces  of  the  natural  world 
which  are  brought  under  his  control.  Men  of 
scientific  training  effect  changes  in  physical 
things  which  are  miracles  to  other  men.  Grown- 
up people  perform  miracles  in  the  sight  of  chil- 
dren. A  distinction,  moreover,  has  been  made 
between  'known'  and  'unknown'  laws.  The  old 
laws  formerly  designated  as  *the  laws  of  nature' 
are  not  violated  or  suspended.  All  natural  proc- 
esses go  on,  but  they  are  counteracted  or  inter- 
acted by  a  new  kind  of  nature  working  by  a  new 
law  with  a  new  power.  The  *fixity  of  law'  in 
the  physical  world  is  no  longer  an  indispensable 
factor  in  biological  phraseology.  It  is  contended 
that  modem  science,  in  enlarging  its  horizon,  has 
discovered  and  labeled  some  of  the  principles 
by  which  an  immanent  Grod  effects  His  beneficent 
purposes,  but  that  beyond  and  above  these  are 
other,  and  to  man,  as  yet,  'unknown'  and  higher 
laws. 

Further:  the  great  First  Cause  who,  Christian- 
ity assumes,  is  behind  all  the  evolutionary  proc- 
esses of  nature  has  another  kingdom.  He  is  the 
author  and  controller  of  the  moral  as  well  as  the 
natural  order  of  the  universe.  Embodied  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  immanence  is  the  unity 
of  a  divine  purpose  throughout  the  moral  and 
the  physical  world.  The  natural  and  the  moral 
are  not  two  opposing  spheres  of  which  the  one 
dominates  the  other,  but  the  one  conjoint  reve- 
lation of  the  moral  nature  of  God,  the  lower 
of  which  prepares  for  and  leads  on  to  the  higher. 
Or,  in  other  words,  the  moral  and  the  material 
world  are  obviously  and  incontestably  part  and 
parcel  of  one  and  the  same  system.  Hence, 
our  definition  may  be  enlarged  to  make  a  mir- 
acle not  only  the  prophecy  of  a  new  state  in 
the  development  of  creation,  but  "an  event 
in  physical  nature  which  makes  unmistakably 
plain  the  presence  and  direct  action  of  God 
working  for  a  moral  end."  This  view  eliminates 
the  Kantian  dualism,  and  makes  the  Bible 
miracles  not  detached  and  meaningless  portents, 
but  part  of  a  preparatory  dispensation  in  the 
divine  evolution.  Displays  of  miraculous  power 
are  but  the  manifestations  to  man  in  his  imper- 
fection of  that  for  which  he  hungers,  and  toward 
which  he  struggles — the  perfection  of  the  moral 
king  of  the  universe. 

To  the  imbiased  thinker  along  these  lines 
the  rationale  of  miraeles  is  at  once  apparent, 
and  their  possibility  or  even  probability  pre- 
sents no  serious  difficulty.  But  the  credibility  of 
the   so-called   miraculous   events  can   be   estab- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIBACLBa 


579 


MIBACLEa. 


lished  only  by  satisfactory  evidence.  Faith  is 
not  credulity,  and  it  presents  a  reasonable  de- 
mand for  proofs.  The  Apostles  clearly  had  no 
prejudice  in  favor  of  the  resurrection  and  ascen- 
sion of  their  master.  They  had  everything  to 
lose  and  nothing  to  gain,  from  a  worldly  point 
of  view,  by  sticking  to  their  stories.  So  the 
Gospel  evidence  cannot  be  simply  ignored.  New 
Testament  criticism,  moreover,  seems  unable  to 
find  any  theory  by  which  the  miraculous  can  be 
entirely  eliminated,  and  the  historicity  of  the 
Gospels  still  preserved. 

Passing  from  the  Gospels  to  the  Epistles,  the 
great  authority  in  support  of  the  resurrection 
is  held  to  be  Saint  Paul,  espedallv  I.  Cor.  xv., 
the  ^nuineness  of  which  is  unchallenged  by  im- 
partial criticism.  His  citation  of  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  risen  Christ  to  "above  five  hundred 
brethren  at  once,  of  whom  the  greater  part  re- 
main imto  this  dav,"  remains  a  strong  argu- 
ment. Owing  to  the  proximity  of  Cormth  to 
the  Syrian  coast,  it  could  easily  have  been  chal- 
lenged, but  it  does  not  appear  that  it  was.  It 
would  follow,  then,  that  within  twenty- five 
years  after  the  Crucifixion  there  were  living  over 
two  hundred  and  fifty  persons  who  had  seen 
Christ  alive  after  His  death  at  one  time  and 
place. 

The  evidence  for  apostolic  miracles,  as  con- 
tained especially  in  a  number  of  passages  of 
the  Epistles  to  the  Romans,  Cralatians,  and 
Corinthians,  is  of  a  kind  which,  for  the  special 
purpose  for  which  it  was  written,  is  particularly 
valuable.  This  evidence,  which  gains  force  from 
being  incidental  and  not  didactic,  shows  (in 
Sanday's  words)  that  the  Apostle  "was  conscious 
of  the  power  of  working  miracles,  and  that  he 
had  actually  wrought  them;  and  it  shows  that 
he  assumed  the  existence  of  the  same  power 
in  others  besides  himself,  and  that  he  could 
appeal  to  it  without  fear  of  being  challenged." 

The  evidential  value  of  miracles  does  not  hold 
so  prominent  a  place  in  Christian  apologetics  as 
it  once  did.  The  tendency  to-day  is  to  put  Jesus 
Christ  and  His  claims  to  recognition  as  a  Teacher 
and  Saviour  in  the  forefront  of  the  Christian 
position.  He  was  His  own  greatest  miracle, 
an  evidence  of  Christianity  the  force  of  which 
can  be  estimated  without  special  critical  train- 
ing. His  miracles  were  according  to  the  law 
of  His  being  'in  rational  sequence'  with  the 
character   of  His  person   and  mission.     Works 

gpya)  and  powers  (9vviiims)  were  natural  to 
im.  as  "the  unique  manifestations  of  His  unique 
personality."  Hence,  we  are  told  that  the  unique 
revelation  of  God  made  in  the  person  of  Jesus 
Christ  must  be  its  own  evidence.  The  appeal  is 
made  to  men  to  believe  in  the  Christ  primarily 
on  moral  and  spiritual  grounds.  His  miracles 
are  not  credentials:  they  are  manifestations  of 
and  inseparable  from  Himself.  Belief  in  His 
person  and  character  will  ultimately  lead  to  a 
belief  in  His  miracle-working.  The  fact  that 
miracles  are  of  the  very  substance  of  the  Gos- 
pels is  but  the  refiection  of  the  deeper  fact  that 
they  are  of  the  very  essence  of  Christ's  manifes- 
tation of  Himself. 

The  apostolic  miracles  may  be  viewed  from 
the  same  standpoint,  as  the  flashing  forth  after 
Pentecost  of  the  more  glorious  divine  life  when  an 
opening  was  made  for  it.  They  were  coupled 
with  and  the  power  to  work  them  was  trans- 
mitted by  the  "laying  on  of  hands,"  and  it  is 


widely  held  that  no  real  miracles  have  been  per- 
formed since  the  death  of  the  last  of  those  upon 
whom  the  Apostles  laid  their  hands.  To  take  this 
position,  however,  is  to  challenge  the  genuineness 
if  not  to  deny  the  possibility  of  what  are  known 
as  'ecclesiastical'  miracles.  Some  of  their  advo- 
cates admit  that  the  great  mass  of  them  were  a 
new  dispensation,  but  insist  that  no  strong  ante- 
cedent improbability  can  be  entertained  against 
such  a  dispensation,  because  the  Scripture  mir- 
acles had  already  borne  the  bnmt  of  nostile  at- 
tacks and  'broken  the  ice*  for  their  successors. 
It  may  fairly  be  said,  too,  that  the  claim  for  the 
cessation  of  miracles  in  subapostolic  days,  or» 
as  some  hold,  after  the  Church  was  established 
by  the  civil  power  under  Constantine,  and,  there- 
fore, did  not  need  supernatural  assistance,  is  but 
a  part  of  the  now  generally  exploded  idea  that 
miracles  were  given  for  evidential  purposes.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  noticeable  that  during  the 
second  and  third  centuries  Christian  writers  have 
comparatively  little  to  say  about  contemporary 
wonder-working,  except  in  three  forms,  viz.  cur- 
ing disease,  casting  out  demons,  and  prophesying. 
They  seem  to  recognize  that  the  extensive  powers 
resident  in  Christ  and  the  Apostles  have  ceased 
to  operate.  But  in  the  fourth  century,  and  on 
through  the  Middle  Ages,  constant  reference  is 
made  to  miracles  of  all  kinds  and  full  descrip- 
tions of  their  occurrence  are  given.  The  school- 
men bent  their  energies  to  setting  forth  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  with  regard  to  these  records 
of  the  supernatural,  and  reconciling  them  with 
what  was  then  believed  concerning  the  world  and 
God.  Thomas  Aquinas  taught  t^t  a  miracle  is 
something  altogether  outside  the  natural  order^ 
while  Albertus  Magnus  held  that  God  has  woven 
the  miraculous  into  the  order  of  nature,  as  one 
of  its  possibilities.  Ab^lard  freely  criticised  the 
accounts  of  alleged  miracles  in  the  age  in  which 
he  lived,  yet  he  believed  that  divine  power  might 
alter  even  the  nature  of  things,  whence  miracles 
were  possible.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
always  maintained  that  the  'spiritual  gift'  of 
working  miracles  (cf.  I.  Cor.  xii.  10)  has  not 
ceased,  but  resides  in  the  Church  forever.  It 
does  not,  however,  require  a  belief  in  the  truth  of 
any  particular  one  of  these  later  miracles,  leaving 
the  evidence  in  the  individual  case  to  be  the  cri- 
terion. Proof  of  the  power  to  work  miracles  is 
an  essential  prerequisitef  to  canonization. 

In  conclusion,  then,  all  real  miracles  may  be 
regarded  as  sacraments  of  divine  working — 'out- 
ward and  visible  signs'  of  the  inner  and  unbroken 
unity  of  the  natural  and  moral  kingdoms  of  the 
Supreme  Love.  In  this  sense  they  were  parts  of 
a  great  whole — normal  and  fitting  vehicles  of  a 
revelation.  They  were  in  themselves  "the  revela- 
tions of  a  higher  life,  the  prophecies  of  a  new 
stage  in  the  development  of  creation."  But  in 
them,  as  in  all  so-called  'miraculous'  manifesta- 
tions, the  moral  as  well  as  the  historical  circum- 
stances must  be  fully  grasped  and  clearly  pre- 
sented before  a  hearty  and  loyal  recognition  can 
be  secured. 

BiBLiooRAPHT.  For  older  discussions  of  the 
subject,  consult:  Butler,  Analogy  (London,  1736)  ; 
Hume,  Philosophical  Essays  Concerning  Human 
Understanding  (ib.,  1748)  ;  Paley,  Evidences  (ib., 
1794).  For  modem  treatment:  Newman,  Ttoo 
Lectures  on  Miracles,  (1)  Biblical,  (2)  Ecclesias- 
tical (ib..  1843)  ;  Duke  of  Argyll,  Reign  of  Law 
(ib.,  1866) ;  Arnold,  Literature  and  Dogma  (ib.. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIBACLES. 


580 


KIBAUbN. 


1873)  ;  Trench,  Notes  on  the  Miracles  of  Our 
Lord  (ib.,  1846)  ;  Mozley,  On  Miracles,  Bampton 
Lectures  (ib.,  1876) ;  Bushnell,  Nature  and  the 
Supernatural  (new  ed..  New  York,  1876)  ;  Drum- 
mond.  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World 
(ib.,  1883),  and  two  answers  to  Drum- 
mond — Gockburn,  The  Laws  of  Nature  and 
the  Laws  of  Qod  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Laing,  Mod- 
em Science  and  Modem  Thought  (ib.,  1885) ; 
Moore,  Science  and  the  Faith  (ib.,  1889)  ;  Liddon, 
Some  Elements  of  Religion^  Bampton  Lectures 
(ib.,  1872)  ;  Christlieb,  Modem  Doubt  and  Chris- 
tian Belief  (Edinburgh,  1874)  ;  Westcott,  The 
Oospel  of  Life  (London,  1893)  ;  Illingworth, 
Divine  Immanence  (ib.,  1898) ;  Bender,  Der 
Wunderhegriff  des  neuen  Testaments  (Frankfort, 
1871);  Lias,  Are  Miracles  Credible?  (London, 
1883)  ;  McCosh,  The  Supernatural  in  Relation  to 
the  Natural  (ib.,  1862);  Westcott,  Characteris- 
tics of  the  Oospel  Miracles  (Cambridge,  1859)  ; 
Stemmeyer,  The  Miracles  of  Our  Lord  in  Rela- 
tion to  Modem  Criticism  (Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1875)  ;  Fisher,  Grounds  of  Theistic  and 
Christian  Belief  (New  York,  1883)  ;  Bormiot, 
Wunder  und  Scheinumnder  (Regensburg,  1897)  ; 
Taylor,  The  Oospel  Miracles  in  Their  Relation  to 
Christ  and  Christianity  (New  York,  1880)  ;  Mfll- 
ler,  Natur  und  Wunder ,  ihr  Qegensatz  und  ihre 
Harmonic  (Freiburg,  1892)  ;  id..  Das  Wunder 
und  die  Qeschichtswissenschaft  ( ib.,  1898 )  ;  Hogan, 
Clerical  Studies  (Boston,  1898);  Temple,  The 
Relation  Between  Religion  and  Science,  Bampton 
Lectures  (London,  1884)  ;  Bruce,  The  Miraculous 
Element  in  the  Oospels  (ib.,  1887)  ;  Row,  Chris- 
tian Evidences  Viewed  in  Relation  to  Modem 
Thought  (ib.,  1877)  ;  Abbott,  The  Kernel  and  the 
Husk  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Huxley,  "The  Value  of  Wit- 
ness to  the  Miraculous,"  in  Christianity  and 
Agnosticism  (New  York,  1899)  ;  White,  History 
of  the  Warfare  of  Science  with  Theology  (ib., 
1896). 

MIBAFLOBES,  mS'rft-flO'rfts,  MAmjEL  de 
Pan  DO,  Marquis,  and  Count  of  Villapatema 
(1792-1872).  A  Spanish  statesman.  He  was 
bom  at  Madrid,  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Lon- 
don in  1834,  and  was  ambassador  at  Paris  in 
1838-40.  In  1846  he  was  Premier,  and  in  1863 
again  filled  the  same  office.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Vienna  in  1860,  and  was  several  times  presi- 
dent of  the  Senate.  He  wrote  a  number  of  works 
which  are  of  value  for  the  political  history  of 
Spain  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  most  im- 
portant is  a  History  of  the  First  Seven  Years  of 
the  Reign  of  Isabella  II.   (1843-44). 

KIBAOE,  ml-rHzh'  (Fr.,  from  mirer,  to  gaze) . 
A  phenomenon  extremely  common  in  certain  lo- 
calities, and  due  to  conditions  existing  in  the  at- 
mosphere. As  a  result  of  a  deviation  of  the  rays 
of  light  caused  by  refraction  and  reflection,  ob- 
jects seen  with  the  eye  appear  in  unusual  positions 
and  often  multiple  or  inverted.  One  cause  of  mir- 
age, such  as  occurs  in  a  desert,  is  a  diminution  of 
the  density  of  the  air  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
often  produced  by  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
earth,  the  denser  stratum  being  thus  placed  above, 
instead  of,  as  is  usually  the  case,  below  the  rarer. 
Now,  rays  of  light  from  a  distant  object,  situated 
in  the  denser  medium  (i.e.  a  little  above  the 
earth's  level),  coming  in  a  direction  nearly  par- 
allel to  the  earth's  surface,  meet  the  rarer 
medium  at  a  very  obtuse  angle,  and  (see  Light) 
instead  of   passing  into  it,   they   are  reflected 


back  to  the  dense  medium,  the  common  surface  of 
the  two  media  acting  as  a  mirror.  The  image 
produced  by  the  reflected  rays  will  appear  in- 
verted, and  below  the  real  object,  just  as  an 
image  reflected  in  water  appears  when  observed 
from  a  distance.  If  the  object  is  a  cloud  or  por- 
tion of  sky,  it  will  appear  by  the  reflected  rays 
as  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  bearing 
a  strong  resemblance  to  a  sheet  of  water;  also, 
as  the  reflecting  surface  is  irregular,  and  con- 
stantly varies  its  position,  owing  to  the  constant 
commimication  of  heat  to  the  upper  stratum,  the 
reflected  image  will  be  constantly  varying,  and 
will  present  the  appearance  of  a  water  surface 
ruffled  by  the  wind.  This  form  of  mirage  is  of 
common  occurrence  in  the  arid  deserts  of  Lower 
E^pt,  Persia,  Turkestan,  etc.  In  the  case  of 
mirage  at  sea  the  denser  layers  of  air  are  next  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  reflection  takes 
place  from  the  rarer  atmosphere  above.  Conse- 
quently we  have  the  object  appearing  in  the  air 
suspended  and  inverted.  Sometimes  images  of  ob- 
jects are  seen  not  above  one  another,  but  side  by 
side,  caused  by  the  existence  of  bodies  of  air  of 
different  densities  in  proximity. 

In  particular  states  of  the  atmosphere  reflec- 
tion of  a  portion  only  of  the  rays  takes  place  at 
the  surface  of  the  dense  medium,  and  thus  double 
images  are  formed,  one  by  reflection,  and  the 
other  by  refraction — the  first  inverted  and  the 
second  erect.  The  phenomena  of  mirage  are  fre- 
quently much  more  strange  and  complicated,  the 
images  being  often  much  distorted  and  magnified, 
and  in  some  instances  occurring  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  object,  as  in  the  case  of  a  tower 
or  church  seen  over  the  sea,  or  a  vessel  over  dry 
land,  etc.  The  particular  form  of  mirage  known 
as  looming  is  very  frequently  observed  at  sea, 
and  consists  in  an  excessive  apparent  elevation  of 
the  object.  Consult  Miiller,  Lehrbuch  der  kos- 
mischen  Physik   (Brunswick,  1896). 

MB  AM  AH,  me'r&-m&r^.  An  imperial  palace 
and  public  pleasure  resort  on  the  Gulf  of  Trieste 
six  miles  northwest  of  Triest  (q.v.). 

MIBAMICHI  (mlr'&m^-she^)  BIVEB.  The 
second  largest  river  in  New  Brunswick,  Canada. 
It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  northwest  and 
southwest  Miramichi  (Map:  New  Brunswick, 
C  3) .  It  flows,  after  a  course  of  about  100  miles, 
into  the  Bay  oif  Miramichi,  a  part  of  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence.  Pine  woods  abounding  with 
game  line  the  banks  of  the  river,  which  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  modem  size  for  a  distance  of 
40  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  fishing  is  excellent, 
salmon  and  trout  abound,  and  there  is  a  State 
fish  breeding  establishment  on  one  of  the  tribu- 
taries. 

MIBAHON,  mg'rft-mon',  Miguel  (1832-67). 
A  ^lexican  general,  of  French  descent,  bom  in  the 
City  of  Mexico.  He  was  educated  for  the  army, 
and  fought  against  the  United  States  at  Molino 
del  Rey  and  Chapultepec.  He  saw  much  active 
service  during  the  fifties,  and  was  promoted  to  be 
a  lieutenant-colonel  in  1855.  He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition  to  Comonfort  (q.v.)  in 
1856,  and  supported  Zuloaga,  the  representative 
of  the  clerical  and  reactionary  party,  in  the  move- 
ment which  forced  Comonfort  to  retire  to  the 
United  States  in  1858.  Later  in  the  same  year  he 
was  chosen  acting  President  by  a  Junta  de  Nota* 
bles,  but,  contrary  to  the  expectations  of  the  iunta 
apparently,  he  turned  the  office  over  to  Zuloaga 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MIBAMdN. 


681 


HIBlfS. 


and  assumed  the  conduct  of  the  campaign  against 
the  Liberals,  led  by  Juarez.  Returning  to  the 
capital,  he  was  again  installed  as  acting  Presi- 
dent, exercising  its  duties  until  December,  1860, 
when  his  defeat  by  Juarez  at  Calpulalpam  forced 
him  to  leave  the  eountry.  He  reappeared  in 
Mexico  in  1866,  after  the  announcement  that  the 
French  army  was  to  leave  the  country,  and 
offered  his  seriices  to  Maximilian.  Raising  an 
army  in  the  West,  he  joined  the  Emperor  at 
Quer^taro,  where  he  was  wounded  during  the 
final  struggle  with  the  republican  forces.  He 
was  tried  and  condemned  to  be  shot  with  the 
Emperor  on  June  19,  1867.  As  thepr  were  lined 
up  for  the  execution,  Maximilian  insisted  that 
MiramCn  should  take  the  place  of  honor  in  the 
centre,  as  a  tribute  to  his  bravery. 

MUtANDA,  m^-riiNMft.  A  Portuguese  poet. 
See  Sa  de  Mibanda,  Francisco  de. 

MIBANa)A.  In  Shakespeare's  Tempest, 
Prosperous  daughter  and  the  lady  love  of  Ferdi- 
nand. 

MIBANDA,  m^rftn^dA,  Fbancesco  (1750T- 
1816).  A  Spanish- American  revolutionist.  He 
was  born  in  Venezuela,  and  entered  the  Spanish 
army,  rising  to  the  rank  of  captain.  He  resigned 
in  order  to  serve  with  the  French  in  the  United 
States.  He  was  then  sent  to  Cuba,  where  he 
engaged  in  illegal  trade  and  was  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  Europe.  The  French  Revolution  called 
forth  his  enthusiastic  admiration.  He  served 
in  the  French  Republican  army,  and  gained  the 
rank  of  major-general.  The  defeat  at  Neerwinden 
(1793)  was  attributed  lar|;ely  to  his  treachery, 
and  the  suspicion  led  to  his  arraignment  before 
the  Revolutionary  Tribunal.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Girondists  he  fled  to  England,  and  endeavored  in 
vain  to  induce  William  Pitt  to  aid  him  in  an 
attempt  to  free  Venezuela  from  the  Spanish  do- 
minion. In  1803  he  went  to  New  York,  where  he 
found  means  to  fit  out  two  vessels  and  some 
200  volunteers,  with  whom  he  sailed  for  South 
America  in  1806.  The  great  popular  demon- 
stration in  his  favor  which  he  had  expected  was 
entirely  lacking.  In  1810  he  organized  another 
expedition,  and  took  possession  of  Valentia, 
Puerto  Cabello,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  New 
Granada.  Miranda  organized  a  revolutionary 
government,  proclaimed  a  constitution,  made  him- 
self Vice-President,  and  entered  Carficas  in  tri- 
umph, in  April,  1812.  The  members  of  the  Gov- 
ernment were  not  able  to  act  in  harmony.  Mi- 
randa was  taken  prisoner  by  the  opposition  fac- 
tion of  revolutionists  in  July,  and  shortly  after- 
wards fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  au- 
thorities, by  whom  he  was  sent  to  Spain.  He  died 
in  the  dungeons  of  the  Inquisition  at  Cadiz  three 
years  later.  Consult  Biggs,  History  of  Mi- 
randa* s  Attempt  in  South  America  (London, 
1809).  For  Miranda's  career  in  France,  consult 
Rojas,  Miranda  dans  la  Revolution  francaiae 
(Caracas,  188^). 

MIBANDOLA,  m^-ran'd6-l&.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Modena,  Italy,  19  miles  by  rail 
north-northeast  of  the  city  of  Modena  (Map: 
Italy,  F  3).  The  little  town  is  regularly  laid 
out,  and  has  some  extremely  interesting  buildings, 
of  which  the  old  ducal  palace,  the  Cathedral,  and 
the  Church  of  Qesfi  are  the  most  important.  The 
principal  industries  are  cattle- raising  and  farm- 
ing.   Population,  in  1901  (commune),  13,731. 


MIBANDOLA,  Giovaitni  Pico  della.  An 
Italian  humanist.    See  Pico  della  Mibandola. 

MIBANHA,  ml-ra^ny&.    See  Mabanha. 

MUtAT,   m^-rat^.     See  Meebut. 

MIBAVAL,  mft'r&'v&K,  Raimon  de  (c.ll90- 
1216).  A  Provencal  poet.  His  poverty  com- 
pelled him  to  subsist  on  the  favor  of  the  great 
lords  at  whose  courts  he  seems  to  have  passed 
most  of  his  time.  His  chief  patron  was  Raimon 
VI.  of  Toulouse,  addressed  in  his  poems  by  the 
name  Audiart.  Consult  Andraud,  La  vie  et 
Vwuvre  du  troubadour  Raimon  de  Miraval  (Paris, 
1902). 

MIBBAGHy  mer^ao,  Julius,  Graf  von  (1839 
— ).  A  German  politician,  bom  in  Sorquitten, 
East  Prussia.  In  1874  he  entered  the  Prussian 
House  of  Lords,  and  in  1878-81  and  1886-98  was 
a  member  of  the  Reichstag,  and  a  prominent 
figure  in  the  German  Conservative  Party,  taking 
a  foremost  part  in  economic  and  agrarian  re- 
forms, acting  as  leader  of  the  Steuer-  und  Wirt- 
schaf  tare  former  (1879  sqq.).  He  was  ennobled 
in  1888. 

HIBBEATT,  Octave  (1848 — ).  French  nove- 
list and  playwright,  bom  at  Treviftres  (Calva- 
dos ) .  After  a  stormy  journalistic  career  he  pub- 
lished his  first  novel,  Jean  Marcelin,  in  1885,  but 
gained  note  with  Let  tree  de  la  choAimi^e  (1886), 
a  tale  of  his  native  Normandy.  There  fol- 
lowed Le  Calvaire  (1886),  Ual)h6  Jules  (1888), 
S^hastien  Rock  (1890),  Le  jardin  des  supplices 
( 1899),  the  exceedingly  unsavory  and  very  popu- 
lar Les  m^moires  d'une  femme  de  chamhre 
(1901),  and  Les  vingt-et-un  jours  d*un  neuras- 
th4nique  (1902).  He  was  successful  on  the 
stage  with  Les  mauvais  hergers  ( 1897 ) ,  and  still 
more  with  Les  affaires  aont  les  affaires  (1903), 
produced  with  great  success  in  New  York  in 
1905  as  Business  is  Business.  A  number  of  one 
act  plays  are  contained  in  Farces  et  moralit^a 
(1904). 

MIBBEL,  m^r'ber,  Chables  FBANgois  Bbis- 
8EAU  (1776-1854).  A  French  botanist,  born  in 
Paris.  In  1800  he  began  a  botanical  course  at 
the  Ath^n^,  and  in  1803  he  was  made  intendant 
of  the  Malmaison  Gardens.  In  1806  he  was  made 
a  councilor  of  State  at  the  Dutch  Court,  and  as 
director  of  fine  arts  he  was  charged  with  the  mis- 
sion of  organizing  a  school  in  Paris  for  Dutch 
artists.  He  was  professor  of  culture  at  the  Jar- 
din  des  Plantes  (1828).  His  great  contribu- 
tions to  structural  botany  are  recorded  in  his 
works:  Traits  d*anatomie  et  de  physiologic 
v^g^tales  ( 1802 )  ;  Exposition  de  la  tMorie  de 
Vorganisation  v^gMale  (1809).;  Elements  de 
botanique  et  de  physiologic  v6g4tale  (1815) ;  and 
Histoire  naturelle  des  v4gHaAix  classes  par  fam- 
ines  (18  vols.,  1802-26). 


J,  mft'rft',  Jules  (1809-71).  A  French 
financier  and  speculator.  He  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux. In  company  with  Molse  Millaud,  he  be- 
gan to  buy  up  the  press  of  Paris ;  he  purchased  the 
Chemins  'de  Fer,  and  afterwards  the  Conseiller  du 
PeuplCy  the  Constitutionnel,  and  Le  Pays,  Sway- 
ing public  opinion  in  this  manner,  he  organized 
the  Caisse  g^n^alc  des  chemins  de  fer,  or  railway 
bank,  commenced  to  build  railroads  in  Spain  and 
elsewhere,  negotiated  municipal  and  national 
loans,  and  acquired  an  immense  fortune.  During 
the  last  four  years  of  his  career  his  speculations 


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682 


MIBBOB. 


amounted  to  1,500,000,000  francs.  Arrested  for 
fraud  in  1860,  he  was  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment, but  was  freed  in  1862.  He  resumed  bank- 
ing operations,  but  people  came  to  distrust  his 
promises  of  magnificent  possibilities.  He  was  a 
man  of  infinite  resources,  quick  to  plan,  daring 
to  act,  carrying  out  his  immense  coups  by  gigan- 
tic combinations,  overcoming  all  opposition  by 
the  onset  of  billions  and  with  the  help  of  his 
hired  journalists  and  politicians.  He  published 
in  1870  Un  crime  judiciaire,  and  carried  on  a 
lively  war  of  pamphlets  with  his  enemies. 

MIB^FTELD.  A  manufacturing  town  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  eight  miles 
east-southeast  of  Halifax,  on  the  Calder,  one 
of  the  chief  railway  centres  in  the  country. 
It  has  manufactures  of  woolen  fabrics,  car- 
pets, and  blankets.  Population,  in  1891,  11,707; 
in  1901,  11,300. 

mBH'AM.  The  sister  of  Moses  and  Aaron. 
In  the  triple  tradition  of  the  career  of  Moses 
(q.v.),  as  embodied  in  the  Book  of  Exodus, 
Miriam  appears  only  in  the  narrative  of  the 
Elohist.  (See  Elohist  and  Yahwist.)  She  is 
called  a  'prophetess'  and  is  represented  as  cele- 
brating the  deliverance  of  the  people  from  Egypt 
as  the  leader  of  a  female  choir  (Ex.  xv.) .  Apart 
from  this,  she  is  mentioned  again  only  in  con- 
nection with  Aaron's  rebellion  against  Moses,  in 
which  Miriam  stands  on  Aaron's  side.  She  is 
smitten  with  leprosy  as  a  punishment  (Num. 
xii.),  but  after  seven  days'  isolation  (Lev.  xiii. 
5)  is  healed  by  Yahweh  at  Moses'  solicitation. 
Her  death  takes  place  at  Kadesh  (Num.  xx.  1). 
Miriam,  though  not  expressly  named,  is  thought 
to  be  the  sister  referrea  to  in  the  story  of  Moses' 
infancy  (Ex.  ii.),  who  acts  as  a  nurse  and  pro- 
tector to  him.  The  name  may  be  connected  with 
Merari,  one  of  the  sons  of  Levi  (Ex.  vi.  16), 
and  a  very  plausible  view  is  to  assume  that 
Aaron  and  Miriam  represent  priestly  families, 
the  one  at  Horeb,  the  other  at  Kadesh,  who 
were  joined  to  the  early  traditions  of  the 
Hebrews  by  virtue  of  reminiscences  that  some 
of  the  clans  once  followed  the  cult  at  the  sanc- 
tuaries in  the  two  places  named.  The  associa- 
tion between  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam  oncer 
established  gave  rise  to  further  elaboration  which 
was  adjusted  to  the  general  priestly  narrative 
in  the  Pentateuch.  The  allusion  in  Micah  vi.  4 
to  'Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam'  as  the  forerunners 
in  the  redemption  of  Israel,  is  a  valuable  indica- 
tion for  the  period  at  which  the  combination  of 
the  three  in  popular  tradition  and  legend  had 
taken  place. 

MIBIBEI/,  mft'rft'bSl',  Mabie  Fban^ois  Jo- 
seph DE  (1831-93).  A  French  general.  He  was 
bom  at  Montbonnot,  studied  at  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique  and  at  the  Military  Academy  of  Metz, 
and  at  twenty-four  was  commissioned  a  lieuten- 
ant of  artillery  and  sent  to  the  Crimea.  He 
fought  in  Italy  in  1859  and  in  Mexico  (1862- 
65)  ;  served  on  the  international  commission 
dealing  with  the  use  of  explosive  bullets;  and 
in  1868  was  appointed  military  attache  in 
Saint  Petersburg.  Miribel  fought  bravely  at 
Ghampigny  and  Buzenval  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War;  commanded  a  corps  of  artillery  against 
the  Commune;  and  in  1877  became  cliief  of  the 
general  staff.  His  reappointment  to  this  post 
in  1881  created  great  excitement,  and  he  resigned 
after  the  fall  of  Gambetta's  Ministry.    In  1890 


be  was  once  more  made  chief  of  staff  with  greater 
powers  than  before,  and  showed  himself  an  able 
administrator. 

HIBIMy  m6-r6N^  or  Laooa  MtRf.  A  lake  or 
lagoon  in  the  extreme  southeastern  comer  of 
Brazil,  on  the  boimdary  of  Uruguay  (Map: 
South  America,  D  6).  It  is  130  miles  long  and 
from  5  to  25  miles  wide,  and  is  separated  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  a  low  sandy  tract  from 
15  to  40  miles  wide,  containing  several  true 
coast  lagoons.  It  receives  a  number  of  small 
rivers  from  the  west,  and,  though  its  shores 
are  low  and  marshy,  it  is  not  in  direct  com- 
munication with  the  ocean,  but  discharges  its 
waters  northward  into  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos 
( q.v. ) .  Like  the  latter,  it  was  evidently  formed 
through  the  cutting  off  by  sand-bars  of  a  lar^ 
bay  of  the  ocean.  The  water  of  Lake  Mirim  is 
fresh,  and  tides  are  not  felt  in  it. 

MIBITI   (m^re^t^)   PALM.     See  Maubitia. 

MTRKHOyP,  m6r-K6nd^  Haman  ed  din 
(1433-98).  A  distinguished  Persian  historian, 
bom  of  Sayyid  descent  from  a  Bokharan  family 
probably  near  Nishapur.  About  1474,  under  the 
patronage  of  Mir  Alishir,  Mirkhond  b^^an  his 
historical  work,  entitled  Rato^t-u^^afay  or  *Grar- 
den  of  Purity.'  It  is  of  great  value,  and,  on  the 
whole,  is  a  very  remarkable  compilation,  being, 
save  for  the  seventh  volume,  which  deals  wiui 
the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  must 
have  been  by  Mirkhond's  son,  Khondemir  (1475- 
1534) ,  the  work  of  a  single  man.  Beginning  with 
mythical  times,  the  Garden  contains  biographical 
notices  of  the  leading  Persian  notables  down  to 
1523.  The  part  on  the  early  kings  was  trans- 
lated by  Shea  (London,  1832) ;  that  on  the  Sas- 
sanids,  into  French  by  S.  de  Sacy  (Paris,  1793)  ; 
on  the  Samanids,  into  Latin  by  Wilken  (Berlin, 
1832),  and  into  French  by  Defremery  (Paris, 
1845)  ;  on  the  Seljuks,  by  Vullers  into  German 
(Giessen,  1837);  and  the  story  of  Mohammed 
by  Kehatsek  into  English   (London,  1893). 

ICIBBOB  (OF.  mireor,  mirpur,  Fr.  miroir. 
It.  miratore,  miradorCy  from  Lat.  wtrart,  to  look, 
from  miru9y  wonderful;  connected  with  Gk.  fiei^ 
ifir,  meidaUj  Skt.  smi,  to  smile).  An  object  hav- 
ing a  smooth  or  polished  reflecting  surface  by 
which  virtual  or  real  images  of  an  object  are 
produced.  Mirrors  are  used  largely  for  toilet 
and  decorative  purposes,  and  also  in  scientific 
apparatus  and  in  numerous  other  practical 
devices  to  concentrate,  scatter,  or  divert  rays  of 
light  or  heat.  The  action  of  the  mirror  depends 
on  the  law  of  reflection  where  it  is  stated  that 
the  angle  of  reflection  must  equal  the  angle  of 
incidence  and  be  in  the  same  plane.  This  op- 
tical principle  was  well  known  to  the  ancients 
and  was  doubtless  long  preceded  by  an.  actual 
practical  knowledge  of  the  instrument.  Prob- 
ably for  ages  after  the  civilization  of  man  com- 
menced, the  still  waters  of  ponds  and  lakes 
were  the  only  mirrors.  We  read  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch of  mirrors  of  brass  being  used  by  the 
Hebrews,  while  it  is  known  that  mirrors  of 
bronze  were  in  very  common  use  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  and 
many  specimens  are  preserved  in  museums. 
Praxiteles  taught  the  use  of  polished  silver  for 
mirrors  in  the  year  B.c.  328.,  and  polished  mir- 
rors of  obsidian  or  natural  glass  were  used  by 
the  Romans. 

Mirrors  of  glass  were  first  made  at  Venice  in 


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MIBBOB. 


688 


MIBBOB  OF  KNIOHTHOOB. 


1300;  and  judging  from  those  still  in  existence, 
they  were  very  rude  contrivances,  compared  with 
those  of  modem  make. 

It  was  not  until  1673  that  the  making  of  mir- 
rors was  introduced  into  England,  and  the  in- 
dustry has  since  developed  in  Europe  and 
America  to  a  point  where  it  is  a  very  important 
manufacture;  and  mirrors  can  be  produced  of 
any  size  to  which  plate  glass  can  be  cast. 

For  many  centuries  mirrors  were  made  accord- 
ing to  the  pr.ocess  originally  introduced  at 
Venice,  by  backing  a  sheet  of  glass  with  an 
amalgam  of  mercury  and  tin.  The  surface  was 
overlaid  with  sheets  of  tinfoil,  rubbed  down 
smooth,  and  the  whole  covered  with  quicksilver, 
which  immediately  formed  an  amalgam  with 
the  tin.  The  superfluous  mercury  was  then  run 
oflF  and  a  woolen  cloth  held  firmly  over  the 
surface,  by  means  of  iron  weights.  After  this 
pressure  had  been  continued  twenty-four  hours, 
more  or  less,  the  weights  and  cloth  were  re- 
moved and  the  glass  placed  on  a  table  with  a 
movable  top,  which  was  ^adually  inclined  until 
the  unamalgamated  quicksilver  had  entirely 
drained  away,  and  only  the  surface  of  perfect 
amalgam  remained  adhering  to  the  glass.  This 
process,  which  was  long  us^,  was  open  to  many 
objections,  not  leajst  of  which  was  its  extreme 
unhealthfulness  for  the  workmen.  The  process 
was  also  long  and  tedious,  and  at  best  made  an 
unsatisfactory  mirror,  reflecting  less  than  half 
the  rays  of  light. 

The  first  attempt  to  back  the  glass  with  silver 
was  made  by  Liebig  in  1836,  and  different  solu- 
tions were  proposed  by  other  chemists,  all  of 
which  produced  mirrors  that  were  satisfactory 
for  a  short  time,  but  finally  became  spotted. 
In  1855  Pettijean  patented  a  process  which,  with 
various  modifications,  is  the  one  now  in  general 
use.  The  method  of  mirror  manufacture  com- 
mon in  America  may  be  described  as  follows: 
The  raw  stock  or  plain  plate  glass  reaches  the 
factory  carefully  packed  in  cases  of  immense 
size.  The  glass  is  first  thoroughly  inspected  and 
all  defects  marked.  It  then  goes  to  the  cutters' 
department,  where  it  is  cut  into  the  proper 
sizes.  Thence  it  is  moved  to  the  beveling  de- 
partment, where  it  is  beveled  and  polished  on 
rapidly  revolving  emery  wheels  of  varying  de- 
grees of  smoothness,  the  plates — some  of  them 
of  enormous  size — being  lightly  held  against  the 
wheel  by  the  workmen.  After  both  surfaces, 
including  the  beveled  edge,  have  been  reduced, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  to  a  condition  of  perfect 
smoothness,  the  glass  is  passed  on  to  the  silver- 
ing department.  Here  it  must  be  thoroughly 
cleansed,  and  so  delicate  is  this  operation  that 
a  specially  distilled  water  is  often  required 
for  the  purpose.  The  glass  is  now  ready  for  the 
essential  process  of  silvering.  The  nitrate  of 
silver  is  dissolved  in  ammonia  and  isprecipitated 
by  a  solution  of  tartaric  acid.  Tne  glass  Is 
placed  on  warm  tables  and  the  solution  poured 
over  it.  The  heat  helps  the  silver  to  precipitate 
and  adhere  to  the  glass.  The  silver  back  re- 
ceives a  coat  of  shellac  and  then  of  paint,  which 
completes  the  process.  Silvered  mirrors  reflect 
from  20  to  25  per  cent,  more  of  light  than  those 
backed  with  quicksilver. 

The  optical  considerations  involved  in  reflec- 
tion will  be  found  fully  discussed  together  in  the 
article  on  Light,  but  brief  mention  may  here  be 
made  of  mirrors  whose  reflecting  surfaces  are 


other  than  plane.  In  a  concave  spherical  mir- 
ror we  have  distant  rays  of  light  or  heat 
brought  to  a  focus  and  a  real  image  form. 
Conversely,  if  a  point  source  of  light  is  placed  at 
the  focus  of  the  mirror,  a  parallel  beam  of  li^t 
results.  The  first  idea  is  made  use  of  in  the 
reflecting  telescope  (see  Telescope), while  the 
latter  is  employed  in  the  search-light  (q.v.). 

A  parabolic  mirror  is  one  "in  which  every 
section  through  the  principal  axis  cuts  the  sur- 
face in  a  parabola,  so  that  rays  from  a  light 
placed  at  the  focus  are  all  reflected  parallel  to 
the  axis  and,  conversely,  parallel  rays  are 
brought  to  the  focus."  The  reflector  of  a  loco- 
motive headlight  is  thus  constructed.  See 
Aberration,  Spherical;  Light. 

Cylindrical  mirrors  do  not  play  as  important 
a  part  in  optics  and  optical  instruments  as 
those  of  spherical  and  parabolic  cross-section, 
but  their  effects  are  sometimes  interesting.  By 
using  a  glass  that  is  curved  instead  of  flat,  the 
reflected  shape  of  the  object  will  become  dis- 
torted; a  concave  cylindrical  mirror  lengthening 
it  at  the  expense  of  width,  and  a  oonvea  mirror 
producing  the  opposite  effect. 

As  heat  is  reflected  as  well  as  l^^ht  from  the 
surface  of  a  mirror,  a  concave  mirror  may  be 
used  to  bring  rays  of  light  to  a  focus.  In  this 
way  combustible  substances  may  be  set  on  fire 
at  a  distance  from  the  reflector  whence  they 
receive  their  heat.  The  Archimedean  mirror  was 
made  on  this  plan.  A  series  of  mirrors  set  in 
a  concave  curve  concentrated  the  rays  of  light 
upon  an  enem3r's  ship,  causing  it,  according  to 
the  story,  to  bum. 

MIBBOB  CABP.  An  artificial  variety  of 
carp  ( q.v. )  with  very  large  scales  in  two  or  three 
rows  along  the  sides  of  its  body,  which  is  other- 
wise bare. 

MIBBOB  FOB  MAQISTBATES,  A.  A  long 
series  of  poems  on  incidents  in  English  history 
showing  the  tragedies  in  the  lives  of  great  men. 
The  plan  was  suggested  by  Boccaccio's  Falls  of 
Ill%iatriou8  Men  and  Lydgate's  Falls  of  Princes, 
and  was  devised  by  William  Baldwin,  Georgef 
Ferrers,  and  Sackville,  who  wrote  a  general 
introduction  called  the  Induction,  It  was  partly 
printed  in  1565,  when  it  was  stopped  by  Lord 
Chancellor  Gardiner.  It  was  licensed,  however, 
in  1559,  and  then  contained  nineteen  metrical 
biographies,  beginning  with  Tressillian  in  Rich- 
ard II.*s  reign.  New  editions,  with  additional 
lives  by  various  writers,  appeared  in  1563,  1574, 
1578,  1587,  and  1610,  and  a  reprint  of  the  whole 
by  Haslewood  in  1815.  Some  of  the  best-known 
contributors  are  Thomas  Sackville,  whose  Induc- 
tion and  Complaint  of  Stafford,  Duke  of  Buck- 
inghamy  are  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  work ; 
Michael  Drayton,  Thomas  Churchyard,  and  John 
Skelton. 

MIBBOB  OF  KNiaHTHOOD,  The.  A 
translation  of  a  Spanish  romance,  Cavallero  del 
Feho,  the  Knight  of  the  Sun,  which  tells  the 
adventures  of  Febo  and  his  brother  Rosiclair. 
It  belongs  in  a  sense  to  the  Amadis  cycle  of 
romance,  as  the  father  of  the  Knight  of  the  Sun 
was  related  to  Amadis.  The  Spanish  version  was 
evidently  the  work  of  several,  and  was  left  un- 
finished. The  translation  of  the  romance  into 
English  was  printed  in  1578.  See  Dunlap's  Historp 
of  Prose  Fiction, 


Digitized  by 


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MTRZA, 


584 


mSDEKEANOB. 


MIBZA,  m^T^zk  (Pers.  mired,  contracted  from 
Amir  Z^ldah,  son  of  the  prince ) .  A  Persian  title. 
As  a  prefix  preceding  the  surname  of  the  individ- 
ual it  is  a  common  Persian  title  of  honor;  but 
when  annexed  to  the  surname  it  designates  a 
prince  or  a  male  of  the  blood  royal. 

MIKZAPUBy  mer'z&-po5r^.  The  capital  of  a 
district  of  Benares,  in  the  United  Provinces, 
British  India,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cktn^s, 
30  miles  southwest  of  Benares,  and  509  miles 
northwest  of  Calcutta  on  the  East  Indian  Railway. 
( Map :  India,  D3) .  It  is  a  well-built  city ;  the  river 
front  is  lined  with  a  series  of  elegant  ghats,  and 
there  are  several  interesting  temples  and  hand- 
some European  residences.  It  is  noted  for  its 
manufactures  of  carpets  and  rugs,  and  has  numer- 
ous lac  factories.  Prior  to  the  railway  period  it 
was  the  largest  cotton  and  grain  trading  centre 
on  the  Ganges,  and  the  converging  market  of 
North  and  Central  India.  Population,  in  1891, 
84,130;  in  1901,  79,787. 

MIBZA  SCHAFFY.     See  Bodenstedt. 

MISANTHBOPE,  m^'zftN'trdp',  Le.  A  com- 
edy by  Moli^re  (1666)  dealing  with  refined  so- 
ciety and  based  on  a  study  of  character  rather 
than  on  incidents.  It  depends  for  its  comedy 
element  chiefly  on  the  constant  discord  in  the 
elevated  character  of  Alceste  and  the  more  com- 
monplace characters  of  the  other  persons  of  the 
play.  The  comedy  is  considered  Molifere*s  mas- 
terpiece, and  shows  his  style  at  its  highest  de- 
velopment. 

MISCABBIAOE.  In  its  broadest  sense,  a 
breach  of  legal  duty.  This  is  the  signification  in 
the  fourth  section  of  the  English  Statute  of 
Frauds,  and  in  similar  statutory  provisions  in 
this  country,  which  in  order  to  make  a  person 
liable  to  answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or  miscar- 
riage of  another  person,  require  special  promises 
in  writing.  The  term  bears  quite  a  different 
meaning  in  criminal  law,  being  substantially 
synonymous  with  abortion  (q.v.). 

MISGEOENATION  (from  Lat.  miscere,  to 
mix  -f  genua,  race).  Mixing  of  races;  usually 
restricted  to  amalgamation  of  Caucasian  and 
African  races  in  America.  The  expression  came 
into  common  use  in  discussions  of  negro  slavery 
in  the  United  States  toward  and  after  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  certain  publicists 
advocated  the  gradual  absorption  of  the  blacks 
by  intermarriage  with  whites.  The  expression  is 
seldom  employed  in  scientific  discussion  of  racial 
problems,  such  collocations  as  'mixing  of  races,' 
*blood-blending,*  etc.,  taking  its  place.  The  proc- 
ess so  denoted  is  of  much  importance;  indeed, 
one  of  the  primary  factors  of  human  develop- 
ment, as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  most 
advanced  peoples  are  those  whose  blood  is  most 
mixed.  The  effect  of  blood-blending  seems  to  vary 
with  the  degree  of  diversity  between  the  uniting 
races,  the  "benefit  being  greatest  when  the  races 
are  least  diverse,  and  the  effect  less  beneficial 
or  even  injurious  when  the  races  are  widely  dis- 
tinct; thus  the  blends  of  white  and  red  (meztizo) 
and  of  red  and  black  (zambo)  are  apparently 
better,  measured  by  the  vitality  and  fecundity 
of  the  progeny,  than  that  of  white  and  black 
(mulatto).  The  process  of  racial  assimilation 
is  going  on  in  every  part  of  the  world,  and  with 
progressively  increasing  rapidity.  Even  in  the 
United  States,  despite  the  most  strenuous  opposi- 


tion on  both  national  and  sentimental  grounds, 
the  admixture  of  whites  and  blacks  has  gone  so 
far  that  among  the  nine  millions  enumerated  as 
colored  in  the  census  of  1900,  the  population 
of  pure-blooded  Africans  is  comparatively  small, 
while  the  admixture  of  red  and  white  races  has 
affected  a  proportion  of  our  population  which 
may  be  estimated  at  30  per  cent,  to  60  per  cent, 
of  the  element  reckoned  as  Indian.  The  data 
are  too  meagre  to  indicate  the  vital  value  of  the 
meztizo  type  in  the  United  States,  though  the 
experience  of  Mexico  suggests  that  the  value  is 
high.  The  more  general  aspects  of  racial  blend- 
ing are  discussed  in  the  article  Mixed  Races. 

mSCHIANZA,  mls'k^an'ts&.  The.  An  elab- 
orate fete  or  entertainment  given  at  Philadelphia, 
May  18,  1778,  during  the  Itevolutionary  War,  by 
officers  of  the  British  Army,  in  honor  of  Sir 
William  Howe,  who  having  been  superseded  in  the 
command  of  the  British  Army  in  America  by  Sir 
Henry  Clinton^  was  about  to  sail  for  England^ 
The  entertainment,  which  was  given  at  Walnut 
Grove,  the  country-seat  of  Thomas  Wharton, 
lasted  twelve  hours,  and  comprised  a  regatta,  a 
mock  tournament  between  the  'Knights  of  the 
Blended  Rose*  and  the  'Knights  of  the  Burning 
Mountain,'  a  dance  and  a  dinner.  Captain  ( later 
Major)  Andr6  was  prominent  in  planning  and 
directing  the  entertainment,  and  wrote  a  detailed 
description,  which  may  be  found  in  Sargent, 
Life  of  Major  Andr4  (last  ed..  New  York,  1902). 

MISDEMEANOR  (from  mis-  +  demeanor, 
from  demean,  from  OF.  demener,  deminer,  to 
manage,  from  Lat.  de,  down  -f  minare,  to  lead, 
drive).  The  name  given  by  English  common  law 
to  every  crime  below  the  grade  of  felony  (q.v.). 
By  the  common  law,  the  offense  of  greatest 
enormity  is  treason,  and  the  least  is  mis- 
demeanor. The  original  distinction  between 
felony  and  misdemeanor  consisted  in  the  conse- 
quences of  a  conviction.  A  party  convicted  of 
felony,  if  capital,  forfeited  both  his  real  and 
personal  estate;  if  not  capital,  his  personal 
estate  only.  A  party  convicted  of  misdemeanor 
forfeited  none  of  his  property.  The  distinction 
is  not  kept  up  between  the  two  classes  of  crimes 
by  any  greater  severity  of  punishment  in  felony, 
for  many  misdemeanors  are  punished  as  severely 
as  some  felonies.  But  it  has  been  the  practice 
of  the  l^slature,  when  creating  new  offenses,  to 
say  whether  they  are  to  be  classed  with  felony 
or  misdemeanor;  and  when  this  is  done,  the 
above  incidents  attach  to  the  conviction  accord- 
ingly, in  the  absence  of  legislation  to  the  con- 
trary. 

Misdemeanor,  in  the  United  States,  does  not 
include,  in  its  legal  application,  offenses  against 
police  regulations,  city  by-laws,  and  the  like, 
though  in  common  language  and  in  some  statutes 
it  may  extend  to  any  misbehavior.  It  is  evident 
that  what  is  a  statute  felony  in  one  State  may 
be  a  misdemeanor  in  another,  and  it  is  therefore 
impossible  to  give  a  complete  classification  of 
such  offenses.  They  may  be  crimes  against  pub- 
lic justice,  peace,  health,  or  trade;  against  per- 
sonal or  property  rights  of  individuals;  or  may 
be  mere  attempts  and  solicitations. 

In  some  States  it  is  provided  that  upon  ac- 
knowledgment of  satisfaction  by  the  injured 
party,  in  such  cases  as  assault  and  battery  or 
malicious  mischief,  the  criminal  proceeding  shall, 
with  the  consent  of  the  magistrate,  be  dropped; 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MISDEMEANOB. 


585 


MISHNA. 


a  course  which,  obviously,  would  be  improper  in 
dealing  with  felonies. 

See  Felony  and  Law,  Cbocinal. 

MISENOy  m^za^n6  (Lat.  MUenum),  Cafe. 
A  promontory  projecting  into  the  Bay  of  Naples 
OB  the  northwest  and  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  a  narrow  strip  of  coast,  nine  miles  south- 
west of  the  city  of  Naples.  On  the  outskirts  of 
the  promontory  are  the  scanty  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Misenum,  including  the  Piscina  Mirabilis, 
a  huge  reservoir  with  a  well-preserved  vaulted 
roof,  supported  by  pillars,  anci  thd  Grotto  Dra- 
gonara,  a  subterranean  vaulted  structure,  of  un- 
certain use.  Misenum  was  made  by  Augustus 
the  naval  station  for  a  division  of  the  Roman 
fleet,  and  for  that  purpose  a  great  harbor  with 
three  basins  was  constructed,  of  which  the  inner 
is  now  a  lagoon,  the  Mare  Morto.  The  town  was 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  a.d.  890. 

MISE  OP  AMIENS,  i'm^'ftN'  (OF.,  Fr.  mise, 
putting,  expense,  judgment,  from  Lat.  mittere,  to*< 
send).  The  name  given  to  the  decision  of  Louis 
IX.  of  France,  delivered  as  arbitrator  between 
Henry  III.  of  England  and  his  barons  on  January 
23,  1264.  All  points  in  dispute  were  decided  in 
favor  of  Henry,  and  the  Provisions  of  Oxford 
(q.v.)  were  specifically  annulled.  See  Mont- 
FOBT,  Simon  de;  Henby  III. 

MISE  OF  LEWESy  Itl^.  The  name  given  to 
the  capitulation  of  Henry  III.  of  England  after 
the  battle  of  Lewes,  in  which  on  May  14,  1264, 
the  barons  defeated  and  captured  him.  This 
treaty  greatly  limited  the  royal  power,  and  upon 
it  Simon  de  Montfort  sought  to  establish  a  new 
constitution  for  England.  See  Montfobt,  Simon 
DE;  Henry  III. 

MISfeBABLES,  m^'zk'rk'br,  Jjes.  A  noted 
romance  by  Victor  Hugo,  begun  in  1846,  but  in- 
terrupted by  the  author's  political  activity.  It 
was  completed  during  Hugo's  stay  in  Saint 
Peter's,  Guernsey,  and  was  published  in  1862, 
the  first  part  appearing  simultaneously  in  Paris, 
Brussels,  London,  New  York,  Madrid,  Berlin, 
Saint  Petersburg,  and  Turin.  It  formed  ten 
volumes,  divided  into  five  parts,  entitled  Fantine, 
Cosette,  Marius,  Uidylle  rue  Plumet,  and  Jean 
Valjean.  The  interest  centres  throughout  on 
Jean  Valjean,  a  fallen  man  who  achieves  his  own 
rehabilitation  after  long  physical  and  mental 
suffering  and  degradation.  The  leading  charac- 
ters, Valjean,  Javert,  and  Gavroche,  are  crea- 
tions of  Hugo.  The  saintly  Bishop  Mynil  or 
Bienvcnu  is  modeled  on  De  Miolles,  Bishop  of 
Digne;  Marius  represents  the  author's  idea  of 
himself  in  his  youth,  and  the  Baron  Pontmercy 
is  intended  as  a  sketch  of  Hugo's  father.  The 
work  embodies  the  fruits  of  long  observation  and 
study  set  down  with  keen  exactness  and  force. 

MISEBEBEy  mlz'^rg'rft  (Lat.,  have  mercy). 
The  name,  taken  from  its  first  word,  of  the 
Psalm  which  is  the  50th  in  the  Vulgate  and 
the  51st  in  the  Authorized  Version ;  the  principal 
one  of  the  seven  penitential  Psalms,  commonly 
understood  to  have  been  composed  by  David  in 
his  remorse  after  being  rebuked  by  Nathan  for 
his  sin  with  Bathsheba.  It  is  used  on  numerGixS 
penitential  occasions  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  forms  part  of  the  service  for  Ash 
Wednesday  in  the  Anglican  Prayer-Book. 


MISEBEBE.  A  projection  on  the  under  side 
of  the  seats  of  the  stalls  of  mediseval  churches, 
chapels,  and  other  ecclesiastical  buildings.  They 
are  usually  ornamented  with  carved  work,  and 
are  so  shaped  that  when  the  seats  proper  are 
raised  they  form  a  support  at  a  higher  level  to 
a  person  resting  upon  it.  Aged  and  infirm 
ecclesiastics  were  allowed  to  use  these  during 
long  services. 

MISFEASANCE  (OF.-  mesfaistmcey  wrong, 
from  mesfaire,  mesferre,  Fr.  m^faire,  to  do 
wrong,  from  mes-,  from  Lat.  minus,  less  -f  faire, 
from  Lat.  facere,  to  do).  Doing  a  lawful  act 
in  an  improper  or  negligent  manner;  contrasted 
with  malfeasance  and  with  nonfeasance.  When 
misfeasance  results  in  legal  damage  to  a  person, 
it  amounts  to  an  actionable  tort  ( q.v. ) ,  although 
the  same  act  may  be  a  breach  of  contract  also,  as 
when  a  common  carrier  injures  a  passenger  by 
the  negligent  use  of  its  property  or  improper 
conduct  of  its  servants. 

MISHAWAXA,  mlsh'^-wg^a.  A  city  in 
Saint  Joseph  County,  Ind.,  four  miles  east  of 
South  Bend,  the  county-seat;  on  the  Saint  Jo- 
seph River,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk,  and  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  railroads 
(Map:  Indiana,  CI).  It  has  good  water  power 
from  the  river,  and  is  noted  as  a  manufacturing 
centre,  the  products  including  felt  boots  and  rub- 
bers, windmills,  heavy  machinery,  pulleys,  agri- 
cultural implements,  furniture,  church  organs 
and  furniture,  automobiles,  gasoline  engines, 
flour,  and  knit  felt.  The  government  is  admin- 
istered under  a  charter  of  1899,  which  provides 
for  a  mayor,  chosen  every  four  years,  and  a 
unicameral  council.  The  city  operates  the  water- 
works and  electric-light  plant.  One  of  the  old- 
est cities  in  northern  Indiana,  Mishawaka  was 
settled  in  1828  and  was  incorporated  in  1834  as 
"Saint  Joseph  Iron  Works,"  the  ^change  to  its 
present  name  being  authorized  by  a  special  act 
of  the  legislature  in  1838.  Population,  in  1890, 
3371;  in  1900,  5560;  in  1906  (local  est.), 
10,000. 

MISH'MIS.  The  natives  of  the  Mishmi  Hills 
in  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra  in  North- 
eastern India.  By  language  they  are  related  to 
the  adjacent  peoples  of  Indo-China  (Chins,  Shans, 
Lushai,  etc.).  These  primitive  tribes  are  very 
interesting  from  a  sociological  point  of  view. 
Among  them  the  custom  that  the  favorite  child 
(without  respect  to  age)  inherits  prevails.  The 
marriage  customs  are  also  peculiar.  Consult:' 
Cooper,  The  Mishmee  Hills  (London,  1873)  ;  Dal- 
ton,  Descriptive  Ethnology  of  Bengal  (Calcutta, 
1872). 

MISHNA  (Heb.,  explanation,  from  shAnah^ 
to  learn).  The  body  of  the  'oral  law,'  or 
the  juridico-political,  civil,  and  religious  code 
of  the  Jews.  As  such  it  forms  a  kind  of  com- 
plement to  the  Pentateuchal  codes,  which  it  ex- 
plains, amplifies,  and  immutably  fixes  in  accord- 
ance with  traditional  usage,  enforced  by  the 
application  of  the  peculiar  exegetical  methods 
developed  in  the  rabbinical  schools  of  Babylonia 
and  Palestine.  The  Mishnaic  laws  were  subse- 
quently submitted  to  a  process  of  exposition 
similar  to  that  which  the  biblical  enactments 
imderwent,  and  hence  there  arose,  as  a  supple- 
ment to  the  Mishna,  the  Gemara(q.v.) ,  embodying 
the  discussions  on  the  Mishna  by  the  rabbis  of 
Babylonia  and  Palestine  from  the  third  to  the 


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HISHNA. 


586 


HISBEPSE8ENTATI0N. 


sixth  century,  when  the  Mishna  and  the  Gemara 
were  brought  together  in  a  final  compilation 
known  as  the  Talmud.  The  Mishna,  to  which 
again  there  are  *apocryphal*  supplements  known 
as  Toseftas  (additions)  and  Baraithas  (extras), 
was  finally  redacted,  after  some  earlier  incom- 
plete collections  by  Rabbi  Jehudah,  called  Han- 
asi  (c.200  A.D.),  at  Tiberias.  It  is  mostly  written 
in  pure  Hebrew,  and  is  divided  into  six  portions 
(Sedarim) :  (1)  Zeraim  (seeds),  on  oenedic- 
tions,  agriculture,  tithes,  etc.;  (2)  Moed  (feast), 
on  the  Sabbath,  festivals,  and  fasts;  (3) 
Nashim  (women),  on  marriage,  divorce,  etc. 
(embracing  also  the  laws  on  the  Nazirship 
and  vows)  ;  (4)  Nezikin  (damages),  chiefly  civil 
and  penal  laws  (also  containing  the  ethical  treat- 
ise Aboth)  ;  (5)  Kodashim  (sacred  things),  sacri- 
fices, etc.;  description  of  the  Temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, etc.;  (6)  Teharoth  (purifications)  on  pure 
and  impure  things  and  persons.  (See  further 
Talmud.)  An  English  translation  of  the  Mishna 
has  been  published  by  J.  Barclay  (London,  1878) . 

mSILWrPiBT,  m§'z«l-mft^rd.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Palermo,  Sicily,  10  miles  south  of 
Palermo  (Map:  Italy,  H  9)^  The  castle,  sit- 
uated on  a  hill  overlooking  the  town,  commands 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture.    Population,  in  1901    (commune),  12,819. 

MISIONES,  m§'s*-ynAs.  A  territory  of  Ar- 
gentina, situated  at  the  northeastern  end  of  the 
republic,  between  Paraguay  and  Brazil,  and 
hounded  on  the  southwest  by  the  Department  of 
Oorrientes  (Map:  Argentina,  G  9).  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  11,285  souare  miles.  It  is  watered 
by  numerous  small  affluents  of  the  Paranft  and 
the  Uruguay,  and  is  very  densely  wooded,  only  a 
small  portion  of  its  area  being  under  cultivation. 
Practically  the  only  products  are  yerba  mat^,  or 
Paraguay  tea,  and  cabinet  woods,  though  sugar 
and  tobacco  are  being  more  and  more  cultivated. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  the  Jesuits  planted 
in  and  around  the  present  territory  over  thirty 
missions.  With  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
their  missions  fell  into  decay.  The  population 
of  the  territory  in  1900,  was  32,521,  and  in  1904, 
38,755.  The  chief  town  is  Posadas  on  the  ParanA, 
with  a  population  of  about  5000. 

MISKOLCZ^  mlsh^dlts.  The  capital  of  the 
County  of  Borsod,  Hungary,  situated  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Szinva,  113  miles  by  rail  northeast  of 
Budapest  (Map:  Hungary.  G  2).  It  has  a  thir- 
teenth-century late  Gothic  church,  a  Minorite 
■convent,  a  Protestant  gymnasium  and  two  lower 
gymnasia,  a  fine  hospital,  and  a  Hungarian  the- 
atre. It  is  lighted  by  electricity  and  has  a  fine 
municipal  bath.  The  trade  in  wine  and  agricul- 
tural products  is  considerable.  The  local  manu- 
factures consist  of  flour,  pottery,  porcelain  and 
majolica  wares,  and  machinery.  Population,  in 
1890,  32,288;  in  1900,  43,096,  chiefly  Protestant 
Magyars. 

MISNOMEB  (OF.  mesnomerf  meanommer, 
•dialectic  Fr.  mSnomer^  misname,  from  mes-f  from 
Xat.  minus,  less  +  nomeVf  name,  from  Lat. 
nominare,  to  name,  from  nomen,  name).  An 
error  in  naming  a  person  in  a  pleading,  deed,  or 
other  written  instrument.  Under  the  common- 
law  rules  of  pleading,  a  party  intended  as  the 
defendant  in  an  action  can  take  advantage  of  a 
mistake  in  designating  him  by  an  incorrect  name 
by  a  plea  in  alMitement  which  simply  alleges  the 


error  and  states  his  true  name.  However,  in 
England  and  the  common-law  jurisdictions  in 
the  United  States  this  defect  may  now  be  cured 
by  amendment  if  the  person  so  served  appears 
in  the  action,  even  though  he  pleads  the  misno- 
mer. Where  a  person  is  served  with  a  process  in- 
tended for  him  but  not  designating  him  by  his 
correct  name,  he  may  disregard  it,  and  a  valid 
judgment  cannot  be  entered  against  him.  Under 
modem  codes  of  procedure  the  same  rules  apply, 
except  that  if  a  person  is  served  with  a  summons 
incorrectly  nammg  him,  and  he  desires  to  ap- 
pear and  obj^t,  he  must  make  a  motion  to  set 
aside  the  service  on  the  ground  of  mistake.  In 
such  a  case  the  plaintiff  will  be  allowed  to  amend 
his  summons  and  complaint,  usually  upon  terms, 
such  as  the  payment  of  costs.  The  term  misno- 
mer is  less  frequently  but  correctly  applied  to  a 
mistake'  in  a  name  in  written  instruments  other 
than  pleadings.  See  Interpretation;  Equity; 
Mistake;  Names;  Pleading;  Wnxs,  etc. 

MISPICK^EL    (Ger.).     See  Arsenopybite. 

mSPBISIOK  (OF.  mespriaion,  misprison^ 
mistake,  from  meaprendre,  to  mistake,  from  mes-, 
from  Lat.  minus,  less  +  prendre,  from  Lat.  pren- 
dere,  prehendere,  to  take).  In  its  general  sense, 
a  crime  under  the  degree  of  a  capital  offense,  but 
graver  than  an  ordinary  misdemeanor  (q.v.) .  In 
the  earlv  English  law  it  was  more  frequently 
employed  in  a  negative  or  passive  sense,  to  de- 
scribe the  omission  to  perform  some  important 
legal  duty,  as  concealment  of  the  treason  of 
others.  It  also  applied  to  certain  positive  acts  in 
the  nature  of  contempts  against  the  dignity  and 
peace  of  the  King  and  his  officers.  Misprision  of 
treason  was  the  most  serious  offense  to  which  the 
term  applied,  and  consisted  in  the  concealment 
of  any  Knowledge  which  a  person  might  have  of 
treasonable  acts  or  utterances  against  the  King, 
and  did  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  person 
was  himself  otherwise  implicated  or  involved  in 
the  crime.  It  was  formerly  punishable  with  for- 
feiture of  goods  and  imprisonment  for  life,  but  by 
statute  forfeiture  of  goods  has  been  abolished, 
and  penal  servitude  for  life  remains  the  statutory 
penalty.  Misprision  of  felony  is  concealment  of  a 
felony  by  one  who  did  not  participate  in  its  com- 
mission by  act  or  encouragement,  but  who  has 
learned  of  it  in  some  way.  It  is  still  an  oflTense 
in  the  English  law,  but  is  rarely  prosecuted.  The 
various  acts  and  omissions,  other  than  the  above, 
which  were  formerly  included  in  the  rather  va^e 
term  misprision,  have  been  mostly  classified 
with  the  crimes  with  which  they  were  associated, 
under  the  name  of  accessory  acts. 

The  term  misprision  is  seldom  employed  in  the 
United  States  except  in  regard  to  treason,  and 
by  an  act  of  Ck)ngress  misprision  of  treason  is 
punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $1000,  and 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  seven  years.  See 
Accessory;  Crimr 

MISBEPBESENTATION.  An  untrue  rep- 
resentation, by  words  or  by  conduct,  which  in- 
duces another  to  act  to  his  injury.  When  deliber- 
ately or  recklessly  made  by  one  party  to  a  busi- 
ness transaction  concerning  a  matter  of  fact  and 
relied  on  by  the  other  party  to  his  damage,  it 
amounts  to  fraud  (q.v.),  and  has  been  dealt 
with  fully  under  that  heading  and  the  heading  of 
deceit  (q.v.).  A  false  representation,  if  made  by 
an  honest  mistake,  never  subjects  the  maker  to 
an  action  in  tort.     Whether  it  will  afford  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MISBEFBE8BNTATI0N. 


587 


MISSION. 


party  to  whom  it  is  made  a  ^^und  for  relief  of 
any  kind  depends  upon  the  circumstances  of  the 
case. 

As  a  rule,  an  innocent  misrepresentation  will 
not  aflfect  the  validity  of  a  contract  in  connec- 
tion with  which  it  is  made,  unless  it  was  the  very 
basis  of  the  contract  or  one  of  its  material 
terms. 

In  certain  classes  of  contracts,  notably  those 
of  marine  and  fire  insurance  (q.v.),  any  misrep- 
resentation or  concealment  of  a  material  fact, 
however  innocent,  renders  them  void.  This  is  due 
largely  to  the  fact  that  such  contracts  have  come 
into  English  law  from  the  law  merchant,  and 
that  early  mercantile  usage  put  an  absolute  legal 
duty  on  the  insurer  to  state  correctly  all  facts 
relating  to  the  thing  insured,  which  would  or- 
dinarily affect  the  insurer's  decision  in  taking  the 
risk.  Courts  of  eijuity  deal  somewhat  differently 
with  innocent  misrepresentation  from  courts  of 
common  law.  They  will  generally  refuse  a  decree 
for  specific  performance  in  favor  of  one  whose 
claim  rests  upon  a  misrepresentation,  although  it 
is  an  honest  one;  and  in  some  cases  they  grant  a 
rescission  of  a  contract  induced  by  such  state- 
ments when  a  court  of  law  would  not.  Ck>nsult: 
Anson,  Principles  of  the  Law  of  Contract  (Ox- 
ford, 1900)  ;  Burdick,  The  Essentials  of  Business 
Law  (New  York,  1902)  ;  Kerr,  A  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Fra/ud  and  Mistake  (London,  1902). 

MISBXTXIJy  LoBD  OF.  A  mock  dignitary  who 
presided  over  the  Christmas  revels  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  He  was  assisted  by  a  staff  of  from 
twenty  to  sixty  officials,  and  furnished  with 
musicians,  dragons,  hobby-horses,  and  other  para- 
phernalia of  fun.  In  Scotland  he  was  sometimes 
known  as  the  Abbot  of  Unreason,  in  France  as 
TAbbe  de  Liesse.    See  Abbot  of  Jot. 

MISSAL  (ML.  missalCy  from  missaUs,  relat- 
ing to  the  mass,  from  missal  mass).  The  book 
which  contains  the  prayers,  lessons,  and  rubrics 
of  the  mass  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Until  the  Middle  Ages  the  various  parts  of  the 
service  were  distributed  in  separate  books,  accord- 
ing to  the  part  taken  by  the  assistants ;  the  parts 
which  the  celebrant  alone  recited  in  the  mass 
and  other  sacraments  were  contained  in  the  Liher 
Sacramentorumy  or  sacramentary.  But  when  low 
masses  became  more  frequent,  and  the  celebrant 
had  to  say  practically  the  whole  service,  the  parts 
were  collected  into  one  book  called  Missale  Ple- 
narium.  These  complete  missals  have  been  in  use 
since  the  sixth  century.  By  the  twelfth,  the 
Roman  liturgy  was  in  use  generally  throughout 
Western  Europe ;  but  a  number  of  provinces  and 
dioceses  had  their  own  missals.  The  disadvan- 
tages of  this  diversity  in  liturgical  use  caused 
numerous  requests  to  be  made  to  the  Council  of 
Trent  for  a  reform  in  the  matter.  The  CJouncil 
appointed  a  commission  on  the  subject  in  1662, 
and  as  they  had  not  concluded  their  labors  by  the 
last  session,  left  the  decision  in  the  hands  of 
the  Pope.  The  commissioners,  among  whom  was 
Thomas  Goldwell,  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph  in 
Wales,  were  not  instructed  to  compile  a  new  mis- 
sal, but  by  examination  of  ancient  manuscripts 
to  reconstruct  the  Roman  missal  according  to  the 
rites  and  customs  of  the  Fathers.  Pius  V.  au- 
thorized the  missal  which  was  the  result  of  their 
work  by  the  bull  Quo  pritnum  of  1570,  command- 
ing its  universal  use  in  places  which  could  not 
show  a  prescription  of  2()0  years  for  their  local 
▼OL.  xni.-88. 


uses.  Thus  the  older  Orders,  such  as  the  Car- 
thusians and  Dominicans,  preserved  their  tradi- 
tional rites;  and  the  Ambrosian  missal  held  its 
ground  in  the  Diocese  of  Milan.  Further  revisions 
took  place  under  Clement  VIII.  in  1604  and  Ur- 
ban VIII.  in  1634;  later  revisions,  as  by  Leo 
XIII.  in  1884  and  1898,  have  touched  merely  mat- 
ters of  detail,  principally  in  the  rubrics.  Be- 
sides these  and  the  tables  which  are  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  book,  it  includes  the  proper  of  the 
seasons,  i.e.  the  service  for  the  Sundays  and 
^resiteT  festivals;  the  proper  of  saints,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  civil  calendar  from  Saint 
Andrew's  Day,  which  regulates  the  beginning  of 
Advent  and  thus  of  the  ecclesiastical  year;  and 
the  common  of  saints,  the  services  for  those  days 
which  have  no  special  mass.  The  central  and 
invariable  parts,  known  as  the  Ordo  and  Canon 
Missw,  come  before  the  service  for  Easter  Day. 
The  older  local  missals,  especially  the  French  and 
English,  are  of  great  interest  to  liturgical  stu- 
dents. No  new  attempts  have  been  made  to  con- 
struct such  books  in  the  Catholic  Church  except 
by  some  French  bishops  under  Jansenist  influence 
aoout  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century;  these 
held  their  own  in  certain  places  even  as  late  as 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  they 
were  all  laid  aside,  largely  through  the  influence 
of  the  celebrated  scholar  Dom  Gu6ranger.  (Ik>n- 
sult  authorities  referred  to  under  Litubgt;  and 
for  the  old  English  missals,  Maskell,  The  Ancient 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  according 
to  the  tise  of  Sarum,  York,  Hereford,  and  Bangor 
(3d  ed.,  Oxford,  1882).    See  also  Mass. 

mSSI  (Lat.,  those  sent).  Officials  sent  out 
by  the  Frankish  kings  for  special  purposes. 
Under  Charles  the  Great  the  missi  dominici  were 
the  Emperor's  special  representatives.  The  Em- 
pire was  divided  into  a  number  of  districts ;  into 
each  district  each  year  two  missi,  one  a  lay  noble, 
the  other  an  officer  of  the  Church,  were  sent  to 
hold  court,  hear  complaints,  redress  grievances, 
and  make  a  special  report  to  the  Emperor.  By 
this  means  Charles  sought  to  control  the  counts 
and  to  centralize  the  government.  The  engui- 
teurs,^  employed  by  Saint  Louis,  had  similar 
functions,  (jonsult  Adams,  Civilization  During 
the  Middle  Ages  (New  York,  1894). 

MISSINa  LINK.  A  term  used  to  designate 
the  stage  assumed  to  intervene  in  evolution  be- 
tween the  ape  and  man,  and  in  a  more  general 
sense  any  hypothetical  form  intermediate  be- 
tween two  actual  forms  of  life. 

MISSION  (Lat.  missio,  a  sending,  from  mit- 
tere,  to  send).  In  the  singular,  a  term  used  by 
Roman  Catholics  and  Anglicans  to  designate  a 
series  of  special  services  lasting  usually  for  at 
least  a  week,  intended  to  call  sinners  to  re- 
pentance, and  to  deepen  the  spiritual  life  of 
the  faithful;  somewhat  analogous  to  what  is 
known  as  a  revival  among  Protestants.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  such  work  was  con- 
stantly carried  on  by  some  of  the  most  famous 
saints,  such  as  Francis  of  Assisi,  Dominic, 
Carlo  Borroroeo,  Francis  de  Sales,  Vincent  de 
Paul,  and  Alfonso  Liguori.  The  two  last  espe- 
cially founded  their  congregations  ( see  La2abists  ; 
Redemptobists  )  for  such  a  purpose.  In  modem 
times  the  means  employed  and  the  order  of  exer- 
cises have  become  more  systematic.  Fervent 
preaching  by  the  missioners,  who  are  usually 
members  of  some  religious  order,  is  the  salient 


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MISSION. 


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MISSIONS. 


feature;  it  deals  largely  with  sin,  repentance, 
death,  judgment,  heaven  and  hell,  and  its  pur- 
pose is  to  bring  the  hearers  to  a  devout  reception 
of  the  sacraments  and  an  earnest  Christian  life. 
It  usually  closes  with  a  solemn  service  of  renewal 
of  baptismal  vows,  thanksgiving,  and  consecra- 
tion, and  with  the  proclamation  of  a  special  in- 
dulgence. In  the  last  third  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury similar  missions,  presenting  no  distinctive 
feature  of  their  own,  were  held  with  increas- 
ing frequency  in  the  Anglican  communion,  espe- 
cially in  High  Church  parishes. 

MISSIONABY  BIBGE,  Battle  of.  See 
Chattanooga,  Battle  of. 

MISSION  INDIANS.  A  collective  term  for 
the  surviving  remnants  of  the  tribes  civilized  and 
Christianized  by  the  efforts  of  the  Spanish  Fran- 
ciscan missionaries  in  southern  California  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They  were 
originally  of  many  various  dialects  and  stocks, 
chiefly  Shoshonean  and  Yuman,  roving  over  the 
desert  and  mountain  region  stretching  from  the 
lower  Colorado  River  to  the  Pacific,  and  in  al- 
most the  lowest  stage  of  culture.  By  the  heroic 
and  persistent  labor  of  Father  Junlpero  Serra 
and  his  successors,  beginning  in  1776,  they  were 
gathered  into  civilized  communities,  where  they 
supported  themselves  by  farming  and  simple 
mechanical  arts,  and  imder  the  kindly  super- 
vision of  the  fathers,  reared  those  magnificent 
mission  structures  which  are  the  glory  of  old 
California.  For  half  a  century  the  missions 
grew  and  flourished,  until  in  1831  they  contained 
19,000  civilized  Indians,  but  with  the  overthrow 
of  the  Spanish  power  by  the  Mexican  revolution- 
ary government  came  oppression,  spoliation,  and 
finally  confiscation  and  destruction  in  the  period 
from  1835  to  1840.  The  missionaries  were  ban- 
ished, the  missions  plundered  and  left  to  fall  into 
ruin,  and  the  Indians  driven  into  the  desert  and 
the  mountains.  Under  the  later  American  rule 
the  remnants  of  the  mission  Indians  continued  to 
be  regarded  and  treated  as  outcasts  until,  chiefly 
by  the  endeavor  of  Helen  Hunt  Jackson  (q.v.), 
public  attention  was  so  forcibly  directed  to  their 
neglected  and  imfortunate  condition  that  the 
Government  took  steps  for  their  relief  by  setting 
aside  some  small  reservations  for  their  occupancy 
and  appointing  an  agent  to  look  after  their  af- 
fairs, together  with  a  good  school  equipment. 
Since  then  some  progress  has  been  made  toward 
bringing  them  up  to  the  standard  to  which  they 
had  attained  imder  the  mission  system  more  than 
a  century  ago.  The  two  great  barriers  in  the 
way  are  the  uncertain  tenure  of  their  lands  and 
the  monopoly  of  the  water  supply  by  white  claim- 
ants. At  present  they  occupy  32  small  reserva- 
tions, aggregating  altogether  only  180,000  acres. 
The  total  population  is  3000,  the  largest  settle- 
ments being  Torres,  520 ;  Morongo,  290 ;  Potrero, 
225;  Mesa  Grande,  200;  Temecula,  100.  They 
are  described  as  industrious  and  good  workers 
among  the  whites  during  the  labor  season,  but 
strongly  given  to  drink  and  improvident  of  the 
future,  much  of  which  disposition  their  agent 
attributes  to  discouragement  and  bad  surround- 
ings. 

MISSIONS,  Christian.  The  terra  Missions 
as  used  in  this  article  signifies  Christian  missions 
among  the  peoples  of  non-Christian  countries. 
Christian  missions  proceed  from  the  example  and 
precepts  of  Jesus  Christ,  from  appreciation  of 
His   teachings   as   essential   to   the   world,   and 


from  the  natural  impulse  of  His  followers  to  pass 
on  to  others  that  which  has  benefited  themsehes. 
The  object  of  such  missions  is  to  propagate  the 
Christian  religion ;  that  is  to  say,  to  make  Jesus 
known  to  those  who  do  not  know  Him,  and  to 
persuade  them  to  admit  Him  to  the  control  of 
their  life.  The  history  of  missions  may  be 
divided  into  three  periods:  (I)  The  Early 
Period,  embracing  the  first  seven  centuries  of 
our  era,  until  the  rise  of  Islam.  In  this  period 
missionary  activity  waa  generally  unorganized 
and  individual.  (2)  The  Middle  Period,  includ- 
ing nine  centuries,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Here 
the  Church  as  an  organization  originated  and 
directed  foreign  missionary  activity.  (3)  The 
Modem  Period,  from  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  until  the  present  time.  In  this 
period  occurred  the  rise  of  Protestant  Foreign 
Missions,  chiefiy  conducted  by  voluntary  so- 
cieties. 

I.    the  eablt  period. 

The  energy  of  the  Apostles  in  winning  men  to 
believe  in  Jesus  Christ  is  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  New  Testament  narrative  of  the  begin- 
nings of  Christian  history.  Early  traditions  give 
ground  for  belief  that  their  missionary  operations 
were  extended.  Yet  excepting  in  the  case  of  Paul 
and  his  companions  details  are  meagre.  The  ex- 
planation of  the  rapid  spread  of  Christianity 
seems  to  be  that  individual  believers  taught  it 
wherever  they  went,  whether  for  business,  for 
safety  from  enemies,  or  as  slaves  to  heathen 
masters.  Great  importance  was  attached  also 
to  translating  the  Bible  into  the  language  of 
every  people  at  this  period.  Examples  of  this 
automatic  spread  of  Christianity  may  be  seen  in 
its  appearance  in  Antioch  before  any  Apostle  went 
there,  its  entrance  into  Italy  before  Paul's  visits, 
into  Britain  by  way  of  Gaul  from  Smyrna  dur- 
ing the  second  century,  along  the  ordinary 
routes  of  trade,  and  into  the  bivouacs  of  the 
Goths  in  the  third  century  through  captives 
taken  in  war.  By  the  time  that  Constantine  the 
Great,  early  in  the  fourth  century,  came  in  con- 
tact with  Christianity  in  Western  Europe, 
shrewdly  championing  it  in  his  struggle  for  su- 
premacy, groups  of  Qiristians  were  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  Roman  Empire,  from  Britain  to 
Persia.  Christians  formed  but  a  small  percent- 
age of  the  population.  But  they  had  a  high  ideal 
and  the  energy  of  aspiration.  This  produced  un- 
flagging activity  in  missions  in  the  West  and  in 
the  East.  The  monasteries  now  performed  great 
services  for  religious  culture  in  out-of-the-way 
places.  In  the  fifth  century  the  centre  of  mis- 
sionary initiative  for  the  West  seems  to  have 
been  in  Central  Gaul.  Thence  bishops  went  over 
into  Britain  to  help  the  Christians  settle  doc- 
trinal difficulties,  and  thence  Patrick  took  his 
new-found  knowledge  into  Ireland.  For  the 
East  at  the  same  time  the  centre  of  missions 
seems  to  have  been  in  Mesopotamia,  at  places  like 
Edessa  and  Nisibis,  with  a  long  chain  of  advance 
posts  reaching  into  Central  Asia  and  India,  and 
with  a  training  school  at  Samarkand.  Toward 
the  north  at  the  same  period  Ulfilas  (q.v.)  went 
on  a  mission  to  his  heathen  kin  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  Danube,  giving  them  an  alpha- 
bet and  a  Bible  in  their  own  tongue.  In  the 
sixth  century  the  initiative  in  the  West  was  from 
the  British  Islands  eastward  and  from  France 
northward.     Desire  to  teach  Christ  brought  Co- 


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HISSIOKa 


5U9 


MISSIOIIB. 


lumba  from  Ireland  to  lona,  which  became  a  won- 
derful centre  of  Christian  culture  and  of  mis- 
sionary zeal  in  behalf  of  Scotland,  North  Britain, 
and  Central  Europe.  As  to  the  East,  the  line 
of  foreign  missionary  advance  was  among  the 
Tatars  and  in  China,  and  was  carried  on  by 
Nestorians  in  relations  with  the  Church  in  Meso- 
potamia. At  the  very  end  of  the  sixth  century 
the  beginning  of  a  missionary  policy  in  the 
Church  as  an  organization  appeared  in  the  dis- 
patch of  Augustine  and  his  helpers  from  Rome  to 
England,  where  the  Saxon  invasion  had  nearly 
crushed  out  Christianity.  Augustine's  mission 
from  the  Pope  was  to  evangelize  the  pagans  and 
to  win  the  assent  of  the  English  Christians  to 
Roman  ecclesiastical  control.  The  method  of 
operation  of  these  independent  missions  was  an 
adaptation  of  the  monastic  system  which  found 
vogue  in  the  East  in  the  third  century.  A  band 
of  Christians  under  a  leader  would  form  a  settle- 
ment in  a  wild  and  savage  region,  where  they 
labored  for  their  own  support.  By  kindness  some 
of  the  barbarians  would  be  drawn  to  settle  near 
the  monastery.  After  the  favor  of  emperors  be- 
gan to  give  the  Church  numerical  preponderance, 
power,  and  wealth,  these  gains  led  to  spiritual 
loss,  and  missions  were  left  to  the  chance  ability 
of  simple-minded  believers  in  remote  regions.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  Christianity 
was  still  an  Oriental  religion.  In  Europe  its 
northern  boimds  were,  in  general,  marked  by  the 
Danube  and  the  Alps,  although  during  the  cen- 
tury missionaries  made  ineffectual  attempts  at  a 
lodgment  in  Denmark,  and  Columban,  going  forth 
from  lona  with  his  associates,  began  a  fiery  and 
successful  propaganda  among  the  barbarians 
of  Central  Europe.  The  narrow  limits  of 
European  €hristendom  at  this  time  should  be 
borne  in  mind  if  we  would  realize  the  full  mean- 
ing to  the  Christian  Church  of  the  Mohammedan 
irruption.  The  Eastern  Church  had  one  mo- 
mentous mission  to  its  credit  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury in  its  dispatch  of  Cyril  and  Methodius  to 
endow  the  Slav  races  with  knowledge  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  with  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures. 
In  the  far  East  the  Nestorians  also  continued 
their  operations  imtil  the  Tatars  finally  cast  in 
their  lot  with  Islam,  and  Tamerlane  in  the  four- 
teenth century  destroyed  the  last  vestiges  of  the 
Central  Asian  Church.  But  with  regard  to  the 
Church  in  general,  from  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  onward  for  nine  himdred  years  the  only 
Christian  foreign  missions  were  remote  from  the 
touch  of  the  Mohammedan  power,  and  belonged 
to  the  Western  or  Latin  section  of  the  Church. 

n.     THE  MIDDLE  PERIOD. 

( 1 )  In  Gebmant.  The  wanderings  of  the  Ger- 
manic nations  and  the  inroads  of  the  Huns  had 
destroyed  along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  the 
flourishing  Christian  communities  of  the  fifth 
century.  It  was  only  after  the  rise  of  the 
Frankish  State  that  efforts  were  made  to  restore 
the  former  condition  of  Christianity  and  to 
spread  its  influence  over  all  Central  and  North- 
em  Europe.  From  the  conversion  of  the  Bava- 
rians to  that  of  the  Saxons  (500-800)  stretches 
a  period  filled  with  spiritual  heroism  on  the  one 
side  and  with  tenacious  resistance  on  the  other. 
The  missionaries  are  mostly  Irishmen  in  the 
first  half  of  the  period,  Anglo-Saxons  in  the 
other.  The  memory  of  the  famous  Saint  Severin 
(died  482)  worked  favorably  in  Bavaria;  early 
in  the  sixth  century  the  royal  family  of  the  Agi- 


lulfings  was  Catholic.  Irish  missionaries  worked 
in  the  land  throughout  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries.  Th^  Frankfort  saints  Rutpert,  Em- 
meran,  and  Corbinian  continued  and  perfected 
their  labors.  The  Irishman  Saint  Gall  (Callech) 
was  the  apostle  of  Swabia  and  Helvetia ;  from  his 
monastery  by  Lake  Constance  went  out  the  mis- 
sionaries of  these  lands.  At  the  same  time  his 
superior  and  long-time  companion,  Columban 
(died  615),  converted  the  German  Lombards  of 
Italy  to  the  Catholic  faith.  Southern  Germany 
owes  the  knowledge  of  the  Christian  faith  to 
other  Irish  missionaries.  Saint  Fridolin,  once 
abbot  at  Poitiers  and  then  founder  of  the  island 
abbey  of  Sackingen;  Saint  Trindpert,  founder 
of  the  abbey  of  that  name  in  the  Breisgau ;  Saint 
Pirmin  (died  753),  founder  of  Reichenau, 
Murbach,  and  Hornbach.  The  Irishman  Saint 
Kilian  (died  689),  with  his  companions  Coloman 
and  Totnan,  evangelized  Thuringia,  and  founded 
the  See  of  Wtirzburg.  Contemporaneously,  Saint 
Willibrord  came  from  the  monastic  schools  of 
Ireland,  to  preach  the  faith  to  the  fierce  Fri- 
sians, and  to  found  the  Archbishopric  of  Utrecht, 
with  the  authorization  of  Pope  Sergius  I.  (695). 
Before  Willibrord,  there  had  worked  along  the 
Rhine  and  the  Moselle  the  holy  man  Goar  in  the 
sixth  century,  and  among  the  Frisians  Saint 
Amand  of  Maestricht  (660)  and  the  goldsmith 
Saint  Eloi  (Eligius)  of  Noyon  (659).  All  of 
these  men  came  imder  the  influence  of  the 
Columban  monastery  of  Luxeuil,  and  were  filled 
with  missionary  zeal. 

The  real  apostle  and  founder  of  (Jerman  Chris- 
tendom is  the  Anglo-Saxon  Wynfrith,  or  Boni- 
face. In  716  he  attempted  to  evangelize  the 
Frisians.  In  719  he  received  at  Rome  from 
Gregory  II.  (715-731)  the  authority  to  preach 
among  the  degenerate  Christians  and  the  pagan 
inhabitants  of  Germany.  In  turn  he  labored 
throughout  Bavaria,  Hesse,  and  Thuringia,  and 
along  the  Rhine,  founded  the  oldest  and  principal 
sees  of  those  regions,  established  monasteries  like 
Fulda,  and  gathered  about  himself  some  of  the 
noblest  spirits  of  the  age.  The  Carolingians  were 
always  friendly  and  helpful.  In  union  with  them 
he  held,  between  740  and  750,  four  national 
synods  that  laid  the  basis  of  German  medieval 
Christian  life.  He  suffered  martyrdom  June  5, 
755  (754  ?),  at  the  hands  of  heathen  (rermans, 
near  Dockum  in  West  Friesland,  whither  he  had 
gone  with  fifty- two  companions  to  confirm  some 
newly  baptized  converts.  The  solid  mass  of  Saxon 
paganism  had  been  attacked  by  the  two  Ewalds, 
sumamed  the  Black  and  the  White,  like  Willi- 
brord, disciples  of  the  Irish  monastic  schools. 
They  sealed  their  hopes  with  their  blood  in  695. 
The  long  wars  of  the  Carolingians  with  the 
Saxons  soon  took  on  a  religious  character.  Com- 
pulsory baptism  and  swift  apostasy  were  the 
rule  throughout  the  eighth  century.  A  cruel 
slaughter  of  4500  Saxons  at  Verden  in  782 
stains  the  fair  fame  of  Charlemagne.  The  con- 
quered Saxons  were  exiled,  transplanted,  op- 
pressed by  laws  of  Draconian  severity;  in  785 
the  dauntless  chiefs,  Witikind  and  Alboin,  finally 
yielded,  and  by  804  the  land  was  entirely 
Christianized.  Missionaries  soon  overran  Sax- 
ony, and  by  their  virtue,  beneficence,  organizing 
skill,  and  their  monasteries,  soon  established  the 
CJhristian  faith  on  a  firm  basis.  The  Abbey  of 
Corvei  (822)  was  soon  the  centre  of  their  activ- 
ity. 


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MISSIONS. 


:2)  Among  the  Nobtuebn  Nations.  Another 
period  of  three  hundred  years  (800-1100)  was 
necessary  for  the  winning  of  the  northernmost 
Germanic  tribes.  In  826  political  necessity  made 
Harald,  King  of  Denmark,  a  suitor  at  the  Court 
of  the  Carolingians.  On  his  return  he  took  with 
him  Ansgar,  a  monk  of  Corvei,  eventually 
the  apostle  of  the  North.  His  chief  deeds  were 
the  establishment  of  the  See  of  Hamburg-Bremen 
(832),  the  partial  evangelization  of  Sweden 
(850),  the  building  of  churches,  schools,  mon- 
asteries, and  hospitals  throughout  his  own  vast 
diocese.  He  died  in  865,  and  is  buried  at  Bremen. 
The  devastations  of  the  pagan  Northmen  and  the 
onslaught  of  the  Hungarians  withheld  from  the 
northern  missions  the  political  influence  of  Chris- 
tian Germany;  after  the  battle  of  Merseburg 
(933)  the  conversion  of  Denmark  went  on,  not 
without  interruption,  from  the  See  of  Saint  Ans- 
gar.  The  Danish  conquests  in  England  helped 
this  process;  in  1017  both  kingdoms  were  ruled 
by  Canute  the  Great ;  in  1026  he  was  a  pilgrim  to 
Rome,  whence  he  wrote  to  his  people  a  noble 
Christian  letter.  In  1086  another  Canute  was  en- 
rolled among  the  Christian  saints.  In  1104  Lund 
was  made  a  metropolitan  see.  Sweden  was  slowly 
won  over  to  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ,  chiefly  in 
the  course  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  with  many 
a  reaction  to  pagan  life  and  belief.  In  1162 
Upsala  became  the  (Christian  metropolis  of 
Sweden.  Long  ere  this  Norway  possessed  a 
metropolitan  see  at  Trondhjem  (1035).  The  land 
was  thoroughly  Christian  before  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  although  it  received  the  visits  of  mis- 
sionaries after  both  of  these  kingdoms.  Haakon 
the  Good  (c.934-960)  was  an  earnest  CJhristian 
king,  but  another  did  not  arise  until  Olaf 
Tryggvason  (995-1000).  Olaf  Haraldson  (1016- 
28 )  sent  German  and  English  priests  through  the 
Kingdom ;  his  overstem  and  cruel  policy  created 
a  reaction,  but  the  still  harder  yoke  of  Denmark 
favored  the  cause  of  Christianity.  From  1035 
Norway  may  be  styled  a  Christian  kingdom.  Ice- 
land was  temporarily  inhabited  by  Irish  monks 
before  the  year  800 ;  their  books,  altar-plates,  and 
staves  were  found  by  the  flrst  Norwegian  settlers. 
After  981  Christianity  penetrated  the  masses 
of  the  colonists,  and  by  1016  they  had  ac- 
cepted the  (jrospel.  Under  its  impulse  this  gifted 
little  people  became  a  living  source  of  learning 
and  piety.  The  scattered  islands  of  the  north- 
em  seas  were  held  during  the  ninth  century 
in  the  grip  of  the  pagan  Vikings,  but  in  the 
course  of  the  tenth  century  were  made  (Christian. 
Before  the  epoch  of  the  Danish  invasions  of 
Ireland,  monks  of  the  Irish  nation  had  visited 
these  islands,  chiefly  out  of  ascetic  fervor  and  the 
desire  to  lead  hermit  lives.  Thev  were  the  flrst 
to  bring  Christianity  to  the  dwellers  of  the  Ork- 
neys, the  Hebrides,  and  the  Shetland  and  Faroe 
islands.  In  the  twelfth  century  Greenland  was 
evangelized,  and  the  See  of  Gardor  established 
on  the  roast:  the  land  was  inhabited  by  Chris- 
tians until  the  flfteenth  century. 

(3)  Conversion  of  Eastern  Extrope.  Slavs 
AND  Magyars.  As  the  Slavs  had  been,  since  the 
sixth  century,  a  serious  menace  to  both  the  East 
and  the  West,  so  the  efforts  to  Christianize  them 
went  out  from  East  and  West.  The  Irishman 
Saint  Columban,  of  Luxeuil  and  Bobbio,  had 
once  hoped  to  begin  the  work:  it  was  certainly 
set  on  foot  from  the  German  See  of  Salzburg  in 
Bavaria,  and  a  beginning  made   (797)   with  the 


Avars,  who  at  this  time  disappear  from  history. 
In  the  course  of  the  ninth  century  the  principal 
Slavic  principality  was  that  centred  along  the 
river  Morava,  hence  called  Moravia.  Both  Ger- 
mans and  Byzantines  sought  to  reserve  this  sphere 
of  influence  and  action  for  themselves.  In  862  the 
Byzantine  Emperor  Michael  III.,  was  able  to 
send  two  missionaries  to  the  Moravians.  They 
were  brothers,  known  to  history  as  Saint  Cyril 
(originally  (Donstantine)  and  Saint  Methodiutfl 
They  introduced  among  the  Slavs  an  alphaliet^ 
translated  the  Scriptures,  and  wrote  for  them  a 
Slavic  liturgy.  To  these  two  inen  the  Slavic  world 
owes  its  first  permanent  elevation  from  idolatry, 
ignorance,  and  serious  moral  corruption.  Mora- 
via's chieif  see,  Olmtitz,  dates  from  1063. 

Bohemia  was  fully  opened  to  Christian  in- 
fluences only  about  871,  when  its  King,  Bondvoi, 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Svatopluk  of 
Moravia,  and  together  with  his  Queen,  Ludmilla, 
was  baptized.  Of  his  grandsons,  Boleslaa 
cruelly  persecuted  the  Christian  faith,  while 
Wenceslas  remained  faithful;  the  latter  fell  hy 
the  hand  of  his  brother  (938),  and  is  honored  as 
a  martyr.  In  the  long  reign  of  the  second  Bolea- 
las  (967-999)  Christianity  triumphed.  The  See 
of  Prague  was  created  in  973.  The  second 
bishop,  Saint  Adalbert,  went  to  preach  the  Goapel 
among  the  heathen  Prussians,  and  was  put  to 
death  by  them. 

Poland  received  the  missionaries  of  Christian- 
ity through  the  marriage  (965)  of  its  Duke  Mie- 
cislas  with  the  Christian  daughter  of  Boleslas 
II.  of  Bohemia,  who  soon  won  over  her  husband 
to  the  faith.  The  See  of  Posen  was  established 
in  968.  From  992  to  1026,  Boleslas  Chrobry, 
son  of  Miecislas,  completed  the  conversion  of  his 
country,  by  the  founding  of  the  Archiepiscopal 
See  of  Gnesen  (1000),  to  which  were  made  sub- 
ject Posen,  Kolberg,  Breslau,  and  Cracow. 

The  Wends  were  a  Slavic  race,  established  in 
Holstein,  Mecklenburg,  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Oder,  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  and  elsewhere  in 
Saxony  and  Lusatia.  They  were  made  Chris- 
tians by  the  creation  of  the  border  marches  in  the 
time  of  Henry  I.  and  Otho  I.  (919-973)  and  the 
foundation  of  the  sees  of  Havelberg,  Oldenburg, 
Brandenburg,  Magdeburg,  and  others  (9467968). 
The  Wend  Prince,  Gottschalk,  was  after  1045  a 
zealous  protector  of  Christianity,  but  was 
treacherously  slain  in  1066  by  a  heathen  Wend. 
In  the  twelfth  century  the  Wends  fell  under 
German  sway,  and  many  German  CThristian  colo- 
nists took  their  lands  and  houses.  The  Wends 
of  Pomerania  owe  their  conversion  to  the  Polish 
Duke  Boleslas  III.  (1122),  and  to  his  agent. 
Bishop  Otho  of  Bamberg  (1124-28).  Kamin, 
Stettin,  Julin,  were  made  Christian  cities,  and 
Saxon  colonists  entered  the  territory;  but  only 
in  1168  were  the  last  remnants  of  heathenism 
abolished  on  the  island  of  Rflgen. 

The  Scandinavian  Rurik  founded  the  Russian 
State  in  862;  soon  Christian  missionaries  from 
Constantinople  found  their  way  thither.  The 
widowed  Princess  Olga  was  baptized  at  Ckm- 
stantinople  in  955,  and  thenceforward  labored 
zealously  for  the  conversion  of  her  people.  Her 
grandson,  Vladimir  the  Apostolic  (died  1015), 
completed  the  work.  The  Metropolitan  See  of 
Kiev  was  established  by  him  and  made  the  centre 
of  the  religious  and  educational  life  of  Russia. 
The  primacy  was  transferred  to  Moscow  in  1328, 
which  in  turn  was  auhiect  to  the  iurisdiction  ol 


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Constantinople  until  1589,  when  Jeremias  11., 
the  patriarcn  of  the  latter  see,  was  induced  to  in- 
stall the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow. 

Bulgaria  became  Christian,  864-866.  The  Khan, 
Bogoris,  first  introduced  Greek  missionaries,  and 
then  appealed  to  Pope  Nicholas  I.  The  latter 
sent  him  the  famous  ^^Replies  to  the  Consulta- 
tions of  the  Bulgarians."  Nevertheless,  Bulgaria 
soon  came  under  the  sole  jurisdiction  of  Con- 
stantinople; the  land  was  subjected  by  the  By- 
zantine emperors,  and  in  1388-93  the  new  Bul- 
garian realm  was  conquered  by  the  Turks. 

The  heathen  Magyars  had  taken  possession 
after  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  of  what  is 
now  Hungary.  All  attempts  at  their  conversion 
were  fruitless  until  the  victory  of  Otho  the  Great 
of  Germany  on  the  Lech,  in  965.  Duke  Geiza 
(972-997),  married  to  a  Christian  princess  of  his 
own  race,  asked  Otho  II.  for  missionaries;  the 
bishops  Pilgrim  of  Passau  and  Wolfgang  ojf  Re- 
gensburg  were  sent  to  him.  G^jza's  son.  Saint 
Stephen  of  Hungary  (997-1038),  was  married  to 
Gisela,  the  daughter  of  Henry  II.  He  created  the 
hierarchical  system  of  Hungary,  by  founding 
(1000)  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Gran  with  ten 
suffragan  sees,  as  well  as  many  Benedictine  mon- 
asteries. Pope  Sylvester  II.  (GJerbert)  gave  him 
the  title  of  'Apostolic'  King,  and  is  said  to  have 
sent  him  a  golden  cross  and  crown  (Crown  of 
Saint  Stephen). 

(4)  Missions  in  Nobtheastern  Eubope. 
Political  Convebsions.  The  power  of  Christen- 
dom was  now  too  great  to  be  longer  resisted  by 
the  outlying  heathen  peoples.  From  Sweden 
went  out  at  the  same  time  the  political  subjection 
of  Finland,  and  its  conversion  to  Christianity. 
It  was  only  in  1293  that  the  work  could  be 
looked  on  as  accomplished.  Esthonia,  Livonia, 
and  dlourland  saw  Christian  missionaries  during 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  follow  in 
the  tracks  of  the  Cterman  merchants  of  Bremen 
and  Lilbeck.  Here  the  heathen  was  fierce  and 
reluctant;  fortified  monasteries  protected  the 
German  (Christians  and  the  newly  converted,  un- 
til, in  1202,  was  founded  the  military  order  of 
the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  {Schwerthruder) 
or  Knights  Swordbearers.  Its  founder.  Bishop 
Albert  of  Buxh5wden,  built  the  city  of 
Riga  and  set  up  therein  his  see.  In  1237 
the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  were  united  with  the 
Teutonic  Knights  of  Jerusalem,  and  for  sixty 
years  both  orders  carried  on  an  unceasing  war- 
fare against  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  the  Baltic 
shore.  Their  most  difficult  conquest  was  that  of 
the  Prussians.  This  most  stubborn  of  the  North- 
em  heathen-folk  gave  way  only  before  the  organ- 
ized and  experienced  knights  of  German  Christen- 
dom and  the  moral  and  financial  support  of  the 
Empire.  In  1243  the  Prussian  territory  was  di- 
vided into  four  sees — Kulm,  Pomerania,  Ermland, 
Samland;  in  1255  they  were  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Riga. 
The  Lithuanians,  temporarily  converted  in  1252, 
relapsed  into  heathenism.  Their  Grand  Prince, 
Jagello,  married  in  1386  the  Polish  Queen  Hed- 
wig,  by  which  act  Poland  and  Lithuania  were 
shortly  made  one  politically.  Jagello  was  bap- 
tized, assuming  the  title  of  Ladislas  II.  Vilna 
was  made  an  episcopal  see,  and  at  a  diet  held 
there  Christianity  was  declared  the  State  religion. 

(5)  Missions  in  the  Sixteenth  Centuby. 
(a)  In  the  Orient.    The  Portuguese  sailors  and 

the    merchants    were    always    accompanied    by 


missionaries.  As  early  as  1533  Goa  was  made 
an  episcopal  see.  The  imworthy  conduct  of  the 
Europeans  was  no  small  obstacle  for  the  mis- 
sionaries when  confronted  with  such  religious 
systems  as  those  of  the  Brahmans,  Buddhists,  and 
Mohammedans.  At  the  request  of  the  King  of 
Portugal,  Saint  Ignatius  of  Loyola  destined  for  the 
East  Indies  in  1540  Rodriguez  and  Saint  Francis 
Xavier.  The  latter  actually  sailed  in  1541  from 
Lisbon,  and  after  some  time  spent  in  evangelizing 
the  Europeans  of  Goa,  turned  his  attention  to  the 
heathen  of  Southern  India.  He  preached  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Travancore,  and  went  thence  to  Ma- 
lacca and  the  Moluccas,  meeting  everywhere  with 
great  success.  Soon  his  zeal  urged  him  to  imder- 
take  the  conversion  of  Japan,  where  he  spent  two 
years  (1549-51).  In  the  hope  of  hastening  the 
conversion  of  Japan,  he  turned  his  attention  next 
to  China,  but  died  on  the  way  on  the  island  of  San- 
cian,  in  November  or  December,  1552.  His  labors 
in  the  East  Indies  were  continued  by  his  Jesuit 
brethren,  especially  by  Robert  Nobili,  after  1606. 
The  latter  made  himself  one  with  the  Indian  aris- 
tocracy, accepted  its  prejudices,  habits,  and  cus- 
toms, as  far  as  seemed  consistent  with  Christian- 
ity, and  enjoyed  a  lar^  measure  of  success. 

The  Nestorian  missions  in  China  during  th<4 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  and  the  Franciscan 
missions  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth,  had 
no  lasting  results.  In  1583  the  Jesuits  obtained 
entrance,  and  for  over  a  century  exercised  a  moral 
supremacy  in  the  Flowery  Kingdom.  Matteo 
Ricci  (1552-1610)  rose  to  the  highest  official 
position.  His  teaching,  surveys,  and  maps  were 
the  admiration  of  all  China. 

Adam  Schall  of  Cologne  (1622)  and  Ferdinand 
Verbiest  of  the  Low  Countries  (1659)  won  great 
fame  for  their  Order  as  successors  of  Ricci.  Un- 
der cover  of  their  reputation  for  scholarship,  they 
labored  zealously  for  the  spread  of  Christianity, 
quite  in  the  spirit  and  manner  of  Robert  Nobili. 
The  opposition  to  this  system  of  *accommoda- 
tion'  grew  so  strong  that  it  was  condemned  in 
1704,  and  the  condemnation  was  confirmed  forty 
years  later  (1744)  by  the  Holy  See.  The  Chris- 
tian communities  of  Japan  were  grievously  per- 
secuted in  1587  and  again  from  1596  to  1637, 
when  the  Empire  was  strictly  closed  against  all 
foreigners,  with  the  exception  of  Dutch  traders. 

(b)  In  Amebiga.  The  original  Spanish  con- 
quistadores  were  very  inhuman  toward  all  na- 
tions with  whom  they  came  in  contact.  The  first 
Catholic  priest  ordained  in  the  New  World  was 
a  young  Spanish  lawyer,  Bartolomeo  de  las  Ca- 
sas.  He  soon  gave  himself  entirely  to  the  work  of 
saving  the  Indians  from  their  barbarous  oppres- 
sors; and  before  his  death,  in  1566,  he  had  com- 
pelled the  legislation  which  saved  the  remnants 
of  the  aboriginal  tribes,  at  least  on  the  main- 
land. Similarly,  Saint  Peter  Claver  (died  1654) 
was  tireless  in  the  service  of  the  unfortunate 
negro  slaves  of  South  America.  Throughout  the 
sixteenth  century,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Ca- 
puchins, and  Auguatinians  labored  with  bound- 
less zeal  in  all  the  Spanish  colonies.  The  Jesuits 
were  already  in  Brazil  (1549),  and  soon  had 
their  missionaries  in  all  parts  of  South  America. 
The  famous  "Reductions  of  Paraguay"  are  per- 
haps their  greatest  triumph.  One  of  the  most 
picturesque  figures  of  that  period  is  the  Limerick 
Irishman,  Thomas  Filde,  a  Jesuit,  who  died  at 
Asunci()n  in  1626,  after  spending  forty  years 
among    the    savages    of    Paraguay.      In    North 


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America  the  French  missionaries  followed  the 
flag  of  France,  and  worked  unremittingly  after 
1611  throughout  all  the  dominions  over  which  it 
floats.  In  1634  Jesuit  missionaries  accompanied 
the  first  colonists  of  Maryland. 

m.     THE  MODEBN  FEBIOD. 

A.  Pbotestant  Foreign  Missions  :  ( 1 )  State 
MissiONABY  Entekpbises.  At  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  Christendom  was  still  beleaguered 
by  armed  Islam.  Up  to  the  very  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  a  great  part  of  Hungary 
was  in  the  possession  of  Turlcey,  and  in  1683 
Vienna  barely  escaped  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  Mussulmans.  Missionary  access  to  Eastern 
North  Africa  and  Western  Asia  was  barred  by 
the  sword  of  Islam.  At  the  same  time  trans- 
marine heathen  lands  were  so  distant  that  Im- 
perial resources  alone  could  reach  them.  Such 
resources  were  all  in  the  hands  of  the  great  Ro- 
man Catholic  powers.  The  conditions  imder 
which  the  Reformation  developed  left  to  the 
reformers  no  place  for  planning  foreign  mission- 
ary enterprise.  Luther  and  his  associates  ap- 
preciated the  essentially  missionary  quality  of 
the  Church  of  Christ,  but  limited  its  sphere  of 
action  to  their  own  surroundings.  They  deemed 
that  in  any  case  the  Church  was  helpless  regard- 
ing foreign  missions,  since  such  vast  undertak- 
ings could  be  dealt  with  by  governments  alone. 

The  first  Protestant  foreign  missions,  then, 
were  State  enterprises.  In  1656  Admiral  Coligny 
induced  the  Coimcil  of  Geneva  to  send  mis- 
sionaries to  Brazil  in  connection  with  a  Hu- 
guenot colony.  But  both  mission  and  colony 
soon  ended  in  bloody  disaster.  In  1569  Gustavus 
Vasa  of  Sweden  sent  missionaries  to  labor 
for  the  pagan  Lapps  of  his  own  dominions.  But 
this  mission  came  to  naught.  After  the  con- 
quest by  Holland  of  several  Portuguese  colonies 
in  the  East  Indies,  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany was  formed  in  1602,  and  the  governors  of 
the  various  islands  were  ordered  to  do  all  in 
their  power  to  Christianize  the  natives.  Clergy- 
men were  sent  out  to  Ceylon,  Formosa, 
and  the  Malay  Archipelago  as  missionary 
chaplains,  whose  duty  mcluded  the  Christian 
instruction  of  natives.  But  the  governors  of 
the  colonies  obeved  their  orders  literally,  and 
'Christianized'  the  natives  without  waitmg  for 
the  missionaries  to  instruct  them.  Consequently, 
when  Dutch  government  came  to  an  end  in  Cey- 
lon, some  300,000  oflScially  converted  natives  re- 
turned to  their  former  faith.  In  Formosa  Chris- 
tianity was  extinguished  by  the  Chinese,  when 
they  drove  the  Dutch  from  the  island  in  1661.  In 
Java,  however,  the  missionary  chaplains  slowly 
translated  the  Scriptures  into  Malayan.  The 
second  of  modem  Bible  translations  into  heathen 
languages  (John  Eliot's  Indian  Bible,  printed  in 
1683,  being  the  first)  was  thus  produced  by  the 
initiative  and  published  (in  1701)  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Dutch  Government.  With  all  its  de- 
fects this  State  mission  enterprise  had  permanent 
results.  In  Java,  the  Moluccas,  and  Celebes  has 
grown  up  a  native  Christian  Church,  numbering 
nearly  250,000  adherents,  with  over  350  pas- 
tors and  preachers,  supported  by  the  Dutch  (Gov- 
ernment. Of  these  probably  not  more  than  half 
are  the  fruit  of  later  missionary  efforts.  A  simi- 
lar mission  undertaken  by  Holland  in  Brazil, 
through  the  West  India  Company,  about  the  year 
1621,  came  to  an  end  with  the  expulsion  of  the 


Dutch  about  the  middle  of  the  century.  Such 
missionary  enterprises  imdertaken  for  reasons  of 
State,  manned  by  official  appointment,  and  su- 
pervised by  colonial  bureaus  and  chamben 
of  commerce,  were  foredoomed  to  failure.  The 
next  of  the  State  missionary  enterprises 
originating  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  illus- 
trates this  fact.  In  1705  a  woman  whose 
husband  had  been  killed  by  natives  in  the 
Danish  colony  of  Tranquebar,  in  South  India,  pe- 
titioned King  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  to  send 
missionaries  to  teach  the  people  there.  The  pe- 
tition was  effective.  The  King  endowed  the  mis- 
sion, and,  no  fit  men  being  found  in  Denmark, 
two  Germans  were  appointed  to  go  to  India.  They 
were  of  the  disciples  of  Francke,  the  German  piet- 
ist, who  saw  that  the  highest  form  of  Christian 
fruitfulness  includes  foreign  as  well  as  home  mis- 
sions, and  whose  energy  formed  schools  at  Halle 
to  prepare  men  to  serve  Christ  in  the  ends  of  the 
earth.  The  two  young  men,  Ziegenbalg  and  Plut- 
schau,  taught  singleness  of  purpose  at  Halle,  and 
sent  out  by  King  Frederick  IV.  in  1706,  beg^  the 
first  serious  Protestant  mission  enterprise  in 
India.  Before  his  death,  in  1719,  Ziegenbalg  had 
made  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
the  Tamil  language,  which  became  the  basis  of 
the  existing  Tamil  Bible,  and  the  third  modem 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  heathen  lan- 
guages. Other  missionaries  from  the  same  home 
surroundings  followed  the  two  pioneers  of  this 
Danish  mission,  notably  Schultzer  and  his  later 
associate,  Schwartz.  Each  of  these  men  made  a 
permanent  impression  upon  the  people  of  the 
country.  Fifty  thousand  Tamils  became  Chris- 
tians before  the  end  of  the  century.  After  the 
death  of  King  Frederick  IV.,  the  English  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  as- 
sumed the  whole  support  of  the  Danish  mission 
in  India  until  1824,  when  the  enterprise  was 
passed  over  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel.  Another  mission  maintained  by 
King  Frederick  IV.  was  that  commenced  by  Hans 
Egede  in  Greenland  in  1721.  It  was  later  trans- 
ferred to  the  Danish  Missionary  Society,  and  the 
whole  Eskimo  population  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  numerous  Danish  trading-stations  was  long 
ago  Christianized. 

The  British  Government  took  steps  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century  for  the  Christianizing  of 
its  colonies.  The  Virginia  Company,  whose  enter- 
prise began  in  1584,  was  directed  by  its  charter 
to  teach  Christianity  to  the  Indians,  and  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  subscribed  one  hundred  pounds  to 
that  object.  The  same  duty  was  laid  upon  the 
Massachusetts  Colony  by  charter  in  1628.  In 
1646  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  passed  a 
law  for  missionary  work  among  the  Indians. 
This  gave  State  support  to  the  efforts  of  John 
Eliot  of  Roxbury,  Thomas  Mayhew  of  Martha's 
Vineyard,  and  others.  In  1648  Cromwell  induced 
the  English  Parliament  to  consider  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  Government  foreign  missionary  enter- 
prise. The  renewal  of  civil  war,  however,  put 
an  end  to  the  scheme.  But  the  Corporation  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  €k>spel  in  New  England, 
formed  in  England  in  1649,  received  a  grant  from 
Parliament  and  aided  Eliot's  mission.  It  still 
exists  under  the  name  of  *The  New  England  Com- 
pany,' and  expends  the  revenue  from  its  endow- 
ment funds  for  the  education  of  Indians  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  All  these  efforts  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  several  villages  of  con- 


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Terted  Indians  in  New  England  before  progress 
was  arrested  by  war.  In  the  East  Indies, 
on  the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the  British  East 
India  Company  in  1698,  the  duty  was  imposed 
upon  the  company  of  maintaining  chaplains  at 
its  stations,  and  later  the  obligation  to  see  that 
its  native  servants  were  instructed  in  Christian 
doctrine.  Discussions  regarding  religious  condi- 
tions in  the  company's  stations  led  to  the  organ- 
ization in  1698  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Christian  Knowledge  (S.  P.  C.  K.),  designed  • 
to  provide  Christian  schools  and  books  for  neg- 
lected English  communities.  This  was  followed 
three  years  later  by  the  organization  of  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Ooapel  in 
Foreign  Parts  (S.  P.  G.),  designed  to  provide 
-chaplains  for  the  religious  culture  of  Englishmen 
in  foreign  lands.  Neither  of  these  societies  aimed 
at  Christianizing  the  heathen.  But  the  S.  P. 
C.  K.  saved  the  Danish  mission  in  South  India 
from  dying  with  its  founder,  and  supported  it  for 
a  hundred  years.  It  has  also  issued  Christian 
literature  in  the  languages  of  various  non-Chris- 
tian peoples.  Its  issues  of  this  description  in 
1905  amounted  to  82,100  volumes.  As  to  the 
43.  P.  G.,  it  paduall^  took  up  work  among  the 
pctgans,  and  in  1906  it  had  788  missionaries  and 
■3384  native  workers  in  India,  China,  Japan,  Ma- 
laysia, Africa,  and  the  West  Indies.  In  view  of 
their  later  history,  these  two  societies  may  be 
regarded  as  the  earliest  of  the  voluntary  foreign 
missionary  societies  of  Great  Britain. 

(2)  Pbotestant  Voluntary  Mission  art  So- 
ciKTiES.  Since  the  true  aim  of  missions  is  to 
persuade  men  to  admit  Jesus  Christ  to  the  control 
of  their  lives,  efforts  that  tend  to  accomplish  this 
aim  are  of  equal  interest  to  all  Christians.  From 
this  point  of  view  we  may  note  the  development 
of  the  missionary  spirit  in  Protestant  Christen- 
dom, without  pausing  to  follow  into  detail  its 
national  or  denominational  particulars.  In  1709 
the  state  of  the  North  American  Indians  led  to 
tlie  formation,  in  Scotland,  of  a  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge.  The  chief 
present  importance  of  this  society  was  its  employ- 
ment as  a  missionary  (in  1744)  of  David  Brain- 
•erd  of  Connecticut.  The  story  of  his  brief  life 
bad  persuasive  influence  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic in  stimulating  similar  devotion.  A  more 
powerful  influence  of  the  same  nature  was  exer- 
cised by  the  writings  and  the  example  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  who  called  themselves  the 
"Tlnity  of  Brethren.*  A  remnant  from  persecu- 
tion,  this  little  people  migrated  from  Bohemia, 
and  in  1772  found  asylum  in  Germany.  They 
were  allowed  to  settle  on  the  estates  of  Count 
^inzendorf,  who  was  himself  a  pupil  of  Francke 
of  Halle,  and  who  became  their  leader.  The 
'brethren'  established  missions  among  the  slaves 
of  the  West  Indies,  in  Greenland,  among  the 
Indians  of  the  North  American  Colonies,  in  South 
Africa,  in  South  America,  and  in  Labrador  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  More 
recently  they  have  opened  missions  in  Australia, 
Alaska,  and  on  the  borders  of  Tibet.  In  1 900,  all 
the  Eskimos  at  their  four  stations  in  Greenland 
having  become  Christians,  they  transferred  their 
Greenland  mission  to  the  Danish  Church.  In 
their  other  fields  they  had  in  IftOC,  394  mission- 
aries, assisted  by  1838  native  workers. 

Through  such  influences  and  through  the  writ- 
ings of  Spener  and  Francke  in  Germany,  and  the 
earnest  exhortations  of  Whitefield  and  Wesley  in 


England  (who  had  themselves  been  deeply  affect- 
ed by  the  writings  of  Francke  and  Zinzendorf), 
and  of  Jonathan  Edwards  in  America,  a  resusci- 
tation of  personal  religion  was  brought  about. 
At  about  the  same  time  the  travels  of  Captain 
Cook  revealed  the  immense  extent  of  the  heathen 
world,  while  occurrences  like  the  trial  of  Warren 
Hastings  and  the  anti-slavery  agitation  of  Wil- 
berforce  brought  home  to  the  minds  of  the  Eng- 
lish people  their  responsibility  for  outrages  per- 
petrated by  purely  selfish  men  professing  the 
name  of  Christians.  The  time  was  ripe  for  action 
to  benefit  the  sufferers  from  such  outrages.  As 
early  as  1779  the  English  Wesleyans  sent  a  num- 
ber of  missionaries  among  the  North  American 
Indians,  and  in  1786  they  began  a  mission  in 
the  West  Indies.  In  1814  these  beginnings  were 
followed  by  the  organization  of  a  society  which 
has  supervised  the  mission  work  of  that  Church 
up  to  the  present  time.  Its  missions  lie  in  Cey- 
lon, in  other  parts  of  India,  in  South  Africa, 
Ooeanica,  and  China.  In  1906  this  society  had  in 
the  field  382  missionaries  of  both  sexes,  aided  by 
14,993  native  workers.  In  general,  however,  the 
sudden  development  of  foreign  mission  enter- 
prises about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury did  not  come  from  any  church  organization. 
It  sprang  from  the  awakening  of  isolated  indi- 
viduals whom  the  Church  opposed  as  unsteady 
enthusiasts.  In  1786  William  Carey,  a  cobbler 
and  a  Baptist  minister  in  England,  surprised  a 
ministers'  meeting  by  proposing  discussion  of  the 
duty  of  foreign  missions.  He  was  frowned  down 
by  his  elders.  In  1792,  however,  he  commanded 
attention  and  won  support.  The  duty  had  be- 
come plain.  In  that  same  year  twelve  men  united 
to  form  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  sending 
Carey  and  Thomas  as  their  first  missionaries  to 
India.  The  East  India  Company  would  not  tol- 
erate missionaries,  but  they  found  a  safe  resi- 
dence in  the  Danish  Colony  of  Serampore,  near 
Calcutta.  The  influence  of  the  mission  was  im- 
mediate. Carey's  greatest  work  was  that  of  Bible 
translation;  and  the  Serampore  press,  imder  his 
direction,  added  to  the  slender  list  then  existing, 
translations  of  Scripture  in  thirty-four  languages. 
The  Baptist  Societv  extended  its  work  in  India, 
and  added  to  its  field  Ceylon,  the  West  Indies, 
West  Africa,  and  China.  In  1906  it  had  in  the 
field  276  missionaries,  men  and  women,  with  2795 
native  workers.  The  example  of  the  English  Bap- 
tists had  effect  in  all  Protestant  countries.  The 
reading  of  Carey's  first  letters  from  India  led 
in  1795  to  the  formation  of  the  London  Mission- 
ary Society  (L.  M.  S.),  in  which  Independents, 
Presbyterians,  Methodists,  and  Episcopalians 
united.  Since  the  other  denominations  have  un- 
dertaken missions  of  their  own,  this  society  is 
now  composed  substantially  of  Independents 
alone.  Its  present  fields  are  Oceanica,  South  and 
Central  Africa,  Madagascar,  India,  and  China. 
In  1906  it  had  in  the  field  277  missionaries,  men 
and  women,  and  7155  native  workers.  Nott, 
John  Williams,  Morrison,  Medhurst,  Rice,  Mof- 
fat, and  Livingstone  are  names  which  give  spe- 
cial lustre  to  its  roll.  In  1796  two  similar  socie- 
ties were  formed  in  Sootknd,  which  served  at 
first  as  auxiliaries  to  the  Tendon  society.  Later 
they  did  good  work  by  themselves  in  South  Africa 
and  the  West  Indies,  and  afterwards  became 
merged  in  the  missionary  societies  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  and  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland.    The  formation  of  a  society  in  Hoi- 


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land  in  1797  (called  the  Netherlands  Missionary 
Society),  to  aid  in  the  work  of  the  London  So- 
ciety, illustrates  the  solidarity  of  Christian  feel- 
ing which  underlies  the  modern  missionary  move- 
ment, and  also  the  failure  at  first  to  appreciate 
the  extent  of  the  work  committed  to  a  single 
hoard  of  directors  by  Christians  of  different  de- 
nominations and  nationalities.  The  Netherlands 
Missionary  Society  furnished  several  missionaries 
to  the  L.  M.  S.,  and  afterwards  chose  its  special 
iield  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  where  in  1906  it 
had  30  missionaries.  From  this  beginning  a  score 
of  other  societies  in  Holland  have  sprung  for  di- 
rect and  indirect  foreign  missionary  work.  Mean- 
while, the  claims  of  freed  slaves  at  the  Sierra 
Leone  colony  were  pressed  upon  the  Church  of 
England.  Pious  men  in  the  employ  of  the  East 
India  Company,  like  Brown  and  Grant,  urged 
that  Church  to  labor  among  the  people  of  India. 
Nothing  being  done  by  the  Church  in  1799,  twen- 
ty-six of  its  spiritually  minded  members,  among 
whom  were  William  Wilberforce,  John  Venn,  and 
Charles  Simeon,  organized  the  Church  Missionary 
Society  (C.  M.  S.),  at  first  known  as  the  Society 
for  Missions  to  Africa  and  the  East,  They  at 
once  encountered  opposition  on  the  ground  that 
such  enterprises  should  be  directed  by  the 
bishops,  which  made  it  difficult  for  them  to  find 
fit  ministers  to  go  out.  Hence,  the  society  drew 
its  early  missionaries  from  Germany.  Altogether, 
more  than  a  hundred  of  its  missionaries  have 
been  Grermans,  many  of  them  of  the  highest  abil- 
ity, like  Krapf,  Rebmann,  Rhenius,  and  Pfander. 
Nearly  half  a  century  passed  before  the  C.  M.  S. 
won  recognition  from  the  episcopate.  The  fields 
of  the  C.  M.  S.  are  in  India,  Ceylon,  China, 
Japan,  West  Africa,  East  Africa  and  Uganda, 
Mauritius,  Arabia,  Persia,  Palestine,  Egypt,  Su- 
dan and  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  Brit- 
ish North  America.  In  1906  it  had  in  the  field 
1397  missionaries,  men  and  women,  and  7494  na- 
tive workers,  of  whom  360  are  ordained  clergymen. 
The  growth  of  English  interest  in  missions,  com- 
bined with  the  successes  of  the  Halle  missionaries 
in  India,  led  in  1800  to  the  establishment  at  Ber- 
lin of  Jannicke*s  Missionary  School.  This  school 
during  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  furnished 
some  eighty  missionaries  to  the  English  and  Dutch 
societies,  and  served  to  arouse  further  interest  in 
missions  in  Germany.  Meanwhile,  the  same  ideas 
were  working  in  America.  They  found  expression 
in  foreign  missions  through  the  devotion  of 
Samuel  J.  Mills  and  other  students  at  Williams 
College,  who  agreed  together  to  give  their  lives 
to  preaching  to  the  heathen.  The  earnestness  of 
these  young  men  led  to  the  formation,  in  1811,  of 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions  (A.  B.  C.  F.  M.),  an  interdenomi- 
national society.  The  first  missionaries  of  this 
society,  Newell,  Judson,  Hall,  Rice,  and  Nott, 
were  sent  to  India,  and  were  instantly  ordered  out 
of  the  country  by  the  East  India  Company.  Jud- 
son and  Rice  joined  the  Baptists  at  Serampore, 
and  the  others  after  some  trouble  succeeded  in 
getting  a  footing  in  Ceylon  and  at  Bombay. 
Within  ten  years  the  society  had  occupied  other 
fields  in  India,  in  Hawaii,  and  in  Turkey.  After 
some  forty  years  of  existence  as  an  interdenomi- 
national society  it  relinquished  some  of  its  fields 
(in  India,  Persia,  Syria,  and  West  Africa)  to 
the  American  Dutch  Reformed  and  Presbyterian 
churches,  who  wished  to  conduct  separate  mis- 
sions of  their  own.     It  is  now  chiefly  supported 


by  Congregationalists.  The  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  has 
missions  in  China,  India,  Ceylon,  South  Africa, 
West  Africa,  Japan,  Turkey,  and  Oceanica.  In 
1906  the  number  of  its  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  was  566,  with  4064  native  workers.  Jud- 
son and  Rice,  of  the  first  group  of  missionaries 
sent  to  India  by  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  changed  their 
views  on  baptism  before  entering  upon  their 
work,  and  chose  Burma  for  their  field  of  labor. 
This  occurrence  led  in  1814  to  the  formation  of 
•  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  (A.  B. 
M.  U. )  to  assume  the  support  of  the  two  pioneers 
in  Burma.  Its  present  fields  are  in  Burma,  Siam, 
Assam,  India,  China,  Japan,  and  the  Congo  Free 
State.  In  1906  it  had  in  the  field  549  mission- 
aries of  both  sexes,  with  4345  native  workers. 

The  success  of  the  earl^  missionaries  of  these 
English  and  American  societies  aroused  an  inter- 
est which  extended  to  the  Protestants  of  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  led  in  1815  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  Missionary  Institute  at  Basel,  in 
Switzerland.     The  training  school   for  mission- 
aries with  which  this  institute  began  its  opera- 
tions provided  valuable  men  for  the  English  so- 
cieties.   A  magazine  for  missionary  intelligence, 
published  by  uie  Institute,  deepened  missionary 
interest  in  Germany  and  other  Protestant  coun- 
tries.   In  1822  the  Basel  Institute  began  to  send 
out  missionaries,  one  of  the  earliest  of  whom, 
Zaremba,  labored  effectively  in  Russian  Armenia 
until   expelled  by   the   Russian   Government  in 
1835.    Its  present  fields  are  in  West  Africa,  India, 
and  China,  and  graduates  of  its  school  are  pas- 
tors of  evangelical  churches  in  Turkey.    In  1906 
it  had  in  the  field  375  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  with  1511  native  workers.    The  land  of 
Luther  had  already  contributed  men  and  means 
for  foreign  missions  during  many  years  before  its 
first  foreign  missionary  society  was  formed  at 
Berlin  in  1824  by  ten  men  of  mark,  among  whom 
were  Neander  and  Tholuck.    Following  the  con- 
servative usage  of  the  Continental  Protestants, 
the  first  work  of  the  Berlin  Missionary  Society 
was  to  establish  a  training  school  for  missionaries. 
It  began  to  send  men  abroad  in  1834.    Its  present 
fields  are  in  South  Africa,  German  East  Africa, 
and  China.    It  has  also  done  much  to  draw  Chris- 
tian colonists  to  the  German  colonies.    In  1906 
it  maintained  245  men  as  missionaries  in  its  va- 
rious fields.     During  the  first  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  consicterable  number  of  little 
missionary  associations  had  been  formed  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Germany  to  aid  existing  societies 
at  Basel  and  elsewhere.     Later  these  de>'eloped 
into  the  Rhenish,  the  North  Oermany  the  Leipzig, 
the  Oossner,  and  the  Hermannsburg  Missionary 
Societies,  and  have  finally  won  the  support  of  the 
official  representatives  of  the  Church  to  what  is 
now  a  large  and  important  missionary  enterprise 
in  Africa,  India,  Cnina,  Malaysia,  and  Austra- 
lasia.    The  foreign  missions  of  the  Protestants 
of  France  began  in  1818,  with  a  missionary  maga- 
zine intended  to  give  information  of  the  work  of 
missionaries  of  other  nations.    This  was  followed 
in  1824  by  the  organization  of  the  Evangelical 
Missions  Society  of  Paris,  designed  at  first  to 
aid  existing  missions.     Since   1825  it  has  sent 
missionaries  of  its  own  to  Central  Africa  and 
Senegambia,   besides    replacing,    in    consequence 
of  French  national  prejudices,  missionaries  of  the 
L.  M.  S.  in  Tahiti  and  Madagascar,  and  American 
missionaries  in  the  French  Congo  region.    It  haa 
( 1906)  176  missionaries  in  its  service.  The  roots  of 


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the  existing  missionary  societies  in  Denmark,  Protestant  colonies.  Since  1861,  when  the  first 
Norway,  and  Sweden  also  lie  in  the  first  quarter  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Union  was  formed 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  These  Scandinavian  in  New  York,  Christian  women  in  all  lands  have 
societies  expanded  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  entered  upon  the  work,  organizing  women's  mis- 
century,  and  in  1900  had  between  500  and  600  sionary  societies,  commonly  more  than  mere 
missionaries  in  Africa,  Madagascar,  India,  China,  auxiliaries  to  the  older  enterprises.  Educational 
and  Chinese  Turkestan.  The  intimate  relations  and  medical  missionary  enterprises  have  been 
of  some  of  the  Scandinavian  societies  with  Qer-  established  in  considerable  numbner.  Interdenomi- 
man,  English,  and  American  enterprises,  however,  national  missionary  societies,  like  the  Christian 
make  it  certain  that  some  of  these  missionaries  and  Missionary  Alliance  of  America  and  the 
are  also  reported  by  societies  in  other  countries.  China  Inland  Mission  and  the  North  Africa  Mis- 
In  1824  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland  im-  sion  of  England,  have  undertaken  extensive  enter- 
dertook  missionary  work  in  India  and  among  the  prises  in  non-Christian  countries.  To  some  extent 
Kaffirs  in  Africa,  one  of  its  early  missionaries  Christian  communities  which  are  themselves  the 
being  Alexander  Duff,  the  father  of  educational  fruit  of  missions  have  undertaken  foreign  mis- 
missions.  The  disruption  in  1843  caused  the  sions;  as  in  India,  Africa,  the  Fiji  Islands,  the 
resignation  of  all  the  Scotch  Church  missionaries  Hervey  Islands,  and  Hawaii.  In  India,  Ceylon^ 
in  India  and  Kaffraria,  they  preferring  to  join  and  South  Africa  the  Salvation  Army  has  estab- 
the  Free  Church,  which  has  since  carried  on  lished  itself,  seeking  to  forward  the  evangeliza- 
extended  missionary  operations.  In  1900  the  Free  tion  of  the  heathen  by  methods  peculiar  to  itself. 
Church  joined  with  the  United  Presbyterian  We  may  also  here  mention  the  Student  Volunteer 
Church  in  forming  the  United  Free  Church  of  Movement,  organized  in  1886  in  America,  but 
Scotland.  This  body  has  missions  in  India,  now  found  in  many  other  lands.  It  is  neither  de- 
Africa,  Arabia,  Sjrria,  Turkey,  China,  West  In-  nominational  nor  a  missionary  society,  but  un- 
dies, and  the  New  Hebrides.  It  had  in  1906,  457  consciously  follows  the  idea  which  led  the  Ger- 
missionaries,  men  and  women,  and  its  force  of  na-  man  Baron  von  Welz  in  1633  to  make  his  mis- 
tive  workers  is  3838.  As  to  the  Established  sionary  appeal  to  students.  It  has  influence  in 
Church  of  Scotland,  after  recovering  from  the  colleges  and  universities  in  increasing  knowledge 
effects  of  the  disruption,  it  pressed  its  missionary  of  the  claims  and  the  results  of  foreign  missions^ 
enterprises,  and  in  1906  it  had  in  India,  Central  and  in  providing  the  various  societies  with  can- 
Africa,  China,  and  Turkey  160  missionaries  of  didates  for  service  in  the  field, 
both  sexes,  with  739  native  workers.  These  Soot-  According  to  the  statistical  tables  of  the  Rev. 
tish  mission  enterprises  are  carried  on  by  the  Dr.  J.  S.  Dennis  (in  his  Centennial  Survey  of 
Church  organizations,  and  not  by  independent  Foreign  Missions,  to  which  we  are  indebted  for 
missionary  societies.  some  other  statistics  given  below),  in  1900  the 
The  Bible  societies  grew  out  of  the  same  total  number  of  societies  directly  or  indirectly 
religious  quickening  which  gave  rise  to  the  vol-  engaged  in  the  Protestant  missionary  enter- 
imtary   missionary   societies    (the   British   and  prise  was  as  follows: 

Foreign  Bible  Society,  1804,  the  American  Bible  American  con tinentB IM 

Society,  1816,  the  Netherlands  Bible  Society,  the  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 154 

Scottish  National  Bible  Society,  and  others).    So  ^°j™*5^ :::":::::::::::.■":::::     2 

far  as   concerns  their   publications   in  the  Ian-  France ////.!....//////.!//.!///////.!!///.!///..."../.i.."  « 

guages  of  non-Christian  peoples  these  societies  Germany 24 

do  foreign  missionary  work  m  the  very  highest  ^^J^J^y ]''Z^lZZZllZllllllZl^Zl[Z''Z^Z   lo 

sense,  since  no  Protestant  foreign  mission  can  Sweden  /////////.//////////////////"/""/../.  ".3^^^^^^^^  lo 

exist  without  the  Bible  in  the  language  of  the  Switzeriand * 

people  among  whom  it  is  working.     The  Bible  lS*,\,^;^;- and  o^^-^"^^--"--"-^  ^ 

Societies  work  m  harmony  with  each  other  and  Africa ** 

with   the   missions.     Indeed,   missionaries   have  -rr^ 

made  the  greater  part  of  the  translations  of  the  Total •••.••• 

Bible  now  in  circulation.    The  Bible  or  parte  of        These  societies  were  in  190G  represented  m  the 

it  existed  in  1906  in  455  languages.     The  Reli-  field  by  about  16,000  missionaries,  men  and  wo- 

gious  Tract  Society  of  London    (1799)   and  the  men,  and  about  92,000  native  preachers,  teachers, 

American  Tract  Society  of   New  York    (1820)  and  other  laborers. 

have  done  a  similar  work  for  foreign  missions  in  The  enormous  increase  of  foreign  missionary 
aiding  to  provide  general  Christian  literature  in  societies  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth 
the  languages  of  non-Christian  lands.  century,  and  especially  since  the  work  of  Living- 
While  our  survey  indicates  the  origin  of  the  stone  and  Stanley  culminated  in  the  opening  of 
Protestant  missionary  movement  in  the  spiritual  Africa  to  colonization,  might  seem  to  threaten 
enlightenment  of  the  Christian  Church,  it  cannot  friction  and  confusion  among  these  numerous 
detail  ite  expansion  since  the  first  quarter  of  the  agencies.  This  has  been  largely  averted,  how- 
nineteenth  century.  In  the  second  quarter  of  the  ever,  because  unity  of  aim  develops  a  sense  of  the 
century  the  Methodist  Church  and  the  Presbyte-  essential  unity  of  all  interests.  In  India,  China, 
rian  Church  in  the  United  States,  previously  oc-  and  Japan,  and  in  some  other  countries,  interde- 
cupied  with  missions  among  the  American  In-  nominational  conferences  of  missionaries  are 
dians,  began  their  great  missionary  enterprises  regularly  held  for  the  comparison  of  experiences, 
abroad.  In  many  other  denominations  in  the  the  improvement  of  methods,  and  the  promotion 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Europe,  foreign  of  comity.  In  the  Netherlands,  in  Germany,  in 
missionary  undertakings  have  been  organized,  the  United  States,  and  to  some  extent  in  Great 
Since  the  middle  of  the  century  foreign  mission-  Britain,  conferences  between  the  various  Prot- 
ary  societies  have  been  formed  in  the  colonial  estant  missionary  societies  are  held  at  regular 
churches  in  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  India,  Aus-  intervals  for  the  same  purpose.  Furthermore, 
tralia.  New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  and  other  general  and  international  missionary  conferences 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MISSIONS.                             596  MISSIOK& 

have  been  held,  of  which  the  last,  known  as  the  problem  arises  of  their  organization  and  culture 
Ecumenical  Missionary  Conference  of  1900,  as  a  body  having  self-control,  initiative,  and  the 
brought  together  representatives  of  240  Protest-  power  of  expansion.  The  results  of  missionary 
ant  missionary  societies.  The  harmony  displayed  work  cannot  be  permanent  unless  the  Christian 
at  such  conferences,  representing  many  denomi-  Church  becomes  indigenous  on  the  foreign  field, 
nations,  gives  the  impression  that  Protestant  for-  Hence  the  members  of  native  churches  must  early 
eign  missionaries  should  be  considered  as  a  be  accustomed  to  manage  their  own  affairs  and 
single  force,  and  that  they  stand,  to  quote  the  to  support  their  own  church  institutions  and 
words  of  the  historian  McKenzie,  *'in  the  fore-  their  schools.  Missionaries  rarely  become  pas- 
most  rank  of  powers  destined  to  change  the  face  tors  of  the  local  churches,  and  in  general  avoid 
of  the  world."  settling  local  ecclesiastical   questions  except  in 

(3)  Methods  and  Pboblehs  of  Foreign  Mis-  conjunction  with  the  local  ministers.    The  under- 

siON   Work.     As  to  the  methods  used  in  the  taking  of  the  local  church  to  provide  financial 

presentation  of  the  Gospel,   experience  has  de-  resources  for  its  own  churchwork  is  called  by 

veloped  certain  principles,  almost  attaining  to  the  somewhat  ambiguous  term  of  'self-support,' 

the  quality  of  a  science  of  missions.     Preaching  and   is  well   established   in   a  large  number   of 

in  the  language  of  the  people  is  the  first  and  missions,    notwithstanding    poverty    among    the 

most  important  method  of  evangelization;   and  church  members. 

the  establishment  of  a  permanent  preaching  Whatever  the  ability  and  common  sense  of  the 
place,  to  which  all  may  come  if  they  choose,  is  a  missionary,  attack  is  probable  upon  him  by 
first  concern  in  every  missionary  station.  Need  vested  interests  represented  in  the  religion  of 
at  once  appears  to  place  the  Bible  in  the  hands  the  country  where  he  would  preach.  The  murder, 
of  the  people.  This  fixes  literary  work  as  an-  during  1900,  of  135  British,  Swedish,  and  Ameri- 
other  method  of  evangelization.  Qualified  mis-  can  missionaries  in  China  was  a  tragedy  of  mis- 
sionaries translate  the  Bible,  set  up  presses  and  Rions  more  than  once  paralleled  in  quality, 
print  it,  prepare  helps  to  its  study,  tracts,  and  though  not  recently  in  degree.  In  this  connec- 
general  Christian  literature,  and  in  short  apply  tion  a  problem  arises  as  to  the  right  of  mis- 
the  enormous  influence  of  the  printing-press  to  sionaries  to  ask  Government  protection.  It  is 
the  enterprise  of  making  Christ  known.  In  1900  generally  held  that  missionaries  should  not  de- 
the  publishing  centres  in  Protestant  foreign  mis-  pend  upon  such  protection ;  that  they  go  among 
sion  fields  numbered  148,  with  an  annual  output  savage  tribes  at  their  own  peril,  and  that  in  lands 
of  nearly  365,000,000  pages  of  Christian  litera-  where  laws  and  treaties  exist  they  must  obey  the 
ture.  Desire  that  the  people  shall  read  not  only  laws.  On  the  other  hand,  a  government  jeopar- 
requires  the  printing  of  primers,  but  the  estab-  dizes  the  right  of  all  its  people  residing  in  any 
lishment  of  schools.  But  every  school  gives  unsur-  foreign  country  when  it  neglects  to  defend  such  of 
passed  facilities  for  moral  and  spiritual  culture,  them  as  are  maltreated  while  engaged  in  lawful 
and  this  in  proportion  to  the  importance  of  its  occupations. 

general  training.  Kence  educational  work  h&s  An  (4)  Results  of  Missions.  Statistical  tables 
importance  as  a  method  of  evangelization  which  is  of  Protestant  foreign  missions  suffer  from  diver- 
immeasurable  where  the  quality  of  instruction  is  sities  of  conception  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
of  the  best  and  the  spiritual  power  of  the  teachers  returns  which  are  due  to  diversity  of  nationality 
is  of  the  highest.  In  1900  there  were,  under  the  and  ecclesiastical  polity.  Nefvertheless,  the  fol- 
direction  of  Protestant  foreign  missionaries  lowing  may  be  taken  as  a  fairly  accurate  thou|^h 
throughout  the  non-Christian  world,  18,864  conservative  statement  of  the  number  of  Chns- 
primary  schools  and  kindergartens,  with  909,146  tian  adherents  in  Protestant  missions  throughout 
pupils  of  both  sexes,  and  1614  higher  educational  the  world  in  1904: 
institutions,   with    142,320   students;    94   of   the  fhm  Amjw4ftai» 4ymthimt#, fw^H^^fag Or^^imnA mwI Uia 

last-named  institutions  are  universities  and  col-       Wettlndiei 1,130,000 

leges  attended  by  36,539  students  of  both  sexes  lgf«»"^-i!S&i^"r"^                           J:?il:g!!l 

Medical   work    is    another    powerful    method    of    Oeeanica  and  AoAtralAaift 293,000 

evangelization.       Protestant  foreign  missions  in 

1900   possessed    355    hospitals    and    753   dispen-  T<>*^ MT2,000 

saries,   in   which   2,579,651   individuals  received  Of  this  number,  1,450,000  were  communicants, 

treatment  during  the  year.     A  most  pervasive  and  the  number  admitted  as  communicants  dur- 

method  of  evangelization  is  consistent  Christian  ing  the  year  was  126,364. 

living.  This  includes  not  only  Christian  family  Again,  foreign  missions  have  not  merely 
life,  which  in  itself  is  an  object  lesson  for  non-  planted  Christianity  in  all  the  principal  non- 
Christians,  but  social  intercourse  with  the  people.  Christian  lands  of  the  world.  They  have  added 
Missionaries,  both  men  and  women,  find  access  the  Bible  to  the  literature  of  all  the  great  lan- 
to  the  homes  of  the  people,  travel  among  the  guages  of  the  earth,  placing  before  the  eyes  of 
towns  and  villages,  speak  to  the  poor  and  igno-  the  people  the  principles  of  true  manhood  and  its 
rant  perhaps  the  only  sympathetic  words  heard  model  in  the  peerless  figure  of  Jesus  Christ.  The 
in  a  lifetime,  make  known  to  them  the  Gospel  annual  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  in  foreign 
of  Christ,  and  in  famine  or  pestilence  they  make  mission  fields  was  in  1905  about  5,000,000  Bibles, 
the  interests  of  the  sufferers  their  own,  and  help  Testaments,  and  other  parts  of  Scripture.  Re- 
them  to  endure  and  survive  the  catastrophe,  suits  of  missions  visible  to  the  eye  in  non- 
The  effectiveness  of  all  these  methods  of  evan-  Christian  lands,  but  not  capable  of  record  in 
gelization  depends  largely,  however,  upon  the  statistics,  are  the  overthrow  of  degrading  super- 
qualities  of  the  missionaries  themselves.  Too  stitions,  the  limitation  or  extinction  of  immoral 
much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that  and  cruel  customs,  the  modification  of  non- 
the  success  or  failure  of  a  mission  depends  upon  Christian  religious  teaching,  the  gradual  eleva- 
men  rather  than  upon  methods.  tion  of  the  standing  of  woman,  the  quickening 

As    soon    as    converts    have    been    won,    the  of  general  intelligence,  and  the  wide  inlToduction 


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HISSION& 


697 


HISSION& 


of  educaticm  among  illiterate  and  degraded  races, 
together  with  the  addition  of  great  territories 
to  the  area  of  the  world's  commerce.  To  this 
must  be  added  the  work  done  by  missions  in 
charitable  care  for  the  sick,  the  bliiid,  the  lepers, 
and  outcasts  of  every  class. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  The  reports  of  the  societies, 
annals  of  particular  missions,  and  lives  of  in- 
dividual missionaries,  constitute  a  great  mass  of 
material.  A  bibliography  of  this  literature  to 
the  end  of  1890  by  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson 
may  be  found  in  Bliss,  EncyclopcBdia  of  Missions 
(New  York,  1891),  continued  by  Dennis  in  his 
Foreign  Missions  After  a  Century  (New  York, 
1893).  For  a  general  view  of  the  missionary 
operations  of  various  societies  and  discussions  of 
the  theory  of  missions,  consult  the  Report  of  the 
Ecumenical  Conference  of  1900  (New  York, 
1900),  which  has  a  good  brief  bibliography 
in  its  appendix.  Grudemann's  Missions-Atlas 
(Calw,  1896)  gives  a  good  series  of  maps  of 
the  operations  of  the  larger  societies  of  Europe 
and  America.  For  the  history  of  Protestant 
missions,  consult:  Warneck,  Ahriss  einer  Ge- 
schichte  der  protestantischen  Missionen  von  der 
JReformation  bis  auf  die  Oegenwart  ( 8th  ed.,  Leip- 
zig, 1904;  Eng.  trans,  by  Robson,  Outli/ne  of  the 
History  of  Protestant  Missions,  8th  ed.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1906).  For  the  study  of  the  mission 
fields  and  the  results  of  missions,  consult:  Chris- 
tian Missions  and  Social  Progress  (3  vols.,  New 
York,  1900-1 ) ;  the  appendix  to  this  work.  Cen- 
tennial Survey  of  Foreign  Missions  (New  York, 
1901),  has  a  very  complete  collection  of  statis- 
tics; consult,  also,  Dwight,  Tupper  and  Bliss, 
Encyclopcedia  of  Missions  (New  York,  1904). 
Gibson,  Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods 
in  South  China  (London,  1901),  gives  a  good 
view  of  mission  methods  illustrated  from  the 
field.  For  more  general  discussion,  consult: 
Clarke,  A  Study  of  Christian  Missions  (New 
York,  1900) ;  Churton,  Foreign  Missions  (Lon- 
don, 1901 )  ;  Pierson,  The  Modern  Missions  Cen- 
tury (New  York,  1901) ;  Hodgkins,  Via  Christi: 
An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Missions  (New 
York,  1901);  Montgomery,  Foreign  Missions 
(London,  1901);  Lawrence,  Modem  Missions  in 
the  East  (Chicago,  1901);  Murray,  The  Key  to 
the  Missionary  Problem  (New  York,  1902); 
Speer,  Missionary  Principles  and  Practice  (New 
York,  1902) ;  Beach,  Geography  and  Atlas  of 
Protestant  Missions  (New  York,  1902-3) ;  Hume, 
Missions  from  the  Modem  View  (New  York, 
1905) ;  Leonard,  Hundred  Years  of  Missions 
(New  York,  1906).  For  the  spread  of  the 
Church  during  the  first  three  centuries,  the  au- 
thoritative history  is  Warneck,  Die  Mission  und 
Ausbreitung  des  Christenthums  in  den  ersten 
drei  Jahrhunderten  (Leipzig,  1902).  For  medi- 
cal missions,  consult:  Lowe,  Medical  Missions 
(London,  1887);  Penrose,  Opportunities  in  the 
Path  of  the  Great  Physician  (Philadelphia, 
1902);  Dwight,  Blue  Book  of  Missions,  1905 
and  1907,  is  a  pocket  compendium  of  statistics, 
And  other  missionary  information. 

B.  Roman  Catholic  Foreign  Missions.  ( 1 ) 
Central  Administration,  (a)  The  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Propaganda, — In  a  general  way  the 
direction  of  all  Roman  Catholic  missions  is 
vested  by  the  Holy  See  in  the  Roman  Coufprega.- 
tion  De  Propaganda  Fide,  established  in  1622  for 
Roman  Catholic  missions  by  Gregory  XV.  It 
consists  to-day  of  twenty-five  cardinals,  with  a 


cardinal  prefect  as  their  head,  and  a  number  of 
prelates  and  consultors  in  charge  of  the  various 
details  of  administration.  The  Congregation  has 
at  Rome  its  own  palace  or  bureaux,  a  college,  a 
library  and  museum,  a  polyglot  printing-press, 
and  certain  fixed  revenues,  chiefly  from  domestic 
or  Italian  sources.  The  various  missions  are 
distributed  by  it  according  to  the  character  of 
ite  subjecte  and  the  nature  of  the  religious  orders 
to  which  they  belong.  It  settles  finally  all  dis- 
putes between  missionaries,  whether  they  regard 
territorial  jurisdiction  or  the  conduct  of  the 
missionary  work.  The  regular  reporte  made  by 
missionary  bishops  or  superiors  to  the  Holy  See 
pass  through  the  Congregation,  and  in  general  it 
acte  as  agent  for  missionaries  in  all  matters  that 
regularly  pertain  to  other  Roman  Congregations ; 
e.g.  questions  of  Tridentine  law,  marriage  and 
divorce,  criminal  questions,  and  the  like.  Its 
principal  meeting  is  on  the  first  Monday  of  every 
month.  A  weekly  meeting  is  regularly  held  for 
minor  matters.  Among  the  most  important  at- 
tributes of  this  Congregation  is  the  selection  of 
bishops.  Where  there  is  a  regularly  established 
hierarchy,  a  list  of  three  names  is  submitted  to 
the  Propaganda  with  all  the  documente  pertain- 
ing thereto.  These  candidates  are  discussed  in 
the  regular  monthly  assembly  of  all  the  resident 
cardinals,  and  he  who  seems  the  most  worthy  is 
proposed  to  the  Pope.  This  privilege  of  recom- 
mendation, in  whatever  way  it  be  exercised,  dif- 
fers entirely  from  the  election  of  a  bishop,  which 
belongs  to  cathedral  churches  by  virtue  of  the 
regular  canon  law.  In  some  countries,  as  in 
Canada,  and  formerly  in  the  United  States,  the 
provincial  bishops  alone  recommend  the  three 
candidates.  In  other  countries,  as  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  the  clergy  or  the  chapter 
( i.e.  the  canons  of  the  cathedral ) ,  as  the  superior 
part  of  the  clergy,  draw  up  a  list  whicn  the 
bishops  of  the  province  confirm  with  their  appro- 
bation or  reject  with  animadversion  on  one  or 
the  other,  or  all,  of  the  candidates.  Elsewhere, 
as  in  the  United  States  since  1884,  and  in  Aus- 
tralia, the  clergy  or  representative  part  of  the 
clergy  recommend  three  names  to  the  bishops  of 
the  province,  who  in  turn  recommend  these  or 
others  to  the  Holy  See.  When  there  is  no  regular 
hierarchy,  vicars  apostolic  are  appointed,  with 
episcopal  character,  from  a  list  of  three  names 
drawn  up  by  the  superiors  of  the  religious  in- 
stitute or  Order  to  wnich  the  care  of  the  faithful 
has  been  already  committed.  In  the  absence  of 
such  action  the  Pope  appoints  a  vicar  apostolic  on 
recommendation  of  the  Propaganda.  On  account 
of  the  rapid  growth  of  Catholicism,  chiefly  in 
English-speaking  countries,  the  office  of  Cardinal 
Prefect  oi  the  Propaganda  has  become  one  of  the 
most  important  and  responsible  of  the  great 
curial  offices ;  he  is  often  called  the  *Red  Pope.' 

The  College  of  the  Propaganda  is  an  institution 
attached  to  the  Congregation  for  the  purpose  of 
training  its  missionaries  from  their  very  youth. 
It  owes  its  first  beginnings  to  the  Spaniard  John 
Baptist  Viv^s,  who  bequeathed  to  it  his  palace 
at  Rome  and  made  it  his  heir.  Since  1622  the 
original  foundation  has  been  greatly  enlarged. 
Urban  VIII.  was  a  notable  benefactor  of  the 
work  (1641)  ;  hence  it  bears  the  name  of  CoZ- 
legtum^  Urbanum.  Some  canons  of  the  Lateran 
Church  were  the  first  teachers  of  the  young  mis- 
sionaries, but  the  college  soon  passed  into  the 
complete  control  of  the  new  Congregation.    It 


Digitized  by 


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1CD3SI0N& 


598 


1CD3SI0N& 


was  endowed  with  many  privileges  by  the  popes. 
They  exempted  it  from  all  ordinary  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  jurisdiction,  and  several  special  distinc- 
tions were  granted  it ;  among  others,  the  right  of 
giving  degrees  in  theology  and  philosophy.  Its 
present  quarters  were  designed  by  Bernini,  and 
the  chapel  is  the  work  of  Borromini.  Seven 
months  after  their  entrance  the  candidates  for 
the  missions  are  required  to  take  an  oath  of 
obedience  to  the  Congregation;  among  other 
things,  they  promise  to  go  directly  to  their  re- 
spective missions  after  ordination.  Those  who 
remain  as  missionaries  in  Europe  (e.g.  in  the 
British  Isles,  the  northern  kingdoms,  Switzer- 
land) are  required  to  report  annually  to  the 
Prefect  of  the  Congregation;  those  whose  mis- 
sions are  elsewhere  must  write  to  him  biennially. 
Not  a  few  candidates,  especially  from  the  Orient, 
come  at  a  very  early  age.  Such  youths  do  not 
take  the  'missionary  oath'  until  after  they  have 
reached  their  fourteenth  year.  In  this  college 
the  training  is  the  usual  seminary  training. 
Only,  for  the  beginners,  Greek  and  Latin,  and 
especially  the  suitable  Oriental  languages,  make 
up  the  curriculum.  The  college  owns  near  Rome 
its  own  country-seat  or  villegiature,  whither  the 
students  go  during  the  heated  season.  On  Pente- 
cost one  of  the  students  of  the  college  preaches 
before  the  Pope  and  the  cardinals.  Its  students 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  about 
140;  at  present  they  do  not  exceed  120.  The 
French  Revolution  caused  it  to  close  its  doors; 
but  since  1809-17  it  has  been  opened  for  its 
former  work,  and  many  distinguished  men  have 
graduated  from  its  classes.  From  1836  to  1848 
the  teaching  and  discipline  were  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Jesuits.  Since  then  they  are  provided 
for  directly  by  the  Congregation  itself,  which 
names  a  rector  and  vice-rector  with  other  offi- 
cials, and  provides  for  the  programme  of  studies. 
Several  national  colleges  attend  the  lectures  of 
its  professors — thus,  the  North  American,  Cana- 
dian, Irish,  Greek,  Ruthenian,  and  other  national 
ecclesiastical  schools  frequent  its  class-rooms. 
Yearlv  an  Acoademia  Polyglotta  is  held  on  the 
first  Sunday  after  Pentecost.  Discourses,  poems, 
and  addresses  are  then  read  in  a  great  variety  of 
languages,  chiefly  Oriental,  and  the  ceremony  is 
graced  by  the  presence  of  many  dignitaries  of  the 
Roman  Court.  Lately  new  and  commodious 
quarters  have  been  secured  for  the  academic 
needs  of  the  college. 

The  Congregation  has  long  owned  and  managed 
'  a  printing-press  that  is  unique  on  account  of  the 
many  kinds  of  type  it  possesses  for  the  Oriental 
languages.  In  the  last  two  centuries  a  multitude 
of  Oriental  texts  have  come  from  its  offices — 
liturgical,  ascetic,  literary,  theological,  patristic, 
historico-religious.  There  is  perhaps  nowhere 
else  in  the  world  an  Oriental  printing-press  so 
well  equipped  and  so  scientifically  conducted. 
It  issues  regularly  a  catalogue  of  its  publica- 
tions, and  is  officially  known  as  the  Stamperia  de 
Propaganda  Fide. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  governs 
all  Catholic  missions  according  to  the  general  law 
of  the  Church,  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  the  decisions  of  other  Roman  Congrega- 
tions, the  Papal  rescripts,  and  the  conciliar  legis- 
lation. But,  over  and  above  the  ordinary  law 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  special  legislation 
for  the  missions  and  missionaries.  As  early  as 
1609  the  Propaganda  issued  its  Advice  to  Mis- 


sionaries, that  has  been  lately  reprinted  {Monita 
ad  Missionaries,  Rome,  1874).  The  details  of  its 
extensive  legislation  are  to  be  found  in  the  col- 
lection of  its  document  known  as  the  Bullarium 
of  the  Congregation  (Rome,  since  1839,  5  voU., 
folio;  with  an  index,  1858).  Another  collection 
is  that  of  Raphael  de  Martinis  (7  vols.,  folio, 
Rome,  1889-1900).  The  particular  legislation  of 
the  Propaganda  affecting  the  Oriental  missions 
is  found  in  the  work  entitled  Collectanea  Con- 
stitutionum,  etc.  (Paris,  1880),  and  in  the  Ap- 
paratus Juris  Ecclesiastici  of  Zephyrin  Zitelli 
(Rome,  1886).  Occasionally  the  Congregation 
issues  a  legislation  that  modifies  the  regular 
canonical  procedure  in  justice;  e.g.  in  the  trial 
of  matrimonial  cases,  clerical  delicts,  and  other 
judicial  processes.  Such  documents  then  become 
norms  of  ecclesiastical  government  in  the  land 
for  which  they  are  issued.  The  current  public 
documents  of  the  Congreffation  may  be  easily 
foimd  in  the  Roman  canon  law  periodical  entitled 
Acta  Sanctof  Sedis,  and  those  of  the  Pope  in  the 
annual  series  of  Pontifical  documents  respect- 
ively known  as  Acta  Pii  IX,,  Acta  Leonis  XHL, 
etc. 

Usually  the  establishment  of  a  remote  and 
difficult  mission  begins  with  the  sending  of  a  Pre- 
fect Apostolic  by  the  Pope,  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda.  As  a  rule 
this  missionary  is  only  a  priest,  but  he  receives 
certain  special  authorizations  from  the  Holy  See; 
e.g.  the  right  to  administer  confirmation.  As 
soon  as  the  conditions  of  the  mission  warrant,  a 
vicar  apostolic  is  appointed  to  take  charge  of 
its  interests.  Such  a  missionary  is  made  a  titular 
bishop;  i.e.  he  is  given  the  ^itle'  of  some  see, 
extinct  or  suppressed.  No  specific  seat  of  resi- 
dence is  fixed  for  him ;  he  organizes  the  mission 
as  best  he  can.  In  time  sees  are  established  with 
territorial  limits,  and  canonical  obligation  of 
residence  for  the  bishop;  thus  a  quasi-normal 
condition  arises  in  which  the  administration  of 
spiritual  affairs  gradually  grows  quite  like  that 
of  the  older  Catholic  States  of  Europe,  and  the 
regular  ecclesiastical  law  tends  to  obtain  as 
against  the  temporary  and  opportunist  adminis- 
tration of  an  earlier  date.  Nevertheless,  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  the  Holy  See  often  continues  to  go?- 
em  such  well-developed  churches  through  the 
Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  instead  of  in- 
corporating them  in  the  ordinary  system  of  its 
administration.  The  Propaganda  is  thus  one  of 
the  busiest  of  the  Roman  congregations.  There 
come  before  it  all  questions  that  arise  in  'mission- 
ary lands'  concerning  the  creation  of  dioceses, 
their  dismemberment,  division,  union,  and  trans- 
formation; the  nominations  to  episcopal  office: 
the  relations,  in  last  resort,  of  bishop  and  clergy; 
all  questions  between  bishops  and  religious  Or- 
ders, and  between  Orders  themselves  in  matters 
of  their  mission  work;  the  discipline  and  super- 
vision of  national  missionary  colleges,  theological 
seminaries  in  missionary  lands;  the  regular  re- 
ports of  its  bishops,  their  special  needs  or  plans, 
and  similar  things.  It  is  in  close  contact  with 
all  other  Roman  congregations,  to  which  it  acts 
as  a  kind  of  clearing-house  for  the  missions  and 
missionaries.  Its  juridical  decisions  are  final, 
authoritative,  and  reversible  only  by  the  Pope, 
to  whom  they  are  always  submitted  beforehand 
when  the  jrravity  of  the  occasion  or  the  nature 
of  the  problem  in  question  warrants.  The  Con- 
gregation has  a  permanent  secretary,  generally 


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an  archbishop,  who  goes  weekly  to  the  Vatican 
with  the  proceedings  of  the  Congregation,  to  sub- 
mit them  to  the  approval  of  the  Tope  and  give 
such  explanations  as  are  needed.  This  office  is 
looked  on  as  'cardinalitial,'  i.e.  as  leading  di-. 
rectly  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal — hence  it  is  al- 
ways filled  by  an  ecclesiastic  of  learning  and  ex- 
perience. 

A  large  and  valuable  library  is  connected  with 
the  Congregation,  for  its  own  use,  and  for  the 
needs  of  the  college  and  the  printing-press.  It  is 
especially  rich  in  ancient  tneolojgy  and  philos- 
ophy, and  in  all  kinds  of  Orientalia,  both  printed 
and  manuscript.  It  is  accessible  to  students  and 
writers.  The  archives  of  the  Cimgregation  are 
kept  with  care,  and  are  of  great  value  for  the 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  history  of  the  missionary 
lands.  They  are  partially  accessible  imder  cer- 
tain conditions,  and  are  now  being  used  by  his- 
iorians  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  especially  for  the  period  of  the 
Coimter-Reformation  in  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and  the  Netherlands. 

Until  1862  the  affairs  of  all  the  missionary 
churches,  East  and  West,  were  treated  in  one 
and  the  same  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda. 
In  that  year  Pius  IX.  established  a  special  sec- 
tion of  the  Congregation  for  the  administration 
of  the  Oriental  churches  {8aora  Congregatio  pro 
NegoHis  Ritus  Orient aUs) .  It  has  its  own  chief, 
a  Cardinalis  PonenSf  and  its  own  officials  and 
counselors.  Toeachcurial  (resident)  cardinal  of 
this  section  is  allotted  the  conduct  of  the  re- 
ligious affairs  of  some  one  of  the  Oriental  rites 
united  with  the  Holy  See;  he  is  called  the  Car- 
dinalis Relator. 

(2)  National  and  Pabticulab  Direction. 
The  principal  national  missionary  enterprises  of 
Roman  Catholics  are  carried  on  from  Paris  and 
Lyons  in  France.  The  most  venerable  of  them 
is  the  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions  {Missions 
Etrang^es),  founded  at  Paris,  1658-63,  and 
located  in  the  Rue  du  Bac.  Its  missionaries  are 
under  the  guidance  of  33  local  superiors  (bish- 
ops) throughout  China,  Korea,  Tibet,  Turkey, 
Siam,  Burma,  and  Hindustan.  Since  1840  the 
Seminary  has  sent  out  nearly  2000  priests;  at 
present  about  1200  French  priests  carry  on  its 
work,  with  the  aid  of  some  600  native  clergy. 
Between  three  and  four  hundred  mission  candi- 
dates study  in  its  school  at  Paris.  In  twenty 
years  its  personnel  has  increased  from  480  to 
1200 — a  phenomenon  noticeable  in  nearly  all 
other  French  missionary  enterprises.  In  the 
Seminary  is  a  curious  and  touching  Mus4e  dea 
Martyrs.  The  annual  departure  of  its  missiona- 
ries from  Paris  gives  occasion  for  a  remarkable 
popular  ceremony  and  demonstration.  The  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  ((Euvre  de 
la  propagation  de  la  foi )  was  founded  in  Lyons  in 
1822  by  a  few  pious  lay  persons.  Its  object  is 
not  to  train  or  send  out  missionaries,  but  to  col- 
lect and  distribute  for  missionary  purposes 
funds  received  from  private  generosity.  This 
distribution  is  carried  out  without  distinction  of 
location  or  nationality,  a  principle  which  from 
the  beginning  differentiated  this  organization 
from  previous  enterprises  of  a  similar  nature. 
The  receipts  for  the  year  1822  were  scarcely 
$4000.  In  1898  the  association  collected  nearly 
seven  millions  of  francs  and  the  total  amount 
raised  by  the  society  in  the  various  countries 
(France   being  always  far   in   advance   of   the 


others)  from  the  beginning  down  to  1900  was 
nearly  $66,000,000.  Of  this  sum,  about  $10,000,- 
000  were  expended  on  the  missions  of  America. 
The  Society  was  organized  in  the  United  States 
as  early  as  1833,  and  the  total  amount  collected 
down  to  1900  was  $1,120,000.  The  means  adopted 
for  the  raising  of  funds  is  the  payment  of  five 
cents  per  month  by  the  members  enrolled  in  the 
Association.  The  Work  of  the  Holy  Childhood 
{(Euvre  de  la  sainte  enfance),  a  related  enter- 
prise, has  collected  and  spent  about  ten  million 
dollars.  Other  French  associations  for  mission- 
ary help  are  the  Work  of  the  Oriental  Schools, 
the  annual  collection  on  Good  Friday  for  the 
Holy  Land,  the  Work  of  the  African  Missions, 
the  Anti-Slavery  Association,  the  White  Fathers, 
the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ohost — all  works  estab- 
lished originally  in  France  and  extended  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world. 

There  are  many  religious  Orders  and  institutes 
in  France  which  send  numerous  members  to  the 
mission  fields;  thus,  there  are  some  800  French 
Jesuits  in  the  Orient,  and  they  carry  on  excellent 
colleges  at  Beirut,  Cairo,  and  Alexandria.  In 
Syria  they  have  some  180  schools  with  13,000 
children.  Similarly  Lazarists,  Dominicans,  As- 
sumptionists,  and  others  have  numerous  mis- 
sionaries scattered  through  the  Orient.  The 
Clhristian  Brothers  have  many  well-attended 
schools  in  Egypt,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  in  the  Levant.  Owing  to  colo- 
nial expansion.  Catholic  €rermany  has  shown 
more  interest  in  missions  during  the  last  three 
decades,  though  the  earlier  French  *Works*  al- 
ways found  sympathy  in  Germanjr.  The  Boni- 
faciuS'Verein  (1849)  for  home  missions  has  spent 
in  the  fifty  years  of  its  existence  some  seven 
million  dollars.  The  Ludvoigs-Verei/n  (1839), 
the  Leopolds-Yerein  (1839),  the  Afrika-Verein 
(1894),  the  Association  for  the  Holy  Land 
(1893),  and  other  enterprises  have  kept  alive 
the  zeal  of  German  Catholics  for  the  conversion 
of  the  heathen.  In  1900  there  were  in  all  some 
1100  German  Catholic  missionaries,  of  whom  489 
were  Jesuits.  This  figure  includes  the  364  'Sis- 
ters' who  labored  in  the  same  field.  Within  the 
last  few  years  an  increasing  missionary  activity 
is  manifest,  especially  in  China  and  Brazil,  in 
which  latter  country  the  German  colonists  in- 
crease at  a  rapid  rate. 

The  French  'Sisterhoods'  give  generously  of 
their  members  to  the  Oriental  missions.  Most 
of  the  missionaries  to  the  credit  of  Catholicism 
are  Frenchmen;  a  still  larger  proportion  of  the 
Catholic  'Sisters*  on  these  missions  is  made  up 
of  French  women.  Perhaps  10,000  is  not  too 
high  a  number;  in  1899  they  were  more  than 
0000.  Of  these  the  'Sisters  of  Charity*  alone 
furnished  about  1500.  Of  the  100  to  120  'congre- 
gations' of  men  and  women  that  labor  in  Catho- 
lic missionary  fields,  over  80  are  of  French 
tongue,  or  have  their  home  in  France. 

While  the  Spanish  missionaries  have  nearly  all 
taken  their  way  to  the  Philippines,  the  Italian 
missionaries  carry  on,  in  an  hereditary  way,  cer- 
tain lines  of  work  in  the  Orient,  notably  in  the 
Levant.  Statistics  of  their  number  and  work 
are  not  easily  reached.  The  Salesian  Fathers 
(Turin)  of  Don  Bosco  turn  their  energy  toward 
South  America,  and  the  society  founded  by  Bish- 
op Scalabrini,  of  Piacenza,  is  especially  in- 
terested in  the  Italian  population  of  South 
America  and  our  North  American  cities.    Holland 


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has  had  a  house  for  foreign  missions  at  Stejl  since 
1875,  with  about  120  missionaries.  At  Mill  Hill, 
in  England,  the  English  Catholics  support  a 
seminary  for  missions  among  the  blacks.  The 
College  of  All  Hallows  at  Dublin  draws  its  mis- 
sionaries from  Ireland;  many  of  them  come  to 
the  United  States  and  merge  into  the  American 
clergy;  Ireland  makes  provision  also  for  a  few 
missions  in  Africa  and  India. 

As  to  the  civil  relations  of  the  Catholic  missions 
in  the  Orient,  France  is  still  their  official  inter- 
mediary with  the  local  governments.  This  an- 
cient privilege,  which  begins  to  be  contested  by 
Germany  and  other  powers,  is  still  in  force,  and 
is  recognized  by  late  acts  of  the  Prefect  of  the 
Propaganda  and  the  Holy  Father.  It  was  also 
recognized  anew  by  the  Chinese  Emperor  in 
March,  1899.  Among  the  notable  acts  in  the 
history  of  Oriental  Qeitholic  missions  is  the  es- 
tablishment by  Leo  XIII.  of  a  regular  hierarchy 
in  India  (1886)  and  in  Japan  (1891). 

The  support  of  Catholic  missions  comes  al- 
most entirely  from  private  sources.  The  money 
salaiT  of  each  missionary  is  a  very  modest  one. 
The  Work  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  at 
Lyons  allots  annually  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  dollars  to  each  missionary 
that  it  supports.  Nearly  all  the  money  comes 
from  small  contributions,  but  through  a  well 
organized  system  of  collection. 

In  all,  there  are  32  'congregations'  of  men  de- 
voted to  the  Catholic  missions,  with  some  12,000 
members,  not  to  speak  of  native  clergy  and 
helpers.  About  6000  'Brothers'  are  engaged  as 
teachers  and  catechists,  mostly  in  the  Orient; 
44,000  'Sisters'  are  occupied  with  works  of  char- 
ity and  teaching.  It  is  calculated  that  the 
whole  army  of  Catholic  missionaries,  men  and 
women,  now  reaches  the  figure  of  60,000,  and 
that  few  areas  of  heathendom  remain  unvisited 
by  them. 

(3)  Some  Important  Events  and  Facts  in 
THE  History  op  Modern  Roman  Catholic  Mis- 
sions. As  a  result  of  the  loss  of  its  East  Indian 
possessions,  the  Crown  of  Portugal  became  in- 
volved, during  the  last  century,  in  long  and  seri- 
ous conflict  with  the  Holy  See.  From  1834  to 
1838  the  latter  cut  off  from  the  original  Portu- 
guese Archdiocese  of  GJoa  four  Vicariates  Apos- 
tolic, that  coincided  with  English  territory. 
Though  absolutely  just  and  necessary,  this  act  of 
Gregory  XV.  was  resented  by  Portugal.  A  schism 
followed  which  lasted  more  or  less  acutely  and 
continuously  until  1886,  when  peace  was  brought 
about  by  Leo  XIII.  Goa  was  made  a  titular 
patriarchate  with  four  suffragans,  Dam9o,  Arch- 
bishop also  ad  honorem  of  Crangaror,  Cochin, 
Saint  Thomas  of  Meliapur,  and  Macao.  Elsewhere 
in  India,  the  former  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Agra, 
Bombay,  Varapoli,  Calcutta,  Madras,  Pondichery, 
and  Colombo  (Ceylon)  were  raised  to  the  archi- 
episcopal  rank  and  freed  from  all  subjection  to 
the  Archbishopric  of  Goa. 

During  the  whole  nineteenth  century  the  Cath- 
olic missions  in  Tongking  and  Annam  suffered 
very  frequently  from  popular  uprisings  and  gov- 
ernment persecution,  until  the  establishment  of 
the  French  civil  protectorate  in  1885-86. 

Until  1880  the  Catholic  missions  in  Korea  were 
almost  continuously  the  object  of  similar  maltreat- 
ment ;  nevertheless,  they  now  number  36,000  Catho- 
lics in  28  districts;  they  have  one  bishop,  31  mis- 
sionaries, and  554  chapels.    In  1839  three  French 


bishops  were  put  to  death  as  martyrs,  ana  iij  is(>0 
nine  bishops  suffered  the  same  fate. 

The  modem  Catholic  missions  in  Japan  began 
tentatively  in  1832-58.  An  impetus  was  given 
.  by  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  crypto-Catholies 
(1858-72),  who  had  retained  some  souvenirs  of 
the  faith  as  preached  to  their  ancestors  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.     With  the 

fradual  enlargement  of  religious  liberty  since 
872  the  disestablishment  (1886)  of  Shintoism 
and  Buddhism,  and  the  proclamation  of  a  con- 
stitutional monarchy  (1889),  the  conditions  have 
been  more  favorable  for  the  Catholic  missions. 
In  1891  Leo  XIII.  established  a  regular  hierarchy 
in  Japan,  with  one  archbishop  at  Tokio.  The 
three  suffragans  are  at  Nagasaki,  Osaka,  and 
Hakodate.  There  were  in  1899  112  missionaries, 
26  native  priests,  and  284  lay  catechists.  The 
Catholic  population  is  53,872. 

The  labors  of  the  Catholic  missionaries  in 
China  during  the  last  century  were  largely  di- 
rected to  gathering  back  into  the  Christian  fold 
the  families  scattered  by  the  former  persecutions. 
The  opium  vtrar,  the  Taiping  rebellion,  political 
manoeuvres,  the  weakness  of  the  central  author- 
ity, and  the  native  hatred  of  the  Chinese  for 
*foreign  devils'  caused  the  destruction  of  many 
promising  Christian  communities  in  spite  of  the 
treaties  of  1844-45  and  1858-60.  In  1898  there 
were  in  China,  according  to  the  almanac  of 
the  Propaganda  (Missionea  CaiholUxB),  532,448 
Catholics,  with  39  bishops,  739  missionaries 
(Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Lazarists), 
and  373  native  priests  distributed  over  40  missions. 

In  Central  Africa  the  most  important  events 
have  been  the  labors  of  Fr.  Libermann  and  his 
society  (Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ohost)  since  1840, 
and  the  foundation  of  the  P^es  Blancs  of  Cardi- 
nal Lavigerie.  The  African  missions  have  been 
helped  lately  by  the  formation  of  anti-slavery 
societies.  Ajmong  the  most  remarkable  of  Catho- 
lic missionaries  in  Africa  was  Father  Daniel 
Comboni.  In  Ethiopia  the  central  figure  has 
been  the  late  Cardinal  Massaia,  a  venerable 
Capuchin,  who  devoted  thirty  years  of  his  life  to 
the  work.  In  French  Africa  the  See  of  Algiers 
was  founded  in  1838,  and  in  1867  became  an 
archbishopric,  with  Constantine  and  Oran  for 
suffragans.  The  French  protectorate  over  Tunis 
(1881)  brought  with  it,  in  1884,  the  restoration 
of  the  famous  ancient  See  of  Carthage.  Since 
1885  the  French  protectorate  over  Madagascar 
has  affected  somewhat  favorably  the  Catholic 
missions  among  the  Malagasies. 

In  South  America  there  are  nearly  ten  million 
Indians  in  the  various  Catholic  missions,  with 
some  three  million  more  unconverted.  The  sepa- 
ration from  Spain,  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
Brazil  (1888),  the  frequent  violent  expulsion  of 
various  religious  Orders,  the  movement  of  im- 
migration from  Europe,  and  the  Patagonian  mis- 
sions of  the  Salesian  Fathers  since  1875,  have 
been  among  the  principal  events  that  affected  the 
missionary  work. 

Throughout  the  islands  of  Polynesia  there  are 
about  180,000  Catholics,  with  13  bishops,  259 
priests,  and  419  churches  or  chapels. 

In  1886  Archbishop  Moran,  of  Sydney,  was 
made  a  cardinal,  and  in  the  same  year  he  held 
the  first  council  in  Australia.  There  are  in  Aus- 
tralia at  present  6  archbishops,  16  bishops,  about 
1300  priests,  and  nearly  800,000  Catholics. 


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In  1890  there  were  subject  to  the  authority  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  16,107,723 
Catholics  in  America,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Oceanica, 
as  against  15,268,400  in  1805.  These  figures  in- 
clude only  Catholics  of  the  Latin  rite.  At  the 
same  period  (1899)  there  were  subject  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  Propaganda  6,611,782  Catholics  of 
these  Oriental  rites  that  recognize  the  juris- 
diction of  Rome.  Of  this  number  30,000  were 
Ethiopians,  20,500  Copts,  107,000  Armenians, 
1,048,710  Greek-Rumanians,  3,543,593  Greek- 
Ruthenians,  13,000  Greek-Bulgarians,  250  Hel- 
lenes, 22,700  Syrians,  72,000  Syro-Chaldeans, 
277,000  Maronites,  260,320  Syro-Malabars,  116,- 
700  Greek-Melchites. 

In  Asiatic  territory,  the  Catholics  of  Latin  rite 
are  divided  as  follows:  Asiatic  Turkey,  120,680; 
Hindustan,  1,178,325;  Indo-China,  827,630; 
Malay  Archipelago,  60,280;  Chinese  Empire, 
532,648 ;  Korea,  30,000 ;  Japan,  63,872.  In  Africa 
the  missions  to  the  savages  count  458,170  converts. 

The  most  active  missionary  body  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  is  the  Society  of  Jesus.  A  quasi- 
official  statement  foxmd  in  the  Lettres  dea  mis- 
sionnairea  j^auiiea  (Paris,  1903)  gives  the  exact 
number  of  Jesuit  missionaries  at  3249.  The  fol- 
lowing distribution  by  nationalities  is  given  in 
the  same  source,  with  an  indication  of  the  coim- 
tries  for  which  each  nationality  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed. There  are  790  Frenchmen,  working  prin- 
cipally in  Madagascar,  Egypt,  Armenia,  Syria, 
China,  Ceylon,  and  India ;  222  Belgians,  in  India, 
Ceylon,  and  the  Congo  region ;  536  Germans  and 
Austrians,  in  India  and  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica ;  65  Dutchmen,  in  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Flores ; 
69  Americans,  in  Jamaica,  British  Honduras,  and 
among  the  North  American  Indians ;  590  Italians, 
in  India,  Brazil,  and  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States;  785  Spaniards,  in  Cuba,  South 
America,  and  the  Philippines;  41  Portuguese,  in 
Goa,  Macao,  and  the  Zambezi  country;  152  Eng- 
lishmen and  Irishmen,  in  South  Africa,  Britidi 
Guiana,  and  Australia.  These  numbers,  of  course, 
only  include  those  Jesuits  who  are  engaged  in 
strictly  missionary  work.  The  Ann^e  de  VEgliae 
(Paris,  annually)  gives  similar  details  not  only 
for  the  Society  of  Jesus,  but  also  for  the  foreign 
missions  of  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Laza- 
rists,  and  the  Picpus  Society.  The  annual  statis- 
tics of  the  84minaire  dea  Miaaiona  Etrangdrea  are 
likewise  published  in  it. 

(4)  Mission  Wobk  in  the  United  States. 
Home  missionary  activity  in  the  United  States 
.  aims  chiefly  at  supplying  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
Indians  and  Negroes.  These  missions  are  almost 
exclusively  in  the  hands  of  religious  orders.  In 
1885  a  special  Commission  was  organized  to  col- 
lect and  distribute  funds  for  the  maintenance  of 
missionaries  and  schools  in  the  various  reserva- 
tions, and  for  the  year  1904  over  $172,000  were 
collected  from  private  charity  for  that  purpose. 

Another  phase  of  missionary  endeavor  in  the 
United  States  is  that  of  missions  to  non-Catholics 
inaugurated  by  the  Paulist  Fathers  in  1893.  It 
consists  in  explaining  by  public  conference 
Catholic  belief  and  practice  to  those  non-Catho- 
lics who  may  desire  to  be  enlightened  thereon. 
The  idea  was  soon  taken  up  in  various  localities, 
many  bishops  setting  apart  a  few  preachers  to 
carry  pn  this  work  in  their  respective  dioceses. 
The  movement  soon  led  to  the  formation  of  a 
legal  corporation  known  as  the  "Catholic  Mission- 
ary Union,"  and  in  1903  to  the  erection  of  the 


Apostolic  Mission  House  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
This  institution  is  one  of  the  group  of  those  con* 
nected  with  the  Catholic  University,  and  its  aim 
is  to  train  young  clergymen  yi  missionary  meth- 
ods with  a  special  view  to  this  diocesan  work. 

BiBLiOQBAPHY.  For  the  Propaganda :  O.  Meyer 
(Protestant) ,  Die  Propaganda  (G5ttingen,  1852) ; 
Phillips,  Kirchenrecht,'  vol.  vi.  (Regensburg^ 
1864)  ;  Humphrey,  Urha  et  Orhiaj  or  the  Pope  as 
Biahop  and  aa  Pontiff  (London,  1899).  For  gen- 
eral statistics:  The  latest  and  most  reliable  ec- 
clesiastical geographies,  with  administrative 
divisions,  subdivisions,  maps,  and  summaries  of 
statistics^  are  those  of  0.  Werner,  S.  J.,  Orhia 
Terrarum  Catholicua,  etc.  (Freiburg,  1890) ; 
Atlaa  dea  miaaiona  cathoUquea  (lb.,  1886) ; 
Katholiacher  Kirchenatlaa  (ib.,  1888).  In  the 
work  of  Louvet,  Lea  miaaiona  cathoUquea  au 
XlXdm^  aUcle  (Paris,  1898),  are  to  be  found  an 
outline  history  and  statistics  of  all  Catholic 
missions  during  the  last  century.  Consult,  also, 
Oudin,  Un  aiecle  (1800-1900),  pp.  461-73,  790- 
810  (Paris,  1901).  Marshall,  Catholic  Miaaions 
(London,  1862),  is  of  a  polemical  character. 
Die  katholiache  Kirche  (Leo-Gesellschaft,  Vienna^ 
1898,  et  seq. )  is  a  work  in  several  volumes  exhib- 
iting a  general  view  of  the  entire  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church.  Consult,  further:  Neher,  Der  Mia- 
aionaverein,  oder  daa  Werk  der  Olauhenaverhrei- 
tung,  etc.  (Freiburg,  1894)  ;  Goyau,  Le  Vati- 
can (Paris,  1898).  Consult,  also,  Uannuaire 
pontifical  catholique  (Paris,  annually).  Catholic 
Directories  and  Almanacs:  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  have  each  a  Catholic  Directory  or 
Register.  For  the  United  States  there  are  Hoff- 
man'a  Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee)  and  8<id- 
lier'a  Catholic  Directory  (New  York).  The  ec- 
clesiastical statistics  of  France  are  found  in  the 
annual  compilation,  Le  clerg4  frangaia  (Paris)  ; 
those  of  Canada  in  Le  Canada  eccl^aiaatique 
(Montreal);  for  Italy  one  may  consult  the 
AnniMrio  eccleaiaatioo  (Rome)  and  the  Ouida 
eccleaiaatica  d*Italia  (Savona,  1885)  ;  for  Spain, 
the  Ouida  del  eatado  ecclesiaatico,  published  from 
time  to  time  at  Madrid.  The  8tateaman*a  Year 
Book  (London)  and  Whittaker'a  Almanack  (ib.) 
may  be  consulted  with  profit. 

French  Missions:  The  best  account  of  the 
missions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  (^urch  in 
France  is  that  of  Kannengiesser,  Lea  mia- 
aiona cathoUquea:  France  et  Allemagne  (Paris, 
1900).  For  a  summary  of  this  work,  con- 
sult Shahan,  **The  Catholic  Missionaries  in 
France  and  Germany,"  in  the  Catholic  World 
(New  York)  for  October,  1900.  Piolet,  Lea  mia- 
aiona cathoUquea  francaiaea  au  XlXdme  allele 
(Paris,  1900-3),  may  also  be  consulted.* 

German  Missions :  The  work  of  Kannengiesser 
gives  the  statistics  of  (jerman  Roman  Catholic 
missions  to  1900.  Consult,  also,  the  Schematia- 
mua  der  romiach-katholiachen  Kirche  dea  deut- 
achen  Reichea  (Freiburg,  annually)  ;  and  for 
Austria,  Schematiamua  dea  geaammten  katho- 
liachen  Reichea  Oeaterreich-Ungama  (Vienna)  ; 
also  the  Kloater-Schematiamua  fur  daa  deutache 
Reich  (3d  ed.,  Paderbom,  1899)  ;  Goyau,  L'AU 
lemagne  religieuae  (Paris,  1899)  ;  and  Kannen- 
giesser, Lea  cathoUquea  allemanda  (Paris,  1893). 

Mission  Periodicals:  The  Congregation  of  the 
Propafiranda  publishes  from  time  to  time  ( 1886- 
98)  the  Miaaionea  Catholicce,  containing  official 
statistics  of  its  missions.  The  Work  of  the 
Propaganda  of  the  Faith  publishes  frequently 


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HISSI8SIPPI. 


each  year  the  Annalea  de  la  propagation  de  la  foi 
(Paris),  and  a  similar  Annales  is  published  by 
the  Work  of  the  Holy  Childhood  (Lyons).  For 
the  African  missions  there  are  the  Bulletin  des 
missions  d'Afrique,  and  the  8oci^t4  antiescla- 
vagiste,  both  published  annually  at  Paris.  The 
details  of  Roman  Catholic  education  in  the  Ori- 
ent are  found  in  the  periodical  <Euvres  des 
Ecoles  de  VOrient  (Paris,  annually).  An  illus- 
trated monthly  entitled  Catholic  Missions  ap- 
pears in  English,  French,  and  German,  and  offers 
popular  information  concerning  all  Catholic  mis- 
sionary work  (London). 

United  States  Missions:  The  statistics  of 
the  native  Roman  Catholic  missions  are  found 
since  1864  in  the  Reports  of  the  Commission  for 
tfegro  and  Indian  Missions  (Baltimore,  annual- 
ly). Previous  to  that  year  the  voluminous  work 
of  O'Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  States  (New  York,  1886  sqq.),  may  be 
consulted;  also  the  same  author's  History  of  the 
Catholic  Missions  Among  the  Indian  Tribes  [1592- 
1854]  (ib.,  1876),  and  his  Discovery  and  Explo- 
ration of  the  Mississippi  ( ib.,  1858 ) ,  as  well  as  the 
numerous  writings  of  Father  de  Smedt,  a  Belgian 
missionary  among  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Far 
West.  Their  bibliography  is  to  be  found  in  O'Shea, 
Western  Missions  and  Missionaries  (New  York, 
1878).  Consult,  also,  O'Grorman,  History  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  America  (ib.,  1895), 
and  Engelhardt,  The  Franciscans  in  California 
(ib.,  1887). 

For  the  Farther  Orient,  consult:  Launay,  A*te« 
des  missions  de  la  8oci4t4  des  Missions  Etran- 
g^es  (Paris,  1890)  ;  id.,  Uos  missions,  album  des 
missions  catholiques  (Lyons,  1900)  ;  De  PHuys, 
"Le  Christianisme  au  Tonkin,"  in  Le  Correspon- 
dant  (Paris)  for  November  10,  1889.  On  the  late 
troubles  in  China  consult  articles  in  Le  Corre- 
spondant  for  July  25  and  August  10,  1900: 
Lamy,  "La  Chine,  TEurope,  et  le  Saint-Sifege;" 
Cochin,  **La  Chine  et  le  gouvernement  fran9ais;" 
Fauvel,  "Nos  missionaires  patriotes  et  savants 
en  Chine."  All  the  details  of  the  *Boxer*  move- 
ment from  the  Roman  Catholic  standpoint  may 
be  seen  in  the  current  Annales  de  la  Sainte  En- 
fance,  those  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith 
in  the  pages  of  Catholic  Missions.  For  details  of 
earlier  Catholic  missions  in  China  one  may  con- 
sult the  Abb6  Hue,  Le  Christianisme  en  Chine,  en 
Tatarie  et  en  Thibet  (Paris,  1859).  It  covers 
the  period  from  1772  to  the  Peace  of  Tien-tsin 
(1868).  The  work  of  Htibner,  Ein  Spa4sierqang 
tim  die  Welt  (Leipzig,  1875),  contains  details  of 
the  Catholic  missionary  life  in  the  East.  On 
Catholic  missions  in  Australia,  consult  Lemire, 
Le  Catholicisme  en  Australie  (Paris,  1900). 

mSSIS^AGA.  An  Algonquian  tribe  residing 
east  and  south  from  Lake  Ontario,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada. They  are  closely  connected  with  the  Ojibwa, 
of  whom  they  are  an  offshoot.  The  name  is  said 
to  mean  'great  mouth,*  referring  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Missisaga  River,  but  an  educated  member  of 
the  tribe  says  that  it  refers  to  an  eagle,  claim- 
ing that  the  Missisaga  are  derived  principally 
from  the  Eagle  clan  oif  the  Ojibwa.  At  a  treaty 
in  1764  they  signed  with  an  eagle  as  their  tribal 
mark.  When  first  known  to  the  French,  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Missisaga  were 
living  upon  the  lower  part  of  the  river  which 
bears  their  name  and  upon  the  adjacent  Manitou- 
lin  Island.     Soon  afterwards  they  moved  east 


and  south  into  the  country  left  unoccupied  by  the 
dispersion  of  the  Huron  and  Ottawa,  and  soon 
spread  over  the  whole  peninsula  of  Lower  Ontario. 
At  the  close  of  the  Revolution  they  even  had  one 
village  on  the  south  side  of  Lake  Erie  in  what  is 
now  Ohio.  The  land  on  which  the  Iroquois  are 
now  settled  on  Grand  River,  Ontario,  was  bought 
from  the  Missisaga.  In  1746  they  were  admitted 
as  the  seventh  tribe  of  the  Iroquois  confederacy, 
being  then  settled  in  five  villages  near  Detroit, 
but  the  alliance  lasted  only  imtil  the  outbreak 
of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  a  few  years  later. 
On  account  of  the  former  loose  distinction  be- 
tween the  Missisaga  and  Ojibwa,  it  is  impossible 
to  give  exact  figures  of  population.  Those  now 
officially  classed  as  Missisaga  number  about  750, 
on  small  reservations  at  New  Credit,  Alnwick, 
Mud  Lake,  Rice  Lake,  and  Scugog,  Province  of 
Ontario,  Canada.  They  are  all  members  of  the 
Methodist  Church,  and  support  themselves  by 
farming,  fishing,  trapping,  gathering  wild  rice, 
basket-making,  and  outside  labor.  They  are  gen- 
erally prosperous  and  comfortable  and  are  uni- 
versally commended  by  their  agents  for  industry, 
morality,  sobriety,  and  general  progress.  The 
statistics  show  them  to  be  a  healthy  people. 

MISSISSIPPI.  One  of  the  South-Central 
States  of  the  American  Union.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  river  which  forms  its  western 
boimdary  for  a  distance  of  about  500  miles, 
and  separates  it  from  the  States  of  Louis- 
iana and  Arkansas.  It  lies  between  Tennessee  on 
the  north  and  Louisiana  on  the  south,  being 
separated  from  the  former  by  the  thirty-fifth 
parallel  of  north  latitude  and  from  the  latter 
by  the  thirty-first  parallel  from  the  Mississippi 
River  to  the  Pearl  River,  a  distance  of  1 10  miles. 
Thence  following  the  Pearl  River  southward,  the 
boundary  line  is  completed  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Tennessee  River  cuts  off  a 
small  portion  from  the  northeastern  comer,  but 
the  eastern  boundary  separating  the  State  from 
Alabama  runs  southward  in  a  nearly  straight 
line  to  the  Gulf.  Mississippi  has  an  extreme 
length  of  330  miles  and  an  extreme  width  of  188 
miles,  and  comprises  an  area  of  46,665  square 
miles,  of  which  water  occupies  303  square  miles, 
the  land  amounting  to  46,362  square  miles.  Mis- 
sissippi includes,  in  addition  to  the  mainland  ter- 
ritory, the  islands  Ship,  Horn,  Cat,  Petit  Bois, 
and  others,  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
Mississippi  Sound. 

Topography.  The  highest  ridges  in  the  north- 
east reach  an  altitude  of  about  1000  feet. 
Throughout  most  of  the  State  the  elevations 
range  from  500  to  600  feet  down  to  150  feet  a  few 
miles  from  the  Gulf.  A  moderate  uplift  of  the 
region  has  allowed  the  rivers  to  carry  the  work  of 
dissection  to  maturity,  all  gradients  now  being 
low,  nearly  or  quite  at  base  level,  the  streams 
having  their  lower  courses  in  valleys  opened 
wide,  from  a  few  hundred  yards  to  several 
miles,  and  wandering  in  sinuous  courses  upon 
silted  bottoms.  These  river  bottoms  cover  a 
total  of  7560  square  miles,  or  over  one-sixth 
of  the  entire  State.  Of  this  the  Yazoo  bot- 
toms occupy  the  greater  part.  The  flood 
plains  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  rivers  are 
lined  on  the  east  by  bluffs  from  100  to  300 
feet  in  height,  caused  by  the  lateral  corrosion  of 
the  swinging  meanders  of  the  great  river.  These 
bluffs  are  capped  throughout  with  a  deposit  of 


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loess.  Extending  through  the  middle  of  the 
Yazoo  bottoms  is  a  flat  ridge,  standing  above 
flood  level,  and  this  and  the  banks  of  the  various 
streams  are  available  for  cultivation,  being  the 
best  cotton  lands  in  the  world.  The  bottom  is 
being  steadily  reclaimed  for  plantations.  The 
swamp  and  marsh  area  is  occupied  by  cypress 
trees  very  valuable  as  lumber,  while  the  drier 
lands  are  covered  with  cane  brakes  and  rich 
forests  of  many  species  of  timber  trees. 

Htdboobaphy.  The  principal  rivers  of  the 
State  are  the  Mississippi,  flowing  the  entire 
length  of  the  western  margin,  the  Tombigbee,  Big 
Black,  and  Pearl.  The  Yazoo  River  is  a  dis- 
tributary of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  whole  area 
of  its  bottoms  is  a  mesh  of  interlacing  streams, 
bayous,  and  oxbow  lakes.  About  one-half  the 
area  of  the  State  drains  directly  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  The  bottom  lands  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  other  rivers  are  liable  to  overflow 
when  the  rivers  are  flooded.  To  guard  against 
this,  levees  or  artificial  banks  are  built  to  re- 
strain the  rivers.  Occasional  breaks  or  'crevasses' 
occur,  causing  much  damage  to  the  plantations, 
and  in  times  of  exceptional  high  water  whole 
counties  may  be  flooded.  The  injury,  however, 
is  alleviated  by  the  fact  that  a  layer  of  rich  silt 
is  left  over  all  the  bottom  by  the  receding  flood. 
The  levees  are  built  by  the  State  partly  from  a 
fund  derived  from  a  special  tax  on  the  land,  and 
partly  with  moneys  derived  from  the  sale  of 
swamp  lands  set  aside  for  the  purpose  by  the 
General  Government.  See  Levee,  and  Missis- 
sippi RiVEB. 

Climate.  Mississippi  lies  in  the  semi-tropical 
climatic  belt  and  its  climate  is  strongly  influenced 
by  reason  of  its  proximity  to  the  Gulf.  The  aver- 
age January  temperature  is  55°  F.  in  the  isl- 
ands off  coast,  50°  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
mainland,  and  40°  near  the  northern  boundary. 
The  average  July  temperatures  range  from  82° 
to  80°.  The  average  maximum  shade  tempera- 
ture is  100°,  while  occasional  anticyclones  of 
winter  bring  a  minimum  temperature  of  10°  F. 
to  the  southern  portion,  and  zero  weather  reaches 
below  the  northern  quarter  of  the  State.  Such 
cold  weather  is,  however,  very  transient.  The 
frost-free  growing  season  lasts  seven  months 
in  the  north  and  ten  months  in  the  south.  This 
is  of  the  very  greatest  importance  to  many 
of  the  crops,  especially  cotton.  The  average 
annual  rainfall  for  the  whole  State  is  over 
50  inches.  The  southern  quarter  has  over  60 
inches,  this  distribution  being  largely  due  to 
the  prevailing  southwestern  winds,  and  to  the 
influence  of  the  Gulf.  The  heaviest  rains  occur 
in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  when  the  warm  Gulf 
winds  meet  the  cold  north  winds,  but  on  the 
whole  the  precipitation  is  quite  evenly  distributed 
through  the  year.  There  is  a  slight  snowfall  as 
far  south  as  Natchez.  The  atmosphere  is  humid 
at  all  seasons,  the  average  annual  relative  hu- 
midity being  not  far  from  70  per  cent,  in  the 
northern  half  of  the  State  and  from  70  per  cent, 
to  75  per  cent,  in  the  southern  half.  The  average 
wind  velocity  for  the  whole  year  is  seven  miles 
per  hour.  The  prevailing  wind  for  January  is 
north,  while  it  is  south  for  July.  The  cyclonic 
belt  lies  far  to  the  north,  and  generally  does  not 
tquch  the  State. 

Flora.    The  result  of  the  rather  large  annual 
rainfall  and  of  the  equable  distribution  through 
the  year  is  best  seen  in  the  luxuriant  forests. 
Vol.  XIII.— to. 


largely  of  deciduous  trees.  Over  120  species  of 
forest  trees  are  kno\\Ti.  There  are  16  species  of 
oak,  including  the  live  oak.  Cypress  predomi- 
nates on  the  bottom  and  swamp  lands.  The  long- 
leafed  pine  is  the  chief  forest  tree  of  the  southern 
half  of  the  State.  Tupelo,  sycamore,  persimmon, 
magnolia,  holly,  cucumber  tree,  sweet  gum,  black- 
walnut,  and  various  species  of  hickory,  elm,  and 
maple  are  also  present. 

Geology.  The  Cumberland  Ridge  just  reaches 
the  northeast  comer  of  the  State  with  its  outly- 
ing undulations,  thus  bringing  a  small  outcrop  of 
subcarboniferous  rocks  into  its  borders.  From 
this  comer  as  a  focus,  the  younger  strata  dip 
away  gently  to  the  west  and  south.  Cretaceous 
beds  cover  a  belt  radiating  about  26  miles 
west  and  75  miles  south  of  the  northeast  cor- 
ner. The  four  prominent  members  of  the  Cre- 
taceous outcrop,  in  series  from  the  oldest  up, 
are  the  Coffee,  Tombigbee,  Rotten  Limestone, 
and  Ripley.  The  total  thickness  of  these 
beds  in  the  State  is  2000  feet.  At  the  close 
of  Cretaceous  time  there  was  a  deep  gulf  ex- 
tending north  to  Cairo,  111.,  which  was  slowly 
filled  by  fluvial  and  off-shore  deposits.  These 
beds  are  the  Eocene  and  Neocene  outcrops,  cover- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  State  and  extending 
from  the  Cretaceous  on  the  northeast  to  the 
Yazoo  bottoms  and  almost  to  the  Gulf  on  the 
south. 

^Mineral  Resoubces.  Clay  deposits  are  found 
widely -distributed  in  Mississippi,  and  are  utilized 
to  some  extent  for  brick.  The  total  value  of  clay 
products  in  1905  was  $818,897.  Marl  and  phoa- 
phatic  rock  are  found  extensively  in  many  coun- 
ties, but  are  used  only  locally.  Hydraulic  lime- 
stone and  coal  are  found  in  Tishomingo  County 
and  gypsum  in  Rankin  County,  but  none  of  these 
minerals  are  worked.  Potable  waters  are  found 
everywhere,  except  on  river  bottoms;  even  in 
the  Rotten  Limestone  region  artesian  wells  sup- 
ply good  water  from  the  underlying  Coffee  series. 
Mineral  springs  are  very  numerous  and  are 
largely  chalybeate.  In  some  localities  all  the 
springs  and  wells  are  highly  mineralized.  The 
bluffs  of  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  rivers  have 
many  springs,  the  supply  flowing  through  ocher- 
ous  earths  and  pyritous  clays,  whence  it  is  so 
strongly  charged  with  iron  sulphate  as  to  make 
its  use  very  deleterious.  Many  mineral  springs 
are  used  locally  in  a  medicinal  way  and  a  few 
have  become  well  known  resorts,  as  Ocean 
Springs,  in  Jackson  Coimty,  and  luka  Springs  in 
Tishomingo  County. 

Fisheries.  The  fisheries  of  Mississippi  have 
attained  to  considerable  importance  in  recent 
years.  In  1902,  the  last  je&r  for  which  statistics 
were  compiled,  the  vjilue  of  the  catch  reported 
was  $553,220,  of  which  $426,222  represented  the 
value  of  the  oyster  fisheries.  Shrimp  fishing  is 
becoming  more  important.  In  the  year  mentioned 
4344  men  were  engaged  in  this  industry. 

AoRicuLTUBE.  The  predominant  industry  in 
the  State  is  agriculture  and  it  is  highly  favored 
both  by  the  nature  of  the  climate  and  the  soil. 
There  is  a  variety  of  soil,  including  the  brown 
loam  of  the  central  tableland,  the  rich,  black, 
calcareous  soil  of  the  prairie  region,  the  extreme- 
ly fertile  alluvium  of  the  bottom  lands,  the  sandy 
loam  with  a  clayey  or  sandy  subsoil,  south  of  the 
central  ridge,  and  the  yellow  loam  of  the  north- 
east. They  are  all,  except  the  last  two,  unusual- 
ly rich.     The  most  desirable  region  is  included 


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between  the  Yazoo  and  the  Mississippi  rivers. 
Very  extensive  areas  are  still  covered  with  for- 
ests, but  it  is  nearly  all  susceptible  of  cultiva- 
tion. In  1900  there  were  18,240,736  acres,  or  61.5 
per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  included  in  farms.  Of 
this  41.6  per  cent,  was  improved,  the  improved 
area  having  increased  about  1,500,000  acres  since 
1860,  while  the  iwimproved  area  remains  about 
the  same.  The  change  in  the  system  of  agricul- 
ture incident  upon  the  cessation  of  slavery  has 
decreased  the  average  size  of  farms  from  369.7 
acres  in  1860  to  82.6  in  1900.  The  number 
of  colored  farmers  in  Mississippi  (128,679 
in  1900),  amounting  to  58.3  per  cent,  of 
the  total  number  in  the  State  (tilling  about 
32.4  per  cent,  of  the  farm  acreage),  is  much 
greater  than  in  any  other  State.  How- 
ever, only  14.3  per  cent,  of  these  own  their 
farms,  as  against  62.5  per  cent,  for  the  white 
farmers.  The  cash  rent  system  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing, the  farms  rented  according  to  this 
Bvstem  already  exceeding  the  number  rented  on 
the  share  system.  Nearly  two-fifths  of  the  farms 
of  the  State  are  between  20  and  50  acres  in  area, 
this  size  of  holding  being  very  common  among  the 
negro  cotton  farmers.  In  no  other  State  is  cotton 
BO  dominant  as  in  Mississippi.  In  1906  the 
acreage  of  cotton  was  over  half  of  the  total  crop 
acreage  and  contributed  about  70  per  cent,  of  the 
value  of  farm  crops.  The  State  ranks  third  in 
the  production  of  cotton.  It  was  not  until  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
that  its  cultivation  regained  the  importance  it 
held  prior  to  the  Civil  War.  The  greatest  pro- 
duction was  reached  in  1903-4,  when  the  output 
amounted  to  1,808,000  bales,  and  only  once  since 
1890  has  the  production  fallen  below  1,000,000 
bales.  Aside  from  cotton  the  agricultural  inter- 
est of  the  State  is  almost  wholly  centred  in  com. 
The  acreage  of  this  crop  in  1906  constituted  96 
per  cent,  of  the  total  area  devoted  to  cereals. 
From  1890  to  1900  the  acreage  of  com  increased 
one-third  and  that  of  oats  decreased  one-third, 
but  neither  changed  much  from  1900  to  1906. 
Wheat  had  acquired  some  importance  before  the 
war,  but  its  cultivation  has  almost  wholly  ceased. 
There  are  extensive  alluvial  areas  that  could  be 
easily  irrigated  and  devoted  to  rice  culture,  but 
little  attention  has  been  given  to  it.  Compared 
with  Louisiana,  remarkably  little  attention  is 
paid  to  the  growing  of  sugar  cane,  and  the  crop 
of  late  years  is  almost  wholly  converted  into 
syrup  and  molasses.  Small  fruits  and  orchard 
fruits  are  not  extensively  raised.  In  the  decade 
1890-1900,  however,  the  number  of  trees  almost 
doubled.  In  the  latter  year  the  peach  trees' 
numbered  1,856,748,  which  was  53  per  cent,  of 
the  total  number.  The  following  table  shows 
the  acreage  of  the  leading  crops  for  the  years 
indicated : 


1900 

1906 

Com 

2.276,313 
87.066 
38,169 
99.261 

2.897,920 
69,490 

2,204,822 
90.374 

Oats 

Rweet  potatoes 

Hav  and  forage 

43,873 
8,061,266 

Cotton 

Pease 

Stock-Raising.  As  in  other  States  where 
cotton  is  predominant,  stock-raising  does  not  re- 
ceive much  attention.  The  total  number  of  do- 
mestic animals  has  greatly  increased  over  1850, 


and  the  gain  since  1870  is  very  marked.  Aft 
compared  with  the  latter  year  the  horses  and 
mules  have  increased  in  number  about  3  times, 
and  swine,  dairy  cows,  and  other  neat  cattle 
have  also  gained.  The  period  1900-1906  was 
characterized  by  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
number  of  horses,  and  mules  and  asses,  and  a  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  dairy  cows  and  other 
cattle.  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of 
domestic  animals  on  farms  for  the  years  in> 
dicated: 


Dairy  cowb 

Other  neat  cattle. 

Horses 

Mules  and  asses.. 

Sheep 

Swine 


1900 


299.318 
674.038 
229.311 
216.032 
236,470 
1.290.498 


1906 


326.406 
644,993 
254,748 
263,882 


1,196,568 


Manufactures.  The  manufacturing  industry 
is  probably  less  developed  in  Mississippi  than  in 
any  other  of  the  older  States  of  the  Union.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  rate  of  the  recent  increase 
has  been  greater  than  that  of  most  of  the  other 
States.  Prior  to  1837  some  prominence  had  been 
attained  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  leather, 
liquor,  and  flour;  but  the  financial  panic  of 
that  year  left  these  industries  in  a  bad  condition. 
There  was  a  decided  revival  in  the  decade  fol- 
f owing  1850;  but  because  of  the  Civil  War  and 
the  depression  following  it,  manufacturing  re- 
mained almost  stationary  for  twenty  years.  In 
the  decade  1880-1890  the  value  of  the  manufac- 
tured products  increased  148-8  per  cent,  and  in 
the  decade  1890-1900  increased  116.1  per  cent. 
In  1900  there  were  4772  establishments,  employ- 
ing 26,418  wage-earners,  besides  those  in  logging 
camps,  and  manufacturing  products  valued  at 
$40,431,386.  Of  these,  1291  establishments,  with 
26,799  wage-earners,  including  those  in  logging 
camps,  and  products  valued  at  $33,718,517,  were 
of  the  class  of  those  included  in  the  census  of 
1905,  when  their  number  was  1520,  the  wage- 
earners,  38,690,  and  the  value  of  products,  $57,- 
451,445.  The  principal  manufacturing  industries 
are  those  that  grow  out  of  the  splendid  forest 
resources  and  the  large  cotton  crops. 

From  the  table  appended  the  importance  of 
the  industries  dependent  upon  cotton  may  be 
seen.  The  manufacture  of  ootton-seed  oil  and 
cake  increased  177.6  per  cent,  from  1890  to  1900 
and  53  per  cent,  from  1900  to  1905.  The  State 
contained  the  first  mill  of  this  kind  erected  in 
the  United  States.  The  largest  increase  in  the 
cotton  goods  product  was  in  the  period  1870-90; 
the  value  in  1870  was  only  $234,400.  The  can- 
ning and  preserving  of  oysters  has  become  an 
important  industry   (see  table). 

Forests  and  Forest  Products.  The  State's 
timbered  area  in  1900  was  estimated  at  32,300 
square  miles,  or  seven-tenths  of  its  area.  The 
southern  third,  and  a  narrow  strip  extending 
northward  consist  of  pine,  the  Yazoo  bottom  of 
cypress,  and  most  of  the  remaining  portion  of 
hard  woods.  Very  little  progress  hiui  been  made 
in  the  exploitation  of  these  forests  until  the  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  in  which  period 
the  value  of  lumber  and  timber  products  in- 
creased 171.3  per  cent.  In  1905  over  three- fourths 
of  the  cut  consisted  of  yellow  pine,  oak  beings 
the  most  important  of  the  hard  woods.  Tho^ 
Pascagoula  River  and  Hancock  County  districts. 


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MISSISSIPPI.  605  MISSISSIPPL 

CourAMATirm  Bummabt  of  Nnm  I^ADnra  Ikduitsibb. 


Total  for  setoeted  Indastries  for  State  . 


Increase,  1900  to  1906. 
Per  cent,  of  increase. . 


Per  cent  of  total  of  all  manaftictarlng  indiutiiea  in  State . 


-I 

Canning  and  preaervingt  oysters 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  hj  steam  railroad 
compcmies 

Cotton  goods , 

Fertilizers 

Foundry  and  xnachine-ehop  products , 

Liumber  and  timber  products 

lAimber,  planing-mill  products,  including  sash,  doors,  and  blinds.  . 

Oil,  cotton-seed  and  cake 

Turpentine  and  rosin 


Tear 


1906 
1900 


1906 
1900 

1906 
1900 
1906 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1905 
1900 
1905 
1900 


Number  of 


956 
852 


114 
13.5 


8 

4 

15 

9 

14 

6 

6 

8 

35 

30 

618 

670 

46 

94 

91 

41 

124 

145 


Wage-earners, 
average 
number 


33.994 
28.450 


10,544 
45.0 
87.9 
87.5 


753 

419 

2,663 

1,534 

2,161 

1,675 

348 

9i 

516 

341 

21,233 

14,830 

1,198 

748 

2,499 

1,621 

2,633 

2,288 


Value  of 

products,  in- 

jluding  custom 

work  and 

repairing 


949,968,710 
29,411,871 


•20,556,839 
69.9 
87.0 
87.2 


1,602,497 

569,000 

2,886,422 

1,331,401 

2,462,808 

1,472,835 

1,082,387 

492,772 

919,940 

489,769 

24,036,539 

15,286,763 

2,126,250 

1,315,775 

12,587,147 

6,681,121 

2,365,720 

1,772,435 


in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  showed  most 
activity.  The  manufacture  of  turpentine  and 
rosin  was  not  important  prior  to  the  last  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  made  large  gains 
during  that  period.  The  gain  in  all  lines  from 
1900  to  1905  is  very  apparent  (see  table  above). 

Tbanspobtation.  The  railroad  mileage  at  the 
dates  indicated  has  been  as  follows:  1860,  862; 
1880,  1127;  1890,  2470;  1900,  2934;  1906,  3756. 
Among  the  important  lines  are  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral, the  Southern,  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  Mobile  and  Ohio,  the  New  Orleans 
and  Northeastern,  and  the  Queen  and  Crescent. 
There  is  a  board  of  railroad  commissioners  which 
is  empowered  to  revise,  fix,  regulate,  and  approve 
the  rates  of  charges  of  railroad  companies.  Hav- 
ing a  considerable  Gulf  coast  line  and  being  bor- 
dered upon  one  side  by  the  Mississippi  River,  the 
State  has  the  advantages  of  navigation  afforded 
by  these  waters.  Of  the  two  customs  districts, 
Pearl  River  and  Vicksburg,  the  former  only  is 
important  in  regard  to  foreign  trade. 

Banking.  The  Bank  of  Mississippi  at  Natchez 
was  chartered  in  1809.  In  1818  it  was  created  a 
State  bank,  with  a  capital  of  $3,000,000,  the 
State  participating  in  its  management,  and 
pledging  to  it  a  monopoly  of  the  banking  busi- 
ness of  the  State  until  1840.  In  1830,  however, 
the  Legislature  broke  the  pledge  by  establishing 
the  Planters*  Bank  of  Mississippi,  with  a  capital 
of  $3,000,000,  and  making  it  the  financial  agent 
of  the  State.  This  forced  the  first  bank  into 
liquidation.  For  a  few  years  the  Planters*  Bank 
had  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  banking,  but 
from  1835  new  banks  followed  in  rapid  succes- 
sion. The  most  daring  venture  was  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Mississippi  Union  Bank  in  1838, 
with  a  capital  of  $15,500,000,  which  made  it  the 
largest  State  bank  in  the  United  States  at  that 
time.  These  bold  undertakings  in  the  very  midst 
of  a  financial  crisis  could  only  lead  to  one  result. 
There  were  numerous  failures  in  1838-45;  in 
1855  there  was  but  one  chartered  bank  in  the 
State.  A  revival  came  in  the  eighties,  when  na- 
tional banks  were  introduced.    Stringent  banking 


laws  have  given  to  the  State  banks  the  confidence 
of  the  people,  and  their  number  has  increased 
tenfold  since  1888.  In  1906  there  were  24  na- 
tional banks  with  a  capital  of  $2,885,000,  sur- 
plus $286,000,  cash,  etc.,  $680,000,  loans  $10,489,- 
000,  and  deposits  $8,628,000 ;  269  State  banks  with 
capital  of  $11,393,000,  surplus  $2,046,000,  cash, 
etc.,  $2,816,000,  loans  $38,987,000,  and  deposits 
$35,444,000.  There  are  no  private  and  no  savings 
banks  in  the  State. 

Finance.  The  early  financial  history  of  Mis- 
sissippi is  closely  connected  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  banks  in  the  State.  A  large  State 
debt  of  $2,000,000  was  created  in  1830  in  order 
to  acquire  shares  in  the  Planters*  Bank,  and  in 
1838  $5,000,000  for  shares  of  the  Union  Bank  of 
Mississippi.  The  financial  crisis  of  the  thirties 
brought  the  banks  to  insolvency  in  1840;  this  in- 
volved the  State  in  an  enormous  debt.  Infringe- 
ments upon  the  Constitution  in  the  floating  of 
the  debt  led  to  its  repudiation  by  a  popular  vote 
in  1852,  which  was  finally  disposed  of  by  a 
clause  in  the  Constitution  of  1875.  The  Civil 
War  again  involved  the  State  in  serious  financial 
difficulties  and  also  reduced  the  general  economic 
condition  of  the  State.  The  '*carpet  bag**  regime 
which  followed  aggravated  the  situation ;  the  ex- 
penditures grew  from  about  $500,000  in  1867-69 
to  more  than  $1,500,000  in  1871-75,  and  the  tax 
rate  was  increased  in  these  years  proportionately 
from  1  mill  to  14  mills.  An  organized  protest 
from  the  taxpayers  in  1874  was  the  result,  and  a 
gradual  diminution  of  the  State  debt,  expendi- 
tures, and  rate  of  taxation  followed.  In  October, 
1902,  the  payable  debt  was  $676,799  and  the 
non-payable  debt,  for  the  interest  on  which  alone 
the  State  is  responsible,  was  $2,210,227,  making 
the  total  indebtedness  $2,887,026.  Total  receipts 
for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1906,  wero 
$3,476,244;  total  disbursements.  $3,387,406,  leav- 
ing a  surplus  of  $88,838,  and  a  cash  balance 
January  1,  1907,  of  $341,536.  The  main  source 
of  income  was  a  direct  State  property  tax  which 
yielded  almost  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  income; 
of  the  disbursements  40  per  cent,  were  for  com- 


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MISSISSIPPI. 


mon  school  purposes  and  18  per  cent,  for  chari- 
table and  penal  institutions. 

Population.  The  following  figures  show  the 
growth  of  population:  1800,  8850;  1830,  136,621; 
1850,  606,527;  1860.  791,305;  1880,  1,131,597; 
1900,  1,651,270;  1905  (Federal  est.),  1,682,105. 
The  rank  of  the  State  was  advanced  from  20  in 
1810  to  14  in  1860,  and  receded  to  20  in  1900. 
The  greatest  absolute  gain  was  made  in  the 
decade  1870-80.  In  the  decade  1890-1900  the  in- 
crease was  20.3,  or  nearly  the  same  as  for  the 
United  States.  The  foreign-born  population  in 
1900  numbered  only  7981,  or  less  than  that 
in  any  other  State  except  the  two  Carolinas. 
The  colored  population  in  1900  numbered  907,- 
630,  or  about  58  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation, which  is  a  larger  per  cent,  than  is  found 
in  any  other  State,  although  Georgia  contains 
a  larger  absolute  number.  The  per  cent,  of  in- 
crease for  the  decade  1890-1900  was  22.2  for  the 
negroes  and  17.7  for  the  whites.  The  negroes 
are  most  numerous  in  the  western  or  Mississippi 
Valley  counties,  in  some  of  which  they  are  nve 
times  as  numerous  as  the  whites.  The  Indians 
(Choctaws)  number  about  2200.  Only  10  places 
in  the  State  (1900)  exceeded  4000  in  population, 
the  percentage  of  the  urban  population  (5.3) 
being  the  smallest  found  in  any  State.  The  larg- 
est towns  in  1900  were:  Vicksburg,  14,834;  Me- 
ridian, 14,050;  and  Natchez,  12,210.  The  popula- 
tion in  1906  was:  Vicksburg,  15,710;  Meridian, 
20,503;  Natchez,  13,476. 

Education.  In  1846  a  law  providing  for  a 
public  school  system  was  passed.  Although  edu- 
cational matters  have  shown  signs  of  improve- 
ment of  late,  they  still  suffer  from  causes  pe- 
culiar to  the  South,  and  the  present  facilities  are 
far  from  adequate.  Like  most  Southern  States, 
Mississippi  has  no  compulsory  attendance  law, 
and  there  is  a  complete  separation  of  the  races. 
The  census  of  1900  gives  Mississippi  a  total 
school  population  (five  to  twenty  years  of  age) 
of  633,026,  including  379,873  colored.  The  il- 
literate population  amounted  to  361,461,  or  32 
per  cent,  of  tl\e  total  population  of  the  State 
ten  years  of  age  and  over,  the  native  whites  num- 
bering 36,038,  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  total  native 
white  population,  and  the  colored  314,617,  or  49.1 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  colored  population.  The 
total  enrollment  in  1905  was  423,731,  and  the 
average  attendance  235,820 — 114,781  whites  and 
121,039  colored,  the  proportion  of  average  attend- 
ance to  total  enrollment  in  the  case  of  the  whites 
and  the  colored  being  about  58  and  54  per  cent, 
respectively.  Tlie  length  of  the  school  term  in 
1905  was  129  days,  as  compared  with  about  86 
days  in  1889-90.  Out  of  the  9333  teachers  em- 
ployed in  the  public  schools  in  1905,  5774  were 
white  and  3559  colored.  The  proportion  of  male 
teachers  fell  off  from  61.2  per  cent,  in  1879-80  to 
40  per  cent,  in  1904-5.  The  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion is  composed  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  Attor- 
ney-General, and  the  Superintendent  of  Education. 
This  board  and  the  Senate  appoint  school  super- 
intendents in  each  county.  Before  1886  licenses 
to  teach  were  granted  practically  without  any 
examinations.  In  that  year  a  law  was  passed 
providing  for  uniform  State  examinations,  pay- 
ment of  salaries  according  to  licenses  held  by  the 
teachers,  and  for  the  establishment  of  teachers' 
institutes.  The  maintenance  of  the  public  school 
system  in  1905  cost  the  State  $2,329,312,  or  $5.49 
per  capita  of  enrollment  The  State  taxes,  which 
formerly  yielded   the    bulk   of   the    revenue   for 


school  purposes,  have  been  decreased,  and  now 
amount  to  only  about  one-half  of  the  total  rev- 
enue, the  rest  being  derived  chiefly  from  local 
taxes.  In  1905  uniform  text-books  were  adopted 
by  a  State  commission  of  two  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  public  and  private  high  schools  having 
three-year  courses.  The  chief  higher  educa- 
tional institutions  of  the  State  besides  the 
State  University,  near  Oxford,  the  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College  at  Agricultural 
College,  and  the  Industrial  Institute  and  College 
at  Columbus,  are  the  Mississippi  College  (Bap- 
tist) at  Clinton,  Millsaps  College  (Methodist) 
at  Jackson,  Whitworth  Female  College  at  Brook- 
haven,  and  the  Female  College  at  Meridian.  The 
principal  higher  educational  institutions  for  the 
colored  youth  are  Tougaloo  University  at  Touga- 
loo,  near  Jackson,  Rust  University  at  Holly 
Springs,  the  State  Normal  School  at  Holly 
Springs,  and  Alcorn  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College  at  Westside. 

Chabitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  The 
State  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  (white 
and  colored)  is  located  at  Jackson;  and  the 
school  for  the  blind  (white)  is  also  at  that  place. 
There  are  two  State  hospitals  for  the  insane,  one 
at  Jackson  and  the  other  at  Meridian.  The  State 
aids  in  the  support  of  hospitals  at  Vicksburg 
and  Natchez.  The  penitentiary  is  located  at 
Jackson.  Most  of  the  prisoners  are  employed 
in  farm  labor,  or  in  the  production  of  articles  of 
necessity  in  the  prison  administration.  Some  of 
the  prison  farms  are  owned  by  the  State,  others 
are  rented.  The  farm  labor  system  is  considered 
very  satisfactory  and  does  not' incur  any  financial 
loss.  Prisoners  committed  to  the  county  jails 
are  also  put  to  labor  upon  farms. 

Religion.  Over  half  of  the  Church  population 
of  the  State  belong  to  the  Baptist  Church,  and 
the  majority  of  the  remainder  to  the  Methodist. 
Of  the  lesser  denominations  the  more  important 
are  the  Presbyterian,  Catholic,  Christian,  and 
Protestant  Episcopal. 

Government.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1890.  If  two-thirds  of  the  members 
of  each  House  vote  each  day  for  three  several 
days  in  favor  of  a  proposed  amendment,  the  same 
will  be  submitted  to  the  people  of  the  State,  and 
it  becomes  a  part  of  the  Constitution  if  approved 
by  a  majority  of  the  qualified  electors  voting. 
Voters  must  have  resided  in  the  State  two  years, 
in  the  election  district  one  year  (six  months  for 
ministers  of  the  (jospel),  and  have  paid  taxes 
legally  required.  Registration  is  necessary,  and 
the  would-be  voter,  in  order  to  register,  must  be 
"able  to  read  any  section  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  State;  or  he  must  be  able  to  understand  the 
same  when  read  to  him,  or  give  a  reasonable  in- 
terpretation thereof." 

Legislative.  Representatives  and  Senators  are 
elected  for  terms  of  four  years.  The  regular  ses- 
sion of  the  Legislature  meets  on  the  first  Tues- 
day after  the  first  Monday  of  January,  every 
fourth  year  after  1892 ;  special  sessions  of  the  leg- 
islature are  held  on  the  corresponding  day  every 
fourth  year,  beginning  with  1894,  unless'  sooneV 
convoked  by  the  (Governor.  Special  sessions  can- 
not continue  longer  than  thirty  days  unless  the 
Governor  extends  them  by  proclamation.  Com- 
pensation is  prescribed  by*  law,  but  at  the  special 
session  not  more  than  $5  "per  day  and  mileage  can 
be  allowed.    Revenue  bills  and  bills  providing  for 


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lassissippi. 


the  assessment  of  property  for  taxation  shall  not 
become  laws  except  by  a  vote  of  at  least  three- 
fifths  of  the  members  of  each  House  present  and 
voting.  Vetoed  bills  or  parts  of  appropriation 
bills  may  be  carried  over  the  Grovernor's  head  by 
a  two-thirds  vote.  General  elections  of  State  and 
county  officers  are  held  on  the  first  Tuesday  after 
the  first  Monday  in  November. 

Mississippi  sends  eight  members  to  the  United 
States  House  of  Representatives.  The  capital  is 
Jackson. 

Executive.  The  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Gov- 
ernor are  elected  for  four  years,  and  the  former 
cannot  be  his  own  successor.  The  president  of 
the  Senate  pro  tern,  and  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
are  in  the  line  of  succession  to  the  Governorship 
in  case  of  vacancy  in  that  office.  The  Secretary 
of  State,  Treasurer,  and  Auditor  are  elected  for 
terms  of  four  years,  and  the  two  last  named 
cannot  immediately  succeed  themselves  or  each 
other. 

Judiciary.  The  Supreme  Court  consists  of 
three  judges  who  are  appointed  by  the  Grovernor 
and  the  Senate  for  terms  of  nine  years.  Judges 
of  the  Circuit  Courts  and  Chancery  are  similarly 
appointed  for  terms  of  four  years.  A  clerk  of 
the  Supreme  Court  and  an  Attorney-General  are 
elected  for  terms  of  four  years.  A  district  at- 
torney for  each  Circuit  Court  district  is  selected 
as  determined  by  law  for  a  term  of  four  years. 

Local  Government.  In  each  county  an  asses- 
sor, surveyor,  coroner,  sheriff,  and  treasurer  are 
elected  for  four  years,  the  two  latter  not  being 
eligible  to  succeed  themselves  or  each  other. 
Each  county  is  divided  into  five  districts,  in  each 
of  which  a  resident  freeholder  is  selected  as  a 
member  of  the  board  of  supervision  of  the 
county.  This  board  has  jurisdiction  over  roads, 
ferries,  and  bridges.  Justices  of  the  peace  and 
constables  are  elected  in  each  district  for  terms 
of  four  years. 

Militia.  According  to  the  census  of  1900  the 
population  of  militia  age  in  the  State  amounted 
to  289,599.  The  aggregate  strength  of  the  militia 
in  1906  was  1262  men. 

History.  In  1539  Hernando  de  Soto,  with  a 
band  of  Spanish  adventurers,  crossed  the  north- 
eastern part  of  what  is  now  the  State,  and  in  the 
early  part  of  1541  reached  the  Mississippi  River, 
near  the  present  site  of  Memphis,  Tenn.  In  1673 
the  French  explorers  Joliet  and  Marquette,  pass- 
ing down  the  Mississippi,  sailed  as  far  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  In  1681-82  La  Salle 
sailed  down  the  river  to  its  mouth,  and,  taking 
formal  possession  for  the  King  of  France,  Louis 
XIV.,  named  the  country  Louisiana  after  him. 
The  first  attempt  to  found  a  colony  was  made  in 
1699  by  Iberville,  who  brought  200  immigrants 
from  France  to  Biloxi,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Bay  of  Biloxi.  This  was  the  germ  of  the  subse- 
quent settlement  of  New  Orleans  (1718).  In 
1716  Iberville  and  Bienville,  with  a  large  body  of 
immigrants  and  a  military  force,  ascended  the 
Mississippi  to  the  present  site  of  Natchez,  where 
they  founded  a  settlement  named  Rosalie,  in 
honor  of  the  Countess  of  Pontchartrain.  At- 
tempts to  plant  colonies  were  soon  after  made  at 
Saint  Peter's  (on  the  Yazoo) ,  at  Pascagoula,  and 
elsewhere.  The  small  colonies  in  Mississippi, 
however,  grew  but  slowly.  New  Orleans  attract- 
ing many  of  the  settlers.  Under  Bienville,  who 
was  Governor  of  Louisiana  from  1718  to  1724, 
friendly  relations  with  the   Indians   were  pre- 


served; but  imder  his  successor,  Perriez,  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Natchez  Indians  was  awakened.  In 
1729  a  sudden  assault  was  made  on  the  line  of 
French  posts.  At  Fort  Rosalie  200  persons  were 
killed  and  more  than  500  were  taken  prisoners. 
In  the  smaller  settlements  many  of  the  in- 
habitants were  butchered.  Retribution  followed 
swiftly.  Aided  by  the  Choctaw  tribes,  the  French 
succeeded  in  defeating  the  Natchez,  the  greater 
part  of  whom  fell  in  battle,  while  most  of  the 
survivors  were  sold  as  slaves.  When  Bienville  be- 
came Governor  again  in  1733  he  found  the  col- 
ony at  war  with  the  Chickasaws,  allies  of  the 
English,  and  the  confiict  continued  for  several 
years.  There  was  a  peace,  followed  in  1752  by 
another  Indian  war,  instigated,  it  was  said,  by 
English  adventurers.  The  French  commander 
sought  to  retaliate,  but  without  much  success. 
Under  French  rule  the  country  failed  to  pros- 
per. In  1763  France  ceded  its  possessions  east 
of  the  Mississippi  to  Great  Britain,  which  re- 
ceived also  Florida  from  Spain.  Immigrants 
flocked  thither  in  considerable  numbers  from  the 
English  colonies  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  as  well  as 
from  Scotland. 

That  part  of  the  territory  south  of  a  line 
drawn  through  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River 
eastward  to  the  Chattahoochee  had  been  erected 
into  the  Province  of  West  Florida  soon  after  the 
establishment  of  English  rule  in  1763.  In  1781 
West  Florida  was  conquered  by  Spain,  and  passed 
under  Spanish  rule.  By  the  Peace  of  Paris,  in 
1783,  the  thirty-first  parallel  of  latitude  was 
recognized  as  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
United  States,  and  Spain  was  therefore  consid- 
ered as  an  intruder  in  that  part  of  Mississippi 
to  the  north  of  the  line.  By  the  treaty  of  1795 
between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  Spain 
ceded  her  claims  to  the  disputed  territory,  but 
continued  to  occupy  it  until  1798.  In  1798  the 
Territory  of  Mississippi  was  organized,  and  in 
1804  it  was  extended  to  the  present  boundary  of 
Tennessee.  In  1813  the  district  south  of  31°  and 
east  of  the  Pearl  River,  taken  from  Spain,  was 
annexed.  At  first  a  Governor  and  three  judges 
appointed  by  the  President  were  the  chief  author- 
ities for  the  government  of  the  Territory,  but  in 
1800  provision  was  made  for  a  legislature,  the 
Lower  House  consisting  of  nine  members  repre- 
senting the  three  counties  into  which  the  Terri- 
tory was  then  divided.  In  1802  Washington  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Territory.  In  the  Creek 
War,  Mississippi  took  a  conspicuous  part,  several 
hundred  inhabitants  of  the  Territory  being  mas- 
sacred at  Fort  Mims  (q.v.).  In  the  War  of  1812 
the  Territory  was  well  represented  at  the  battle 
of  New  Orleans.  In  March,  1817,  Congress 
passed  an  enabling  act  for  the  admission  of 
Mississippi  to  the  Union,  and  the  State  was 
formally  admitted  December  10,  1817.  The  most 
notable  features  of  the  first  Constitution  of 
Mississippi  were  the  high  property  qualifications 
for  holding  office,  the  short  tenures  of  offices,  and 
the  large  appointing  power  of  the  Governor  and 
Legislature.  The  first  Governor  was  David 
Holmes,  and  during  his  administration  the  cap- 
ital was  permanently  located  at  Jackson,  near 
the  headwaters  of  the  Pearl  River. 

By  the  treaties  of  1830  and  1832,  with  the  Choc- 
taw and  Chickasaw  Indians,  who  inhabited  all 
the  northern  part  of  the  State,  the  lands  occupied 
by  those  tribes  were  incorporated  into  the  State, 
subjected  to  its  jurisdiction,  and  thrown  open  to 


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HISSISSLPPL 


settlement  by  the  whites.  In  1832  a  new  Consti- 
tution was  adopted  for  the  State.  Its  most  nota- 
ble features  were  the  abolition  of  property  quali- 
fications for  office-holding,  the  requirement  that 
all  officers,  both  State  and  county,  including  the 
judges  should  be  chosen  by  the  people.  It  also 
created  a  High  Court  of  Errors  and  Appeals  and 
abolished  the  office  of  Lieutenant-Governor.  Dur- 
ing the  'flush  times'  of  this  period  Mississippi, 
like  many  other  Southern  and  Western  States, 
fell  a  victim  to  financial  extravagance  and  specu- 
lation, one  of  the  results  of  which  was  the 
repudiation  by  the  State  of  five  million  dollars  in 
bonds  which  it  had  issued  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring  stock  in  the  Union  Bank.  The  Supreme 
Court  of  the  State  decided  in  favor  of  the  liability 
of  the  State  for  the  payment  of  the  bonds,  but  the 
people,  in  an  election  in  which  this  was  the  main 
issue,  decided  otherwise,  and  the  Legislature 
refused  to  make  any  appropriation  for  the  pur- 
pose. A  little  later  two  million  dollars  of  the 
Planters*  Bank  bonds  were  repudiated  under 
similar  circumstances.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  War  Mississippi  was  called  upon  to 
furnish  one  regiment  of  volimteers,  but  more 
than  enough  men  for  two  regiments  responded. 
The  first  regiment  was  commanded  by  Col. 
Jefl'erson  Davis,  who  won  great  distinction  at  the 
battle  of  Buena  Vista.  In  1851  occurred  the  first 
important  struggle  in  Mississippi  over  the 
slavery  question,  which  had  become  serious  on 
account  of  the  enactment  by  Congress  of  the  so- 
called  Compromise  Measures  of  1850.  The  Demo- 
cratic Party  in  Mississippi  adopted  a  platform 
favoring  secession  and  nominated  Jefferson  Davis 
for  Governor,  while  the  Whigs  declared  their 
attachment  to  the  Union  and  nominated  United 
States  Senator  Foote  as  their  standard-bearer. 
The  Union  Party  won  a  substantial  victory  and 
the  slavery  question  rested  until  1856,  when  the 
question  of  secession  was  again  agitated  on  ac- 
count of  the  fear  that  Fr6mont  would  be  elected 
President.  The  news  of  John  Brown's  raid  in 
1859  led  the  Legislature  to  appropriate  $150,000 
for  the  purchase  of  military  supplies  and  for  the 
organization  of  the  militia.  It  was  left,  however, 
for  the  election  of  Lincoln  to  bring  the  secession 
movement  to  a  head.  An  ordinance  of  secession 
was  passed  on  January  9,  1861,  by  a  convention, 
by  a  vote  of  84  to  15,  and  the  State  Constitution 
was  amended  to  bring  it  into  conformity  with  the 
Constitution  of  the  Confederate  States.  During 
the  Civil  War  the  people  of  Mississippi  suffered 
greatly,  and  in  1863  and  1864  especially,  a  large 
part  of  the  State  was  devastated  by  the  contend- 
ing armies.  Almost  all  semblance  of  govern- 
ment had  disappeared.  (For  the  military  opera- 
tions in  Mississippi,  see  Civil  War;  Iuka;  Cor- 
inth; ViCKSBURG.)  In  June,  1865,  Governor 
Clarke  was  removed  and  a  provisional  Gov- 
ernor was  appointed  by  President  Johnson. 
On  July  21st,  slavery  was  abolished  by  a  State 
convention,  and  on  the  following  day  the  ordi- 
nance of  secession  was  repealed.  In  December 
the  State  Government  was  given  over  into  the 
hands  of  the  duly  elected  officers,  who  pro- 
ceeded to  reorganize  the  State  militia  for  the 
public  defense,  a  course  in  which  they  were  up- 
held by  the  President.  Limited  civil  rights  were 
conferred  on  the  freedman,  but  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  was  rejected  in  January,  1867,  and 
in  March  the  State  came  under  military  govern- 
ment. 


In  January,  1868,  a  convention  framed  a  new 
Constitution,  conferring  the  suffrage  on  n^^roes. 
The  conservative  element  vehemently  opposed  the 
Constitution  because  of  the  severe  penalties  it 
imposed  on  members  of  the  Government  and 
armies  of  the  Confederacy,  and  brought  about  its 
rejection  at  a  popular  election.  Resubmitted  in 
November,  1869,  with  the  test  oath  and  dis- 
franchisement clauses  to  be  voted  on  separately, 
the  Constitution  was  adopted  almost  imanimously, 
while  the  independent  clauses  were  as  unanimous- 
ly rejected.  In  January,  1870,  the  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Amendments  were  ratified,  and  on 
February  17,  1870,  the  State  was  readmitted  into 
the  Li^nion.  The  period  before  1875  was  marked 
by  a  spirit  of  bitter  hatred  between  the  old  Demo- 
crats and  the  newly  enfranchised  negroes,  to- 
gether with  their  leaders,  the  white  Republicans. 
The  feeling  of  animosity  was  intensified  by  the 
unhappy  £iancial  condition  of  the  State,  and  by 
the  dishonesty  and  incapacity  of  its  officers,  very 
many  of  whom  were  ignorant  negroes,  the  tools 
of  scheming  politicians.  Bloody  collisions  be- 
tween whites  and  negroes  were  frequent  in  1874 
and  1875,  in  one  of  which,  at  Vicksburg,  29  ne- 
groes and  several  whites  were  killed.  The  desper- 
ate attempts  of  the  'conservatives*  to  restore  the 
supremacy  of  the  white  population  proved  finally 
successful  in  1875,  when  the  Democratic  Party 
captured  the  Legislature.  The  Republican  Gov- 
ernor and  Lieutenant-Governor  and  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Education  were  driven  from  office  by 
impeachment  or  threats  of  impeachment,  and 
since  then  the  Democratic  Party  has  retained  an 
overwhelming  predominance.  The  twenty  years 
after  1865  were  a  period  of  economic  depression, 
the  result  of  the  havoc  wrought  by  the  war  and 
of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  readjusting  pro- 
duction to  the  new  conditions  of  labor,  but  later 
the  rise  of  manufactures  marked  the  beginning  of 
a  bright  era.  The  racial  problem  assumed  a  mo- 
mentous aspect  in  1844,  when  a  vast  migration  of 
colored  men  into  the  swamp  lands  of  Mississippi 
seemed  to  threaten  the  rise  of  a  negro  State  within 
the  State  of  Mississippi.  The  policy  of  fortifying 
the  white  race  in  power  was  continued.  By  the 
Constitution  of  1890  the  suffrage  was  restricted 
to  those  able  to  read  a  section  of  the  Constitution, 
or  to  interpret  any  passage,  if  read  aloud,  a 
provision  aimed  against  the  negro  voter,  and 
sufficiently  successful  in  attaining  its  aim.  In 
national  elections  Mississippi  has  been  a  Demo- 
cratic State  with  the  exception  of  the  year  1840. 
when  it  voted  for  the  Whig  candidate,  and  of 
1872,  when  its  vote  was  given  to  Grant.  In  1864 
and  1868  its  vote  was  not  counted.  The  Gov- 
ernors of  Mississippi  have  been  the  following: 

TBBBITOBIAIi 

WInthrop  Sargent 1796-1801 

John  Steele,  €M;t.  tov 1^1 

William  C.  C.  Claiborne 1801-(B 

Cate  West,  act.  gor.  and  governor  ad  fnt. 1«H 

Robert  WilliamB 180W» 

David  Holmen 1809-17 


David  Holmes Democrat-Republican 1817-20 

George  Polndexter Democrat 1830-S2 

Walter  Iweake ••        1822-25 

Gerard  C.  Brandon  (Atf  int.).        "       1825 

David  Holmes  (adint.) ••       1826 

Gerard  C.  Brandon "       1827 

Gerard  C.  Brandon ••       1828-32 

Abram  M.Scott "       1832-» 

Charles  Lynch  (a<f /o«.) •«       18S8 

Hiram  0.  Runnels '•       183335 

John  A.  Quitman Whiff    1835 


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HISSISSIPPL 

Charles  hjnch Democrat... 

Alexander  O.McNatt " 

Tilghman  M.  Tucker ** 

Albert  O.  Brown " 

Joeeph  W.  Matthews *' 

John  A.  Quitman " 

John  J.  Quion  (oc^  in/.) " 

James  Whitfield  (ad  int.) .. 


609 


MISSISSIPPI  BIVEB. 


1836-38 

1838-42 

18I2-44 

1844-48 
'.','.',','/.  1848-50 

1850-51 

1851 

1851 

Henry  S.  Poote.  .^ '. . . . Union  Democrat 1852-54 

John  J.  McRae Democrat 1854-58 

William  McWilUe "         1868^ 

JohnJPettus "         1860-82 

Jacob  Thompson '*         1862-64 

■Charles  Clarke. "         18644J5 

W.  L,  Sharkey (provisional) 1866 

Benjamin  Q.  Humphreys. . . . Democrat 1865-68 

Adelbert  Ames (provisional) 1868-70 

•Jm mes  L.  Alcorn Republican 1870-71 

KiilpleyC.  Powers  (acting)....       *'  1871-74 

AdelbertAmes "  1874-76 

John  M.  Stone Democrat 1876-82 

Kobertl^wry "         1882-90 

John  M.  Stone "         1890-96 

Anselm  J.  McLaurin. "         1896-1900 

A.  H.  Longlno ••       190004 

James  K.  tardaman *•       1904  — 

Bibliography.  Wailes,  Report  on  the  Affrioul- 
ture  and  Geology  of  Mississippi  (Jackson,  1854)  ; 
Hi]gard,  Report  on  the  Geology  and  Agriculture  of 
Mississippi  (Jackson,  1860)  ;  Chapman,  Flora  of 
the  Southern  United  States  (New  York,  1860)  ; 
Wall,  The  State  of  Mississippi:  Resources,  Con- 
ditions, and  Wants  (Jackson,  1879)  ;  Hurt,  Mis- 
sissippi: Its  Climate,  Soil,  Productions,  and  Agri- 
cultural Capabilities  (Washington,  1883)  ;  Davis, 
Recollections  of  Mississippi  and  M  ississippiana 
(Boston,  1889);  Goodspeed,  Biographical  and 
Historical  Memoirs  of  Mississippi  (Chicago, 
1891);  Winsor,  The  Mississippi  Basin  (Boston, 
1895);  Miickenfuss,  History  of  Scientific  Indus- 
tries in  Mississippi  (Jackson,  1900)  ;  Garner, 
Reconstruction  in  Mississippi  (New  York,  1901) ; 
Flint,  History  and  Geography  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (Cincinnati,  1832)  ;  Monette,  History  of 
the  Discovery  and  Settlement  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi  (New  York,  1848)  ;  French,  Histori- 
cal Collections  of  Louisiana  (New  York,  1851)  ; 
■Claiborne,  Mississippi  as  a  Province,  Terri- 
tory, and  State  (Jackson,  1880);  Rozier,  His- 
tory of  the  Early  Settlements  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (Saint  Louis,  1890)  ;  Riley,  School  His- 
tory of  Mississippi  (Richmond,  1900)  ;  Mont- 
gomery, Reminiscences  of  Mississippi  ( Cincinnati, 
1901)  ;  Mayes,  Educational  History  of  Mississippi 
(Jackson,  1891)  ;  Lowry  and  McCardle,  History 
of  Mississippi  (Jackson,  1891);  Duval,  History 
of  Mississippi  (Louisville,  Ky.,  1892)  ;  Tracy, 
Mississippi  as  It  Is  (Jackson,  1895)  ;  Owen, 
**Bibliography  of  Mississippi,"  in  American  His- 
torical Association  Report  for  1899  (Washington, 
1900)  ;  Publications  of  Mississippi  Historical  So- 
ciety, 6  vols.  (Oxford,  1900-03). 

MISSISSIPPI,  University  of.  A  State  uni- 
versity chartered  in  1844  and  opened  in  1848, 
at  Oxford,  Miss.,  and  maintained  until  1880  by 
annual  grants  by  the  Legislature.  From  1861  to 
1 865  exercises  were  suspended  owing  to  the  resig- 
nation of  the  faculty.  In  1870  the  policy  of 
separate  schools,  with  optional  studies  and  with 
courses  leading  to  other  degrees  besides  that  of 
B.A.,  was  adopted.  There  are  seven  undergrad- 
uate courses,  partly  elective,  leading  to  the  bach- 
elor's degree  in  arts,  science,  pedagogy,  philoso- 
phy, mining,  and  civil  and  electrical  engineering. 
The  university  also  maintains  a  law  school,  a  med- 
ical department  and  a  summer  school,  and  confers 
the  degree  of  M.A.  and  Ph.D.  In  1892  the  pre- 
paratory education  was  discontinued  at  the  uni- 


versity; and  the  requirements  for  admission  are 
those  adopted  bv  the  Association  of  Colleges  and 
Preparatory  Schools  of  the  Southern  States,  of 
which  the  university  is  one  of  the  original  mem- 
bers. Students  from  approved  high  schools  are 
admitted  without  examination.  Since  1882  wo- 
men are  admitted.  The  faculty  consisted  in 
1906  of  33  instructors,  and  the  students  num- 
bered 361.  The  library  contained  19,000  volumes. 
The  total  endowment  was  $780,000,  with  a  gross 
income  of  $47,640.  Tlie  buildings  and  grounds 
were  valued  at  $300,000,  the  total  value  of  the 
property  being  $1,100,000. 

MISSISSIPPI  AGBICTJLTUBAL  AND 
MECHANICAIi  COLLEGE.  A  State  institu- 
tion at  Agricultural  College,  Miss.,  founded  in 
1880  on  the  Federal  land  grant  of  1862.  It  has 
a  preparatory  department  and  three  courses  of 
instruction,  agricultural,  mechanical,  and  textile, 
with  provision  for  graduate  work  and  summer 
sessions.  It  confers  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  and 
blaster  of  Science,  and  the  honorary  degree  of 
Master  of  Progressive  Agriculture.  Tuition  is 
free  to  students  residing  in  the  State;  others 
pay  an  annual  fee  of  $30.  The  college  has  a 
military  organization,  and  all  students  are  re- 
quired to  wear  a  prescribed  uniform  within  five 
miles  of  the  college  buildings.  The  attendance  of 
women  is  permitted.  In  1906  the  faculty  and 
officers  of  administration  numbered  43,  and  the 
total  attendance  in  the  preparatory  and  the  aca- 
demic departments  was  824.  The  library  con- 
tained 11,000  bound  volumes.  The  productive 
funds  of  the  college  amounted  to  $154,867,  and 
its  income  from  all  sources,  including  tuition  and 
benefactions,  was  $200,760. 

MISSISSIPPIAN  SERIES.  A  group  of  lime- 
stones outcropping  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, and  also  in  Arkansas  and  Texas.  It  is  the 
equivalent  of  the  Lower  Carboniferous  in  the 
Appalachian  States.  See  Carboniferous  Sys- 
tem. 

MISSISSIPPI  CATFISH.  The  largest  of 
North  American  catfish  {Ameiurus  lacustris,  or 
Ictalurus  ponderosus),  which  may  reach  150 
pounds  in  weight,  is  sold  in  all  the  markets  of 
its  region,  and  is  regarded  by  many  as  good  food. 
It  inhabits  the  Great  Lakes,  and  all  the  larger 
waters  of  the  Saskatchewan,  Mississippi,  and 
Missouri  valleys.  In  color  it  is  greenish  slate, 
growing  darker  with  age,  the  sides  paler,  without 
spots.  (See  Catfish.)  Among  its  many  local 
names  in  the  South  are  *flannel-mouth'  and 
*mud  cat.' 

MISSISSIPPI  COLLEGE.  An  institution  of 
learning  at  Clinton,  Miss.,  founded  in  1826.  It 
has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department 
with  an  attendance  in  1906  of  360  students  and  a 
faculty  of  twelve  instructors.  The  library  con- 
tained about  3000  volumes.  The  college  buildings 
are  valued  at  $40,000,  and  the  property  of  the 
institution  at  about  $175,000.  The  endowment 
is  $106,000,  and  the  gross  income  $16,000. 

MISSISSIPPI  RIVER  ( Algonquin  Missi  Sepe, 
great  river;  literally,  father  of  waters).  The 
principal  river  of  the  North  American  continent ; 
counting  as  a  part  of  it  the  longest  branch  of 
the  drainage  system,  the  Missouri,  which  far  over- 
tops the  central  stem,  it  is  the  longest  river  in  the 
world.  Its  course  is  entirely  within  the  United 
States.  Popularly,  the  name  is  applied  to  the 
main  north  and  south  stem  of  the  system,  whick 


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MISSISSIPPI  BIVER. 


rises  in  the  highlands  of  Minnesota,  in  Elk  Lake, 
just  south  of  Lake  Itasca,  in  latitude  47**  10'  N., 
longitude  95°  10'  W.  Its  sources  are  1462  feet 
above  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  into  which  it  empties. 
Its  general  course  is  southerly,  with  numerous 
windings,  giving  it  a  length  of  about  2500  miles 
to  its  mouth  in  latitude  29°  N.,  longitude  89° 
15'  W.  Following  up  the  Missouri  branch,  and 
the  Jefferson  to  its  head  in  southwestern  Mon- 
tana, the  total  length  of  the  Mississippi-Missouri, 
from  its  source  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  fully 
4200  miles.  The  Mississippi  and  its  branches 
drain  the  entire  western  slope  of  the  Appa- 
lachian, and  nearly  the  whole  eastern  slope  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  system  within  the  United 
States.  Its  drainage  basin  covers  an  area  of  about 
1,257,000  square  miles,  or  over  two-fifths  of 
the  total  area  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of 
Alaska.  It  is  navigable  to  the  Falls  of  Saint 
Anthony  at  Minneapolis,  2161  miles,  and  by 
smaller  boats  above  the  falls.  Its  tributaries 
large  enough  to  be  mapped  on  a  chart  of  com- 
paratively small  scale  number  240,  among  which 
are  45  at  present  navigable.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  its  tributaries  navigable  by  large  or 
small  boats  are  the  Missouri,  navigable  to  the 
Great  Falls  in  Montana,  2300  miles;  the  Ar- 
kansas, navigable  to  Wichita,  Kan.;  the  Red 
River,  navigable  to  Gainesville,  Tex.;  the  Ohio, 
navigable  to  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  963  miles.  The  total 
navigable  length  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  trib- 
utaries is  over  14,000  miles  following  the  river 
windings,  and  9000  miles  measured  in  straight 
lines.  The  river  forms  a  portion  of  the  bound- 
aries of  ten  States,  having  the  southern  part  of 
Minnesota,  and  the  States  of  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Arkansas,  and  most  of  Louisiana  on  the  west 
bank;  and  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Mississippi  on  the  east.  Twenty-one 
States  and  Territories  are  intersected  by  the 
navigable  waters  of  this  great  system.  The  chief 
cities  situated  on  its  banks  are  New  Orleans, 
Natchez,  Vicksburg,  Memphis,  Cairo,  Saint 
Louis,  Quincy,  Burlington,  Rock  Island,  Daven- 
port, Dubuque,  Saint  Paul,  and  Minneapolis. 

Descbiption  of  Natural  Featubes.  The 
sources  of  the  river  are  in  Lakes  Elk,  Itasca, 
Bemidji,  Cass,  Winnibigashish,  Fishing,  Leech, 
and  Mud,  lying  among  hills  of  drift  and  boulders, 
in  the  midst  of  pine  forests  and  marshes.  From 
Lake  Itasca  to  Bemidji  the  stream  is  about  12 
feet  wide  and  2  feet  deep.  It  issues  from  the 
latter  120  feet  wide,  flowing  to  Cass  Lake,  which 
it  leaves  with  a  width  of  172  feet,  contracting 
and  deepening  below  as  it  flows  through  marshes 
till  it  comes  to  a  junction  with  Leech  River, 
where  it  has  rapids  of  20  feet,  called  the  Falls  of 
Pokegaraa,  270  miles  from  the  source.  To  this 
point  small  steamers  navigate.  The  total  de- 
scent to  this  point  is  324  feet.  Thence  to  the 
mouth  of  Crow  Wing  River,  247  miles,  the  river 
falls  about  one  foot  per  mile.  It  is  narrow 
through  this  distance  and  winds  through  oak 
and  maple  forests,  marshes,  and  sandy  hills, 
where  the  formation  of  rock  is  overlaid  with  the 
gravel  and  boulders  of  the  drift  period.  Below, 
the  river  passes  through  a  prairie  country  down 
to  Elk  River,  and  is  stained  slightly  with  the 
brownish  color  given  by  piney  and  marshy  vege- 
tation; 133  miles  below  the  Crow  Wing  are  the 
Sauk  Rapids,  one  mile  long,  where  Potsdam 
sandstone  first  outcrops  on  its  banks  and  extends 
from   that   point  down   to   Dubuque   and   Rock 


Island.  The  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  at  Minne- 
apolis are  18  feet  high,  with  a  breadth  of  1200. 
Up  to  this  point  the  river  is  navigable  for  com. 
mercial  purposes,  though  practically  Saint  Paul 
is  the  head  of  navigation.  The  river  widens 
below  Saint  Paul  into  what  is  called  Lake 
Pepin,  studded  with  islands.  From  the  Falls 
of  Saint  Anthony  to  the  junction  with  the 
Missouri,  near  Saint  Louis,  the  river  flows 
through  a  valley  of  great  beauty  and  uniform 
fertility.  Cliffs  and  rocky  bluffs,  from  200  to 
300  feet  high,  give  a  picturesque  character  to 
that  part  of  the  valley  below  R<>ck  Island,  where 
it  strikes  the  Carboniferous  strata,  the  geological 
formation  of  the  valley,  to  about  100  miles  below 
the  Missouri.  At  Rock  Island,  381  miles  below 
Minneapolis,  there  is  a  small  fall,  but  the  river 
is  navigable  between  the  right  bank  and  the 
island  3  miles  long  with  the  aid  of  a  canal  con- 
structed by  the  Government.  Similar  improve- 
ments have  been  made  at  the  rapids  near  the 
mouth  of  the  l)es  Moines  River,  so  that  the 
navigation  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  is  uninter- 
rupted below  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony.  The 
surging,  muddy,  eddying  waters  of  the  Missouri, 
for  a  long  distance,  flow  side  by  side  with  the 
clearer  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  joining  but  not 
blending,  till  thrown  together  by  many  a  crook 
and  turn  and  eddy  between  the  bluffs  of  the  great 
valley.  Before  the  Ohio  River  joins  them,  the 
union  is  complete;  but  the  waters  remain  turbid 
to  their  junction  with  the  sea,  and,  where  joined 
by  the  currents  of  the  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers, 
take  a  more  reddish  color. 

From  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony  downward 
level  flood  plains  or  bottom  lands  begin  to  appear 
adjacent  to  the  river  on  one  or  both  sides,  be- 
coming gradually  lower  as  we  proceed  down  the 
stream.  This  vast  flood  plain  lies  from  300  to 
600  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  bordering  up- 
lands. Above  Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  30  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  these  flood  plains  are  still 
clearly  above  the  level  of  the  river,  though  they 
are  sometimes  subject  to  inundations.  These 
bottom  lands,  both  high  and  low,  are  of  the 
highest  order  of  fertility,  those  farthest  north 
being  used  for  cereals.  Some  of  the  largest  have 
been  reclaimed  from  liability  to  overflow  by  dikes 
across  the  water-channels  by  which  they  were 
inundated.  Sny  Island,  in  Pike  County,  111., 
so  reclaimed,  is  40  miles  in  length.  The  Ameri- 
can Bottom  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Missouri  90  miles  down  the  river  on  the  east  side 
with  an  average  breadth  of  6  miles.  Below  Cape 
Girardeau,  on  the  west  side,  the  whole  country 
down  to  the  Gulf  is  bottom  land  for  an  average 
width  of  50  miles.  But  throughout  this  stretch, 
from  Cairo,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  to  the  Gulf, 
the  river  flows  in  a  channel  on  the  summit  of  a 
low  ridge,  the  land  sloping  gradually  away  from 
the  banks  on  either  side,  so  that  the  whole  or  the 
greater  part  of  the  bottom  lands  lie  below  the 
level  of  the  river  surface.  Every  water-course 
in  this  bottom  land,  whether  stream  or  bayou, 
flows  in  a  similar  channel,  on  a  ridge  created  by 
its  own  deposits.  The  slopes  of  these  ridges  iaire 
the  cultivable  lands  of  this  region.  The  inter- 
vening areas  are  mainly  marshy,  and  in  Louisi- 
ana are  entirely  marsh,  rising  but  a  few  feet 
above  the  Gulf  level.  From  Cairo,  111.,  as  far  south 
as  Memphis,  Tenn.,  the  river  impinges  on  the 
east  bank,  leaving  its  bottom  land  on  the  west 
side.    Thence  southward  as  far  as  Natchez,  Miss.,. 


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there  is  a  broad  extent  of  bottom  land  on  the 
east  side,  known  as  the  Yazoo  Bottoms/  which 
are  intersected  by  many  bayous,  the  chief  of 
which  is  the  Yazoo.  On  the  west  side  is  also  a 
wide  bottom  land,  which  extends  almost  con- 
tinuously to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  widening  south- 
ward. On  the  east  side  the  river  impinges 
against  the  bluffs  for  some  distance  south  of 
Natchez,  but  below  the  boundary  between  Mis- 
sissippi and  Louisiana  bottom  land  appears 
again  on  this  side  of  the  river  and  rapidly  widens 
toward  the  Gulf.  The  entire  valley  of  the  lower 
section  of  the  river  is  margined  by  bayous  or 
arms,  which  leave  the  main  stream  to  rejoin  it 
farther  down,  and  considerable  parts  of  Louisi- 
ana, Mississippi,  an4  Arkansas  are  intersected  by 
them. 

Another  characteristic  feature  of  the  adjacent 
bottom  lands  are  the  countless  crescent-shaped 
lakes,  oxbows,  as  they  are  called,  which  line  the 
river  on  either  side,  but  are  partlv  or  wholly 
separated  from  it.  These  are  formed,  by  cut-offs. 
The  river  flows  in  great  curves,  which  constantly 
tend  to  increase  in  diameter.  Thus  they  en- 
croach on  one  another,  and  finally  at  flood-time, 
when  the  impact  of  the  current  becomes  strong- 
est, cut  through  the  narrow  neck  separating 
adjacent  curves,  thus  shortening  the  course,  and 
leaving  the  loop  as  a  crescent-shaped  lake. 

Below  the  mouth  of  Red  River,  the  Mississippi 
divides  into  branches,  the  Atchafalaya,  Plaque- 
mine,  and  Lafourche  bayous  being  examples  of 
such  distributaries.  In  the  lowlands  near  its 
mouth  below  New  Orleans  it  divides  still  further, 
entering  the  Gulf  by  means  of  several  passages 
known  as  passes,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
Southwest  and  South  Passes  and  the  Pass  ft 
rOutre.  At  the  mouth  of  each  of  these  passes, 
except  the  South  Pass,  where  jetties  have  been 
built  to  prevent  it,  is  a  bar  formed  by  the  deposit 
of  silt  from  the  river  on  meeting  the  quiet  waters 
of  the  Gulf.  The  quantity  of  sediment  brought 
down  by  the  river  is  enormous,  being  below  the 
Missouri  .0035  of  the  volume  of  water,  which 
latter  amounts  to  145  cubic  miles  per  annum. 
The  area  of  the  delta  of  the  river  is  estimated 
at  over  12,000  square  miles.  It  is  everywhere 
threaded  with  interlacing  bayous  and  navigable 
channels,  placing  every  cultivable  acre  of  its 
lands  near  to  steamboat  navigation,  one-tenth 
of  the  land  being  estimated  as  takeii  up  by  such 
water  surfaces  or  channels.  The  timber  in  the 
delta  region  is  mostly  sycamore,  cypress,  and 
oak — ^the  sycamore  margining  the  streams,  the 
cypress  occupying  the  swamps,  and  the  oaks  the 
lands  not  liable  to  frequent  inundation. 

The  climate  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  ranges 
from  semi-arctic  to  semi-tropical.  At  the  Falls 
of  Saint  Anthony,  and  above,  spirit  thermometers 
must  be  employed  to  register  the  extreme  low 
temperature  in  winter,  which  often  touches  40** 
F.  below  zero;  and  yet  the  extreme  of  summer 
heat  is  but  a  few  degrees  less  at  Saint  Paul  than 
at  New  Orleans,  97°  to  104**.  The  range  between 
the  extremes  is  about  65°  more  at  the  source 
than  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  annual  mean 
temperature  at  New  Orleans  is  69^;  at  Saint 
Paul,  450. 

Floods.  The  mean  annual  precipitation  over 
the  entire  basin  is  estimated  by  Humphreys  and 
Abbot  at  29.8  inches.  The  estimated  discharge 
of  the  river  is  610,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second.     The   precipitation,  however,  is  subject 


to  great  variations  at  different  seasons — ^which 
fact,  together  with  the  sudden  melting  of  the 
stored-up  snow  in  the  spring,  causes  considerable 
variations  in  the  volume  of  the  various  tribu- 
taries. Fortunately,  all  are  not  at  their  highest 
at  any  one  time ;  for  if  they  were,  probably  noth- 
ing artificial  could  resist  the  force  of  the  accumu- 
lated waters.  The  regions  from  which  the  floods 
come  are  so  far  apart  and  differ  so  widely  in  cli- 
mate that,  as  a  rule,  one  flood  passes  before  an- 
other comes.  As  it  is,  the  volume  of  the  floods 
that  come  is  sufficient  to  make  a  variation  of  over 
fifty  feet  between  high  and  low  water  marks. 
The  greatest  difference  recorded  at  Cairo  is  53.2 
feet,  and  at  Vicksburg  there  has  been  known  to 
be  a  difference  of  65  feet.  At  fiood  times  the 
water  at  Cairo  is  320  feet  above  the  mean  tide- 
water at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  At  low  water 
it  is  274  feet  above  mean  tide.  This  fall  in  a 
channel  1097  miles  long  fully  accoimts  for  the 
great  velocity  of  the  current,  which  varies  from 
three  to  six  feet  a  second,  according  to  existing 
conditions.  In  high  floods  the  river  formerly 
overflowed  nearly  all  the  surface  between  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Saint  Francis  River 
in  southeastern  Missouri  and  eastern  Arkansas, 
filling  the  lakes  and  lagoons  of  that  region,  and 
then  fiowing  by  numberless  channels  to  the 
White  River  and  Arkansas,  the  Bayou  Macon, 
Washita,  Red,  and  Atchafalaya  rivers  into  the 
Gulf.  Even  since  the  levees  have  been  built 
(see  below),  the  river  sometimes  breaks  through 
these;  its  waters  then  fiow  down  the  slope  of 
its  ridge,  and  collect  in  the  lowlands,  forming 
lakes.  These  rise  gradually,  extending  up  the  slope 
of  the  ridge,  and  so  flooding  the  farms  and  planta- 
tions. In  the  spring  of  1897  a  flood  created  many 
crevasses  in  the  levees  and  swept  over  a  great 
tract  of  territory,  causing  heavy  losses  in  stock, 
crops,  and  other  property.  On  March  14th  the 
water  reached  the  highest  point  ever  recorded  at 
Memphis,  Tenn.  On  April  5th,  according  to  an 
official  statement  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, the  total  area  under  water  was  15,800  square 
miles,  the  submerged  land  being  for  the  most  part 
in  Missouri,  Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and 
Louisiana.  Further  damage  was  subsequently 
caused  by  breaks  in  the  levee  at  Biggs  and  La 
Fourche  Crossing,  La.,  which  resulted  in  the 
flooding  of  large  tracts  of  land  below  Vicksburg, 
Miss.  It  was  estimated  toward  the  close  of  April 
that  20,000  square  miles,  containing  46,936 
farms,  according  to  the  census  of  1890,  were 
imder  water.  According  to  some  estimates,  from 
50,000  to  60,000  persons  suffered  serious  losses 
from  the  floods.  The  Citizens*  Relief  Committee 
of  Memphis  cared  for  large  numbers  of  the  refu- 
gees. The  destitution  was  so  widespread,  how- 
ever, that  President  McKinley  sent  a  special 
message  to  Congress,  which  appropriated  $200,000 
for  the  immediate  relief  of  the  sufferers. 

Early  Measubes  of  Relief.  The  first  attempt 
to  guard  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  against  the 
river  floods  was  made  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  the  French  Governor,  De  la  Tour, 
ordered  embankments  for  the  protection  of  New 
Orleans.  In  the  old  slave  days,  when  labor  was 
cheap,  each  planter  erected  barriers  on  or  near 
the  river  front  of  his  own  ground.  These  were 
called  levees,  and  were  simply  artificial  mud 
banks,  sometimes  strengthened  with  ribs  or  foun- 
dations of  timber,  sometimes  not.  So  long  as  they 
were  watched  carefully  and  kept  in  good  repair. 


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the^  afforded  comparative  safety  to  the  grounds 
behind  them,  except  in  the  highest  floods,  and  as 
time  went  on  the  common  interest  of  the  Valley 
States  dictated  harmonious  action  all  along  both 
sides  of  the  river.  The  development  of  the  levee 
system  brought  about  the  enactment  of  such  local 
laws  as  were  best  calculated  to  serve  the  public 
interest,  and  gradually  the  levees  became  recog- 
nized factors  of  public  welfare  and  were  jealously 
guarded.  The  most  reckless  and  negligent 
planter  was  forced  to  keep  his  own  levees  in  re- 
pair, and  in  places  where  private  interest  was 
not  sufficiently  strong  to  force  the  building  of 
these  earthworks,  the  town  or  the  State  assumed 
the  burden.  In  1828  the  State  of  Louisiana  be- 
gan to  take  vigorous  action  for  the  more  complete 
protection  of  its  delta  lands.  In  1836  and  1838 
several  of  the  great  side  channels  by  which  inun- 
dations had  come  were  closed  at  the  expense  of 
the  counties,  and  the  question  of  the  closing  of 
all  the  overflow  channels,  so  as  to  confine  the 
stream  to  one  bed  in  all  stages  of  water,  was  the 
subject  of  much  excited  difference  of  opinion. 
The  closure  party  prevailed,  and  one  by  one  the 
side  outlets  of  the  Mississippi  were  cut  off  by 
levees,  so  that  by  1844  every  old  bayou  outlet 
for  600  miles  up  the  west  bank  had  been  effectu- 
ally closed.  The  results  were  even  more  satis- 
tory  than  had  been  expected,  so  that  the  levee 
system  was  entered  upon  with  increased  spirit 
by  the  States  bordering  the  river,  and  the  aid  of 
the  General  Government  was  invoked  to  unify 
the  work.  Congress,  in  1850,  ordered  thorough 
topographical  and  hydrographic  surveys  of  the 
whole  of  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley  under  the 
direction  of  Capt.  A.  A.  Humphreys  and  Lieut. 
II.  L.  Abbot,  who  began  work  immediately;  but 
the  report  was  not  submitted  until  August,  1801. 
It  recommended  confining  the  river  to  a  single 
channel  and  making  the  levees  higher  at  all 
points,  and  estimated  the  cost  of  carrying  out 
this  recommendation  at  $17,000,000. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  these  levees 
were  in  better  condition  than  ever  before.  Sub- 
stantial levees  had  been  constructed  on  the  east 
side  up  to  the  northern  line  of  the  State  of 
Mississippi,  including  one  of  great  magnitude 
across  the  Yazoo  Pass — the  largest  of  all  the  out- 
lets closed.  On  the  west  side  the  levees  had 
been  completed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas. 
Louisiana  alone  had  expended  up  to  that  time 
$18,000,000  on  the  levees  of  the  main  river; 
$5,000,000  more  on  its  great  side  outlets,  the 
.  Atchafalaya,  Plaquemine,  and  La  Fourche;  and 
$1,000,000  on  the  shore  of  the  Red  River.  The 
State  of  Arkansas  had  spent  $1,000,000;  Mis- 
sissippi, on  her  water-front  of  444  miles,  $14,- 
500,000;  and  the  State  of  Missouri,  on  her  front 
of  140  miles,  $1,640,000.  The  total  expenditure 
by  individuals,  parishes,  and  States  up  to  that 
time,  on  about  2000  miles  of  the  river  shore,  is 
estimated  by  C.  G.  Forshey,  of  New  Orleans,  at 
upward  of  $41,000,000,  without  counting  the  cost 
of  maintenance.  Before  the  four  years'  strug- 
gle began  to  draw  to  a  close,  however,  the  levees 
had  fallen  into  decay.  There  were  breaks  here 
and  there  that  destroyed  the  system,  and  the 
planters  were  too  poor  to  hire  the  necessary 
labor  to  rebuild.  Something  had  to  be  done 
to  meet  the  difficulty,  and  that  too  before  dire 
disaster  had  fallen  upon  the  people  living  in  the 
valley. 


The  Mississippi  Riveb  Commission.  A  com- 
mission under  this  name  was  created  by  act  of 
Congress  of  June  28,  1879,  and  consists  of  seven 
persons,  three  of  whom  are  army  officers  selected 
from  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  one  from  the  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey,  and  two  civil  engineers  and 
a  lawyer  from  civil  life.  The  commission  was 
directed  by  the  act  to  complete  surveys  of  the 
entire  river,  from  headwaters  to  mouth,  and  to 
take  into  consideration  such  plans  and  estimates 
as  will  correct,  permanently  locate,  and  deepen 
the  channel  and  protect  the  river  banks.  The 
prevalent  idea,  therefore,  that  the  work  of  the 
commission  is  confined  to  the  lower  river  is 
erroneous.  For  the  expenses  of  the  surveys,  ex- 
aminations, and  investigations  conducted  by  the 
commission  for  the  first  ten  years  of  its  work, 
considerably  over  a  million  dollars  were  appro- 
priated and  expended.  This  is  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  appropriations  made  for  the 
actual  works  of  improvement,  which  were  begun 
in  1881,  and  which  have  cost  thus  far,  in  round 
numbers,  over  $14,000,000.  In  the  various  ap- 
propriation bills  for  this  purpose  the  commission 
has  been  restricted  carefully  in  the  scope  of  the 
work  to  the  exact  purposes  defined  in  the  creating 
act.  In  making  the  preliminary  surveys  ordered 
by  Congress,  the  commission  found  it  had  to 
deal  with  a  work  of  most  extraordinary  difficul- 
ties. The  main  portion  of  its  labor  was  called 
on  for  the  lower  river;  that  is,  from  Cairo  to  the 
Gulf.  The  distance  in  a  straight  line  is  less  than 
600  miles,  but  by  the  windings  and  twist ings 
of  the  river  it  is  some  500  miles  longer.  Forever 
bringing  down  its  own  obstructions  and  drop- 
ping them  in  its  own  path,  the  river  is  forever 
attacking  or  running  around  those  same  obstruc- 
tions, changing  its  course  continually.  The  diflS- 
culty  due  to  the  enormous  amount  of  detritus  in 
the  river  may  be  realized  when  it  is  said  that  the 
amount  of  sediment  brought  down  annually  is 
estimated  by  C.  C.  Babb  at  406,280,000  tons,  and 
other  geologists  have  made  similar  estimates. 
Straightening  the  river,  as  has  been  at  various 
times  popularly  suggested,  would,  on  account  of 
the  huge  volume  of  water,  turn  it  into  an  un- 
controllable torrent.  Dredging  is  not  practicable, 
as  the  river  frequently  deposits  as  much  as  fifteen 
feet  of  silt  in  one  place  in  the  course  of  a  single 
year,  and  as  frequently  removes  it  in  the  course 
of  a  single  week  or  less.  The  quality  of  the  soil 
itself  also  makes  diking  and  revetting  peculiarly 
difficult.  The  force  of  the  tremendous  current 
of  the  river  directed  against  the  foundation  of 
any  work  that  may  be  placed  on  its  banks  is 
likely  at  any  time  to  remove  that  foundation. 
When  the  report  of  the  commission  was  made  in 
1880  it  was  decided  to  combine  the  jetty  and 
levee  systems.  There  were  few  natural  advan- 
tages to  be  utilized^  and  it  was  recognized  that 
nothing  could  be  done  that  could  be  declared 
absolutely  permanent,  and  that  the  actual  river 
bed  could  never  be  made  to  hold  all  the  flood 
waters  that  were  certain  to  come  down.  What 
has  been  attempted,  and  in  some  measure  accom- 
plished, is  to  take  advantage  of  the  river's  own 
peculiarities,  and  by  strengthening  natural  ob- 
structions, here  and  there,  rather  than  by  re- 
moving obstacles,  to  persuade  the  stream,  instead 
of  forcing  it,  to  follow  a  given  route. 

Jetties  ob  Contraction  Works.  The  system 
will  be  given  more  in  outline  than  detail,  as  the 


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latter  are  far  too  numerous  to  be  more  than 
barely  mentioned.  The  natural  banks  of  the 
river,  in  those  places  where  the  current  sets 
against  them,  and  is  likely  to  wear  them  away, 
are  strengthened  by  revetment  work.  The  char- 
acter of  this  revetment  varies  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  but,  generally  speaking,  is 
of  two  kinds.  The  first  is  a  kind  of  soft  bottom 
put  on  the  bed  of  the  stream  at  the  point  of 
greatest  erosion.  This  consists  of  what  are  called 
mattresses  or  hurdles,  which  are  constructed  of 
mats  of  brush  woven  and  fastened  together  with 
wire  strengthened  with  a  sort  of  lattice-work 
of  heavy  timbers  placed  on  the  banks  and  se- 
cured by  a  substantial  ballast  of  rubble-stones. 
A  crib  of  timbers  is  first  constructed  in  sections, 
amounting  in  all  to  dimensions  sujficient  to  cover 
the  place  which  is  to  be  protected.  Over  this  is 
laid  a  carpet  of  heavy  brush,  with  the  twigs  of 
fibre  running  generally  in  parallel  lines.  Over 
this  is  laid  another  carpet  of  similar  construc- 
tion, with  its  fibres  crossing  that  of  the  first  at 
an  angle  usually  less  than  a  right  angle,  and 
the  two  are  knitted  or  sewed  together  with  strong 
wire.  Sometimes  a  third  carpet  may  be  laid, 
with  the  brush  lying  at  still  another  angle.  Then 
another  crib  or  lattice-work  of  heavy  timber  is 
laid  on  these  carpets,  and  the  whole  is  bound  to- 
gether with  wire,  or  another  series  laid  on  top 
if  extra  strength  and  weight  are  needed.  The 
entire  contrivance  is  then  placed  in  position, 
covering  the  bottom  of  the  river  from  the  centre 
of  the  channel  to  the  margin  of  the  bank.  As  a 
matter  of  course  it  is  necessarily  handled  in 
sections,  but  the  sections  are  placed  and  fastened 
together  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  carpet  when 
laid,  and  they  are  then  heavily  ballasted  with 
rubble-stone,  laid  systematically  to  form  an  un- 
cemented  pavement  over  the  carpet.  It  is  found 
that  this  practically  secures  the  mattress  in 
position  for  a  considerable  time  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  and  actually  prevents  the  eating 
away  of  the  banks  by  diverting  the  course  of  the 
current  back  to  the  desired  channel.  Generally  it 
occurs  that  the  action  of  the  river  before  this 
treatment  is  applied  to  it  has  made  the  bank  un- 
even. Sometimes  it  will  even  overhang  the  river 
a  little,  and  it  is  necessary  to  smooth  the  surface 
to  afford  an  even  bed  or  floor  on  which  to  lay  the 
mattress.  Instead  of  digging  this  away  the 
familiar  method  of  hydraulics  is  utilized.  With 
a  powerful  engine  a  stream  of  water  is  pumped 
through  a  hose,  and  the  soft  earth  is  readily 
washed  into  shape.  The  ultimate  purpose  of 
these  mattresses  and  other  devices  is  to  secure 
an  approximately  uniform  width  between  the 
banks  of  about  3000  feet.  When  this  is  done  it 
is  believed  that  the  bottom  will  be  scoured  out 
by  the  current,  so  that  a  depth  of  not  less  than 
sixteen  or  eighteen  feet  will  be  secured  through- 
out the  lower  river.  The  permeable  dike  is  a 
contrivance  used  in  many  places  where  it  would 
be  impossible  to  lay  mattresses,  where  there  may 
be,  in  fact,  no  bank  to  lay  them  on,  but  a  wide 
stretch  of  slack  water  reaching  out  into  a  lagoon. 
These  dikes  are  of  simple  construction,  consisting 
of  rows  of  piles  driven  as  firmly  as  may  be  in  the 
soft  bottom.  The  piles  are  placed  from  two  to 
^ve  feet  apart,  and  between  the  rows  quantities 
of  brush  are  placed  and  fastened.  The  water 
passes  through  these  works  freely  at  first,  but 
ieing  checked  by  the  partial  obstruction,  it  drops 


the  sediment  with  which  it  is  so  heavily  charged, 
and  itself  completes  the  dam  which  confines  its 
course.  These  dikes  are  found  to  be  very  effective 
substitutes  for  complete  dams,  and  are  put  where 
it  would  be  difiicult,  if  not  impossible,  to  build 
a  solid  dam  in  the  first  place.  More  substantial, 
or  rather  more  compactly  built  dams  are  placed 
at  some  points  where  there  is  a  tendency  on  the 
part  of  the  river  to  form  cut-offs.  (See  section 
Description  of  Natural  Features.)  This  ten- 
dency is  perhaps  the  thing  most  dreaded  and 
most  carefully  guarded  against. 

Levees.  It  has  been  found  that,  in  order  to 
meet  the  whole  question  scientifically,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  build  a  double  line  of  levees  on 
each  side  of  the  river.  The  inner  line  is  built  to 
define  the  course  of  the  channel  and  to  prevent 
floods;  the  outer  line,  which  is  located  far  down 
the  river  ridge,  is  designed  to  protect  the  farms 
and  plantations  from  the  invasion  of  the  back 
water  in  case  the  front  levee  is  broken.  The  levee 
is  in  certain  places  the  only  possible  safeguard. 
Cairo,  111.,  affords  a  conspicuous  instance  of  this. 
No  revetments  or  dikes  could  possibly  guide  the 
current  so  that  it  would  flow  past  the  city  with- 
out overflowing  it,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
city  is  below  high -water  mark.  It  is  of  neces- 
sity entirely  surrounded  by  a  levee  that  rises 
some  fifty- five  or  sixty  feet  above  low- water  mark, 
or  *zero,'  as  it  is  called  on  the  Government 
records.  The  keeping  of  the  works  in  repair  is  a 
matter  of  vital  importance;  constant  watching 
and  constant  strengthening  are  the  only  things 
that  can  successfully  combat  the  action  of  the 
rushing  stream. 

Other  Pboblems.  The  characteristics  of  the 
banks  are  so  different  that  the  various  localities 
offer  special  problems  in  themselves,  and  must 
be  handled  without  reference  to  conditions  that 
obtain  elsewhere.  The  bluffs  are  threatened  in 
one  place,  while  in  another  the  opposite  low  bank 
is  attacked,  and  the  river  devotes  its  energies 
toward  cutting  a  new  channel.  Revetments  are 
sometimes  on  the  bluff  side,  then  again  on  the 
opposite;  basins  are  occasionally  cut  in  the  soft 
bottom  ground  where  the  old  river  bed  used  to  be, 
and  spur-dikes  are  in  other  places  the  only 
remedy. 

The  mouth  of  the  Red  River  brought  several 
vexed  questions  before  the  commission,  and  the 
practical  result  of  their  conclusions  will  not  be 
known  imtil  the  works  now  in  progress  are  com- 
pleted. It  is  feared  that  the  bed  of  the  Atcha- 
falaya,  the  present  main  outlet  of  the  Red  River, 
will  enlarge  sufficiently  to  convert  the  entire 
country  between  it  and  the  Mississippi  into  an 
arm  of  the  sea.  The  only  safeguard  seems  to  be 
by  a  series  of  dikes  and  submerged  dams  to 
turn  the  low-water  fiow  of  the  Red  River  all  into 
the  Mississippi. 

Another  serious  problem  was  presented  by 
the  bars  at  the  mouths  of  the  delta,  which  have 
been  a  serious  obstacle  to  vessels  entering  the 
river.  This  was  solved  by  the  celebrated  engi- 
neer James  B.  Eads.  He  selected  the  South 
Pass,  and  by  the  construction  of  jetties  which 
narrowed  the  channel  at  its  mouth,  and  thus  in- 
creased the  velocity  of  the  current,  he  made  the 
river  cut  its  own  bar  away,  and  obtained  a  depth 
through  the  bar  and  throughout  the  pass  of  34 
feet,  with  width  adequate  for  all  purposes  of 
navigation.     This  improvement  has  resulted  in 


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establishing  New  Orleans  as  the  leading  seaport 
of  the  South.    See  the  section  Jetties. 

It  is  well  understood  that  the  whole  work  of 
regulating  the  river  is  likely  to  prove  a  slower 
process  than  was  at  first  supposed,  and  that  to  be 
efficient  it  can  only  be  gradual  and  progressive. 
It  is  a  work  of  great  magnitude;  it  is  sup- 
posed that  not  less  than  $75,000,000  will  be 
needed  to  put  it  even  in  approximately  good 
shape.  The  work  has,  however,  suffered  greatly 
from  inadequate  and  intermittent  appropriations, 
which  have  interfered  with  a  systematic  and 
economical  administration  of  its  affairs. 

For  the  history  of  the  discovery  and  first  set- 
tlements of  the  Mississippi,  see  De  Soto,  Heb- 
NANDO  J  Hennepin,  Louis;  Ibebville,  Pierre  ; 
JoLiET,  Louis;  La  Salle,  Ren£;  Marquette, 
Jacques;  Schoolcraft,  Henrt  R.;  New  Or- 
leans; Saint  Louis  ;  Saint  Paul,  etc.  For 
shipping  statistics  of  the  Mississippi  see  the 
article  united  States,  section  on  Shipping  on 
the  Mississippi  System,  Consult  Humphreys  and 
Abbot,  Report  on  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the 
Mississippi  River  (Philadelphia,  1861);  Eads, 
Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi  River 
(New  Orleans,  1876);  Corthell,  History  of  the 
Jetties  at  the  Mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River 
(New  York,  1880);  Johnson,  "Protection  of  the 
Lower  Mississippi  Valley  from  Overflow"  and 
"Great  Floods  on  the  Lower  Mississippi,"  in 
Journals  of  the  Association  of  Engineering  So- 
cieties, vols.  ii.  and  iii.  (Philadelphia,  1885); 
Ockerson  and  Stewart,  Mississippi  River  from 
Saint  Louis  to  the  Sea  (Saint  Louis,  1902)  ; 
Levasaeur,  La  question  des  sources  du  Missis- 
sippi (Paris,  1894)  ;  Brower,  The  Missouri  River 
and  Its  Utmost  Source  (Saint  Paul,  1897)  ;  Ock- 
erson, The  Mississippi  River:  Some  of  its  Phys- 
ical Characteristics  (Paris,  1900)  ;  the  Annual 
Reports  of  the  Mississippi  River  Commission 
(Saint  Louis,  1879  et  seq.)  ;  Ogg,  The  Opening  of 
the  Mississippi  (New  York,  1904)  ;  Hulbert, 
Military  Roads  of  the  Mississippi  Basin  (Cleve- 
land,  1904);  Griffin,  "Bibliography  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  the  Mississippi"  in  JouteFs  Journal 
of  La  Salle's  Last  Journal   (Albany,  1906). 

MISSISSIPPI  SCHEME.  A  gigantic  bank- 
ing and  commercial  scheme  projected  in  France 
by  the  celebrated  Scotch  financier  John  Law 
(q.v.),  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV.  The  primary  object  of  the  scheme  was  to  re- 
suscitate the  French  finances  by  removing  some 
of  the  debt  and  disorder  which  had  followed 
on  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV.  Money  was 
to  flow  into  France  by  developing  the  re- 
sources of  the  Province  of  Louisiana  and  the 
country  bordering  on  the  Mississippi — a  tract  at 
that  time  believed  to  abound  in  the  precious 
metals.  The  company  was  incorporated  in  1717, 
under  the  designation  of  the  Compagnie  d'Occi- 
dent,  and  started  with  a  large  capital.  Two  hun- 
dred thousand  shares  were  placed  on  the  market 
and  eagerly  bought  up.  The  company  obtained 
exclusive  privileges  of  trading  to  the  Mississippi 
for  twenty-five  years,  of  farming  the  taxes,  and 
of  coining  money.  In  1719  it  obtained  a  mo- 
nopoly of  trading  to  the  East  Indies,  China,  the 
South  Seas,  and  all  the  possessions  of  the  French 
East  India  Company,  and  the  brilliant  vision 
opened  up  to  the  public  gaze  was  irresistible. 
The  Compagnie  des  Indes,  as  it  was  now  called, 
created  fifty  thousand  additional  shares;  but 
there  were  at  least  three  hundred  thousand  appli- 


cants for  these,  and  consequently  shares  rose  Ut^ 
an  enormous  premium.  The  public  enthusiasm 
became  absolute  frenzy,  and  while  confidence 
lasted,  a  fictitious  impulse  was  given  to  trade  in 
Paris;  the  value  of  manufactures  was  increased 
fourfold,  and  the  demand  far  exceeded  the  sup- 
ply. The  population  of  Paris  is  said  to  have 
been  increased  by  hundreds  of  thousands, 
many  of  whom  were  glad  to  take  shelter 
in  garrets,  kitchens,  and  stables.  But  the 
Regent  Orleans  had  meanwhile  caused  the 
paper  circulation  of  the  national  bank  to  he 
increased  as  the  Mississippi  scheme  stock  rose  in 
value,  and  paper  currency  to  the  face  value  of 
2,700,000,000  livres  flooded  the  country.  The 
result  was  that  many  wary  speculators,  foresee- 
ing a  crisis,  secretly  converted  their  paper  and 
shares  into  gold,  which  they  transmitted  to  Eng- 
land or  Belgium  for  security.  The  increasing 
scarcity  of  gold  and  silver  in  France  becoming 
felt,  a  general  run  was  made  on  the  national  bank, 
which  in  March,  1720,  had  been  incorporated 
with  the  Compagnie  des  Indes.  On  May  21st  the 
Government  issued  an  edict  which  reduced  the 
value  of  bank  notes  and  of  shares  in  the  company 
by  one-half.  Law  was  now  controller-general  ot 
finances,  and  he  made  several  imavailing  attempts 
to  mend  matters.  Those  suspected  of  having  more 
than  a  limited  amoimt  (fixed  by  a  law  passed 
at  the  time)  of  gold  and  silver  in  their  posses- 
sion, or  of  having  removed  it  from  the  coun- 
try, were  punished  with  the  utmost  vigor.  The 
final  crisis  came  in  July,  1720,  when  the  bank 
stopped  payment,  and  Law  was  compelled  to  flee 
the  country.  A  share  in  the  Mississippi  scheme 
now  with  difficulty  brought  24  livres.  An  exami- 
nation into  the  state  of  the  accounts  of  the  com- 
pany was  ordered  by  Government;  much  of 
the  paper  in  circulation  was  canceled;  and  the 
rest  was  converted  into  'rentes'  to  an  enormous 
amount. 

IdSSISSIPPI  SOITND.  A  lagoon-like  strait, 
8  to  14  miles  wide,  washing  the  coasts  of  Ala- 
bama and  Mississippi  from  Mobile  Bay  to 
the  entrance  of  Lake  Borgne,  a  distance  of  about 
90  miles  (Map:  Mississippi,  H  10).  It  is  formed 
and  separated  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  several 
long  and  narrow  islands  or  sand  bars,  one  of 
which  is  fortified.  It  is  moderately  deep,  gen- 
erally tranquil,  and  is  navigated  chiefly  by  the 
steamers  and  coasting  vessels  running  between 
Mobile  and  New  Orleans  by  way  of  Lake  Pont- 
chartrain. 

MISSOLONGHI,  mls's6-l6n'g«,  or  Mesolox- 
GHi.  One  of  the  principal  towns  of  Western 
Greece,  the  capital  of  the  Nomarchy  of  Acamania 
and  ^tolia  (Map:  Greece,  C  5).  It  is  situated 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Patras,  in  a 
low,  marshy,  and  imhealthful  locality.  The  har- 
bor is  shallow  and  inaccessible  for  large  vessels. 
The  town  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  and  of  a 
high  school.  It  has  a  statue  of  Lord  Byron,  who 
died  here  in  1824,  and  a  mausoleum  which  con- 
tains the  heart  of  the  poet-hero.  Population,  in 
1896,  8394.  The  town  is  famous  as  the  chief 
western  stronghold  of  the  Greek  patriots  during 
the  war  of  liberation  (1822-26).  It  withstood 
two  prolonged  sieges  by  the  Turks  until  April, 
1826,  when  the  survivofs  of  the  garrison  de* 
stroyed  the  town  and  cut  their  way  through  the 
Turkish  lines.  In  May,  1829,  the  town  was 
evacuated  by  the  Turks  and  restored  to  Greece. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


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MISSOTTBI. 


imSSOTTLA,  ml-z(5i5nft.  A  city  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Missoula  County,  Mont.,  125  miles 
"west  by  north  of  Helena;  on  the  Missoula 
River,  and  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad 
(Map:  Montana,  0  8).  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
State  University,  and  has  a  public  library  and 
hospitals,  one  maintained  by  the  Northern  Pa- 
cific Railroad.  The  city  is  in  a  farming  and 
fruit-growing,  lumbering,  and  mining  region,  for 
which  it  is  an  important  distributing  centre,  and 
controls  a  considerable  trade  in  grain,  fruit,  and 
produce.  There  are  a  brewery  and  bottling  works, 
and  railroad  shops  of  the  Northern  Pacific. 
Founded  in  1864,  Missoula  was  first  incorporated 
in  1887,  the  charter  of  that  year  now  operating 
to  provide  for  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a 
unicameral  council.  Population,  in  1890,  3426; 
in  1900,  4366;  in  1906  (local  cen.),  8081. 

MISSOTTBI,mIz-zo(^rI,  local  pron.  mlz-z5?5'rtt. 
A  central  State  of  the  American  Union,  situ- 
ated about  midway  between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  midway 
between  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the 
(julf  of  Mexico.  It  lies  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  which  separates  it  from  Illinois, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  Iowa,  separated  by 
the  parallel  of  latitude  40**  30'  N.,  is  on  the 
north,  and  Arkansas,  separated  by  the  parallel  of 
latitude  36°  30'  N.,  except  for  a  small  projection 
of  Missouri  between  the  Mississippi  and  Saint 
Francis  rivers,  which  extends  34  miles  south  be- 
tween Tennessee  and  Arkansas,  is  on  the  south. 
On  the  west,  Missouri  is  separated  from  Indian 
Territory  and  Kansas  by  the  line  of  longitude 
94°  43'  W.,  as  far  north  as  the  junction  of  the 
Missouri  and  Kansas  rivers,  from  which  points 
the  Missouri  River  completes  the  western  bound- 
ary, separating  Missouri  from  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska. The  distance  between  the  northern  and 
Bouthem  boundaries  is  285  miles,  and  the  great- 
est extension  from  east  to  west  is  slightly  more. 
It  contains  a  total  area  of  69,430  square  miles,  of 
which  water  comprises  693  square  miles  and 
land  68,735  square  miles.  It  ranks  fifteenth  in 
size  among  the  United  States. 

ToPOGBAPHY.  The  northern  portion  of  the 
State  was  covered  by  the  glacial  ice  sheet,  the 
southern  limit  of  which  was  bounded  by  the  line 
of  the  Missouri  River.  It  is  a  wide  expanse  of 
gently  rolling  plains,  generally  of  treeless  prairie, 
belts  of  timter  occurring  only  along  the  streams. 
South  of  the  Missouri  the  land  rises  gradually  to 
the  broad  flat  dome- like  elevation  of  the  Ozark 
Mountains.  This  range  extends  in  a  southwesterly 
direction  and  rises  to  a  height  of  1700  feet  in  the 
west,  and  in  the  east  to  1080  feet  in  the  peaks  of 
Pilot  Knob  and  Iron  Mountain.  The  uplands  are 
marked  by  a  series  of  escarpments  of  harder 
strata  standing  out  in  precipitous  bluff's  from 
200  to  300  feet  high,  but  sloping  off  gently  on 
the  opposite  sides  in  the  direction  of  the  dip  of 
the  strata.  The  lower  ground  between  represents 
the  softer  strata  which  have  worn  down  to  the 
lower  level  since  the  post-Cretaceous  uplift. 
West  and  north  of  the  broken  and  rugged  Ozark 
Plateau  extends  prairie  country,  and  prairie 
areas  are  also  found  scattered  through  the  east- 
em  part.  The  southeastern  portion  is  bottom 
land,  marshy  in  character.  Here  the  levees  along 
the  Mississippi  are  required  to  protect  the  low- 
lying  land  from  inundation. 

Hydboobaphy.     The   whole   State  is   drained 


into  the  Mississippi,  either  directly  or  through 
its  tributary,  the  Missouri,  which  traverses  the 
State  from  west  to  east.  Through  the  extreme 
southern  portion  flows  the  White  River,  which  en- 
ters the  Mississippi  in  the  State  of  Arkansas ;  the 
southwestern  comer  drains  westward  into  the 
Arkansas  River.  The  importance  of  the  large 
rivers,  with  regard  to  navigation,  however,  is  not 
commensurate  with  their  size.  The  river  beds  of 
the  Ozark  region  were  worn  to  base-level  during 
Cretaceous  time.  At  the  close  of  that  period  the 
region  was  uplifted,  and  the  meandering  rivers 
lowered  their  gradients  in  aitUj  so  that  they  now 
cross  and  recross  the  ridges  regardless  of  struc- 
ture. The  Osage  River  is  a  classical  instance  of 
entrenched  meanders. 

Climate.  Missouri  lies  in  the  milder  half  of 
the  warm  temperate  zone.  Being  far  inland, 
the  State  is  subject  to  the  extremes  of  a  conti- 
nental climate,  which  are  all  the  more  accen- 
tuated by  the  fact  that  it  is  in  the  path  of  fre- 
quent cyclonic  storms.  The  average  January 
temperature  ranges  from  35°  F.  in  the  south- 
eastern to  20°  in  the  northwestern  corner.  For 
July  the  average  temperature  is  80°  in  the 
extreme  south  and  76°  in  the  extreme  north. 
The  southwestern  winds  from  the  arid  plains  in 
summer  sometimes  send  the  mercury  up  to  105°, 
while  the  anticyclones  of  winter  carry  a  mini- 
mum of  10°  below  zero  to  the  southern  border, 
and  20°  below  to  Saint  Louis,  thus  giving  that 
city  an  annual  range  of  125°.  The  southeastern 
extremity  of  the  State  has  not  a  day  in  the  year 
with  the  average  temperature  below  freezing,  but 
the  record  rises  rapidly  northward,  there  being 
30  such  days  at  Springfield,  60  at  Jefferson  City, 
and  90  at  Rockport.  The  summers  are  pleasantly 
tempered  in  the  Ozark  Plateau.  The  rainfall  ranges 
from  35  inches  per  year  in  the  north  to  60  inches  at 
the  Arkansas  line.  While  this  is  well  distributed 
through  the  year,  there  is  a  marked  minimum  in 
the  winter  season,  and  maximiun  in  the  summer 
season.  Droughts  lasting  thirty  days  sometimes 
occur.  Snow  falls  on  the  average  to  the  depth 
of  20  inches  in  the  latitude  of  Saint  Louis,  and 
less  than  10  inches  at  the  Arkansas  line,  though 
it  rapidly  disappears  and  seldom  covers  the  ground 
many  days.  The  average  relative  humidity  for 
the  year  is  less  than  70  per  cent,  over  the  whole 
State.  The  prevailing  winds  are  west  and  north- 
west in  January,  and  south  in  July.  There  are 
on  the  average  30  thunder  storms  in  the  year, 
with  a  maximum  frequency  in  June.  The  north- 
em  part  of  the  State  is  in  the  area  of  maximum 
tornado  frequency,  and  very  severe  and  destruc- 
tive tornadoes  occasionally  occur. 

Geology.  The  geological  history  of  Missouri 
covers  a  lapse  of  time  from  Algonquian  into  late 
Carboniferous,  giving  surface  outcrops  of  Algon- 
kian,  Cambrian,  Ordovician,  Silurian,  Devonian, 
Subcarboniferous,  and  Carboniferous,  with  a 
subsequent  absence  of  deposits  until  Pleistocene 
time.  The  old  land,  which  now  outcrops  in  the 
southeastern  quarter  of  the  State,  in  Saint  Fran- 
cis, Iron,  Madison,  Wayne,  and  Reynolds  coun- 
ties, is  made  up  of  porphyritic  eruptives,  but 
with  lavas  often  bedded;  the  elastics  are  some- 
times porphyry  conglomerates,  the  materials  of 
which  have  evidently  been  derived  from  the  un- 
derlying porphyry  flows.  At  Pilot  Knob  the  Iron 
ores  are  associated  with  the  conglomerates.  These 
old  lands  show  analogies  with  the  Upper  Huro- 


Digitized  by 


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IdSSOTTBI. 


616 


MISSOTTBI. 


nian  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  though  they 
may  represent  an  erosion  period  between  Upper 
Huronian  and  Keweenawan  (VanHise).  Around 
this  old  island  the  Cambrian  seas  made  their  de- 
posits, and  in  wider  circles  the  later  Ordovician 
and  Silurian  beds  were  laid  down,  until  the  De- 
vonian shore  line  lay  roughly  from  Saint  Louis 
along  the  Missouri  River  to  Jefferson  and  on  to 
Sedalia,  and  thence  south  into  Arkansas.  There 
are  scant  deposits  of  the  Devonian  age,  and  the 
Carboniferous  seas  and  later  marshes  had  about 
the  same  margin,  leaving  the  area  to  the  north 
and  west  of  the  line  described  as  an  outcrop  of 
the  coal  measures.  From  a  period  late  in  the 
Carboniferous  time,  the  whole  State  seems  to 
have  remained  above  the  sea  continuously  to  the 
present  time. 

Soil.  Over  all  of  the  glaciated  area  and  for 
some  miles  south  of  the  Missouri  River,  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  loess,  which  caps  the  bluffs 
and  the  country  adjacent  with  a  coating  many 
feet  in  thickness,  furnishing  a  soil  of  great  fer- 
tility. The  soils  of  the  State  outside  of  the 
glaciated  area  are  largely  residual,  their  qual- 
ity determined  by  the  character  of  the  country 
rock  and  its  slopes.  The  hard  ridges  have  a  thin 
soil,  unsuitable  for  agriculture;  but  the  inner 
low  lands,  on  the  softer  limestone,  and  the 
flood  plains  of  the  rivers,  have  a  soil  of  great 
fertility. 

Forests.  The  State  north  of  the  Missouri 
River  is  essentially  a  rolling  prairie  with  timber 
lands  mostly  restricted  to  the  river  valleys.  The 
woodland  of  the  State,  including  stump  land,  in 
1899  occupied  41,000  square  miles,  or  60  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  area.  The  State  south  of  the  Mis- 
souri River  is  normally  a  forest  area,  thinning 
out  westward,  being  occupied  most  largely  by 
mixed  hard  woods,  cypress  dominating  in  the 
Mississippi  bottom  lands  at  the  southeast. 

For  Fauna,  see  paragraph  under  United 
States, 

Mineral  Resources  and  Mining.  The  prin- 
cipal mineral  deposits  of  Missouri  are  zinc  and 
lead.  These  minerals,  usually  occurring  together, 
ar<e  confined  to  the  area  south  of  the  Missouri 
River  and  the  zinc  is  confined  to  the  Galena- J  op- 
lin  District,  covering  about  a  dozen  counties  in 
the  southwestern  comer  of  the  State,  and  extend- 
ing westward  into  Kansas.  Lead  is  also  found  in 
a  large  area  about  Jefferson  City,  and  in  an- 
other about  the  old  lands  of  the  Pilot  Knob  re- 
gion. The  lead  ores  are  galena  and  lead  carbo- 
nate; the  zinc  ores  are  calamine  and  smithsonite. 
They  all  occur  in  the  joints  of  limestone  rocks, 
chiefly  of  the  Cambrian  system,  and  in  cavities 
where  the  limestone  has  been  dissolved  out.  The 
origin  of  the  metals  is  in  doubt,  with  some  evi- 
dence, however,  suggesting  a  deep-seated  source 
in  volcanic  rocks. 

The  output  of  zinc  rose  from  2500  short  tons 
in  1882  to  19,533  short  tons  in  1898,  but  it 
fell  to  11,076  in  1906.  Missouri  is  the  third 
zinc-producing  State,  being  exceeded  by  Kansas 
and  Illinois.  The  zinc  is  largely  smelted  in  the 
gas  belt  of  Kansas,  and  from  there  transported 
to  the  Gulf  ports.  The  output  of  lead  ore  in 
1906  was  over  110,000  short  tons,  and  the  total 
value  of  the  zinc  and  lead  output  of  the  State 
for  that  year  was  about  $10,000,000.  Missouri  is 
believed  to  have  considerable  coal  deposits,  but 
its  output  is  kept  within  narrow  limits  by  the 


competition  of  neighboring  coal  fields.  The  coal 
output  shows  an  increase  from  784,000  short 
tons  in  1873  to  4,800,000  in  1906.  The  product 
is  used  principally  for  local  consumption.  The 
output  of  iron,  gold,  and  manganese  is  insig- 
nificant, but  during  the  third  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  deposits  of  Iron  Mountain 
(q.v.)  were  famous  for  their  large  output  of 
hematitic  ore,  which  has  up  to  the  present 
amounted  to  5,000,000  tons.  Limestone  was  ob- 
tained in  1905  to  the  value  of  $2,446,429,  and 
the  products  of  clay  (chiefly  brick  and  tiles)  in 
the  same  year  were  worth  $6,203,411. 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry. In  1900,  33,997,873  acres,  or  77.3  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area,  was  included  in  farms.  In 
every  decade  from  1850  to  1900  there  was  a  de- 
cided gain  in  the  farm  acreage,  the  increase  since 
1860  being  wholly  in  the  acreage  of  improved 
land,  which  in  1900amoimted  to  67.4  per  cent,  of 
the  total  farm  area.  The  average  size  of  farms 
decreased  from  215.4  acres  in  1860  to  119.3  in 
1900.  In  the  latter  year  31.1  per  cent,  of  the 
farm  acreage  was  included  in  farms  ranging  in 
size  from  100  to  174  acres.  The  per  cent,  of 
farms  rented  was  slightly  greater  in  1900  than 
in  the  preceding  census  years,  the  farms  leased 
on  the  share  system  being  19.6  per  cent,  of  all 
farms,  and  those  rented  for  cash  1 1  per  cent.  The 
crop  production  is  characterized  by  the  great  at- 
tention given  to  com,  which  constitutes  over  70 
per  cent,  of  the  total  cereal  crop,  and  places  Mis- 
souri among  the  leading  corn  States.  The  area 
devoted  to  com  increased  continuously  from  1870 
to  1900,  but  was  about  5  per  cent,  less  in  1906 
than  in  1900.  Wheat  is  the  next  most  impor- 
tant of  the  cereals.  Its  production  increased 
steadily  until  about  1880,  but  since  then  the 
acreage  has  remained  almost  stationarv.  The 
acreage  of  oats  continued  to  gain  until  1890, 
but  it  decreased  45.4  per  cent.,  1890  to  1900,  and 
29.6  per  cent.,  1900  to  1906.  The  production  of 
rye  decreased  over  60  per  cent,  between  1880  and 
1906,  while  barley  and  buckwheat  have  become 
quite  unimportant.  A  largely  increasing  acreage 
is  devoted  to  hay  and  forage,  which  together  rank 
next  to  corn  in  area.  A  great  deal  of  flax  is 
raised  near  the  western  border  of  the  State  south 
of  the  Missouri  River;  the  acreage  increased  78.9 
per  cent.,  1890  to  1900,  but  fell  off  65  per  cent., 
1900  to  1906.  In  the  lowlands  in  the  southeast 
comer  of  the  State  cotton  is  the  leading  crop. 
Potatoes  and  sorghum  cane  are  grown  through- 
out Missouri.  The  State  ranks  third  in  the  pro- 
duction of  watermelons,  and  is  prominent  also  in 
the  production  of  tomatoes,  cabbages,  and  other 
vegetables.  The  tobacco  crop  has  decreased  every 
decade  since  1860,  and  between  1893  and  1906  it 
decreased  from  10,943  acres  to  1498  acres.  Broom 
corn  and  castor  beans  receive  some  attention. 
Both  small  fruits  and  orchard  fruits  are  grown 
in  abundance.  In  1900,  7494  acres  were  devoted 
to  strawberries  alone.  In  the  same  year  there 
were  over  20,000,000  apple  trees,  these  consti- 
tuting 75.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
fruit  trees  and  exceeding  the  number  in  every 
other  State.  Between  1890  and  1900  the  number 
of  apple  trees  increased  145.9  per  cent,  peach 
trees  127.9  per  cent.,  and  most  other  varieties 
a  still  greater  per  cent.  The  gain  in  apple  and 
peach  culture  was  greatest  in  the  southwestern 
corner  of  the  State.  The  following  table  of  acre- 
ages is  self-explanatory: 


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C     I^tJKltud*     «r        Weal 


L  UPOATftS  ENM  a  CO.,  M-Y. 


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Vt'M  Cherry  f 
^^*^'    ffoni  &Z     Glieiiwlglj      £ 


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MISS0X7BI. 


617 


MISSOTTBI. 


Corn 

Wheat 

OatB 

Rye 

Flax 

Hay  and  forage- 
Cotton 

Potatoes 

Sorghum  cane 


1900 


7.423.683 
2.056.219 
916.178 
21,233 
100.962 
8.481.506 
45,596 
93.915 
80,997 


1906 


7,075,000 

2,144,250 

644,101 

18,000 

35,894 

2,728,349 

44,205 

85,228 


Stock-Raising.  The  number  of  horses  and 
mules  has  increased  in  every  decade  since  1850. 
The  number  of  dairy  cgws  had  gained  steadily 
until  1890,  but  decreased  in  the  follovring  decade. 
The  number  of  other  cattle  was  greater  in  1900 
than  in  any  other  census  year.  Missouri  is  one 
of  the  largest  swine-raising  States,  but  the  num- 
ber of  swine  fell  off  29.6  per  cent,  between  1890 
and  1906.  The  number  of  sheep  decreased  over 
one-half  from  1880  to  1900.  The  milk,  butter, 
and  cheese  product  in  1899  was  valued  at  $15,- 
042,360,  of  which  amount  34.9  per  cent  was  re- 
ceived from  sales.  Probably  no  State  exceeds 
Missouri  in  the  extent  of  its  poultry  industry. 
The  value  of  the  eggs  produced  in  1899  was  esti- 
mated at  $8,305,371.  The  following  table  shows 
the  number  of  domestic  animals  on  the  farms : 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


Dairy  cowe 

Other  neat  cattle.. 

Horees 

Mule«  and  i 
8heep .... 
Swine...., 


1000 


1906 


765.386 

968,638 

2,213.203 

2,235,134 

967.037 

898,975 

292,296 

292,159 

663.703 

816,500 

4,624,664 

3,514,918 

Manufactubes.  Missouri  is  the  leading  manu- 
facturing State  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
development  in  this  direction  has  been  favored 
by  the  variety  and  extent  of  its  resources — agri- 
cultural, mineral,  and  forest — and  by  its  loca- 
tion on  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  The 
industry,  however,  has  been  of  a  fluctuating 
character.  In  1850  2.3  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion engaged  in  manufactures.  At  the  end  of 
each  subsequent  decade  the  per  cent,  of  population 
engaged  was  respectively  1.7,  3.8,  3,  4.6,  and 
(1900)  4.3.  In  1900  there  were  in  the  State  18,- 
754  manufacturing  establishments,  having  134,- 
975  wage-earners,  and  products  valued  at  $385,- 
492.784.  Of  these,  6853  establishments,  with 
107,704  wage-earners,  and  products  valued  at 
$316,304,095,  were  of  the  class  included  in  the 
census  of  1905,  when  the  establishments  num- 
bered 6464,  the  wage-earners,  133,167,  and  the 
value  of  products  was  $439,548,957.  Slaughter- 
ing and  meat-packing  products  have  the  greatest 
value.  They  increased  in  value  135  per  cent., 
1890  to  1900,  and  40  per  cent.,  1900  to  1905. 
The  industry  is  centred  principally  in  Saint 
.lospph  and  Saint  Louis.  The  extensive  manufac- 
tories of  tobacco,  especially  chewing  and  smoking 
tolmcco  and  snuff,  use  for  the  most  part  raw  to- 
bacco imported  from  Kentucky.  The  industry  is 
almost  wholly  confined  to  Saint  Louis,  and  is  also 
in  a  flourishing  condition.  The  other  two  lead- 
ing industries — the  manufacture  of  flour  and 
grist-mill  products,  and  of  liquor — show  very 
marked  increases  from  1900  to  1905.  The  in- 
crease of  flour-milling  in  the  Southwest  has  nota- 
bly reduced  the  patronage  of  Saint  Louis  by 
that  section.  The  forest  resources  of  the  State 
are  being  more  heavily  drawn  upon  than  ever 
before,  and  the  abundance  of  supply  constitutes 


an  important  source  of  wealth.  In  the  swampy 
region  in  the  southeast  cypress  prevails,  but 
elsewhere  hard  woods  are  predominant.  There 
is  a  larger  cut  of  white  oak  than  of  any  other 
one  species.  There  was  between  1890  and  1900 
an  increase  of  33.7  per  cent,  in  the  value  of  the 
lumber  and  timber  products. 

The  influence  of  the  coal  resources  of  the  State 
is  reflected  in  the  establishment  of  foundries  and 
machine  shops.  The  railroad  interests  have  de- 
veloped a  rapidly  increasing  industry  of  car 
construction,  etc.  The  manufactures  of  clothing 
and  boots  and  shoes  are  also  prominent,  the  lat- 
ter being  a  comparatively  new  industry,  but  al- 
ready raising  the  State  to  the  fourth  rank  among 
the  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing  States.  The 
value  of  the  boot  and  shoe  prcSuct  increased 
from  $4,841,000  in  1890  to  $23,493,000  in  1905. 
The  printing  and  publishing  industry  is  also 
prominent.  The  three  largest  manufacturing 
centres  are  Saint  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  Saint 
Joseph,  the  former  on  the  Mississippi  and  the 
last  two  on  the  Missouri.  The  manufactured 
products  of  Saint  Louis  in  1905  amounted 
to  60.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the  "State, 
the  increase  from  1900  to  1905  being  38  per  cent. 
Saint  Joseph,  on  the  contrary,  made  an  increase 
of  only  1.9  per  cent.  The  increase  in  the  manu- 
factures of  Kansas  City  was  largest  on  the  Kan- 
sas side  of  the  line,  and  is  credited  to  that  State. 

The  table  on  the  following  page  shows  the 
relative  importance  of  the  fourteen  leading 
branches  of  manufacture. 

TRANSPORTATION    AND   COMBCERCE.      A   network 

of  railroads  covers  the  northern  half  of  the  State, 
in  contrast  with  the  southern  half,  where  the 
mileage  is  small  and  a  number  of  counties  have 
no  rail  communication.  The  northern  half 
has  the  advantage,  as  it  lies  in  the  course  of 
some  of  the  great  transcontinental  lines,  and 
is  less  broken  than  the  southern  part  of  the  State. 
A  large  number  of  lines  cross  the  Mississippi  at 
Saint  Louis,  while  Kansas  City  and  Saint  Joseph 
on  the  western  border  are  also  large  railroad  cen- 
tres. In  1860  there  were  817  miles  of  railroad  in 
the  State;  in  1880,  3965;  in  1890,  6142;  in  1900, 
6887;  and  Januaiy  1,  1907,  7905.  Some  of  the 
leading  lines  in  Missouri  are:  The  Missouri  Paci- 
fic, the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Saint 
Louis  and  San  Francisco,  the  Saint  Louis  South- 
western, the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy,  the 
Chicago  and  Alton,  the  Wabash,  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
a  marked  development  in  railways  connecting  the 
State  with  the  Southwest  and  the  Gulf.  The 
State  has  a  board  of  railroad  commissioners,  wha 
hear  and  determine  complaints  against  the  rail- 
roads; but  their  decision  is  subject  to  revision  by 
'the  courts.  The  water  traflic  between  Saint 
lx)uis,  the  terminal  for  the  larger  river  steamers, 
and  the  Gulf  is  large.  Before  the  building  of  rail- 
roads the  Missouri  River  was  important  as  a 
means  of  transportation ;  but  in  recent  years  the 
trans-State  traffic,  which  is  extensive,  is  almost 
wholly  by  rail.  The  grain  and  animal  produce 
of  the  West  reaches  its  market  in  great  part  by 
way  of  Missouri. 

Banks.  The  Bank  of  Saint  Louis,  chartered 
in  1813  and  opened  in  1816,  was  the  first  in  the 
State.  It  went  into  liquidation  in  1819.  Next- 
came  the  Bank  of  Missouri,  which  opened  in 
Saint  Louis  in  1817  and  failed  in  1822.  Thi& 
left  the  State  without  any  chartered  banks  until 


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KISSOTTBI. 


618 


KI8S0TTBL 


Totol  for  Mlectad  indoctries  for  Btote | 

InoreftM,  1900  to  1906 

Per  cent,  of  increite 

Per  cent,  of  toUl  of  all  manufaotariiig  induitriee  in  Bute | 

Boots  and  ehoet | 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products | 

Carriages  and  wagons | 

Oars  and  Mneral  shop  construction  and  repairs  by  steam  railroad  j 
companies ) 

Clothing,  men's | 

Coffee  and  spice,  roasting  and  grinding | 

Floor  and  grist  mill  products | 

Foundry  and  machine  shop  products j 

liquor^  malt | 

Lumber  and  timber  products | 

Paints j 

Printing  and  publishing | 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing | 

Tobacco,  chewing  and  smoking,  and  snuff | 


If  amber  of 

Average 

Value  of  product^ 

Tew 

number  of 

including  custom 
work  and  repairiag 

1906 

4,179 

77,115 

$293,882,706 

1900 

4,580 

62,589 

209,607,428 

.... 

401 

14,526 

84,215,277 

8.8 

23.2 

40.2 

1906 

64.7 

67.9 

669 

1900 

66.8 

68.1 

663 

1906 

34 

10,428 

23,493.562 

1900 

60 

6,916 

11,263,202 

1906 

614 

3,764 

12,672.244 

1900 

682 

2,264 

7,284,268 

1906 

222 

2,636 

6,551.130 

1900 

846 

2,624 

5,477,151 

1905 

34 

6,760 

8.720,433 

1900 

43 

6,581 

6,524,121 

1905 

61 

4,863 

8,872,831 

1900 

148 

6,129 

8,925,088 

1905 

26 

564 

7,263,684 

1900 

27 

409 

6,266,264 

1905 

682 

2,346 

38,026,142 

1900 

644 

1,517 

23,831,806 

1905 

230 

7,445 

16,849,974 

1900 

261 

7,084 

16,073,006 

1906 

60 

6,568 

24,154,264 

1900 

49 

3,160 

13,776,906 

1906 

874 

9,091 

10.903,783 

1900 

647 

8,542 

10,MO,590 

1906 

20 

667 

6,144,521 

1900 

20 

488 

4,323,356 

1906 

J'?S 

8,941 

23,015,515 

1900 

1,100 

7,256 

15,365,949 

1905 

33 

4.218 

60,031,133 

1900 

37 

8,102 

43,040,886 

1906 

17 

3,574 

27,836,422 

19U0 

M 

3,720 

26,101,446 

1829,  when  the  United  States  Bank  opened  a 
branch  in  Saint  Louis.  The  branch  was  discon- 
tinued in  1833.  The  Bank  of  the  State  of  Mis- 
souri, chartered  in  1837,  was  a  large  institution 
with  five  branches  in  the  State,  and  was  both  a 
bank  of  issue  and  discount.  For  twenty  years  it 
had  almost  a  monopoly  of  the  banking  business, 
but  its  circulation  was  insufficient  and  in  1857 
seven  more  banks  of  issue  were  chartered.  Many 
more  followed.  All  were  forced  to  conform  to 
the  law  which  allowed  the  issue  of  only  three  dol- 
lars for  every  dollar  of  specie.  Tlie  law  of  1857 
provided  also  for  a  bank  commis.sioner,  who 
should  visit  and  examine  the  various  institutions. 
This  office  was  soon  abolished,  and  there  sprang 
up  a  number  of  small  speculative  banks,  all  of 
which  collapsed  in  the  panic  of  1873.  Tlie  sys- 
tem of  national  banking  extended  very  slowly, 
but  the  largest  institutions  sooner  or  later  be- 
came national  banks.  In  1868  the  Saint  I>ouis 
Clearing  House  Association  was  organized  with 
3.5  members.  Trust  companies  were  first  formed 
in  1889,  and  became  very  popular.  There  always 
have  l>ecn  many  banks  bearing  the  word  "savings" 
in  their  titles,  but  none  of  them  conformed  to  the 
general  plan  of  a  savings  bank.  This  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  all  the  banks  usually 
pay  interest  on  deposits. 

The  condition  of  banks  in  the  State  in  1906 
is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


National 
banks 

Btote 
banks 

Trust 
Co.'s 

Prirate 
banks 

Humber  of  banks  . . 

107 

830 

29 

75 

Capital 

In 

$24,775 
14,379 
27,730 
173,514 
122,406 

thousa 

$28,761 

10,395 

12,282 

124,496 

102,783 

nds   of    d 
$19,618 
21,156 
4,697 
67,843 
42,264 

ollars 
$949  • 

Surplus 

586    '• 

Cash,  etc 

336 

f  XHUli 

5,424 

Depodto 

5,23f 

GovEBNMENT.  The  present  Constitution  was 
adopted  in  1875.  A  proposed  amendment  be- 
comes a  part  of  the  Constitution  if  approved  by 
a  majority  of  the  members  elected  to  each  House, 
and  in  turn  by  a  majority  of  the  qualified  voters 
of  the  State.  The  General  Assembly  may  at  any 
time  authorize  by  law  a  popular  vote  upon  the 
question,  "Shall  a  Constitutional  Convention  be 
held  to  revise  and  amend  the  Constitution?" 
If  a  majority  of  the  popular  vote  approves,  the 
convention  will  be  held.  Voters  must  have  re- 
sided in  the  State  one  year,  and  in  the  county, 
city,  or  town  sixty  days.  General  elections  are 
held  biennially  on  the  Tuesday  after  the  first 
Monday  in  November  of  even  years.  The  State 
is  represented  in  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives by  16  members.  The  capital  is  Jef- 
ferson City. 

Legislattve.  Members  of  the  Senate  (34)  are 
elected  for  four  years,  and  Representatives  for 
two  years.  The  Legislature  meets  on  the  first 
Wednesday  after  the  first  day  of  January  of  odd 
years.  Compensation  of  members  includes  mile- 
age, and  not  exceeding  $6  per  dav  for  the  first 
seventy  days  of  the  session,  and  |l  per  day  for 
the  remainder  of  the  session.  A  two-thirds  vote 
of  all  the  members  elected  to  each  House  over- 
rides the  Governor's  veto.  The  power  of  im- 
peachment rests  with  the  House,  and  the  trial 
of  impeachment  with  the  Senate. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  Lieutenant-Governor, 
Secretary,  Auditor,  Treasurer,  Attomey-GJeneral, 
and  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  are  elected 
for  terms  of  four  years  each.  The  Governor  and 
Treasurer  cannot  succeed  themselves  in  oflSce. 
The  Lieutenant-Governor,  president  of  the  Sen- 
ate, and  Speaker  of  the  House  are  in  the  line  of 
succession  to  the  Governorship  in  case  of  va- 
cancy. 


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mSSOTTBL 


619 


KXSfiOITBI. 


Judicial.  The  Supreme  Court,  consiiting  of 
Mven  judges,  elected  for  ten  years,  i«  divided 
into  two  diviBions,  which  sit  separately.  Kan- 
sas City  and  Saint  Louis  each  have  appellate 
courts,  consisting  of  three  judges,  who  are  elected 
for  terms  of  twelve  years.  Judges  of  the  Circuit 
Courts  are  elected  for  six  years.  Criminal  courts 
may  be  established  in  counties  having  a  popula- 
tion exceeding  50,000.  Each  coimty  has  a  pro- 
bate and  a  county  court.  Justices  of  the  peace 
are  elected  in  the  smaller  civil  divisions. 

Local  Govebnment.  A  county-seat  may  be  re- 
moved with  the  consent  of  two- thirds  of  the  quali- 
fied voters.  Ko  new  county  can  he  created  with 
less  than  410  square  miles.  The  transference  of 
a  portion  of  one  county  to  an  adjoiniag  county 
must  first  have  the  approval  of  a  majority  of  the 
electors  in  the  counties  affected.  The  General 
Assembly  provides  for  the  organization  and  classi- 
fication of  cities  mod  towns,  but  the  Constitu- 
tion places  a  maximum  limit  of  four  to  the  num- 
h&r  of  classes  that  may  be  created.  Sheriffs  and 
coroners  are  elected  for  terms  of  two  years,  and 
are  not  eligible  for  more  than  four  years  in  any 
period  of  six  years.  Under  certain  conditions 
cities  having  over  100,000  inhabitants  may  frame 
charters  for  their  own  government. 

YuKASCEB,  The  first  public  debt  was  created 
for  the  sake  of  acquiring  stock  in  the  banks  of 
the  SUte.  In  1835  it  amounted  to  $l,397/>00, 
against  which  the  SUtcr  held  $1,250,006  of  bank 
stock.  Missouri  was  more  fortunate  than  many 
other  States,  its  banking  enterprises  not  involv- 
ing it  in  any  financial  difficulties.  Up  to  1850 
Missouri  remained  free  from  the  general  ten- 
dency toward  expensive  publie  improvement,  but 
when  the  era  of  speculative  railroad  construction 
came,  was  no  exception  to  the  rule.  Within 
eight  years  many  railroads  were  chartered  and 
received  from  the  State  loans  in  the  shape  c4 
guaranteed  bonds  amounting  to  about  $24,000,- 
000.  The  roads  were  expected  to  pay  the  interest, 
but  almost  all  failed  to  do  so,  and  the  State  be- 
came bound  lor  the  entire  debt,  which  in  1862 
was  $27,370,090.  Until  1880  it  remained  above 
twenty  millions,  but  since  then  was  reduced  by 
skillful  management  to  $12,213,000  in  1890,  and 
to  $4,398,839  on  JaAuary  1,  1907.  AU  of  this 
debt  belon|^  to  t^  State  school  fund  and  the 
State  seminary  fund. 

The  payment  of  interest  on  the  large  drf)t  and 
into  the  sinking  funds  was  a  heavy  burden  on 
the  budget,  and  constituted  a  large  part  of 
the  expenditure  between  1870  and  1900.  The 
revenue  of  the  State  is  derived  partly  from  a 
tax  on  property  and  partly  from  special  taxes 
on  railroads,  various  public  franchises,  and  cor- 
porations. For  the  year  ending  December  31, 
1906,  the  total  receipts  were  $6,403,778,  of  which 
the  State  revenue  fund  received  $3,617,857,  the 
State  interest,  $271,307,  and  numerous  other 
funds,  smaller  amounts.  The  balance  in  the 
treasury  January  1,  1907,  was  $2,308,286. 

Militia.  In  1900  the  men  of  militia  age 
numbered  662,928.  The  militia  in  1906  num- 
bered 2253. 

Population.  The  population  has  been  as  fol- 
lows: 1810,  20,846;  1820,  66,586;  1840,  383,702; 
1850,  682,044;  1860,  1,182,012;  1870,  1,721,295; 
1880,  2,168,380;  1890.  2,679,184;  1900,  3,106,665; 
1906  (Federal  est.),  3,363,153.  The  rank  of  the 
State  rose  until  in  1870  it  reached  fifth,  at  which 
point  it  has  since  stood. 
Vol.  XIII.— 40. 


The  increase  between  1800  and  1900  was  a  little 
less  than  for  either  of  tlie  four  preceding  decades, 
and  aiiu>unted  to  16  per  c-ent.,  as  compared  with 
20.7  for  the  United  States.  The  negro  popula- 
tion, which  is  largely  confined  to  the  Missouri 
River  counties,  amounted,  in  1900,  to  161,234. 
The  foreign-bom  population  (1900)  numbered 
216,379 — the  largest  for  any  of  the  States  which 
are  usually  classed  as  Southern.  Saint  XiOuis 
was  an  early  centre  of  German  immigration,  and 
tlxe  Germans  still  constitute  over  one-half  of  the 
total  foreign  born.  In  1900  there  was  an  avera^d 
of  45.2  people  to  the  square  mile — a  greater 
density  tnan  is  shown  in  any  other  State  west 
of  the  Mississippi.  Missouri  contains  t^  largest 
centre  of  population  located  on  the  Mississippi 
Eiver,  ana  the  percentage  of  urban  population 
(34.9  in  1900)  is  therefore  high. 

Cities.  In  1900  the  five  largest  cities  were: 
Saint  Louis,  575,238;  Kansas  City,  163,752; 
Saint  Joseph,  102,979;  Joplin,  26,023;  Spring- 
field, 23,267.  Federal  estimates  of  their  popula- 
tion in  1906  were:  Saint  Louis,  649,320;  Kansas 
City,  182,376;  Saint  Joseph,  118,004;  Joplin,  35,- 
671;  Springfield,  24,119. 

Reuqiov.  The  two  leading  denominations,  the 
Methodist  and  the  Baptist,  are  of  almost  equal 
strength.  The  Catholics  also  have  a  strong  rep- 
resentation. Probably  the  most  rapidly  develop- 
ing denomination  is  thai  of  the  Disciples  of 
Christ.  It  ranks  third  among  Protestant  denomi- 
nations. The  largest  of  the  remaining  denomina- 
tions are,  the  Presbyterians,  Lutlierans,  Protes- 
tant Episcopalians,  and  Congr^^ationalists. 

Education.  In  1900  6.4  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation ten  years  of  age  and  over  were  illiterate. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  for  the  negroes  alone 
was  28.0  per  cent.,  which  was  a  decided  decrease 
from  1890,  when  the  corresponding  per  cent,  was 
41.7.  Although  the  Constitution  of  1820  pro- 
vided for  a  public  school  system,  it  was  not  until 
1833  that  a  school  was  organized  which  could 
legally  enforce  support.  The  office  of  State  Su- 
perintendent of  Common  Schools  was  created 
in  1839.  The  State  board  of  Education  oonsists 
of  the  Governor,  Secretary  of  State,  Attornev- 
General  and  Superintendent  of  Education.  As 
is  common  in  States  which  have  a  large  rural 
population,  the  country  schools  are  often  in  a 
very  backward  condition,  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  town  schools.  In  many  districts  there  has 
been  a  decieuse  in  the  rural  population,  resulting 
in  an  increasing  number  of  small  schools.  Many 
districts  are  too  poor  to  support  a  long  term 
school.  Short  terms,  inefficient  teaching,  irregu- 
larity of  attendance,  and  lack  of  gradation  and 
superin  tendance,  therefore,  characterize  many 
country  districts.  However,  the  average  length 
of  the  school  term  for  the  State — 150  days 
in  1900 — co»iipare8  favorably  with  the  corre- 
sponding term  in  the  neighboring  States.  In 
1906  the  number  of  children  l)otw(*en  the  ages 
of  six  and  twenty  was  994,226,  the  number 
enrolled  in  the  publie  schools,  755,063,  and  the 
average  attendance  for  the  school  year,  497,- 
581.  A  compulsory  attendance  law  was  en- 
acted in  1905.  The  attempt  to  articulate  the 
high  schools  with  the  university  has  necessitated 
the  appointment  of  an  inspector  to  examine  the 
work  of  tlie  high  schools.  In  1906  63  of  these 
schools  had  four-year  courses,  71  had  three- 
year  courses,  97  had  two-year  courses,  and  199 
had  shorter  courses. 


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In  1906  there  were  17,704  teachers,  of  whom 
12,608  were  females.  The  State  maintains  nor- 
mal schools  at  Kirksville,  VVarrensburg,  Cape 
Girardeau,  Springfield,  Maryville,  and  at  Lincoln 
Institute  in  Jefferson  City.  The  public  school 
fund  was  begun  with  the  Congressional  donation 
to  the  State  of  saline  funds  in  1812.  The  original 
sum  has  been  increased  by  additions  from  various 
sources  until,  in  1906,  the  total  school  fund 
amounted  to  $13,326,141.  The  total  receipts  for 
school  purposes  in  1906  were  $10,911,724,  over 
80  per  cent,  of  which  was  from  State,  railroad, 
and  district  back  taxes  and  tuition  fees.  The 
amount  paid  for  teachers*  wages  for  that  year 
was  $6,094,778,  the  incidental  expenses  amounted 
to  $1,818,618,  and  the  money  used  for  building 
purposes  $3,029,999.  The  average  State  levy 
upon  $100  valuation  for  school  purposes  was 
65  cents.  Higher  education  is  afforded  by  the 
State  at  the  University  of  Missouri,  located  at 
Columbia.  This  institution  includes  among 
other  departments  those  of  law,  medicine,  agri- 
culture and  mechanic  arts,  engineering,  and  mines 
and  metallurgy.  There  are  within  the  State  also 
a  very  large  number  of  private  and  denomina- 
tional institutions  which  bear  the  name  of  col- 
lege or  university,  but  the  enrollment  at  most  of 
these  is  very  small.  Washington  University,  at 
Saint  Louis  (non-sectarian),  has  the  benefit' of  a 
large  endowment,  and  the  Saint  Louis  University 
(Roman  Catholic)  also  has  a  large  endowment. 
Lincoln  Institute  has  a  well-equipped  manual 
training  school  for  the  colored. 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  The 
State  maintains  insane  hospitals,  located  respec- 
tively at  Farmington,  Saint  Joseph,  Fulton,  and 
Nevada.  There  is  also  a  colony  for  feeble-minded 
and  epileptics  at  Marshall.  A  State  Federal  sol- 
diers* home  is  located  at  Saint  James,  and  a 
State  Confederate  home  at  Higginsville.  The 
State  school  for  deaf  and  dumb  is  at  Fulton,  and 
the  school  for  the  blind  at  Saint  Louis.  A  boys* 
reform  school  is  located  at  Boonville,  a  girls*  re- 
form school  at  Chillicothe,  and  the  State  prison, 
for  both  men  and  women,  at  Jefferson  City.  A 
large  number  of  prisoners  are  employed  under  the 
contract  system,  but  their  work  is  confined  within 
the  prison  walls.  In  some  of  the  counties  male 
prisoners  within  the  county  jails  are  worked  on 
the  public  roads  or  at  quarrying  stone. 

HiSTOBT.  Missouri  was  part  of  the  vast  area 
of  Louisiana  claimed  by  the  French  on  the 
ground  of  the  discoveries  of  La  Salle,  who  de- 
scended the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth  in  1681-82. 
A  few  years  before  La  Salle,  in  1673,  Marquelte 
and  Joliet  had  sailed  down  the  river  as  far  as 
the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  The  territory  in- 
cluded within  the  present  State  was  traversed  be- 
fore 1720  by  parties  of  French  explorers  in  search 
of  mines  of  lead  and  silver,  and  in  1723  a  certain 
Lieutenant  Renaud  received  the  grant  of  a  large 
tract  of  land  in  that  region.  The?  foundation  of 
Sainte  Genevieve  is  sometimes  placed  in  the 
year  1736.  The  second  settlement  within  the 
State  was  Saint  Louis,  established  as  a  trading- 
post  in  1764,  a  year  after  the  cession  of  Loui- 
siana to  Spain  by  the  Peace  of  Paris.  Many 
French  residents  removed  from  the  villages  east 
of  the  Mississippi  to  Saint  Louis,  which  became, 
under  the  Frencli  and  the  Spanish,  a  prosperous 
little  capital.  The  colonization  of  the  region  was 
greatly  accelerated  by  the  ordinance  of  1787, 
which,  in  excluding  slavery  from  the  Xorthwest 


Territory,  diverted  the  stream  of  southern  immi- 
gration to  Missouri.  The  Spaniards  also  en- 
couraged immigration  by  the  offer  of  liberal 
bounties  to  settlers.  In  1800  Louisiana  was 
retroceded  to  France,  which,  however,  retained 
it  only  three  years.  After  the  acquisition  of 
Louisiana  by  the  United  States,  in  1803,  the 
entire  territory  was  divided  into  two  by  the  line 
of  the  33d  parallel  of  latitude,  the  northern  part 
being  known  as  the  District  and  Territory  of 
l^uisiana  till  1812^  and  subsequently  as  the 
Territory  of  Missouri.  At  that  time  the  popu- 
lation was  over  20,000,  and  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants  were  agriculture,  fur- trading, 
and  mining.  The  mass  of  the  people  were  sturdy 
and  unre£ed;  the  rough  backwoodsman  and  the 
fighting  Mississippi  boatman  were  picturesque 
types  of  the  society  of  the  period.  After  1815  the 
volume  of  immigration  increased  markedly.  In 
1820  there  were  66,000  inhabitants  within  the 
present  limits  of  the  State,  at  whom  about  10,000 
were  slaves.  The  Indian  titles  to  the  land  were 
extinguished  rapidly.  Between  1800  and  1824 
the  Osages  and  Sacs  and  Foxes  ceded  almost  all 
their  lands,  though  it  was  not  till  1837  that  the 
area  of  the  State  was  rounded  out  by  the  so- 
called  Platte  Purchase. 

In  1817  the  Territorial  L^islature  applied  to 
Congress  for  permission  to  prepare  a  State  Con- 
stitution. (For  the  struggle  in  Congress  con- 
cerning Missouri,  see  United  States  and  Mis- 
souBi  CoMPBOMiSE.)  In  June,  1820,  a  con- 
vention framed  a  Constitution  which  sanctioned 
slavery  and  forbade  any  free  negro  or  mulat- 
to to  take  up  his  residence  in  the  State;  but 
Missouri  was  admitted  (August  10,  1821)  only 
after  the  Legislature  had  taken  a  pledge  that 
the  anti-freedmen  clause  should  never  be  en- 
forced. The  period  after  1820  was  one  of  rapid, 
if  not  entirely  sound,  development.  An  era  of 
wild  speculation  in  lands  set  in,  accompanied  by 
the  usual  inflation  of  the  currency  (the  Bank  of 
Saint  Louis  had  been  established'  in  1816),  and 
the  inception  of  an  elaborate  system  of  internal 
improvements.  Within  twenty  years  after  1835 
the  State  pledged  its  credit  for  $28,000,000  to 
various  railroad  companies,  and  found  itself  sad- 
dled with  a  debt  of  over  twenty  millions.  The 
system  of  public  education  was  quite  inefficient 
before  the  Civil  War,  though  Saint  Louis  Uni- 
versity had  been  incorporated  in  1832,  and  the 
State  University  at  Columbia  eight  years  later. 
Respect  for  the  law  was  often  sadly  wanting  in 
the  western  part  of  the  State,  as  was  shown 
in  the  history  of  the  Mormons.  They  had  settled 
at  Independence  in  Jackson  County,  and  had 
made  the  beginning  of  a  prosperous  community, 
when  they  were  driven  out  by  mob  violence,  for 
which  it  is  probable  they  were  less  responsible 
than  their  enemies.  They  established  themselves 
anew  in  Caldwell  County;  but  there,  too,  they 
came  into  conflict  with  the  authorities  and  the 
inhabitants,  who  forced  them  to  depart  once 
more  in  a  destitute  condition,  leaving  valuable 
farms    and   other    property  behind    them.     See 

MOBMONS. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  Mis- 
souri, though  a  slave  State,  was  not  an  ardent 
defender  of  slavery,  and  a  very  large  proportion 
of  its  citizens  were  interested  in  movements  look- 
ing toward  the  gradual  emancipation  of  the 
slaves.  With  the  rise  of  the  abolitionists,  how- 
ever,  Missouri  became   decidedly  a    pro-slavery 


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State.  It  favored  the  annexation  of  Texas  in 
1845,  and  took  a  very  prominent  share  in  the 
Mexican  War,  General  Kearny's  army  of  inva- 
sion consisting  largely  of  Missourians.  In  1849 
the  Legislature  adopted  the  so-called  Jackson 
Besolutions,  in  which  the  right  of  Congress  to 
regulate  slavery  in  the  Territories  was  trenchant- 
ly denied,  and  the  principle  of  squatter  sov- 
ereignty was  asserted.  The  Jackson  Eesolutions, 
however,  did  not  represent  the  unanimous  feeling 
in  the  State,  when  they  covertly  threatened  se- 
cession. In  the  election  of  1860  the  vote  in  the 
State  for  Douglas  and  for  Bell  was  nearly 
equal,  while  Breckenridge  and  Lincoln  received 
a  far  smaller  vote  l£an  the  others.  The 
Legislature  thereupon  issued  a  call  for  a  con- 
vention to  consider  the  relation  of  the  State  to 
the  Union.  In  the  elections  for,  the  convention, 
the  secessionist  delegates  were  defeated  by  a  pop- 
ular majority  of  80,000,  and  when  the  convention 
met — February  to  April,  1861 — it  declared  that 
it  could  find  no  cause  to  dissolve  the  connection 
between  the  Stale  and  the  Federal  Union,  and 
expressed  the  hope  that  some  compromise  might 
be  effected  between  the  North  and  the  South.  In 
reply  to  President  Lincoln's  call  for  troops,  Gov- 
ernor Jackson,  who,  with  the  rest  of  the  State 
Government,  was  in  favor  of  secession,  refused 
to  participate  in  the  'unholy  crusade,'  and  sum- 
moned the  State  militia  to  arms.  Between  the 
State  militia  and  the  Federal  troops,  under 
Colonel  Lyon,  aided  by  the  volunteer  bands 
which  the  loyalists  of  Saint  Louis  had  organized, 
civil  war  ensued.  The  Governor,  together  with  a 
majority  of  the  Legislature,  fled  to  the  southern 
part  of  the  State,  and  the  supreme  power  was 
assumed  by  the  convention,  which  declared  all 
the  offices  vacant  and  proceeded  to  install  a  pro- 
visional government.  The  fugitive  Legislature 
responded  by  declaring  Missouri  a  member  of 
the  Southern  Confederacy.  (For  military  opera- 
tions in  Missouri,  see  Civil  Wab.)  In  1863  the 
convention  passed  an  ordinance  of  emancipation 
of  doubtful  legality,  which  was  to  go  into  effect 
in  1870.  With  the  fall  of  the  Confederate  power 
in  Missouri  the  regular  State  Government  was 
reorganized  (1864),  and  in  January,  1865,  a  con- 
stitutional convention  controlled  by  the  radical 
union  party  assembled  in  Saint  Louis.  The  new 
Constitution  provided  for  the  immediate  emanci- 
pation of  the  slaves  and  imposed  severe  political 
disabilities  on  all  who  had  participated  in  the  re- 
bellion; all  teachers,  physicians,  lawyers,  and 
ministers  were  required  to  take  a  searching  oath 
of  loyalty.  The  qualifications  for  the  franchise 
deprived  a  vast  proportion  of  the  citizens  of  the 
right  to  vote  and  continued  in  force  till  1871, 
when  a  more  liberal  registration  law  was  adopted. 
A  third  constitution  went  into  effect  in  1875. 
Since  the  war  the  prosperity  of  the  State  has  been 
greatly  increased  oy  tne  development  of  its  min- 
eral industries  and  the  growth  of  railroads.  The 
improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Missouri  was  carried  on  actively  for 
many  years.  In  the  matter  of  public  educa- 
tion there  has  been  exceedingly  rapid  progress, 
the  school  fimd  of  the  State  being  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  Union.  Preparations  are  now 
(1903)  nearly  completed  for  an  exposition  to  be 
held  at  Saint  Louis  to  commemorate  the  one 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  acquisition  of 
Louisiana.    See  Saint  Louis  Wobld'js  Faib. 


From  1824  to  the  CHvil  War  Missouri  was 
always  Democratic.  From  1864  to  1872  the  Re- 
publicans were  in  power,  but  the  defection  of  a 
large  body  of  Liberal  Republicans  who  were 
opposed  to  the  policy  pursued  against  those 
who  had  participated  in  the  Rebellion,  led  to  the 
re^stablishment  of  Democratic  supremacy.  In 
1894,  however,  the  Republicans  secured  a  ma- 
jorily  in  the  Legislature  and  the  Congressional 
delegation.  In  1904  the  State  was  carried  by 
Roosevelt.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Gover- 
nors of  the  State  with  their  party  affiliations : 

Alexander  McNalr Democrat 1820-24 

Frederick  Bates "        1824-05 

Abraham  J.  WlUlame  (acting)        "        1826 

JohnMUler •*         1825-32 

Daniel  Dnnklin "         1832-36 

Lilbnm  W.  Bogtra ••        1836-40 

Thomas  Reynolds "         1840-44 

M.  M,  Marmaduke  (acting)....        "        1844 

John  C.  Edwards ••        1844-48 

Austin  A.  King '*        1848-52 

Sterling  Price **        1862-56 

TrustenPolk "        1866^7 

Hancock  Jackson **        1867 

Bobert  M.  Stewart "        1867-61 

Claiborne  F.  Jackson "        1861 

Hamilton  R.  Gamble (Provisional) 1861-64 

Willard  P.  Hall  (acting) 1864-66 

Thomas  G.  Fletcher Republican 1865-69 

Joseph  W.  Mcaurg. "  1869-71 

B.  GratK Brown.... Liberal  Repnbllcanand  Democrat  1871-78 
Silas  Woodson....        "  "  "  **  1878-75 

Charles  H.  Hardin Democrat 1875-77 

John  8.  Phelps ., "         1877-81 

Thomas  T.  Crittenden "        1881-86 

John  S.  Marmaduke "         1886-87 

A.  P.  Morehouse "         1887-89 

David  R.  Francis "         1889-93 

William  J.  Stone "        1893-97 

Lon  V.  Stephens **        1897-1901 

Alexander  M.  Dockery "         190M905 

Joseph  W.  Folk "        1906- 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  MiasouH  Geological  Survey 
Annual  Reports  (Jefferson  City,  1853  et  scq.)  ; 
Waterhouse,  The  Resources  of  Missouri  (Saint 
Louis,  1867)  ;  Switzler,  Early  History  of  Mis- 
souri (Columbia,  Mo.,  1872)  ;  Davis  and  Durrie, 
History  of  Missouri  from  1541  to  1876  (Saint 
Louis,  1876)  ;  Carr,  Missouri  a  Bone  of  Content 
tion  (Boston,  1888)  ;  Coues,  History  of  the  Ex- 
pedition Under  the  Command  of  Lewis  and 
Clark  to  the  Source  of  the  Missouri  River  ( New 
York,  1893)  ;  Missouri  Historical  Society  Publi- 
cations (Saint  Louis)  ;  Snead,  The  Fight  for 
Missouri  (New  York,  1886). 

MISSOTTBI,  mlz-z55'r6.  A  small  tribe  of 
Siouan  stock.  When  first  known  to  the  whites 
they  occupied  the  territory  about  Grand  River, 
a  northern  affluent  of  the  Missouri,  in  what  is 
now  the  State  of  Missouri,  and  contiguous  to 
the  Iowa  and  Oto  (q.v.)  on  the  north  and  west, 
all  three  tribes  speaking  the  same  language. 
Their  popular  name  is  of  Algonquian  origin,  and 
is  said  to  mean  'great  muddy,'  referring  to  the 
Missouri  River.  They  call  themselves  Niutachi 
or  Nudacha,  'those  who  come  to  the  mouth*  (of 
the  river).  According  to  their  tradition  the 
three  tribes  migrated  together  from  the  vicinity 
of  Green  Bay,  Lake  Michigan.  The  Missouri 
are  named  upon  Marquette's  map  of  1673,  and 
some  years  afterwards  a  French  fort  was  estab- 
lished in  their  territory.  Throughout  the  colo- 
nial period  they  were  generally  on  the  French  side, 
as  opposed  to  the  English,  although  on  one  occa- 
sion they  attacked  and  massacred  the  French 
garrison.  In  1725  a  number  of  their  chiefs 
visited  France  and  attracted  much  attention.  At 
one  time  in  the  eighteenth  century  they  weie 


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eBtimated  at  from  1000  to  1200;  but,  after  beinff 
greatlj  reduced  by  smallpox,  they  were  attacked 
bj  the  Sank,  who  eompell^  them  to  abandon 
their  territory  about  1798  and  take  refuge  west 
-of  the  Missouri.  In  1805  they  were  living  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Platte  River  and  numbered  about 
300.  In  1823  they  were  again  so  decimated  by 
smallpox  that  the  remnant,  about  80  persons,  in- 
corporated with  the  kindred  Oto.  The  confed- 
erated tribes  removed  in  1882  from  Nebraska  to 
a  reservation  in  Oklahoma,  where  they  now  re- 
side, numbering  altogether  only  360.  They  are 
still  steadily  decreasing,  and  their  agent  reports 
that  they  have  practically  ceased  all  effort  at  self- 
support,  owing  to  the  money  they  receive  in  the 
shape  of  treaty  and  lease  payments. 

mSSOUBI,  University  or.  A  State  institu- 
tion of  learning  foiuided  in  1830  at  Columbia, 
Mo.  Academic  work  began  in  1841.  In  1867  a 
department  of  education  was  established,  to 
which  women  were  admitted  in  1869,  and  soon 
after  all  departments  were  opened  to  them.  The 
universi^  comprises  a  graduate  department,  es- 
tablished in  1896,  an  academic  department,  and 
departments  of  education,  law  (1872),  medicine 
(1873),  military  science  and  tactics  (1890),  a 
OoUege  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arta  ( 1870) , 
embracing  a  school  of  agriculture,  an  experi- 
ment station  (1888),  a  school  of  engineering 
( 1877 ) ,  and  a  school  of  mines  and  metallurgy, 
situated  at  Rolla  (1870).  The  university  con- 
fers the  bachelor's  and  master's  degrees  in  arts, 
law,  and  science,  the  doctor's  degree  in  medi- 
cine and  philosophy,  and  the  degrees  of  civil, 
electrical,  mechanical,  and  sanitary  engineer  and 
engineer  of  mines.  The  only  honorary  degree 
conferred  is  that  of  Doctor  of  Laws.  The  univer- 
sity accepts  the  certificate  of  approved  schools 
for  admission.  The  faculty  in  1906-7  numbered 
140.  The  enrollment,  including  duplicates,  was 
2072,  of  whom  624  were  women.  The  campus 
ineludes  32  acres  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
town,  and  near  it  are  the  experiment  farm,  of 
«618  acres,  and  the  horticultural  grounds,  of  30 
acres.  The  groiuida,  buildings,  and  equipment 
were  valued  at  over  $1,600,000.  The  endowment 
was  about  $2,500,000.  The  university  library, 
including  the  departmental  libraries,  contained 
about  75,000  volumes. 

MIBSOUBI  00MFB0MI8E.  In  American 
liistory,  an  arrangement  between  the  free  and 
slave  States,  embodied  chiefly  in  an  act  of  Con- 
gress approved  March  6,  1820,  which  provided 
for  the  admission  of  the  State  of  Missouri  into 
the  Union  with  a  constitution  which  allowed  slav- 
ery, but  which  forever  prohibited  slavery  in  all  the 
rest  of  the  Ixjuisiana  territory  lying  north  of  lat- 
itiKle  ,36"  30'  N.,  that  being  the  southern  bound- 
ary line  of  Missouri.  To  balance  the  admission 
of  Missouri  as  a  slave  State,  Elaine  was  admitted 
as  a  free  State  at  the  same  time.  In  February, 
1819,  in  the  debate  in  Concress  on  the  bill  to 
admit  Mi-;soiiri  into  the  T'nion,  James  W.  Tall- 
madi»e.  of  New  Yrtrk.  move<l  to  amend  the  Mis- 
souri bill  to  the  effect  **that  the  further  introduc- 
tion of  slavery  or  involuntary  servitude  be  pro- 
hibited, and  that  all  children  of  slaves  Invrn  within 
the  State  after  the  admi**^ion  thereof  in  the 
X'nion  shall  l)e  fnv."  The  admi^^ion  of  Alabama 
in  the  same  year  without  any  proliihition  ajjainst 
slavery  made  the  number  of  *siave'  States  and  of 
*free'  States  equal.    The  admission  of  Missouri  as 


a  'free'  State,  therefore,  would  disturb  the  eqm- 
librium.  The  bill  with  the  Tallmadge  amendment 
passed  the  House  February  17,  1819,  by  a  vote 
of  87  to  76.  On  March  2d  the  Senate  passed  the 
bill  without  the  Tallmadge  amendment.  Two  days 
later  Congress  adjourned  and  the  question  of  Mis- 
souri went  over  to  the  next  session.  In  De- 
cember, 1819,  another  bill  for  the  admission  of 
Missouri  was  introduced,  whereupon  John  W. 
Taylor,  of  New  York,  offered  an  amendment  in 
the  House  which  provided  that  as  a  condition  of 
admission  the  State  should  be  required  to  adopt 
a  constitution  forever  prohibiting  slavery  within 
its  limits.  This  gave  nse  to  a  prolonged  and  vig- 
orous debate  on  the  power  of  Congress  to  impose 
conditions  upon  the  admission  of  a  State  into  the 
Union.  Those  who  upheld  the  power  of  Con- 
gress in  the  premises  based  their  argument  on 
the  provision  of  the  Constitutkn  which  empowers 
Congress  to  admit  new  States,  the  implication 
being  that  it  may  admit  under  any  conditions 
which  it  may  see  fit  to  impose.  Their  opponents 
relied  chiefly  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  equality 
of  the  States  in  the  Federal  s>'stem,  and  declared 
that  Congress  had  no  constitutional  power  to 
destroy  that  equality  by  attadiing  ooerous  condi- 
tions to  admission  of  the  new  States.  Meantime 
the  situation  was  complicated  by  the  application 
of  Maine  to  be  admitted  with  a  eonstitution 
prohibiting  slavery.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives promptly  passed  a  bill  for  this  purpose, 
and  when  this  bill  came  up  for  diseussion  in 
the  Senate  in  January,  1820,  the  friends  of 
slavery  in  Missouri,  who  were  in  a  majority  in 
the  Senate,  coupled  the  Maine  bill  with  the  bill 
to  admit  Missouri  with  slavery,  and  the  Senate 
steadily  refused  to  disconnect  the  two  measures. 
In  this  situation  the  substance  of  the  eompro- 
mise  waa  proposed  by  Senator  Thomas,  of  Hli- 
Bois,  in  an  amendment  which  provided  that  Mis- 
souri should  be  admitted  with  a  constitution  al- 
lowing slavery,  but  that  in  all  the  rest  of  the 
Louisiana  territory  north  of  latitude  36**  SO'  N. 
slavery  or  involimtary  servitude  should  be  for- 
ever prohibited.  The  bill  with  this  amendment 
finally  passed  the  Senate,  February  18,  1820. 
The  bill  thus  amended  was  coupled  with  the 
bill  to  admit  Maine,  and  in  this  shape  was 
sent  to  the  House  for  eoncurrcnoe.  The  House 
refused  to  agree  to  the  combination,  and  the 
matter  was  then  referred  to  a  eonferenee  com- 
mittee of  the  two  Houses,  which  recommended 
that  the  Maine  bill  be  passed  separately,  and 
that  the  Missouri  bill  should  be  passed  with  the 
Thomas  amendment.  To  this  report  the  House 
agreed.  The  separation  of  bills  as  distinct  sub- 
jeets  was  thus  secured,  and  recognition  was  given 
to  the  claim  of  the  Southerners  that  Congress 
had  no  power  to  impose  such  limitations  as 
it  saw  fit  upon  any  State  as  a  condition  of  its 
admission  to  the  I'nion.  President  Monroe  ap- 
proved the  ^faine  bill  on  March  3,  and  the  Mis- 
souri bill  on  :Mareh  6.  1820.  Henry  Oay,  who 
was  Speaker  of  the  House,  exerted  his  influence 
to  brinjj  about  this  result.  In  the  next  session 
the  Constitution  of  Missouri,  including  a  para- 
;rmph  making  it  the  duty  of  the  Legislature  to 
f)revent  the  immigration  of  free  negroes  into  the 
State,  was  presented  to  Congress  for  appro\*al. 
This  provoked  a  heated  debate  concern  in?  the 
duty  of  the  Federal  Government  to  protect  the 
eitizens  of  each  State  in  the  exereise  of  their 
eivil  rights  of  citizenship  in  every  other  State 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MISSOUBI  COXPBOMISE. 


638 


mSTASSINI. 


After  protracted  negotiatioD,  a  bill  was  finally 
introduced  providing  tliat  Missouri  should  be 
considered  admitted  as  a  State  only  after  its 
Legislature  had  declared  that  no  law  would  ever 
be  passed,  nor  any  construction  placed  upon  the 
obnoxious  paragraph  which  would  justify  any  law 
which  might  abridge  within  Mist^uri  the  rights 
guaranteed  to  all  citizens  by  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion. The  bill  involving  this  second  compromise 
was  approved  March  2,  1821,  and  in  accordance 
with  its  terms  Missouri  became  a  Commonwealth. 
Consult :  Burgess,  The  Middle  Period  { New  York, 
1897);  Carr,  Missouri  (Boston,  1888);  Dixon, 
History  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  (Cincinnati, 
1899);  Gordy,  Political  Parties  in  the  United 
States,  vol.  ii.  (New  York,  1902)  ;  and  Woodburn, 
**The  Historical  Significance  of  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise," in  the  Report  of  the  American  Histori- 
cal tiociety  for  1893  (Washington,  1894).  See 
United  States;  Slavery. 

MISSOITBI  BIVEB.  The  principal  affluent 
of  the  Mississippi  and  the  longest  river  of  the 
United  States  (Map:  United  States,  G  2).  It 
is  formed  in  southwestern  Montana  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  (xallatin 
rivers.  The  longest  branch,  the  Jefferson,  has  its 
farthest  source  in  Red  Rock  Creek,  which  rises 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Red  Rock  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  Madison  County,  Montana,  a  few 
miles  from  the  headwaters  of  the  North  Fork  of 
the  Snake.  The  middle  and  largest  branch,  the 
Madison,  rises  in  the  Yellowstone  Park  near  the 
source  of  the  Yellowstone  River.  From  the 
junction  of  the  three  forks,  the  Missouri  flows 
north  and  east  across  Montana  into  North  Da- 
kota, where  it  describes  a  long  curve  toward  the 
southeast  and  then  crosses  the  whole  width  of 
South  Dakota.  After  reaching  the  Nebraska 
boundary  it  divides  this  State  from  Iowa  and  Mis- 
souri, forms  the  northeastern  boundary  of  Kansas, 
and  finally  takes  an  easterly  course  across  Mis- 
souri, joining  the  Mississippi  20  miles  above  Saint 
Louis.  Its  length  to  the  source  of  the  Jefferson  is 
about  2950  miles,  and  to  the  source  of  the  Madi- 
scm  about  2910  miles.  With  the  lower  Mississippi, 
the  river  has  a  total  length  of  about  4200  miles, 
which  is  equaled  by  no  other  river  in  the  world. 
The  Missouri  is  a  swift  and  turbid  stream,  navi- 
gable only  by  flat-bottomed  steamboats.  Dur- 
ing the  flood  period  in  early  summer  it  can  be 
ascended  to  Great  Falls,  Mont.,  about  2300  miles 
from  the  mouth,  but  in  low  water  navigation  is 
suspended  above  the  junction  of  the  Y^'ellowstone. 
At  Great  Falls  the  Missouri  passes  over  a  series 
of  cataracts,  descending  a  vertical  distance  of 
350  feet  in  16  miles.  The  highest  falls  are  87 
feet.  About  145  miles  above  this  point  is  the 
Gate  of  the  Rocky  ^Mountains,  a  narrow  rock 
gorge  12  miles  in  length,  whose  perpendicular 
walls  rise  1200  feet  above  the  river.  The  lower 
course  of  the  Missouri,  lying  within  the  great 
plains,  has  been  graded  so  as  to  offer  no  inter- 
ruptions. In  this  part  it  is  often  a  mile  or  more 
wide.  The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Milk  and 
Yellowstone,  in  Montana;  Little  Missouri,  in 
North  Dakota ;  Cheyenne.  James,  White,  and 
Big  Sioux,  in  South  Dakota;  Niobrara  and 
Platte,  in  Nebraska;  Kansas  and  Osage,  in  Kan- 
sas and  Missouri.  It  drains  the  greater  part 
of  the  territorv  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
summits  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Arkansas 
and  Red  rivers  are  the  only  other  large  streams 
in  this  region  that  contribute  their  waters  di- 


rectly to  the  Mississippi.  The  area  of  the  basiife' 
exceeds  500,000  square  miles.  A  number  of  thriv- 
ing cities  are  located  on  the  Missouri,  including: 
Kansas  City,  Leavenworth,  Atchison,  Omaha,. 
Sioux  City,  Pierre,  Bismarck,  and  Great  Falls, 
the  last  being  the  centre  of  a  great  copper- 
smelting  industry  which  utilises  the  power  of  the 
Falls.  

MISS0X7BI  STJCKEB,  or  Goubdse3CD.  See 
Black  Hobse,  and  Plate  of  Suckxbs. 

MISSOTTBJ  VAIXBY.  A  city  in  Harrison 
County,  Iowa,  21  miles  north  of  Council  Bluffs,, 
on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railroad 
(Map:  Iowa,  B  3).  It  has  a  public  library  of 
a  couple  of  thousand,  volumes,  and  the  fair 
grounds  of  the  County  Agriciiltural  Society. 
The  industrial  interests  are  represented  by  ex- 
tensive railroad  machine  shops,  stock  yards,  and 
manufactories  of  flour,  machine-shop  products, 
bricks,  creamery  products,  etc.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipal- 
ity. Population,  in  1890,  2797;  in  1900,  4010; 
in  1905.  3330. 

MIST.    See  Fog. 

MISTAKE.  An  erroneous  mental  conception: 
affecting  the  will,  and  hence  leading  to  or  pre- 
venting some  act.  The  importance  of  the  mis- 
take in  legal  contemplation  is  its  effect  upon  the 
act.  In  general  a  mistake  of  law  produces  no 
legal  effect  upon  an  act  influenced  or  induced  by 
it.  Thus  one  is  without  remedy  who  has  entered 
into  a  contract  without  knowing  or  understand- 
ing the  legal  effect,  or  who  has  voluntarily,  and 
"with  full  knowledge  of  the  facts,  paid  a  claim 
not  well  founded  in  law.  The  full  acceptance  of 
the  doctrine  is  due  to  a  misapplication  of  the 
measure  Ignoran tia  juris  non  excusat  ( "ignorance- 
of  the  law  does  not  excuse"),  which  is  applicable- 
only  in  the  criminal  law  or  under  statutes 
imposing  quasi-criminal  penalties  where  sound 
policy  requires  that  ignorance  of  law  should  not 
excuse  one  charged  with  a  crime.  (See  Intent.) 
Mistake  of  fact  has  a  direct  legal  effect  on  many 
acts,  and  the  law  in  many  cases  affords  a  remedy 
to  one  who  has  done  a  prejudicial  act  induced  by 
mistake  of  fact. 

The  effect  of  mutual  mistake  as  to  a  material 
term  of  a  contract  is  to  prevent  the  meeting  of 
the  minds,  and  thus  prevent  the  formation  of  a 
contract  ( q.v. ) .  The  effect  of  mutual  mistake  of 
fact  in  case  of  sale  is  to  prevent  passing  of 
title,  and  one  who  has  given  up  the  possession 
of  personal  property  under  mistake,  preventing 
the  passing  of  title,  may  recover  the  specific 
property  by  an  appropriate  action,  or  its  value 
in  an  action  of  trover.  In  general,  whenever 
money  or  property  is  delivered  to  another  under 
material  mistake  of  fact,  its  value  may  be  re- 
covered in  an  action  based  on  the  theory  of 
quasi-contract   ( q.v. ) . 

In  the  law  of  tort,  the  effect  of  mistake  of 
fact  varies  considerably  with  the  different 
branches  of  the  subject.  In  the  law  of  trespass,, 
one  is  required  to  know  his  own,  and  he  inter- 
feres with  the  property  of  another  at  his  peril. 

Equity  has  jurisdiction  to  relieve  one  from 
the  consequences  of  his  mistake  of  fact,  by  com- 
pelling a  reformation  or  rest'ission  of  a  contract. 

Consult  Kerr,  A  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Fraud 
and  Mistake  (3d  ed.,  London,  1902). 

MISTASSINI.  mIs'tfts-se'nA.  A  large  lake  in 
the  Ungava  district,  Northwest  Canada,  latitude^ 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MISTASSINI. 


624 


mSTBAL. 


50*  N.,  longitude  72''  to  74''  W.  (Map:  Canada, Q 
6).  In  1672  French  Jesuit  missionaries  visited 
it.  The  Indians  claimed  an  extravagant  length 
for  the  lake,  saying  that  three  days  were  em- 
ployed in  crossing  the  narrowest  part  from  island 
to  island,  but  an  estimate  based  on  surveys  gives 
the  length  at  120  miles  and  the  actual  width  at 
20  miles  in  the  widest  parts.  From  the  northeast 
and  southeast  it  receives  the  drainage  of  a  chain 
of  smaller  lakes,  and  discharges  its  own  sur- 
plus into  James  Bay,  the  southern  arm  of  Hud- 
son Bay,  by  the  Rupert  River,  120  miles  long. 
The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  has  a  post  on  Lake 
Mistassini,  333  miles  north  of  Montreal.  The 
lake  is  of  great  depth  and  abounds  in  fish;  the 
surrounding  country  is  level  and  well  fitted  for 
agriculture,  while  the  woods  are  full  of  game. 
The  winters  are  clear  and  cold,  and  the  sum- 
mers warm  and  short. 

MISTELI,ml8-tftn4,FBANZ  Josef  (1 841-1903 ) . 
A  Swiss  philologist.  He  was  bom  at  Solothum; 
studied  at  Zurich  and  Bonn ;  taught  at  Saint  Grail 
and  Solothum;  and  in  1874  became  professor 
of  comparative  linguistics  at  Basel.  A  follower 
of  Steinthal,  wliose  Characteriatik  der  hauptaach- 
Hchsten  Typen  des  Sprachhaues  he  re^dited  in 
1893,  Misteli  contributed  to  Kuhn's  Zeitschrift 
and  to  the  Zeitschrift  fUr  Volkerpaychologie ; 
and  wrote  Ueber  griechische  Betonung  (1875) 
and  Erlduterungen  zur  allgemeinen  Theorie  der 
griechischen  Betonung  (1875).  He  was  an  au- 
thority on  the  dialects  of  the  Ural  and  Altai. 

MISTLE  THBUSH,  or  MISSEL  THRUSH. 

One  of  the  most  familiar  and  admired  of  Euro- 
pean thrushes  {Turdus  viscivorus)^  named  from 
its  fondness  for  mistletoe  berries,  which  are  re- 
jected by  the  majority  of  small  birds.  It  is  the 
largest  and  one  of  the  most  numerous  of  British 
thrushes,  and  is  also  well  known  throughout  the 
Mediterranean  region  and  Western  and  Northern 
Asia.  Everywhere  it  is  migratory,  and  is  noted 
for  its  loud  and  pleasant  song,  which  begins  first 
of  all  bird-notes  in  the  spring  and  lasts  far  into 
the  summer;  its  habit  of  cheerfully  singing  on 
cold  or  rainy  days,  when  most  other  birds  are 
quiet,  has  given  it  the  sobriquet  *stormcock.* 
Its  plumage  is  soft  grayish  brown  above  and 
white  below,  the  breast  and  abdomen  thickly  and 
sharply  spotted.     See  Thrush. 

MISTLETOE,  mTs"l-to  (AS.  miateltany  mis- 
iiltan,  Icel.  mtsiiltcinn,  from  AS.  mistel,  bird- 
lime, mistletoe,  basil,  Icel.,  OIIG.  mistil,  Ger. 
Mistel,  mistletoe  -f-  AS.  t&n,  twig).  A  genus 
(Viscum)  of  small  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Loranthaeese.  This  order  contains  more  than 
400  known  species,  mostly  tropical  and  parasitic. 
The  leaves  are  entire,  almost  nerveless,  thick, 
fleshy,  and  without  stipules.  The  flowers  of  many 
species  are  showy.  The  common  mistletoe 
i Viscum  album) y  a  native  of  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  grows  on  many  kinds  of  trees,  particu- 
larly on  the  apple,  and  its  close  relatives,  the 
service  and  hawthorn ;  sometimes,  also,  on  syca- 
mores, limes,  poplars,  locust  trees,  and  firs,  but 
rarely  on  oaks  (contrary  to  the  common  belief). 
It  is  very  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  the  south  of 
England,  its  evergreen  leaves  giving  a  peculiar 
appearance  to  the  orchards  in  winter,  when  the 
rhisters  of  mistletoe  are  very  conspicuous  among 
the  naked  brnnehes  of  the  trees.  The  stems  di- 
vide by  forking:  the  leaves  are  opposite,  of  a 
yellowish -green  color,  obovate-lanceolate,  obtuse. 


The  flowers  are  inconspicuous,  and  grow  in  small 
heads  at  the  ends  and  in  the  divisions  of  the 
branches,  the  male  and  female  flowers  on  sepa- 
rate plants.  The  berries  are  about  the  size  of 
currants,  white,  translucent,  and  full  of  a  very 
viscid  juice,  which  serves  to  attach  the  seeds  to 
branches,  where  they  germinate,  and  take  root, 
the  radicle  always  turning  toward  the  branch, 
whether  on  its  upper  or  under  side.  The  mistle- 
toe derives  its  nourishment  from  the  juices  of 


VDCUlf  ALBUM. 


the  tree  on  which  it  grows,  and  from  which  it 
seems  to  spring  as  if  it  were  one  of  its  own 
branches.  The  mistletoe  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  many  of  the  superstitions  of  the  an- 
cient Germans  and  the  British  Druids.  In  the 
northern  mythology,  Balder  is  said  to  have  been 
slain  with  a  spear  of  mistletoe.  Among  the  Celta 
the  mistletoe  which  grew  on  the  oak  was  in  pe- 
culiar esteem  for  magical  virtues.  Traces  of 
the  ancient  regard  for  the  mistletoe  still  remain 
in  some  old  English  and  German  customs,  as 
kissing  under  the  mistletoe  at  Christmas.  The 
mistletoe  was  at  one  time  in  high  repute  as  a 
remedy  for  epilepsy  and  convulsions,  but  it  seems 
to  possess  no  decided  medicinal  properties.  Lo- 
ranthus  Europseus,  a  shrub  very  similar  to  the 
mistletoe,  but  with  flowers  in  racemes,  is  plenti- 
ful in  some  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and 
very  frequently  grows  on  oaks.  Loranthus  odo- 
ratus,  a  Nepalese  species,  has  very  fragrant 
flowers.  In  the  United  States  the  mistletoe  is 
Phoradendron,  a  genus  of  plants  closely  allied 
to  and  greatly  resembling  Viscum.  The  com- 
mon species  in  the  Eastern  States  is  Phoraden- 
dron flavescens.  It  occurs  upon  various  species 
of  deciduous  trees  from  New  Jersey  to  Missouri 
and  southward.  In  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
United  States  and  in  California  are  still  other 
species.    See  Colored  Plate  of  Parasitic  Plants. 

MISTLETOE  BOUGH,  The.  A  pathetic 
song  by  Thomas  HajTies  Bayly,  based  on  a  legend 
connected  with  various  localities.  The  story  is 
that  of  the  young  bride  of  Lord  Lovel,  who  dis- 
appears during  the  Christmas  festivities  at  her 
father's  castle  after  proposing  a  game  of  hide 
and  seek.  The  mystery  is  solved  only  after  many 
years  w^hen  her  skeleton  form  is  found  in  an  old 
oaken  chest  which  had  closed  with  a  spring  and  ' 
entombed  her. 

MISTRAL,  mA'strftT,  or  MAESTBAL,  mA'- 
strAK  (Prov.,  master-wind).  The  ProvencJ*! 
name  for  the  cold  northwest  wind  on  the  south- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MISTBAL. 


625 


MITCHEL. 


em  coast  of  France  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  coast  region.  This  wind  is  iden- 
tical in  origin  with  the  Bora  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  of  Austria,  Turkey,  and  Southern  Russia. 
It  is  also  perfectly  analogous  to  the  strong  north- 
west winds  of  the  United  States.  In  both  cases 
the  atmosphere  over  a  great  extent  of  coimtr\' 
is  circulating  about  a  region  of  low  pressure  or 
a  so-called  storm  centre,  moving  along  over  the 
surface  of  the  earth  usually  toward  the  east  or 
northeast.  When  such  a  storm  centre  passes  over 
Southern  Europe,  the  cold  winds  from  Russia 
sweep  southward  with  great  force  toward  it.  The 
warm  southerly  siroccos  give  place  to  cold  north- 
erly Boras  and  Mistrals,  which  are  very  dry ;  the 
cloudy  hazy  skies  are  replaced  by  cloudless  trans- 
parent air.  During  the  first  few  hours  the  wind 
seems  to  come  in  descending  and  violent  gusts ; 
afterwards  it  becomes  more  moderate,  but  is  still 
very  strong.  When  it  descends  over  mountain 
slopes  upon  the  water,  as  it  does  along  the  coast 
of  France,  Italy,  and  Austria,  it  makes  naviga- 
tion difficult  and  even  dangerous  to  small  craift. 

mSTBAL,  FR^DfiRic  (1830—).  A  French 
poet,  the  leader  of  the  modem  Provencal  revival 
in  Southern  France.  He  was  born  at  Maillane, 
Bouches-du-Rh6ne,  September  8,  1830,  and  went 
to  school  in  Avignon.  Here  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Joseph  Roumanille  (cj.v.),  who  had 
already  conceived  the  idea  of  raismg  the  native 
speech  to  higher  uses.  Roumanille's  Provencal 
poem  Li  Margarideto  fired  the  youth's  enthu- 
siasm, and  when  he  returned  to  Maillane,  at  the 
end  of  his  school  days,  he  wrote  a  poem  in  four 
cantos,  Li  Meissoun,  the  best  parts  of  which  he 
has  preserved  by  insertion  into  his  riper  works. 
His  father,  seeing  his  intellectual  superiority, 
had  him  study  law  at  Aix.  Mistral,  however,  did 
not  practice  law,  but  gave  himself  up  heart  and 
soul  to  the  work  of  creating  a  literature  in  Pro- 
vencal. With  six  friends  he  founded  the  society 
of  the  F6libres  in  1854,  and  contributed  to  their 
annual  organ,  L'Armana  Prouvencau.  The  publi- 
cation in  1859  of  MirHo  is  the  most  important 
event  in  Mistral's  life  and  in  the  history  of  the 
movement.  It  was  a  revelation  to  the  F^libres, 
and  through  the  enthusiastic  praise  of  Lamartine 
it  obtained  a  national  success.  MirHo  is  a  narra- 
tive pastoral  poem  in  twelve  cantos,  a  wonder- 
ful expression  of  what  is  most  characteristic  and 
best  in  the  rural  life  of  Provence.  The  language 
is  the  dialect  of  Saint-Remy,  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  literary  language  by  a  process  of  puri- 
fication and  enrichment  strictly  in  accord  with 
its  genius.  At  this  time  also  Mistral  published 
some  of  his  best  lyrical  poems,  notably  one  called 
The  Countess,  a  vigorous  protest  against  the  cen- 
tralization prevailing  in  France.  In  1867  he 
published  a  second  long  poem,  Calendau  (French, 
Calendal)  ;  it  treats  of  mediteval  legends  and 
traditions,  and  abounds  in  symbolism.  In  1875 
appeared  his  only  volume  of  lyrics,  Li»  Isclo  d'or. 
In  1876  the  F6librige  was  formally  organized  into 
a  great  association  with  Mistral  as  CapoulU  or 
chief.  He  next  published  NertOj  a  fantastical 
tale  in  verse.  Later  he  brought  out  his  monu- 
mental dictionary  of  all  the  dialects  of  the 
Langue  d'oc,  Lou  tr^sor  dou  FtUibrige.  In  1890 
appeared  La  Rdino  Jano  (Queen  Joanna),  which 
he  calls  a  Provencal  tragedy.  It  is  brilliant  in 
language,  but  of  little  dramatic  power.  In  the 
bame  year  he  founded  the  quarterly  UAidli.    In 


1897  appeared  a  third  long  narrative  poem,  Lou 
pouimo  dou  rose,  his  best  work  after  MirHo.  It 
is  a  felicitous  combination  of  fanciful  legends 
and  realism.  He  published  in  1906  Mes  origines, 
mimoires  et  r^ctts.'  Consult:  Gaston  Paris, 
Penseurs  et  poites  (Paris,  1896)  ;  Welter, 
FrMMc  Mistral,  der  Dichter  der  Provence  (Mar- 
burg, 1899);  Downer,  FrM^ic  Mistral  (New 
York,  1901).  The  best  English  translation  of 
MirHo  is  that  of  Harriet  Preston  (Boston,  1872), 
With  Echegaray,  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize 
for  literature  in  1905.  There  are  prose  transla- 
tions in  French  by  Mistral  of  all  his  works. 
See  F^LiBBioE. 

MTSTBETTA,  m^-strftt'ti.  A  town  of  Sicily, 
50  miles  northwest  of  Catania  (Map:  Italy,  J 
10).  It  is  situated  in  one  of  the  most  fertile 
sections  of  the  island,  and  is  devoted  to  farm- 
ing and  cattle-raising.  Lignite  is  mined  in  the 
vicinity.  Population,  in  1901  (commune),  13,481. 

MISTBIAL.  An  invalid  or  illegal  trial  of 
an  action,  the  result  of  which  is  without  legal 
effect  on  the  cause  of  action,  and  which  leaves 
the  parties  in  the  same  position  as  if  there  had 
been  no  attempt  to  try  the  case.  Where  the 
prosecution  of  a  person  charged  with  a  crime 
results  in  a  mistrial,  the  accused  may  be  again 
tried,  and  cannot  plead  the  constitutional  de- 
fense that  he  has  been  twice  in  jeopardy,  as  that 
can  be  true  only  where  the  proceedings  against 
him  are  valid  and  legal.  See  Tbial;  and  com- 
pare Nonsuit. 

MITANI,  m6-ta'n6.    See  Amabna  Letters. 

MITAn,  mA'tou.  The  capital  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Courland,  Russia,  situated  in  a  low 
region  on  the  Aa,  25  miles  southwest  of  Riga 
(Map:  Russia,  D  3).  It  has  an  immense  palace 
erected  by  Biron  in  1738  on  the  site  of  an  older 
ducal  palace  and  now  used  as  a  Government 
building.  Two  gymnasia,  a  provincial  museum 
with  a  library,  and  a  theatre  are  the  principal 
educational  establishments  of  the  town.  The  in- 
dustries of  Mitau  are  unimportant;  the  chief 
manufactures  are  spirits,  fiour,  chocolate,  oil 
cloth,  ink,  and  iron  products.  The  trade  in  grain 
and  lumber  is  rather  extensive.  Population,  in 
1897,  35,011,  about  50  per  cent.  German,  30  per 
cent.  Lettish,  15  per  cent.  Russian,  and  the  re- 
mainder Jewish.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Protestants.  Mitau  was  founded  by  the 
Knights  Swordbearers,  in  the  second  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  became  a  city  in  1435. 
In  1561  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of 
Courland,  and  in  1795  it  was  annexed  to  Russia. 

MITCH^AM.  An  important  railway  junction 
and  suburb  of  London,  England,  in  Surrey,  four 
miles  northwest  of  Croydon  (Map:  London,  G  6). 
It  is  noted  for  its  extensive  gardens,  the  soil  of 
which  is  especially  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of 
roses,  lavender,  peppermint,  and  other  medicinal 
herbs,  which  in  the  manufacture  of  essential  oils 
and  perfumes  yield  superior  products.  Mitcham 
Common,  covering  480  acres,  is  a  favorite  recrea- 
tion ground,  especially  for  golfers.  Population, 
in  1901,  14,904. 

MITCH'EL,  John  (1815-75).  An  Irish  Na- 
tionalist agitator.  He  was  bom  in  Dungiven, 
Ireland;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin; and  studied  and  practiced  law.  Through 
his  Life  of  Hugh  O'Neil,  Prince  of  Ulster  ( 1845) , 
he  gained  a  reputation  as  a  writer  and  a  Nation- 


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allit.  Ha  became  a  contributor  to  the  Irish 
NatioHy  and,  after  the  death  of  Thomas  Davis, 
was  its  chief  editor.  He  withdrew  from  the  A^o- 
ticm  in  1848^  and  established  the  United  Irish- 
man, In  the  same  year  lie  was  arrested  under  the 
Treason- Felony  Act,  was  convicted  and  sentenced 
to  transportation  for  fourteen  years,  and  was 
sent  to  Bermuda  for  one  year  and  then  to  Tas- 
mania. Escaping  from  the  convict  colony  in 
1853,  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  in 
the  following  year  established  at  New  York  the 
Citizen.  He  removed  to  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  in 
1857,  started  the  Southern  Citizen,  and  advo- 
cated in  its  columns  the  revival  of  the  slave  trade. 
He  lived  in  Paris  in  1860-62,  then  returned  to 
America,  and  for  a  time  edited  the  Richmond 
Enquirer.  He  afterwards  came  back  to  New 
•York  and  in  1867  started  the  Irish  Citizen, 
which  had  only  a  short  career,  being  discon- 
tinued in  1872.  Returning  to  Ireland  in  1874, 
he  was  elected  to  Parliament  from  Tipperary, 
but  was  declared  ineligible  and  denied  nia  seat 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  a  convicted  felon. 
He  was  elected  a  second  time,  but  died  be- 
fore his  case  could  be  tested.  Besides  the  work 
already  mentioned,  he  published  The  Last  Con- 
quest of  Ireland  {perhaps)  (1860),  and  History 
of  Ireland  from  the  Treaty  of  Limerick  (1868)  ; 
and  edited  The  Poems  of  Thomas  Davis  (1856) 
and  of  James  C.  Mangan   (1859),  with  biogra- 

?hie8.      For   his    life,    consult    Dillon    (London, 
888). 

MITCHETi,  Obmsby  McKnight  ( 1810-62 ) .  An 
American  astronomer,  educator,  and  soldier.  He 
was  bom  in  Union  County,  Ky.,  was  a  clerk  for 
some  time  in  a  country  store,  and  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1829.  From  1829  to  1831  he  was 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  West 
Point,  and  in  1832  he  resigned  from  the  service. 
He  practiced  law  in  Cincinnati  from  1832  to 
1834,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  was  professor  of 
mathematics,  philosophy,  and  astronomy  in  the 
Cincinnati  College.  In  1836-37  he  was  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  Little  Miami  Railroad.  He  was  an 
enthusiastic  student  of  astronomy,  and  took  an 
important  part  in  procuring  the  erection  of  an 
observatory  in  Cincinnati,  of  which,  when  it  was 
completed,  he  became  the  director,  combining 
with  this  position  in  1859  the  directorship  of  the 
Dudley  Observatorv  in  Albany.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  ^e  entered  the  Federal  Army, 
was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teern  in  August.  1861,  and  from  8ept ember  19th 
to  November  15th  commanded  the  Department  of 
the  Ohio.  In  April,  1802,  he  was  promoted  to  a 
major-generalship  of  volunteers  in  recognition  of 
a  brilliant  movement  into  northern  Alabama, 
whereby  he  secured  the  control  of  120  miles  of 
railway.  On  September  17,  1862,  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  Department  of  the  South,  but 
before  he  had  time  to  begin  active  operations  he 
was  attacked  by  yellow  fever  and  died.  He 
made  several  important  astronomical  discoveries, 
including,  with  exactness,  that  of  the  period  of 
rotation  of  the  planet  Mars.  He  edited  the  Side- 
real Mesffenfier  from  1846  to  1848,  and  published 
a  number  of  works  on  astronomical  subjects,  in- 
cludini?  The  Planetnrjf  and  StrlJnr  Worlds  (1848) 
and  The  Orbs  of  Heaven  ( 1851 ) .  The  Astronomy 
of  the  Bible  was  published  posthiimously  in  1863. 
Consult  the  biographv  by  Frederick  A.  Mitchel 
(Boston,  1887). 


HITCH^LL.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Davison  County,  S  D,  72  miles  west  by  north  of 
Sioux  Falls ;  on  the  North-Western  Line  and  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  railroads 
(Map:  South  Dakota,  F  4).  It  has  Dakota  Uni- 
versity (Methodist  Episcopal),  established  in 
1888,  a  Carnegie  library,  city  hall,  opera  honse, 
and  Saint  Joseph  Hospital.  The  centre  of  a  fer- 
tile agricultural  region,  Mitchell  exports  grain 
and  live  stock;  it  has  a  creamery,  railroad  and 
machine  shops,  grain  elevators,  brick  and  lum- 
ber yards,  wholesale  fruit  houses,  etc.  Settled  in 
1879,  Mitchell  was  incorporated  in  1883  and  is 
governed  under  a  charter,  secured  by  general  leg- 
islative act  of  1890,  which  provides  for  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  city  council  of 
which  the  executive  is  a  member.  Population, 
1900,  4055;  1905,  6719. 

MITCHELL,   Mount.     See    Black    Mou5- 

TAINS. 

MITCHELL,  Alexanms  (1817-87).  An 
American  financier  and  railroad  president,  bom 
at  Ellon,  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland.  In  1839 
he  came  to  the  United  States  at  the  request  of 
George  Smith,  a  Scotchman  who  was  interested 
in  the  development  of  the  West,  and  was  made 
president  of  the  Wisconsin  Marine  and  Fire  In- 
surance Company,  at  the  new  town  of  Milwaukee. 
Mitchell  settled  in  Milwaukee,  and  his  name  is 
inseparably  connected  with  the  development  of 
that  city  and  region.  In  1864  Mitchell  eflfected  a 
combination  of  several  roada  into  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad  Company, 
of  which  he  was  president  from  its  organization 
until  his  death.  He  was  a  Republican  until 
after  the  war,  but  left  the  party  on  the  recon- 
struction issue,  in  1868  was  elected  to  Congress 
as  a  Democrat,  and  served  until  1875. 

MITCHELL,  Alexander  Ferbteb  (1822-99). 
A  Scottish  divine  and  scholar,  the  historian  of 
the  Westminster  Assembly.  He  was  bom  at 
Brechin  in  Forfarshire,  September  10,  1822,  and 
after  graduating  from  the  University  of  Saint 
Andrews  he  became  minister  at  Dvmnichen  (1847- 
48).  He  resigned  to  accept  the  professorship 
of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Saint  Andrews. 
In  1868  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  divinity.  He  held  some 
of  the  highest  offices  in  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  was  an  active  member  of  the  Scottish  Text 
and  History  societies.  Among  his  publications  are: 
The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (1866); 
Minutes  of  the  General  Assembly  16U-^9ilSU) ; 
The  Westminster  Assembly:  Its  History  and 
Standards  (1883;  new  ed.  1895)  ;  Catechisms  of 
the  Second  Reformation  (1886);  and  Reprint, 
unth  Introduction,  of  the  First  Protestant  Trea- 
tise in  Scottish  Dialect  (1888).  He  died  March 
22,  1899. 

MITCHELL,  Donald  Grant  (1822-).  An 
American  author,  well  known  by  his  pseudonym 
Ik  Marvel.  He  graduated  from  Yale  College 
(1841).  In  1844  he  went  to  Europe,  brinpinjf 
out  on  his  return  French  Gleanings,  or  a  Veir 
Sheaf  from  the  Old  Fields  of  Continental  Europe 
( 1847) ,  and  in  1850  The  Battle  Summer,  sketches 
reminiscent  of  the  outbreak  in  Paris  two  years 
before.  In  1850  he  produced  The  Lorgnette,  or 
Studies  of  the  Toum,  a  series  of  mildly  satirical 
papers  in  the  manner  of  Irving's  Salmagundi. 
The  same  year  and  the  following  year  he  wrote 
the  books   most   popularly   associated  with  his 


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pteadonjm,  A  Bachelor's  Reveries  (more  recent- 
ly  renamed  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor)  and  Dream 
Life,  In  1853  Mitchell  became  United  States 
Consul  at  Venice.  On  his  return,  in  1855,  he 
bought  a  farm  (known  as  ''Edgewood'')  near  New 
Haven,  Conn.  From  this  place  he  has  issued  books 
dealing,  in  an  agreeable  mixture  of  philosophy, 
farming,  and  anecdote^  with  the  joys  of  country 
life:  My  Farm  of  Edgewood  (1803)  ;  Wet  Days  at 
EdgetDOod  (1865)  ;  Rural  Btudies,  toith  Hints  for 
Country  Places  (1867);  a  novel  of  a  religious 
sort,  Dr.  Johns  (1866);  and  several  books  of 
travel  and  sketches,  such  as  Seven  Stories,  with 
Basement  and  Attic  ( 1864) ;  and  English  Lands, 
Letters,  and  Kings  (1889). 

MITCHELL,  EusHA  (1793-1857).  An  Amer- 
ican scientist,  bom  in  Washington,  Conn.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1813,  and  was  ordained 
into  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in  1821.  After 
teaching  in  Yale  he  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy  at  tlie  University 
of  North  Carolina  in  1817,  and  in  1825  professor 
of  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  at  the  same 
institution.  In  the  capacity  of  State  Surveyor 
he  ascended  a  number  of  the  North  Carolina 
mountains,  and  wifls  finally  killed  by  a  fall  from 
a  precipice  on  a  mountain  (now  Mount  Mitchell) 
which  he  had  just  ascertained  to  be  the  highest  in 
^  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rockies.  This  sum- 
mit is  called  Mitcheirs  Peak,  or  Beach  Dome, 
and  the  discoverer's  body  is  buried  on  the  sum- 
mit. His  works  include  a  series  of  reports  on  the 
geology  of  North  Carolina  (1826-27)  ;  Elements 
of  Geology  with  an  Outline  of  the  Oeology  of 
North  Carolina  (1842);  and  various  articles 
which  he  contributed  to  scientific  publications. 

MITCHELL,  Hewbt  (1830-1902).  An  Ameri- 
can hydraulic  engineer,  brother  of  Maria  Mitchell, 
the  astronomer  ( q.v. ) .  He  was  bom  in  Nantucl^t, 
was  educated  in  private  schools,  and  early  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  tides  and  river*^  currents, 
being  first  employed  by  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey  to  report  on  the  waters  about  Nantucket 
and  Martha's  Vineyard.  After  assisting  the  com- 
missioners on  harbor  encroachments  in  New  York 
City  and  discovering  the  underflow  of  the  Hudson 
(1859),  Mitchell  was  consulting  engineer  to  the 
United  States  Commission  on  Boston  Harbor 
(1860-67),  and  member  of  the  commission;  in 
1867  was  sent  to  study  the  decline  of  Greytown 
harbor,  Nicaragua;  and  in  1874  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  board  of  engineers  to  improve 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1879  he  visited 
the  Suez  Canal  and  reported  on  it.  Mitchell  was 
elected  to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1885,  and  in  1888  retired  from  active  business. 
His  papers  on  phvsical  hydrolorrv  mo««tly  ap- 
peared in  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  Re- 
ports. 

MITCHELL,  Hinckley  Gilbert  (1846—). 
An  American  Orientalist,  born  at  Lee,  N.  Y.,  and 
educated  at  Wesleyan  University  (1873)  and 
the  Divinity  School  of  Boston  X^niversity  (1876). 
After  studying  at  Leipzig,  he  preached  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church  at  Favetto,  X.  Y., 
taught  at  Wesleyan  (1880-83),  andin  1883-1905 
was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Old  Testament  Exe- 
gesis at  Boston  Univernity.  He  was  director  of 
the  American  School  for  Oriental  Study  and  Re- 
search in  Palestine  in  1901-2.  Ilis  publications 
include:  Hebrew  Lessons  (1884  and  1897)  ;  Amos 
(1893),  a  translation  of  Piepenbring's  Theology 


of  the  Old  Testament  (1893) ;  and  Isaiah,  chap- 
ters  i.-xii.  (1900). 

MITCHELL,  John  (1869—).  An  American 
labor  leader,  bom  at  Braidwood,  HI.  He  had 
some  schooling  in  his  boyhood,  and  studied  law 
for  a  year.  He  became  a  coal  miner  in  1882, 
worked  in  the  West  in  1886-90,  became  a  sub- 
district  secretary'  and  treasurer  of  the  United 
Mine  Workers  of  America  in  1895,  and  in  1899 

E resident  of  the  organization,  an  offiee  to  which 
e  was  annually  reelected  for  the  ensuing  six 
years.  He  was  also  elected  fourth  vice-president 
of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  in  1898  and 
1900,  when  he  became  second  vice-president  of 
that  body.  He  directed  the  successful  strikes  of 
the  anthracite  miners  in  1900  and  1902.  From 
the  first  he  exerted  his  influence  in  behalf  of  good 
faith  on  the  part  of  labor  imions  in  all  dealings 
with  employers. 

MITCHELL,  John  (  M768).  An  Anglo- 
American  physician.  He  settled  at  Urbana,  Va., 
about  1700,  and  gained  recognition  as  a  botanist. 
It  was  after  him  that  the  Uitchella  repens  was 
named  by  Linmeus.  He  wrote:  Nova  Plantarum 
Genera  (1741)  ;  and  an  Essay  on  the  Causes  of 
Different  Colors  of  People  in  Different  Climates 
(1744)  ;  but  his  name  is  best  known  in  connec- 
tion with  A  Map  of  the  British  and  French  Do- 
minions in  North  America  (1775). 

MITCHELL,  John  Ksabslet  (1798-1858). 
An  American  physician,  born  in  Shepherdstown, 
Va.  He  graduated  at  the  Medical  College  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1819.  Before  he 
settled  in  Philadelphia  in  1822  as  general  prac- 
titioner he  made  three  voyages  to  the  Far  East 
as  ship's  surgeon.  In  1826  he  became  professor 
of  medicine  and  physiology  at  the  Philadelphia 
Medical  Institute,  and  in  1833  professor  of  chem- 
istry at  the  Franklin  Institute.  From  1841  to 
1858  he  was  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  medicine  in  Jefferson  Medical  College.  His 
works  include  Saint  Helena,  a  Poem  hy  a  Yankee 
(1821)  ;  On  the  Wisdom,  Goodness  and  Power  of 
God  as  Illustrated  in  the  Properties  of  Water 
(1834)  ;  Indecision,  a  Tale  of  the  Far  West,  and 
Other  Poems  (1830)  ;  On  the  Cryptogamous  Ori- 
gin of  Malarious  and  Epidemic  Fevers  (1849); 
and  the  posthumous  Five  Essays  on  Various 
Chemieal  and  Medieal  Subjects  (1858),  brought 
out  by  his  #»on,  S.  Weir  Mitchell   (q.v.). 

MITCHELL,  :Margabet  Julia  (popularly 
known  as  MAOtiiE  Mitchell)  (1832 — ).  An 
American  actress.  She  was  l>orn  in  New  York. 
She  made  her  first  regular  appearance  as  Julia  in 
The  Soldier's  Daughter  at  the  Chambers  Street 
Theatre,  New  York,  in  1851.  In  1868  she  mar- 
ried Mr.  Paddock,  her  manager.  Her  favorite 
roles  were  Jane  Eyre,  Mignon,  Little  Barefoot, 
and  Fanelion  tlie  Cricket. 

MITCHELL,' Maria  (1818-89).  An  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  born  at  Nantucket,  Mass.  Her 
father,  a  school  teacher  in  Nantucket,  gave  much 
attention  to  astronomy,  in  which  subject  she 
herself  at  an  early  age  became  greatly  interested. 
She  devoted  herself  especially  to  the  study  of 
nebulae  and  comets,  and  in  1847  published  an 
account  of  the  discovery  of  a  new  telescopic 
comet,  for  which  she  received  a  gold  medal  from 
the  King  of  Denmark.  During  the  next  ten  years 
she  was  employed  by  the  Coast  Survey  and  as- 
sisted in  compiling  the  Nautical  Almanac.  In 
1857  she  traveled  in  Europe,  and  in  1865  she  he- 


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came  professor  of  astronomy  in  Vassar.  She  was 
a  member  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  and  also  of  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  which  she 
was  the  first  female  member  admitted.  Her  nu- 
merous scientific  papers  still  remain  uncollected. 

MITCHELL,  Peteb  (1824 — ).  A  Canadian 
politician.  He  was  bom  in  Newcastle,  New 
Brunswick,  Canada,  was  educated  there,  and  in 
1848  was  called  to  the  bar.  He  served  two  terms 
(five  years)  in  the  Provincial  Parliament,  and 
was  appointed  life-member  of  the  Legislative 
Council.  In  1858  he  became  a  member  of  the 
executive  Government  of  New  Brunswick,  and  in 
1865  suffered  defeat  with  his  Government  on  the 
question  of  a  federal  union  of  all  British  Amer- 
ica. In  1865^  associated  with  R.  D.  Wilmot» 
Mayor  of  Saint  John.  He  formed  an  administra- 
tion in  order  to  test  the  opinion  of  the  province 
on  the  question  of  confederation.  When  the  vote 
was  taken,  confederation  was  carried  by  33  to  8. 
In  1867  he  was  appointed  Senator,  but  in  1874 
resigned.  He  was  Minister  of  Marine  and  Fish- 
eries in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Dominion  Government 
in  1867-73,  and  in  1882  was  elected  representative 
in  the  Dominion  Parliament  for  Northumberland 
County,  N.  B.  In  1885  he  purchased  the  Mon- 
treal Herald.  He  was  in  1897  appointed  Inspec- 
tor of  Fisheries  for  the  Atlantic  provinces.  His 
publications  include:  A  Review  of  President 
Chrant's  Recent  Message  to  the  United  States 
Congress,  Relative  to  the  Canadian  Fisheries  and 
the  Navigation  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River 
(1870)  ;  and  Notes  of  a  Holiday  Trip  (1880). 

MITCHELL,  Samuel  Augustus  (1792-1868). 
An  American  geographer.  He  was  born  in  Bris- 
tol, Conn.,  but  removed  to  Philadelphia.  He  pre- 
pared text-books  of  geography  for  the  use  of 
schools,  as  well  as  maps  and  treatises.  He  pub- 
lished General  View  of  the  World  ( 1846)  ;  Trav- 
eller's Guide  Through  the  United  States  (1850)  ; 
Universal  Atlas  (1851),  and  many  other  works. 

MITCHELL,  (Silas)  Weir  (1829—).  A  dis- 
tinguished American  neurologist  and  man  of  let- 
ters. He  was  bom  in  Virginia,  the  son  of  John 
Kearsley  Mitchell,  a  noted  Philadelphia  physi- 
cian. After  receiving  his  baccalaureate  degree 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he  was  grad- 
uated in  medicine  in  1850  at  Jefferson  Medical 
College,  Philadelphia.  After  a  few  years  spent 
in  general  practice,  Mitchell  turned  his  attention 
almost  entirely  to  diseases  of  the  nervous  system, 
a  field  in  which  he  early  achieved  eminence.  His 
special  title  to  fame  is  derived  from  his  elabo- 
ration of  the  system  of  "Rest  Treatment"  which 
has  borne  his  name  for  many  years  and  has  been 
adopted,  with  modifications,  the  world  over.  His 
earliest  work  of  importance  consisted  of  re- 
searches upon  the  chemical  composition  and 
physiological  action  of  the  venom  of  snakes,  in 
1866,  and  later.  He  was  assistant  surgeon  to 
the  U.  S.  Hospital  for  Nervous  Diseases  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  from  that  time  he  has 
been  a  prolific  contributor  to  medical  litera- 
ture. •  His  scientific  literary  productions  com- 
prise more  than  125  essays  and  monographs  iipon 
toxicologj',  comDarative  physiology,  and  clinical 
medicine.  Besides  these  productions,  which  were 
contributed  to  medical  journals,  he  has  published 
the  following  books  or  pamphlets:  "Researches 
upon  the  Venom  of  the  Rattlesnake,"  in  Slmith- 
soninn  Contributions  to  Knowledge  (1860)  ;  In- 
juries of  Nerves  and  Their  Consequences  (1872)  ; 


Wear  and  Tear,  or  Hints  for  the  OvertDorhed{A\h, 
ed.  1874)  ;  Fat  and  Blood,  and  How  to  Make 
Them  (4th  ed.  1885)  ;  Lectures  on  Diseases  of 
the  Nervous  System,  Especially  in  Women  (2d 
ed.  1885);  A  Doctor's  Century  (1887);  Doctor 
and  Patient  (1887)  ;  Clinical  Lectures  on  Ner- 
vous Diseases  (1897). 

Dr.  Mitchell  first  turned  his  attention  to  fic- 
tion and  genera]  literature  during  the  Civil  War, 
when  he  wrote  The  Children's  Hour^  to  be  sold 
during  the  great  fair  of  the  Sanitary  Commission 
in  Philadelphia.  Among  other  pieces  of  juvenile 
fiction  was  The  Wonderful  Stories  of  Fuz-huz, 
the  Fly,  and  Mother  Grahem,  the  Spider  (1867). 
Of  his  short  stories,  the  most  notable  was  The 
Case  of  George  Dedlov)  (1863).  His  first  nov- 
els were  Hephzibah  Guinness  (1880),  Thee  and 
Thou,  and  A  Draft  on  the  Bank  of  Spain  (pub- 
lished in  the  same  year).  Others  followed, 
including:  In  War  Time  (1885)  ;  Roland  Blake 
(1886)  ;  Far  in  the  Forest  (1889)  ;  Character- 
istics (1892)  ;  When  All  the  Woods  Are 'Green 
( 1894)  ;  Hugh  Wynne,  Free  Quaker  (1897)  ;  The 
Adventures  of  Frangois  (1899)  ;  Dr.  North  and 
His  Friends  (1900) ;  Circumstance  (1901) ;  New 
Samaria  and  the  Summit  of  St.  Martin  (1904) ; 
Youth  of  Washington  ( 1904 )  ;  Constance  Trescot 
(1905);  Diplomatic  Adventures  (1906).  These 
stories  deal  especially  with  diff'erent  historical 
and  contemporary  types  of  character.  Hugh 
Wynne  ranks  among  the  best  novels  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  yet  written.  The  Youth  of  Wash- 
ington, though  fiction,  is  of  historical  value. 

MITCHELL^  Sir  Thomas  LiviNGSTOin>:  ( 1792- 
1855).  An  English  explorer.  He  was  bom  in 
Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  began  his  service  in  the 
British  Army  in  the  Peninsular  campaign  of 
1808,  and  in  1826  was  promoted  to  be  major.  He 
was  then  sent  to  make  surveys  and  plans  of  the 
Peninsular  battle-fields.  In  1827  he  published 
Outlines  of  a  System  of  Surveying  for  Geograph' 
ical  and  Military  Purposes,  and  was  made  Deputy 
Surveyor-General  of  New  South  Wales.  Besides 
attending  to  the  routine  work  of  this  office  he  led 
a  number  of  exploring  expeditions  into  the  in- 
terior of  Australia.  In  1835  he  traced  the 
course  of  the  river  Darling,  which  he  followed, 
in  1836,  as  far  as  the  Murray  River,  with  which 
it  unites.  In  the  same  expedition  he  followed 
the  Glenelg  River  to  the  ocean.  He  gave  the 
world  the  results  of  his  explorations  in  his  Three 
Expeditions  Into  the  Interior  of  Eastern  Aus- 
tralia (1839).  He  went  to  England  in  1839,  and 
on  his  return  to  Australia  conducted  a  fourth 
exploring  expedition,  in  which  he  vainly  at- 
tempted to  reach  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  In 
1850  he  published  a  school  geography  for  use  in 
New  South  Wales  under  the  name  of  Australian 
Geography,  and  in  1854  The  Lusiad  of  Camoens 
Closely  Translated. 

MITCHILL,  Samuel  Latham  (1764-1831). 
An  American  scientist,  bom  at  North  Hempstead, 
Long  Island,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  in  medicine 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1786,  and  was 
appointed,  in  1792,  professor  of  chemistry,  nat- 
ural history,  and  philosophy  in  Columbia  College. 
In  1796  he  made  a  geological  and  mineralogical 
tour  alonsr  the  Hudson.  Jointly  with  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Miller  and  Elisha  H.  Smith  he  established 
the  quarterly  Medical  Repository,  of  which  be 
was  for  eighteen  years  the  editor.  He  several 
times  resprescnted  his  district  in  the  State  Legia- 


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lature  and  in  Ck)ngres8,  and  in  1804  was  elected 
United  States  Senator.  In  1808  he  became  pro« 
feasor  of  natural  history  and  in  1820  of  botany 
and  materia  medica  in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons.  He  was  called  the  'Nestor  of 
American  Science.'  His  researches  embrace  a 
wide  variety  of  scientific  and  philosophical  sub- 
jects, and  he  published  a  large  number  of  papers 
and  several  larger  works.  Consult  "Memorable 
£vents  and  Occurrences  in  the  Life  of  Samuel 
L.  Mitchilly  of  New  York,  from  the  Year 
1786  to  1827/'  by  himself  and  Dr.  Francis,  con- 
tained in  Gross's  American  Medical  Biography. 

MITE  (AS.  mite,  OHG.  miffay  mizza,  Ger. 
Miete;  probably  connected  with  Goth,  maitan, 
OHG.  meizan,  to  cut).  Anv  one  of  the  Acarina, 
an  order  in  the  class  Aracnnida.  They  may  be 
distinguished  from  other  arachnids  by  their 
small  size;  by  the  unsegmented  body,  without  a 
constriction  between  the  anterior  portion  or 
cephalothorax  and  the  posterior  portion  or  ab- 
domen; and  by  the  lack  of  median  eyes.  There 
are  exceptions,  however,  to  all  these  characteris- 
tics, and  certain  forms  have  been  misplaced  even 
by  naturalists.  The  mouth-segments  have  become 
imited  to  form  a  beak  or  rostrum,  but  this  char- 
acter is  not  easily  recognized.  The  young  mite, 
on  hatching  from  the  egg,  is  not  provided  with 
eight  legs  as  are  other  arachnids,  but  with  only 
four  or  six,  except  in  the  case  of  Pteroptus.  In 
size  mites  vary  from  tiny  creatures,  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye,  to  certain  tropical  forms  fully 
half  an  inch  long. 

Typically,  mites  have  four  pairs  of  legs,  ar- 
ranged more  or  less  definitely  in  two  groups.  The 
two  hinder  pairs  are  apparently  attached  to  the 
abdomen,  while  the  anterior  pairs  are  close  to 
the  mouth -parts,  which  consist  of  mandibles  of 
varied  character,  palpi,  and  maxillse.  The  man- 
dibles are  typically  chelate,  but  in  several  fami- 
lies they  are  reduced  to  needle-like  piercing- 
organs.  In  the  case  of  certain  gamasid  mites  the 
mandibles  are  nearly  as  long  as  the  entire  animal, 
and  can  be  wholly  retracted  within  the  body,  or 
suddenly  extruded  to  seize  the  prey.  The  palpi 
are  of  four  kinds.  Simple,  filiform  palpi,  which 
have  a  tactile  function,  are  found  in  many  fami- 
lies. In  some  parasitic  forms  the  palpi  are  re- 
duced in  size  and  united  to  the  rostrum.  In 
many  predatory  mites  the  palpi  are  modified 
for   raptorial   organs.     In   some   of  the   water- 


^^ 


▲  MiTC  OR  BCD  BVMiKn  (Tetranycbna  bimacnJatua), 

mites  the  palpi  have  become  organs  for  holding 
the  mite  to  other  objects.  The  legs  of  mites  are 
composed  of  from  five  to  seven  segments,  and 
commonly  terminate  in  from  one  to  three  claws. 
In  many  genera  a  cup-shaped  sucking-disk  or 
ambulacrum  is  attached  to  the  tarsus  or  last 
segment.  The  reproductive  organs,  as  in  other 
arachnids,  open  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdo- 
men  near  its  base.  The  body  and  leo^s  are  more 
or  less  thickly  clothed  with  bristles,  hairs,  or 
scales,  which   are  of  characteristic  nature  and 


arrangement  in  each  species.  In  many  of  the 
soft-bodied  species  there  are  chitinous  plates  or 
shields,  sometimes  so  large  or  numerous  as  al- 
most completely  to  cover  the  mite.  In  the  ticks 
the  body  is  flat,  and  of  a  tough,  leathery  con- 
sistency. 

The  sense  organs  are  few  and  of  simple  nature. 
Many  mites  have  no  eyes,  but  in  some  there  are 
one  or  two  ocelli-like  spots  on  each  side  of  the 
cephalothorax.  A  few  families  have  what  are 
considered  organs  of  hearing.  With  the  ticks 
this  organ  is  a  membrane-covered  pit  in  the 
anterior  tarsi;  in  the  beetle-mites  it  is  a  pore 
on  the  posterior  margin  of  the  cephalothorax, 
from  which  arises  a  bristle.  The  sense  of  touch 
is  supposed  to  reside  in  some  of  the  hairs  of  the 
body  or  legs.  In  many  mites  there  is  a  consider- 
able difference  in  appearance  between  the  two 
sexes,  although  there  is  not  often  much  differ- 
ence in  size. 

Centralization  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of 
the  anatomy  of  mites.  The  various  organs  are 
more  crowded  together  than  in  other  arachnids. 
The  digestive  system,  when  complete,  consists  of 
the  pharynx,  or  sucking-organ,  the  oesophagus,  the 
ventriculus  or  stomach,  with  its  caeca,  the  hind- 
gut,  and  the  Malpighian  vessels.  The  oesophagus  is 
a  long,  simple  tul]«  extending  through  the  centre 
of  the  brain.  The  stomach  is  of  varied  size,  ac- 
cording to  food-habits;  in  some  forms  it  is  very 
small,  while  the  ceeca  are  nimierous  and  long. 
The  hindgut  or  intestine  is  a  short  tube  ending 
in  the  rectum.  The  Malpighian  vessels,  when 
present,  are  two  in  number,  and  enter  the  intes- 
tine near  its  end.  In  some  mites  there  is  a  well- 
developed  dorsal  pulsating  organ  or  heart,  but 
in  others  it  is  not  present.  The  nervous  system 
consists  of  one  ganglionic  mass  surrounding  the 
oesophagus,  from  which  all  the  principal  nerves 
arise.  Many  mites  have  an  elaborate  system  of 
tracheiB  by  which  they  breathe  and  which  open 
in  various  parts  of  the  body,  in  many  common 
species  near  the  mandibles,  but  in  the  ticks  and 
gamasids  they  open  by  stigmata  near  the  hind 
legs.  A  great  number  of  mites,  however,  have 
no  internal  respiratory  system  whatever.  In 
these  the  skin  is  soft  and  they  absorb  oxygen  by 
osmosis. 

Life  History.  Nearly  all  mites  deposit  eggs, 
frequently  of  large  size.  In  a  few  forms  the 
larvae  issue  from  the  parent,  but  in  some  cases 
it  is  rather  from  the  egg  within  the  body  of 
the  dead  mite.  In  many  cases  the  hard  external 
skin  or  chorion  of  the  egg  splits  into  halves  and 
exposes  the  lining  vitelline  membrane;  this  pwer- 
mits  the  maturing  egg  to  increase  in  size,  which 
is  then  called  a  *deutovum.'  The  young  larvae 
on  hatching  commonly  have  six  legs,  but  the  gall- 
mites  have  but  four.  During  the  nymphal  stage 
the  mite  feeds  imtil  it  attains  adult  size.  In 
many  cases  the  nymph  molts  directly  into  the 
adult  mite,  but  in  several  families  the  nymph 
often  transforms  into  a  creature  entirely  differ- 
ent from  both  the  nymph  and  the  adult — ^the 
hypopial  stage  or  *Hypopus,'  long  supposed  to  be 
a  distinct  genus  of  mites.  On  its  ventral  or 
under  surface  is  an  area  of  sucking-disks,  by 
which  the  Hypopus  attaches  itself  to  an  insect  or 
small  mammal,  and  is  transported  to  some  new 
and  suitable  locality,  where  it  falls  from  its 
carrier,  molts  into  an  octopod  nymph,  begins 
feeding,  and  in  due  time  becomes  an  adult  mite. 
The  Hypopus  is,  therefore,  not  a  parasite,  but  a 


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commensal,  making  use  of  the  carrier  onlj  for 
transportation;  and  in  certain  gamasids  (Uro- 
poda)  the  mite  in  this  migratorial  stage  is  at- 
tached by  a  thread  of  hardened  excrement  to  its 
host. 

In  some  families  (as  the  Trombidiids)  the 
larval  and  nymplial  stages  are  attached  to  vari- 
ous insects  and  feed  thereon,  while  the  adult  is 
free.  In  some  of  the  beetle-mites  the  nymph  car- 
ries on  its  back  old  molted  skins,  egg-shells,  and 
other  debris.  In  these  mites  there  is  a  consid- 
erable resting-period  while  the  nymph  is  chang- 
ing to  the  adult,  a  period  when  much  of  the 
internal  anatomy  is  entirely  changed ;  and  it  has 
been  observed  that  when  the  adult  emerges  its 
legs  are  not  withdrawn  from  the  legs  of  the 
nymph,  but  from  beneath  the  body.  In  the  bird- 
mites  there  is  a  transition- form  between  the 
nymph  and  the  adult  female,  known  as  the 
nymphal  female.  The  adult  male  mates  with 
this  nymphal  form,  and  when  the  real  adult 
emerges,  an  egg,  already  of  considerable  siie,  is 
seen  in  her  body.  Parthenogenesis  has  been  ob- 
served in  a  number  of  mites.  As  a  rule,  mites 
possess  no  special  accessory  sexual  organs,  com- 
parable to  those  of  spiders,  but  in  some  male 
gamasids  the  mandibles  carry  the  globule  of 
sperm  cells  and  insert  it  in  the  female  vulva.  In 
many  species  the  males  have  one  pair  of  legs 
enlarged  and  modified  to  act  as  claspers  for  hold- 
ing the  female.  The  eggs  are  usually  deposited 
singly,  but  many  gall-mites  and  harvest-mites 
place  them  in  clusters. 

Habits.  The  habits  of  mites  are  very  diverse. 
3lo8t  mites  ordinarily  move  quite  slowly  and  de- 
liberately; very  few  mites  are  fitted  for  leaping. 
The  spinning  mites  or  iittle  red  spiders'  (Te- 
tranychus)  produce  a  tiny  thread  wherever  they 
go,  the  accumulated  threads  of  many  individuals 
making  a  whitish  mesh  or  web.  More  than  one- 
half  of  the  known  mites  are  parasitic,  at  least 
during  part  of  their  life.  The  ticks  are  well 
known  to  infest  various  mammals,  birds,  and 
even  snakes  and  turtles.  They  have  mouth-parts 
especially  fitted  for  cutting  into  the  skin  of  the 
host  and  sucking  up  the  blood.  (See  Tick.) 
One  group  of  the  gamasids  is  parasitic  on  bats, 
birds,  and  small  mammals.  The  bird-mites  live 
upon  the  skin  and  feathers  of  birds,  but  as  they 
feed  upon  epidermal  scales  and  loose  bits  of 
feathers,  they  do  not  injure  their  hosts,  but  are 
rather  of  service  in  keeping  the  skin  and  feath- 
ers clean.  The  itch-mites  burrow  within  the 
skin  of  man  and  other  mammals.  Other  species 
live  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  birds.  A  few  occur 
in  the  tracheal  passages  of  seals,  and  one  has 
been  found  living  in  the  lung  of  a  monkey.  Many 
species  feed  on  living  plants,  and  the  gall-mites 
produce  deformations  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  of 
plants.  Since  these  gall-mites  are  invisible  to 
the  unaided  eye,  the  deformations  were  formerly 
supposed  to  be  fungi.  Many  of  the  beetle-mites 
feed  on  fungi,  lichens,  and  other  low  vegetation.  A 
large  number  of  mites  are  predaceous  and  attack 
other  mites  and  small  insects.  There  is  a  large 
family,  the  water-mites,  living  in  fresh  water, 
sometimes  as  commensals  within  the  gills  of 
bivalve  mollusks:  another  group  lives  in  the 
ocean,  even  at  a  considerable  depth.  In  recent 
years  investigators  have  found  a  number  of  mites 
associated  with  ants. 

Injuries.  The  injuries  caused  by  mites  are 
arranged  in  two  classes:    injuries  to  man  and 


domestic  animals,  and  injuries  to  cultivated 
plants  and  stored  food.  The  most  notable  of  the 
former  class  are  the  ticks.  The  famous  miana 
bug  of  Persia  is  a  tick  of  the  genus  Argas,  which 
inhabits  houses,  and  the  early  travelers  in  those 
regions  declared  that  its  bite  or  puncture  would 
produce  convulsions,  delirium,  and  even  death. 
Specimens  kept  in  Europe,  however,  have  proved 
to  be  comparatively  harmless.  The  moubata  bug 
of  Africa  is  a  similar  tick  with  a  similar  reputJi- 
tion.  An  allied  species,  the  chicken-tick  (Argas 
miniata)y  does  considerable  damage  to  poultry  in 
the  Southern  States.  The  cattle-tick  {BoophUus 
bovis)  is  the  most  injurious  of  all  mites,  as  it 
occurs  in  nearly  all  warm  countries,  and  is  the 
means  of  spreading  the  Texas  ur  Southern  cattle 
fever.  The  itch-mites  that  cause  a  disgusting 
scaling  of  the  skin  were  formerly  not  uncommon, 
but  modern  cleanliness  has  largely  abolished 
them  in  the  case  of  man.  A  species  known  as  the 
sheep  scab-mite  {Psoroptes  communis)  is  the 
cause  of  much  injury  to  sheep,  both  in  flesh  and 


CLOTEK  UTTB  {BrjobiM  prateBSis). 

wool.  The  red  spider  (Tetranychus)  is  a  peren- 
nial source  of  trouble  to  greenhouse  and  out- 
door plants,  while  the  *clover-mite'  is  a  pest 
of  fruit  trees  in  the  West,  and  a  related  form 
(Stigmseus)  injures  pineapples  in  Florida.  To 
the  family  of  cheese  or  flour  mites  (Tyro- 
glyphidae)  belong  a  number  of  injurious  species. 
The  true  cheese  or  flour  mites  (Tyroglyphus  and 
Aleurobius)  feed  on  a  great  variety  of  stored 
products:  cheese,  flour,  hams,  cereals,  drugs, 
seeds,  and  dried  fruits.  Although  they  are  very 
small,  they  multiply  so  rapidly  that  attacked 
materials  are  completely  overrun  with  them  in 
a  few  days.  Some  species  infest  mushrooms  and 
are  a  serious  hindrance  to  their  cultivation.  The 
bulb-mite,  or  eucharis-mite  (Rhizoglyphus),  bur- 
rows within  bulbs  and  the  roots  of  plants,  there- 
by giving  entrance  to  destructive  fungi ;  the  bulbs 
of  lilies  and  orchids  are  particularly  subject  to 
their  ravages.  A  few  species  of  gall-mites  are 
of  great  economic  importance,  especially  the  pear- 
leaf  blister-mite  {Eriophyea  pyri) ,  which  is  a 
notorious  enemy  of  pear  culture  in  the  United 
States.  Certain  species  of  Tarsonemidje,  living 
in  enormous  numbers  in  the  heads  of  grasses,  are 
ko\vn  to  cause  a  whitening  of  the  grass,  called 
'silver-top.' 

Comparatively  few  mites  are  beneficial  to  man. 
One  of  the  harvest-mites  is  known  to  destroy  the 
eggs  of  grasshoppers,  and  various  species  of 
Cheyletus  prey  on  the  flour-mites  and  other  in- 
jurious forms.  Several  species  have  been  found 
feeding  on  scale-insects. 

Classification.  The  mites,  formerly  all  kept 
in  one  family,  have,  in  recent  years,  been  divided 
into  from  ten  to  thirty  families,  according  to  the 
author.    The  leading  families  are  the  following: 


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TKLTB. 


681 


3UTHBAS. 


Trombidiidtt  and  Rhyncholophid«e,  or  harvest- 
mites;  many  of  large  size  and  bright  red  color. 

Eupodidte,  consisting  of  many  small,  soft- 
bodied  species  that  occur  on  moist  soil. 

Tetranychid«,  spinning  mites,  red-spiders,  and 
cloYer-mites. 

Bdellidc,  or  snouted  mites,  from  the  long,  pro- 
jecting mandibles;  predaceous. 

Cheyletids,  mites  with  stout,  spiny  palpi;  pre- 
daceous or  parasitic. 

Oribatidffi,  or  beetle-mites;  so  called  from  their 
hard  and  often  shining  bodies;  very  numerous, 
but  of  little  economic  importance. 

Cramasidse,  many  predaceous,  and  lurking  com- 
monly under  fallen  leaves  and  in  moist  places. 

Ixodidse,  or  ticks,  all  parasitic. 

Tarsonemids,  soft-bodied,  and  of  curious  struc- 
ture. 

Tyroglyphidse,  cheese  and  flour  mites,  soft- 
bodied  forms,  in  which  the  'Hypopus'  stage  is 
yery  common. 

Hydrachnidse,  or  fresh- water  mites;  and  Hala- 
caridse,  or  marine  mites. 

Sarcoptids,  or  itch-mites;  and  Analgesids,  or 
bird-mites. 

Eriophyidffi,  or  gall-mites,  remarkable  for  their 
minute  size,  tapering,  annulate  body,  and  pos- 
sessing only  four  legs. 

MITE,  Sir  ^Iatthew.  In  Foote's  play  The 
Nabob,  a  wealthy  and  dissolute  character,  who 
has  made  his  fortune  as  a  merchant  in  India, 
and  squanders  it  in  objectionable  ways  on  his 
return. 

mTTOBD,.  John  (1781-1859).  An  English 
author  and  divine,  born  at  Richmond,  in  Surrey, 
August  13,  1781.  He  graduated  B.A.  from  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  in  1804.  Five  years  later  he 
took  orders  in  the  English  Church;  and  in  1810 
he  received  from  Lord  Redeadale  the  vicarage 
of  Benhall  in  Sufl'olk.  A  few  years  later  he  ob- 
tained two  other  livings  in  the  same  shire.  At 
Benhall  he  built  a  parsonage,  collected  a  choice 
library,  and  amused  himself  in  gardening.  He 
took  permanent  lodging  in  London,  where  as 
time  went  on  he  came  to  live  for  most  of  the 
year.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Samuel 
Kogers,  of  Charles  Lamb,  and  of  other  literary 
men.  From  1834  to  1850  he  edited  the  O en  tie- 
man's  Magazine^  to  which  he  contributed  largely. 
He  died  at  Benhall,  April  27,  1859.  Mitford 
wrote  considerable  verse,  of  which  may  be  cited 
Agnes,  the  Indian  Captive,  a  poem  in  four  cantos 
(1811),  and  Miscellaneous  Poems,  a  selection 
from  his  fugitive  pieces  (1858).  For  the  Aldine 
edition  of  the  English  poets  he  contributed  eleven 
memoirs.  His  host  critical  work  was  on  Gray, 
found  in  The  Works  of  Thomas  Gray  ( 1816),  and 
in  the  Aldine  edition  (5  vols.,  18.35-43).  His  re- 
searches have  been  very  freely  used  by  succeeding 
editors.  Mitford  left  three  volumes  of  manu- 
script on  Gray  and  a  lar^je  mass  of  other  manu- 
script, nuioh  of  which  is  now  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum  and  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum. 

ICITFOKD,  Mary  RrssELL  (1787-1855).  An 
English  authoress,  bom  at  Alresford,  Hampshire, 
December  16,  1787.  In  1797  she  drew  £20,000 
in  a  lottery,  with  a  part  of  whicli  her  father 
built  a  house  at  Reading.  She  was  sent  to  a 
good  Tvondon  school  for  a  short  time  ( 1798-1802) , 
and  then  returned  to  her  father's  house.  At  this 
time  she  was  reading  extensively.     In  1810  she 


published  Miscellaneous  Poems,  which  were  im- 
mediately followed  by  other  volumes  (1811-12- 
13).  The  family,  reduced  to  poverty  as  a  result 
of  the  father's  improvidence,  moved  in  1820  to 
a  ^laborer's  cottage*  at  Three  Mile  Cross,  a  vil- 
lage near  Heading.  For  a  living  she  now  began 
writing  for  the  magazines  and  the  stage.  Among 
her  plays  (tragedies),  which  were  moderately 
successful,  are  JuUan  (1823),  Fosoari  (1826), 
and  Rienzi  (1828).  In  the  meantime  she  had 
taken  to  writing  sketches  of  village  life  as  she 
had  observed  it.  They  were  published  (5  vols^ 
1824-32)  in  installments,  under  the  title  Our  Vil- 
lage. These  descriptive  pieces  possess  charm, 
grace,  and  humor  akin  to  Jane  Austen's.  They 
were  followed  by  the  more  regular  novel  ot 
country  life,  Belford  Regis  (1835),  and,  after  a 
long  interval,  by  Atkerton  and  Other  Tales 
(1854).  In  1851  Miss  Mitford  removed  to  a 
near-by  cottage  at  Swallowfield,  where  she  died, 
January  10,  1855.  Consult  her  delightful  Recol- 
lections (London,  1852)  ;  Our  Village,  with 
introduction  by  Mrs.  A.  T.  Ritchie  (Londoo, 
1893)  ;  L'Estrange,  L4fe  of  Mary  Russell  Mitford 
(ib.,  1870)  ;  and  The  Friendships  of  Mary  Russell 
Mitford   (ib.,   1882). 

MITFOBI),  William  (1744-1827).  An  Eng- 
lish historian,  bom  in  London.  He  studied  at 
(Jueen's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1769  became  a 
captain  in  the  South  Hampshire  militia.  He 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Gibbon,  then  a  fellow- 
offioer,  by  whose  advice  and  encouragement  he 
was  induced  to  undertake  his  celebrated  History 
of  Greece.  The  first  volume  of  this  work  ap- 
peared in  1784,  and  the  last  in  1810.  He  was 
three  times  elected  to  Parliament,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  history  at  the  Royal  Academy. 
He  also  wrote  An  Essay  on  the  Harmony  of  Lan- 
guage (1774),  and  several  minor  works. 

MITH^AN'.  The  name  of  the  gayal  (q.v.), 
among  the  Indo-CJhinese  tribes  west  of  the  Baj 
of  Bengal. 

MITfl^AB  {Gk.Wepa^,AT.  Mi$ra,&ki.Milra, 
friend).  One  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  an- 
cient Persian  religion.  The  god  seems  to  have 
been  known  to  the  Indo-Iranians  before  their 
separation,  as  he  appears  in  both  A  vesta  and 
Veda.  He  is  a  god  of  light,  invoked  in  company 
with  the  heaven  (Ahura  and  Varuna),  and  is 
the  guardian  of  truth  and  the  enemy  of  all 
falsehood.  In  India  this  deity  seems  to  have  boen 
early  superseded,  but  in  Persia  be  retained  his 
place  as  one  of  the  chief  gods.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered verj-  doubtful  whether  the  god  was  bor- 
rowed from  the  early  Babylonians  at  a  date  long 
before  our  knowledge  begins,  more  especially  as 
in  the  earlier  texts  ^lithras  is  not  the  sun,  but 
the  light  of  heaven.  In  the  Zoroastrian  religion 
he  is  one  of  the  Yazata  or  spirits  of  the  second 
rank,  thoujjh  even  here  he  occupies  a  high  posi- 
tion, seeing  and  knowing  everything,  a  being 
whom  it  is  impossible  to  deceive  and  in  constant 
conflict  with  the  powers  of  darkness,  so  that  he 
becomes  a  warrior  pod,  who  is  the  chief  helper 
of  Ahura-Mazda  in  his  struggle  with  Ahrlman. 
In  tlie  Old  Persian  inscriptions,  it  should  be  said, 
he  is  invoked  bv  the  Aohff»menidfe  nlon*^  with 
Ahura-Mazda  and  Anahita,  and  his  festival  (on 
the  IGth  day  of  the  7th  month)  was  one  of  the 
solemn  fu net  ions  of  the  State  relisrion.  Honored 
by  the  numerous  princes  who  built  up  small 
principalities  throughout  Western  Asia  after  the 


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MITHBAS. 


682 


MITUL 


division  of  Alexander's  kingdom,  the  god  was 
a  prominent  divinity  in  Cilicia,  Cappadocia,  and 
Commagene,  though  practically  unknown  in  the 
Greek  world.  From  these  regions  his  worship 
came  to  the  West  through  the  Romans,  although 
it  is  not  mentioned  by  contemporary  writers  till 
the  first  century  of  our  era,  and  the  earliest 
Latin  inscriptions  belong  to  the  early  second 
century.  The  cult  with  its  mysteries  was  popu- 
lar in  the  army  and  quickly  spread  over  the 
whole  Roman  world,  as  its  monuments  in  all  the 
frontier  provinces  plainly  show.  The  nature  of 
the  religion  is  obscure,  as  the  sacred  writings 
have  perished  and  information  must  be  drawn 
either  from  the  writings  of  Christian  adver- 
saries or  from  the  representations  in  the  numer- 
ous places  of  worship.  It  seems  clear  that  the 
basis  of  the  cult  was  derived  from  the  Mazdean 
worship,  but  with  a  considerable  mixture  of 
Chaldsean  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
Mithras  seems  to  have  owed  his  prominence  to 
the  belief  that  he  was  the  source  of  all  life,  and 
could  also  redeem  the  souls  of  the  dead  and 
bring  them  into  the  better  world.  This  worship 
was  celebrated  in  underground  chambers  of  small 
size,  to  which  only  those  who  belonged  to  the 
higher  degrees  were  admitted,  and  was  probably 
conducted  according  to  elaborate  ritual  pre- 
scriptions. The  ceremonies  included  a  sort  of 
baptism  to  remove  sins,  anointing,  and  a  sacred 
meal  of  bread  and  water,  while  a  consecrated 
wine  believed  to  possess  wonderful  power  played 
a  prominent  part.  The  mysteries  contained  seven 
degrees,  of  which  the  first  three  seem  to  have  been 
probationary  and  not  to  have  admitted  to  the 
sacred  ceremonies.  The  degrees  are  given  in 
this  ordeT:  (1)  Coraw  or  Raven;  (2)  Oryphus 
or  Griffin;  (3)  Miles  or  Soldier;  (4)  Leo  or 
Lion;  (5)  Persea  or  Persian;  (6)  Heliodromoa 
or  Courier  of  the  Sun;  (7)  Patrea  or  Fathers, 
who  were  at  the  head  of  the  cult,  and  whose 
chief  was  the  Pater  patrum.  The  other  initiates 
called  themselves  brethren  {fratrea).  Women 
seem  to  have  been  excluded  from  the  rites.  The 
nature  of  the  initiation  is  not  known.  The  un- 
doubted similarity  in  much  of  this  worship  with 
the  new  religion  of  Christianity  seems  only. to 
have  made  the  battle  between  the  rivals  bitterer, 
and  with  the  triumph  of  Christianity  began  the 
destruction  of  the  Mithras  worship,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century  it  seems  to  have  been 
practically  extinct  in  the  West.  Consult:  Cu- 
mont,  Textea  et  monumenta  figur^a  relatifa  auw 
myaUrea  de  Mithraa  (Brussels,  1894-99)  ;  id.,  Lea 
myst^rea  de  Mithraa  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1902)  ;  id., 
in  The  Open  Court  (Chicago,  November,  1902). 

MITHBIDATES,  mith'ri-dft'tez  (also  Mith- 
radatea,  from  OPers.  MiOra,  the  sun-god  -f  data, 
given,  p.  p.  of  da-,  to  give) .  An  old  Persian  name, 
common  throughout  the  East,  borne  by  several 
kings  of  Pontus.  The  most  celebrated  of  them 
and  the  greatest  of  the  rulers  of  Pontus  was 
Mithridates  VI.,  sumamed  Eupator  and  Diony- 
sua,  but  commonly  called  Mithridates  the  Great. 
He  was  born  at  Sinope  about  B.C.  134,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Mithridates  V.,  about  B.C.  121. 
At  the  age  of  about  twenty  he  took  the  reins  of 
government  into  his  own  hands.  Little  that  is 
certain  is  known  of  the  early  part  of  his  reign. 
He  soon  subdued  the  tribes  alon^  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Euxine  as  far  as  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
nese and  incorporated  the  Kingdom  of  Bosporus; 


he  then  prepared  to  extend  his  conquests  south  of 
the  Euxine,  and  invaded  Cappadocia  and  Bithy- 
nia.  Here  he  encountered  the  Romans.  He  waged 
three  wars  with  them,  known  as  the  First,  Sec- 
ond, and  Third  Mithridatic  Wars — the  First,  B.C. 
88-84;  the  Second,  B.c.  83-82;  the  Third,  B.C.  74- 
65.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  First  Mithridatic 
War  was  the  invasion  of  the  territories  of  Mith- 
ridates by  Nicomedtts,  King  of  Bithynia,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  Romans.  Mithridates  quickly 
compelled  Nicomedes  to  withdraw,  but  was  in  the 
end  defeated  by  the  Roman  general  Flavins  Fim- 
bria, while  his  general  Archelaus  was  defeated  in 
Greece  by  Sulla.  It  was  in  the  course  of  this  war 
that  Mithridates  issued  an  order  to  all  the  cities 
of  Asia  to  put  to  death,  on  the  same  day,  all 
the  Roman  and  Italian  citizens  who  were  to  be 
found  within  their  walls.  Eighty  thousand 
Romans  and  Italians  are  said  to  have  perished 
in  this  massacre.  As  a  result  of  the  First  Mith- 
ridatic War,  Mithridates  consented  to  abandon 
all  his  conquests  in  Asia,  to  pay  a  sum  of  2000 
talents,  ana  to  surrender  to  the  Romans  a  fleet 
of  seventy  ships.  The  Second  Mithridatic  War 
was  due  to  the  invasion  of  Mithridates's  do- 
minions by  the  Roman  general  Murena.  The 
war  was  m  the  main  favorable  to  Mithridates, 
but  was  short-lived,  Murena  being  soon  ordered 
by  Sulla  to  withdraw.  In  B.C.  74  Nicomedes  III., 
King  of  Bithynia,  died,  leaving  his  dominions  by 
will  to  the  Romans.  Mithridates  claimed  that 
Nicomedes  had  left  a  legitimate  son,  and  at  once 
prepared  to  assert  the  latter*?  right.  The  Third 
Mithridatic  War  ensued.  At  first  alone,  and 
then  supported  by  his  son-in-law,  Tigranes,  King 
of  Armenia,  Mithridates  successfully  opposed 
the  Roman  forces  under  Lucullus,  but  in  b.c. 
66  the  conduct  of  the  war  was  intrusted  to 
Pompey.  Mithridates  was  then  obliged  to  re- 
treat beyond  the  Euxine,  where,  besieged  by  his 
son,  Phamaces,  who  had  rebelled  against  hira 
and  had  been  proclaimed  King,  he  took  his 
own  life  at  Panticapaeum  in  b.c.  63.  Mithri- 
dates was  a  specimen  of  the  true  Eastern  despot, 
but  he  possessed  great  ability  and  extraordi- 
nary energy  and  perseverance.  His  want  of  suc- 
cess was  owing  not  to  his  defects  as  a  general, 
but  to  the  impossibility  of  raising  and  train- 
ing an  army  capable  of  coping  with  the  Roman 
legions.  He  had  received  a  Greek  education  at 
Sinope,  could  speak  more  than  tiventy  different 
languages,  and  had  a  taste  and  appreciation  for 
art  and  science.  He  owned  a  magnificent  collec- 
tion of  pictures,  statues,  and  engraved  gems.  In 
the  estimation  of  the  Romans,  he  was  the  most 
formidable  opponent  they  had  ever  encountered. 
Consult  Reinach,  Mithridate  Eupator  (Paris, 
1890). 

XITLA,  mS'tlA,  or  MICTLAN.  A  small  town 
situated  thirty  miles  east  of  the  city  of  Oaxaca, 
in  Southern  Mexico.  It  is  notable  as  being  the 
site  of  one  of  the  most  famous  and  remarkable 
groups  of  American  ruins.  The  surroundings  are 
mountainous  and  inclose  a  wide,  fertile  valley, 
in  which,  near  the  banks  of  a  stream,  are  located 
the  ancient  buildings  still  in  a  good  state  of  pres- 
ervation. They  consist  of  five  great  clusters 
which  have  been  termed:  (1)  the  group  of  the 
Curacy;  (2)  the  Columns;  (3)  the  Arroyo;  (4) 
the  Adobe;  and  (5)  the  South  Side;  in  all  oc- 
cupying an  area  of  about  2000  feet  in  width. 
Other  foundations  of  razed  buildings  exist 
in    the   vicinity    and    at    some    distance  away^ 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MITLA. 


683 


MITOSIS. 


on  an  isolated  hill,  are  the  remains  of  a 
fort. 

The  buildings,  which  are  worthy  of  the  name 
of  temples  or  palaces,  are  massive,  rectangular 
structures  of  dressed  stone,  set  on  platforms,  and 
erected  with  surprising  accuracy.  The  stones 
are  laid  with  such  precision  that  the  joints  are 
scarcely  discernible,  and  for  this  reason  little 
mortar  was  required.  The  ground  plan  is  simple 
and  the  rooms  are,  as  a  rule,  long  and  narrow, 
while  the  walls  are  but  one  story  in  height.  The 
grouping  of  the  buildings  is  in  the  form  of  qiiad- 
rangles. 

'Hie  walls  are  faced  with  dressed  stone  or  plas- 
ter. Mosaic  stonework  is  used  lavishly,  the  de- 
signs being  frets,  and  geometric  designs.  The 
exterior  walls  have  no  openings,  but  the  door- 
ways, either  single  or  triple,  on  the  courts  are 
imposing  in  their  massive  treatment.  Supports 
were  worked  out  in  the  jambs.  The  rooms  were 
ceiled  with  beams  of  wood  or  slabs  of  stone.  In 
case  the  room  was  wide,  two  sets  of  beams  were 
used,  supported  on  a  row  of  large  stone  columns, 
some  of  which  are  16  feet  high  and  36  inches  in 
diameter.  The  roofs  were  massive  and  flat,  and 
probably  constructed  of  beams,  cross  poles,  and 
filling  material  of  brush,  capped  with  rammed 
clay,  similar  to  the  method  employed  by  the 
Pueblo  Indians  of  the  Southwestern  United 
States.  The  floors  were  made  of  a  durable  ce- 
ment. On  the  whole,  the  Mitia  buildings,  while 
formal  in  plan  and  profile,  show  perfect  and 
charming  mosaic  surface  decoration,  arranged  in 
panels  which  exhibit  great  fertility  of  geometric 
design,  as  well  as  skill  in  execution.  In  the 
Curacy  and  Arroyo  groups  mural  paintings  re- 
sembling the  pictographs  of  the  codices  were  em- 
ployed on  the  lintels.  A  noteworthy  feature  is 
that  sculpture  is  almost  lacking  in  these 
buildings. 

Two  of  the  palaces  have  a  basement  story,  and 
this  cellar  is  cruciform.  Several  of  these  cruci- 
form structures  have  been  discovered  in  and  near 
Mitla,  but  nowhere  else  in  Mexico  have  they  been 
observed,  except  at  Chila  in  Puobla.  It  is  sur- 
mised that  they  were  sepulchres  of  important 
personages.  The  character  of  the  Mitla  masonry 
IS  also  seen  in  the  interesting  fortified  hill  situ- 
ated about  one  mile  west  of  the  village.  In  loca- 
tion, massiveness  of  construction  and  skill  in 
plan  it  ranks  with  the  ancient  fortifications  of 
Peru.  Piles  of  rounded  stones  on  the  walls  in- 
dicate that  the  fort  was  defended  by  slingers. 
The  quarries  from  which  the  ancient  Mitlans 
secured  their  materials  have  been  discovered. 
The  blocks  were  obtained  by  channeling  with 
stone  picks  and  hammers  the  full  length  of  the 
stones  and  across  the  ends;  then  channels  were 
cut  down  the  sides  and  under  the  blocks  until 
they  could  be  broken  off.  Enormous  stones  in 
all  stages  of  the  work  still  remain  in  the  quarry. 
Pottery  of  excellent  design  and  finish  has  been 
found.  Painted  pottery  is  uncommon  here.  Fan- 
shaped  implements,  a  few  celts  of  copper  and 
gold  bells  and  beads  have  been  found  in  the 
tombs.  A  remarkable  cruciform  tomb  has  been 
found  by  Saville  five  miles  from  Mitla.  East- 
ward lie  the  ruins  of  extensive  and  elaborate 
buildings  ascribed  to  the  Mayas.  These  ruins 
are  mainly  of  stone,  but  there  are  evidences  of 
adobe  buildings,  and  some  mounds  probably  sup- 
ported wooden  structures.  The  large  buildings 
were  probably  for  religious  purposes,  but  their 


exact  use  has  not  been  determined  by  the  re- 
searches yet  made. 

Consult  Chamay,  CitSs  et  mines  amMcainea 
(Paris,  1863)  ;  Bandelier,  Archceological  Tour  in 
Mexico  in  1881  (Boston,  1884);  Seler,  Wand- 
malereien  von  Mitla  (Berlin,  1895);  Holmes, 
ArchcBological  fitndies  Among  the  Ancient  Cities 
of  Mexico,  in  "Publications  of  the  Field  Colum- 
bian Museum"  (Chi^go,  1897);  and  Saville, 
Cruciform  Structures  Near  MitUi^  in  "Bulletin  of 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  xiii. 
(New  York,  1900). 

MITO,  me'tA,  or  MYTHO.  A  town  of  Cochin- 
China,  situated  on  an  arm  of  the  Mekong,  about 
45  miles  southwest  of  Saigon,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail  (Map:  French  Indo-China,  E 
5 ) .  It  has  a  college  and  a  hospital  and  is  on  the 
trade  route  between  Cambodia  and  Annam.  Popu- 
lation, about  27,000. 

MITOSIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fihoc,  mitos, 
thread).  The  phenomena  accompanying  the  di- 
vision of  the  nucleus  of  cells,  a  term  proposed  by 
Fleming  in  1882  and  superseding  'karyokinesis.' 
In  cell -division  the  seat  of  the  changes  is  the 
nucleus,  in  which  portion  of  the  cell  the  processes 
of  cell-division  originate.  After  the  nucleus  sub- 
divides the  entire  cell  divides  into  halves,  form- 
ing two  new  cells.  Mitosis  occurs  not  only  in 
the  division  of  cells  during  growth,  but  the 
nucleus  subdivides,  forming  the  first  steps  in 
reproduction  or  fertilization  of  all  organisms. 
When  the  nucleus  is  about  to  divide,  the  chro- 
matic granules  forming  part  of  the  nuclear  sub- 
stance, and  previously  scattered  throughout  the 
central  mass  of  the  nucleus,  become  arranged 
in  a  row,  forming  a  long  thread,  which  extends 


8TAOB8  IN  MITOSIS. 

1,  Preparatory  to  division  ;  2,  early  stage  in  separation 
of  chroinosomeH;  3,  later  stage  in  separation;  4,  form- 
ation of  daughter  nuclei  at  poles,  and  of  wall  at  equator 
of  spindle.  • 

through  the  nucleus  in  an  irregular  spiral 
(spireme)  and  then  divides  into  portions 
(^chromosomes')  of  fairly  equal  length.  The 
chromosomes  are  shaped  like  long  loops,  which 
afterwards  become  shortened,  thus  giving  rise  to 
short  loops,  straight  rods,  or  rounded  granules. 
As  a  rule  the  number  of  chromosomes  is  constant 
for  each  species  of  plant  or  animal,  and  also  for 


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larosuL 


684 


XITBX. 


Bocoessive  series  of  cells  during  growth.  By  the 
time  the  process  has  reached  this  stage  a  special 
mechanism  appears,  which  has  till  now  remained 
concealed  in  the  cell-substance.  This  serves  to 
divide  the  chromatin  elements  into  two  equal 
parts,  to  separate  the  resulting  halves  from  one 
another,  and  to  arrange  them  in  a  regular  man- 
ner. At  the  opposite  i)ole8  of  the  longitudinal 
axis  of  the  nucleus  two  clear  bodies — the  'cen- 
trosomes,'  each  surroimded  by  a  clear  zone,  the 
so-called  'sphere  of  attraction* — now  become  visi- 
ble. These  were  first  discovered  by  Fol,  by  Van 
Beneden,  and  also  by  Boveri,  who  recognized  their 
importance.  They  appear  to  possess  a  great 
power  of  attraction  over  the  vital  particles  of  the 
cell,  so  that  these  become  arrange<l  around  them 
like  a  series  of  rays.  At  a  certain  stage  in  the 
preparation  for  division,  the  substance  of  the  cell- 
body  and  of  the  nucleus  gives  rise  to  delicate 
fibres  or  threads;  these  fibres  are  motile,  and, 
after  the  disappearance  of  the  nuclear  mem- 
brane, seize  the  <mromosomes  with  wonderful  cer- 
tainty and  regularity,  and  in  such  a  way  that 
each  element  is  held  on  either  side  by  several 
threads  from  each  pole.  The  chromatin  elements 
thus  immediately  become  arranged  in  a  fixed  and 
regular  manner,  so  as  to  lie  in  the  equatorial 
plane  of  the  nucleus.  The  centrosomes  and 
threads  or  astral  fibres  {aster)  called  the  *spin- 
dle'  together  form  the  *amphiaster.'  The  chro- 
matin elements  next  split  longitudinally,  thus 
becoming  doubled,  as  discovered  by  Fleming.  This 
splitting  is  completed  by  the  two  halves  being 
gradually  drawn  farther  apart  toward  the  op- 
posite poles  of  the  nuclear  spindle,  until  they 
finally  approach  the  centre  of  attraction  or  con- 
trosome,  which  has  now  fulfilled  its  object  for  the 
present,  and  retires  into  the  obscurity  of  the  cell- 
substance,  only  to  become  active  again  at  the 
next  cell  division.  Each  separate  half  of  the 
nucleus  now  constitutes  a  daughter  nucleus  in 
which  the  chromatin  breaks  up,  and  is  scattered 
in  minute  granules  in  the  nuclear  network.  The 
body  of  the  cell  then  divides,  'showing  two  new 
cells.  Roux  has  pointed  out  that  the  whole  com- 
plex but  wonderfully  exact  apparatus  for  the 
division  of  the  nucleus  exists  for  the  purpose  of 
dividing  the  chromatin  substance  in  a  fixed  and 
regular  manner,  not  merely  quantitatively,  but 
also  in  respect  of  the  different  qualities  which 
must  be  contained  in  it.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  chromatin  particles  or  chromosomes  are 
believed  to  be  bearers  of  heredity.  The  mechan- 
ism of  mitosis  is  thus  far  unknown.  The  prob- 
lem may  be  solved,  as  Wilson  states,  through 
chemical  research. 

Amitosis.  Mitosis  is  the  indirect  division  of 
the  nucleus:  where  the  nucleus  elongates  and  di- 
rectly divides  through  its  total  mass  the  process 
is  called  'amitosis.'  This  appears  to  occur  ex- 
cept ion.'illy.  but  is  known  to  take  place  in  amceba, 
in  leucocytes,  and  lias  been  observed  in  the 
sperm-cells  and  eg*?s  of  batrachians  and  some  in- 
sects; but  more  commonly  in  patholoiiictil  tissues. 

Bibliography.  Fleming,  Zellsuhsfnuz,  Kern 
iA7id  Zclltcilung  (Leipzij;,  1882)  ;  Roux,  Vchvr 
die  Bcdculung  der  Kcrntcihmgsfigurvn  (Leipzig, 
1883)  ;  OesammiJte  Ahhandlungvn  iiher  Ent- 
vichlungsmcchanik  der  OrganusDicn  (I^'ipzig, 
1895)  ;  Weismann,  The  Oerm  Phism  (New  York, 
1893)  ;  Wilson,  The  Cell  in  Development  and  In- 
heritance (New  York,  2d  ed.,  IDnO).  8<v  Cell; 
Embkyology;   AIecuanics  of  Development. 


KITBA  ( Skt.,  friend ) .  A  Vedic  Hindu  deity. 
He  is  mentioned  most  frequently  in  company  with 
Varuna  (q.v.),  with  whom  in  the  Veda  his  at- 
tributes blend.  Although  he  seems  to  have  been 
a  god  of  importance  in  the  Indo- Iranian  religion, 
he  lost  his  rank  early  in  the  Indian  period,  and 
was  not  recognized  after  tlie  Vedic  age.  His 
Iranian  counterpart,  Mithras  (q.v.),  however, 
was  one  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  pre-Zoroastrian 
religion,  where  he  represented  the  sun. 

MITBAILLEUSE,  m^'tr&'yez^  (Fr.  mitnOlle- 
firer,  from  mitrailler,  to  fire  mitraille,  from  mi- 
tradlle,  bits  of  grape-shot,  from  OF.  mitaiUcy  frag- 
ments, from  mite,  small  bit;  ultimately  connected 
with  Goth,  tnaitan,  to  eut).  A  machine  run,  in 
which  is  combined  a  number  of  rifie  barrels,  with 
breech-action  mechanism,  and  designed  to  dis- 
charge small  missiles  with  great  rapidity.  It  was 
invented  in  Belgium,  and  adopted  by  the  French 
a  little  before  the  war  with  Germany  in  1870. 
See  Machini  Gcns. 

XITBAL   VALVS.     See   Heabt;   CncuLiL- 

TION. 

MITBE  (OF.,  Fr.  mitre,  from  Lat.  mitra, 
from  Gk.  filrpa,  mitre,  fillet,  belt ;  probably  ulti- 
mately of  Oriental  origin ) .  The  head-dress  worn 
in  solemn  functions  by  bishops  and  some  abbots. 
The  ornament  is  probably  of  Eastern  origin,  al- 
though the  head-dress  of  Eastern  prelates  at  the 
present  day  is  quite  different,  being  a  large  round 
cap,  something  like  a  crown.  The  Western  mitre 
is  a  tall,  tongue-shaped  cap,  terminating  in  a  two- 
fold point,  supposed  to  symbolize  the  *cloven 
tongues  as  of  fire*  in  which  the  Holy  Spirit  de- 
scended upon  the  Apostles;  two  flaps  or  stream- 
ers fall  from  it  behind  over  the  shoulders.  Opin- 
ion is  much  divided  as  to  the  date  at  which  the 
mitre  first  came  into  use.  Eusebius,  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  Epiphanius,  and  others  speak  of  an 
ornamented  hea!d-dress  worn  in  the  Church;  but 
there  is  no  very  earlv  pk?torial  representation 
which  exhibits  any  head-oovering  at  all  resembling 
the  modem  mitre.  From  the  tenth  century,  how- 
ever, it  is  undoubtedly  found  in  use,  although  not 
at  first  universally.  At  the  Reformation  the  mitre 
was  practically  discarded  as  a  part  of  the  epis- 
copal costume  in  England,  though  there  are 
traces  of  its  survival  in  isolated  instances;  and 
the  first  Bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Cimreh  in 
America,  Seabury,  occasionally  wore  one.  In  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  practice 
was  revived  with  increasing  frequency  in  the 
Anglican  Communion.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
ritual  three  kinds  of  mitres  are  distinguished: 
mitra  prciioaa,  richly  ornamented  with  jewels, 
gold,  and  silver;  mitra  auriphrygiata,  of  goW 
brocade  with  embroidery;  and  mitra  simplex,  of 
white  silk  or  linen  damask,  with  scarcely  any 
decoration,  which  is  worn  when  black  vestjnents 
are  used.     See  Costume,  Ecclesla^stical. 

MITBE,  me'trA,  BARTOLOMt  (1821-1906).  An 
Argentine  statesman,  bom  at  Buenos  Ayres.  To 
eseaj)e  the  despotism  of  the  Dictator  Rosas,  be 
lied  to  Montevideo.  In  1846  he  emigrated  to 
Ii*)Iivia,  where  he  was  appointed  chief  of  staff  to 
President  Ballivian,  and  director  of  the  military 
college.  Ui)on  the  overthrow  of  Ballivian  (1847) 
he  was  banished  to  Peru,  and  thence  went  to 
Chile.  In  1851  he  joined  Urquiza  in  the  upris- 
inj^  aiiainst  Rosas,  and  in  1852  commanded  the 
revolutionary  artillery  at  the  battle  of  Monte 
Caseros,  in  which  Rosas  was  overthrown.   Elected 


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MITTEBMAIEBw 


Deputy  to  the  Assembly  of  Buenos  Ayres,  he 
atrongly  opposed  the  administration  of  Urquiza, 
who  was  now  at  the  head  of  the  Argentine  Confed- 
•eration.  When  subsequently  Buenos  Ayres  had  set 
up  an  independent  government,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  war  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces.  He  was  defeated  by  Urquiza  at  Cepeda  in 
1859,  and  Buenbk  Ayres  was  forced  to  rejoin  the 
Confederation.  In  1861  war  again  broke  out, 
«nd  Urquiza  was  defeated  by  Mitre  at  Pavon. 
A  constituent  congress  was  then  assembled, 
the  present  Constitution  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public was  adopted,  and  under  it  Mitre  was 
-choeen  President  for  six  years.  By  his  care  im- 
portant internal  improvements  were  promoted 
and  foreign  immigration  was  encouraged.  When 
in  1865  war  was  declared  against  the  Republic 
by  the  Paraguayan  Dictator  Lopez,  Mitre  ef- 
fected an  alliance  with  Brazil  and  Uruguay,  and 
•commanded  the  united  armies  until  1867.  In 
1874,  having  failed  as  a  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
•dency,  he  headed  an  ineffectual  revolt.  He 
founded  at  Buenos  Ayres  the  newspaper  La 
Ncuiidn,  which  he  long  edited;  published  a 
volume  of  verse,  Ritnas  y  poeaiaa  (1879),  and 
wrote  two  valuable  historical  works,  the  Historia 
-de  Belgrano  { 1857 )  and  Historia  de  San  Martin 
(1869). 

MITBE,  The.  A  former  London  tavern,  the 
favorite  meeting-place  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson, 
Boswell,  and  other  celebrities.  It  stood  on  Fleet 
Street,  and  other  well-knoi^Ti  taverns  of  the 
same  name  were  situated  on  Wood  Street  and 
Fenchurch  Street,  both  destroyed  in  the  great 
£re  of  1666. 

MITBE  SHELI*.  A  gastropod  of  the  genus 
Hitra,  family  Mitridae.  The  shells  are  very  beau- 
tiful and  much  prized  by  collectors,  the  favorite 
being  the  *bishop*s  mitre'  {Mitra  episcopalis) . 
The  shell  is  turreted,  smooth,  white,  spotted  with 
bright  red;  pillar,  four-plaited;  outer  lip  den- 
ticulated at  its  lower  part ;  epidermis  thin.  It  is 
found  in  East  Indian  seas.  In  this  genus  the 
shell  is  fusiform,  thick;  spire  elevated,  acute; 
aperture  small,  notched  in  front;  columella  ob- 
liquely plaited;  operculum  very  small.  The  ani- 
mal has  a  very  long  proboscis,  and  when  irri- 
tated emits  a  purple  liquid  having  a  very  of- 
fensive smell.  Over  400  recent  and  100  fossil 
species  have  been  described.  These  mollusks  are 
found  at  depths  varying  from  the  surface  to  17 
fathoms,  on  reefs,  sandy  mud,  and  sands.  All 
are  inhabitants  of  warm  countries,  notably  the 
£ast  Indian  and  Philippine  regions. 

MITBOWITZ,  mit'rd-vits,  or  Mitbovicza.  A 
town  of  Southern  Hungary,  in  the  Comitate  of 
Szerem,  situated  on  the  Save,  40  miles  west  of 
Belgrade.  It  has  a  high  school,  considerable 
trade  in  grain  and  wine,  and  contains  ruins  of 
the  old  Roman  city  of  Sirmiutn.  Population,  in 
1900.  11,518, 

MITSCHEBLICH,  mlt'shgr-llK,  Etlhabd 
(1794-1863).  A  distinguished  German  chemist, 
bom  at  Neuende,  near  Jever.  In  1811  he  pro- 
<;eeded  to  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  where, 
as  well  as  at  Paris  and  G5ttingen,  he  devoted 
himself  to  history,  philology,  Oriental  languages, 
and  the  natural  sciences  and  medicine.  After- 
wards he  turned  his  attention  to  chemistry,  and 
while  working  \mder  Link  at  Berlin  he  first  ob- 
served the  similarity  in  the  crystalline  form  of 
those  phosphates  and  arsenates  similar  in  chemi- 

VOL.  XIII.— 41. 


cal  composition.  He  then  set  to  work  meastur- 
ing  crystals  of  a  large  number  of  substances, 
and  was  able  to  establish,  about  1820,  the 
principle  of  isomorphism.  The  importance  of 
the  discovery  was  fully  recognized  by  £[erzeliu8, 
on  whose  invitation  Mitscherlich  went  to  Stock- 
holm, remaining  there  until  1821,  when  on  the 
death  of  Klaproth  he  was  appointed  to  the  va- 
cant chair  of  chemistry  at  Berlin.  One  of  his 
earliest  discoveries  after  his  appointment  was 
that  of  the  double  crystalline  form  of  sulphur, 
the  first  observed  case  of  dimorphism.  He  fur- 
ther discovered  selenic  and  permanganic  acids 
and  nitro-benzene ;  studied  the  formation  of 
ethers,  the  phenomena  of  fermentation,  etc.  His 
principal  work  is  his  Lehrbuch  der  Chemie, 
begun  in  1829  (ed.  4,  Berlin,  1842-47).  His 
papers  on  various  scientific  topics  appeared  in 
Poggendorff's  Annalen,  in  the  Annalea  de  chimie 
et  de  physique,  and  in  the  Ahhandlungen  of  the 
Academy  of  Berlin.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  at  Berlin  in  1896.  Mitscher- 
lich was  an  honorary  member  of  almost  all  the 
great  scientific  societies,  and  received  the  gold 
medal  from  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  his 
discovery  of  the  law  of  isomorphism.  Consult 
Rose,  Eilhard  Mitscherlich  (Berlin,  1864).  See 
S.UEMISTR1,  section  on  History,  paragraph  Oen- 
eral  Chemistry. 

HITTAGKLEPFLEB,  mlt'tig-l6fl6r,  Magnus 
GosTA,  Baron  von  (1846 — ).  A  Swedish  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Stockholm.  He  studied  mathe- 
matics at  Upsala  and  later  under  Weierstrass 
at  Berlin.  He  began  his  teaching  as  tutor  at 
Upsala  in  1872,  and  five  years  later  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Helsingfors.  In  1881 
he  was  made  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
University  of  Stockholm,  and  subsequently  was 
several  times  its  rector.  He  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Sweden  in 
1883.  His  mathematical  contributions  are  con- 
nected chiefly  with  the  theory  of  functions.  In 
1882,  under  the  patronage  of  King  Oscar,  he 
founded  the  Acta  Mathematica,  at  present  one 
of  the  leading  mathematical  journals  of  the 
world.  The  historical  part  of  this  journal  has 
since  1887  been  published  separately  by  Enes- 
trdm  as  the  Bihliotheca  Mathematica.  It  was 
Mittag-Leffler's  appreciation  of  Sonya  Kovalev- 
sky's  (q.v.)  work  that  took  her  to  Stockholm. 

MITTEBMAIEB,  mlt^t^r-mfgr,  Kabl  Jo- 
seph Anton  (1787-1867).  A  German  jurist; 
bom  in  Munich,  and  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Landeshut  and  Heidelberg.  He  was  a 
professor  at  Bonn  for  two  years,  1819-21;  but  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  passed  as  professor  of  law 
and  jurisprudence  at  Heidelberg.  For  many 
years  he  was  a  member  of  the  Baden  Legislature, 
and  in  1848  he  was  president  of  the  Frankfort 
Vorparlament,  serving  afterwards  as  representa- 
tive of  the  city  of  Baden  in  the  German  Na- 
tional Assembly.  His  greatest  claim  to  dis- 
tinction lies  in  his  extensive  writings  on  juris- 
prudence, among  which  is  a  complete  manual  of 
criminal  law.  Das  deutsche  Strafverfahren,  and 
he  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  reform  in  the 
Grerman  criminal  procedure  and  in  prison  disci- 
pline. The  number  of  his  published  writings  is 
very  large,  including  many  treatises  on  branches 
of  law,  discussions  on  all  the  important  ques- 
tions of  his  time  connected  with  jurisprudence, 
and  especially  on  trial  by  jury  and  the  poial 


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code.  His  principal  works  have  been  translated 
into  many  languages.  He  himself  translated 
Francis  Lieber's  Letter  on  Anglican  and  Oallican 
Liberty,  and  edited  the  German  translation  of 
the  same  author's  Civil  Liberty. 

MITTBBWTTBZEB,  mlt'tgr-v^rts'gr,  Anton 
(1818-76).  A  German  opera  singer,  one  of  the 
greatest  barytone  interpreters  of  the  works  of 
Glucky  Marschner,  and  Wagner.  He  was  bom  at 
Sterzing  in  the  Tyrol;  made  his  first  theatrical 
appearance  at  Innsbruck,  and  at  twenty-one  was 
engaged  at  Dresden,  where  he  stayed  for  thirty 
years,  and  greatly  influenced  operatic  methods. 
Mitterwurzer  was  at  his  best  in  such  Wagnerian 
rOles  as  Wolfram,  Telramund,  and  Hans  Sachs. 

MITTIMUS  (Lat.,  we  send).  A  written  war- 
rant or  mandate  issued  by  a  competent  judicial 
officer,  directing  a  proper  officer  to  convey  safely 
the  body  of  a  prisoner  to  some  jail  or  place  of 
confinement,  and  commanding  the  warden  to  re- 
ceive and  keep  the  prisoner  for  a  certain  time, 
or  until  released  by  due  process  of  law.  The 
act  of  sending  the  prisoner  to  prison  is  termed 
the  commitment,  and  this  latter  term  is  now 
more  commonly  employed  to  describe  the  war- 
rant also.  Any  officer  who  disobeys  such  a  com- 
mand is  guilty  of  contempt  of  court.  See  Com- 
mitment; Arrest. 

MITTTJ,  mIt'ttRJ.  An  agricultural  Negro 
tribe,  akin  to  the  Bongo,  and  living  on  the  Upper 
Nile  in  Southern  Sudan.  They  are  of  earthy  red- 
bro^vn  color,  and  below  the  middle  stature,  but 
muscular.  The  hair  is  short  and  crisp.  The 
lighter  color  of  the  skin  would  indicate  a  type 
of  Hamite  blood;  but  they  are  all  pagans,  like 
the  other  negroes  about  them,  and  little  affected 
by  Mohammedanism.  Goats,  fowls,  and  dogs 
are  their  domestic  animals.  At  certain  seasons 
of  the  year  they  are  engaged  in  hunting  and 
fishing.  The  costume  of  the  Mittu  consists  only 
of  a  iringed  apron;  but  they  are  fond  of  deco- 
rating their  hair  and  parts  of  the  body,  such 
as  the  neck,  arms,  and  lips,  with  ornaments. 
Their  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  with  jagged, 
murderous  points.     They  call  their  land  Moro. 

MITTWEIDA,  mltM-dft.  An  industrial  town 
of  Saxony,  Germany,  situated  on  the  Zschopau, 
about  30  miles  west-southwest  of  Dresden  (Map: 
Germany,  E  3).  It  has  important  manufactures 
of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  machinery,  and  fur- 
niture. Its  educational  institutions  include  a 
realschule  and  a  technical  school.  Population 
(including  ROssgen),  in  1900,  16,119;  in  1905, 
17,498,  chiefly  Protestants. 

MITYLENE,  mlt'I-lg'n^.  An  island  of  the 
iEgean.    See  Lesbos. 

MIVABT,  mi'vert,  St.  George  Jackson 
(1827-1900).  An  English  zoologist,  bom  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  educated  first  at  Harrow,  then  at 
King's  College,  London,  and  then,  having  become 
a  Catholic  in  1844,  at  Saint  Mary's  College,  Os- 
cott.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851,  but 
in  1862  he  became  lecturer  on  comparative  anat- 
omy and  zor>logy  at  Saint  Mary's  Hospital,  Lon- 
don, and  held  the  chair  of  biology  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  University  College,  Kensington,  during 
its  short  career  (1874-77).  From  1890  to  1893 
he  was  professor  of  the  philosophy  of  natural 
history  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  Belgium. 
He  was  a  most  careful  and  competent  anatomist 
and  zoologist,  and  wrote  a  large  number  of  very 


important  memoirs,  especially  upon  the  morphol- 
o^  and  classification  of  vertebrates,  and  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  discussion  of  the  question 
of  evolution.  He  was  probably  the  most  learned 
and  powerful  critic  of  Darwin  and  Huxley  in 
minimizing  the  effect  of  natural  selection  as  a 
factor  of  evolution,  and  in  insisting  upon  the  ex- 
istence of  the  guiding  action  of  *divine  power,  es- 
pecially in  the  development  of  man's  intellect  and 
spiritual  instinct.  He  distinguished,  however, 
between  absolute  and  directive  creation,  main- 
taining that  evolution  operated  only  by  means 
of  the  latter.  His  strength  lay  in  natural 
science,  and  in  this  department  he  held 
a  position  of  unquestioned  eminence.  His 
efforts  to  reconcile  the  facts  of  science 
with  the  doctrines  of  religion  aroused  wide- 
spread attention.  In  this  field  he  published  a 
number  of  works,  such  as  Lessons  from  Nature 
CLS  Manifested  in  Mind  and  Matter  (1876)  ;  .Va- 
ture  and  Thought  (1882);  On  Truth  (1889); 
and  The  Qroundwork  of  Science:  A  Study  of 
Epistemology  (1898).  He  claimed  an  increasing 
freedom  of  thought  which  ultimately  took  him 
beyond  what  were  considered  in  the  Church  the 
bounds  of  permissible  speculation,  and  after  a 
series  of  magazine  articles  dealing  with  the  rela- 
tions between  science  and  faith  which  ran 
through  the  years  1885-1900,  he  was  finally  ex- 
communicated by  Cardinal  Vaughan  in  January, 
1900.  He  died  April  1st  of  the  same  year.  His 
more  important  works  in  natural  science  are: 
The  Genesis  of  Species  (1871)  ;  Man  and  Ape$ 
(1873);  The  Common  Frog  (1874);  The  Cat 
( 1881 )  ;  Dogs,  Jackals,  Wolves,  and  Foxes  (1890). 

MIXED  CADENCE  (in  music).  The  pecu- 
liar closing  strains  of  a  melodv,  formed  by  the  sac- 
cession  of  the  subdominant,  <lominant,  and  tonic 
chords.  It  is  the  most  frequently  used  of  any  of 
the  cadences.    See  Harmony  (Cadence). 

MIXED  BACES.  Races  which  are  blends  of 
various  other  races.  Of  the  factors  which  have 
been  most  potent  in  producing  the  varieties  of 
man  which  we  find  on  earth  to-day,  probably  en- 
vironment and  cross-breeding  must  be  assigned 
the  first  place.  Unfortunately,  neither  one  has  been 
investigated  with  sufficient  care  to  allow  an  accu- 
rate estimate  of  its  specific  infiuence.  Further, 
the  lack  of  any  agreement  among  anthropologista 
as  to  a  classification  of  human  races  complicates 
the  problem,  and  until  that  agreement  is  reached, 
confusion  in  the  discussion  is  inevitable. 

Certain  general  observations  may,  however,  be 
permitted.  With  regard  to  cross-breeding,  it  is 
undoubted  that  extensive  migrations,  with  conse- 
quent blood  mixtures,  have  been  going  on  for  an 
indefiniter  period.  Accurate  observation  of  ana- 
tomical and  physiological  characteristics  of  ce^ 
tain  rather  restricted  groups,  as  in  Europe,  re- 
veals a  variability  in  these  characters  which  has 
led  some  observers  to  conclude  that  a  pure  race 
does  not  exist  at  the  present  time.  Recognizing 
these  disturbing  facts,  however,  any  one  will  ad- 
mit that  there  are  certain  types  which  are  rela- 
tively permanent.  We  regard  the  fair  white 
European  as  differing  permanently  from  the  Ne- 
gro, and  both  of  these  equally  permanently  from 
the  typical  Mongol.  It  is  also  a  matter  of  com- 
mon observation  that  mixture  of  any  two  of 
these  types  will  produce  a  third,  less  distinctive, 
of  course,  but  not  to  be  included  in  either  parent 
type.    The  real  problem  of  hybridity  as  applied 


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to  man  then  arises:  Are  these  subtypes  perma- 
nent and  fertile,  or  do  they  tend  to  revert  to 
either  one  or  the  other  of  the  parent  types?  It 
is  here  that  the  lack  of  accurate  knowledge  re- 
ferred to  above  prevents  positive  statement.  Early 
reports  as  to  lack  of  fertility  of  certain  half- 
breeds,  as  in  the  case  of  English  and  Australians, 
have  been  shown  upon  examination  to  be  errone- 
ous or  the  apparent  sterility  due  to  non-essential 
factors;  and  recent  observations  on  half-breed 
American  Indians  actually  show  an  increase 
rather  than  a  decrease  in  fertility.  Looking  at 
the  question  broadly,  it  would  seem  that  the  evi- 
dence, while  extremely  scanty,  points  toward  the 
view  that  any  two  races  (however  defined)  can 
unite  to  form  a  third;  and  this  in  turn  with 
others,  until  we  have  a  confusion  of  strains  and 
types  in  which  the  originals  are  indistinguishable, 
wholly  or  partly,  which  is  apparently  precisely 
the  condition  which  we  find  to-day  in  various  re- 
gions of  the  world.  An  authoritative  catalogue 
of  the  existing  mixed  races  of  the  world  is  there- 
fore impossible.  The  most  notable  are  probably 
the  well-known  Mulatto,  or  cross  between  Euro- 
pean and  Negro,  the  Mestizo,  so  called,  or  cross 
between  European  and  American  Indian,  and  the 
complex  mixtures  which  we  find  in  the  East  In- 
dian Archipelago,  where  Chinese  and  Malayan 
traits  predominate. 

The  social  significance  of  race  mixture  is  of 
course  very  great,  but  the  complicating  factors 
in  this  aspect  of  the  question  are  even  greater 
than  on  the  physical  side.  We  find  here  two 
schools  ardently  advocating  diametrically  op- 
posed views  both  as  to  the  advantages  or  disad- 
vantages of  racial  mixtures,  as  well  as  to  the 
mode  of  transmission  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  parent  stocks.  The  whole  problem  is  involved 
in  the  general  zoological  problem  of  evolution 
and  heredity,  and  unassailable  ground  as  to  the 
points  involved  cannot  be  assumed  until  a  much 
wider  range  of  facts  is  at  our  disposal  and  the 
disputed  questions  of  inheritance  in  general  have 
more  nearly  approached  solution. 

mXES.  See  Zoque. 

HIXOCKAMT  (from  Gk.  /u^,  miwo-,  mixed, 
from  fuypdvou,  mignynai,  to  mix  +  ydfun,  ga- 
mo8y  marriage) .  A  term  describing  the  breeding 
habits  of  most  fishes,  where  the  males  and  fe- 
males congregate  on  the  spawning-beds,  and  the 
number  of  the  former  sex  is  greatly  in  excess. 
The  same  habit  has  been  observed  in  gars  (Lepi- 
dosteus).  On  the  other  hand,  the  stickleback 
(Gasterosteus)  is  truly  polygamous,  several  fe- 
males depositing  their  eggs  in  the  same  nest, 
guarded  by  one  male  only.  Some  bony  fishes 
(Ophiocephalus,  and  probably  all  chondroptery- 
gians)  are  monogamous,  as  probably  are  all  the 
viviparous  fishes.  Consult  Gfinther,  An  Introduce 
tUm  to  the  Study  of  Fishes  (London,  1880). 

HIXTEC,  or  ICISTEO,  m*-st6k'.  An  impor- 
tant tribe  of  high  native  culture  occupying  the 
coast  region  of  Guerrero,  Mexico,  from  Acapulco 
southward  into  Oaxaca,  and  inland  to  beyond  the 
border  of  Puebla.  With  their  southern  neigh- 
bors, the  Zapotec  (q.v.),  they  constitute  the 
Zapotecan  linguistic  stock.  Like  them,  they 
were  skilled  and  industrious  in  agriculture  and 
the  simpler  arts,  built  cities  and  temples  of 
hewn  stone,  preserved  their  rituals  and  traditions 
in  hieroglyphic  records,  and  had  a  calendar 
system  resembling  that  of  the  Aztec  tribes.  They 


still  occupy  much  of  their  original  territory, 
and  continue  to  keep  themselves  as  far  as  pos- 
sible apart  from  the  political  affairs  of  Mexico 
and  to  maintain  their  ancient  reputation  for 
weaving  and  pottery. 

mXTTTBE  (OF.,  Fr.  mixture^  from  Lat.  mis- 
turd  J  mixture,  from  miscere,  to  mix).  An  aque- 
ous preparation  of  an  insoluble  substance  held 
in  suspension  by  a  suitable  vehicle.  Among  the 
mixtures  used  in  medicine  are  those  of  chalk,  of 
rhubarb  and  soda,  and  the  compound  mixtures 
of  iron  and  of  glycerin. 

MIXTTTBE.  An  organ  stop,  consisting  of 
from  three  to  six  ranks  of  small  metallic  pipes. 
It  is  generally  found  in  large  organs,  and  re- 
sembles the  sesquialtera  and  furniture  stops, 
except  that  it  is  much  higher  and  shriller.  Like 
other  compound  stops,  the  two  smaller  ranks  of 
the  mixture  stop  change  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  organ  scale  into  an  octave  lower.  This  is 
necessitated  from  the  fact  that  the  pipes  in  their 
upper  ranks  would  produce  too  small  a  volume 
of  soimd.  The  mixture  can  be  used  only  in  forte 
and  fortissimo  passages,  as  otherwise  the  har- 
monics would  be  heard  too  prominently. 

HIYA,  m^jk  (Jap.,  august  house).  A  term 
sometimes  applied  to  the  mansions  of  Japanese 
princes,  but  more  commonly  denoting  the 
shrines  of  the  Shinto  religion.  These  buildings 
represent  the  ancient  cabins  of  the  primitive 
Japanese  modified  by  the  progress  of  civilization 
and  by  Buddhistic  influence.  The  earth  floor 
of  the  hut  is  replaced  by  wooden  flooring  raised 
two  or  three  feet  from  the  ground,  necessitating 
steps  at  the  entrance.  A  veranda  going  com- 
pletely round  the  edifice  has  been  added.  The 
sides  of  the  hut  were  made  of  mats,  but  the 
shrine  has  walls  of  wood.  The  roofs  were  origi- 
nally thatched,  but  are  now  covered  with  shin- 
gles, tiles,  or  even  copper.  In  many  shrines 
Buddhist  influence  has  led  to  much  decoration, 
but  the^  characteristic  of  the  true  miya  is  ex- 
treme simplicity.  It  contains  neither  picture, 
image,  nor  altar,  but  only  a  mirror,  or  in  some 
instances  a  *pillow*  for  the  god.  Before  the 
shrines  is  the  'tori-i*  (supposed  to  signify  'bird- 
rest'),  which  is  sometimes  taken  for  a  gate- 
way by  tourists.  Often  many  of  them  are  placed 
before  a  single  shrine.  From  a  cord  which  hangs 
above  the  entrance  are  suspended  'go-hei,'  paper 
cuttings,  representative  of  the  offerings  of  cloth 
which  were  made  in  ancient  times.  Services  are 
infrequent,  usually  not  oftener  than  once  a  year, 
and  in  some  shrines  there  are  no  ceremonies. 
193,476  miya  are  registered,  most  of  them  tiny 
constructions  and  only  a  few  of  wide  reputation. 
The  shrines  are  divided  into  four  classes:  na- 
tional, provincial,  prefectural,  and  local,  and  a 
few  are  supported  in  meagre  fashion  by  funds 
from  the  Imperial  treasury. 

HIYAdZU,  m^yUd'zti.  The  most  important 
town  of  the  Japanese  Province  of  Tango  in  that 
part  of  Hondo  known  as  San-in-do,  87  miles 
northwest  of  Kioto.  It  was  the  residence  in  feu- 
dal times  of  Matsudaira,  one  of  the  three  daimios 
who  ruled  the  province.  Population,  about  10,- 
000.  In  the  vicinity,  near  Ama-no-hashidate,  or 
'Heaven's  Bridge,'  is  a  narrow  tongue  of  land 
which  juts  out  into  the  sea  in  a  way  much  ad- 
mired by  the  Japanese. 

HIYAJIMA,  me-ytt'jg-mA  (temple  island), 
sometimes  called  Itsttkushuca.    A  small,  beau* 


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tifully  wooded  island  in  the  Bay  of  Hiroshima, 
Japan,  celebrated  as  the  site  of  one  of  the  most 
ancient  Shinto  shrines  of  the  country.  The 
temple  is  dedicated  to  the  goddess  Ben  ten,  wor- 
shiped by  women  for  attractiveness  and  by  men 
for  wealth.  It  was  built  in  the  year  627.  The 
island  is  also  notable  for  its  deer,  and  the 
absence  of  dogs.  Priests,  imaffe-carvers,  fisher- 
men«  and  inn-keepers  make  up  the  population. 

lOYAKOy  mA-ytt'kA.  Another  name  for  Kioto, 
a  city  of  Japan. 

MIZON,  m6'«0N^  Louis  Albxaitdbe  Antoine 
(1853-99).  A  i^'rench  naval  officer  and  explorer 
in  Africa.  He  was  bom  in  Paris ;  studied  at  the 
Naval  School  (1869-72),  and  in  1877  was  sent 
out  to  accompany  Brazza  on  his  expedition  to  the 
region  of  the  Ogowai  River.  He  was  stationcNd 
at  Franceville  for  six  years,  and  in  1886  he  pub- 
lished charts  of  the  Ogowai.  Four  years  after- 
wards he  was  sent  to  Adamawa,  where  he  pro- 
moted French  commercial  interests  in  the  Niger 
coimtry  and  greatly  irritated  Great  Britain.  The 
latter  power  in  1893,  after  Mizon  had  made  a 
treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  Hamarua,  declared 
Hamarua  a  British  protectorate,  and  forced 
Mizon's  recall.  In  1895  he  was  made  French 
resident  at  Majunga  in  Madagascar.  He  died  in 
1899  as  Governor  of  the  colony  at  Jibuti  in 
French  Somaliland. 

mZ^AH^  or  UIZ^EH  (Heb.,  watch,  out- 
look). The  name  of  several  places  in  Palestine, 
of  which  the  most  important  are :  ( 1 )  The  heap 
of  stones  and  pillar  set  up  by  Jacob  and  his 
brethren  as  a  witness  of  the  covenant  between 
Jacob  and  Laban.  It  was  also  called  Galeed  by 
Jacob,  and  Jegar-sahadutha  by  Laban  (Gen. 
xxxi.  44-49),  the  latter^  being  the  Western  Ara- 
maic rendering  of  the  Hebrew  gaWed  (*heap  of 
testimony*).  The  narrative  points  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  sanctuary  in  Galeed  which  was  known  as 
Mizpah.  The  pillar  and  the  heap  of  stones  are  to 
be  regarded  as  objects  for  the  cult — the  former 
a  Baal  symbol,  the  latter  a  boundary  stone, 
serving  also  as  an  altar.  It  was  at  this  sanctuary 
that  Israel  was  encamped  before  the  conflict  with 
the  Ammonites  (Judges  x.  17),  which,  as  Gen. 
xxxi.  25  informs  us,  lay  in  Gilead  (upon  which 
Gal-ed  represents  a  play ) .  The  indications  in  the 
Old  Testament  are  insufficient  for  determining 
the  site  of  the  place  with  certainty.  It  lay  north 
of  the  Jabbok,  and  perhaps  near  the  modem 
Jerash,  which  answers  the  conditions  involved. 
(2)  The  place  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin 
where  Israel  gathered  before  punishing  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  for  their  outrage  on  the  concubine 
of  the  Levite  at  Gibeah  (Judges  xix.-xx.),  and 
probably  also  the  place  where  Samuel  assembled 
Israel  to  resist  the  Philistines  and  subsequently 
to  present  Saul  as  King  (I.  Sam.  x.  17  sqq.), 
though  it  is  also  possible  that  the  two  places 
may  be  distinct.  The  location  is  not  certain. 
It  may  be  a  point  on  the  mountain  ridge  north  of 
Shafat.  These  gatherings  again  indicate  the 
presence  of  a  sanctuary  at  Mizpah,  and  the  con- 
tinued importance  of  the  place  is  made  manifest 
b^  its  choice  as  a  seat  of  govemment  under  Geda- 
liah  (II.  Kings  xxv.  23;  Jer.  xl.  6).  In  post- 
exilic  times  we  meet  with  references  to  Mizpah, 
and  it  is  of  special  interest  to  note  that  in  the 
days  of  the  Maccabees  Mizpah  again  becomes  a 
gathering-place  for  the  Jews  (I.  Mace.  iii.  46). 
loesides  these  two  Mizpahs  there  are  references 


in  the  Old  Testament  (a)  to  the  land  of  Mizpah 
(Josh.  xi.  3)  and  the  valley  of  Mizpah  (ib.,  xL 
8),  which  are  identical.  This  Mizpah  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  battle  of  Merom 
(q.v.),  and  may  be  located  near  Hermon.  A 
fourth  Mizpah  was  situated  in  the  'lowland'  of 
Judea  (Josh.  xv.  38),  and  a  fifth  in  Moab  (L 
Sam.  xxii.  3 ) .  The  use  of  Mizpah  as  an  inscrip- 
tion for  memorial  rings  is  based  upon  the  words 
occurring  in  connection  with  the  setting  up  of 
the  'heap'  of  stones  by  Jacob  and  his  brethren: 
"The  Lord  watch  between  me  and  thee"  (Gen. 
xxxi.  49). 

MIZZEN,  or  MIZEir.    See  Mast. 

MJiiSEN,  my^^zen.  The  largest  lake  in  Nor- 
way, situated  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  valleys 
of  the  country,  36  miles  northeast  of  Christiania 
(Map:  Norway,  D  6).  Its  length  is  62  miles, 
its  width  averages  only  two,  and  nowhere  ex- 
ceeds 10  miles.  It  receives  the  Laugen  River  at 
Lillehammer  and  empties  its  waters  through  the 
Vormen  into  the  Glommen.  Its  depth  is  remark- 
able, reaching  in  the  southern  part  1460  feet,  its 
bottom  being  here  1050  feet  below  sea-level.  The 
vicinity  of  the  lake  is  very  popular  as  a  summer 
resort,  and  steamers  ply  on  it  regularly  during 
the  ice-free  season,  which  in  the  southern  part, 
on  account  of  its  great  depth,  sometimes  lasts 
throughout  the  year. 

MNEMONICS,  n^mOn'iks.    See  Mekobt. 

MNEMOSYNEy  nft-mOs^-nA  (Lat,  from  Gk. 
^vtf/iociwj).  In  classical  mythology,  the  goddess 
of  memory,  daughter  of  Uranus  and  Gaia.  By 
Zeus  she  became  the  mother  of  the  Muses  (q.v.). 
See  Greek  Religion. 

MNESICIaES,  nds^-kl^  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
UvifffiK^i^,  MnSsikl^s) .  A  Greek  architect,  who 
built  the  Propylsea  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens. 
His  name  was  found  on  an  inscription  in  its 
ruins,  and  Plutarch  mentions  him  as  its  archi- 
tect. 

MO^A  (Maori  name).  A  general  name  for  a 
family  (Dinomithidse)  of  extinct  ratite  birds  of 
New  Zealand,  some  of  which  were  of  gigantic  pro- 
portions. The  existence  of  their  remains,  and  of 
legends  among  the  Maoris  relating  to  them,  was 
first  published  in  1838.  The  exploration  of  New 
Zealand  revealed  bones  of  these  birds  in  great 
profusion,  on  the  surface,  in  peat  bogs,  in  sea- 
side sand-dunes,  and  in  certain  caves  where  the 
dry  air  had  in  some  cases  preserved  not  only  the 
ligaments,  binding  skeletal  parts  together,  but 
even  pieces  of  dried  skin  and  feathers,  which 
still  retained  their  chestnut  and  white  colors, 
while  footprints  and  broken  egg-shells  have  also 
been  found.  Prehistoric  camping-grounds  fur- 
nish charred  bones  and  fragments  of  egg-shells. 

The  moas  form  a  family  more  nearly  associated 
in  structure  with  the  emus,  cassowaries,  and 
kiwis  than  with  the  ostriches.  They  were  in  or- 
ganization nearest  to  the  kiwis  (Apteryx),  but 
distinguished  by  their  short  beaks  and  by  haying 
after-shafts  upon  the  feathers.  They  attained 
not  only  to  great  numbers  and  size  in  the  isola- 
tion of  New  Zealand,  but  to  a  remarkable  variety, 
some  twenty  species  being  now  recognizable. 
Some  were  not  larger  than  turkeys,  and  these 
perhaps  may  have  had  some  vesUges  of  wing- 
bones  ;  but  the  longer  moas  were  not  only  wing- 
less, but  entirely  destitute  of  any  shoulder-girdle 
whatever.    In  Canterbury  College,  Christchurch, 


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XOABITE  STONE. 


South  Island,  New  Zealand,  the  Museum  con- 
tains a  Moa-room,  in  which  stands  two  splendid 
specimens  of  the  Dinomia  mawimuSt  twelve  feet 
tnree  inches  high,  as  well  as  other  specimens 
raninng  from  the  size  of  a  small  emu  to  that  of 
a  giraffe.  That  the  moa,  although  now  extinct, 
existed  at  one  time  in  very  considerable  numbers 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  a  search  ex- 
pedition by  Dr.  von  Haast  in  the  year  1866  ob- 
tained enough  bones  of  this  gigantic  bird  to  fill 
an  immense  wagon.  For  a  long  time — ^indeed 
until  very  recently — it  was  believed  that  living 
specimens  of  the  moa  might  still  be  discovered  in 
that  almost  inaccessible  mountainous  region  on 
the  southwest  and  westernmost  coasts  of  Otago, 
where  even  the  Maori,  in  all  probability,  never 
penetrated.  The  expedition  of  Herr  Reischek, 
the  Austrian  naturalist,  who  spent  several  months 
of  the  years  1887  and  1888  in  that  solitary  coun- 
try, pretty  well  dissipated  this  hope.  In  the 
genus  Pachyomis,  the  leg  bones  were  short, 
massive  and  extremely  powerful,  so  that  these 
are  called  the  "elephant- footed"  moas.  Consult: 
Owens,  Extinct  Birds  of  New  Zealand  (London, 
1879)  ;  Newton,  Dictionary  of  Birds  (New  York, 
1893-96) ;  and  Lucas,  Animals  of  the  Fast  (New 
York,  1901 ) .  See  iGPYOBNis ;  Extinct  Animals  ; 
Extinction  of  Species. 

MO^AB.  The  name  given  to  a  people  occupy- 
ing the  high  table-land  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  southern  section  of  the  Jordan.  The  southern 
boundary  was  Edom,  the  eastern,  Ammon  and  the 
desert;  the  northern  boundary  shifted  from  time 
to  time,  but  in  general  was  marked  by  a  line 
some  miles  l)eyond  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  This  land  of  Moab  is  a  plateau  about 
3000  feet  above  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
western  slopes  are  generally  steep  and  the  aspect 
of  the  Moabite  Mountains  rising  to  the  plateau  is 
barren.  It  has  streams  in  abundance;  besides 
the  Amon,  which  divides  the  plateau,  springs  and 
brooks  intersect  the  country.  Numerous  ruins 
testify  to  the  former  prosperity  of  the  district, 
while  the  hundreds  of  rude  stone  monuments 
(stone-circles,  dolmens,  cairns),  show  that  it  was 
densely  settled  in  very  early  days.  According  to 
the  biblical  account,  Moab,  the  eponymous  an- 
cestor of  the  Moabites,  was  a  son  of  Lot  by  one 
of  his  daughters  (G«i.  xix.  37).  This  story, 
which  traces  both  Moab  and  Ammon  to  an  inces- 
tuous connection,  may  be  a  bit  of  tribal  slander 
by  Hebrew  writers  to  throw  discredit  on  their 
hated  rivals  and  foes.  ( See  Lot.  )  The  close  affil- 
iation, however,  between  Hebrews  and  Moabites, 
which  is  indicated  by  the  story,  is  correct.  Not 
only  was  the  language  of  Moab  practically  iden- 
tical with  Hebrew,  but  Moabites  and  Hebrews  be- 
long to  the  same  branch  of  the  Semitic  stock,  and 
for  an  indefinite  period  Hebrew  and  Moabitish 
history  form  an  inseparable  unit.  The  story  of 
the  separation  of  Abraham  and  Lot  embodies  a 
reminiscence  of  a  union  once  existing  between 
Hebrew  and  Moabitish  clans  which  was  dissolved 
by  a  quarrel  over  land.  The  land  of  Moab 
was  included  in  the  Egyptian  supremacy  over 
Western  Asia  in  the  period  from  the  seven- 
teenth to  tlie  thirteenth  century  B.C.,  and 
the  name  Moab  occurs  in  a  list  of  conquests 
inscribed  by  Rameses  II.  (c.1300  B.o.)  on 
one  of  his  monuments  at  Luxor.  The  rela- 
tions between  Moab  and  Israel  during  the  por- 
tion of  Hebrew  history  known  to  us  were  gen- 


erally hostile,  and  this  hostility  is  traced  back 
by  tradition  to  the  days  of  the  Exodus  (cf.  Deut. 
xxiii.  4-6),  but  the  oldest  dociunent  we  have  re- 
garding Moab  is  a  fragment  of  a  song  (Num. 
xxi.  21-30),  recalling  a  victory  of  the  Ammonites 
over  Moab  and  the  subsequent  defeat  of  the  Am- 
monites by  the  Hebrews.  The  song,  which  bears 
marks  of  antiquity,  may  date  from  the  early 
struggles  of  the  Hebrews,  anterior  to  the  at- 
tempts of  the  latter  to  conquer  Canaan  to  the 
west  of  the  Jordan.  On  the  other  hand,  the  story 
of  the  endeavor  of  Balak,  King  of  Moab,  to  secure 
the  services  of  Balaam  to  curse  Israel  (Num. 
xxii.-xxiv.)  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  Midrash 
based  upon  the  persistent  hostility  between 
Israel  and  Moab  and  illustrating  the  invincible 
character  of  the  former.  Coming  to  a  period  for 
which  the  historical  traditions  are  less  uncertain, 
we  find  that  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  the 
Hebrews  were  frequently  at  the  mercy  of  the  Mo- 
abites, as  well  as  of  Ammonites  and  Amalekites. 
We  learn  of  a  King  Eglon  of  Moab,  who  held  the 
Hebrews  in  subjection  for  eighteen  years  (Judges 
iii.),  from  which  they  were  freed  by  Ehud,  a 
Benjamite.  Saul  appears  to  have  held  the  Moab- 
ites in  check,  while  under  David  they  actually 
became  tributary  to  the  Hebrews;  and  this  con- 
dition continued  after  the  separation  of  the  South- 
em  Hebrews  until  the  days  of  Ahab,  when  Moab 
began  to  resist  and  finally,  on  the  death  of  Ahab, 
threw  off  the  yoke.  This  happened  during  the  reign 
of  King  Mesha,  who  describes  his  victories  over 
Israel  on  the  monument  known  as  the  Moabite 
Stone  (q.v.).  When  the  advance  of  the  Assyrian 
power  threatened  the  independence  of  the  various 
Palestinian  principalities,  we  find  the  Moabites 
occasionally  m  alliance  with  the  Hebrews  against 
the  common  foe,  but  subsequently  we  find  them 
on  the  side  of  Babylonia  and  abetting  the  de* 
struction  of  the  Southern  Hebrew  kingdom.  Moab 
was  saved  from  extinction,  but  of  course  became 
tributary  to  Babylonia.  In  post-exilic  sections  of 
the  Books  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  we  find  refer- 
ences to  Moab  which  point  to  the  continued  ex- 
istence and  in  a  measure  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try, but  otherwise  throw  no  light  upon  its  his- 
tory. The  name  lingered  on  into  the  Christian 
era.  During  the  Roman  occupancy  of  Palestine 
the  land  of  Moab  was  still  densely  inhabited^  as 
the  Roman  and  Greek  remains  show,  but  gradu- 
ally the  Arabs  of  the  desert  overran  it,  and 
what  culture  once  existed  there  came  to  an  end. 
It  remained  for  modem  travelers  like  Seetzen  and 
Burckhardt  to  rediscover  it,  but  it  is  still 
one  of  those  districts  of  Palestine  in  which 
it  is  dangerous  to  travel.  The  chief  god  of  the 
Moabites  was  Chemosh  (q.v.)  and  their  religion, 
so  far  as  we  know  it,  bore  the  characteristic 
marks  of  early  Semitic  cults.  Consult:  Robert- 
son Smith,  Religion  of  the  Semites,  pp.  376  and 
460  (Edinburgh,  1894)  ;  Tristram,  Land  of  Moab 
(New  York,  1874)  ;  Conder,  Beth  and  Moab 
(London,  1883)  ;  George  Adam  Smith,  Historical 
Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1897) ; 
Clermont-Ganneau,  Recueil  d'archMogie  orien- 
tale,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  185-234   (1889). 

MOABITE  STONE,  The.  A  stone  bearing  an 
inscription  of  34  lines  in  the  Moabitish  language, 
discovered  by  the  German  missionary  F.  Klein, 
at  Diban,  in  Moab,  in  1868.  The  negotiations  set 
on  foot  for  its  purchase  by  M.  Clermont-Ganneau, 
attache  of  the  French  consulate  at  Jerusakro, 


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XOBILE. 


who  had  also  learned  of  the  existence  of  the  stone, 
led  to  quarrels  among  the  Arab  tribes  claiming 
an  interest  in  it^  and  the  monument  was  un- 
fortunately broken  to  pieces.  The  fragments, 
however,  were  with  great  difficulty  collected,  and 
are  now  preserved  in  the  Louvre.  With  the  aid 
of  a  squeeze  obtained  by  Clermont-Ganneau  prior 
to  the  destruction  of  the  stone,  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  inscription  has  been  recovered,  and 
as  the  result  of  numerous  researches  by  French, 
German,  and  English  scholars,  the  decipherment 
may  now  be  said  to  be  complete.  The  characters 
on  the  Moabitish  stone  are  identical  with  those 
on  Phoenician  moniiments,  and  the  language  is  so 
closely  allied  to  Hebrew  that  the  conclusion  is 
justified  which  makes  Hebrew  and  Moabitish 
practically  identical.  The  inscription  itself  re- 
fers to  the  deeds  of  Mesha,  King  of  Moab,  who  is 
mentioned  in  the  very  first  line,  and  the  interest 
of  the  stone  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  circum- 
stance that  he  is  identical  with  the  Mesha  (q.v.; 
spoken  of  in  II.  Kings  iii.  4.  Mesha  begins  in  his 
inscription  by  referring  to  the  affliction  which 
Moab  endured  under  Omri,  King  of  Israel,  and 
the  latter's  son  (i.e.  Ahab,  who,  however,  is  not 
mentioned  by  name ) .  We  know  from  the  biblical 
narrative  that  Moab  was  tributary  to  Israel  dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  Omri  and  Ahab.  This  is  the 
'affliction*  referred  to  and  is  attributed  by  Mesha 
to  the  anger  of  his  deity  Chemosh.  Thanks,  how- 
ever, to  Chemosh,  who  turned  with  favor  to 
Mesha,  the  latter  regained  the  cities  which  Israel 
had  captured.  Mesha  adds  in  an  exaggerated 
manner  that  "Israel  perished  with  an  everlasting 
destruction."  The  rest  of  the  inscription  is 
taken  up  with  details  of  the  conflict  and  with 
building  operations  imdertaken  by  Mesha.  Be- 
sides its  historical  significance,  the  inscription  is 
of  geographical  importance  because  of  the  many 
names  of  sites  in  Moab  which  it  contains.  Ac- 
cording to  the  biblical  account,  the  revolt  of 
Moab  took  place  after  the  death  of  Ahab  (c.863 
B.c),  but  Mesha  claims  that  already  in  the  life- 
time of  Ahab  he  freed  himself  from  the  Israel- 
itish  yoke.  This  would  make  the  date  of  the 
Moabite  stone  c.860  B.C.  As  the  oldest  inscrip- 
tion in  Phosnician  characters,  the  Moabite  stone 
has  also  great  epigraphical  value.  Of  the  large 
literature  on  the  subject  it  is  sufficient  to  refer 
to  the  publications  of  Smend  and  Socin,  Die  In- 
achrift  des  Koniga  Mesa  von  Moah  (Freiburg, 
1886),  with  supplement  in  Berichte  der  koniglich 
aachsischen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften 
(1897)  ;  Lidzbarski,  in  "Ephemeris  ftir  semitische 
Epigraphik,"  i.  ( 1900)  ;  Nordlander,  Die  In- 
achrift  des  Konigs  Mesa  von  Moah  (Leipzig, 
1896)  ;  Driver,  Text  of  the  Books  of  Samuel  (New 
York,  1890). 

MOALLAKAT,  mO'&M&k&t'  (Ar.,  hung  up). 
A  collection  of  seven  Arabic  poems  by  the  same 
nimiber  of  authors  who  lived  in  the  century  pre- 
ceding the  birth  of  Mohammed.  The  name  refers 
to  the  custom  of  hanging  poetical  compositions 
on  the  walls  of  the  Kaaba  as  a  challenge  to  com- 
peting poets. 

MOAT  (OF.  motey  embankment,  from  ML. 
mota,  mound,  embankment,  ditch,  castle;  prob- 
ably connected  ultimately  with  Bavarian  mott, 
peat,  Swiss  muttCy  turf).  The  ditch  round  the 
ramparts  of  a  fortress.  See  Fortification  ;  Cas- 
tle. 


MOAWIYAH,  roO'&-w§^y&  (Ar.  Mu*(i%Diyyak) 
(c.610-680) .  Caliph,  and  founder  of  the  Ommiad 
dynasty.  He  was  bom  at  Mecca,  the  son  of  Abu 
8ofian,  the  bitter  enemy  of  Mohammed.  Ue  was 
made  Crovemor  of  Syria  by  the  Caliph  Othman, 
and  during  his  term  of  office  conquered  the  island 
of  Rhodes,  but  lost  Cyprus.  On  the  proclamation 
of  Ali  as  the  successor  of  Othman  in  656,  Moa- 
wiyah  revolted^  and  with  the  aid  of  the  gifted 
Amr  ibn  al-Asi  attempted  to  make  himself 
Caliph.  He  was  defeated  in  several  battles  by 
Ali,  who,  however,  was  prevented  by  domestic 
rebellion  and  foreign  war  from  completely  crush- 
ing his  rival.  Moa wiyah  was  proclaimed  Caliph 
at  Damascus,  657,  and  after  the  assassination  of 
Ali  in  661  he  succeeded  in  speedily  reducing  the 
rest  of  the  Empire  to  submission.  His  army, 
after  making  extensive  conquests,  was  unable, 
after  a  long  siege  and  repeated  assaults,  to  cap- 
ture Constantinople,  and  in  678  he  entered  into 
a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Byzantine  Emperor. 
Moawiyah  not  only  exerted  absolute  control  over 
the  Saracen  empire,  but  succeeded  in  having  the 
caliphate  declared  hereditary  in  his  family.  Con- 
sult :  Muir,  Annals  of  the  Early  Caliphate  ( Lon- 
don, 1883)  ;  Weil,  Oeschichte  des  iaUimUiachen 
Volkes  (Stuttgart,  1866). 

MOB.     See  Cbowd. 

MCXBEBLT.  A  city  in  Randolph  County, 
Mo.,  129  miles  east  by  north  of  Kansas  City; 
on  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  and  tLe 
Wabash  railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  D  2).  It 
has  the  division  headquarters  and  machine  shops 
of  the  Wabash  Railroad,  brick  yards,  flouring 
and  planing  mills,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
ice,  shoe,  and  frame  factories,  cement  works,  and 
a  large  grain  elevator.  There  are  valuable  de- 
posits of  coal  and  fire  clay  in  the  vicinity.  An 
extensive  trade  is  carried  on  in  agricultural  and 
dairy  products,  lumber,  live  stock,  poultry,  hides, 
wool,  tobacco,  and,  of  the  city's  manufactured 
products,  flour  and  bricks.  Moberly  has  a  public 
library  and  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building.  Population, 
1900,  8012;  1906  (local  est.),  12,000. 

MOBEBLT,  Gbobge  (1803-85).  An  English 
prelate.  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  He  was  bom  in 
Saint  Petersburg,  Russia,  and  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  Oxford.  In  1826  he  took  the  Ox- 
ford chancellor's  prize  for  the  best  English  essay. 
After  connection  with  Balliol  College,  as  tutor 
and  fellow,  he  was  in  1835-36  head-master  of 
Winchester.  He  was  then  presented  to  the  liv- 
ing of  Brightstone  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  in 

1868  became  a  canon  of  Chester  CathedraL     In 

1869  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  Of 
his  numerous  published  works  the  most  import- 
ant are:  A  Few  Remarks  on  the  Proposed  Ad- 
mission of  Dissenters  to  the  University  of  Oxford 
( 1834)  ;  Serm^ms  Preached  at  Winchester  College 
(1844)  ;  and  Sermons  on  the  Beatitudes  (1860). 
In  1868  he  delivered  the  Bampton  lectures  which 
appeared  under  the  title  of  The  Administration 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Body  of  Christ, 

MOBILE,  mA-b€l'.  A  port  of  entry  and  the 
county-seat  of  Mobile  County,  Ala.,  140  miles 
east  by  north  of  New  Orleans;  on  Mobile  Bay, 
at  the  mouth  of  Mobile  River,  30  miles  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville,  the  Southern,  the  Mobile,  Jadcson  and 
Kansas  City,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroads 
(Map:  Alabama,  A  5).  It  has  a  tx)tal  area  of 
about  eight  square  miles  and  is  situated  on  m 


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plain  which  rises  gradually  from  the  river  into 
low  hills.  The  streets  are  broad  and  generally 
regular,  and  are  well  shaded  with  live  oaks  and 
magnolias.  The  finest  structure  in  Mobile  is  the 
United  States  Government  building,  which  cost 
$250,000.  Other  notable  buildings  are  the  court 
house.  Cotton  Exchange,  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
Commercial  Club,  United  States  Marine  Hospital, 
City  Hospital,  Providence  Infirmary,  Odd  Fel- 
lows' and  Temperance  halls.  Masonic  Temple,  and 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Conception. 
The  old  Guard  House  Tower  is  an  interesting 
structure  of  Spanish  architecture.  Besides  the 
charitable  institutions  mentioned,  there  are  sev- 
eral orphan  asylums.  The  educational  institu- 
tions include  Barton  Academy,  Convent  and 
Academy  of  the  Visitation,  Saint  Mary's  School, 
and  the  Medical  College  of  Alabama,  opened  in 
1859.  Spring  Hill  College  (Roman  Catholic), 
opened  in  1830,  is  a  few  miles  west  of  the  city. 
Mobile  has  three  libraries:  the  Public,  the  Mo- 
bile (subscription)  of  8000  volumes,  and  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Public,  with  3000.  Among  the  local 
attractions  are  the  shell  road,  a  fine  drive  along 
the  bay,  and  Monroe,  Frascati,  and  Bienville 
parks. 

Mobile,  as  the  only  port  in  the  State,  has  ex- 
tensive commercial  interests,  particularly  in  its 
export  trade.  The  exports  for  year  ending  June, 
1906,  principally  lumber,  cotton  and  cotton  prod- 
ucts, live  stock  and  meat  products,  breadstuffs 
and  naval  stores,  were  valued  at  nearly  $22,000,- 
000,  while  imports  amounted  to  about  $4,851,000. 
The  commerce  of  the  city  has  been  promoted  by 
extensive  improvements  in  the  harbor  and  in  the 
channel  through  the  bay,  both  of  which  are  now 
accessible  for  large  vessels.  According  to  the 
census  of  1905,  Mobile  was  the  second  manufac- 
turing city  in  Alabama.  Capital  to  the  amount 
of  $3,824,499  was  invested  in  the  city's  various 
industrial  enterprises,  their  products  aggregating 
$4,942,331.  The  leading  manufactures  are  lum- 
ber and  lumber  products,  flour  and  grist  mill 
products,  foundry  and  machine  shop  products, 
ships  and  boats,  tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes. 
There  are  also  cotton  mills,  red  cedar  pencil  and 
basket  factories,  and  a  distillery  of  whisky.  The 
cultivation  of  vegetables,  which  are  shipped  in 
considerable  quantities  to  Ontral  and  South 
America,  is  a  lucrative  industry  in  the  vicinity. 

Mobile  spends  annually  in  maintenance  and 
operation  about  $330,000,  the  principal  items  be- 
ing $165,000  for  interest  on  debt,  $40,000  for  the 
police  department,  $34,000  for  the  health  depart- 
ment, $42,000  for  street  expenditures,  and  $25,000 
for  the  fire  department.  The  schools  are  sup- 
ported by  the  State  and  county.  The  city  owns 
and  operates  the  water- works,  which  were  built 
in  1899  at  an  approximate  cost  of  $615,000.  The 
system  comprises  94  miles  of  mains.  Population, 
in  1860,  29,258;  in  1890,  31,076;  in  1900,  38,469, 
including  17,045  (44  per  cent.)  persons  of  negro 
descent;  in  1906  (local  est.),  65,000. 

In  1702  Bienville,  the  French  explorer,  estab- 
lished a  settlement  twenty  miles  north  of  Mobile 
and  called  it  Fort  Louis  de  la  Mobile,  from  the 
Maubila  Indians.  In  1710,  on  account  of  a  de- 
structive hurricane,  the  settlement  was  moved  to 
the  present  site.  For  eighteen  years  it  was  the 
capital  of  French  territory  in  this  part  of  Amer- 
ica, but  on  account  of  the  shoaling  of  a  part  of 
Dauphin  Island,  it  was  forced  to  surrender  this 
distinction  to  Biloxi  in  1720.     In  1763  Mobile, 


with  the  rest  of  *West  Florida/  was  ceded  to 
England  and  became  a  starting  point  for  English 
expeditions  up  the  Mississippi  and  into  the  *Illi- 
nois  country.'  On  March  14,  1780,  Galvez,  the 
Spanish  commandant  at  New  Orleans,  captured 
the  city,  and  by  the  treaty  of  1783  Spain  was  left 
in  possession.  After  1803  the  United  States 
claimed  the  city  as  a  part  of  Louisiana,  and  on 
April  13,  1813,  General  James  Wilkinson  cap- 
tured it,  but  was  dispossessed  by  the  English 
later  in  the  year.  Restored  to  the  United  States 
by  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  in  1814,  Mobile  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city  five  years  later.  In  1870, 
during  the  'reconstruction  period,*  its  area  was 
curtailed  and  its  name  changed  to  the  Tort  of 
Mobile,'  but  in  1887  it  was  reincorporated  with 
full  city  rights.  On  August  5,  1864,  it  was 
the  scene  of  Farragut's  famous  naval  victory. 
Forcing  his  way  into  the  harbor  in  spite  of 
numerous  torpedoes  and  mines,  he  destroyed  the 
Confederate  fleet.  This  victory  was  followed  by 
the  capture  of  Forts  Gaines  and  Morgan.  (See 
MoBiLB  Bay,  Battle  op.)  Early  in  the  spring 
of  1865  the  other  fortifications  surrendered  and 
the  city  passed  into  Union  hands.  Consult: 
Hamilton,  Colonial  Mobile  (Boston,  1897)  ;  and 
Powell,  Historic  Towns  of  the  Southern  States 
(New  York,  1900). 

MOBILE  BAT.  The  estuary  of  the  Alabama 
and  Tombigbee  Rivers  (whose  waters  after  their 
junction  form  the  Mobile  and  Tensas  Rivers), 
running  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  through  tha 
southwestern  portion  of  the  State  of  Alabama 
(Map:  Alabama,  B  5).  It  is  about  30 
miles  long  and  from  10  to  12  miles  wide. 
The  island  of  Dauphin  lies  west  of  the 
entrance,  which  is  defended  by  Forts  Morgan 
and  Gaines,  and  on  the  east  is  Mobile  Point,  the 
station  of  a  lighthouse  with  a  revolving  light.  The 
bay  has  also  an  outlet  on  the  southwest  through 
Grant's  Pass,  communicating  with  Mississippi 
Sound,  used  by  steamers  of  light  draught,  and 
the  regular  course  of  the  Mobile  and  New  Orleans 
steamers.  The  harbor,  once  quite  shallow,  has 
been  improved  by  the  United  States  Government ; 
ships  drawing  over  23  feet  of  water  can  now 
enter  the  lower  bay,  and  vessels  drawing  17  to  23 
feet  can  pass  through  the  channel  to  the  wharves 
of  Mobile.    See  Mobile  Bat,  Battle  of. 

MOBILE  BAT,  Battle  of.  A  battle  of  the 
Civil  War  in  America,  fought  August  5,  1864,  be- 
tween a  Federal  fleet  under  Rear-Admiral  Far- 
ragut  and  the  (Confederate  ram  Tennessee  aided 
by  three  auxiliary  gunboats  and  the  guns  of  Fort 
Morgan.  When  Farragut  was  ordered  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  in  January,  1864,  he  wished  to  attack 
Mobile,  and  effectually  put  an  end  to  blockade- 
running,  out  not  until  late  in  July  was  he  as- 
sured of  the  support  of  a  land  force  and  of  iron- 
clads, without  which  the  attack  was  likely  to 
prove  a  failure.  The  city,  thirty  miles  above  the 
Gulf,  was  protected  by  Fort  Morgan  and  Fort 
Gaines,  respectively  on  the  eastern  and  western 
sides  of  the  entrance  to  the  bay.  The  channel 
was  closed  by  piles  and  torpedoes  except 
for  a  narrow  space  under  the  guns  of  Fort 
Morgan.  At  7  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  August 
5th  the  four  monitors,  Tecumsehy  Manhattan, 
Winnebago,  and  Chickasaw^  began  to  fire  upon  the 
fort  as  they  steamed  past.  They  were  followed 
by  the  wooden  sloops  Brooklyn,  Hartford  (flag- 
ship),   Richmond,    Lackaioanwiy    Monongahela, 


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Oasipee,  and  Oneida,  to  each  of  which  was  lashed 
a  gunbcMit,  to  prevent  it  from  drifting  if  disabled. 
When  the  Brooklyn  was  almost  abreast  of  the 
torpedoes  she  stopped  and  began  to  back.  The 
captain  of  the  Tecumseh  disobeyed  orders,  steer- 
ing to  the  west  of  the  open  channel,  and  his  ves- 
sel was  blown  up.  As  the  Brooklyn  turned  across 
the  channel,  to  prevent  fouling,  Admiral  Farra- 
gut  ordered  the  course  directly  across  the  tor- 
pedoes. Though  the  torpedoes  were  felt  to  strike 
the  bottom  of  the  vessels,  none  exploded.  Little 
damage  was  done  by  the  guns  of  the  fort  and 
the  Federal  gunboats  were  released.  Soon  they 
sank  the  Selma,  drove  the  Oainea  aground, 
and  the  Morgan  under  the  guns  of  the  fort, 
and  the  fleet  prepared  to  anchor.  The  ram 
Tennessee  coming  out  from  the  shelter  of  the 
fort  attacked  the  entire  Federal  fleet.  Though 
hit  many  times,  and  rammed  by  the  Hart- 
ford, the  Monongahela,  and  the  Lackcucanna, 
her  armor  suffered  little  damage,  but  her  smoke- 
stack was  shot  away,  her  steering  gear  dis- 
abled, and  her  commander  had  his  leg  broken 
bv  a  splinter.  Her  port  shutters  were  so  Jammed 
that  it  was  impossible  to  use  her  guns  success- 
fully and  at  10  o'<5lock  she  surrendered.  General 
Granger  had  invested  Fort  Gaines,  August  3d, 
and  on  August  7th  that  fort  surrendered.  Fort 
Morgan  was  immediately  invested  and  surren- 
dered on  August  23d.  No  attempt  was  made  to 
take  the  city  at  this  time  on  account  of  the  shoal 
water,  but  the  port  was  effectually  closed.  The 
Confederate  losses  amounted  to  12  killed,  20 
wounded,  and  280  taken  prisoners.  The  Federals 
lost  52  killed,  170  wounded.  To  this  should  be 
added  from  the  crew  of  the  Tecumseh,  93  drowned 
and  4  captured.  Consult:  Loyall  Farragut,  Life 
of  David  Glasgow  Farragut  (New  York,  1892)  ; 
and  Mahan,  Admiral  Farragut,  in  "The  Great 
Commanders  Series"  (New  York,  1892). 

MOBILE  POINT.  A  name  applied  to  the 
end  of  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  sand  which 
stretches  between  Navy  Cove  and  the  Bay  of  Bon 
Secours  to  the  north  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
the  south,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  en- 
trance to  Mobile  Bay.  Fort  Morgan  is  situated 
here,  on  the  ground  once  occupied  by  Fort  Bow- 
yer  (q.v.). 

MOBILE  BIVEA.  The  western  branch  of 
the  system  of  channels  through  which  the  united 
Alabama  and  Tombigbee  Rivers  discharge  into 
Mobile  Bay.  It  is  about  50  miles  long,  and  com- 
municates at  several  points  with  the  Tensas,  or 
eastern  branch  of  the  system,  the  two  entering 
the  bay  through  a  common  delta  at  the  city  of 
Mobile. 

MOBILES,  mA'bSl',  Corps  op  (Fr.  garde  mo- 
bile, movable  guard).  A  French  corps  organized 
in  1870,  and  consisting  entirely  of  men  who  had 
previously  been  exempted  from  service  in  the 
active  army  for  reasons  other  than  physical  dis- 
ability. 

IKOBTLULN    TBADE    LANGUAGE.      An 

Indian  trade  jargon  formerly  serving  the  same 
purpose  of  intertribal  and  trade  communication 
in  the  Gulf  States  that  is  still  served  by  the 
CJhinook  jargon  (q.v.)  along  the  Columbia  and 
the  northwest  coast,  by  the  lingoa  geral  in  Bra- 
zil, and  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  sign  language 
(q.v.)  of  the  Plains.  It  was  based  upon  (]!hoctaw, 
with  additions  from  all  the  neighboring  dialects 


and  from  the  more  northern  Algonquian  lan- 
guages, and  was  the  common  medium  of  com- 
munication among  all  the  tribes  of  the  Gulf  re- 
gion, from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Florida  probably 
as  far  west  as  Matagorda  Bay  in  Texas  and 
northward  along  both  banks  of  the  Mississippi  to 
the  Algonquian  frontier  about  the  entrance  of  the 
Ohio.  It  was  called  Mohilienne  by  the  French^ 
from  Mobile,  the  great  trading  centre  of  the  Gulf 
region.  Along  the  Mississippi  it  was  sometimes 
known  as  the  Chickasaw.trade  language.  It  was 
evidently  by  this  medium  that  De  Soto's  inter- 
preter from  Tampa  Bay  was  able  to  talk  with 
all  the  tribes  they  met  imtil  they  reached  the 
Mississippi.  In  an  official  report  upon  the  Texas 
tribes  in  1806  Sibley  stated  that  the  *Mobiliaii' 
was  spoken  in  addition  to  their  native  language- 
by  all  the  Indians  who  had  come  from  the  east 
side  of  the  Mississippi.  It  was  still  spoken  in 
Louisiana  fifty  years  ago,  but  has  died  out  with 
the  general  decay  of  the  Indian  life. 
MOBILIEB,  mA'bA'yA',  Credit,  kr&'d^.    See 

Ca£0IT   MOBIUEB. 

MOBILIZATION  (Fr.  mobilisation,  from  mo- 
biliser,  to  mobilize^  from  mobile,  Lat.  mohilis, 
movable,  from  movere,  to  move,  Skt.  miv,  to 
push ) .  The  transformation  of  an  army  from  its 
peace  establishment  to  a  war  footing  and  its  as- 
sembly at  appointed  depots  or  stations.  The 
German  method  of  mobilization,  which  is  typical 
of  Continental  Europe  generally,  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  mobilization  order  is  issued  bv  the 
Emperor,  and  promulgated  by  all  civil  and  mili- 
tary authorities.  From  the  moment  the  order  is 
issued  every  individual  is  supposed  to  know  what 
to  do  and  where  to  report.  The  reserves  arc 
called  in,  and  the  establishment  of  the  standing 
army  completed  from  their  number.  The  re- 
mainder are  formed  into  additional  regiments; 
at  the  same  time  the  levy  of  horses  is  commenced. 
In  time  of  war,  the  organization  of  a  mobilized 
army  corps  differs  but  little  from  that  obtaining 
in  time  of  peace.  Any  additional  formations  are 
made  into  separate  cavalry  divisions,  and  are 
composed  of  a  number  of  cavalry  regiments  taken 
from  the  regular  divisions.  There  would  also  be 
reserve  divisions,  and  depot  and  landwehr  forma- 
tions of  every  kind;  tram  columns  and  sanitary 
or  hospital  detachments  being  also  assigned.  The 
landwehr  keeps  the  active  army  up  to  strength, 
and  garrisons  stations  at  home,  and,  if  necessary, 
those  at  or  near  the  base  of  operations.  Artillery 
is  distributed  in  part  throughout  the  divisions  of 
the  army  corps,  and  in  part  as  the  nucleus  of  an 
artillery  corps,  under  the  separate  command  of 
a  general  officer.  The  pioneer  battalion  is  broken 
up  into  companies  and  attached  to  the  divisions; 
mail,  telegraph,  balloon,  and  railway  service  be- 
ing similarly  assigned.  As  soon  as  the  annj 
moves  the  Etappen  are  organized,  maintaining, 
if  possible,  by  railways  the  connection  with  the 
rear.  Additional  information  will  be  found  under 
Fkontier,  Military. 

MOBIUS,  mg^-vs,  August  Ferdinand  (1790- 
1868).  A  German  mathematician,  bom  in  Leip- 
zig. He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig 
and  Gottingen.  At  first  he  devoted  his  attention  to 
law,  but  later,  under  the  influence  of  Gauss,  he 
took  up  mathematical  astronomy.  In  1816  he  was 
made  professor  at  Leipzig  and  almost  immediately 
afterwards  became  director  of  the  observatory  m 
the  Pleissenburg,  which  was  built  after  his  plaM 


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(1818-21).  His  important  astronomical  and 
mathematical  memoirs  appeared  from  this  time 
on,  in  the  Astronomiache  Nachrichten,  Crelle's 
Journal,  and  the  Berichte  of  the  Scientific  Society 
of  Leipzig.  His  leading  mathematical  work  was 
Der  haryoentriache  CcUoul  (1827).  This  con- 
tained a  novel  discussion  of  homogeneous  co5r- 
dinates,  presented  the  first  systematic  discussion 
of  the  essential  differences  between  the  modem 
and  the  ancient  geometries,  set  forth  the  general- 
ization of  figures,  stated  the  invariant  property 
of  cross  ratios,  and  made,  extensive  use  of  the 
principle  of  duality.  He  also  wrote  the  following 
works:  Die  Hauptadize  der  Aatronomie  (1836; 
7th  ed.  1890) ;  Lehrbuch  der  Statih  (1837)  ;  Die 
Elemente  der  Mechanik  dea  Himmela  (1843). 
His  Oeaammelte  Werke  have  been  edited  by  Bal- 
tzer,  Klein,  and  Scheibner  (4  vols.,  Leipzig,  1885- 
87).  ^ 

HtiBrUS,  Karl  August  (1825—).  A  Ger- 
man zoologist.  He  was  bom  in  Eilenburg;  stud- 
ied at  Berlin,  and  in  1868  was  made  professor 
of  zodlogy  at  Kiel.  There  he  became  especially 
interest^  in  marine  animals,  and  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  of  1871  and  1872  for  the 
investigation  of  German  writers.  MObius  went  to 
Berlin  in  1887  as  director  of  the  zoological  mu- 
seum. His  publications  include:  Die  Neater  der 
geaelUgen  Weapen  (1866);  Die  echten  Perlen 
(1867)  ;  Neue  Seeateme  (1869) ;  Fauna  der  Kie- 
ler  Bucht  (1866-72);  Die  Auater  (1877);  Die 
Fiache  der  Oataee  (1883)  ;  Aeathetiache  Betrach- 
tung  der  Tiere  (1895)  ;  and  Aeathetiache  Beur- 
teilung  der  Saugetiere  ( 1900) . 

HbBrUSy  Theodob  (1821-90).  A  German 
philolo^st,  one  of  the  foremost  students  of  old 
Norse  literature  and  language,  son  of  August 
Ferdinand  M5bius,  the  mathematician.  He  was 
bom  at  Leipzig,  studied  there  and  in  Berlin, 
and  in  1852  be^me  docent  of  Scandinavian  lan- 
ffuages  at  Leipzig.  He  was  promoted  to  professor 
in  1859,  and  in  1866  became  a  member  of  the 
faculty  of  Kiel.  MSbius's  most  valuable  work 
was  as  an  editor.  Especial  mention  should  be 
made  of  Fomadgur (^lih.  Vigfusson,  1860)  ;  Edda 
Scemundar  (1860);  lalendingahdk  (1869);  Kor- 
mdkaaaga  (1886) ;  MdlahdttakvcBthi  (1873)  ;  and 
Snorre's  Hdttatal  (1879-81).  His  other  work 
includes  the  dissertation,  Die  altere  ialdndiache 
Saga  (1852);  the  valuable  bibliography.  Catalo- 
gue lAhrorum  lalandicorum  et  Norvegicorum 
Mtatia  Mediw  (1856;  a  supplemental  volume  in 
1880);  Analecta  Norroena  (1859);  Altnordiache 
Philologie  im  akandinavischen  Norden  (1864); 
Altnordiachea  Oloaaar  (1866)  ;  Danische  Formen- 
lehre  ( 1871 ) ;  and  Ueher  die  altnordiache  Spraohe 
(1872). 

ICOOCASIN'.  See  Shoes  and  Shoe  Manu- 
facture. 

MOCCASIN-FLO  WEB.  See  Lady's-Slipper  ; 
also  Colored  Plate  of  American  Orchids. 

MOCCASIN  SNAKE,  Water  Moccasin,  or 
CoTTONMOUTH.  An  aquatic,  flsh-eating,  venom- 
ous pit- viper  {Anciatrodon  piacivorus)  of  the 
Southern  United  States,  allied  to  the  copperhead. 
It  may  grow  to  be  four  feet  long;  is  thick  and 
heavy' in  body;  has  a  tapering  tail,  without  any 
rattle  or  spine;  and  in  color  is  dark  chestnut 
brown,  with  light  marks  on  the  lips,  obscure 
blackish  bars  on  the  sides,  and  the  abdomen  black 
blotched  with  yellowish  white.     The  interior  of 


the  mouth,  displayed  when  the  snake  is  about 
to  strike,  is  cottony  white.  This  serpent  exists  in 
large  niunbers  from  southern  Indiana  and  south- 
eastern Virginia  to  the  Rio  Grande  in  swamps, 
marshes,  on  overflowed  lands,  and  along  rivers 
and  bayous,  where  it  is  fond  of  lying  in  the  sun- 
shine upon  banks,  tussocks,  driftwood,  or  bushes 
and  trees  overhanging  the  water.  It  never  goes  far 
away  from  such  places,  and  is  really  a  water- 
snake  ;  its  food  is  mainly  frogs  and  fishes.  When 
disturbed  it  may  escape  by  swimming,  but  is 
quite  as  likely  to  turn  and  fight  fearlessly.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  virulent  and  deadly  of  all 
American  serpents,  but  fortunately  it  does  not 
wander  into  places  where  men  usually  go,  except 
in  the  irrigated  rice  fields,  where  it  is  greatly 
dreaded.  In  captivity  it  is  one  of  the  most  un- 
tamable and  ferocious  of  known  reptiles.  It  pro- 
duces eight  or  ten  young  annually  in  midsummer, 
all  fully  prepared  for  offense  or  defense.  The 
moccasin  is  'mimicked'  by  the  quite  harmless 
water-snake  Natrix,  which,  however,  is  usually 
much  smaller,  has  a  narrower,  less  triangular  and 
forbidding  head,  and  may  always  be  distinguished 
by  the  double  row  of  scales  on  the  under  side  of 
the  tail.  Consult  Stejneger,  Annual  Report  of 
the  Smithaonian  Inatitution  for  1893  (Washing- 
ton, 1895).  Compare  Copperhead;  Rattle- 
snake. 

MOCENIGOy  m6-che-n^g6.  The  name  of  a 
prominent  Venetian  family  which  furnished  sev- 
eral able  commanders  and  doges  to  the  Republic. 
The  most  noted  was  Tomaso,  Doge  from  1414  to 
1423.  At  a  time  when  Venice  was  mistress  of 
extensive  possessions,  Mocenigo  endeavored  to 
maintain  her  position  by  a  policy  of  peace.  His 
chief  opponent  was  Francesco  Foscari,  the  next 
Doge,  who  urged  a  policy  of  conquests  on  the 
mainland  of  Italy.  Mocenigo  was  able  to  with- 
hold Venice  from  this  course,  which  afterwards 
proved  so  disastrous  to  her  power.  To  him  whs 
due  the  building  of  the  present  Doge*s  palace.  At 
the  time  of  Tomaso's  death  Venice  had  reached 
the  zenith  of  her  glory. 

MOCHAy  mo'kA.  A  strongly  fortified  seaport, 
and  once  the  capital,  of  the  Province  of  Yemen, 
in  Arabia.  It  is  situated  on  the  Red  Sea,  at  the 
head  of  a  little  bay  near  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  and  130  miles  west-northwest  of  Aden 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  Q  13).  It  formerly  ex- 
ported large  amounts  of  coffee  and  other  produce, 
which  are  now  distributed  through  the  ports  of 
Aden  and  Hodeida.    Population,  5000. 

MOCHA  STONE,  or  Dendritic  Agate.  A 
name  given  to  those  crypto-crystalline  'I'arieties  of 
quartz,  such  as  agate  and  chalcedony,  which  con- 
tain moss-like  or  dendritic  forms,  usually  con- 
sisting of  manganese  dioxide  distributed  through 
the  mass.  They  were  originally  brought  into 
Europe  from  Mocha.  Of  a  similar  nature  is  the 
moss-agate. 

MOCHNACXI,  mAK-nats'k^,  Maurycy  (1803- 
35).  A  Polish  publicist  and  critic,  bom  at 
Bojaniec,  Galicia.  He  took  part  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830-31,  and,  after  the  capture  of  Warsaw, 
left  his  native  country  and  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  France.  He  was  the  defender  of  the 
Romantic  School  in  Poland,  and  is  said  to  have 
dealt  the  death  blow  to  Classicism  in  that  coun- 
try. His  works  are:  A  JJiatory  of  Polish  Litera- 
ture in  the  Nineteenth  Century   (1830),  and  a 


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MODEHA. 


valuable  History  of  the  National  Insurrection  in 
Poland  in  1830  and  18S1   (1834). 

MOCKINGKBIBD  {Mimus  polyglottos).  The 
most  famous,  if  not  the  sweetest  and  most  beauti- 
ful, of  Ameri(;an  songsters.  It  receives  its  popu- 
lar name  from  its  extraordinary  powers  of  vocal 
imitation.  It  is  often  called  *mocking- thrush/  and 
was  formerly  considered  a  peculiarly  modified 
thrush,  but  now,  with  its  near  relatives  the  cat- 
bird and  brown  thrasher,  it  is  classified  very  near 
the  wrens.  The  genus  Mimus  is  characterized  by 
the  elongate  form,  long  tail,  short  wings,  and 
straight  bill,  much  shorter  than  the  head,  notched 
near  the  tip,  and  whiteness  of  the  plumage  on  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  body.  The  mocking-bird 
is  about  ten  or  eleven  inches  long,  the  tail  being 
nearly  one-half  the  total  length.  The  upper  parts 
are  ashy-gray;  the  wings  and  tail  are  nearly 
black,  extensively  marked  with  white;  under 
parts  grayish -white.  The  bird  is  very  common 
in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  and  in 
summer  ranges  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts  and 
westward  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  nest  is  built 
in  bushes  and  low  trees.  It  is  made  of  twigs, 
leaves,  weed-stalks,  and  grasses,  lined  with  root- 
lets, cotton,  etc.  The  eggs  are  four  to  six  in 
number,  pale  greenish-blue,  heavily  spotted  and 
blotched,  especially  near  the  larger  end,  with 
bright  brown.  Two  and  sometimes  three  broods 
are  reared  in  the  season,  which  begins  early  in 
the  spring  and  lasts  until  the  end  of  the  summer. 
During  the  spring  and  early  summer  the  birds 
sing  all  day  and  even  all  night,  and  in  many 
localities  the  air  rings  with  their  music.  Their 
native  song  is  extraordinarily  beautiful,  but  it 
has  in  addition  the  power  of  reproducing  the 
songs  of  other  birds  with  such  accuracy  as  to  de- 
ceive even  the  imitated  birds.  There  is,  however, 
very  great  individual  difference  in  this  power,  for 
while  some  birds  seem  seldom  to  attempt  any 
mimicry,  others  are  constantly  imitating  the 
aounds  which  they  hear. 

When  taken  from  the  nest,  young  mocking- 
birds readily  become  accustomed  to  cage  life,  and 
may  live  for  many  years.  They  are  easily  taught 
and  often  improve  greatly  with  careful  training. 
The  food  of  the  mocking-bird  is  largely  com- 
posed of  insects  and  berries  or  seeds.  An  in- 
nabitant  of  gardens  and  roadsides,  fond  of  human 
habitations,  and  seldom  seen  in  the  woods,  the 
mocking-bird  is  often  found  in  villages  and  even 
in  the  streets  of  large  towns. 

Besides  the  common  mocking-bird,  more  than 
a  dozen  other  species  of  Mimus  occur  in  the  West 
Indies,  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America.  The 
'mountain  mocking-bird'  (Oroscoptes  montanus) 
of  the  Western  United  States  is  a  much  smaller 
and  quite  different  bird,  and  not  especially  nota- 
ble as  a  songster.  See  Colored  Plate  of  Song- 
BiRDS  with  Thbush. 

MOCKING  WBEN.  The  Carolina  wren. 
See  Wren. 

MOCK  MOONS.    See  Halo. 

MOCK  OBANGE.  A  hardy  flowering  shrub. 
See  Philadelphus. 

MOCK  STTNS.     See  Halo. 

MODOJEB,  or  Kaiba,  BIVEB.  A  left  affluent 
of  the  Vaal  River,  South  Africa,  which  it  joins 
after  on  eastern  course  of  186  miles,  about  31 
miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Orange  River 
(Map:  Cape  Colony,  K  6).    During  the  war  of 


1890-1002  its  banks  were  the  scene  of  much  fight- 
ing and  witnessed  the  repulse  of  the  British 
troops  at  Maagersfontein  in  1800,  and  the  sur- 
render of  Cronje  at  Paardeberg  in  1000. 

MODELING  (from  model,  from  OF.  modeUe, 
Fr.  module,  from  Lat.  *mod€lliis,  from  moduli**, 
standard,  diminutive  of  modus,  measure).  The 
process  of  preparing  the  original  pattern  or  de- 
sign from  which  a  work  in  sculpture  is  to  be 
cast  or  carved.  Modeling  is  also  practiced  by 
medalists;  the  head  or  figure  intended  to  be  cut 
in  the  die  being  first  modeled  in  relief  with  wax 
on  a  piece  of  slate.  Goldsmiths,  silversmiths,  and 
jewelers  also  model  intricate  and  artistic  forms 
and  ornaments  of  pieces  of  plate,  to  be  cast  and 
chased  by  them,  or  in  which  jewels  are  to  be  set 
Modeling  is  also  a  branch  of  the  potter's  trade. 
For  large  models,  the  material  employed  is  pot- 
ter's clay,  which,  when  used  by  sculptors,  is 
mixed  with  a  portion  of  sandstone,  finely  pulver- 
ized, to  make  it  work  freely.  In  painting,  the 
term  modeling  is  used  to  denote  that  quality 
which  conveys  to  the  eye  the  sense  of  projection, 
volume,  and  bulk  of  an  object. 

MODEL  TACHTINO.  The  pastime  of  sail- 
ing model  yachts.  In  England  it  is  known  as  *mini- 
ature  yachting,'  under  which  name  it  was  first 
generally  practiced  in  America.  The  boats  used 
were  either  exact  models  to  scale  of  well-known 
large  yachts,  or  of  such  perfection  as  to  be  capa- 
ble of  being  built  full  size  from  the  models— 
thus  considerably  improving  the  sailing  capacity 
of  the  models.  The  model  department  is  one  of 
the  most  important  branches  of  modem  shipbuild- 
ing yards,  owing  to  the  practice  of  trying  out* 
important  yachts  in  the  shape  of  models  before 
proceeding  with  full  size  construction.  In  this 
manner,  faults  in  design  are  discovered  and  reme- 
died. The  yachts  are  rigged  with  careful  accu- 
racy, and  are  mechanically  self -steering.  There 
is  a  variety  of  devices  for  this  purpose.  Some 
have  wire  springs  which,  when  the  pressure  of 
the  wind  has  been  removed,  return  the  rudder  to 
its  original  fixed  angle;  but  a  traveler  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  aft  of  the  tiller  head, 
threaded  with  two  screws,  will,  in  the  hands  of  an 
operator  who  knows  his  business  and  the  prevail- 
ing winds,  be  sufiicient.  Models  steered  with  this 
device  may  frequently  jibe  back  and  forth,  but 
they  will,  at  the  end  of  a  mile  run^  invariably 
arrive  within  a  very  short  distance  from  the 
exact  spot  for  which  they  were  started.  The  use 
of  spinnakers  has  never  been  successful.  The 
principal  races  are  those  between  the  boats  of 
the  Miniature  Yacht  Club,  the  Wave  Crest,  and 
the  American  Model  Yacht  Club  of  New  York. 
Plans,  diagrams,  and  full  instructions  for  build- 
ing and  sailing  will  be  found  in  a  series  of  arti- 
cles published  in  Outing  for  February  and  March, 
1805  and  1806,  by  Franklyn  Bassford. 

MODENA,  mydft-n&  (Lat.,  Mutina).  A  for- 
mer duchy  in  Northern  Italy,  south  of  the  Po,  in- 
cluded in  the  compartimento  of  Emilia  in  the 
modem  Kingdom  of  Italy.  The  Roman  colony 
of  Mutina  was  founded  on  the  jEmilian  Way 
about  B.C.  220,  after  the  conquest  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul.  Modena  was  acquired  by  the  House  of 
Este  (q.v.)  in  1288,  and  in  1452  the  Marquis 
Borso  d'Este  was  made  Duke  of  Modena  by  the 
Emperor  Frederick  III.  He  was  at  the  same  time 
make  Duke  of  Ferrara  by  the  Pope,  and  the  po- 
litical destinies  of  the  two  cities  were  therefore 


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MODEBN  IKSTANGE. 


united  until  1598,  when  Ferrara  was  seized  as  an 
escheated  fief  by  its  overlord,  the  Pope,  while 
Modena,  with  Reggio  and  Mirandola,  remained  in 
the  possession  of  the  House  of  Este.  In  1796  the 
Ihike  Ercole  was  dethroned  by  Bonaparte,  and 
Modena,  with  Ferrara  and  Bologna,  was  erected 
into  the  Cispadane  Republic,  which  in  1797 
was  merged  in  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Lun6ville  ( 1801 )  the  Duke  of  Modena 
received  the  Breisgau  in  exchange  for  his 
duchy.  On  the  death  of  Duke  Ercole  in  1803 
the  duchy  devolved  by  marriage  upon  the  House 
of  Hapsburg,  the  daughter  of  Ercole  having 
married  Ferdinand,  a  son  of  Maria  Theresa,  and 
it  was  awarded  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
to  the  son  of  this  marriage,  Francis  FV.,  who 

S roved  a  cruel  despot.  He  married  Beatrice, 
aughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel  I.  of  Sardinia.  In 
1831  an  uprising  forced  him  to  take  refuge  in 
Austria,  but  he  was  promptly  restored  hj  Aus- 
trian arms,  and  ruled  by  the  methods  which  the 
Hapsburg  connections  made  familiar  in  all  parts 
of  Italy  at  that  time.  Francis  IV.  died  in  1846 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  V.  The 
latter  has  been  described  as  hardly  more  than  an 
*  Austrian  deputy  sheriff.'  In  1848  he  was  forced 
to  flee  from  his  State,  which  proclaimed  itself 
a  part  of  the  Sardinian  Kingdom,  but  he  was 
soon  reinstated  by  Austria.  He  fled  when  war 
broke  out  in  1859,  and  although  it  was  provided 
by  the  Treaty  of  Zurich  that  he  should  be  re- 
stored, the  people  of  the  duchy,  in  common  with 
those  of  Parma,  Tuscany,  and  the  Legations, 
promptly  declared  their  wish  to  be  imited  with 
Sardinia  in  the  new  Kingdom  of  Italy,  and  this, 
being  formally  confirmed  by  a  plebiscite,  was 
done.    See  Italy. 

MODENA.  A  city  in  Northern  Italy,  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Modena  and 
now  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
situated  in  a  rich  gardened  plain  between  the 
Panaro  and  the  Secchia,  24  miles  northwest  of 
Bologna  (Map:  Italy,  E  3).  A  navigable  canal 
connects  it  with  both  rivers.  It  is  a  city  of  spa- 
cious streets  and  roomy  arcades,  and  is  divided 
into  an  old  and  a  new  part  by  the  historic  Via 
.^hnilia.  On  the  main  piazza  rises  the  fine 
Romanesque  cathedral,  dating  from  1099,  by  Lan- 
franco.  It  was  restored  in  1893.  The  facade  is 
embellished  with  curious  sculptures.  The  ex- 
terior is  also  enriched  by  a  rose  window,  and  by 
a  colonnade  encircling  the  whole  edifice.  The  in- 
terior is  at  first  disappointing,  but  is  in  reality 
imposing.  There  are  here  a  good  altar-piece  by 
Dosso  Dossi  and  a  fine  group  by  Mazzoni.  The 
famous  Campanile,  dating  from  1224,  is  over  300 
feet  high.  It  leans  slightly.  The  Gothic  Church 
of  San  Francesco  has  an  immense  and  excellent 
terracotta  ^Descent  from  the  Cross'  by  Begarelli. 
The  Church  of  San  Pietro  is  remarkable  for  its 
fine  brick  Renaissance  facade. 

Modena  is  rich  in  palaces.  The  Palace  Al- 
bergo  Arti  (1767)  now  holds  the  municipal 
museum,  containing  several  interesting  collec- 
tions. The  historic  library  here — Biblioteca  Es- 
tense.  one  of  the  most  famous  in  Italy — ^has 
132,000  volumes,  and  also  over  8000  MSS.,  some 
of  them  very  rare.  It  possesses  in  addition  a 
coin  collection  and  museum  of  archseology.  Its 
picture  gallery  is  quite  well  known,  comprising 
examples  by  Correggio,  Dosso  Dossi,  Guido  Rem, 
and  Velazquez.  The  splendid  ducal  palace 
dating    from    1635    is    now    used    for    a    mili- 


tary school.  Modena  has  statues  of  Tas- 
soni  and  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  and  an  excellent 
religious  group  by  Mazzoni.  The  trade  of  Mo- 
dena is  not  very  important.  There  are  weekly 
cattle  markets — ^grain,  beef,  sausages,  fruit,  wine, 
and  liquors  being  chiefiy  dealt  in.  The  manufac- 
tures are  few.  Linen  and  woolen  goods,  leather, 
hats,  vinegar,  glass,  and  pottery  are  produced. 
Silk  is  woven,  but  less  extensively  than  formerly. 
In  art  history  Modena  is  known  for  its  terra- 
cottas. It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has 
a  university,  a  *Konvikt,'  a  military  school  for 
infantry  and  cavalry,  a  technical  institute,  a 
technical  school,  an  agricultural  college,  and  an 
academy  of  fine  arts.  The  university,  founded  in 
1683,  has  three  faculties,  and  a  pharmaceutical 
and  a  veterinanr  school.  The  niunber  of  students 
is  over  700.  The  public  gardens  are  lovely,  and 
the  site  of  the  former  ramparts  serves  as  a 
pleasure  ground.  Population  (commune),  in 
1901,  64,843.    For  history,  see  Modena  (duchy). 

KODENA,  Gustavo  (1803-61).  A  noted 
Italian  actor.  He  was  bom  in  Venice  and  edu- 
cated for  the  law,  but  was  early  turned  to  the 
stage  and  revealed  extraordinary  powers  as  a 
tragedian.  Among  his  greatest  impersonations 
were  those  in  the  plays  of  Alfieri,  and  several 
from  the  French,  especially  the  rOle  of  Louis  XI. 
Political  troubles  obliged  him  to  live  in  exile 
from  1831  to  1837.  In  the  movements  of  1847 
his  patriotism  again  led  him  to  take  a  prominent 
part.  He  published  at  this  time  his  Dialoghetti 
popolari. 

XODEBiATOB  (Lat.  moderator,  one  who  reg- 
ulates, from  moderare,  to  regulate;  connects! 
with  modeatus,  discreet,  modus,  measure,  and 
ultimately  with  OHG.  mesian,  mezzan,  Ger.  mea- 
sen,  Goth,  mitan,  AS.  metan,  Eng.  mete),  A 
title  given  to  the  presiding  officer  on  certain 
academic  and  ecclesiastical  occasions.  In  the 
Congregational  and  Presbyterian  churches  of  the 
United  States  the  title  of  moderator  is  given 
to  the  presiding  officer  of  assemblies.  In  the 
former  the  title  is  used  not  only  in  the  meetings 
of  congregations  and  district.  State,  and  triennial 
conventions,  but  also  in  councils  called  to  act  in 
a  judicial  capacity.  The  presiding  officers  in  the 
series  of  Church  courts  provided  for  in  the 
Presbyterian  system,  viz.  the  session,  the  presby- 
tery, the  B3rnod,  and  the  General  Assembly,  are 
usually  called  moderators.  The  pastor  of  a  local 
church  is  ea  officio  moderator  of  the  session  of 
the  church,  while  in  the  other  bodies  mentioned 
the  moderators  are  elected  from  among  the  pres- 
byters. The  most  important  function  of  these 
officers,  apart  from  presiding  at  the  sessions  of 
the  body,  is  the  naming  of  the  standing  com- 
mittees. The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  examinations  for  degrees  and  hon- 
ors at  the  universities  of  Cambrid^  and  Oxford. 

MODEBN  INSTANCE,  A.  A  novel  by  W. 
D.  Howells  (1881).  Hartley  Hubbard,  the  hero, 
a  thoroughly  unprincipled,  selfish  fellow,  origi- 
nally a  country  journalist,  removed  to  Boston 
after  his  marriage  to  Marcia  Gaylord,  a  beauti- 
ful but  passionate  and  undisciplined  girl.  Hub- 
bard disappears  after  a  final  quarrel,  and  two 
years  later  brings  action  for  divorce  in  a  West- 
ern town.  There  Marcia  and  her  father,  the 
Judge,  surprise  him  by  a  counter-suit,  and  his 
career  ends  in  a  shooting  affray  in  Arizona. 
Though  painful  in  its  general  features,  it  is  a 


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XODE& 


graphic  picture  of  oertain  phases  of  New  Eng- 
land life. 

XODEBN  MAOCABEESy  KmoHTS  of  the. 
A  fraternal  beneficial  organization  founded  in 
1881,  for  social  and  benevolent  purposes.  The 
organization  had  at  the  close  of  the  year  1906 
1350  subordinate  tents  or  branches,  with  a  total 
membership  of  125,000,  and  an  insurance  branch 
in  which  there  were  in  force  certificates  repre- 
senting $145,453,000  insurance.  During  the  year 
1906  the  organization  disbursed  $1,132,572,  and 
the  entire  amount  of  benefit  paid  since  the  date 
of  organization  was  $9,978,054.  This  is  the  orig- 
inal order  bearing  this  title. 


died  in  a.d.  397.  Some  time  later — and  tradi- 
tion mentions  Saint  Gregory  I.  (Pope  from  590  to 
604)  as  their  OTiginator — four  other  modes  were 
added.  These  were  called  the  plagal  modet. 
During  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  principles 
of  harmony  began  to  be  first  understood,  two 
more  authentic  with  their  corresponding  plagal 
modes  were  added,  so  that  the  total  number  of 
Church  modes  was  twelve.  Some  theorists 
claimed  the  existence  of  two  more,  Locrian  and 
Hypolocrian  (one  authentic  and  one  plagal) ;  but 
neither  of  these  was  ever  used  in  actual  practice. 
The  reason  for  their  rejection  will  become  ap- 
parent a  little  further  on.  The  following  is  a 
complete  table  of  the  fourteen  modes: 


PLAGAL  MODES. 


Hjpodorian. 


MODES  (OF.,  Fr.  mode,  from  Lat.  modus, 
measure,  manner).  The  octave  species  in  use 
before  the  time  of  the  invention  of  harmony  as 
well  as  during  the  period  of  the  contrapuntal 
style  up  to  the  time  of  Bach.  The  original 
scale  of  the  ancient  Greeks  was  a  descending 
minor  scale  with  semi-steps  between  the  third 
and  fourth  and  seventh  and  eighth  degrees.  Other 
tones  than  the  fundamental  were  also  taken  as 
starting  points,  but  the  tones  of  the  original  scale 
remained  unaltered.  This  shifted  the  position  of 
the  semi-steps  every  time  the  starting  tone  was 
shifted.  The  combinations  of  tones  thus  obtained 
were  regarded  as  separate  scales  and  called  oc- 
tave species.  This  system  the  theorists  of  the 
early  Middle  Ages  adopted.  But  instead  of  using 
descending  scales  they  made  use  of  ascending 
ones.  At  the  same  time  they  retained  the  original 
Greek  names,  but  applied  them  to  scales  not 
corresponding  to  the  original  Greek  scales.  From 
among  the  nine  octave  species  of  the  Greeks  four 
were  originally  selected  for  the  service  of  the 
Church.  These  were  known  as  the  authentic 
modes.  Their  establishment  is  commonly  at- 
tributed to  Saint  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  who 


( In  this  table  the  final  note,  corresponding  to 
our  modern  tonic,  of  each  mode  is  indicated  by 
a  half  note,  the  semi-steps  by  slurs. )  It  will  l» 
seen  that  the  compass  of  every  authentic  mode 
is  from  the  flinal  to  its  octave  above;  that  of 
every  plagal  mode  from  a  fourth  below  to  a 
fifth  above  the  final.  Every  authentic  mode  has 
its  corresponding  plagal  distinguished  by  the 
prefix  hypo  (under),  and  beginning  f  tourth 
below  the  authentic  mode.  Furthermore,  every 
mode  must  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two 
series  of  tones  forming  either  a  pentachord  or  a 
tetrachord  in  such  a  manner  that  the  highest 
tone  of  the  lower  scries  is  at  the  same  time  the 
lowest  tone  of  the  higher  series.  In  the  authentic 
modes  the  first  five  tones  constitute  the  penta- 
chord, the  last  four  the  tetrachord.  In  the  plagal 
modes  the  tetrachord  comes  before  the  penta- 
chord. The  former  arrangement  is  called  by  the 
eminent  theorist  Zarlino  (q.v.)  harmonic  di- 
vision {divisione  armonica)  ;  the  latter  arrange- 
ment, arithmetical  division  {divisione  arit- 
metica).  In  examining  the  above  table  it  will 
be  noticed  that  the  pentachords  and  tetrachords 
of  all  the  modes,  except  the  Locrian  and  Hypo- 


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MODJESKA. 


locrian,  exhibit  the  compass  of  a  perfect  fifth  or 
fourth.  In  these  two  modes  liie  pentachord 
rerpresents  the  compass  of  a  diminished  fifth,  the 
tetrachord  that  of  an  augmented  fourth  (trito- 
nus).  Both  these  intervals  were  strongly  con- 
demned by  musical  theory,  and  hence  these  two 
modes  were  rejected  as  impure,  and  therefore 
impracticable. 

In  every  mode  four  notes  have  a  special  sig- 
nificance, just  as  the  tonic,  dominant,  and  sub- 
dominant  have  in  our  modern  scales.  These 
notes  are:  (1)  The  final;  (2)  the  dominant; 
(3)  the  mediant;  (4)  the  participant.  The  final 
is  the  tone  on  which  every  melody  ends.  By 
means  of  this  tone  the  mode  in  which  any  melody 
is  written  is  determined.  If  it  moves  within 
the  range  of  the  final  and  its  octave,  the  mode 
is  authentic;  if  it  moves  below  or  above  the 
final,  the  mode  is  plagal.  The  dominant  of  every 
authentic  mode  is  found  a  fifth  above  the  final; 
of  every  plagal  mode  a  third  below  the  dominant 
of  its  corresponding  authentic  mode.  The  only 
tone  which  can  never  serve  as  a  dominant  is  B. 
Whenever  B  would  occur,  C  is  substituted  for 
it.  The  reason  for  this  change  is  that  B  always 
forms  a  dissonant  interval  with  F,  either  an  aug- 
mented fourth  or  a  diminished  fifth.  The  me- 
diant derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
authentic  modes  it  always  lies  midwav  between 
the  final  and  the  dominant;  it  is  always  the 
third  tone  of  the  mode.  In  the  plagal  modes  the 
|>osition  of  the  mediant  is  rather  unsettled,  owing 
to  the  necessity  of  obtaining  a  convenient  tone 
for  cadences,  as  in  the  case  of  the  dominant,  and 
for  the  same  reason  B  can  never  appear  as  a 
mediant.  C  is  invariably  substituted.  The 
participant  in  the  authentic  modes  lies  either 
between  the  final  and  the  mediant,  or  between 
the  mediant  and  the  dominant.  If,  however, 
two  notes  lie  between  the  mediant  and  the 
dominant,  either  tone  may  serve  as  the  par- 
ticipant. In  the  plagal  modes  the  participant 
is  always  the  same  as  the  dominant  of  the  cor- 
responding authentic  mode.  Since  each  plagal 
mode  begins  a  fourth  below  its  corresponding 
authentic,  this  dominant  (participant  of  the 
plagal)  is  the  same  as  the  lowest  tone  of  the 
plagal  mode.  Here,  again,  B  is  barred  and  C 
substituted.  Likewise  F  can  never  be  partici- 
pant, the  next  higher  tone  (G)  being  substituted. 

While  every  melody  must  end  upon  the  final,  it 
may  begin  upon  any  one  of  the  four  just-men- 
tioned tones.  But  any  phrase  except  the  last 
of  a  melody  may  also  end  upon  these  tones. 
Hence  they  are  also  called  cadences  or  modula- 
tions.  As  in  a  long  melody  a  feeling  of  monotony 
would  be  produced  by  the  constant  employment 
of  these  modulations,  two  or  more  tones  are  ad- 
mitted. The  final,  dominant,  mediant,  and  par- 
ticipant are  called  regular  modulations,  and  the 
additional  tones  conceded  modulations.  One  of 
the  most  frequent  of  these  conceded  modulations 
is  the  seventh  tone  of  the  mode.  This  always 
appears  an  octave  lower  than  the  true  pitch,  on 
account  of  a  license  permitting  the  extension  of 
cfvery  authentic  mode  by  one  tone  below  its  final 
and  of  every  plagal  mode  by  a  sixth  above  the 
final.  In  order  to  bring  melodies  within  the 
range  of  certain  voices  it  sometimes  happens 
that  they  are  written  a  fourth  higher  or  a 
fifth  lower  than  the  regular  mode.  Such  trans- 
position is  always  indicated  by  a  B  flat  in  the 
signature.    In  these  cases  the  true  final  will  be 


either  a  fourth  below  or  a  fifth  above  the  closing 
note. 

According  to  their  range  melodies  are  classed 
as  perfect,  imperfect,  and  superfluous.  A  perfect 
melody  moves  within  the  range  of  the  mode  in 
which  it  is  written;  an  imperfect  melody  does 
not  exhaust  the  entire  range;  a  superfluous 
melody  exceeds  the  range  either  above  or  below. 
Some  melodies  exhaust  the  complete  range  of 
both  the  authentic  and  its  corresponding  plagal 
mode;  these  are  said  to  be  written  in  a  miwed 
mode.  See  Gbeek  Music ;  Plain  Chant;  and 
for  an  explanation  of  the  two  modes  in  use  at 
present,  see  Ma  job;  Minor. 

MODESTO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Stanislaus  County,  Cal.,  77  miles  south  by  east 
of  Sacramento;  on  the  Tuolumne  River  and  on 
the  Southern  Paciflc  Railroad  (Map:  California, 
D  5).  It  has  some  manufactures,  and  a  trade 
in  grain,  fruit,  wool,  live  stock,  and  dairy  prod- 
ucts being  located  in  a  productive  region,  the  fer- 
tility of  which  is  developed  by  an  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  irrigation.  The  court-house  and  the 
county  hospital  are  flne  structures.  Population, 
1900,  2024;  1906  (local  est.),  3600. 

MODICAy  mydft-kft.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Syracuse,  Sicily,  63  miles  by  rail  southwest 
of  the  city  of  Syracuse,  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful 
valley  1446  feet  above  the  sea  ( Map :  Italy,  J  1 1 ) . 
The  principal  products  are  grain,  wine,  oil,  cheese, 
butter,  cattle,  and  mules.  There  are  a  public 
library,  a  hospital,  and  an  infant  asylum,  a  gym- 
nasium, technical  schools  and  a  technical  insti- 
tute, and  a  theatre.  Population  (commime),  in 
1881,  41,231;  in  1901,  48,962. 

MODIFIOATIOH  OF  TEMPO.    See  Tempo. 

MODH/LION  (OF.  modillion,  modiglion,  Fr. 
modillionf  from  It.  modiglione,  modillion,  from 
Lat.  modulus,  model).  An  ornamental  bracket 
much  used  in  classic  architecture,  especially  in 
the  cornices  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite 
styles.  It  is  so  called  only  when  used  in  a  long 
series — ^not  singly — and  is  usually  small.  Larger 
and  single  brackets  are  called  consoles. 

MODIOLOIDES,  m5'dt-A-loi'd§z  (Neo-Lat. 
nom.  pi.,  from  Lat.  modiolus,  nave  of  a  wheel  + 
Gk.  ff^f ,  eidos,  form ) .  One  of  the  very  earliest 
fossil  clams  Imown,  found  in  rocks  of  Lower 
Cambrian  age.     See  Fordilla;  Pelectpoda. 

MODISH,  Lady  Betty.  A  character  in  Colley 
Gibber's  Careless  Husband,  a  charming  woman 
of  fashion,  who,  though  coquetting  with  Lord 
Foppington,  is  in  love  with  Lord  Morelove.  Mrs. 
Oldfield  acted  the  part  so  successfully  as  to  win 
unusual  praise  from  the  author. 

MODJESKA^  md-jes'k&,  Helena  (1844—). 
A  noted  actress,  of  Polish  origin,  since  1876  a  resi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Michael  Opido,  a  musician,  and  was  bom  in 
Craoow.  Married  in  1860  to  a  manager  named 
Modrzejewski,  from  the  contraction  of  whose 
name  comes  that  by  which  she  is  kno'wn,  she 
became  in  1865  the  leading  actress  in  the  theatre 
of  her  native  city.  Three  years  later  she  was 
married  to  her  second  husband.  Count  Bozenta 
Chlapowski,  and  became  the  star  of  the  Imperial 
Theatre  of  Warsaw.  Political  difiiculties  and  ill 
health  led  her  with  her  husband  to  go  in  1876 
to  California,  where  they  established  a  Polish 
colony.  This  did  not  succeed,  and  after  only  a 
few  months'  study  of  English  the  Polish  Countess 


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648 


MODULATION. 


made  her  d^but  in  San  Francisco  (July,  1877)  as 
Adrienne  Lecouvreur.  She  won  a  surprising  suc- 
cess, and  was  soon  seen  in  New  York  in  the  same 
play.  In  1880  she  made  her  London  d^but  in  the 
part  of  Camille.  In  1889  and  1890  she  starred 
with  Edwin  Booth,  with  whom  she  had  already 
in  1883  appeared  in  Romeo  and  Juliet.  Her  most 
notable  impersonations  were  of  Shakesperian 
character,  among  them  Ophelia,  Rosalind,  Viola, 
Imogen,  Cleopatra,  and  Lady  Macbeth.  Her 
great  natural  gifts  gained  her  as  a  tragic  ac- 
tress a  foremost  rank  upon  the  American  stage. 
In  May,  1905,  she  was  given  a  farewell  bene- 
fit in  New  York  City,  which  marked  her  re- 
tirement from  the  stage.  She  then  settled  in 
Orange  County,  in  Southern  California.  Con- 
sult: Strang,  Famous  Adreaaea  of  the  Day  in 
America  (lESeton,  1899)  ;  McKay  and  Win^ate, 
Famous  American  Actors  of  To-day  (New  York, 
1896)  ;  Gilder,  in  Actors  and  Actresses  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  ed.  by  Matthews 
and  Button   (New  York,  1886). 

XttDUKGy  mining,  A  town  of  Lower  Aus- 
tria, situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Wienerwald,  ten 
miles  south-southwest  of  Vienna.  The  manufac- 
tures consist  of  iron  products,  railway  supplies, 
footwear,  etc.  Population,  in  1890,  10,956;  in 
1900,  16,304. 

MO^OC.  A  small  but  warlike  and  aggres- 
sive tribe,  formerly  ranging  about  Lower  Kla- 
math Lake  and  Lost  River,  and  on  the  extreme 
northeast  frontier  of  California.  The  name  is 
said  to  mean  'aliens'  (i.e.  enemies),  having  been 
given  bv  some  one  of  the  neighboring  tribes. 
They  call  themselvee  Maklaks,  'people,*  and  with 
their  northern  neighbors,  the  Klamath,  whose 
language  they  speak  and  with  whom  they  origi- 
nally formed  o^e  tribe,  are  at  present  classified 
as  a  distinct  linguistic  stock  known  as  Lutua- 
mian,  but  they  may,  however,  eventually  prove 
to  be  connected  with  the  Shahaptian  stock. 
At  some  earlier  period  they  seceded  from  the 
parent  Klamath  tribe  and  established  themselves 
on  Lost  Riv^T.  Their  houses  were  round  log 
structures,  covered  with  earth,  and  their  women 
were  expert  basket-weavers  and  cradle-makers. 
The  Modof)  made  no  alliances,  but  were  at  war 
with  all  the  weaker  surroimding  tribes,  and 
carried  on  a  regular  slave  trade  by  selling  their 
captives  to  the  Columbia  tribes  in  exchange  for 
ponies.  They  were  of  vigorous  vitality,  and  kept 
up  their  numbers  in  spite  of  smallpox  and  con- 
stant wars  with  both  Indians  and  whites.  They 
came  into  early  collision  with  the  California 
immigrants,  and  a  chronic  warfare  was  inau- 
gurated, marked  by  wholesale  massacres  on  both 
sides.  In  1850  they  were  severely  defeated  by 
troops  under  Captain  Lyon.  In  1852  they  mas- 
sacred a  number  o^  settlers,  for  which  terrible 
iretaliation  was  made  by  a  band  of  miners  under 
the  notorious  Ben  Wright,  who  invited  their 
warriors  to  a  feast  and  peace  conference,  and 
treacherously  murdered  forty-one  of  the  forty-six 
who  responded.  Although  thus .  diminished  by 
nearly  half  their  fighting  force,  the  Modoc  recom- 
menced the  war  of  extermination,  which  continued 
until  1864,  when  they  entered  into  a  treaty  by 
which  they  agreed  to  go  upon  the  Klamath 
reservation  in  Oregon.  By  this  time  they  had 
been  reduced  to  abput  250.  Finding  their  posi- 
tion there  intolerable  by  reason  of  the  persecution 
and  insults  of  the  Klamath,  who  considered  them 


as  rebels,  the  majority  under  a  younger  leader 
known  as  Captain  Jack  (q.v.)  left  the  reserva- 
tion and  returned  to  their  old  home  on  Lost 
River.  They  were  induced  to  return  on  promise 
of  protection,  but  finding  themselves  again  sub- 
jected to  the  same  persecution  without  official 
redress,  they  returned  to  Lost  River,  leaving  only 
about  100  behind  imder  the  old  hereditary  chief 
Skonchin.  Orders  were  given  to  the  troops  to 
bring  them  back,  and  on  November  29,  1872,  the 
final  Modoc  war  was  begun  by  a  night  attack  on 
Captain  Jack's  camp.  The  Modoc  retreated  to 
the  Lava  Beds,  just  across  the  line,  where  they 
so  intrenched  themselves  in  the  labyrinth  of  vol- 
canic rocks  that  four  hundred  regular  troops 
were  twice  forced  to  retire  with  heavy  loss  with- 
out being  able  to  come  near  enough  even  to  see 
one  of  their  concealed  enemies.  A  peace  com- 
mission to  confer  with  the  hostiles  was  then 
appointed,  consisting  of  General  Canby,  Rev. 
Dr.  Thomas,  and  Indian  Superintendent  Meacham. 
They  met  the  head  men  of  the  Modoc  on  April  11, 
1873.  Jack  repeated  his  demand  to  remain  on 
Lost  River,  and  on  Canby 's  refusal,  drew  his 
revolver  and  shot  him  dead.  At  the  same  moment 
the  other  warriors  fired,  killing  Thomas  instantly 
and  severely  wounding  Meacham,  but  were  driven 
off  before  they  could  finish  the  work  by  the  ar- 
rival of  the  troops  whom  Canby  had  kept  hidden 
within  easy  reach.  The  war  was  continued 
imdcT  General  Davis  until  the  hostiles  were 
fiinally  starved  out  and  compelled  to  surrender 
two  months  later.  A  part  of  the  surrendered 
hostiles  were  returned  to  their  kindred  on  the 
Klamath  reservation,  Oregon,  while  the  rest  were 
transported  to  the  Quapaw  reservation  in  Indian 
Territory.  Those  on  the  Klamath  reservation  now 
number  225,  and  are  apparently  fairlv  prosperous 
and  advancing  and  coalescing  with  the  Klamath. 
Those  on  the  Quapaw  reservation  number  50, 
having  decreased  about  one-half  since  the  re- 
moval.   See  Klamath. 

MOO^BED.  The  nephew  of  King  Arthur. 
Tennyson  represents  him  ambitious  to  gain  the 
throne,  and  after  revealing  Guinevere's  unfaith- 
fulness to  the  King,  he  stirs  up  a  revolt,  during 
which  Arthur  is  slain. 

MODUGNO,  mA-d<55'nyA.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Baridelle  Puglie,  Italy,  about  five  miles 
southwest  of  Bari.  It  markets  good  fruit,  wine, 
and  oil.  Population,  in  1901  (commune),  11,- 
885. 

MODULATION  (in  Music)  (Lat.  modulatio, 
from  modularif  to  regulate,  from  modulus,  dimin- 
utive of  modus f  measure,  manner).  The  process 
of  changing  from  one  key  to  another  within  the 
same  composition.  In  a  movement  of  even  the 
smallest  dimensions  monotony  would  result  if 
the  composer  should  confine  himself  strictly  to 
one  key.  There  are  two  kinds  of  modulations, 
passing  and  final.  Passing  modulation  intro- 
duces chords  belonging  to  oiher  keys  only  inci- 
dentally and  soon  returns  to  the  original  key. 
But  when  a  piece  modulates  so  that  the  original 
key  is  abandoned  and  a  nerw  key  takes  its  place, 
the  modulation  is  final.  In  the  sonata-form  (see 
Sonata)  the  first  development  of  the  principal 
subject  confines  itself  only  to  passing  modula- 
tions. A  final  modulation  occurs  at  the 
entrance  of  the  secondary  subject  (generally 
to  the  dominant  key).  The  second  or  de- 
velopment  section    is   concerned   entirely  with 


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MODULATION. 


649 


XCBBia 


passing  modulation.  But  even  here  the  choice 
of  keys  is  not  arbitrary.  However,  no 
rules  can  be  given;  the  artistic  and  sesthetic 
instinct  of  the  composer  is  the  sole  guide.  Ac- 
cording to  the  theory  of  the  present  day,  all 
modulation  is  regarded  in  its  relation  to  the 
principal  key  of  the  piece,  and,  in  a  wider  sense, 
all  keys  are  but  steps  within  the  unlimited 
domain  of  tonality  (q.v.).  Older  composers  are 
very  sparing  and  careful  in  the  use  of  modula- 
tion, but  those  of  the  nineteenth  century  (espe- 
cially Wagner,  Schumann,  Chopin)  practically  re- 
moved all  barriers.  The  means  of  modulation  are 
various  and  cannot  be  discussed  in  an  article 
like  the  present.  The  most  frequent  expedient 
is  the  different  interpretations  put  upon  the 
same  chord.  Thus  the  chord  c,  e,  g  may  be 
conceived  as  tonic  of  C,  dominant  of  F,  sub- 
dominant  of  G,  etc.,  and  consequently  can  be 
used  to  modulate  at  once  to  those  keys.  In 
modem  music  the  chord  of  the  diminished  seventh 
plays  an  important  part  in  modulation.  Thus 
cjf,  e,  g,  bb  leads  into  D  minor}  the  same  chord 
conceived  as  e,  g,  bfc,  db  into  F  minor;  as  g,  bb, 
db,  fb  to  A  flat  minor;  as  a$,  cjf,  e,  g  into  B 
minor,  etc.  The  principal  works  ott  modulation 
are:  Drftseke,  Anweisung  zum  kunstgerechten 
Modulieren  ( Freienwalde,  1876) ;  Riemann,  Har- 
monie  und  Modulationalehre  (Leipzig,  1900)  ; 
Jadassohn,  Die  Kunst  zu  modulieren  (Leipzig, 
1890). 

MOIKCTLE  (Fr.  module,  from  Lat.  modulus, 
small  measure).  In  classic  architecture,  an 
arbitrary  measure  or  standard  for  determining 
the  proportions  of  the  various  members  of  the  col- 
umnar orders.  It  is  based  upon  the  width  of  the 
temple  fagade.  Vitruvius,  upon  whose  statement 
all  such  calculations  have  been  based,  divides  a 
hexastyle  Doric  front,  for  example,  into  44 
moduli,  the  capital  being  the  modulus,  the 
diameter  of  the  shaft  two  moduli,  the  total 
height  of  the  colimin  14  moduli,  etc.  Such  a 
scheme  was  undoubtedly  a  Greek  idea  incor- 
porated in  the  writings  of  the  Greek  architects 
whom  Vitruvius  copied.  But  no  such  cast-iron 
rules  could  have  been  formulated  as  were  laid 
down  by  the  neo-classic  architects  of  the  Renais- 
sance, such  as  Serlio  and  Vignola,  who  made  the 
modulus  the  one  determining  unit  of  proportion. 
By  them  the  diameter,  semi-diameter,  or  one- 
third  of  the  diameter  are  most  frequently  used; 
the  first  being  usually  divided  into  60  parts  (or 
minutes),  the  second  into  30  parts,  and  the  third 
into  20  parts. 

HODUXUS  (Lat.,  small  measure).  A  term 
variously  used  in  mathematics.  In  the  theory 
of  logarithms  (q.v.)  it  designates  the  multiplier 
by  which  one  system  of  logsirithms  is  trans- 
formed into  another.  The  expression  j/*a*  H-  b* 
is  often  called  the  modulus  of  the  complex  num- 
ber, a  H-  hi,  where  ♦  stands  for  i/^.  (See  CJoM- 
PLEX  Number.)  In  the  theory  of  numbers,  the 
term  congruence  (q.v.)  is  applied  to  an  equality 
in  which  we  neglect  certain  quantities  which  are 
called  'moduli;'  e.g.  26=12  (mod.  7)  denotes 
that  26  is  congruent  to  12  to  the  modulus  7, 
i.e.  that  26  — 12  is  a  multiple  of  7. 

MODXTLUS  OF  ELASTICITY.     See  Elas- 

TIC3ITY. 

MOE,  m(/e,  J<5bgen  (1815-82).  A  Norwegian 
poet  and  folklorist.    He  was  bom  at  Holm^  in 


the  District  of  Ringerike,  and  before  his  entry 
at  the  Universitv  of  Christiania  became  well 
acquainted  with  AsbjOrnsen  (q.v.),  later  his  col- 
laborator. From  1835  to  1852  hardly  a  year  passed 
during  which  Moe  did  not  make  a  long  tour  of 
the  coimtry  in  search  of  popular  legends.  The 
first  collection  of  these  tales,  edited  by  Moe  and 
Asbj5msen  under  the  title  Norake  Folkeeventyr, 
appeared  in  1842-44;  was  republished  by  Moe  in 
1852,  and  was  translated  into  English  by  Dasent 
(1859).  His  Samlede  Skrifter  (1877)  include 
the  popular  poems  (1850)  and  the  juvenile 
stories,  /  Br6nden  og  i  Kjomei  ( 1851) ,  Moe  died 
at  Christiansand,  where  he  had  been  bishop  for 
seven  years. 

MOEL,  moil  (Welsh,  hill).  A  hill  having  a 
roimded  outline  in  its  upper  portion  because  the 
summit  is  protected  from  rapid  denudation  by  a 
layer  of  soil  and  a  growth  of  forest  trees  or  grass, 
or  by  marshes  of  peat.  Consult  Marr,  The  Ge- 
ographical  Journal    (London,   1901). 

MOELLEB,  mSl^Sr,  Louis  (1856—).  An 
American  genre  painter,  bom  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  a  pupil  of  E.  M.  Ward  and  Will 
Low  in  New  York  City,  and  of  Dietz  and 
Duveneck  in  Munich.  He  is  a  clever  delineator 
of  character.  In  1884  he  won  the  first  Hallgar- 
ten  Prize  with  his  picture  "Puzzled,"  and  he  was 
made  a  National  Academician  in  1895. 

MOEN,  mS^en.  A  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic 
Sea,  separated  from  Seeland  on  the  northwest 
by  the  Ulv  Sound,  and  from  Falster  on  the  south- 
west by  the  Gron  Soimd  (Map:  Denmark,  F  4). 
Area,  82  square  miles.  Population,  in  1901, 
14,504.  Its  surface  is  remarkably  irregular  com- 
pared with  the  rest  of  Denmark.  The  limestone 
formation  which  underlies  a  large  part  of  the 
country  here  crops  out  in  the  form  of  high  and 
steep  chalk  cliffs  of  great  natural  beauty.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile.  Agriculture  and  fisheries 
are  the  leading  industries.  The  chief  town  and 
seaport  is  Stege,  on  the  west  coast,  with  a  popula- 
tion (1901)  of  2247. 

MCB^RS.  The  Greek  name  of  the  Fates. 
See  Pabc^. 

HKEBJS,  me^rls  (Lat,  from  Gk.  Ho^t,  Moi- 
ris),  Lake.  The  ancient  name  of  a  sheet  of 
water  in  Central  Egypt,  a  remnant  of  which,  it 
is  generally  agreed,  exists  in  the  present  Birket- 
Karun  or  Birket  el-Kerun  (*lake  of  horns*),  34 
miles  long  by  4%  miles  wide,  extending  along 
the  northwestern  borders  of  the  Province  of 
Fayum.  The  classical  writers  have  left  very 
confused  descriptions  of  a  great  artificial 
reservoir  at  this  locality  for  storing  the  water 
of  the  Nile  and  irrigating  the  surrounding  coun- 
try by  means  of  sluices.  As  the  lake  is  at  pres- 
ent 130  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  it  must, 
within  historic  times,  have  hollowed  out  its  bed 
200  feet,  or  the  artificial  lake  must  have  been  a 
small  reservoir  southeast  of  it,  or  else  the  an- 
cients must  have  totally  misrepresented  the  whole 
matter.  The  investigations  of  Major  Brown, 
which  have  been  fully  confirmed  by  Petrie,  seem 
to  point  to  the  last-named  solution.  The  lake 
formed  by  the  Bahr-Yusuf  (Joseph's  Canal) 
must  have  been  much  larger,  until  the  kings  of 
Dynasty  XU.,  and  later  the  second  Ptolemy, 
diked  off  considerable  portions.  The  semi-mythi- 
cal King  Moeris  of  Herodotus  is  Amenemhat  III., 
the  builder  of  the  Labyrinth   (q.v.),  whose  two 


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colossi  have  been  discovered  at  Biahmu.  Consult 
Petrie,  Hawara,  Biahmu,  and  Arsinoe  (London, 
1889). 

MOEBOy  mwfl^rd,  Moebo-Mkata,  or  Mwerv. 
A  lake  in  South  Central  Africa,  situated  100  miles 
"west  of  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 
(Map:  Africa,  G  5.)  It  lies  on  a  plateau  at  an 
altitude  of  3000  feet,  and  is  surrounded,  espe- 
cially on  the  north,  by  wooded  mountains  having 
an  Alpine  aspect.  It  is  68  miles  long,  24  miles 
wide,  and  very  deep,  especially  in  the  northern 
part.  It  is  evidently  of  great  age,  as  it  con- 
tains a  remarkable  species  of  fish  belonging  to  the 
Silurian  period  and  of  amphibious  habits.  The 
Luapula  River  enters  the  lake  by  two  mouths  at 
the  southern  end,  and  leaves  at  the  northern  end 
to  join  the  Congo.  The  lake  was  discovered  in 
1867  by  Livingstone.  The  settlement  of  Rhodesia 
was  founded  on  its  eastern  shore  in  1892. 

J£(E81A,  me'shl-A  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Mourta 
Moisia),  An  ancient  Roman  province,  bounded 
by  the  Danube,  and  for  a  short  distance  by  the 
Savus  (Save),  on  the  north,  the  Black  Sea  on 
the  east,  the  mountain  chains  of  Hemus  (Bal- 
kan )  and  Orbelus  on  the  south,  and  by  the  range 
of  Scardus  and  the  river  Drinus  (Drina)  on  the 
west.  The  river  Cibrus  (Tzibritza)  divided  it  into 
two  parts,  the  eastern  (Moesia  Inferior)  corre- 
sponding approximately  to  the  present  Bulgaria, 
and  the  western  (Moesia  Superior)  to  Servia.  Its 
original  inhabitants  were  mostly  of  Thracian  race. 
Gaulish  or  Celtic  invaders  settled  in  Western 
Moesia  about  B.C.  277,  under  the  name  of  Scor- 
disci.  The  Romans  first  came  in  contact  with  the 
tribes  of  Moesia  after  the  conquest  of  Macedonia. 
In  B.C.  75  C.  Scribonius  Curio  forced  his  way  as 
far  north  as  the  Danube,  and  gained  a  victory 
over  the  Moesians,  but  the  country  was  not 
completely  subjugated  till  B.C.  29.  It  was  made 
a  Roman  province  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and 
flourished  for  more  than  two  centuries;  but  as  a 
frontier  province  it  was  much  exposed  to  hostile 
invasions,  and  required  a  line  of  fortresses  and 
stations  all  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube. 
The  chief  Roman  towns  were  Viminacium  in 
Moesia  Superior,  and  Istros,  Marcianopolis,  and 
Nicopolis  in  Moesia  Inferior.  In  a.d.  250  the 
Ooths  made  an  irruption  into  the  country,  and 
defeated  and  slew  the  Roman  Emperor  Decius 
in  the  following  year,  and  about  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century  it  was  given  up  to  them 
by  the  Emperor  Theodosius  I.  Slavic  tribes 
settled  in  Moesia  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  cen- 
turies, and  toward  the  close  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury the  Bulgarians  established  their  kingdom  in 
the  eastern  part. 

MCESO-GOTHS,  nie'sA-gftths'.  A  name  given 
to  the  Goths  who,  early  in  the  third  century,  set- 
tled in  Lower  Moesia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dan- 
ube. In  the  fourth  century  they  were  converted 
to  Christianity  through  the  efforts  of  Ulfilas,  who 
translated  the  Bible  into  their  dialect.  (See  Ulfi- 
las. )  The  name  Moeso-GJoths  is  applied  especial- 
ly to  those  Goths  who  remained  in  "Moesia  after 
the  great  migrations  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century.    See  Goths. 

MOF'FAT,  Robert  (1795-1883).  A  mission- 
ary to  South  Africa,  bom  in  Ormiston,  Scotland. 
In  early  life  he  was  a  gardener,  but  having 
made  the  acquaintance  of  some  Wesleyan  min- 
isters,   he    determined    to    engage    in    religious 


work,  and  sought  to  qualify  himself  to  be  a  mis- 
sionary. He  was  accepted  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  and  set  apart  for  the  ministry 
in  1816;  was  appointed  to  South  Africa,  and 
arrived  at  Cape  Town  early  in  1817.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  Namaqualand,  and  to  the  kraal  of 
Africaner,  a  savage  chief,  who  was  converted  and 
became  an  earnest  Christian.  The  country, 
however,  did  not  prove  well  adapted  for  the  loca- 
tion of  a  mission  centre ;  and  Moffat,  after  having 
explored  a  considerable  region,  established  the 
station  of  Kuniman  in  1825.  His  missionary 
labors  were  very  successful,  and  productive  of 
great  benefits  in  the  amelioration  of  the  character 
of  the  people  and  the  development  of  civilization. 
In  1859  a  new  centre  was  established  among  the 
Matabele  at  Inajati.  The  missionary  labors  of 
Dr.  Moffat  and  his  travels  and  adventures  are 
described  in  his  book.  Missionary  Labors  and 
Scenes  in  South  Africa  (1842).  During  1839-43 
he  visited  England  and  then  returned  to  Africa, 
and  remained  there  till  1870,  when  he  went 
back  to  England  and  settled  in  Brixton,  London, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1873  he 
was  presented  with  the  siim  of  £5800  in  recog- 
nition of  his  great  services.  His  daughter  was 
the  wife  of  Dr.  David  Livingstone.  Besides  the 
volume  already  mentioned.  Dr.  Moffat  published 
Africa,  or  Oospel  Light  Shining  in  the  Midst  of 
Heathen  Darkness:  A  Sermon  on  Faith  (1841) ; 
and  Rivers  of  Water  in  Dry  Places:  An  Ac- 
count of  the  Introduction  of  Christianity  into 
South  Africa,  and  of  Mr.  Moffat's  Missionary 
Labors  (1863).  He  also  translated  the  Bible 
into  the  language  of  the  Bechuanas.  The  full  ac- 
count of  Moffat's  life  and  labors  is  given  in  the 
Lives  of  Robert  and  Mary  Moffat,  by  their  son, 
John  South  Moffat  (London,  1885;  new  edition, 
1886;  popular  edition,  1889). 

ICOGADOB,  m6g-A-d6r',  or  Sueba.  The  prin- 
cipal seaport  of  Morocco,  situated  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  120  miles  west-southwest  of  the  city  of 
Morocco,  of  which  it  is  the  port  (Map:  Africa, 
CI).  It  is  built  on  a  rocky  promontory,  sur- 
rounded on  the  land  side  by  sand-dunes.  A  chan- 
nel between  the  town  and  a  neighboring  island 
forms  the  harbor.  Mogador  is  the  best-built 
town  of  Morocco,  having  been  planned  by  a 
French  engineer  in  1760.  A  part  of  it,  the  Kaa- 
bah  or  castle,  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  con- 
tains the  residences  of  the  Moorish  officials  and 
of  the  protected  Jewish  and  Christian  mer- 
chants. Most  of  the  Jews,  however,  live  in  a 
separate  quarter  of  the  city.  The  trade  of  the 
city  is  considerable,  and  is  mostly  with  Great 
Britain  and  France.  The  principal  exports  are 
olive  oil,  almonds,  gum  arable,  hides,  goat  skins, 
and  wool.  The  total  value  of  the  trade  for  1904 
was  $3,165,000.    Population,  about  15,000. 

MOOIIiA,  mo-g^,  or  ICOGILAS,  Peteb 
( c.  1 596-c.  1647).  A  Russian  theologian.  He  was 
bom  in  Moldavia,  of  a  noble  Wallachian 
family,  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Paris.  After  serving  in  the  Polish  army  he  went 
into  a  monastery  at  Kiev,  and  became  metropoli- 
tan of  that  seeMn  1629.  He  set  up  a  printing- 
press,  and  founded  an  academy  and  a  library, 
to  which  he  gave  his  own  collection  of  books. 
He  published  a  catechism  in  1645,  and  other 
minor  works.  His  great  title  to  fame  rests  upon 
the  orthodox  Confession  of  Faith,  which  vrta 
drawn  uj>  at  his  instance  by  the  Abbot  Kosslor- 
ski  of  Kiev,  approved  at  a  provincial  synod  in 


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1640,  and  accepted  by  the  patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople, Jerusalem,  and  Antioch  in  1642-43, 
and  by  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem  in  1672.  It 
has  been  edited  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  Pana- 
geotes  (Amsterdam,  1662)  and  Hoffmann  (Leip- 
zig, 1695).  A  Grerman  translation  by  Frisch  ap- 
peared at  Frankfort  in  1727.  It  is  given  by 
Von  Kimmell,  in  Lihri  Symholioi  EccleaioB  Orien- 
talis  (Jena,  1843). 

MOGOE;  mO'gdk.  The  capital  of  the  district 
of  Ruby  Mines,  Upper  Burma,  India,  66  miles 
northeast  of  Mandalay  (Map:  Burma,  C  2). 
The  town  lies  in  a  valley  at  an  altitude  of  4000 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  noted  for  its  ruby  mines, 
which  are  controlled  by  a  European  company, 
which  has  introduced  a  complete  modern  mining 
installation  with  electric  power  furnished  by  an 
artificial  reservoir  supplied  by  the  Yeni  stream. 
Population,  estimated,  8000. 

MO'GONTFACTJM.      The    Roman    name    of 

MOGUL,  Great  (more  correctly  Mughal,  or 
Mogkul;  Hind.  Mughal,  from  Mongol  Mongol, 
Mongol,  from  mong,  to  be  brave).  The  popu- 
lar designation  of  the  Emperor  of  Delhi,  as  the 
impersonation  of  the  powerful  empire  estab- 
lished in  Hindustan  by  the  Mongol  conqueror, 
Baber,  the  great-grandson  of  Timur,  in  1526. 
The  most  important  princes  of  this  line,  after 
Baber  (the  first  Great  Mogul),  were  Akbar 
(1556-1605),  Jehangir  (1605-27),  Shah  Jehan 
(1628-58),  and  Aurungzebe  (1658-1707).  In 
1803  the  Great  Mogul,  Shah  A  lam,  was  deprived 
of  his  throne,  and  in  1827  he  surrendered  even 
the  appearance  of  authority,  becoming  a  pen- 
sioner of  the  British.  In  1857  Mohammed 
Bahadur,  the  last  of  the  dynasty,  who  had  been 
invested  with  the  imperial  dignity  at  Delhi  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Sepoy  Mutiny,  was  con- 
demned and  transported  for  his  complicity  in  the 
mutiny  to  Rangoon,  where  he  died  in  1862.  Con- 
sult Keene,  Fall  of  the  Mughal  Empire  (London. 
1876). 

MOHAcS,  myhftch.  A  market  town  of  Hun- 
gary, situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
26  miles  southeast  of  FUnfkirchen  (Map:  Hun- 
gary, F  4).  It  is  poorly  built,  but  is  an  im- 
portant station  for  steamers,  and  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  in  wood,  coal,  and  grain. 
It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  August 
29,  1526,  between  the  Hungarians  under  Louis  II. 
and  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the  Magnificent. 
The  King  and  over  20,000  Himgarians  and  Ger- 
mans perished,  and  a  large  part  of  Hungary  fell 
under  the  yoke  of  Turkey.  On  August  12, 
1687,  a  second  battle  was  fought  at  Mohfics, 
in  which  the  Imperialists  under  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine defeated  the  Turks,  thereby  putting  an  end 
to  the  Turkish  dominion  in  Central  Hungary. 
Population,  in  1890,  14,403;  in  1900,  15,832. 

MO^HAIK  <0F.  mouhaire,  mouaire,  mohere, 
Pr.  moire,  from  Ar.  mukhayyar,  fabric  of  goats' 
bair).  The  wool  of  the  Angora  goat  (see  Goat) 
of  Asia  Minor  and  South  Africa.  Few  animals 
have  so  beautiful  a  covering  as  the  fine,  soft, 
silky,  long,  and  always  pure  white  wool  of  this 
goat.  Each  animal  at  the  annual  clip  in  April  or 
May  yields  from  two  pounds  to  four  pounds  of 
-wool.  The  fabric  mohair  made  from  this  wool  is 
characterized  by  its  light  weight,  smooth,  dust- 
shedding  surface,  and  lustre.  In  pile  fabrics, 
such  as  plushes  and  astrakhans,  mohair  is  some- 
Vol.  XIIL— 42. 


times  used  for  the  pile-warp,  while  the  body  is 
made  of  cotton.  The  fabric  known  as  camel's 
hair  is  made  from  the  best  mohair,  which  enters 
into  the  manufacture  of  many  fabrics.  Consult 
The  Angora  Ooat  {Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  137, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, 1901 ) .  For  the  production  of  mohair  in 
the  United  States,  see  Wool. 

MOHAM^MED  (Ar.  i/u/iam mod,  the  Praised; 
according  to  Deutsch,  Sprenger,  and  Hirschfeld, 
the  predicted  Messiah  (cf.  Haggai  ii.  7).  The 
founder  of  Islam.  He  was  born  about  a.d.  570, 
at  Mecca,  the  son  of  Abd  Allah,  of  the  family 
of  Hashim  and  Amina,  of  the  family  of  Zuhra, 
both  of  whom  belonged  to  branches  of  the 
powerful  tribe  of  the  Koreish.  His  father,  a 
poor  merchant,  died  before  or  shortly  after 
Mohammed's  birth;  and  his  mother,  after  the 
fashion  of  her  tribe,  cave  the  child  to  a  Bedouin 
woman,  that  she  might  nurse  him  in  the  health- 
ful air  of  the  desert.  The  infant  was  subject 
to  fits,  which  w^ere  ascribed  to  demons,  and  the 
nurse  brought  him  back  in  his  third  year.  Three 
years  afterwards  his  mother  died.  His  grand- 
father, Abd  al-Muttalib,  adopted  the  boy;  and 
when  the  grandfather  died,  Mohammed's*^  uncle, 
Abu  Talib,  a  man  of  influence,  though  poor,  took 
him  into  his  house,  and  remained  his  best  friend 
and  protector  throughout  his  life.  The  later  tra- 
dition has  surrounded  Mohammed's  youth  with 
unreliable  legends.  What  is  known  is  that  he  at 
first  gained  a  scanty  livelihood  by  tending  the 
fiocks  of  the  Meccans,  and  that  he  once  or  twice 
accompanied  his  uncle  on  his  journeys  to  South 
Arabia  and  Syria.  In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he 
entered  the  service  of  a  rich  widow  named  Kha- 
dija,  who  was  also  of  the  Koreish,  and  accom- 
panied her  caravans,  perhaps  as  a  camel-driver, 
to  the  fairs.  Soon  Khadija,  who  was  much  older 
than  he  and  twice  widowed,  offered  him  her  hand, 
which  he  accepted.  She  bore  him  a  son,  Al- 
Kasim,  and  four  daughters,  Fatima,  Zainab, 
Rukaiya,  and  Umm  Kulthum;  and  afterwards  a 
second  son,  whom  he  called  Abd  Allah.  Both 
sons  died  early.  Mohammed  conducted  Khadija's 
business  at  Mecca  with  success,  although  he 
spent  much  time  in  solitary  contemplation.  He 
was  esteemed  for  his  integrity  and  good  judg- 
ment, and  there  is  nothing  of  much  importance  to 
be  told  of  his  life  imtil  he  reached  his  fortieth 
year,  and  received  his  first  revelation. 

The  conditions  attending  his  advent  as  a  re- 
ligious leader  are  important.  By  the  year  600 
Christianity  had  penetrated  Arabia  through 
Syria  and  Abyssinia.  Judaism  no  less  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  peninsula,  particularly  in 
the  north,  which  was  dotted  over  with  Jewish 
colonies  founded  by  emigrants  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  especially  round  about 
Yathrib  (Medina).  That  both  Christianity  and 
Judaism  had  found  an  entrance  into  the  more 
southerly  part  of  Arabia  is  shown  by  the  mono- 
theistic mscriptions  found  there.  Besides  these  two 
important  religious  elements,  several  sects,  rem- 
nants of  the  numerous  ancient  sects  which  had 
sprung  up  everywhere  during  the  first  Christian 
centuries  on  the  borders  of  Syria  and  Babylonia, 
heightened  the  religious  ferment  which,  shortly 
before  the  time  of  Mohammed,  began  to  move  the 
minds  of  the  thoughtful.  Certain  men  in  the 
Hedjaz  (Waraka,  Obaid  Allah,  Othman,  Zaid, 
and  others)  began  to  preach  the  futility  of  the 
ancient  paganism,  with  its  star-worship,  its  pil- 


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grimages  and  festive  ceremonies,  its  temples  and 
fetishes.  It  had  long  ceased  to  be  a  living  faith, 
but  the  mass  of  the  people  clung  to  it  as  to  a 
sacred  inheritance  from  times  immemorial.  The 
unity  of  God,  the  'ancient  religion  of  Abraham/ 
was  the  doctrine  promulgated  by  the  religious  re- 
formers, and  many  were  roused  by  their  words 
to  search  for  a  form  of  religion  which  should 
embody  both  the  traditions  of  their  forefathers 
and  a  purer  doctrine  of  the  divinity,  and  turned 
to  Judaism  or  to  Christianity.  Mecca,  the  centre 
of  the  pilgrimages  of  most  of  the  Arabian  tribes, 
where,  from  times  anterior  to  the  city  itself,  the 
Kaaba  (q.v.),  Mount  Arafat,  the  valley  of  Mina, 
etc.,  had  been  held  sacred — the  Koreish,  Mo- 
hammed's tribe,  had  had  supreme  care  over  these 
sanctuaries  since  the  fifth  century — was  natu- 
rally the  scene  of  much  of  this  reform  preaching. 
Surrounded  by  such  conditions,  Mohammed  in  his 
fortieth  year  entered  the  field  as  a  teacher  of  a 
faith  independent  alike  of  the  old  idolatry  and 
of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  Like  other  Ori- 
ental prophets,  he  claimed  to  have  received  a 
divine  call,  which,  he  asserted,  had  come  to  him 
in  the  solitude  of  the  mountain  Hira,  near  Mec- 
ca. Gabriel  appeared  to  him,  and  commanded 
him  to  proclaim  the  name  of  Allah — that  is,  to 
preach  the  true  religion.  That  Mohammed  was 
no  common  impostor  is  clear.  The  source  of  his 
visions  is  more  difficult  to  determine.  By  some 
they  have  been  attributed  to  his  epilepsy.  Un- 
doubtedly they  were  in  considerable  measure  due 
to  his  frequent  retirement  into  desert  solitudes, 
which  brought  on  the  ecstasies  so  familiar  in 
Oriental  religious  enthusiasts.  Waraka,  one  of 
his  wife's  relatives,  who  had  embraced  Judaism, 
may  have  instructed  him  in  Jewish  doctrines  and 
told  him  the  stories  of  the  patriarchs  and  Israel, 
not  as  they  are  related  in  the  Bible,  but  as  in  the 
Midrash.  The  legendary  poetry  of  the  latter 
seems  to  have  made  as  deep  an  impression  on 
Mohammed's  poetical  mind  as  the  doctrine  of  the 
unity  of  God  and  the  moral  teachings  of  the  Old 
Testament,  together  with  those  civil  and  re- 
ligious laws,  scriptural  and  oral,  which  are  either 
contained  as  germs  or  fully  developed  in  this 
record.  Christianity  exercised  less  influence  upon 
him.  His  knowledge  of  the  New  Testament  was 
confined  to  a  few  apocryphal  books;  and  while 
he  recognized  Jesus,  whom,  together  with  Moses, 
he  called  the  greatest  prophet  next  to  himself,  his 
notions  of  the  Christian  religion  and  its  founder 
were  excessively  vague.  lie  told  of  his  mission 
to  Khadija,  who  stood  by  him  faithfully  from 
the  first,  to  his  daughter,  his  step-son  Ali,  his 
favorite  slave  Zaid,  whom  he  had  freed  and 
adopted,  and  to  his  trustworthy  friend,  Abu 
Bekr.  His  other  relatives  rejected  his  teachings. 
Abu  Lahab,  his  uncle,  called  him  a  fool;  and  Abu 
Talib,  his  uncle  and  adoptive  father,  although  he 
protected  him,  never  professed  belief  in  Moham- 
med's works. 

By  the  fourth  year  of  his  mission  he  had  made 
forty  proselytes,  chiefly  slaves  and  people  from 
the  lower  ranks ;  and  now  first  he  claimed  to  have 
received  a  command  to  come  forward  publicly  as 
a  preacher,  and  to  defy  the  unbelievers.  He 
vigorously  assailed  the  superstition  of  the  Mec- 
cans,  and  exhorted  them  to  believe  in  a  just  but 
merciful  God,  eternal,  indivisible,  almighty,  and 
all-wise,  and  in  himself  as  chosen,  like  the 
prophets  of  old,  to  teach  mankind  how  to  escape 
the  punishments  of  hell  and  attain  eternal  happi- 


ness. He  adopted  a  primitive  Oriental  doctrine 
that  the  mercy  of  God  is  to  be  obtained  by  prayer, 
fasting,  and  almsgiving.  He  was  too  practical  to 
challenge  the  strong  belief  in  the  sacredness  of 
the  Kaaba  and  the  ceremonies  of  the  pilgrimage^ 
and  he  made  them  a  part  of  the  new  religion; 
but  he  unsparingly  condemned  certain  barbarous 
habits  of  the  Bedouins,  such  as  the  killing  of 
their  new-bom  daughters.  The  prohibition  of 
certain  kinds  of  fo^  also  belongs  to  the  first 
period,  when  he  was  still  under  the  influence  of 
Judaism;  the  prohibition  of  gambling,  usuiy, 
etc.,  probably  are  of  a  somewhat  later  date. 
Whether  he  did  or  did  not  understand  the  art  of 
writing  and  reading  is  not  quite  clear;  but  he 
employed  the  services  of  amanuenses  for  his 
Koranic  dicta,  which  at  first  consisted  merely 
of  brief  rhymed  sentences,  in  the  manner  of  the 
ancient  Arabic  soothsayers.  The  Meccans  looked 
upon  him  as  a  common  *poet'  or  'soothsayer,'  who 
was  not  in  his  right  senses,  or  simply  a  liar. 
Nevertheless,  the  number  of  his  converts  in- 
creased until  his  progress  compelled  attention; 
and,  finally,  fearing  for  the  sacredness  of  Mecca,, 
the  rejection  of  which  would  deprive  them  both 
of  their  preeminence  and  of  revenue,  they  assailed 
the  new  prophet  and  his  adherents,  who  dared 
"to  call  their  ancient  gods  idols,  and  their  an- 
cestors fools."  The  converted  slaves  and  freed- 
men  had  to  undergo  terrible  pimishment;  and 
others  suffered  so  much  at  the  hands  of  their 
own  relatives  that  they  were  fain  to  revoke  their 
creed;  so  that  the  Prophet  himself  advised  his 
followers  to  emigrate  to  Abyssinia.  Mohammed 
himself  yielded  so  much  as  to  acknowledge  the 
idols  he  had  assailed  as  intermediate  between 
Grod  and  man ;  but  he  soon  revoked  this  as  an  in- 
spiration of  Satan,  thereby  increasing  the  hatred 
of  his  adversaries,  who  in  every  way  tried  to 
throw  ridicule  upon  him.  At  last  it  became 
necessary  that  he  should  be  put  beyond  the  reach 
of  his  persecutors,  and  Abu  Talib  hid  him  in  a 
fortified  castle  of  his  own  in  the  country.  Ham- 
za,  his  uncle,  and  Omar,  who  was  formerly  an 
enemy  of  Mohammed,  and  who  later  succeeded 
Abu  Bekr  as  the  third  head  of  Islam,  continued 
in  the  meantime  to  spread  the  new  doctrine.  Thit 
Koreish  now  demanded  that  Mohammed  should  be 
delivered  into  their  hands;  but  Abu  Talib  stead- 
fastly refused  to  comply  with  their  wishes;  a 
feud  thereupon  broke  out  with  the  family  of 
the  Hashimites,  and  Mohammed  and  all  the  mem- 
bers of  his  family,  except,  perhaps,  Abu  Lahab, 
were  excommunicated.  After  the  space  of  three 
years,  however,  the  *peace  party*  in  Mecca 
brought  about  a  reconciliation,  and  Mohammed 
was  allowed  to  return.  A  great  grief  befell  him 
at  this  time — his  faithful  wife  Khadija  died, 
and  shortly  afterwards  his  uncle,  Abu  Talib,  and 
to  add  to  his  misery  the  vicissitudes  of  his  career 
had  reduced  him  by  this  time  to  poverty.  A 
migration  to  Taif,  where  he  sought  to  improve 
his  position,  proved  a  failure;  it  was  with  great 
difficulty  that  he  escaped  with  his  life.  Shortly 
after  his  return  from  Taif  he  married  Sauda, 
and  in  the  course  of  his  later  life  so  increased 
the  number  of  his  wives  that  at  his  death  he  left 
nine,  of  whom  Ayesha,  the  daughter  of  Abu  Bekr, 
and  Hafsa,  the  daughter  of  Omar,  are  best  known. 
In  the  course  of  time  Mohammed  succeeded  in 
converting  several  men  from  Yathrib,  who  came 
to  Mecca  on  pilgrimage.  The  inhabitants  of  that 
city  had  long  been  accustomed  to  hear  from  the 


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MOHAMMED. 


numerous  Jews  living  there  the  words  lleyela- 
tion/  'Prophecy^'  *God's  Word/  'Messiah' — to  the 
Meccans  mere  soimds  without  meaning.  In  Yath- 
rib  the  new  faith  took  a  strong  hold.  The  next  pil- 
grimage brought  twelve,  and  the  third  more  than 
seventy,  adherents  of  the  new  faith  from  that  city ; 
and  with  these  Mohammed  entered  into  a  close 
alliance.  He  now  conceived  the  plan  of  seeking 
refuge  in  the  friendly  city,  and  in  the  year  622 
(about  twelve  years  after  entering  upon  his 
work),  after  encouraging  about  150  of  his  ad- 
herents to  migrate  to  YaSirib,  he  fled  thither,  ac- 
companied by  Abu  Bekr.  The  fugitives  reached 
their  destination  not  without  danger,  and  were 
enthusiastically  received.  Thenceforth  Yathrib 
was  known  as  Madinat  al-Nahi  (City  of  the 
Prophet),  or  Medina.  The  flight  (the  Hejira)  is 
one  of  the  great  events  of  Islam  and  the  starting- 
point  of  the  Mohammedan  calendar.  See  Hejiba. 
The  Hejira  was  also  a  turning-point  in  the 
career  of  Mohammed.  Previously  he  had  been 
despised  as  a  madman  or  impostor;  now  he  be- 
came judge,  lawgiver,  and  ruler  of  Medina,  and 
of  two  powerful  Arabian  tribes.  His  first  care 
was  to  organize  his  forms  of  worship;  his  next  to 
proselytize  the  numerous  Jews  who  inhabited  the 
city,  to  whom,  besides  having  received  their  prin- 
cipal dogmas  into  his  religion,  he  made  many 
important  concessions  in  the  outer  observances 
of  Islam,  and  concluded  alliances  with  many  of 
their  tribes;  but  the  Jews  resisted  conversion. 
They  ridiculed  his  pretensions,  and  by  their  con- 
stant taunts  made  him  their  bitter  adversary  up 
to  the  hour  of  his  death.  The  most  important 
act  in  the  first  year  of  the  Hejira  was  his  permis- 
Bion  to  go  to  war  with  the  enemies  of  Islam  in 
the  name  of  God,  a  kind  of  manifesto  chiefly 
directed  against  the  Meccans.  Not  being  able  at 
first  to  fight  his  enemies  in  the  open  field,  he  en- 
deavored to  weaken  their  power  by  attacking  the 
caravans  of  the  Koreish  on  their  way  to  Syria. 
He  interfered  materially  with  their  trade,  con- 
cluded alliances  with  the  adjoining  Bedouin 
tribes,  and  at  last  the  signal  for  open  warfare 
was  given.  A  battle  between  314  Moslems  and 
about  600  Meccans  was  fought  at  Bedr,  in  the 
second  year  of  the  Hejira ;  the  former  gained  the 
victorv,  and  made  many  prisoners.  A  great  num- 
ber of  adventurers  soon  flocked  to  Mohammed's 
colors,  and  he  made  successful  expeditions 
against  the  Koreish  and  the  Jewish  tribes,  chiefly 
the  Bani  Kainuka,  whose  fortified  castle  he  took 
after  a  long  siege.  He  sustained  heavy  losses, 
and  was  himself  wounded  in  the  battle  near 
Ohod,  but  his  power  increased  so  rapidly  that  in 
the  sixth  year  of  the  Hejira  he  was  able  to 
proclaim  a  public  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  Although 
the  Meccans  did  not  allow  this  to  be  carried  out, 
he  gained  the  still  greater  advantage  that  they 
concluded  a  formal  peace  with  him,  and  thus 
recognized  him  as  an  equal  power  and  belliger- 
ent. He  now  sent  missionaries  all  over  Arabia 
and  beyond  the  frontiers  without  hindrance;  and 
in  the  following  year  celebrated  the  pilgrimage 
for  three  days  undisturbed  at  Mecca.  Soon  after- 
wards he  narrowly  escaped  death  from  poisoning 
at  the  hands  of  a  Jewess,  one  of  whose  relatives 
had  been  killed  while  fighting  against  him.  His 
missionaries  went  to  Khosru  II.,  of  Persia,  to  the 
Byzantine  Emperor  Heraclius,  to  the  King  of 
Abyssinia,  and  to  the  Governor  of  Egypt,  and  the 
chiefs  of  several  Arabic  tribes  received  the  new 
gospel;  but  the  Eling  of  Persia,  and  Amru,  the 


Ghassanide,  rejected  his  proposals,  and  Amru 
had  the  messenger  executed.  This  was  the  cause 
of  the  first  war  between  the  Christians  and  the 
Moslems,  in  which  the  latter  were  beaten  with 
great  loss  by  Amru.  The  Meccans  took  the  occa- 
sion to  commit  depredations  upon  certain  allies 
of  Mohammed,  with  the  result  that  the  Prophet 
marched  upon  the  city,  captured  it  without  a  blow, 
and  was  recognized  as  ruler  and  prophet.  This 
completed  the  triumph  of  the  new  faith  in  Arabia. 
Mohammed  now  imdertook  to  destroy  all  traces  of 
idolatry  in  Mecca,  and  to  establish  the  laws  and 
ceremonies  of  his  true  faith ;  but  he  soon  learned 
of  a  new  attack  by  a  considerable  force  of  Arab 
tribes,  gathered  near  Taif  (630).  Again  he  was 
victorious,  and  his  influence  and  reputation  cor- 
respondingly expanded.  Deputations  came  to  do 
homage  to  him  in  the  name  of  the  various  tribes, 
either  as  the  messenger  of  God  or  at  least  as  the 
Prince  of  Arabia,  and  the  year  9  of  the  Hejira 
was  therefore  called  the  Year  of  the  Deputations. 
He  made  extensive  preparations  for  a  war  against 
the  Eastern  Empire,  but  was  not  able  to  assemble 
forces  enough  to  carry  out  his  plan.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  tenth  year  of  the  Hejira  he  imder- 
took, at  the  head  of  at  least  40,000  Moslems,  his 
last  solemn  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  there  (on 
Mount  Arafat)  instructed  them  in  the  important 
laws  and  ordinances,  chiefly  of  the  pilgrimage; 
and  the  ceremonies  observed  by  him  on  that  occa- 
sion were  fixed  for  all  time.  (See  Hajj.)  He 
exhorted  his  believers  to  righteousness  and  piety, 
recommended  them  to  protect  the  weak,  the  poor, 
and  women,  and  to  abstain  from  usury.  Soon 
after  his  return  from  Mecca  he  became  ill  and 
began  to  decline  rapidly.  He  took  part  in  public 
prayers  as  long  as  he  could.  At  last,  realizing 
the  near  approach  of  death,  he  preached  to  the 
people,  recommending  Abu  Bekr  and  Usama,  the 
son  of  Zaid,  for  the  leadership  of  the  army.  He 
asked  whether  he  had  wronged  any  one,  read 
passages  from  the  Koran,  and  exhorted  the  peo- 
ple to  peace  among  themselves,  ahd  to  strict 
obedience  to  the  tenets  of  the  faith.  A  few  days 
afterwards  he  died  in  the  arms  of  Ayesha,  his 
favorite  wife,  on  the  12th  of  the  third  month,  in 
the  year  11  of  the  Hejira  (June  8,  632).  His 
death  caused  intense  excitement,  and  Omar  tried 
to  persuade  the  people  that  he  was  still  alive. 
But  Abu  Bekr  said  to  the  assembled  multitude: 
"Whoever  among  you  has  served  Mohammed,  let 
him  know  that  Mohammed  is  dead;  but  he  who 
has  served  the  God  of  Mohammed,  let  him  con- 
tinue in  His  service,  for  He  is  still  alive,  and 
never  dies."  He  had  made  no  provision  for  a  suc- 
cessor, and  the  quarrel  over  the  leadership,  which 
not  long  after  divided  the  Moslem  world  into 
two  warring  sects,  began  before  Mohammed's  body 
was  buried.  Abu  Bekr  finally  received  the  hom- 
age of  the  principal  Moslems  at  Medina.  Mo- 
hammed was  buried  in  the  night  in  the  house  of 
Ayesha,  where  he  had  died,  and  which  afterwards 
became  part  of  the  adjoining  mosque. 

Mohammed  was  not  an  idealist,  and  his 
religion  was  adapted  to  his  age  and  surroimd* 
ings.  It  has  been  said  that  he  gave  the  people  as 
much  religion  as  he  thought  they  could  take  care 
of,  judging  by  his  knowledge  of  them  and  of  his 
own  tendencies.  He  was  at  times  deceitful,  cun- 
ning, even  revengeful  and  cowardly,  and  much 
addicted  to  sensuality.  But  he  is  praised  for 
his  amiability,  his  faithfulness  toward  friends, 
his  tenderness  toward  his  family,  his  frequent 


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MOHAMMED. 


654 


MOHAMMEDAN  ABT. 


readiness  to  forgive  an  enemy,  and  the  extreme 
simplicity  of  his  domestic  life.  He  lived,  when 
already  in  full  power,  in  simple  quarters,  mended 
his  own  clothes,  and  freed  all  his  slaves.  He 
was  much  inclined  to  melancholy  and  nervous 
sensitiveness.  His  mind  contained  a  strange  mix- 
ture of  truth  and  error,  of  right  and  wrong.  En- 
tering the  field  as  the  foe  of  the  old  superstitions, 
he  yet  clung  to  superstitious  beliefs  current  among 
his  people.  He  believed  in  jinns,  omens,  charms, 
and  dreams.  However  much  the  religion  of  Islam 
may,  rightly  or  wrongly,  be  considered  the  bane 
and  cause  of  the  decay  of  Eastern  States  and  na- 
tions in  our  day,  it  must,  in  the  first  place,  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  is  not  necessarily  Islam  which 
has  caused  the  corruption,  as  indeed  its  ethics  are 
for  the  most  part  of  the  higher  order ;  and  in  the 
second  place,  that  Mohammed  is  not  to  be  made 
responsible  for  all  the  errors  of  his  successors. 
Take  him  all  in  all,  the  history  of  humanity  has 
seen  few  more  earnest  and  sincere  'prophets,* 
using  the  word  prophet  in  the  true  sense  of  one 
irresistibly  impelled  by  an  inner  power  to  ad- 
monish, and  to  teach,  and  to  utter  austere  and 
sublime  truths,  the  full  purport  of  which  is  often 
unknown  to  himself. 

Mohammed  is  described  as  of  middle  height, 
lean,  but  broad-shouldered,  with  slightly  curling 
hair  about  a  well-developed  head.  His  eyes,  over- 
hung with  thick  lashes,  were  large  and  coal-black ; 
his  nose,  large  and  slightly  bent,  was  well  formed. 
A  long  beard  added  to  the  dignity  of  his  appear- 
ance. A  black  mole  between  his  shoulders  be- 
came known  among  the  faithful  as  the  'seal  of 
prophecy.' 

BiBLiooBAPHT.  Of  the  lives  of  Mohammed  the 
best  are:  In  English,  Sir  William  Muir  (4  vols., 
London,  1851-61;  2d  ed.,  abridged,  1  vol.,  lb., 
1894)  ;  in  German,  Noldeke  (Hanover,  1863)  ; 
Weil  (Stuttgart,  1864)  ;  Sprenger  (2d  ed.,  Ber- 
lin, 1869)  ;  Krehl  (Leipzig,  1884)  ;  Grimme 
(MQnster,  1892)  ;  in  French,  Laraairesse  and  Du- 
jarric  (Paris,  1898).  Consult  also  Saint 
Hilaire,  Mahomet  et  le  Coran  (Paris,  1865)  ; 
Wellhausen,  Muhammed  in  Medina  (Berlin, 
1882)  ;  id.,  Skizsen  und  Vorarbeitcn,  iii.  and  iv. 
(ib.,  1887-89);  August  Mflller,  Der  Islam  im 
Morgen-  und  Abendlande,  vol.  i.  (Berlin,  1886) ; 
Muir,  Mahomet  and  Islam  (London,  1887); 
Ameer  Ali,  The  Life  and  Teachings  of  Moham- 
med (London,  1891);  Margoliouth,  Mohammed 
and  the  Rise  of  Islam  (New  York,  1905).  See 
KoBAN;  Mohammedanism;  Sunna. 

MOHAMMED.  The  name  of  four  sultans  of 
Turkey. — ^Mohammed  I.  was  the  son  of  Sultan 
Bajazet  I.,  who  was  defeated  and  captured  by 
Timur  in  1402  and  died  in  captivity  in  1403. 
Mohammed  I.,  after  sharing  the  supreme  power 
with  his  brothers,  became  sole  Sultan  in  1413. 
He  reigned  until  1421.  He  consolidated  the  Em- 
pire, which  had  suflfered  from  the  inroad  of 
Timur. — Mohammed  II.  (c.1430-81)  was  Sultan 
from  1451  to  1481.  He  was  sumamed  El-Ohcusi, 
i.e.  conqueror  (of  infidels),  and  also  Buyuk, 
i.e.  the  Great.  He  was  bom  at  Adrianople,  and 
succeeded  his  father,  Amurath  TI.  His  first  acts 
were  the  murder  of  his  brothers  and  the 
suppression  of  a  rebellion  in  Karamania. 
Having  thus  secured  himself  on  the  throne, 
he  bent  all  his  energies  in  order  to  eflTect  the  cap- 
ture of  Constantinople.  This  city  was  now  the 
sole  remnant  of  the  once  mighty  empire  of  the 
Csesars,  and  after  more  than  a  year  spent  in 


preparations,  Mohammed  commenced  the  siege  (m 
April  6,  1453,  with  an  army  of  about  70,000  and 
a  fleet  of  320  vessels.    The  Greeks,  aided  by  gal- 
lant   bands    under    Gian    Giustiniani,    a    noble 
Genoese,  long  maintained  an  obstinate  resistance. 
On  the  morning  of  May  29th  the  Turks  made  a 
combined  attack  by  land  and  sea  without  suc- 
cess; but  the  retirement  from  the  ramparts  of 
Giustiniani,    who   had   been    severely    wounded, 
caused  a  panic  among  his  followers,  and  the  si- 
multaneous charge  of  a  chosen  body  of  Janizaries, 
with  Mohammed  himself  at  their    head,  proved 
irresistible.      The    brave    Emperor,    Constantine 
XL,  died  in  the  breach,  and  the  Turks  poured  in 
over  his  corpse  to  plunder  and  devastate  his  cap- 
ital.   Mohammed  now  transferred  the  seat  of  his 
government   to    CJonstantinople,   and   sought  to 
gain  the  good  will  of  the  inhabitants  by  promis- 
ing them  a  free  exercise  of  their  religion.    After 
achieving  this  great  conquest,  he  made  formidable 
preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Hungary.     Bel- 
grade was  the  first  point  ol  attack;  but  Janos 
Himyady  (q.v.)  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege 
(1456).      Soon    after   this    Mohammed    became 
master  of  the  Morea,  annexed  Servia,  and  con- 
quered the  Empire  of  Trebizond,  an  offshoot  of 
the  Byzantine  Empire.    He  than  turned  his  arms 
against  the  Albanians,  whose  leader,  Scanderbeg, 
long  defied  the  Turkish  power.    Scanderbeg  di^ 
in  1468,  and  ten  years  later  the  subjugation  of 
Albania  was  completed.    In  1470  Mohammed  con- 
quered Negropont  from  the  Venetians.     In  1475 
he  made  the  Khan  of  the  CMmea  tributary,  and 
at    the    same    time    deprived    the    Genoese   of 
Kaffa.      In    1480,    however,    he    was    repulsed 
by   the   Knights   of   Saint   John    from    Rhodes. 
In  the  same  year  he  captured  Otranto.  in  Italy, 
the  last  achievement  of  his  reign.  Mohammed  was 
possessed  of  great  abilities;  he  was  brave,  enter- 
prising, and  sagacious;  he  is  said  to  have  spoken 
five  languages  fluently,   and  to  have  been  well 
versed  in  geography,  ancient  history,  natural  sci- 
ences, and  the  fine  arts.    But  the  brilliancy  of  his 
career,  and  the  occasional  generosity  and  even 
magnanimity  which  he  showed,  cannot  obliterate 
the   recollection   of   those   acts   of   cruelty   and 
treachery  which  havcf  justly  branded  him  as  the 
most  ruthless  tyrant  of  the  House  of  Osman.— 
Mohammed  III.    (1566-1603)    was  Sultan  from 
1595  to  1603.     He  succeeded  his  father  and  at 
once  murdered  his  nineteen  brothers.    He  waged 
war  against  Austria  without  success. — Moham- 
med  rV.    (1641-91)    was   Sultan  from    1648  to 
1687.     He  succeeded  his  father,  Ibrahim,  who 
had  been  murdered  by  the  Janizaries.     The  real 
rulers  were  the  Kiuprili    (q.v.).     The  reign  of 
Mohammed  IV.  saw  the  collapse  of  Turkish  power 
in  Europe.    The  great  onslaught  upon  the  House 
of  Austria  in  1683  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  Kara 
Mustapha  (q.v.).    After  other  disasters  Moham- 
med was  dethroned  in  1687. 
ICOHAMMED  AIiI  MIBZA.    Shah  of  Persia. 

See  MUZAFFAR-ED-DIN. 

HOHAMMEDAN  ABT.  The  art  produced 
by  the  nations  and  in  the  countries  professing  the 
religion  of  Islam,  from  the  seventh  century  a.d.  to 
the  present  time.  The  most  flourishing  period  waa 
between  the  ninth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
though  in  certain  places,  such  as  Constantinople, 
Cairo,  and  India,  the  golden  age  lasted  later. 
The  homes  of  this  art  have  been  mainly  S^a, 
Persia,  Egvpt,  North  Africa,  Spain,  Asia  Minor, 
India,  Sicily,  and  Constantinople.     In  a  large 


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part  of  this  region  it  succeeded  Byzantine  art, 
under  the  influence  of  which  it  long  remained, 
while  also  inheriting  local  peculiarities  of  ear- 
lier Persian  and  Coptic  (Egyptian)  art.  The 
Arabs,  founders  and  propagators  of  Mohamme- 
danism, possessed  none  of  the  arts  (see  Ababian 
Abt),  and  consequently  a  period  of  at  least  two 
centuries  passed  before  the  amalgamation  of  con- 
verted peoples,  after  tentative  efforts  to  adapt 
preceding  artistic  forms,  created  the  special 
types  of  Mohammedan  art.  This  work  was 
done  especially  in  Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt, 
though  North  Africa  and  Spain  also  contributed 
their  share.  Byzantine,  Persian,  and  Coptic  art- 
ists, even  if  Christians,  were  employed  at  first; 
but  finally  all  the  branches  were  practiced  by 
Mohammedans.  The  religious  prejudice  against 
the  reproduction  of  the  human  figure  in  art  pre- 
vented any  development  in  the  large  fields  of  fig- 
ured sculpture  and  painting,  forcing  the  artist 
inte  decorative  work  in  pure  line  and  color,  in 
which  he  became  the  most  consummate  master 
in  the  whole  history  of  art.  Surface  ornamenta- 
tion became  the  keynote  to  this  art,  whether  dis- 
played on  broad  architectural  surfaces  or  on  the 
smallest  article  of  furniture  or  decoration.  This 
ornamentation,  like  the  forms  of  architecture 
themselves,  was  at  first  derived  from  Byzantine 
models,  as  in  the  case  of  the  mosques  of  Cor- 
dova, Damascus,  Jerusalem,  and  the  earliest 
Cairo  work,  with  a  large  element  of  stiff  floral 
patterns,  many  of  classic  origin.  But  gradually 
the  invasion  of  purely  geometrical  forms  almost 
extinguished  the  flora,  and  the  system  was  evolved 
and  completed  in  the  eleventh  century,  which  is  a 
combination  of  pure  geometric  and  arabesque  de- 
signs, used  with  ever-increasing  profusion  until 
all  surfaces  were  covered  with  it. 

ABCHITEOTUBE. 

Commencing  about  a.d.  700,  Mohammedan 
architecture  runs  parallel  to  the  history  of  later 
Byzantine  architecture  in  the  East  and  Roman- 
esque and  Gothic  in  the  West.  We  must 
study  the  origins  of  this  architectural  style 
in  the  mosques  (q.v.).  As  the  Mohammedans  in 
the  countries  which  they  conquered  found  them- 
fielves  surrounded  by  magnificent  monuments  of 
all  the  past  civilizations  of  the  East,  it  was  natu- 
ral that  they  should  turn  to  them  for  the  type  of 
their  mosques.  The  earliest  mosque  of  any  pre- 
tension was  that  of  Amru  (about  a.d.  641) 
at  Fostat,  which  consecrated  the  Arab  conquest 
of  Egypt.  It  served  as  a  type  for  two  centuries. 
Its  colonnades  around  an  open  court  seem  to 
combine  the  plan  of  the  atrium  of  a  Christian 
basilica  and  the  hypostyle  hall  of  an  Egyptian 
temple.  The  columns  were  taken  from  churches 
and  arranged  in  numerous  rows,  surmounted  by 
low-stilted  arches,  on  which  rested  a  flat,  wooden 
ceiling.  There  appears  to  have  been  no  aesthetic 
beauty  and  no  decoration  in  this  perfectly  plain 
brick  structure.  It  was  in  Syria,  where  the  Om- 
miad  caliphs  had  their  capital  at  Damascus,  that 
the  first  artistic  monuments  were  erected  under 
Abd  al-Malak  and  his  son  Al-Walid,  about  a.d. 
700.  They  spent  immense  sums  on  three  buildings 
which  still  remain:  the  Mosque  of  Damascus 
( 706 ) ,  reputed  the  most  sumptuous  monument  of 
the  Mohammedan  world,  and  built  to  surpass  the 
works  of  Christian  architecture  in  Syria;  the 
Al-Aksa  Mosque,  and  the  Dome  of  the  Rock,  com- 
monly called  *Mosque  of  Omar*   (691),  both  in 


Jerusalem,  built  to  rival  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  The  Al-Aksa  was  of  a  different  type 
from  the  Egyptian  mosques,  and  more  like  a  hall 
or  a  Christian  church.  The  principal  side  of  its 
court,  called  the  Jami,  containing  the  Kiblah  and 
pulpit  (mimbar),  had  a  forest  of  280  columns  in 
20  rows,  and  in  the  centre,  opposite  the  Kiblah^ 
rose  a  dome.  On  the  other  hand,  the  great  Da- 
mascus mosque  was  of  the  Egyptian  type  of  the 
Mosque  of  Amru,  the  type  of  the  atrium,  and  had 
only  a  triple  line  of  coliunns  on  the  Jami  (main 
hall)  side,  and  a  single  row  on  the  others.  In 
both  mosques  the  colunms  now  support  pointed 
arches.  The  courts  were  filled  with  secondary 
monuments,  usually  in  the  shape  of  domed  chap- 
els or  foimtains.  The  most  important  of  these 
is  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  in  the  court  of 
the  Al-Aksa  Mosque.  It  followed  the  Byzan- 
tine domical  type;  its  central  dome,  112  feet 
high,  is  supported  on  four  square  piers  with 
intermediate  columns,  and  is  surrounded  by  two 
concentric  aisles  with  eight  piers  and  sixteen  col- 
umns, on  an  octagonal  plan.  It  was  erected  in 
order  to  rival  in  splendor  and  sacredness  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

The  next  important  building  in  the  Mohanmie- 
dan  world  is  the  great  mosque  at  Cordova,  the 
capital  of  the  new  Kingdom  of  Spain,  founded 
in  786.  The  main  hall  of  this  mosque  was 
the  largest  known,  measuring  534  X  387  feet, 
and  containing  856  columns  in  19  aisles.  Its 
wooden  ceiling,  notwithstanding  this  great 
length,  is  30  feet  high.  The  intricate  effect 
of  the  maze  of  columns  is  increased  by  there 
being  no  central  nave  as  in  Christian  churches 
and  by  the  unique  arrangement  of  two  stories  of 
superposed  horseshoe  arches.  Here  one  sees  the 
alternation  of  white  and  black  marbles,  which 
later  became  so  characteristic  of  the  Italian  Tus- 
can school,  and  an  early  form  of  stiff  foliated 
arabesque  in  small  separate  compartments.  The 
eighth  century  and  the  following  witness  a  flow- 
ering of  Mohammedan  architecture  in  all  prov- 
inces and  in  all  classes  of  buildings:  fountains, 
baths,  aqueducts,  palaces,  khans,  bridges,  caravan- 
serais, minarets,  mausoleums,  monasteries  and 
colleges,  bazaars  and  city  gates,  hospitals,  clois- 
ters. A  large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  State 
was  devoted  to  public  works.  Bagdad  was  built 
in  762  and  became  the  capital  of  the  caliphate. 
Great  buildings  were  erected  in  the  cities  of  North 
Africa,  in  Kairwan  ( mosque  in  837 ) ,  Tunis  ( mosque 
and  arsenal  in  742) .  The  wonderful  buildings  of 
Bagdad,  so  vividly  described  but  now  all  de- 
stroyed, probably  gave  the  keynote  to  the  new  art. 
The  relief  ornaments  at  Cordova  were  echoes  from 
Byzantium;  so  were  the  mosaics  and  marbles, 
as  well  as  the  domes  of  the  monuments  of  Damas- 
cus and  Jerusalem.  But  gradually  Persian  pre- 
ponderance makes  itself  felt  through  the  dynasty 
of  the  Abbassides  with  Bagdad  as  centre.  The 
wooden  roof  is  entirely  abandoned  for  the  dome. 
A  purely  Oriental  system  of  ornament  is  in- 
vented, both  geometric  and  arabesque.  The  wall 
surfaces,  which  had  hitherto  been  left  plain  or 
ornamented  in  Byzantine  fashion,  are  covered 
with  intricate  stuccoes  and  faTence  tiles,  inherited 
from  ancient  Persia  and  Babylonia. 

Egypt.  Egypt  remained  for  a  while  outside  of 
this  movement,  probably  because  its  architecture 
was  still  in  the  hands  of  native  Christian  Copts ; 
no  domes  were  used  and  brick  had  not  yet  given 
place  to  stone.    The  most  famous  mosque  of  this 


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age  was  that  built  by  Ibn  Tulun  when  he  declared 
Egypt's  independence  (876  to  879).  As  Ibn  Tu- 
lun objected  to  destroying  so  many  Christian 
churches  to  get  the  300  columns  required  for  the 
new  mosque,  a  Christian  Coptic  architect  of- 
fered to  build  it  without  using  a  single  column. 
It  is  the  first  mosque  with  piers  in  place  of  col- 
umns. This  mosque  is  of  the  cloistered  type, 
with  two  aisles  on  three  sides  and  five  aisles  on 
the  Jami  side;  formed  of  160  rectangular  piers 
supporting  broad  stilted  pointed  arches,  such  as 
the  Copts  had  always  employed.  The  entire  con- 
struction was  of  burnt  bricks  stuccoed  on  both 
sides,  the  stucco  being  decorated  with  stiflf  ara- 
besques in  relief  of  the  knop  and  flower  pattern 
derived  from  ancient  Oriental  or  Greek  models. 
A  fiat  wooden  roof  rested  on  the  walls  not  far 
above  the  crown  of  the  arches.  The  wall  inclos- 
ing the  mosque  forms  a  court  about  300  feet 
square.  All  the  brilliant  revetment  and  coloring 
have  disappeared.  Still  this  remains  the  finest 
example  of  the  early  type  of  mosque.  It  also  has 
a  couple  of  the  earliest  minarets,  built,  as  were 
all  the  early  ones,  of  brick.  There  is  a  small 
dome  in  front  of  the  Mihrahf  as  in  the  earlier 
Sjnrian  and  Palestinian  mosques. 

Under  another  dynasty,  another  great  mosque 
was  built,  the  El-Azhar  or  University  mosque, 
in  the  newly  founded  capital,  Cairo,  begun  in 
969.  Here  the  same  cloistered  plan  was  used,  but 
the  churches  were  despoiled  of  columns  for  it,  in 
place  of  using  piers.  When,  in  996,  the  mosque 
of  El-Hakim  was  built,  however,  the  quadrangu- 
lar pier  was  used  as  in  the  mosque  of  Tulun.  But 
its  proportions  are  far  slenderer  and  higher. 

It  was  about  this  time  (c.lOOO)  that  Egyp- 
tian architects  adopted  the  dome.  Cairo's  great 
characteristic  is  its  multitude  of  domes.  They 
were  used  mainly  over  funerary  chapels.  There 
now  arose  an  important  class  of  funerary  mosques 
attached  to  royal  tombs.  The  Egyptian  rulers  of 
the  Fatimite  dynasty  displaced  the  caliphs  of 
Bagdad  as  principal  patrons  of  Mohammedan  art, 
and  the  monuments  of  Syria,  North  Africa,  and 
Sicily  were  inspired  from  Egypt  during  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  Undoubtedly  it 
was  the  thorough  study  and  application  of  geom- 
etry by  Arab  writers  of  the  schools  of  Bagdad 
and  Cairo  that  made  possible  not  only  the  scien- 
tific  architecture  of  this  period,  but  the  wonder- 
ful system  of  geometrical  ornament  that  became 
80  much  a  part  of  it.  A  consistent  style  was 
finally  developed,  which  spread  over  the  entire  Mo- 
hammedan world  from  Spain  and  Morocco  to 
Persia,  and  from  Asia  Minor  to  India.  The 
minaret  towers  were  multiplied  and  began  to  lose 
their  early  heaviness  (see  Minabet)  and  to  take 
on  great  variety  of  forms,  and,  being  built  of  stone 
as  well  as  brick,  they  were  better  adapted  to  a 
richer  ornamentation.  The  heavy  walls  were 
crowned  with  delicate  battlements. 

Most  characteristic  was  the  invention  of  the 
stalactite  pendentive,  on  the  basis  of  spherical 
polygons,  as  a  unique  constructive  and  decorative 
bond  between  the  square  plan  and  the  circular 
dome.  Often  this  transition  was  assisted  by  a 
I>olygonal  dome.  The  historical  tendency  was  ever 
to  raise  the  domes  higher  and  make  them  more 
pointed.  Their  numbers  multiplied  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  following  centuries.  The  cemeteries 
of  Cairo  are  full  of  ruined  but  beautiful  medispval 
domical  tombs.  The  mausoleum  mosques  of  Sul- 
tans Hasan,  Barkuk,  Kait  Bey,  Kalaun,  El-Ghuri 


are  the  finest  examples  in  Cairo  of  the  domical 
style.  The  use  of  domes  over  simple  sepulchral 
chambers  had  been  easy,  but  its  application  to  the 
mosque  was  difficult.  Beginning  with  the  tomb 
of  Esh-Shafi'y  in  1211,  passing  through  the  stage 
of  the  tomb  mosque  of  £s-Salih  in  1249,  complete 
success  was  realized,  under  the  impetus  given  by 
the  Mameluke  sultans  in  the  mosque  of  Hajmn  in 
1356,  where  the  plan  is  a  Greek  cross  centring 
about  an  open  court,  and  with  the  domed  chapel 
beyond  the  mihrab.  This  magnificent  building 
was  regarded  as  unequaled  in  Mohammedan 
lands.  Its  proportions  are  grandiose ;  the  tunnel 
vaults  over  the  arms  of  its  cross  are  bold.  Stone 
and  marble  have  definitely  replaced  brick.  Dur- 
ing this  time,  however,  the  type  of  the  old  clois- 
tered mosque  had  been  continued  in  buildings  not 
connected  with  tombs,  such  as  those  of  Bibars 
(1268),  of  En-Nasir  (1318),  Kusun  (1329),  El- 
Maridany  (1339).  The  system  of  stalactite  con- 
struction passed  from  pendentives  to  corbels,  and 
was  used  to  fill  up  gaps  between  all  different 
planes.  Like  most  of  Mohammedan  work,  it  con- 
ceals under  apparent  irregularity  and  freedom, 
not  to  say  vagrant  fancy,  the  most  scientific 
accuracy  of  form.  The  wonderful  development  of 
decorative  work  at  this  time  in  mosaic,  faience, 
wood  carving,  marble  inlay,  metal,  etc.,  is  noticed 
later  in  this  article  and  in  special  articles. 

Spain.  Meanwhile,  other  Mohammedan  lands 
had  been  following  the  example  of  Egypt,  but 
with  the  exception  of  Spain  their  architecture  has 
been  neglected  by  students.  The  Arabo- Byzantine 
style  of  the  monuments  of  Cordova  had  ruled  for 
about  two  centuries;  a  national  Mohammedan 
style  was  formed  shortly  before  1000,  as  in 
Egypt,  as  shown  in  monuments  of  Tarragona,  Se- 
govia, and  especially  Toledo  and  Seville.  The 
cusped  and  horseshoe  arches  became  very  decora- 
tive. Christian  infiuence  is  still  shown  in 
mosques  covered  entirely  by  domes  or  roofs,  like 
churches.  The  famous  Giralda  tower  at  Seville 
belongs  to  this  middle  style,  while  the  alc&zars, 
or  Moorish  palaces,  at  Seville,  Segovia,  and  Ma- 
laga usher  in  the  style  of  the  Alhambra  at  Gra- 
nada. When  in  1238  Granada  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  its  monuments  ex- 
pressed the  development  of  native  arts  for  the 
ensuing  century.  Here  is  found  the  richest  ex- 
tant combination  of  the  different  kinds  of  surface 
decoration  in  which  Mohammedan  art  excelled, 
however  faulty  it  was  in  composition,  construc- 
tion, and  form.  Arabesque  and  geometrical 
ornament,  stucco  and  faience,  mosaic  and  marble 
inlay  cover  every  inch  of  space,  and  stalactites 
abound  as  well  as  open-work  tracery.  The  round 
horseshoe  arch  yields  to  the  flat  pointed,  stilted, 
and  slightly  incurving  arch.  But  though  so  rich, 
the  ornament  of  the  Alhambra,  being  molded, 
lacks  the  life  and  flexibility  of  the  Egyptian  work 
of  the  same  kind,  which  is  done  by  hand  in  the 
soft  plaster.     See  Alhambba. 

Pebsia.  The  Turks  and  Mongols  made  such 
havoc  of  the  earlier  monuments  of  Mohammedan 
Persia,  the  region  of  Bagdad  and  the  great  north- 
em  States  of  Bokhara  and  Samarkand,  that  noth- 
ing has  survived  in  these  regions  belonging  to 
the  periods  thus  far  mentioned.  But  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  while  they  show 
a  style  certainly  in  full  decadence,  are  interesting 
because  we  can  study  it  in  such  a  variety  of  forms 
in  different  countries.  The  Tatars  and  Turks  give 
their  version  of  it,  adapted  both  from  Persia, 


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mnd  Armenia,  and  Georgia,  in  the  buildings  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  at  Sivas, 
Kaisarieh,  Konieh,  Nigdeh,  Niesea,  Brusa,  etc. 
The  contemporary  buildings  in  Persia,  at  Tabriz, 
Sultanieh,  Teheran,  and  especially  Ispahan  (the 
Meidan,  mosque  of  Mesjid  Shah,  Bazar,  and  Me> 
dresseh  of  Hosein  Shah),  scattered  over  a  period 
of  about  three  centuries,  show  that  Persian 
art  was  never  led  to  abandon  flowing  lines  for 
angular  and  geometrical  designs;  even  its  ara- 
besques are  more  continuous  and  soft,  and  it 
hardly  ever  resorted  to  stalactite  design.  The 
form  of  its  domes  also  varied  essentially  from 
those  elsewhere.  It  is  usually  flat-sided  and 
pointed  on  the  interior  and  bulbous  outside, 
built  of  brick,  which  was  almost  entirely  used 
in  place  of  stone.  The  minarets  have  the  late 
•circular  shape  and  are  exceedingly  slender,  being 
topped  by  small  domes.  Another  peculiarity  is 
the  facade  of  various  classes  of  buildings  formed 
of  high  recessed  pointed  arches  of  the  same  pecu- 
liar nat-sided  outline  as  the  domes,  and  remind- 
ing distantly  of  such  English  screen  facades  as 
Lincoln  and  Peterborough. 

India.  At  the  same  time  Mohammedan  art 
received  a  great  impetus  in  India  through 
the  establishment  of  the  Mogul  supremacy 
(1526),  and  produced  a  style  that  was  in 
many  ways  the  most  artistic  and  the  grandest 
in  the  whole  sphere  of  Mohammedan  architecture. 
Buildings  like  the  mosque  and  tomb  of  Mahmud 
at  Bijapur,  the  mosques  at  Fathipur,  Sikhri, 
Agra,  and  Delhi,  the  palace  of  Akbar  at  Alla- 
habad, and  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra  are  master- 
pieces. There  is  undoubtedly  a  dependence  on 
the  art  of  Persia  in  the  shape  of  the  pointed 
arches  and  domes,  and  in  the  niche  facades,  as 
well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  Turkish  adaptation 
of  the  Saint  Sophia  type,  but  these  Indian  archi- 
tects showed  a  surpassing  sense  of  composition 
and  effectiveness,  never  allowing,  as  the  archi- 
tects of  Egypt  and  Spain  so  often  did,  the  love 
of  detail  to  become  paramount. 

Finally,  when  the  Turks  captured  Constanti- 
nople (1453)  they  adopted  the  Bjrzantine  style 
and  specifically  that  of  Saint  Sophia,  which  be- 
came their  chief  mosque.  They  never  knew  the  old 
type  of  cloistered  mosque,  but  only  great  domi- 
cal, fully  vaulted  interiors.  The  architects  they 
employed  were  Christian  Greeks.  Their  mosques 
have  ever  since  been  mere  repetitions  of  Saint 
Sophia  on  a  smaller  scale.  But  some  of  them 
have  great  merit  of  dignity  and  composition  and 
some  originality  in  the  exterior  treatment;  for 
example,  the  mosque  of  Mohanuned  II.,  which  has 
four  semi-domes  grouped  around  the  central  one, 
but  especially  the  Sulaimaniyyah  mosque  ( 1553 ) . 
These  have  alternating  white  and  black  marbles 
in  the  interior  voussoirs,  and  the  simple  bril- 
liancy of  the  surfaces  gives  quite  a  different  effect 
from  a  Byzantine  interior.  For  details  re^rding 
special  classes  of  buildings  and  the  delightful 
domestic  architecture  of  the  Moslems,  see  special 
articles,  such  as  Gabavansebai  ;  Foxtntain; 
Bazab;  Tekiye;  Minaret;  Mosque. 

MINOB  abts. 
Decoration.  The  sculpture  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans was  purely  decorative,  becoming  richer  as 
the  Middle  Ages  advanced.  In  the  earlier  stages 
it  partook  somewhat  of  Byzantine  design,  as  in 
the  mosque  of  Cordova  and  in  early  Egyptian  and 
"Syrian  mosques.  But  it  was  then  scanty  and  ra- 


ther heavy.  When  the  schools  became  more  differ- 
entiated in  the  eleventh  century,  into  the  Persian 
naturalistic,  figured  and  floral;  the  Syrian  sche- 
matic, animal  and  floral;  and  the  Egyptian,  geo- 
metric and  stiff  floral  schools,  ornament  began 
to  spread  over  the  entire  building.  Even  the 
exterior  surfaces  of  domes  and  walls  were  covered 
with  a  laoework  cut  in  stone  or  stucco.  Color 
was  given  by  marble  mosaics  in  Egypt,  or  in 
Syria  and  Persia  by  brilliantly  colored  tiles.  The 
Mosque  of  Omar  is  an  early,  the  Alhambra  at 
Granada  a  mediaeval,  and  the  Mosque  of  Ispahan 
a  late  example.  The  tiles  became  an  Oriental 
specialty,  and  were  imitated  in  Spain  until  re- 
cently.    See  AzuLEJO. 

Woodwork  and  Ivory.  In  no  style  of  art  has 
so  varied  an  artistic  use  been  made  of  wood. 
Where  other  styles  have  used  stone  and  marble 
we  find  wood  used,  for  instance,  in  carved  ceil- 
ings, windows,  pulpits,  lecterns,  screens,  lattice- 
work, doors,  balconies,  parapets,  tomb-casings. 
In  the  richest  pieces  ivory  is  sometimes  used  in 
connection  with  wood,  being  either  inlaid  in 
carved  panels  or  being  set  as  panels  in  wooden 
frames.  Wood  was  used  not  only  for  the  furni- 
ture of  the  private  house,  but  for  that  of  the 
mosque,  such  as  cupboards,  tables,  and  the  classes 
of  work  mentioned  above.  Some  of  the  best  ex- 
amples of  floral  design  in  Egypt  are  preserved 
in  wood  carvings.  The  most  magnificent  pieces 
are  probably  the  pulpits,  such  as  that  of  Kait 
Bey  in  South  Kensmgton  Museum,  and  the  panels 
from  those  of  Maridany,  Lagin,  and  Kusun  in  the 
same  museum.  The  panek  of  the  hospital  of 
Kalaun  show  a  Persian  style  of  figures  and  ani- 
mals, rather  than  the  floral  and  geometrical  pat- 
terns. The  reading-platform  of  the  Mosque  of 
Kait  Bey  is  a  fine  instance  of  marquetry  and 
ivory,  largely  in  polygonal  design.  Ebony  and 
ivory  were  often  combined  in  mosaic-like  pat- 
terns, sometimes  framed  in  strips  of  metal,  as  in 
jewel  cases  and  other  boxes.  But  the  most  exten- 
sive of  all  the  wood  carvings  and  inlaid  work 
were  the  ceilings  of  mosques  and  palaces,  as  in 
those  of  Kait  Bey,  El-Mogyed,  and  El-Bordeini. 

Metal  Work.  The  Persians,  Syrians,  and 
Egyptians  were  skillful  workers  in  metal.  Per- 
haps the  earliest  centre  was  in  Mesopotamia,  at 
Mosul.  Brass,  bronze,  and  copper  were  chiefly 
used.  While  chiseled  bronze  and  repouss^  copper 
seem  the  earliest  processes,  the  works  came  to 
be  often  inlaid  with  silver  and  sometimes  with 
gold  by  different  processes:  (1)  by  incrusting  a 
thread  of  gold  or  silver  into  an  imdercut  groove; 
(2)  by  inclosing  a  metal  strip  or  plate  between 
raised  walls;  (3)  by  pressing  a  thin  leaf  of 
metal  into  stipple  marks.  The  entire  metal  sur- 
face was  excavated  according  to  the  elaborate  de- 
sign, the  edges  undercut,  the  threads  or  plates  of 
gold  or  silver  inserted  and  burnished,  and  then 
the  surfaces  chased  with  all  the  details  that 
could  not  be  given  by  the  general  outlines.  Ani- 
mals, birds,  human  figures,  hunting  scenes,  feast- 
ing scenes,  and  other  genre  subjects,  as  well  as 
floral  designs,  characterize  more  especially  the 
Persian  and  Syrian  works,  while  arabesques  and 
geometric  patterns  predominate  in  Egypt.  In- 
scriptions are  made  almost  always  to  contribute 
to  the  decorative  effect.  The  Mesopotamian  and 
Persian  schools,  though  undoubtedly  of  much 
earlier  origin,  gained  new  life  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, when  Tatar  and  Turkish  influence  gave  to 
artiffts  far  greater  freedom  in  the  use  of  the 


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KOHAMMED AN  ABT. 


658 


MOHAMMEDAN  ABT. 


human  figure.  The  school  of  Damascus  was  the 
most  famous  centre  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades, 
giving  its  name  to  the  entire  process  of  dama- 
scening or  inlaying.  The  Egyptian  school,  with 
its  centre  at  Cairo,  flourished  somewhat  later, 
under  the  Mameluke  rulers  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  objects  made  wholly  of  gold  and  silver 
have  almost  entirely  disappeared,  but  the  inven- 
tories of  the  palace  of  the  rulers  of  Bagdad  and 
Cairo  prove  the  existence  of  many  thousands  of 
such  objects — vases,  boxes,  mirrors,  stands, 
lamps,  trays,  coffers,  figures  of  birds  and  ani- 
mals, dishes,  cups,  flagons,  bowls.  Of  these  classes 
many  objects  still  remain  in  the  baser  metals, 
either  plain  or  damascened :  particularly  interest- 
ing are  the  hanging  lamps,  lanterns,  and  chande- 
liers, the  stands  and  tables,  mosque  doors,  per- 
fume-burners, ewers,  boxes  (especially  writing 
boxes),  trays,  and  bowls.  It  is  in  the  magnificent 
arms  and  armor  that  the  metal-workers  showed 
the  supremest  mastery,  using  all  the  processes, 
chiseling,  damascening,  enameling,  iewel-setting 
to  produce  the  masterpieces  in  the  shape  of  pon- 
iards, swords,  and  yataghans,  helmets,  breast- 
plates, and  lances,  stirrups,  bits,  and  the  rest  of 
the  military  equipment  and  caparison,  including, 
in  later  times,  muskets,  pistols,  and  halberds. 
In  this  special  field  the  school  of  Syria  (Damas- 
cus) reigned  supreme,  manufacturing  the  best 
pieces  for  the  entire  Mohammedan  world.  The 
Fersian  style  was  more  ornate,  standing  midway 
between  Syrian  simplicity  and  Indian  gorgeous- 
ness.    See  ImiiAN  Abt. 

Glass.  It  is  in  Egypt  that  stained-glass  win- 
dows were  made,  rivahng  on  a  small  scale  the 
cathedral  windows  of  the  Gothic  period.  Here, 
as  in  every  other  branch,  there  is  originality  of 
methods.  The  windows  are  small,  forming  usually 
an  oblong  of  less  than  two  by  three  feet.  The 
frame  is  of  wood  and  the  process  consists  of 
pouring  a  bed  of  plaster  into  this  frame,  letting 
it  set,  and  then  cutting  out  the  design,  leaving 
only  narrow  rims  or  bands  of  plaster  to  hold  the 
glass.  The  design  is  extremely  elaborate,  with 
a  central  motif,  usually  of  flowers,  plants,  and 
trees :  the  bits  of  stained  glass  cut  to  fit  over  the 
openings  are  laid  on  and  fastened  with  fresh 
plaster.  The  openings  are  often  slanting  toward 
the  street  and  the  plaster  artistically  finished  on 
the  outside.  The  effect  on  the  inside  is  similar  to 
mosaic.  The  commonest  designs  are:  pinks,  and 
other  fiowers  growing  from  a  vase;  cypress  with 
entwined  flower-stem;  scroll  of  flowers  and 
leaves;  kiosk  between  buds  or  cypresses;  one  or 
two  cypresses  with  flowers.  Earlier  than  these 
are  the  more  purely  geometric  designs,  as  in  the 
tomb  of  Bibars  at  Cairo.  Of  course  the  plaster  is 
far  more  fragile  than  lead  as  a  frame,  and  the 
windows  easily  disintegrate  and  cannot  be  made 
large.  Such  windows  (called  kamariye)  are 
found  not  merely  in  mosques,  but  in  the  meshra- 
hiyeh  or  latticecl  projectmg  windows  of  private 
houses.  In  harmony  and  quiet  depth  of  color 
they  surpass  their  more  colossal  Gothic  counter- 
parts. 

A  different  kind  of  artistic  glass  is  exemplified 
in  the  mosque  lamps  of  enameled  and  painted 
glass.  It  is  true  that  there  is  a  great  quantity 
of  exquisite  glass,  both  white  and  colored,  show- 
ing in  Persia ;  Syria  and  Egypt  still  carried  on  in 
the  Middle  Ages  the  old  Egyptian  and  Phoenician 
industry,  with  exquisite  understanding  of  forms 
and  tones,  furnishing  models  to  Venice;  but  it  is 


in  the  mosque  lamps  that  the  glass-workers  cer- 
tainly enter  the  domain  of  fine  art.  Here  the 
colors  are  enameled  on  a  gilt  ground  and  the  de- 
signs are  similar  to  those  of  metal  work,  with 
greater  prominence  given  to  inscriptions;  cobalt, 
red,  pale  green,  and  white  are  the  principal 
enamels  and  the  decoration  is  in  bands  with 
medallions.  The  most  beautiful  examples  are 
works  of  the  fourteenth  century  from  the  moaquea 
of  Cairo.  The  mellow  light  shining  through  the 
enamels  and  glass  of  these  suspended  lamps  was 
of  an  exquisite  effect. 

Illumination  op  Manuscbipts.  The  aversion 
to  the  representation  of  the  human  figure  hin- 
dered the  development  of  the  art  of  illumination 
— a  branch  of  art  not  cultivated  extensively 
until  the  later  Middle  Ages.  It  is  true  that  fig- 
ured compositions  were  not  imknown  either  to 
the  Egyptmn  or  the  Syrian  artists,  but  it  was  the 
Persian  school,  imder  Tatar  and  Mongol  m- 
fluences,  which  first  boldly  attempted  scenes  of 
daily  life  and  of  history.  There  are  many  manu- 
scripts of  the  Koran  belonging  to  the  other 
schools,  whose  first  and  last  pages  are  a  mass  of 
geometric  and  floral  ornament.  The  finest  col- 
lection of  Egyptian  manuscripts,  executed  main- 
ly for  the  sultans  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  is  that  of  the  Cairo  Museum  rescued 
from  the  mosques,  such  as  those  of  Sultans  Ka- 
laun,  Shaban,  and  Barkuk.  Sometimes  the  flow- 
ers, arabesques,  and  polygons  are  in  colors  on  a 
gold  ground,  sometimes  in  gold  on  a  ground  of 
plain  blue  or  red  or  of  shaded  and  grou^  colors. 
The  finest  of  these  illuminated  pages  surpass  any- 
thing done  by  Christian  artists  in  ricnness,  in 
exquisite  coloring,  and  in  fineness  of  execution. 
They  are  executed  not  on  vellum,  but  on  fine 
Egyptian  cream-colored  or  reddish  paper.  The 
Syrian  and  Persian  schools  avoided  the  geo- 
metric ornamentation,  and  their  floral  designs 
were  freer  and  more  naturalistic.  The  Persian 
fondness  for  legend  and  poetry  shows  itself  in  the 
rich  illumination  of  poems  and  stories  which 
gave  occasion  for  charming  genre  scenes  and  vi- 
gnettes, and  the  artist's  fancy  sprinkled  animals 
and  birds  in  riotous  confusion  in  a  background 
of  beautiful  garden  scenes. 

It  is  in  these  figured  illuminations  alone  that 
we  can  study  the  style  of  the  fresco-painters  of 
Mohammedanism,  whose  works  have  disappeared. 
It  is  plain  from  native  writers  that  the  caliphs 
of  Bagdad,  the  rulers  of  Egypt  and  Spain,  at  dif- 
ferent times  lavishly  patronized  figure  painters 
and  that  such  works  were  not  confined  to  the 
Persian  school.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
similarity  between  Persian  and  Chinese  painted 
design  and  to  make  the  Mongols  the  intermedia- 
ries between  the  two  schools.  The  primitive  con- 
ception of  composition  and  figure  and  the  awk- 
ward conventionalities  make  the  Persian  school, 
though  sucoes&ful  in  coloring,  less  successful  in  its 
sphere  than  the  purely  decorative  Egyptian.  The 
most  famous  Persian  illuminators  belong  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  such  as  Fabrizi,  Jehangir, 
Bukhari,  and  Bahzada.  The  latter's  works  are 
masterly  in  composition  and  correspond  to  the 
Italian  Giottesque  masters.  The  last  great  mas- 
ter was  Mari,  a  naturalist  from  India. 

Textile  Fadrics.  The  Far  East  had  always 
been  famous  for  its  artistic  stuffs,  embroideries, 
tapestries,  rugs.  It  was  as  successors  to  the  arts 
of  Persia  and  Babylon  that  the  Mohammedans  de- 
veloped this  branch,  though  Bagdad,  VsLvaacw, 


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KOHAMMEDAN  ABT. 


659 


KOHAHICEDANISM. 


Cairo,  and  Cordova  all  took  part  and  the  tribes 
and  villages  rivaled  with  the  large  cities.  Noth- 
ing became  more  characteristic  of  the  East,  noth- 
ing influenced  the  West  more  strongly,  through 
constant  importation  and  the  contact  of  the 
Crusaders.  The  haute-lisse  tapestry,  after  a 
method  long  lost  in  Europe,  was  in  current  use. 
The  same  difference  finally  appeared  in  the  de- 
signs here  as  in  other  branches:  geometrical  and 
set  patterns  being  more  common  in  Egypt;  free 
floral  designs  being  used  in  Persia.  The  few 
known  Persian  rugs  of  as  early  a  period  as  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  are  now 
valued  at  many  thousand  dollars  ($10,000  to 
$40,000),  and  a  study  of  their  design  shows  an 
almost  incalculable  variety  of  native  flowers  nat- 
uralistically  reproduced.  The  Syrian  school  had 
much  in  common  with  the  Byzantine  and,  as 
usual,  occupied  a  middle  position,  with  medal- 
lions in  a  stiff  floral  ground  containing  heraldic 
ftnimftlft  or  birds.  There  were  in  every  Moham- 
medan country  royal  manufactories  whose  prod- 
ucts were  entirely  reserved  for  the  Court  and 
sovereign;  the  standards,  baldachins,  tents, 
royal  robes,  hangings,  housings,  and  nigs  were 
all  of  a  magnificence  unknown  to  the  ruder  West 
and  unsurpassed  at  any  time.  The  known  speci- 
mens dater  no  earlier  than  the  eleventh  century 
and  the  art  decayed  before  the  sixteenth  century. 
Influence  on  Eubope.  Sicily,  Southern  Italy, 
Venice,  and  Spain  were  affected  by  the  Moham- 
medan arts  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  as 
late  as  the  Renaissance.  Hence  the  use  of  the 
pointed  and  the  horseshoe  arch  in  many  parts  of 
Southern  Europe.  The  cosmopolitan  culture  of 
the  Norman  Kings  of  Sicily  had  a  large  Moham- 
medan element.  The  palaces  of  the  kings — such 
as  La  Kuba,  La  Liza,  Favara,  and  Baida — were 
I  imitated  from  those  of  the  Eastern  emirs  and 
.  sultans;  San  Giovanni  degli  Eremiti  seems  an 
importation  from  Cairo.  Mohammedan  artists 
executed  the  wonderful  stalactite  ceiling  in  carved 
wood  and  probably  also  the  geometric  mosaics  in 
the  Cappella  Palatina  at  Palermo.  The  famous 
Ruffolo  Palace  at  Ravello,  and  several  cloisters 
(e.g.  at  Amalfi),  show  the  spread  of  Eastern 
architectural  forms  in  Campania.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  see  how  in  most  cases  where  there  are 
traces  of  Byzantine  art,  there  are  also  signs  of 
Mohammedan  infiuence,  and  vice  versa.  This  is 
nowhere  more  evident  than  in  Venice,  where  both 
forms  of  Oriental  art  were  so  prominent.  Here 
quite  a  flourishing  school  of  Mohammedan  metal- 
workers was  established,  existing  as  late  as  the 
sixteenth  century,  when  Mahmud  El-Kurdi  signed 
some  exquisite  pieces.  The  Italian  artists  who 
imitated  them  called  themselves  workers  alV 
agemina,  *in  the  Persian  style,'  and  even  Cellini 
confesses  to  have  copied  Oriental  arms.  In  fact, 
the  Renaissance  metal-workers  of  the  sixteenth 
century  both  in  Italy  and  France  owed  more  than 
their  medieval  predecessors  to  Oriental  design. 
Even  more  widespread  and  radical  was  the  use 
and  imitation  in  Europe  of  Oriental  stuffs  and 
fabrics,  partly  Byzantine,  but  especially  Moham- 
medan, wonderful  not  merely  for  beauty  of  ma- 
terial, but  for  the  flgures  and  patterns  woven  or 
embroidered.  The  imported  tents,  baldachin^, 
hansrings.  carpets,  and  the  like,  furnished  the 
models  for  the  European  ateliers  in  Sicily, 
Rome,  Venice,  Belgium,  and  France. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.    G.  Le  Bon,  La  civiUsatian  des 
Arahea  (Paris,  1883),  contains  the  most  sugges- 


tive general  sketch  of  the  Mohammedan  arts, 
with  numerous  illustrations;  Gayet,  in  L*art 
person  (Paris,  1896)  and  L'art  ardbe  (ib., 
1893),  describes  the  various  arts  in  Mohammedan 
Persia  and  Egypt,  in  hand-book  form.  A  more 
thorough  book  of  the  same  type  is  Stanley  Lane- 
Poole,  The  Art  of  the  Saracens  in  Egypt  (Lon- 
don, 1886).  Franz-Pascha,  Die  Baukunst  des 
Islam  (Darmstadt,  1896),  is  a  general  historical 
and  critical  treatise  on  Mohammedan  architec- 
ture and  decorative  details,  with  description  of 
the  different  classes  of  buildings.  For  the  de- 
signs and  patterns  used  in  decoration,  the  best 
text-book  remains  J.  Bourgoin,  Les  arts  arahes 
(Paris,  1868-70)  and  Precis  de  Vart  arahe 
(ib.,  1889).  In  Fergusson's  History  of  Archi- 
tecture (2d  ed.,  London,  1873-76),  considerable 
space,  with  not  very  scientific  treatment,  is  given 
to  the  Mohammedan  styles;  see  also  his  Indian 
and  Eastern  Architecture  (London,  1876)  ;  M. 
von  Berchem,  in  his  "Notes  d'archtologie  arabe" 
(in  various  years  of  the  Journal  Asiatique), 
is  laying  a  good  historic  basis  for  a  historic 
treatment  and  making  known  new  monuments. 
The  most  sumptuous  illustrative  plates  are  still 
for  Egypt  in  Priss^  d* Avenues,  L'art  arahe  d'apr^ 
les  monuments  du  Caire  (Paris,  1869-77),  and 
for  Persia  Flandin  and  Coste,  Monuments  mo- 
demes  de  la  Perse  (ib.,  1867).  For  Spain  the 
first  serious  work  was  Girault  de  Prangly, 
U architecture  des  Arahes  et  des  Maures  en 
Espagne,  en  Sidle  et  en  Barbaric  (ib.,  1842), 
which  should  be  supplemented  by  the  Spanish 
(jovemment  publication,  Monumentos  arquitec- 
tonioos  de  Espaiia  (Madrid,  1877  sqq.).  Noth- 
ing satisfactory  has  been  published  about  the 
monuments  of  Northern  Africa,  of  Syria  or  Asia 
Minor.  In  fact,  the  whole  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject is  unsatisfactory.  Aside  from  the  works  re- 
maining in  situ  there  are  not  many  collections  of 
the  smaller  works  of  Mohammedan  art.  That  of 
the  South  Kensington  Museum  is  important,  as 
are  those  of  Cairo,  and  of  the  Mus^e  des  Arts 
Decoratifs  in  Paris. 

ICOHAMMEDANISIC  The  name  commonly 
given  in  the  West  to  the  religion  founded  by  Mo- 
hammed. The  proper  name  is  Islam  ( q.v. ) ,  sug- 
gested by  Mohammed  himself,  and  explained  by 
him  to  include  the  performance  of  five  duties 
(the  'five  cardinal  points  of  Islam*),  viz.:  ac- 
ceptance of  the  formula,  'there  is  no  god  but 
Allah,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet';  prayer; 
alms-giving;  the  fast  of  Ramadan;  and  the  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca. 

DoCTBiNE  AND  PRACTICE.  Like  every  organized 
religion,  Islam,  as  developed  by  the  Mohammedan 
theologians,  presents  two  sides — the  theoretical 
part,  known  as  'fmdn,  'faith,'  and  the  practical 
part  called  <ffn,  'religion.*  The  doctrine  concern- 
ing Oodj  His  nature  and  attributes,  coincides 
with  the  Jewish  and  Christian  in  so  far  as  He  is 
by  both  taught  to  be  the  Creator  of  all  things  in 
heaven  and  earth,  who  rules  and  preserves  all 
things,  without  beginning,  omnipotent,  omnis- 
cient, omnipresent,  and  full  of  mercy.  But,  ac- 
cording to  the  Mohammedan  belief.  He  has  no 
offspring.  Jesus  is  regarded,  like  Adam,  Abra- 
ham, and  Moses,  as  a  prophet  and  apostle,  al- 
though His  birth  is  said  to  have  been  duo  to  a 
divine  intervention ;  as  the  Koran  superseded  the 
Gospel,  so  Mohammed  superseded  Christ  and  all 
preceding  prophets.  Next  to  the  belief  in  God, 
that  in  angeU  forms  a  prominent  dogma,  and. 


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MOHAMMEDANISM. 


like  the  former,  may  be  traced  back  directly  to 
Jewish  and  Christian  and  in  a  smaller  degree  to 
Persian  influences.  Created  of  fire  and  endowed 
with  a  kind  of  incorporeal  body,  angels  stand  be- 
tween God  and  man.  There  are  four  chief  angels : 
Gabriel,  the  angel  of  revelation;  Michael,  the 
special  protector  and  guardian  of  the  Jews; 
Azrael,  the  angel  of  death ;  Israfil  ( Uriel ) ,  whose 
office  it  will  be  to  sound  the  trumpet  at  the  resur- 
rection. Besides  angels  there  are  good  and  evil 
genii  (jinns,  q.v.),  of  a  grosser  fabric  than  the 
former  and  subject  to  death.  They  have  different 
names  and  offices  (pirfo,  fairies;  deves,  giants; 
iakwina,  fates,  etc.),  and  are  much  like  the 
skSdim  in  the  Talmud  and  Midrash  and  the  de- 
mons of  other  peoples.  The  chief  of  the  evil  genii 
is  Iblis  (q.v.),  once  called  Azazil,  who,  refusing 
to  pay  homage  to  Adam,  was  rejected  by  God.  A 
third  belief  is  that  in  certain  divinely  given 
scriptures,  revealed  successively  to  the  different 
prophets.  Originally  there  were  104  sacred  books, 
but  only  four  have  survived,  viz. :  the  Pentateuch, 
the  Psalms,  the  Gospel,  and  the  Koran,  and  the 
first  three  are  in  a  mutilated  and  falsified  condi- 
tion. The  number  of  prophets  sent  at  different 
times,  is  stated  variously  at  between  200,000  and 
300,000.  Among  them  313  were  apostles,  and  six 
Vfere  specially  commissioned  to  proclaim  new  laws 
and  dispensations,  which  abrogated  the  preceding 
ones.  These  were  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses, 
Jesus,  and  Mohammed — the  last  the  greatest  of 
them  all,  and  the  propagator  of  the  final  dis- 
pensation. The  belief  in  the  resurrection  and 
the  final  judgment  is  an  important  article  of  faith, 
which  in  the  theological  writings,  later  than  Mo- 
hammed, is  elaborately  developed.  The  condition 
of  the  dead  in  the  future  world  and  the  punish- 
ment of  the  wicked  are  pictured  with  a  great 
multiplicity  of  details.  The  dead  are  received  in 
their  graves  by  an  angel  announcing  the  coming 
of  the  two  examiners,  Munkar  (^Unknown*)  ana 
Nakir  ('Repudiating*),  who,  described  as  two 
black  angels  with  blue  eyes,  put  questions  to  the 
dead  respecting  his  belief  in  God  and  Mohammed, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  answers,  either  tor- 
ture or  comfort  him.  The  soul,  awaiting  a  gen- 
eral resurrection,  is  treated  according  to  its  rank ; 
prophets  enter  immediately  into  Paradise;  mar- 
tyrs, in  the  shape  of  a  green  bird,  partake  of  the 
delights  of  the  abode  of  bliss;  common  believers 
either  stay  near  the  grave,  or  are  with  Adam  in 
the  lowest  heaven,  or  remain  in  the  well  Zem- 
«em  or  in  the  trumpet  of  the  resurrection,  or  rest 
in  the  shape  of  a  white  bird  under  the  throne  of 
God.  The  souls  of  infidels  dwell  in  a  certain 
well  in  the  province  of  Hadramaut  (interpreted 
as  Chamber  of  Death),  or,  being  first  offered  to 
heaven,  then  to  earth,  and  rejected  by  both,  are 
subject  to  unspeakable  tortures  until  the  day  of 
resurrection.  Concerning  the  latter,  considerable 
discrepancy  reigns  among  the  Mohammedan  the- 
ologians. Mohammed  himself  seems  to  have  held 
that  both  soul  and  body  will  be  raised,  and  it  is 
Baid  that  the  rump-bone  will  remain  uncorrupted 
till  the  last  day,  and  from  it  the  whole  body  will 
spring  anew,  after  a  forty  days'  rain.  Among 
the  signs  by  which  the  approach  of  the  last  day 
may  be  known  are  the  decay  of  faith  among  men, 
the  advancing  of  the  meanest  persons  to  the  high- 
est dignities,  wars,  seditions,  and  tumults,  and 
consequent  dire  distress.  Certain  provinces  shall 
revolt,  and  the  buildings  of  Medina  shall  reach  to 
Mecca.     These  are  the  eight  *lesser*  signs;   of 


'greater*  signs  there  are  no  less  than  17 ;  the  snn 
will  rise  in  the  west,  the  Beast  will  appear,  C!on- 
stantinople  will  be  taken  by  the  descendants  of 
Isaac,  the  Antichrist  will  come  and  be  killed  by 
Jesus  at  Lud  (Lydda).  Further  there  will  come 
a  war  with  the  Jews,  Gog  and  Magog's  {Yijitj 
and  MdjUj)  eruption,  a  great  smoke;  an  eclipse, 
the  Mohammedans  will  return  to  idolatry,  a 
great  treasure  will  be  found  in  the  Euphrates, 
the  Kaaba  will  be  destroyed  bv  the  Ethiopians, 
beasts  and  inanimate  things  will  speak,  and  final- 
ly, a  wind  will  sweep  away  the  souls  of  those 
who  have  faith,  even  if  equal  only  to  a  grain  of 
mustard  seed,  so  that  the  world  shall  be  left  in 
ignorance.  The  time  of  the  resurrection  even 
Mohammed  could  not  learn  from  Crabriel ;  it  is  a 
mystery.  Three  blasts  will  announce  it ;  that  of 
consternation,  of  such  terrible  power  that  moth- 
ers will  neglect  the  babes  on  their  breasts,  and 
heaven  and  earth  will  melt ;  that  of  examination, 
which  will  annihilate  all  things  and  beings,  even 
the  angel  of  death,  save  paradise  and  hell  and 
their  inhabitants ;  and,  forty  years  later,  that  of 
resurrection,  when  all  men,  Mohammed  first, 
shall  have  their  souls  breathed  into  their  restored 
bodies,  and  will  sleep  in  their  sepulchres  until 
the  final  doom  has  been  passed  upon  them.  The 
day  of  judgment,  lasting  from  one  thousand  to 
fifty  thousand  years,  will  call  up  angels,  genii, 
men,  and  animals.  The  trial  over,  the  righteous 
will  enter  paradise,  to  the  right  hand,  and  the 
wicked  will  pass  to  the  left,  into  hell ;  both,  how- 
ever have  fcrst  to  go  over  the  bridge  Al-Sirif, 
laid  over  the  midst  of  hell,  finer  than  a  hair, 
sharper  than  the  edge  of  a  sword,  and  beset  with 
thorns  on  either  side.  The  righteous  will  pro- 
ceed on  their  path  with  ease  and  swiftness,  but 
the  wicked  will  fall  headlong.  Hell  is  divided 
into  seven  stories  or  apartments,  respectively  as- 
signed to  Mohammedans,  Jew8,Christians,  Sabians, 
Magians,  idolaters,  and — the  lowest  of  all — to  the 
hypocrites,  who,  outwardly  professing  a  religion, 
in  reality  had  none.  The  degrees  of  pain — chief- 
ly consisting  in  infensc  heat  and  cold — ^vary;  but 
the  Mohammedans,  and  all  those  who  professed 
the  unity  of  God,  will  finally  be  released,  while 
unbelievers  and  idolaters  will  be  condemned  to 
eternal  punishment.  Paradise  is  divided  from 
hell  by  a  partition  i'urf)  in  which  a  certain 
number  of  half-saints  will  find  place.  The 
blessed,  destined  for  the  abode  of  eternal  delight 
{AUJannah,  Heb.  Oan-Eden),  will  first  drink 
of  the  pond  of  the  Prophet,  which  is  supplied 
from  the  rivers  of  Paradise,  whiter  than  milk, 
and  more  odoriferous  than  musk.  ^  Arrived  at  one 
of  the  eight  gates,  they  will  be  met  by  beautiful 
youths  and  angels ;  and  their  degree  of  righteous- 
ness (prophets,  religious  teachers,  martyrs,  be- 
lievers) will  procure  for  them  the  corresponding 
degree  of  happiness.  Mankind  on  the  last  day 
will  be  assembled  in  three  classes :  ( 1 )  Those  who 
go  on  foot,  believers  whose  good  works  have  been 
few;  (2)  those  who  ride,  believers  acceptable  in* 
the  eyes  of  God;  and  (3)  these  who  creep,  the 
unbelievers.  The  various  felicities  which  await 
the  pious  represent  a  conglomeration  of  Jew* 
ish.  Christian.  Zoroastrian,  and  other  fancies 
to  which  the  Prophet's  own  sensual  ima^nation 
has  added  very  considerably.  Feasting  in  the  most 
gorgeous  and  delicious  variety,  the  most  costly 
and  brilliant  garments,  odors,  and  music  of  the 
most  ravishing  nature,  and,  above  all,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  ?wr  al-'uy^n,  the  black-eyed  daugh- 


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MOHAMMEDANISM. 


661 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


ters  of  Paradise  (see  Houbi),  created  of  pure 
musk,  are  held  out  as  a  reward  to  the  commonest 
inhabitant  of  Paradise,  who  will  always  remain 
in  the  full  vigor  of  youth  and  manhood.  For 
those  deserving  a  higher  degree  of  recompense, 
rewards  will  be  prepared  of  a  purely  spiritual 
kind — i.e.  the  'beholding  of  God's  face'  (She- 
chinah)  by  night  and  by  day.  The  last  of  the 
precepts  of  pure  faith  taught  by  Mohanmiedan- 
ism  is  the  full  and  imconditional  auhtnission  to 
God's  decree,  and  the  predestination  of  good  and 
evil,  which  is  found  from  the  beginning  inscribed 
on  a  'preserved  table.'  Not  only  a  man's  fortunes, 
but  his  deeds,  and  consequently  his  future  re- 
ward or  punishment,  are  irrevocably,  and  thus 
unavoidably,  pre-ordained;  a  doctrine  which  is 
not,  however,  taken  literally  by  all  Moslems. 

The  first  of  the  four  chief  duties  of  din  or  the 
practical  part  of  Islam  is  prayer,  "the  key  of 
Paradise."  Certain  religious  purifications  are  in- 
cluded as  necessary  preparations.  They  are  of  two 
kinds :  the  ghual,  or  total  inunersion  of  the  body, 
required  on  certain  special  occasions;  and  the 
tDudH'y  a  partial  ablution,  to  be  performed  imme- 
diately before  the  prayer.  This  is  of  primary 
importance,  and  consists  in  washing  the  hands, 
face,  ears,  and  feet  up  to  the  ankles — a  proceed- 
ing generally  accompanied  at  each  stage  by  cor- 
responding pious  sentences,  and  concluded  by  the 
recital  of  the  ninety-seventh  sura  of  the  Ko- 
ran. If  water  is  not  to  be  had,  sand  may  supply 
its  place.  Even  the  ground  or  the  carpet  upon 
which  one  prays  must  be  as  clean  as  possible,  and 
the  use  of  a  special  prayer-carpet  {sajj&dah)  is 
therefore  recommended.  Every  Mohammedan  is 
required  to  pray  five  times  in  the  space  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  prayer  {fal&t)  itself  consists 
partly  of  extracts  from  the  Koran  (far^),  partly 
of  sentences  ordained  upon  the  precept  or  practice 
of  the  Prophet  {sunna).  The  times  of  prayer 
are:  Daybreak  ifajr)  ;  noon  {zuhr)  ;  afternoon, 
midway  between  the  second  and  fourth  {*asr)  ; 
evening  {maghrih)  ;  after  night  has  closed  in 
i'ishd).  These  several  times  of  prayer  are  an- 
nounced by  the  muezzins  (q.v.)  from  the  mina- 
rets of  the  mosques.  The  believer  passes  through 
a  series  of  thirteen  postures  during  his  prayers; 
and  a  certain  number  of  such  inclinations  of  head 
and  knees,  prostrations,  etc.,  is  called  rak^ah.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  face  of  the  worshiper  should 
be  turned  toward  the  kiblah,  i.e.  in  the  direction 
of  Mecca  (see  Kiblah).  Women,  although  not 
forbidden  to  enter  the  mosque,  yet  are  not  sup- 
posed to  pray  there,  lest  their  presence  should 
be  hurtful  to  true  devotion.  Besides  these 
prayers,  there  are  others  ordained  for  special 
occasions,  as  on  a  pilgrimage,  before  a  battle,  at 
funerals,  during  an  eclipse,  etc.  The  Moslems  do 
not  pray  to  Mohammed,  but  simply  implore  his 
intercession,  as  they  do  that  of  the  numerous 
saints,  the  relatives  of  the  Prophet,  and  the  first 
propagators  of  Islam.  Petitions,  moreover,  play 
a  subsidiary  part  in  the  prayers,  which  are  chiefly 
made  up  of  thanksgivings  and  praise  formulas. 
Mohammedanism  has  no  clergy  in  the  Western 
sense  of  the  word,  but  there  is  always  a  leader 
CtmAm),  who  takes  his  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
congregation  and  'leads'  the  latter  in  prayer. 
(See  Imam;  Mollah;  Mufti.)  Next  to  prayer 
stands  the  duty  of  giving  alms.  These  are  two- 
fold, legal  {zaMt)  and  voluntary  {^adakah), 
but  the  former,  originally  collected  by  the  sov- 
ereign and  applied  to  pious  uses,  has  now  been 


practically  abrogated.  The  sadakah,  according 
to  the  law,  is  to  be  given  once  every  year,  of 
cattle,  money,  corn,  fruits,  and  wares  sold,  at 
about  the  rate  of  from  two  and  a  half  up  to 
twenty  per  cent.  Besides  these,  it  is  usual  to  be- 
stow a  measure  of  provisions  upon  the  poor  at 
the  end  of  the  sacred  month  of  Ramadan.  The 
duty  of  fasting  follows.  During  the  whole  month 
of  Ramadan,  the  Moslem  is  commanded  to  refrain 
from  eating,  drinking,  and  everv  indulgence  in 
worldly  pleasure,  from  daybreak  until  sunset. 
During  the  night  he  is  allowed  to  eat,  drink,  and 
enjoy  himself .  Certain  classes  are  exempt,  as  it 
was  Mohammed's  special  and  express  desire  that 
no  one  should  fast  who  is  not  e(]ual  to  it,  lest 
he  injure  his  health  and  disqualify  himself  for 
necessary  labor.  Of  other  commendable  fast- 
days,  the  most  important  is  the  'AshUra,  on  the 
tenth  of  Muharram,  corresponding  in  a  measure 
to  the  Jewish  Day  of  Atonement.  The  fast  of 
Ramadan  is  imiversally  kept,  in  letter  if  not  in 
spirit,  fasting  being  considered  "one-fourth  part 
of  the  faith."  (See  Ramadan;  Fasts.)  The 
last  duty  is  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  which  every 
Moslem  must  make  once  in  his  life,  if  he  be  free, 
sound  in  body,  and  able  to  meet  the  expense. 
Women  also  perform  the  pilgrimage.  To  pay  the 
way  of  one  who  cannot  himself  afford  it  is  con- 
sidered a  pious  act,  and  the  Shiites  allow  the  pil- 
grimage to  be  made  by  proxy.  See  Ha j j ;  Haj Ji. 

To  the  'positive'  ordinances  of  Islam  may  be 
added  the  ^aghlr  or  lesser  and  kahir  or  greater 
festivals.  The  first  {aUfitr,  or  breaking  the  fast) 
follows  immediately  upon  Ramadan,  beginning  on 
the  first  day  of  the  month  of  Shawwal,  and  lasts 
three  days.  The  second  {'id  al-kurh^,  or  sacri- 
fice festival  also  called  *fd  al-duha  in  India,  *ld  al- 
Bairam  in  Turkey  and  Egypt)  begins  on  the  tenth 
of  Dhu  1-Hijjah.  The  latter  was  intended  to  be 
the  more  important  of. the  two,  but  the  people 
have  in  most  places  changed  the  order,  and  make 
the  lesser  festival,  which  follows  Ramadan,  the 
more  joyful  and  the  longer.  The  day  set  aside 
for  the  weekly  assembly  is  Friday^  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  day  of  rest. 

Islam  also  enjoins  a  number  of  prohibitory 
laws  based  upon  utterances  of  the  Prophet.  The 
drinking  of  wine,  which  includes  all  strong  and 
inebriating  liquors,  is  vigorously  forbidden. 
Chiefiy  through  European  influence  some  Moslems 
have  lost  their  scruples  on  this  score,  but  the 
great  majority  of  the  faithful  refuse  even  to  make 
use  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  wine  or  grapes. 
Some  scrupulous  believers  even  include  opium, 
coffee,  and  tobacco  in  the  prohibition;  but  gen- 
eral practice  has  decided  differently.  The  pro- 
hibitory laws  respecting  food  resemble  closely 
those  of  Rabbinical  Judaism;  blood,  the  flesh  of 
swine,  animals  which  have  died  from  disease  or 
age,  or  on  which  the  name  of  some  idol  has  been 
invoked,  or  which  have  been  sacrificed  unto  an 
idol,  or  which  have  been  strangled,  or  killed  by 
a  blow,  a  fall,  or  by  some  other  beast,  are  strictly 
forbidden.  'Pure'  animals  must  be  slaughtered 
according  to  certain  fixed  rules,  and  fish,  bird, 
game  are  generally  allowed  for  food.  All  gam^s 
subject  to  chance — such  as  dice,  cards,  tables, 
bets,  etc. — are  considered  so  wicked  that  a  gam- 
bler's testimony  is  invalid  in  a  court  of  law. 
Chess  and  other  games  depending  on  skill — ^pro- 
vided they  do  not  interfere  with  the  regular  per- 
formance of  religious  duties,  and  that  they  are 
played  without  any  stakes — are  allowed  by  the 


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MOHAMMEDANISM. 


majority  of  Moslem  theologians.  Usury  is  strict- 
ly prohibited.  Taking  interest  upon  any  loans, 
however  large  or  small,  or  profiting  in  trade 
through  questionable  means,  save  by  buying  and 
selling,  is  severely  condemned.  To  prevent  the 
faithful  from  ever  falling  back  into  idolatry,  the 
laws  relating  to  images  and  pictures  have  been 
made  very  strin^nt.  Whosoever  makes  an  imita- 
tion of  any  living  being  in  stone,  wood,  or  any 
other  material,  shall,  on  the  day  of  judgment,  be 
asked  to  endow  his  creation  with  life  and  soul, 
and,  on  his  protesting  his  inability  of  doing  so, 
shall  imdergo  the  punishment  of  hell  for  a  cer- 
tain period. 

The  civil  and  criminal  laws  of  Mohammedan- 
ism, founded  on  both  the  Koran  and  the  Tradi- 
tions {Sunna,  q.v.),  in  instances  where  the  let- 
ter of  the  written  or  oral  precept  allows  of  vari- 
ous explanations,  or  where  the  case  in  question  is 
unprecedented,  are  interpreted  according  to  the 
opinion  of  one  of  the  four  great  masters  of  Islam : 
Abu  Hanifah  (bom  702),  Malik  ibn  Anas  (bom 
714),  Mohammed  al-Shafii  (born  767),  and 
Ahmad  ibn  Hanbal  (bom  780),  within  tha  pale 
of  their  respective  sects.  (See  Mohammedan 
Sects.)  Upon  the  principal  points  all  Moham- 
medans agree.  In  regard  to  marriage,  polygamy 
is  allowed,  but  not  without  restriction.  Four 
wives,  though  he  may  cohabit  with  any  number  of 
concubine  slaves,  is  the  legal  limit  for  a  Moslem. 
The  Prophet's  example  proves  nothing  to  the  con- 
trary, since  he  was  endowed  with  special  privi- 
leges, and  not  subject  to  the  common  law  in  many 
respects.  It  is,  moreover,  added  as  advice,  that  to 
marry  one  or  two  is  quite  sufficient  for  a  man.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  rule  among  Mohammedans 
of  the  present  day  is  to  have  but  one  wife.  A 
Moslem  may  marry  a  Christian  woman  or  a  Jew- 
ess, but  a  Mohammedan  woman  is  not,  under  any 
circumstances  to  marry  an  unbeliever.  In  all 
cases,  however,  the  child  born  of  a  Moslem,  what- 
ever the  mother's  faith,  is  a  Moslem;  nor  does 
the  wife  who  is  an  unbeliever  inherit  at  her 
husband's  death.  Forbidden  degrees  are:  The 
mother,  daughter,  sister,  half-sister,  aunt,  niece, 
foster-mother,  or  a  woman  related  to  the  faithful 
"by  milk  in  any  of  the  degrees  which  would  pre- 
clude his  marriage  with  her  if  she  were  similarly 
related  to  him  by  consanguinity;"  the  mother  of 
his  wife,  even  if  he  be  not  yet  actually  married 
to  the  latter;  the  daughter  of  his  wife,  if  the 
latter  still  be  his  legal  wife;  his  father's  wife 
and  his  son's  wife ;  two  sisters  at  the  same  time ; 
wives  who  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of 
aunt  and  niece;  or  the  unemancipated  slave,  or 
another  man's  slave,  if  he  have  already  a  free 
wife.  A  simple  declaration  of  a  man  and  woman 
at  the  age  of  puberty,  before  two  witnesses,  of 
their  intention  to  marry  each  other,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  part  of  the  dowry  (which  is  indispen- 
sable, and  must  amount  to  at  least  ten  dirhems, 
or  about  one  dollar)  is  sufficient  for  a  legal 
marriage.  A  girl  under  age  is  given  away  by 
her  natural  or  appointed  guardian,  with  or  with- 
out her  consent.  To  see  the  face  of  any  woman 
who  is  neither  his  wife  nor  his  concubine,  nor 
belongs  to  any  of  the  forbidden  degrees,  is  strictly 
forbidden  to  the  believer.  Divorce  is  a  compara- 
tively light  matter  with  the  Mohammedans. 
Twice  a  man  may  send  away  his  wife  and  take 
her  back  again  without  any  ceremony;  the 
third  time,  however,  he  may  not  receive  her  again 
in  wedlock  imless  she  have  been  married  prop- 


erly to  another  man  in  the  meantime.  Mere  dis- 
like is  sufficient  reason  for  a  man  to  dissolve  the 
conjugal  ties,  and  his  saying  **Thou  art  di- 
vorced," or  1  divorce  thee,"  together  with  the 
repayment  of  the  dowry,  is  all  that  is  required 
from  him  by  the  law.  A  wife,  on  the  other  nand, 
is  bound  to  her  husband  forever,  imless  she  can 
prove  some  flagrant  ill  usage  or  neglect  of  con- 
jugal duty  on  his  part;  and  even  then  she  for- 
feits part,  or  the  whole,  of  her  dowry.  A  divorced 
woman  is  obliged  to  wait,  like  the  widow,  for  a 
certain  period  before  marrying  again.  If  she 
have  a  young  child,  she  is  to  suckle  it  until  it  be 
two  years  old,  and  the  father  is  to  bear  all  the 
expenses  of  the  maintenance  of  mother  and  child. 
If  a  slave  becomes  a  mother  by  her  master,  and 
he  acloiowledges  the  child  to  be  his  own,  the  lat- 
ter is  free,  the  mother  becomes  the  wife  of  her 
master,  and  may  not  be  given  away  or  other- 
wise disposed  of  by  him  during  his  lifetime. 
A  free  person,  wishing  to  marry  his  or  her 
slave,  must  first  emancipate  this  slave;  and  if 
the  slave  of  another  person  has  been  married 
by  a  free  man  or  woman,'  and  afterwards  becomes 
the  latter's  property,  the  marriage  becomes  il- 
legal, and  can  only  be  renewed  by  a  legal  con- 
tract and  emancipation.  As  regards  inheritance^ 
males  generally  receive  a  double  share.  A  person 
may  not  beaueath  more  than  one-third  of  his 

Sroperty,  uniess  there  be  no  legal  heirs.  Chil- 
ren,  whether  begotten  with  the  legal  wife  or 
slave,  or  concubine,  or  only  adopted,  and  their 
descendants,  are  the  first  heirs;  next  come  the 
claims  of  wives,  parents,  brothers,  sisters,  in 
their  order.  Where  there  is  no  legal  heir,  the 
property  falls  to  the  State.  The  law  is  very 
lenient  toward  debtors.  Insolvency  and  inability 
to  work  for  the  discharge  of  the  claim  solve  all 
further  obligations.  The  most  conscientious  per- 
formance of  all  private  contracts  is  constantly 
]\KK)mmended  in  the  Koran.  Murder  is  either 
punished  with  death  or  by  the  payment  of  a  fine 
to  the  family  of  the  deceased,  according  to  their 
own  pleasure.  There  must,  however,  l^  palliat- 
ing circumstances  in  the  latter  case.  The  Bed- 
ouins still  maintain  the  primitive  Semitic  law 
of  blood-revenge,  and  up  to  this  day  the  'ven- 
detta* often  rages  not  only  between  family  and 
family,  but  between  whole  tribes,  villages,  and 
provinces.  Unintentional  homicide  is  expiated  by 
freeing  a  believer  from  slavery,  and  paying  to  the 
family  a  certain  sum  in  proportion  to  the  rank 
and  sex  of  the  deceased.  He  who  has  not  the 
means  of  freeing  a  believer  is  to  fast  for  two 
months  by  way  of  penance.  According  to  the 
strict  letter  of  the  law  a  man  is  not  liable  to 
capital  punishment  for  killing  his  own  child  or 
an  infidel;  but  practically  no  difference  is  made 
by  the  Mohammedan  governments  (chiefly  the 
Turkish)  at  the  present  time.  Murder  is  pun- 
ished with  death  and  no  fine  frees  the  culprit 
Injuries  to  the  person  are  punished  according  io 
the  primitive  law  of  retaliation;  that  is,  a  cer- 
tain proportionate  fine  in  money  is  to  be  paid 
to  the  injured.  The  payment  for  any  of  the 
single  limbs  of  the  human  body  (e.g.  the  nose) 
is  the  full  price  of  blood,  as  for  a  homicide; 
for  a  limb  which  is  found  twice,  like  hand  or  foot, 
half;  for  a  finger  or  a  toe,  the  tenth  part,  etc. 
Women  and  slaves  have  smaller  claims.  In- 
juries of  a  dangerous  or  otherwise  grievous  na- 
ture pay  the  full  price ;  those  of  an  inferior  kind, 
however,  bring  the  perpetrator  within  the  prov- 


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MOHAMMEDANISM. 


ince  of  the  lash  or  cudgel.  The  Koran  orders 
small  theft  to  be  punished  by  cutting  off  the 
chief  offending  limb^  the  right  hand;  the  second 
theft  is  punishable  by  the  loss  of  the  left  foot; 
the  third,  of  the  left  hand;  the  fourth,  of  the 
right  foot,  etc.;  but  the  ordinary  punishments 
of  imprisonment,  hard  labor,  and  the  bastinado 
have  been  substituted  in  later  times.  The  prop- 
erty stolen  must  not,  however,  have  been  of  easy 
access  to  the  thief,  nor  must  it  have  consisted  of 
food,  since  he  may  have  taken  this  to  satisfy  the 
craving  of  his  hunger.  Unchastity  on  the  part  of 
a  woman  was  in  the  commencement  of  Islam  pun- 
ished by  imprisonment  for  life,  for  which  after- 
wards, however,  stoning  was  substituted  in  the 
case  of  a  married  woman,  and  a  hundred  stripes 
and  a  year's  exile  in  the  case  of  an  unmarried 
free  woman,  a  slave  to  undergo  only  half  of  that 
punishment.  He  who  accuses  a  *woman  of  repu- 
tation* of  adultery  or  fornication  must  produce 
four  (male)  witnesses,  and  if  he  be  not  able  to 
do  so,  he  is  to  receive  fourscore  stripes,  nor  is  his 
testimony  ever  after  to  be  received  unless  he 
swear  four  times  that  he  speaks  the  truth,  and 
the  fifth  time  imprecate  God*s  vengeance  if  he 
speak  false.  Even  this  testimony  may  be  over- 
thrown by  the  wife's  swearing  four  times  that 
her  accuser  is  a  liar,  and  imprecatins  the  fifth 
time  the  wrath  of  God  upon  herself  if  he  speak 
the  truth.  In  the  latter  case  she  is  free  from 
punishment;  the  marriage,  however,  is  to  be  dis- 
solved. Fornication  in  either  sex  is,  by  the  law 
of  the  Koran,  to  be  visited  with  a  hundred 
stripes.  Infidelity^  or  apostasy  from  Islam,  is  a 
crime  to  be  visited  by  the  death  of  the  offender, 
if  he  have  been  warned  thrice  without  recanting. 
Severer  still,  that  is,  not  to  be  averted  by  repent- 
ance or  revocation  of  any  kind,  is  the  punish- 
ment inflicted  for  blasphemy — against  God,  Mo- 
hammed, Jesus,  Moses,  or  any  other  prophet. 
Immediate  death  is  the  doom  of  the  offender. 

A  further  injunction  of  the  Koran  is  that  of 
making  war  against  the  infidels  {jihAd).  He 
who  is  slain  while  fighting  in  defense  of  Islam  or 
for  its  propagation  is  reckoned  a  martyr;  while 
a  deserter  from  the  holy  war  is  held  up  as  an 
object  of  execration,  and  has  forfeited  his  life  in 
this  world  as  well  as  in  the  world  to  come.  At 
first  all  the  enemies  taken  in  battle  were  ruth- 
lessly slain;  later,  however,  it  became  the  law 
to  give  the  people  of  a  different  faith  against 
whom  war  was  declared  the  choice  of  three 
things — either  to  embrace  Islam,  in  which  case 
they  became  Moslems  at  once,  free  in  their  per- 
sons and  fortunes,  and  entitled  to  all  the  priv- 
ileges of  Moslems;  or  to  submit  to  pay  tribute, 
in  which  case  they  were  allowed  to  continue  in 
their  religion,  if  it  did  not  imply  gross  idolatry 
or  otherwise  offend  against  the  moral  law;  Or  to 
decide  the  quarrel  by  the  fortune  of  war — in 
which  case  the  captive  women  and  children  were 
made  slaves,  and  the  men  either  slain  if  they 
did  not  become  converts  at  the  last  moment,  or 
otherwise  disposed  of  by  the  prince.  The  fifth 
part  of  the  spoil  belongs  *to  God,'  that  is,  must 
be  devoted  to  a  sanctuary,  to  the  Prophet  and  his 
kindred,  to  the  orphans,  the  poor,  and  the  trav- 
eler. 

It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  Islam  of 
history  and  of  the  present  time  is  not  the  pure 
and  unmodified  teaching  of  its  founder.  The 
Koran  was  not  intended  to  be  a  systematically 
arranged  code  of  laws.     Such  laws  and  regula- 


tions as  it  contains  were  called  fo]*th  by  some 
occurrence  during  the  Prophet's  life,  and  were, 
properly,  supplementary  to  existing  laws  and 
customs,  which  tney  abrogated,  confirmed,  or 
modified  according  to  the  occasion.  In  course  of 
time  cases  arose  for  which  no  written  rules  could 
be  foimd  laid  down  by  Mohammed.  Recourse  was 
then  had  to  traditional  oral  dicta  or  to  the 
Sunna  (q.v.)  ;  in  time  precedents  were  estab- 
lished and  laws  came  into  force  by  the  concur- 
rence of  the  learned  (t;«iA*),  or  by  a  process  of 
reasoning  (fciyd«).  In  this  way  the  peculiar 
system  which  is  called  Mohammedan  jurispru- 
dence came  into  being,  theoretically  founded  on 
the  Koran,  but  often  strangely  at  variance  with 
the  principles  and  spirit  of  its  author.  In  like 
manner  the  reprehensible  features  of  the  doctrine 
and  daily  life  of  Islam  must  not  be  charged  in- 
discriminately against  Mohammed.  That  part  of 
the  system  which  most  distinctly  reveals  the 
mind  of  its  founder,  and  which  also  has  under- 
gone least  change  in  the  course  of  time  and  con- 
stitutes its  most  complete  and  brightest  part,  is 
its  ethics.  Injustice,  falsehood,  pride,  vindictive- 
ness,  calumny,  mockery,  avarice,  prodigality,  de- 
bauchery, mistrust,  and  suspicion  are  inveighed 
against  as  ungodly  and  wicked;  while  benevo- 
lence, liberality,  modesty,  forbearance,  patience 
and  endurance,  frugality,  sincerity,  straightfor- 
wardness, decency,  love  of  peace  and  truth,  and 
above  all  trust  in  Grod  and  submission  to  His 
will,  are  considered  as  the  pillars  of  true  piety 
and  the  principal  signs  of  a  true  believer.  Mo- 
hammed never  expressly  laid  down  that  doctrine 
of  absolute  predestination  and  "fatality**  which 
destroys  all  human  will  and  freedom,  and  which 
by  the  influence  of  Mohammedan  theologians 
became  a  fixed  element  in  the  orthodox  creed. 
A  glance  at  his  system  of  faith  (so  far  as  he 
had  a  system),  built  on  hope  and  fear,  rewards 
and  punishments,  paradise  and  hell,  both  to  be 
man's  portion  according  to  his  acts  in  this  life, 
and  the  incessant  exhortations  to  virtue,  and 
denunciations  of  vice,  are  sufficient  to  prove  that 
aboriginal  predestination  is  not  in  the  Koran, 
where  only  submission  to  Allah's  will,  hope 
during  misfortune,  modesty  in  prosperity,  and 
entire  confidence  in  the  divine  plans,  are  sup- 
ported by  the  argument  that  eveiything  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  highest  being,  and  that  there  is  no 
appeal  against  his  absolute  decrees.  This  is  but 
one  instance  of  the  way  in  which  Mohammed's 
dicta  have  been  developed  and  explained — in 
such  a  manner  that  he  has  often  been  made  to 
teach  doctrines  which  he  really  did  not  teach; 
and  thus  many  elements  now  found  in  the  Mos- 
lem creed,  if  carefully  traced  back  to  their 
original  source,  will  be  seen  to  be  the  growth 
of  later  generations. 

In  a  general  estimate  of  Mohammedanism  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  what  Islam  has  done 
for  the  cause  of  humanity  and  more  particularly 
the  share  it  had  in  the  development  of  science 
and  art  in  Europe.  Broadly  speaking,  the  Mo- 
hammedans may  be  said  to  have  been  the  teachers 
of  barbarous  Europe  from  the  ninth  to  the  thir- 
teenth century.  It  is  from  the  days  of  the  Ab- 
basside  rulers  that  the  real  renaissance  of  the 
Greek  spirit  and  Greek  culture  is  to  be  dated. 
Classical  literature  would  have  been  irredeem- 
ably lost  had  it  not  been  for  the  home  it  found 
in  the  schools  of  the  "unbelievers"  of  the  "dark 
ages."     Arabic    philosophy,    medicine,    natund 


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MOHAlQCRDANTSTir. 


history,  geography,  history,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
schooled  by  the  old  Hellenic  masters,  and  the 
''golden  art  of  poetry,"  brought  forth  an  abun- 
dant harvest  of  works,  many  of  which  will  live 
and  teach  as  long  as  there  will  be  generations 
to  be  taught.    See  Arabic  Language  and  Liteba- 

TUBE. 

HiSTOBT.  In  the  first  three  years  of  his  mis- 
sion Mohammed  won  forty  converts,  including 
his  wife,  Khadija,  Abu  Bekr,  and  Othman.  Then 
followed  Ali,  Omar  ibn  Khattab,  and  Hamza. 
In  615  the  persecutions  of  the  Koreish  drove 
fifteen  of  the  converts  into  Abyssinia,  and  they 
were  later  joined  by  a  hundred  more.  After 
Mohammed's  return  from  Taif  to  Mecca  he  won 
over  some  of  the  Bani  Khazraj  of  Yathrib  (Me- 
dina), who  then  made  converts  among  the  Bani 
Aus,  formed V  their  enemies.  The  new  faith 
spread  rapidly  from  tribe  to  tribe,  the  Bani 
Abd  al-Ashhal  going  over  in  a  body.  In  622  the 
number  of  Mohammedan  pilgrims  from  Yathrib 
was  73.  After  the  flight  from  Mecca  Medina  was 
organized  into  a  commonwealth,  and  Islam  be- 
came a  political  as  well  as  a  religious  move- 
ment. 

Mohammed's  plans  included  now  nothing  less 
than  the  conversion  of  the  world  to  Islam.  If 
he  had  at  first  hoped  to  accomplish  this  by 
peaceful  measures  alone,  the  aggressiveness  of  his 
enemies  in  advancing  against  Medina  soon  forced 
the  preacher  to  become  warrior  also,  and  mili- 
tary success  won  more  and  more  converts.  In 
the  sixth  year  of  the  Hejira  Mohammed  sent 
letters  to  the  Bj^zantine  Emperor,  Heraclius,  to 
the  King  of  Persia,  to  the  Governor  of  Yemen,  to 
the  Governor  of  Egypt,  and  to  the  King  of  Abys- 
sinia inviting  them  to  join  the  new  religion.  In 
the  same  year  he  converted  part  of  the  Bani 
Daws  of  Yemen,  and  two  years  later  the  rest  of 
the  tribe  followed;  in  the  meanwhile  fifteen 
other  tribes  responded.  With  the  fall  of  Mecca 
in  A.H.  8,  the  triumph  of  Islam  in  Arabia  was 
assured.  Some  of  the  Prophet's  bitterest  enemies 
became  his  most  ardent  followers;  and  the  next 
year  saw  so  many  embassies  suing  for  alliance 
that  it  became  known  as  the  'year  of  the  deputa- 
tions.' 

After  Abu  Bekr  had  brought  about  the  re- 
subjugation  of  the  northern  tribes,  who  had  re- 
volted on  Mohammed's  death,  an  army  was  sent 
into  Syria,  as  the  Prophet  himself  had  planned. 
A  second  army  was  sent  into  Irak.  The  latter 
came  into  contact  with  the  Persian  forces,  and 
in  Omar's  caliphate,  by  the  victory  at  Kadisiy- 
yah,  Chaldsea  and  Mesopotamia  were  assured  to 
the  Arabs.  Christian  Bedouins  of  both  sides  of 
the  Euphrates  became  converted  at  this  time, 
even  though  tolerance  was  extended  to  those  who 
kept  their  own  faith.  In  Syria  almost  the  only 
opposition  came  from  Heraclius's  armies.  The 
great  mass  of  the  people,  oppressed  by  the  Byzan- 
tines, welcomed  the  Arabs.  By  639  the  Greeks 
had  been  driven  out  of  the  province,  most  of 
the  large  towns  having  made  treaties  which 
guaranteed  them  toleration  of  religious  belief, 
and  protection  of  life  and  property  on  the  mere 
payment  of  the  jizyah  (poll-tax)  and  kharaj 
(land-tax).  Friendly  relations  being  thus  estab- 
lished, in  the  following  years  there  was  a  gradual 
assimilation  of  Arabic  manners  and  customs 
throughout  Syria,  which  made  the  conversion  of 
the  natives  easy.  Many  Christians  were  con- 
verted in  the  fifty  years  between  Omar  and  Abd 


al-Malik  in  Irak,  Khorasan,  etc.  Omar  11.  (717- 
720)  was  particularly  successful  by  lightening 
the  burdens  of  Mohammedan  landowners.  In  ad- 
dition, the  children  of  women  captives  were 
brought  up  as  Moslems;  and  slaves  were  allowed 
to  purchase  their  freedom  at  the  price  of  conver- 
sion. In  the  tenth  century  the  Nestorian  Bishop 
of  Bet  Garmai  was  a  noted  convert;  in  1016 
Ignatius,  the  Jacobite  Metropolitan  of  Takrit 
(at  Bagdad),  became  Abu  Muslim.  (Converts 
were  won  in  the  following  centuries,  even  from 
among  the  Crusaders.  Bainaud  and  his  follow- 
ers embraced  Mohammedanism  in  a  body;  3000 
Crusaders  accepted  Islam  in  Phrygia  in  1148,  as 
a  result  of  Mohammedan  kindness  contrasted 
with  ill-treatment  on  the  part  of  Greek  Chris- 
tians. To-day  over  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Syria  and  Palestine  is  Moslem. 

The  rapidity  with  which  Mohammedanism 
spread  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  was  not  dupli- 
cated in  the  country  to  the  north.  In  Armenia, 
even  after  the  Christian  power  had  been  over- 
thrown by  the  Seljuks  of  the  eleventh  century, 
the  mass  of  the  population  continued  Christian. 
Georgia  resisted  imtil  the  invasion  of  the  Mon- 
gols. After  the  fall  of  (Constantinople  ( 1453 ) 
the  western  and  central  portions  of  the  country 
became  converted,  and  after  the  ruling  dynasty 
of  Samtskh4  in  1625  had  become  Mohammedan, 
progress  was  rapid  among  the  aristocracy.  The 
eastern  portion  of  the  country  had  submitted 
to  Persia,  and  as  such  was  naturally  subject  to 
Mohammedan  influence.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury there  were  two  petty  kingdoms  in  the  East 
the  rulers  of  which,  though  native  princes,  were 
Moslems.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Georgia  has  belonged  to  Russia,  but  cer- 
tain parts  are  still  Mohammedan. 

After  the  Mohammedans  had  succeeded  in  sub- 
duing Syria  they  turned  their  attention  to  Egypt. 
Amr  ibn  al-Asi  drove  the  Byzantines  out  in  aj>. 
641,  and  the  whole  of  the  country  as  far  south 
as  Abyssinia  and  as  far  west  as  Libya  came 
under  Moslem  influence.  The  conquerors,  who 
treated  the  natives,  and  especially  the  Copts,  with 
great  favor,  were  welcomed  by  them.  Many 
Copts  accepted  Islam  even  before  the  fall  oif 
Alexandria ;  while  the  number  of  converts,  partly 
forced,  partly  willing,  that  were  made  up  to  the 
Caliphate  of  Omar  II.  (717-720)  was  large. 
In  tne  twelfth  century  Islam  was  carried,  prin- 
cipally by  Moslem  merchants,  into  Lower  Egypt, 
and  in  the  fourteenth  century  into  Nubia,  the 
King  of  Dongola  becoming  a  Moslem  in  1340.  In 
Abyssinia  conversions  were  first  made  in  the 
coast  towns  in  the  tenth  century,  and  toward  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  a  Mohammedan  dynasty  was 
founded.  In  the  sixteenth  century  tKe  Moham- 
medan Kingdom  of  Adal,  between  Abyssinia  and 
the  southern  end  of  the  Red  Sea,  came  into  ex- 
istence; in  the  seventeenth,  one-third  of  its  entire 
population  was  Moslem,  while  in  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  one-half  of  the  central  province 
of  Abyssinia  had  likewise  been  converted. 

Amr  ibn  al-Asi  conquered  Northern  Africa 
as  far  as  Barca.  Before  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury rapid  progress  had  been  made  among  the 
Berbers,  who  made  their  last  resistance  at  the 
Spring  of  Kahina  in  703.  Musa  ibn  Nusair  and 
Omar  II.,  the  Conqueror,  made  innumerable  con- 
verts. In  789  Western  Africa  (Mauretania)  be- 
came separated  from  Egypt  as  a  kingdom  under 
Idris,  foimder  of  the  Idriside  dynasty;  in  addi- 


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665 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


tion  to  converting  many  Berbers,  he  is  said  to 
have  forced  Christians  and  Jews  to  apostatize. 
The  Berbers,  however,  under  the  Idrisides  as 
under  the  Aghlabites  (a  dynasty  founded  in  801 
by  Ibrahim  ibn  Aghlab,  hereditary  governor  of 
Ifrikiyyah)  were  in  constant  revolt.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  tenth  century  Abu  Abd  Allah 
appeared  among  them  as  the  apostle  of  the 
Ismailian  sect,  and  succeeded  in  winning  over  the 
whole  of  the  powerful  Kitamah  tribe  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  Imamate  of  Ubaid  Allah;  and  the 
dynasty  of  the  Fatimides  was  thus  successfully 
established  in  Kairwan.  Early  in  the  eleventh 
century  the  faith  spread  rapidly  among  the 
Berbers  of  the  Sahara  also,  among  whom  it  had 
been  introduced  in  the  ninth  century.  The  re- 
vival was  due  principally  to  a  chieftain  of  the 
Lamtuna  tribe,  Abd  Allah  ibn  Yassin,  who 
founded  a  monastery  and  won  many  disciples 
from  various  tribes,  to  which  he  sent  them  back 
as  missionaries.  In  1042  he  led  his  followers, 
known  as  the  Murahhitin  ( Almoravides ) ,  against 
the  neighboring  tribes,  and  by  force  and  persua- 
sion succeeded  in  establishing  a  vast  empire. 
Before  the  end  of  the  century  it  extended  from 
Senegambia  to  Algiers;  Mohammedan  Spain  was 
brought  under  the  sway  of  the  Almoravides.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  another 
dynasty  was  founded  among  the  Berbers,  when 
Abu  Abd  Allah  Muhammad  ibn  Tmnart  ap- 
peared in  the  Mauretanian  mountains  and 
preached  especially  against  the  laxity  of  morals 
and  the  excessive  veneration  paid  to  saints.  His 
followers  became  known  as  the  Mutoahhidin  (Al- 
mohades,  or  Unitarians).  The  conquests  and 
conversions  of  the  Almohades  were  likewise 
enormous;  by  1160  they  had  an  empire  extending 
from  Barca  to  the  Atlantic,  and  embracing  Mo- 
hammedan Spain.  After  these  events  but  few 
of  the  Berbers  remained  heathens. 

From  Northern  Africa  Islam  soon  penetrated 
into  the  interior  of  the  continent.  The  Almora- 
vides made  many  converts  in  the  eleventh  century 
among  the  negroes  of  the  Sudan,  who  had  al- 
ready become  familiar  with  the  new  faith 
through  the  visits  of  merchants  and  missionaries. 
The  negro  tribes  of  the  west  were  first  won  over ; 
as  early  as  1010  the  King  of  Surhay  (southeast 
of  Timbuktu)  became  a  Moslem;  the  States  on 
the  upper  Niger,  Timbuktu  ( founded  in  1077)  and 
Melle  (West  Sudan,  founded  by  the  Mandingos), 
followed  and  furnished  active  missionaries  as 
well.  The  kingdoms  of  Bomu  and  Kanem, 
along  Lake  Chad,  became  converted  in  the 
eleventh  century,  the  latter  kingdom  extend- 
ing as  far  as  Egypt  and  Nubia.  In  Darfur  a 
Moslem  dynasty  was  founded  in  the  fourteenth 
century  and  is  reigning  to-day;  at  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  Wa(&i  and  Bagirmi,  and  in  the 
seventeenth,  portions  of  the  Hausa  country,  be- 
came Moslem.  In  the  nineteenth  century  there 
was  a  remarkable  revival  of  Mohammedanism 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  Wahhabis.  The  Fu- 
lahs  were  united  into  one  political  organization 
by  Sheikh  Othman  Danfodio,  and  compelled  all 
the  remaining  tribes  to  accept  Islam.  To-day 
there  are  four  powerful  Mohammedan  kingdoms 
in  Senegambia  and  the  Sudan.  The  nineteenth 
century  movement  was  aided  by  such  religious 
orders  as  the  Amirghaniyyab,  the  Tijaniyyah,  the 
Kadriyyah,  and  the  Sanusiyyah.  The  vast  the- 
ocracy of  the  Sanusiyyah  has  settlements  and 
schools  extending  from  Egypt  to  Morocco,  in  the 


Sudan,  Senegambia,  Somaliland,  the  Sahara, 
and  the  Galla  country;  they  have  gained  many 
converts  by  education  and  the  purchase  of  slaves. 

Along  tne  west  coast  of  Africa  Islam  has  made 
steady  progress ;  e.g.  on  the  Guinea  Coast,  in  Sierra 
Leone,  in  the  Ashanti  country,  Dahomey,  the  Gold 
Coast,  Lagos  (where  there  are  10,000  Moslems), 
and  Liberia  (where  there  are  more  Moslems  than 
heathen).  Often  the  conunon  people  are  con- 
verts where  the  chieftains  are  not.  There  is 
hardly  a  town  along  the  coast  for  2000  miles 
from  the  Senegal  which  has  not  a  mosque. 

On  the  east  coast  the  Emozaydij  made  settle- 
ments before  the  tenth  century;  they  were 
Shiites,  and  were  followed  by  Sunnis,  who  found- 
ed the  town  of  Magadoxo,  and  other  towns  on  the 
coast  from  Aden  to  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  Arab 
traders  made  Zanzibar  Mohammedan.  Inland, 
however,  only  the  Galla  and  Somali  tribes  are 
even  partly  Moslem.  In  Cape  Colony  there  have 
been  Moslems  since  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  Islam  having  been  carried  there 
by  the  Malays.  Even  among  the  Hottentots  there 
are  converts  who  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
while  in  the  diamond  fields  the  coolies  are  said 
to  be  missionaries. 

Islam  was  introduced  into  Spain  in  711  by 
Tarik  with  12,000  Berbers.  The  first  converts 
were  from  among  the  ill-treated  slaves.  The  rem- 
nant of  the  heathen  population  followed,  then  the 
nobles  and  the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  the 
Christians,  so  that  the  majority  of  the  popula- 
tion soon  consisted  of  Mohammedans  of  non-Arab 
blood.  In  1311  there  were  200,000  Mohamme- 
dans in  Granada  alone,  only  500  of  them  being 
of  Arab  descent.  On  the  whole,  conversion  was 
carried  on  peacefully  except  when  the  Almora- 
vides at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century  came 
to  Spain.  The  Moslem  power  began  to  crumble 
away  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century;  the  last 
Moriscos  were  driven  out  in  1609. 

The  other  Mohammedan  empire  in  Europe, 
that  of  the  Turks,  made  its  first  conquests  at 
the  time  of  the  decline  of  Islam  in  Spain.  The 
inception  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  50,000 
Turks  settled  in  the  northwest  of  Asia  Minor. 
In  1353  they  entered  Europe  for  the  first  time 
and  in  1361  made  Adrianople  their  capital.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  the  century  Bulgaria,  Macedonia, 
Thessaly,  and  most  of  Thrace  had  been  subdued 
by  Bajazet;  Amurath  II.  (1421-51)  added  to  this 
territory,  and  Mohammed  II.  (1451-81),  after 
taking  Constantinople  in  1453,  extended  his  rule 
over  Greece,  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Albania.  A 
large  part  of  Hungary  was  added  by  Solyman  II. 
(1520-66)  ;  in  the  seventeenth  century  Crete  was 
taken,  and  Podolia  was  ceded  by  the  Poles.  The 
most  noted  example  of  forced  conversion  was  the 
enrollment  of  Christian  children  in  the  ranks  of 
the  Janizaries  (q.v.).  Large  numbers  were  con- 
verted peaceably  from  all  ranks;  in  the  fifteenth 
century  Adrianople  was  the  home  of  countless 
renegades ;  in  the  seventeenth  converts  were  made 
even  among  the  Christian  clergy.  Progress  was 
very  rapid  at  this  time.  The  power  of  Servia  was 
broken  by  the  Turks  in  1389,  but  the  country 
was  not  reduced  to  the  position  of  a  Turkish 
province  until  1459.  when  the  inhabitants  chose 
Mohammedan  rule  in  preference  to  the  Roman 
Catholicism  of  Hungary.  However,  though  the 
nobles  became  Moslems,  only  in  Old  Servia 
(northeast  of  Albania),   since  the  seventeenth 


Digitized  by 


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MOHAMMEDANISM. 


666 


MOHAMMEDANISM. 


century,  has  the  spread  of  Islam  been  rapid.  The 
same  period  was  the  date  of  the  rapid  conversion 
of  Montenegro;  in  Bosnia,  the  Bogomiles  joined 
Islam  in  large  numbers  after  Mohammed  II.  had 
released  over  seventy  cities  from  Catholic  perse- 
cution. The  other  inhabitants  followed  gradually, 
and  the  Christians  left  the  way  clear  by  emi- 
grating into  the  neighboring  countries.  The  con- 
version of  the  inhabitants  of  Crete  first  took 
place  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  when  the 
whole  population  joined  Islam ;  at  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Venetians  acquired 
the  island,  and  in  1669,  when  it  was  taken  from 
Venice  by  the  Turks,  the  inhabitants  had  to  be 
reconverted;  within  50  years  half  of  them  were 
again  Moslem. 

In  Persia,  Islam  made  progress  very  early,  for 
under  Zoroastrianism  the  people  were  oppressed 
by  priest  and  ruler  alike.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Sassanid  dynasty  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century,  converts  were  easily  made,  at  first 
mainly  from  among  the  despised  industrial 
classes  and  artisans.  Later  the  Shiites  met  with 
great  success,  for  Hosein,  son  of  Ali,  had  mar- 
ried Shahban,  daughter  of  Yezdegird,  the  last 
Sassanid ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century 
the  Ismailians  showed  a  wonderful  power  of 
adapting  themselves  and  their  teachings  to  all 
classes  and  creeds.  At  the  close  of  the  eighth 
century  Saman,  a  noble  of  Balkh,  became  a  Mos- 
lem and  foimded  the  dynasty  of  the  Samanids 
(874-999).  Conversions  were  made  in  the  ninth 
century  by  Karim  ibn  Shahriyar,  the  converted 
King  of  the  Kabusiyyah  dynasty,  and  by  Nasir  al- 
Hakk  of  Dailam;  in  912  Hasan  ibn  Ali,  of  an 
Abd  dynasty  on  the  Caspian,  made  many  converts 
in  Dailam  and  Tabaristan. 

North  of  Persia  there  had  been  much  opposi- 
tion to  Islam,  and  allegiance  to  the  Caliph  was 
often  renounced  as  soon  as  the  armies  were 
withdrawn.  In  Samarkand,  however,  conversions 
were  brought  about  by  Ibn  Kutaibah,  who  burned 
the  heathens'  idols.  Among  the  Afghans  the 
King  of  Kabul  was  converted  about  800;  in 
Transoxiana  many  converts  were  made  in  the 
eighth  century,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
Mohammedanism  was  general.  The  greatest  im- 
petus to  the  spread  of  the  new  faith  came  about 
the  middle  of  the  tenth  century,  when  some  of 
the  Turkish  chieftains  were  converted;  in  Turk- 
estan the  founder  of  the  Ilak  Khans  converted 
2000  families  of  his  tribe,  who  became  known  as 
Turcomans.  In  956  the  Seljuk  Turks  had  their 
origin,  when  Selijek  migrated  with  his  clan  to 
Bokhara  from  the  Kirghiz  steppes. 

Much  of  the  progress  which  Islam  had  made 
was  lost  by  the  Mongol  invasion.  Bokhara, 
Samarkand,  Balkh,  and  Bagdad  were  left  in  ruins, 
and  almost  without  inhabitants.  Many  Mongol 
rulers,  such  as  Kublai  Khan,  were  energetic  in 
their  opposition  to  Islam.  But  in  the  time  of 
Ogotai  Khan  ( 1229-1241 )  certain  Buddhists  were 
converted;  Yisun-Timur  Khan  (1323-28)  was  an 
earnest  Moslem,  and  made  converts  of  his  troops ; 
Baraka  Khan  (1256-65)  turned  Moslem  with  his 
subjects — the  first  ruling  Mongol  prince  to  take 
this  step  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Mongol 
territory.  But  it  was  not  till  1295  that  Islam 
became  the  ruling  religion  of  Persia;  at  that 
date  Ghazan,  seventh  of  the  Ilak  khans,  joined 
the  new  faith.  In  the  Middle  Kingdom,  in  the 
reigns  of  Timeashirin  Khan  (1322-30)  and 
Tukluk  Timur  Khan    (1347-63),  Islam  became 


generally  adopted,  though  Burak  Khan  (1266- 
70)  had  also  been  a  Moslem.  In  the  Golden 
Horde  the  leaders  and  aristocracy  followed 
Baraka  Khan  when  he  became  converted;  Uzbeg 
Khan  (1313-40)  placed  Islam  on  a  solid  basis. 
The  Mongols  were  likewise  successful,  to  some 
extent,  in  introducing  Mohammedanism  into 
Russia;  e.g.  in  the  Crimea  and  among  the  Finns, 
the  Tcheremisses,  the  Tchuvashes  (whole  vil- 
lages of  which  are  Moslem),  and  the  northeast 
Russian  tribes,  among  whom  there  are  many 
secret  Mohammedans.  In  Siberia  the  first  con- 
versions were  made  in  the  latter  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Since  1745  the  Baraba  Tatars, 
between  the  Irtish  and  Ob,  have  been  converted. 

In  India  the  first  great  Mohammedan  conquer- 
or was  Mohammed  Kasim  (711),  who  took  Dar- 
bul  (capital  of  Sindh),  Multan,  and  other  cities 
early  in  the  eighth  century.  Under  Omar  II.  the 
native  princes  were  called  upon  to  become  Mo- 
hammedans, and  received  Arabic  names;  but 
many  of  them  later  became  heathens  again.  In 
1019  Hardat  and  10,000  men  accepted  Islam;  but 
it  was  some  time  before  the  new  religion  gained 
a  firm  footing  in  India.  Down  to  near  the  close 
of  the  twelfth  century  Mohammedan  India  was 
only  a  province  of  Ghazni;  at  that  time  Moham- 
med Ghori  conquered  the  northern  part  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Ganges,  and  his  slave  Kutb  al-Din 
was  made  Viceroy  of  Delhi.  The  latter  then  pro- 
claimed himself  sovereign  of  Hindustan  and 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  "Slave  Kings,"  the 
fir^t  Mohammedan  dynasty  in  India.  Mohammed 
Ghori  likewise  converted  the  Ghakkars,  in  the 
moimtains  north  of  Punjab.  Under  the  sueceed- 
ing  dynasty,  the  Khiljis  (1296-1320),  Moham- 
m^an  rule  was  extended  to  the  Deccan.  The 
Tughlak  dynasty  which  followed  was  troubled  by 
revolt  and  desertion,  and  its  power  was  much  re- 
duced; the  Sayyids,  as  well  as  the  Lodis  (1451- 
1526),  were  rulers  over  but  one  province,  Bengal, 
Jaunpur,  Malwa,  and  Gujarat  having  independ- 
ent Moslem  dynasties.  The  Mogul  Empire  vras 
established  in  2526  by  Baber,  and  then  Islamic 
influences  were  more  successful.  Many  rajputs 
were  converted  when  idolatry  was  made  a  bar 
to  advancement  at  court.  In  the  eastern  dis- 
tricts of  the  Punjab  and  in  Cawnpore,  many  con- 
verts were  made  in  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe. 

In  Southern  India  and  in  Bengal  the  spread 
of  Islam  was  more  rapid.  The  southern  coast 
was  subject  to  the  Mohammedan  influences  of 
traders ;  even  in  the  eighth  century  refugees  had 
come  there  from  Irak,  and  missionaries  in  the 
eleventh.  In  Malabar  the  Mappilas,  descendants 
of  the  early  refugees,  are  estimated  at  one-fifth 
of  the  population.  The  Laccadive  and  Maldive 
islands,  as  well  as  Malabar,  have  an  almost  ex- 
clusively Moslem  population.  In  the  Deccan, 
Arabs  settled  in  the  tenth  century;  it  had  the 
Mohammedan  dynasties  of  the  Bahmanids  ( 1347- 
1490)  and  Bijapur  (1439-1686).  Bengal  was 
the  scene  of  most  active  propaganda,  and  U^^^ 
was  welcomed  especially  among  the  lower  caste 
Brahmins.  Lower  Bengal  bias  been  the  scene  of 
a  great  Mohammedan  revival  even  in  the  l>f'' 
few  years.  Kashmir  had  a  Mohammedan  king  |n 
the  fourteenth  century ;  Islam  became  supreme  m 
the  time  of  Akbar,  and  to-day  claims  over  seventy 
per  cent,  of  the  population.  In  Baltistan  there 
has  been  a  Mohammedan  population  for  over 
three  centuries,  and  the  faith  is  being  carried  by 
merchants  from  Kashmir,  as  well  as  from  P^ 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOHAHICEDANISM. 


667 


MOHAMIIEDANISM. 


eia,  even  into  Tibet.  In  the  various  parts  of 
India  there  are  about  60,000,000  Moslems,  the 
number  of  annual  converts  being  estimated  va- 
riously from  10,000  to  600,000.  It  is  worth 
noticing,  however,  that  in  Agra  and  Delhi,  the 
centres  of  Moslem  power,  but  from  one-tenth  to 
one-fourth  of  the  population  is  Moslem. 

Mohammedanism  penetrated  into  China  from 
the  south  and  from  the  west.  Friendly  relations 
were  established  between  the  Caliphs  and  the 
Emperors  in  the  time  of  the  Caliph  Walid  (706- 
717),  when  the  general  Kutaibah  ibn  Muslim 
sent  ambassadors  to  the  Chinese  Court.  Later 
Moslem  traders  entered  from  Arabia,  Bokhara, 
and  Transoxiana.  The  first  mosque  was  built  in 
742,  in  the  capital  city,  Shen-si,  Northern  China. 
In  758,  4000  Arab  soldiers  were  sent  by  the 
Caliph  Al-Mansur  to  aid  the  Emperor  Sah-Tsung 
in  crushing  a  rebellion;  they  remained  in  China 
and  intermarried  with  the  natives.  The  annals  of 
the  Thang  dynasty  (618-907)  record  the  arrival 
of  Moslems  at  Canton ;  there  in  the  ninth  century 
they  lived  as  a  separate  community.  They  were 
joined  later  by  other  arrivals,  and  intermarried 
with  the  natives.  Mohammedans  entered  the 
Province  of  Kan-su  (part  of  the  Empire  of 
Hoey-hu),  and  the  Khan  was  converted,  in  the 
tenth  century.  The  Uigurs,  a  Turkish  tribe  trans- 
ferred to  the  Great  Wall  in  the  Thang  dynasty, 
became  Moslems  in  the  ninth  century.  All  of 
these  Moslem  communities  formed  centres  for 
the  spread  of  Islam  throughout  the  Empire. 
Further  accessions  of  Syrians,  Arabs,  and  I'er- 
sians  followed  the  great  Mongol  conquest.  Under 
the  Mongol  Khakans  Mohammedans  were  well 
treated  and  rose  to  positions  of  trust  (in  1244 
Abd  al-Rahman  was  head  of  the  Imperial 
finances).  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century  all  the  inhabitants  of  Yun-nan  were 
Moslems,  and  in  every  town  throughout  the 
Empire  there  was  a  special  Moslem  quarter. 
After  the  expulsion  of  the  Mongols  the  iloham- 
medans  avoided  all  external  signs  of  their  re- 
ligion, and  assimilated  themselves  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  the  rest  of  the  population,  while  keeping 
the  essentials  of  their  religion  intact.  Missionary 
eflforts  w^re  continued  quietly  and  slowly  but 
surely;  the  only  conversion  in  large  numbers 
took  place  in  1770,  when  a  revolt  was  put  down 
in  Sungaria,  and  the  10,000  military  colonists 
who  were  sent  there  all  embraced  Islam,  and 
after  a  famine  in  1790  in  the  Province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  when  10,000  children  are  said  to  have 
been  bought,  and  brought  up  as  Moslems.  There  • 
was  a  general  revival  of  interest  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  when  commercial  relations  were 
refetablished  with  the  outside  ^lohammedan 
world.  To-day  there  are  over  20,000,000  Mo- 
hammedans in  tlie  Chinese  Empire,  of  which 
three-fourtlis  are  in  the  provinces  of  Kan-su  and 
Shen-si,  in  the  northwest.  As  an  example  of  the 
cities  in  the  east,  Peking  has  20,000  Moslems, 
with   13  njosques. 

The  spread  of  Islam  into  the  Malay  Islands 
dates  from  the  twelfth  century,  when  more  or 
less  successful  attempts  were  made  to  introduce 
it  into  Sumatra;  in  the  fourteenth  century  the 
sherif  of  Mecca  sent  missionaries  to  the  island 
and  succeeded  in  making  many  converts.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  the  great  Kingdom  of  Menamr- 
Kaban  had  many  converts,  and  the  larger  part  of 
central  Sumatra  is  now  Moslem.  On  the  Malay 
Peninsula  the  Kingdom  of  Malacca  was  con- 
VoL.  XIII.-48. 


verted  in  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century; 
the  Moslems  of  the  peninsula  to-day  are  said  to 
be  most  strict  in  their  religious  practioes,  though 
extremely  tolerant.  Converts  have  been  made 
among  the  Siamese  Buddhists  of  the  north  and 
among  the  wild  tribes  of  the  peninsula.  In  Java 
the  first  notable  success  of  Islam  took  place  in 
the  fourteenth  century;  and  in  the  following  cen- 
tury the  new  faith  was  firmly  established  on  the 
east  coast.  In  the  fifteenth  century  Radan  Rah- 
mat,  nephew  of  the  Hindu  King  of  Majapahit, 
made  many  converts  in  Ampel,  and  in  other 
places  on  the  east  coast;  at  the  same  time  con- 
versions were  made  in  the  west.  Radan  Patah 
headed  a  confederacy  which,  in  1478,  defeated 
the  King  of  Majapahit,  replacing  the  Hindu  with 
a  Moslem  dynasty.  To-day  nearly  the  whole  of 
Java  is  Mohammedan.  In  Celebes,  general  con- 
version along  the  coast  began  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  Macassars  were  the  first  converts; 
they  then,  after  much  resistance,  converted  the 
Bugis,  who  likewise  became  propagandists.  In 
the  north  the  Kingdom  of  Balaang-Mongondou, 
which  was  Christian  for  centuries,  was  finally 
converted  in  1844.  The  population  of  this  king- 
dom is  now  half  heathen  and  half  Moslem.  The 
island  of  Sumbawa  has  had  a  Moslem  population 
since  1540;  Lombok  was  one  of  the  scenes  of 
conversion  by  the  Bugis. 

In  the  Philippine  Islands  there  has  been  a  long 
struggle  between  Christianity  and  Islam.  In 
Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  Islands  civilized  Moham- 
medan tribes  existed  as  early  as  1621,  when  the 
Spaniards  came  to  the  islands.  Owing  to  their 
obnoxious  and  ill-advised  methods,  the  Span- 
iards could  make  no  progress  in  the  face  of 
Islam.  The  Mohammedans,  as  elsewhere,  learned 
the  language  of  the  people,  adopted  their  cus- 
toms and  intermarried  with  them,  thereby  win- 
ning great  success.  The  independent  Kingdom  of 
Mindanao  had  300,000  Moslem  subjects  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  Sulu  Islands  have  also 
been  a  Mohamme<lan  stronghold,  though  nomi- 
nally Catholic.  Among  the  ruder  inhabitants, 
those  of  the  lower  classes,  in  the  northern  islands, 
Islam  has  not  made  much  headway,  as  indeed 
has  been  the  case  throughout  the  archipelago. 
In  New  Guinea  and  the  islands  to  the  northwest 
of  it,  progress  has  been  made  only  on  the  coasts. 
In  the  archipelago  as  a  whole,  however,  Islam  is 
spreading;  in  Java,  for  instance,  there  were  33,- 
802  pilgrims  to  Mecca  in  1874,  and  48,237  in 
1886.  Books  are  printed  in  Mecca  in  the  various 
Malay  languages;  in  1882  the  Mohammedan 
schools  of  Java  had  255,000  students.  The  relig- 
ious orders,  especially  the  Sanusiyyah,  are  very 
active. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  give  reliable  figures 
of  the  total  Mohammedan  population  of  the 
world.  Tlie  official  estimate  of  the  Turkish  Gov- 
ernment, which  may  be  considered  verv  conserva- 
tive, places  the  number  at  176,000.000.  Tliis  is 
divided  as  follows:  In  the  Turkish  dominions, 
18,000,000;  in  other  parts  of  Asia,  99.000.000;  in 
Africa,  36.000.000;  in  other  countries  and  in  the 
islands  of  the  Eastern  seas,  23.000,000.  The  whole 
of  British  India,  with  its  dependencies,  according 
to  the  census  of  1001,  contained  62,458,000  Mo- 
hammedans. ^inTin  {yorth  American  Revieiv,  No- 
vemher,  1000)  gives  the  following  figures:  India, 
57,001,796;  Burma,  210,049;  Malay  Archipel- 
ago, 31,042,000;  China,  32,000.000;  Africa, 
80,000,000;    a  total  of  200,313.845.     There  are 


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MOHAMMEDAN  SECTa 


about  250,000  Mohammedans  in  the  Sulu  group 
of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Bibliography.  The  works  mentioned  in  the 
articles  Koran  and  Mohammed  are  all  important 
for  the  general  subject  of  Islam.  Consult,  also, 
Geiger,  Was  hat  Mohammed  aua  dem,  Judenthum 
aufgcnommenf  (Bonn,  1833;  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1899);  Lane,  The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Modern  Egyptians  (London,  1836;  many  subse- 
quent editions),  the  best  popular  account  of 
Mohammedan  life  and  customs;  Dozy,  Het  Is- 
lamisme  (Leyden,  1863;  French  trans.,  Essai  aur 
Vhistoire  de  VIslamisme,  Paris,  1879);  Kremer, 
Oeschichte  der  herrschenden  Ideen  des  Islam 
(Leipzig,  1868)  ;  Ahmed  Khan  Bahador,  A  Series 
of  Essays  on  the  JAfe  of  Mahomet  and  Subjects 
Subsidiary  Thereto  (London,  1870);  Deutsch, 
Essay  on  Islam  (ib.,  1874)  ;  Vamb^ry,  Der  Islam 
im  IBten  Jahrhundert  (I^eipzig,  1875);  Hauri, 
Der  Islam  in  seinem  Einfluss  auf  das  Leben  seiner 
Bekenner  (Leyden,  1881)  ;  Pischon,  Der  Einfluss 
des  Islam  auf  das  hdusliche,  sociale  und  politische 
Leben  seiner  Bekenner  (Leipzig,  1881);  Blunt, 
The  Future  of  Islam  (London,  1880);  Poole, 
Studies  in  a  Mosque  (ib.,  1883)  ;  Hughes,  A  Dic- 
tionary of  Islam  (ib.,  1886);  August  MUller, 
Der  Islam  im  Morgen-  und  Abendlande  (Berlin, 
1885-87)  ;  Snouck-Hurgronje,  *'De  Islam,"  in  De 
Qids  (1886,  No.  5)  ;  Le  Chatelier,  I/Islamisme 
au  19e  si^cle  (Paris,  1889)  ;  Ameer  AH,  The  Life 
and  Teachings  of  Mohammed  (London,  1891), 
a  defense  of  Islam  by  an  intelligent  and  e<lucated 
Moslem;  T.  W.  Arnold,  The  Preaching  of  Islam 
(Westminster,  1896)  ;  De  Castries, L7«iam  (Paris, 
1897);  Jansen,  Verbreitung  des  Islam  (Fried- 
richshagen,  1897);  Sachau,  Muhammedanisches 
Recht  nach  schafiitischer  Lehre  ( Stuttgart,  1897 )  ; 
Carra  de  Vaux,  Le  Mohametisme  (Paris,  1898) ; 
Atterbury,  Islam  in  Africa  (New  York,  1899); 
Le  Chatelier,  Ulslamisme  dans  VAfrique  occi- 
dentate  (Paris,  1899);  Forget,  Ulslam  et  le 
Christianisme  dans  VAfrique  centrale  (ib.,  1900) ; 
Macdonald,  Development  of  Muslim  Theology, 
Jurisprudence,  and  Constitutional  Theory  (New 
York,  1903);  Boer,  The  History  of  Philosophy 
in  Islam  (London,  1903);  Hondas,  VIslamisme 
(Paris,  1904);  Hogarth,  Arabia  (New  York, 
1903 )  ;  Orimme,  Mohammed.  Die  tceltgeschicht- 
liche  Bedeutung  Arabiens  (Kirchheim,  1904); 
Margoliouth,  Mohammed  (New  York,  1905); 
Vamb^rv,  Western  Culture  in  Eastern  Lands 
(New  York,  1906);  Hartmann,  Der  islamische 
OHent  (vols.  1-6,  Berlin,  1899-1905).  See 
Koran;  Mohammed;  Shiites;  Sunna;  Moham- 
medan Sects;  Mecca;  Medina;  Wahahi. 

MOHAMMEDAN  SECTS.  The  movement 
which  led  to  the  division  of  Islam  into  opposing 
parties  was  at  first  a  political  one,  though  reli- 
gious, theological,  and  philosophical  questions 
soon  arose  which  added  to  the  complexity  of  the 
situation  and  caused  a  further  subdivision  into 
sects.  Mohammed  died  without  naming  his  suc- 
cessor; and  while  Abu  Bekr  was  looked  upon 
by  many  as  the  natural  leader,  others  felt  that 
All,  who  was  not  only  the  cousin  and  son-in- 
law,  but  also  a  decided  favorite  of  the  Prophet, 
should  be  his  successor.  Among  the  Arabs,  how- 
ever, leadership  was  not  a  matter  of  inheritance, 
but  of  election;  and  when  Abu  Bekr  was  chosen 
Caliph,  he  received  the  recognition  of  all,  includ- 
ing Ali.  Omar's  election  likewise  resulted  in 
general  satisfaction,  although  the  Ommiads,  who. 


even  when  they  had  accepted  Islam,  were  still 
rivals  of  the  Prophet's  family,  began  to  show 
their  opposition  to  those  who  had  been  the 
Prophet's  intimate  companions.  On  OmarV 
death  the  caliphate  was  again  denied  to  Ali, 
Othnian  being  chosen.  Othman's  misrule,  how- 
ever, caused  great  dissatisfaction,  and  when  he 
was  assassinated  Ali  finally  came  to  the  caliphAte. 
The  hostility  of  the  Ommiads,  however,  con- 
tinued, and  soon  turned  into  open  revolt,  with 
Moawiyah,  the  0mm  iad  Governor  of  Syria,  at 
its  head.  The  question  as  to  the  right  of  suc- 
cession, which  was  soon  to  cause  the  permanent 
He  pa  ration  of  the  whole  Mohammedan  world  into 
Shiites  and  Sunnites,  had  even  then  presented 
itself  in  great  seriousness,  the  followers  of  Ali 
claiming  that  only  the  Prophet's  family  had  the 
right  to  the  caliphate^  the  Ommiads  opposing 
this  claim. 

There  was  also  a  third  party,  afterwards 
known  as  the  Kharijites  ('those  who  go  forth'), 
who  held  the  old  Arab  view  on  the  question  of 
succession,  and  were  thus  directly  opposed,  in 
principle,  to  the  'legitimists.'  They  were,  in 
reality,  theocrats;  and  they  claimed  that 
any  man  might  be  called  to  the  tmfimah,  or  lead- 
ership, even  if  he  did  not  belong  to  the  Korebh, 
or  was  not  even  a  freeman,  provided  only  that 
he  was  just  and  pious  and  fit  in  every  other  re- 
spect. As  a  result  of  this  they  also  claimed  that 
an  unrighteous  imam  might  be  deposed,  or  even 
put  to  death;  and  furthermore,  that  there  was 
no  absolute  need  for  any  imam  at  all. 
Since  Ali,  however,  united  in  his  person 
the  claims  of  heredity  and  of  election,  they 
were  at  first  among  his  partisans.  But  when 
at  the  battle  of  Siffin  Ali  submitted  to  arbitra- 
tion the  decision  of  his  right  to  the  caliphate 
as  against  Moawiyah,  they  refused  to  stand  by 
the  decision  and  swear  allegiance  to  either  one 
or  the  other.  Twelve  thousand  of  them  conse- 
quently deserted  Ali's  camp  in  a  body;  they 
proclaimed  "no  rule  but  that  of  Allah  alone." 
The  Kharijites,  though  often  defeated  in  this  and 
succeeding  caliphates,  appeared  again  and  again 
as  the  assailants  of  the  established  government. 

After  Ali's  death,  when  Moawiyah  had  finally 
succeeded  in  establishing  himself  in  control,  he 
induced  Hasan,  the  elder  son  of  Ali,  to  yield 
up  his  prerogatives.  Ali's  followers,  however, 
refused  to  recognize  Moawiyah  and  espoused  the 
cause  of  Hosein,  Ali's  second  son.  A  bloody 
struggle  followed,  in  which  Hosein  lost  his  life. 
The  division  of  the  Mohammedans  into  Sunnites 
and  Shiites  was  now  fixed,  and  the  Shiites,  con- 
sistently developing  the  theory  of  legitimism,  re- 
fused to  recognize  that  there  had  ever  been  any 
legitimate  caliph  between  Mohammed  and  Ali. 
See  Shhtes;  Sunnites. 

Despite  the  fact  that  with  Ali's  death  and 
the  Ommiad  supremacy  the  question  as  to  the 
caliphate  was  settled,  the  Shiites  still  looked  to 
the  descendants  of  Ali  as  their  religious  leaders, 
or  imams.  But  even  among  the  Shiites  them- 
selves unanimity  in  regard  to  the  imamah  did 
not  long  prevail,  and  discussions  of  a  theological 
nature  likewise  proved  a  source  of  trouble.  The 
impulse  to  such  discussions  came  from  Persia, 
into  which  Mohammedanism  had  well  penetmted, 
and  which,  since  the  principle  of  hereditary 
succession  had  always  obtained  there,  naturally 
espoused  the  cause  of  Ali. 


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MOHAMMEDAN  SECTa 


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MOHAMMEDAN  SECTS. 


Down  to  the  sixth  imam,  Jafar  al-Sadik  (died 
765),  there  was  agreement  among  the  Shiites; 
Jafar,  however,  had  two  sons,  Ismail  and  Musa 
al-Kasim.  The  former,  as  the  elder,  should  have 
been  successor  to  the  imamah.  The  father,  how- 
ever, is  said  to  have  declared  in  favor  of  Musa; 
and  on  Jafar's  death,  a  division  ensued  between 
the  adherents  of  Ismail — the  Ismailiai^s  (/»- 
m&Hliyyah) — and  those  of  Musa,  the  greater  part 
of  the  Shiites  following  the  latter. 

From  this  time  on  the  question  of  the  imamah 
received  more  and  more  a  theological,  mystical 
treatment.  The  notion  of  the  imam,  in  general, 
was  that  of  an  ever-living,  though  at  times  hid- 
den, supreme  guide  of  the  people,  who  after  a 
time  is  restored  to  humanity,  or  at  least  to  the 
believing  part  of  it.  (See  Mahdi.)  The  Is- 
mailian  doctrine  was  that  the  imam  had  been 
revealed  in  AH,  whereas  during  the  preceding 
ages  the  imams  had  been  concealed;  that  Ali 
himself  had  reappeared  in  every  imam  till  the 
time  of  Ismail,  and  had  then  become  invisible 
again ;  but  that  he  would  descend  some  day  'from 
the  clouds*  to  unite  all  believers  and  to  restore 
the  pure  faith.  The  real  importance,  however, 
of  the  Ismailians,  who  existed  unobserved  for 
some  time,  dates  from  Abd  Allah  ibn  Maimun, 
whose  father  had  been  executed  for  professing 
materialistic  doctrines  and  trying  to  turn  people 
away  from  the  doctrines  of  Islam.  Abd  Allah 
seems  to  have  practically  carried  out  his  father's 
notions.  Aided  by  favorable  circumstances,  he 
matured  a  plan  which,  for  the  boldness  and 
genius  of  conception  and  for  the  energy  and  vigor 
with  which  it  was  carried  out,  has  not  many 
parallels  in  history.  Nothing  less  was  contem- 
plated than  the  union  of  the  Arabic  conquerors 
and  the  many  races  they  had  subjected  since 
Mohammed's  death,  and  the  enthronement  of 
what  afterwards  was  called  Ture  Keason'  as  the 
sole  deity  to  be  worshiped.  The  advanced  should 
be  free  of  all  so-called  religious  fetters,  which, 
as  symbols  and  allegorical  actions,  should  be  laid 
all  the  heavier  on  ti^e  necks  of  the  less  advanced 
strata  of  society.  The  *believers'  and  'con- 
querors' were  to  be  made  missionaries  for  un- 
belief and  the  implements  for  the  destruction  of 
their  own  empire.  With  an  extraordinary  knowl- 
edge of  the  human  heart  and  human  weakness, 
he  offered  devotion  to  the  believer;  liberty,  if 
not  license,  to  the  'free  in  spirit';  philosophy 
to  the  'strong-minded' ;  mystic  hopes  to  the  fanat- 
ics; miracles  to  the  masses.  The  Messiah  whom 
Abd  Allah  preached  stood  higher  than  Mohammed 
himself,  and,  though  he  did  not  reject  the  Koran, 
he  yet  contrived  to  allegorize  and  symbolize  away 
nearly  all  its  narratives  and  precepts.  An 
elaborate  secret  doctrine  was  worked  out,  into 
which  the  members  of  the  sect  were  initiated  by 
deg^rees.  Missionary  schools  were  established, 
and  the  instruction  given  to  the  young  mission- 
aries was  artfully  designed  to  win  over  not 
merely  all  the  different  Mohammedan  sects,  both 
Sunnites  and  Shiites,  but  also  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians. By  the  time  the  neophyte  had  completed 
the  ninth  and  concluding  degree  of  initiation, 
all  his  earlier  religious  beliefs  had  been  explained 
away.  He  had  learned  that  no  miracle  had  ever 
been  performed;  that  the  prophet  is  merely  a 
man  distinguished  by  his  purity  and  the  perfec- 
tion of  his  intelligence;  and  that  this  purity  of 
his  intelligence  is  precisely  what  is  called  'proph- 


ecy.' God  throws  into  the  prophet's  mind  what 
pleases  Him,  and  that  is  what  is  understood  by 
the  *  Word  of  God.'  The  prophet  clothes  this  Word 
afterwards  with  flesh  and  bones,  and  communi- 
cates it  to  the  churches.  He  establishes  by  this 
means  the  systems  of  religious  institutions  which 
appear  to  him  the  most  advantageous  for  the 
ruling  of  men;  but  these  institutions  and  behests 
are  but  temporary,  and  intended  for  the  preser- 
vation of  order  and  worldly  interests.  No  man 
who  has  knowledge  need  practice  any  single  one 
of  them;  to  him  his  knowledge  suffices. 

The  creed  of  the  Ismailians  was  gradually 
built  up,  and  many  changes  were  introduced  into 
it  at  different  times;  from  it  sprang  various 
other  sects.  The  most  notable  is  that  of  the 
Kabmathians,  or  Carmathians  (so  called  from 
one  of  their  leaders,  surnamed  Al-karmat). 
This  sect  sprang  up  in  the  ninth  century,  under 
the  caliphate  of  Al-Mutamid,  and  by  a  combi- 
nation of  extraordinary  circumstances  succeeded 
in  establishing  itself  for  a  time  as  a  political 
power  which  threatened  to  overturn  the  caliphate 
itself.  The  practical  exertions  of  Abd  Allan  ibn 
Maimun  and  their  wonderful  results  had  soon  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  authorities.  Obliged 
to  flee  from  place  to  place,  he  sought  refuge  suc- 
cessively in  Karaj,  in  Ispahan,  in  Ahwaz,  in 
Basra,  finally  in  Salamia,  in  Syria,  where  he  died, 
leaving  his  son  Ahmad  his  successor  as  chief  of 
the  Ismailians.  One  of  Ahmad's  missionaries  (or, 
according  to  other  accounts,  a  convert  of  a  mis- 
sionary) was  Al-Karmat.  He  lived  in  Irak,  and 
was  a  fit  man  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  Abd  Allah 
ibn  Maimun.  His  house  in  Kufa  became  the  centre 
whence  all  the  missionaries  were  sent  forth,  and 
where  all  the  details  of  a  great  conspiracy  were 
directed.  One  of  the  most  noted  of  the  mission- 
aries, Abu  Said,  won  over  a  great  part  of  the 
people  of  Bahrein,  the  majority  of  whom  were 
not  Mohammedans  and  impatient  of  the  Moslem 
rule.  In  900  Abu  Said  defeated  an  army  of 
10,000  men  sent  against  him  by  the  Caliph,  and 
captured  the  latter 's  general.  He  then  gained 
undisputed  possession  of  the  whole  country,  de- 
stroyed the  old  capital,  Hajar,  and  made  Lhasa, 
his  own  residence,  the  capital.  At  the  same 
time  two  other  Karmathian  chieftains  arose  to 
threaten  the  Court  of  Bagdad,  one  near  Kufa 
and  the  other  in  Syria.  The  former  was  de- 
feated, captured,  and  tortured  to  death.  The 
latter  at  first  defeated  the  Governor  of  Damas- 
cus most  ignominiously,  but  in  907  the  Caliph's 
general,  Wasif,  won  a  decisive  victory  and  made 
an  end  of  this  branch  of  the  Karmathians.  Mean- 
while both  Al-Karmat  and  Abu  Said  disappear 
from  view,  and  the  leadership  passed  to  Abu 
Said's  son^  Abu  Tahir.  In  923  he  seized  Basra. 
The  next  year  he  pillaged  the  Meccan  caravan 
and  plundered  Kufa.  In  927  he  gained  a  decided 
victory  over  the  Caliph's  troops  in  Irak.  In 
929  he  appeared  at  Mecca  at  the  head  of  his 
army,  when  the  pilgrimage  was  at  its  height. 
Attempts  to  buy  him  off  were  unavailing,  and 
a  fearful  massacre,  lasting  several  days,  ensued. 
The  holy  places  were  desecrated  and  the  Black 
Stone  was  carried  off.  Abu  Tahir  may  have 
thought  that  this  act  would  destroy  the  sanctity 
of  Mecca  and  the  Kaaba  in  the  eyes  of  the 
faithful;  but  if  so  he  was  mistaken;  the  cara- 
vans still  went  on  their  usual  annual  pilgrimage 
as  often  as  he  did  not  restrain  them  by  force. 
In  939  the  emir  of  the  pilgrimage,  Abu  Tahir's 


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XOHAmCSDAN  SBCTa 


personid  friend,  persuaded  him  to  conclude  a 
treaty  by  which  the  pilgrimage  was  again  al- 
lowed, on  pajrment  of  5  dinars  for  every  camel 
and  7  for  every  horse.  The  Black  Stone  was  re- 
turned for  an  enormous  random  in  950,  seven 
years  after  Abu  Tahir's  death.  At  that  time 
the  Karmathians  were  masters  of  Irak,  Syria, 
and  Arabia.  Little  of  importance  is  heard  of 
them  again  till  990,  when  they  were  defeated 
before  Kufa — an  event  which  seems  to  have  made 
an  end  of  their  dominion  in  Irak  and  Syria. 
About  993  they  were  again  defeated  by  Asfar, 
and  their  chief  lost  his  life.  They  retreated  to 
Lhasa,  where  they  fortified  themselves,  while 
Asfar  marched  against  Al-Katif,  captured  it,  and 
carried  away  all  the  baggage,  slaves,  and  animals 
of  the  Karmathians  of  that  town  and  then  re- 
tired to  Basra.  The  Karmathians  retained  Lhasa 
for  a  considerable  time,  but  nothing  further  is 
heard  of  them  in  history.  In  1862-63  Palgrave 
found  remnaata  of  them  still  living  in  Najran, 
and  in  Bahrein  and  Oman,  and  their  hatred  of 
Islam  ceemed  in  no  wise  abated. 

Concerning  the  special  beliefs  of  the  ELar- 
mathiana,  so  far  as  they  have  been  preserved, 
their  system  seems  in  the  beginning  to  have  been 
merely  a  sort  of  reformed  Islam.  The  prophet 
Al-Kannat,  it  was  held,  had  brought  a  new  law 
into  the  world,  by  which  many  of  the  tenets  of 
Mohammedanism  were  altered,  many  ancient 
eeremonieti  abrogated,  new  forms  of  prayer  intro- 
duce<l,  and  an  entirely  new  kind  of  fast  incul- 
cated. VN'ine  and  a  few  other  things  prohibited 
by  the  Koran  were  allowed.  Certain  of  the  pre- 
ceptii  of  the  book  were  turned  into  mere  alle- 
gories. Instead  of  tithes  they  gave  the  fifth  part 
of  their  property  to  the  imam.  Prayer  was  mere- 
ly the  symbol  of  obedience  to  the  imam.  Fast- 
ing was  the  symbol  of  silence,  or  rather  of  con- 
cealment of  religious  doctrine  from  the  stranger. 

Another  offshoot  of  the  Isniailians  is  the  sect 
known  as  Assassins  {hashshiahin,  a  name  de- 
rive<l  from  hashish,  a  drink  drawn  from  hemp, 
to  whieh  the  members  of  the  sect  were  addicted). 
The  seet  owed  its  origin  to  Hasan  ibn  Sabbah, 
a  Persian  fanatic,  who  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century  formed  a  secret  soeiety.  the 
members  of  which  swore  blind  obedience  to  their 
leafier,  known  to  history  as  the  'Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain.'  From  their  mountain  fastnesses  in 
Persia  (Alamut)  they  bade  defiance  for  two 
centuries  to  the  strongest  armies  sent  against 
them  by  Moslem  rulers,  and  they  were  reduced 
to  harmlessness  only  by  the  Alongol  invasion 
(1255).  They  owed  their  power  chiefly  to  the 
perfection  of  their  secret  organization  and  to 
the  unsorupulousness  with  which  they  carried 
out  their  plans.  They  were  perhaps  best  known 
for  the  countless  assassinations  of  which  the 
members  of  the  sect  were  guilty.  From  Persia 
they  spread  into  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  While 
Hasan  ibn  Sabbah  was  still  alive,  the  Governor 
of  Aleppo  had  invited  them  to  settle  in  his  ter- 
ritory, and  they  had  taken  possession  of  various 
mountain  fastnesses  from  which  they  were  en- 
abled to  play  an  important  rOle  in  the  Crusades. 
There  are  still  a  few  Assassins  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Iloms.     See  Assassins. 

When  the  Assassins  came  into  SjTia  they  found 
the  mountain  regions  around  Uama  in  possession 
of  the  NosAiBiANS.  apparently  a  remnant  of  the 
ancient  Syro-Phcenician  population  of  the  land, 
which  had  preserved  its  own  religion  through  the 


centuries  despite  all  the  efforts  of  Christianity 
Most  of  the  Nosairians  displayed  a  bitter  eo- 
nitj  toward  the  Ismailians,  though  some  en- 
braced  their  cause,  and  at  the  end  of  the  tenth 
eentury  there  was  a  strong  infiltratioii  of  lanai- 
lian  doctrines  into  the  general  Nosairian  religions 
system.  In  fact,  the  Nosairian  religion,  without 
being  identical  with  Ismailism,  shows  many 
strong  points  of  analogy  with  it.  The  Nosairi- 
ans are  divided  into  four  sects — ^^otdonyyaA, 
J^alaziyyah  (or  Kamariyyah) ,  ShamaUyyah  (or 
Bhamsiyyak ) ,  and  Ohaibiyyah.  The  StunTtoHyjfk 
and  falaziyyah  are  the  most  important.  They 
all  possess  the  same  religious  book  {Kitib  si* 
Majmu')^  and  differ  from  one  another  only  on 
points  of  minor  importance.  The  chief  variations 
from  the  Ismailian  doctrines  are  these:  While 
the  Ismailians  taught  that  of  the  seven  cycles 
corresponding  to  the  various  manifestations  of 
the  deity,  the  sixth,  that  of  Mohammed,  was 
closed  with  the  death  of  Jafar,  and  the  seventh, 
which  was  to  be  characterized  by  the  coming  of 
the  Mahdi,  or  Messiah,  was  thereby  opened,  the 
Nosairians  taught  that  the  seventh  was  dosed 
by  the  seventh  divine  manifestation,  that  of  Ali. 
Furthermore,  the  Nosairians  recognized  Musa  in- 
stead of  Ismail  as  the  successor  of  Jafar  al-Sadik. 
This  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  they  had 
accepted  as  their  leader  Mohammed  ibn  Nosair, 
who  was  a  partisan  of  the  eleventh  imam,  a  de- 
scendant of  Musa.  And  with  Musa  (died  799), 
who  was  the  seventh  imam,  they  considered  the 
number  of  imams  to  have  been  completed.  An- 
other striking  characteristic  of  the  Nosairian 
belief  was  their  attitude  toward  the  nati^,  the 
various  divine  incarnations.  The  Ismailians  held 
that  all  the  natiks  excepting  Mohammed  were 
superior  to  their  assas  ( foimdations )  or  same^s, 
while  the  Nosairians  placed  all  of  their  assas 
above  the  natiks.  But  of  greatest  importance 
was  the  degree  to  which  they  carried  their  doc- 
trine of  the  divinity  of  AH.  Ali,  while  lie  confided 
the  trord  to  Mohammed,  had  reserved  the  ma'na 
(meaning)  for  himself.  Ali  is  their  god  in 
heaven  and  their  imam  on  earth;  he  is  concealed 
from  man  because  of  his  divine  nature;  he  is 
not  created  and  has  no  attributes;  his  essence 
is  the  light.  He  created  Mohammed  to  be  the 
veil  with  which  he  conceals  himself,  the  place 
in  which  he  resides,  the  bearer  of  his  name.  Mo- 
hammed in  his  turn  created  Salman  al-Farisi 
to  be  the  bab,  or  gate — the  one  through  whom 
man  communicates  with  the  deity,  and  who  is 
charged  by  the  divinity  with  the  making  of  his 
propaganda.  Salman  created  the  five  'incom- 
parables'  (in  reality  five  planets)  which  created 
the  world.  The  Nosairians  are  sometimes  called 
Ansaries  (q.v.). 

Besides  the  Assassins  and  Nosairians,  a  third 
sect  with  Ismailian  tendencies  found  refuge  in 
the  Syrian  mountain  districts — the  Dbusis. 
When  Abd  Allah  ibn  Maimun  found  himself  per- 
secuted by  the  authorities  he  fled  to  Syria,  and 
continued  to  preach  there  the  coming  of  the 
Mahdi.  His  son  Mohammed  continued  the  propa- 
ganda, and  finally  the  Mahdi  himself  appeared 
am<mg  the  Be  risers  of  North  Africa.  This  Mahdi 
founded  the  Egyptian  dynasty  of  the  Fatimites 
(909),  the  sixth  of  which.  Hakim,  probably 
under  Ismailian  influence,  declared  himself  an 
incarnation  of  the  deity.  He  disappeared  mys- 
teriously, which  helped  to  support  his  conten- 
tions.    Hamza  and  Al-Darzi   (whence  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XOHAMMEDAH  SBCT8. 


671 


MOHAMMEDAH  SBCT8. 


*Druae')  were  his  propagandists  {d&*%),  and 
gained  many  followers  in  the  Lebanon  moun- 
tains. It  is  interesting  to  note  that  one  of 
Hamza's  treatises  was  intended  as  a  refutation 
of  the  Nosairian  doctrines,  and  tried  to  show 
that  Hakim,  not  All,  was  God.    See  Druses. 

A  sectary  whose  name  has  become  familiar 
through  the  use  made  of  his  story  by  Thomas 
Moore  in  his  LalUi  Rookh  was  Hakim  ibn  Al- 
lah, better  known  as  al-Mokanna,  *the  veiled,' 
because  he  wore  a  mask  to  conceal  the  disfigure- 
ment of  his  face.  He  lived  in  the  eighth  century, 
and  headed  a  revolt  against  the  Mahdi,  the  third 
Abbasside  Caliph.  He  claimed  to  be  an  incarna- 
tion of  the  deity,  and  won  repute  as  a  miracle- 
worker.  He  made  many  followers,  and  for  a 
time  maintain^  himself  against  the  Caliph,  but 
was  ultimately  defeated  and  committed  suicide. 
He  left  word  that  he  would  reappear  as  a  gray 
man  riding  a  gray  beast,  and  his  followers  long 
expected  his  coming.  They  dressed  only  in 
white.    See  Hakim  ibn  Allah. 

All  of  these  Shiite  sects  were  political,  or  at 
least  politico-religious,  sects,  whose  doctrines 
turned  about  the  question  of  the  imamah.  But 
there  were  in  Islam  also  some  sects  purely  theo- 
logical, differing  on  such  questions  as  predestina- 
tion, free  will,  belief,  idea  of  God,  and  revela- 
tion—  points  upon  which  Mohammed  had  not 
expressed  himself  clearly.  It  was  again  in  Per- 
sia that  the  movement  looking  toward  inde- 
pendent religious  views  took  its  rise,  under  the 
influence  of  Greek  philosophy. 

The  most  important  of  these  theological  or 
philosophical  sects  was  perhaps  the  rationalistic 
sect  of  the  Motazilites,  or  Mutazilitbs  (Jfu*- 
t€usilah^  from  'cwala,  to  separate).  They  were 
called  also  Moattalites — i.e.  those  who  divest 
God  of  His  attributes  (Ar.  Mu'attilun) — and 
Kadarites — i.e.  **those  who  hold  that  man  has 
a  free  will  (Ar.  kadar),  and  deny  the  strict  doc- 
trine of  predestination."  The  first  beginnings 
of  this  sect  are  traced  to  Mabad,  who  already  in 
the  time  of  Mohammed  himself  began  to 
question  predestination  by  pointing  out  how 
kings  carry  on  unjust  wars,  kill  men,  and  steal 
their  goods,  and  all  the  while  pretend  to  be 
merely  executing  God's  decrees.  The  real  founder 
of  the  sect,  as  such,  however,  was  Wasil  ibn  Ata 
(c.745).  He  denied  God's  'qualities,'"  such  as 
knowledge,  power,  will,  life,  as  leading  to,  if  not 
directly  implying,  polytheism.  As  to  predestina- 
tion, he  held  that  it  existed  only  with  regard  to 
the  outward  good  or  evil  that  befalls  man,  such  as 
illness  or  recovery,  death  or  life,  while  man's  ac- 
tions are  entirely  in  his  own  hands.  God,  he  said, 
had  given  commandments  to  mankind,  and  it 
was  not  to  be  supposed  that  He  had  at  the  same 
time  preordained  that  some  should  disobey  these 
commandments,  and  that,  furtlier,  they  sliould 
be  punished  for  it.  Man  alone  is  the  agent  in 
his  good  or  evil  actions,  in  his  belief  or  unbelief, 
obedience  or  disobedience,  and  he  is  rewarded  ac- 
cording to  his  deeds.  These  doctrines  were  further 
developed  by  Wasil's  disciple  Abu  al-Hudhail  al- 
Allaf  (died  c.845),  who  did  not  deny  so  absolute- 
ly God's  Equalities,'  but  modified  their  meaning 
in  the  manner  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  hold- 
ing that  every  quality  was  also  God's  essence.  The 
attributes  are  thus  not  without,  but  within  Him, 
and  so  far  from  being  a  multiplicity,  they  merely 
designate  the  various  ways  of  the  manifestations 
of  the  Godhead.     God's  will  he  declared  to  be  a 


peculiar  kind  of  knowledge,  through  which  God 
did  what  He  foresaw  to  be  salutary  in  the  end. 
]^lan's  freedom  of  action  is  possible  only  in  this 
world.  In  the  next  all  will  be  according  to 
necessary  laws  immutably  preordained.  The 
righteous  wiU  enjoy  everlasting  bliss,  and  for 
the  wicked  everlasting  punishment  will  be  de- 
creed. A  dangerous  doctrine  of  this  system  was 
the  assumption  that  before  the  Koran  had  been 
revealed,  man  had  already  come  to  the  conclusion 
of  right  and  wrong.  By  his  inner  intellect,  Abu 
al-Hudhail  held,  e>'erybody  must  and  does  know 
— even  without  the  aid  of  the  divinely  given  com- 
mandments— whether  the  thing  he  is  doing  be 
right  or  wrong,  just  or  unjust,  true  or  false.  His 
belief  in  the  traiditions  was  also  by  no  means  an 
absolute  one;  indeed,  it  was  lield  by  the  Mutazil- 
ites  that  even  some  of  the  earliest  'traditioners' 
may  have  told  untruths,  or  have  been  imposed 
upon,  and  every  tradition  was  to  be  rejected  which 
was  opposed  to  the  Koran,  to  more  authentic  tra- 
ditions, or  even  to  mere  reason.  As  to  the  Koran, 
although  its  authority  was  recognized,  it  was 
held  to  be  created  and  not  an  object  of  worship. 

Many  were  the  branches  of  the  Mutasilites. 
There  w^ere,  apart  from  the  disciples  of  Abu  al- 
Hudhail,  the  Jubbaians,  who  adopted  Abu  Ali  ibn 
Abd  al-Wahhab's  (Al-Jubbai,  d.  914)  opinion  to 
the  effect  that  the  knowledge  ascribed  to  God 
was  not  an  'attribute';  nor  was  his  knowledge 
'necessary' ;  nor  did  sin  prove  anything  as  to  the 
belief  or  unbelief  of  him  who  committed  it,  who 
would  anyhow  be  subjected  to  eternal  punish- 
ment if  he  died  in  it.  Besides  these,  there  were 
the  Hashimites,  the  disciples  of  Abu  Hashim  Abd 
al-Salam,  son  of  Al-Jubbal,  who  held  that  an 
infidel  was  not  the  creation  of  God,  who  could 
not  produce  evil.  Another  branch  of  the  Mutazi- 
lites  were  the  disciples  of  Ahmad  ibn  Habit  (or 
Hart ) ,  who  held  that  Jesus  was  the  eternal  word 
incarnate,  and  that  He  had  assumed  a  real  body ; 
that  there  were  two  gods  or  creators,  one  eternal 
— viz.  the  Most  High  God — and  the  other  not  eter- 
nal— viz.  Jesus — not  imlike  the  Socinian  and  Arian 
theories  on  this  subject ;  that  there  is  a  successive 
transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one  body  into- 
another,  and  that  the  last  body  will  enjoy  the- 
reward  or  suffer  the  punishments  due  to  each 
soul,  and  that  God  will  be  seen  at  the  resurrec- 
tion with  the  eyes  of  understanding,  not  of  the 
body. 

Four  more  divisions  of  this  sect  are  mentioned 
— viz.  the  Jahizii/yahy  whose  master's  (Amr  ibn 
Bahr  al-Jahiz)  notion  about  the  Koran  was  that 
it  was  "a  body  that  might  grow  into  a  man,  and 
sometimes  into  a  beast,  or  to  have,  as  others  put 
it,  two  faces,  one  human,  the  other  that  of  an 
animal,  according  to  the  different  interpreta- 
tions." He  further  taught  that  the  damned 
would  become  fire,  and  thus  bo  attracted  by  hell ; 
also  that  the  mere  l)olief  in  God  and  the  Prophet 
constituted  a  'faithful  one.'  Of  rather  different 
tendencies  was  Isa  al-Muzdar,  the  founder  of  the 
branch  of  the  Muzdarii/j/ah,  He  not  only  held  the 
Koran  to  be  uncreated  and  eternal,  but  so  far 
from  denying  God  the  power  of  doing  evil,  he 
declared  it  to  be  possible  for  God  to  be  a  liar 
and  unjust.  Another  branch  was  formed  by  the 
Bishrhtyah  (from  Bishr  ibn  al-Mutamir),*who, 
while  they  carried  man's  free  agency  rather  to 
excess,  yet  held  that  God  might  doom  even  an 
infant  to  eternal  punishment — all  the  while 
granting  that  He  would  be  unjust  in  so  doing. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOHAMMEDAN  SECTa 


672 


MOHAMMEDAK  SECXa 


Tho  last  of  these  Mutazilite  sectarians  to  be 
mentioned  are  the  Thumamiyyahf  who  held,  after 
their  master,  Thumamah  ibn  Ashras,  that  sinners 
will  undergo  eternal  damnation  and  punish- 
ment; that  free  actions  have  no  producing  au- 
thor; and  thaty  at  the  resurrection,  all  infidels, 
atheists,  Jews,  Christians,  Magians,  and  heretics 
will  be  returned  to  dust,  and  will  not  enter  either 
paradise  or  hell.  For  the  scientific  development 
which  the  doctrines  of  the  Mutazilites  begot,  and 
which  resulted  in  the  encyclopspdic  labors  called 
**The  Treatises  of  the  Sincere  Brethren  and  True 
Friends,"  see  Sincebe  Brethren. 

Allied  to  the  Mutazilites  in  their  view  of  the 
divine  attributes,  but  diametrically  opposed  to 
them  in  their  view  of  predestination,  were  the 
Jabakites  (Necessarians).  They  held  that  man's 
every  act  is  the  result  of  the  will  of  God,  and 
that  there  is  no  human  responsibility.  There 
are  pure  Jabarites  and  middle  Jabarites. 

Opposed  to  both  the  Mutazilites  and  the  Ja- 
barites were  the  Sifatites  (*Attributists*).  With 
them  God's  attributes,  whether  essential  or  opera- 
tive, or  declarative  or  historical — i.e.  used  in 
historical  narration  (eyes,  face,  hand)  ;  anthro- 
pomorphisms, in  fact — were  considered  eternal. 
But  here  again  lay  the  germs  for  more  dissen- 
sions and  more  sects.  Some,  taking  this  doctrine 
of  God's  attributes  in  a  strictly  literal  sense, 
assumed  a  likeness  between  God  and  created 
things,  while  others  gave  it  a  more  allegorical 
interpretation,  without,  however,  entering  into 
any  particulars  beyond  the  reiterated  doctrine 
that  (xod  had  no  companion  or  similitude.  The 
different  sects  into  which  the  Sifatites  split  were, 
first,  the  AsharianSy  so  called  from  Abu  al-Hasan 
al-Ashari  (883-951),  who,  at  first  a  Mutazilite, 
disagreed  with  his  masters  on  the  point  of  God's 
being  bound  to  do  always  that  which  is  best.  He 
became  the  founder  of  a  new  school,  which  held 
(1)  that  God's  attributes  are  distinct  from 
His  essence,  and  that  any  literal  understanding 
of  the  words  that  stand  for  God's  members  in  the 
Koran  is  reprehensible.  (2)  That  predestination 
must  be  taken  in  its  most  literal  meaning — i.e. 
that  God  preordains  everything.  The  opinions 
on  this  point  of  man's  free  will  are,  however, 
much  divided,  as,  indeed,  to  combine  a  predestina- 
tion which  ordains  every  act  with  man's  free 
choice  is  not  easy.  The  middle  path,  adopted 
by  the  greater  number  of  the  doctors,  is  ex- 
pressed in  this  formula :  There  is  neither  compul- 
sion nor  free  liberty,  but  the  way  lies  between 
the  two,  the  power  and  will  being  both  created 
by  God,  while  the  merit  or  guilt  is  imputed  to 
man.  Regarding  mortal  sin,  it  was  held  by  this 
sect  that  if  a  believer  die  guilty  of  it  without 
repentance,  he  will  not,  for  all  that,  always  re- 
main a  denizen  of  hell.  God  will  either  pardon 
him  or  the  Prophet  will  intercede  in  his  behalf. 
Further,  he  in  whose  heart  there  is  faith  but  of 
the  weight  of  an  ant  shall  be  delivered  from  hell 
fire.  From  this  more  philosophical  opinion,  how- 
ever, departed  a  number  of  other  Sifatian  sects, 
who,  taking  the  Koranic  words  more  literally, 
transformed  God's  attributes  into  grossly  cor- 
poreal things;  the  Muahahhi kites,  or  Assimi- 
lators.  conceived  God  to  be  a  figure  having  limbs 
like  those  of  created  beings,  either  of  a  bodily  or 
of  a  spiritual  nature,  capable  of  local  motion, 
ascent,   or  descent,   etc. 

The  Murjitea,  likewise  regarded  as  a  sect  of 


the  Sifatites,  are  sometimes  regarded  as  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  whole  sect,  for  their  doctrines 
were  very  widespread,  and  they  counted  among 
them  such  men  as  Said  ibn  Jubair.  The  sect 
arose  in  Syria  or  North  Arabia.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  some  of  the  Murjites  hold  views  ap- 
proaching closely  not  only  to  those  of  the  Muta- 
zilites and  Jabarians,  but  even,  with  reference 
to  the  imam^  to  those  of  the  Kharijites. 

Aside  from  the  sects  which  owed  their  rise  to 
politkial  or  theological  differences,  there  were 
others  in  Islam  which  sprang  from  mysticism 
and  asceticism.  It  is  true  that  the  secluded  life 
of  the  monastery  or  hermitage  was  forbidden  to 
Mohammedans  by  the  Koran;  nevertheless  as 
early  as  the  first  and  second  centuries  of  the 
Hejira  a  sect  of  mystics  had  come  into  existence 
the  distinguishing  external  mark  of  whom  ^^a.s  a 
garment  of  coarse  wool  i^f),  such  as  had  been 
worn  by  the  founder  of  the  sect,  Abu  Said  ibn 
Abi  al-Khair  (815)  :  they  came  therefore  to  be 
known  as  Sufis.  Their  main  idea  was  that  to 
attain  to  a  nearer  friendship  with  God  there 
was  necessary  a  certain  course  of  life  which, 
without  demanding  entire  withdrawal  from  the 
world,  insisted  that  religious  laws  be  scrupa- 
lously  observed,  and  that,  God  being  loved  above 
all  else,  everything  worldly  be  despised.  Men 
has  shown  that  this  Oriental  mysticism  goes  back 
finally  to  Palestine  and  Neo-Platonic  philosophy, 
having  come  to  the  Mohammedans  through  the 
writings  of  Syrian  philosophers.  The  main 
stronghold  of  the  sect,  however,  was,  like  that 
of  so  many  others,  in  Persia,  where  Sufiism  made 
many  converts  from  among  the  heterodox,  and 
also  gradually  altered  its  original  character.  At 
first  the  Sufi  had  aimed  by  ascetic  practices  and 
religious  contemplation  to  enter  into  a  state 
of  ecstasy  in  which  he  might  attain  to  a  real 
knowledge  of  the  deity ;  but  later  Sufiism  became 
in  certain  regards  a  real  pantheism,  and  its  ad- 
herents in  the  ecstatic  state  felt  themselves 
united  with,  and  a  part  of,  the  Godhead.  Sufi- 
ism had  its  organization  like  other  religious 
orders;  the  religious  meetings  were  called  dhikrs; 
novices  {murid)  were  held  to  regular  and  exact- 
ing duties,  as  well  as  to  strict  compliance  with 
the  commands  of  the  sheikh. 

A  later  development  (twelfth  and  thirteeith 
centuries)  of  mysticism  is  represented  by  the 
various  orders  of  Dervishes — Kadiriyyah,  Ri- 
faiyyah,  Maulawiyyahf  etc. — each  with  its  own 
garb  and  symbols,  rules  of  faith  and  practice  as 
determined  by  its  founder.  Their  dhikrs  take 
place  once  or  oftener  every  week  in  their  reli- 
gious houses  {takkiyyah).  There  are  howling, 
whirling,  and  dancing  dervishes,  and  in  some 
orders  the  members  become  so  insensible  to  phys- 
ical sensation  while  in  the  state  of  esctasy  that 
they  swallow  glass  or  glowing  coals,  and  often 
wound  themselves  severely  in  other  ways.  Most 
dervishes  follow  a  trade,  and  do  not  withdraw 
from  the  affairs  of  life.  There  are  also  some 
begging  dervishes,  who  have  no  dwelling  places 
and  live  entirely  from  alms.     See  Dervish. 

The  last  of  the  Shiite  religious  movement**  is 
known  as  Babism  (q.v.).  In  the  earlier  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  Mirza  Ali  Mohammed 
al-Bab  (gate)  made  propaganda  for  a  mixture 
of  Sufic  and  cabalistic  doctrines  which  vras  soon 
accepted  by  a  large  following.  They  even  threat- 
ened the  Persian  Government  at  one  time,  and 
had  to  be  put  down  by  force  of  arms. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HOHAMMEDAN  SECTS. 


678 


XOHAVIL 


Such  were  the  numerous  sects  against  which 
orthodox  Mohammedanism  was  forced  to  contend; 
but,  although  Shiite  doctrines  more  than  once 
threatened  to  gain  the  ascendency,  Sunnism  re- 
mained the  victor  in  the  end.  The  four  sects  into 
which  the  Sunnites  are  divided — the  Hanbalitea, 
Malikites,  Uanifites,  and  8hafiHte9— differ  only 
in  regard  to  a  few  points  of  minor  importance 
connected  witli  religious  observances  and  civil 
and  religious  jurisprudence.  These  sects  have 
remained  almost  without  change  since  their 
foundation  under  the  Abbasside  dynasty.  Never- 
theless, certain  innovations  had  crept  into 
the  life  of  orthodox  Mohammedans,  principally 
an  exaggeration  of  the  reverence  paid  to  the 
numerous  saints,  which  amounted  often  to  actual 
worship.  It  was  against  such  abuses,  as  well  as 
against  all  forms  of  luxury  in  every-day  life, 
tobacco-smoking,  etc.,  that  Abd  al-Wahhab  and 
his  followers  (the  Wahabis)  arose  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  From 
Nejd  they  carried  on  an  iconoclastic  warfare 
throughout  the  country;  they  conquered  Mecca 
and  Medina,  and  in  destroying  the  many  sanctu- 
aries there  did  not  even  spare  the  grave  of  Mo- 
hammed. Previous  to  this  they  had  taken 
Kerbela,  a  holy  city  of  the  Shiites  in  Mesopo- 
tamia. They  were  defeated  finally  by  Egyptian 
troops,  and  driven  back  into  the  interior  of  the 
peninsula,  and  the  Wahabis  lost  their  im- 
portance.    They  still  exist,  however,  as  a  sect. 

BiBLiociRAPHY.  Consult:  Shahrastani,  Book  of 
Sects,  translated  into  German  by  HaarbrUcker 
(Halle,  1850);  Steiner,  Die  MuHaziliten  (Leip- 
zig,  1865)  ;  Brlinnow,  Die  Charidischten  unter 
den  ersten  Omayyaden  (Leyden,  1884)  ; 
Kremer,  Oeschichte  der  herrschenden  Ideen  des 
Islam  (Leipzig,  1868)  ;  Spitta,  Zur  Oeschichte 
Abu  n-Hasan  al  As'ari*s  (ib.,  1876)  ;  SchmOlders, 
Essai  sur  les  icoles  philosophiques  chez 
les  Arahes  (Paris,  1842)  ;  Krehl,  Beitrdge 
zur  Charakteristik  der  Lehre  vom  Olauhen  im 
Islam  (Leipzig,  1877)  ;  Tholuck,  Sufismus 
sive  Theosophia  Persarum  Pantheistica  (Berlin, 
1821);  id.,  Bliithensammlung  aus  der  morgen- 
Idndischen  Mysiik  (ib.,  1825)  ;  Merx,  Idee  und 
Orundlinien  einer  allgemeinen  Oeschichte  der 
Mystik  (Halle,  1893)  ;  Goldziher,  Mohamme- 
danische  Studien  (ib.,  1889-90)  ;  id..  Die  Za- 
hiriten  (Leipzig,  1884)  ;  De  Goeje,  Memoire 
sur  les  Carmathes  de  Bahrain  et  les  Fatimides 
(Iicyden,  1886)  ;  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  ExposS  de 
la  religion  des  Druzes  (Paris,  1828)  ;  Goldziher, 
Beitrdge  zur  Litteraturgeschichte  der  8chi*a  und 
der  sunnitischen  Polemik  (Vienna,  1874)  ;  Guy- 
ard,  Fragments  reJatifs  d  la  doctrine  des  Is- 
mailis  (Paris,  1874)  ;  Burckhardt,  Notes  on  the 
Bedouins  and  Wahhahis  (London,  1820)  ;  (jo- 
bineau,  Les  religions  et  les  philosophies  de  VAsie 
centrale  (Paris,  1865)  ;  E.  G.  Browne,  A  Year 
Among  the  Persians  (Tendon,  1893)  ;  id.,  A 
New  History  of  the  Bah  (Cambridge,  1893)  ; 
Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehrbuch  der  Reli- 
gionsgeschichte,  vol.  i.  (Freiburg,  1887)  ;  De  Boer, 
Oeschichte  der  Philosophic  im  Islam  (Stuttgart, 
1901);  Dussaud,  Histoire  des  Nosairis  (Paris, 
1900)  ;  Macdonald,  Development  of  Muslim 
Theology,  Jurisprudence,  and  Constitutional 
Theory  (New  York,  1893). 

MOHAMMED  BEN  MOHAMMED  BEN 
TAHAYA,  ya^hA-yft,  Abitl  Wefa,  or  Wafa 
<  940-998).     An  Arabic  mathematician  and  as- 


tronomer, born  at  Buzjan,  and  generally  known 
as  Abul  Wefa.  He  translated  and  commented 
upon  works  of  several  Greek  mathematicians,  and 
calculated  a  table  of  sines  at  intervals  of  half 
a  degree,  and  also  a  table  of  tangents,  which, 
however,  was  used  only  for  determining  the  al- 

,  was  called 


cos  a 


titude  of  the  sun.    The  ratio, 

by  him  the  *shadow.'  He  is,  however,  most  fa- 
mous for  having  made  the  oldest  known  attempt 
to  solve  geometric  problems  with  only  one  open- 
ing of  the  compasses,  and  wrote  a  book  contain- 
ing 12  chapters  on  geometrical  constructions. 
Our  knowledge  of  this  work  is  due  to  a  Persian 
translation  of  an  Arabic  manuscript,  written 
by  a  pupil  of  Abul  Wefa.  The  problems  may 
be  divided  into  three  groups:  (1)  Those  deal- 
ing with  the  solution  of  geometrical  prob- 
lems by  one  opening  of  the  compasses;  (2) 
to  divide  a  given  square  in  a  given  number 
of  squares,  and  to  construct  a  square  equal  to  a 
number  of  given  squares;  this  is  done  by  juxta- 
position, and  not  by  the  Pythagorean  method; 
(3)  problems  having  for  aim  the  construction  of 
regular  polyhedra.  In  the  problem-duel  between 
Tartaglia  ((j.v.),  on  one  hand,  and  Cardan  (q.v.) 
and  Perrari,  on  the  other,  problems  of  the  first 
group  were  given  for  solution  and  appear  in  the 
works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Cardan.  They 
also  occur  in  several  other  works  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  first  found  accurate  scientific  ex- 
pression in  Steiner's  Qeometrische  Construe- 
tionen,  etc.  (1883).  Consult:  Volpcke,  Journal 
Asiatique,  vol.  v.  (1855)  ;  Cantor,  Oeschichte  der 
Mathematiky  vol.  i.  (Leipzig,  1900). 

MOHAM^MED  IBN  MTJ^SA  AL-KHXT- 
WABIZMI.     See  Al-Khuwabizmx. 

MOHAMMED  KTJDAH  BTJNDAH  KHAN, 

k?R>^d&  b^n'd&  Kftn.    See  Mongol  Dynasties. 

MOHAMMED'S  COFFIN.  See  Mahomet's 
Coffin. 

MOHAMMEBAH,  md-hftm^m&-r&.  A  town 
in  Southwestern  Persia,  Province  of  Khuzistan, 
situated  on  a  canal  leading  from  the  Karun 
River  to  the  Shat-el-Arab,  35  miles  from  the 
Persian  Gulf  (Map:  Persia,  C  5).  The  harbor 
is  good,  and  the  town  has  had  an  active  trade 
since  the  opening  of  the  Karun  to  international 
navigation  in  1889.    Population,  15,000. 

MOHAVE,  md-ha^v&.  An  interesting  tribe  of 
Yuman  stock  (q.v.),  residing  along  both  banks 
of  the  lower  Colorado  River,  in  Arizona  and 
California.  Their  popular  name,  corrupted  from 
hamok-habi,  signifies  Hhree  mountains,'  in  allu- 
sion to  the  three  buttes  known  as  the  Needles, 
which  they  regard  as  the  central  point  of  their 
ancient  territory.  They  are  agricultural,  al- 
though somewhat  nomadic  in  habit,  and  in  phys- 
ical type  they  rank  among  the  finest  specimens 
of  the  American  aborigine.  They  live  in  low 
wikiups  of  brushwootl  covered  with  sand,  make 
pottery  and  baskets,  and  cultivate  com,  pump- 
kins, melons,  and  beans,  which,  with  fish  and 
mesquite  beans,  give  them  an  abundant  subsis- 
tence. They  practice  tattooing  and  cremate 
their  dead.  They  have  certain  hereditary  family 
names,  and  a  chiefship  hereditary  in  the  male 
line,  but  do  not  seem  to  have  the  true  clan  sys- 
tem. They  are  warlike,  and  avoid  intimacy  with 
other  tribes  or  with  the  whites,  and  still  pre- 
serve   most    of    their    primitive    characteristics. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOHAVE. 


674 


MOHILEV. 


They  number  now  about  2160,  of  whom  660  are 
on  Colorado  River  Redervation,  Arizona,  and  earn 
a  fair  living  bm  mine  laborers,  wood-cutters,  and 
boatmen  along  the  river.  Some  study  of  the  tribe 
hag  been  made  by  Kroeber,  of  the  University 
of  Oalifornia. 

MOHAVE  DESEBT.  A  desert  region  in 
southern  California,  lying  principally  in  San 
Bernardino  County  (Map:  California,  J  7).  It 
ia  a  part  of  the  Colorado  Desert  (q.v.),  although 
the  two  names  are  often  used  synonymously. 

MO'HAWK  (New  England  Algonquian  name. 
Magna,  Mahaqua,  Bear;  they  call  themselves 
Ganiega-rono,  Bear  People,  or  Flint  People). 
The  leading  tribe  of  the  Iroquois  confederacy 
(q.v.)  and  formerly  occupying  the  Lower  Mo- 
hawk River  Valley,  in  New  York.  They 
were  considered  the  keepers  of  the  eastern 
*door*  or  frontier  of  the  *long  House*  of  the  con- 
federacy, the  Seneca  being  assigned  the  duty  of 
guarding  the  western  door.  The  Mohawk  terri- 
tory was  supposed  to  extend  northward  to  the 
Saint  Lawrence,  eastward  to  the  country  of  the 
Mahican  and  Wappinger  along  the  Hudson,  and 
southward  to  the  watershed  of  the  Delaware 
River  and  the  Catskill  Mountains,  where  they 
bordered  upon  the  Delaware  and  Munsee.  Their 
geographic  position  thus  brought  them  into  early 
and  intimate  contact  with  the  Dutch  and  English 
settlers,  from  whom  they  procured  the  firearms 
which  soon  made  their  very  name  a  terror  to  the 
remoter  tribes.  This  exposed  situation,  however, 
caused  them  to  suffer  much  more  than  their  con- 
federates in  the  colonial  wars,  so  that  their  seven 
villages  of  1644  were  reduced  to  five  in  1677, 
some  whole  clans  seeming  to  have  been  wiped  out. 
They  also  furnished  the  larger  share  of  recruits 
for  the  Catholic  mission  colony  of  Caughnawdga 
(q.v.).  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  they 
took  sides  with  the  British,  and  nearly  the  entire 
tribe,  under  Brant,  fled  to  Canada,  where  they 
have  resided  ever  since.  The  remainder  were 
driven  out  by  the  Oneidas,  who  burned  their  vil- 
lages. 

The  most  reliable  early  estimate,  about  1660, 
gave  the  Mohawk  2500  souls.  Then  began  a 
rapid  decline,  caused  by  war  with  other  tribes 
and  with  the  French,  and  by  removals  to 
Caughnawiiga  and  other  French  Catholic  mission 
settlements,  and  in  1677  they  were  estimated  at 
only  1500.  Later  figures,  being  only  partial 
estimates,  give  no  idea  of  tlieir  full  numl)er.  No 
Mohawk,  officially  so  recognized,  now  resides  on 
the  New  York  reservations  or  elsewhere  in  the 
I'^nited  States.  In  Canada  the  only  Indians 
separately  reported  as  Mohawk  are  the  *Mohawk 
of  the  Bay  of  Quints,*  Ontario,  numbering  1230, 
chiefly  fanners,  and  reported  as  increasing  in 
industry  year  by  year,  making  good  progiess  and 
becoming  richer.  Besides  them  there  are  a 
number  of  this  tribe  living  with  the  other  Six 
Nations  on  the  Grand  River  Keserve,  Ontario, 
while  the  'Iroquois'  of  the  mixed  Iroquois  and 
Algonquian  bands  at  Gibson,  Ontario  (total  125), 
and  Oka  or  Lake  of  Two  ^fountains,  Quebec 
(total  445),  with  the  Iroquois  of  Caughnawjiga 
and  Saint  Re^is  (q.v.),  numbering  altogether 
about  4460.  are  largely  of  Mohawk  origin  and  all 
use  that  language.    See  Troqiots. 

MOHAWK  RIVER.  The  largest  affluent  of 
the  Hudson.  It  rises  near  the  boundary  of 
Oneida   and  T^wis   counties,   N.   Y.,  and   flows 


south  to  Rome,  where  it  takes  a  general  easterly 
course  through  Herkimer,  Montgomery,  Schenec- 
tady, and  Saratoga  coimties,  and  joins  the  Hud- 
son at  Cohoes  (Map:  New  York,  F  3).  In  it« 
course  of  nearly  150  miles  it  passes  through  the 
celebrated  Mohawk  Valley,  one  of  the  moBt  beau- 
tiful and  fertile  agricultural  regions  in  the 
United  States.  In  colonial  times  the  vall^  was 
the  main  highway  to  the  Great  Lakes,  and  during 
the  Revolution  a  bitter  contest  was  waged  be- 
tween the  American  and  British  forces  for  its 
control.  There  are  many  thriving  manufactur- 
ing cities  along  the  Mohawk,  which  is  paralleled 
by  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  New  York  Ontral 
and  the  West  Shore  railroads,  forming  a  great 
trade  route  between  the  Atlantic  sealxtard  and 
the  West.    See  New  York. 

MOHE^GAN  (dialectic  form  of  Mahioa% 
from  which  tribe  the  Mohegan  were  originallj 
an  offshoot).  An  Algonquian  tribe  formerly  re- 
siding chiefly  upon  the  Thames  River  in  ea«tem 
Connecticut,  and  claiming  dominion  by  conquest 
over  several  smaller  adjoining  tribes,  not  all  of 
which,  however,  admitted  the  claim.  They  seem 
to  have  been  an  eastern  extension  from  the 
Mahican  of  the  Hudson,  w^hile  the  warlike  Pequot 
(q.v.)  were  in  turn  a  branch  of  the  Mohegan. 
At  the  period  of  the  first  settlement  of  Connecti- 
cut the  two  last  named  tribes  formed  one  body, 
under  the  rule  of  Sassacus.  Uncas,  a  subordinate 
chieftain,  rebelled  against  him  and  assumed  a 
distinct  authority  as  the  leader  of  a  small  band 
on  the  Thames,  near  the  present  Norwich.  This 
band  became  known  in  history  as  the  Mohegan, 
while  those  remaining  with  Sassacus  were  distin- 
guished as  Pequot.  In  the  struggle  between  the 
Pequot  and  the  colonists  Uncas  aided  the  Eng- 
lish, and  in  consequence  on  the  destruction  of  the 
Pequot  tribe  in  1637  the  greater  part  of  the  sur- 
vivors were  placed  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Mohegan  chief,  who  thus  obtained  control  of  the 
territory  of  both  tribes.  He  took  such  care  to 
strengthen  his  power  with  the  English  that  after 
the  death  of  King  Philip  in  1676  the  Mohegan 
were  the  only  important  tribe  remaining  in 
Southern  New  England.  As  the  settlements  ex- 
tended they  sold  most  of  their  lands,  retaining 
only  a  small  reservation  on  the  Thames  River,  in 
Now  London  County,  Connecticut,  centring  about 
their  village,  Mohegan.  The  villages  of  Oroton 
and  Stonington,  occupied  chiefly  by  the  remnanta 
of  the  conquered  Pequot,  were  considered  also  as 
under  Mohegan  jurisdiction.  They  rapidly 
dwindled  when  surrounded  by  the  whites,  many 
joining  the  kindred  mission  bands  at  Scaticook 
and  Brotherton  in  New  York.  The  rest  con- 
tinued to  reside  at  Mohegan  until  now  they  are 
so  mixed  with  negro  and  white  blood  that  they 
have  practically  lost  their  identity,  although 
they  still  retain  official  State  recognition.  In 
1705  they  numbered  750  at  Mohegan,  reduced  to 
206  in  1*774  and  69  in  1809,  any  larger  number 
reported  later  being  due  to  foreign  admixture. 

MOHILEV,  m6-h6-lyef'.  A  government  of 
European  Russia,  bounded  by  the  Government 
of  Vitebsk  on  the  north,  Smolensk  on  the  east. 
Tchernigov  on  the  southeast  and  south,  and 
Minsk  on  the  west  (Map:  Russia,  F  4).  Area, 
18,551  square  miles.  The  northern  part  of  the 
government  is  slightly  elevated,  forming  the 
watershed  between  the  Dneiper  and  the  Dtina. 
The  southern  and  larger  part  belongs  to  the  re- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOHILEV. 


675 


XOHUSB. 


gion  of  Poliessie  (q.v.)  and  is  low  and  partly 
marshy.  The  government  is  well  watered;  the 
Dnieper  and  ita  tributary  the  Sozh  are  the  chief 
rivers.  Mohilev  has  a  moderate  but  rather  damp 
climate,  and  in  the  low  and  marshy  parts  fever  is 
prevalent.  Agriculture,  which  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, is  carried  on  by  the  most  primitive  meth- 
ods and  famines  are  not  infreauent.  The  live 
stock  is  of  a  very  inferior  breed.  Gardening  is 
carried  on  extensively  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
towns.  The  forests,  covering  more  than  one-third 
of  the  total  area,  yield  turpentine  and  charcoal 
and  supply  the  material  for  the  production  of 
wood  implements,  wagons,  etc.,  which  are  manu- 
factured on  a  small  scale.  In  addition  there  are 
produced  paper,  spirits,  oil,  wire  nails,  flour, 
glass,  matches,  etc.  The  trade  is  largely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Jews.  Population,  in  1897,  1,686,- 
764.  Capital,  Mohilev  (q.v.).  In  early  times  the 
present  province  of  Mohilev  belonged  to  the  Prin- 
cipality of  Smolensk.  Annexed  in  the  fourteenth 
century  to  Lithuania,  it  afterwards  became  part 
of  the  Polish  monarchy  and  was  annexed  to  Rus- 
sia at  the  first  partition  of  Poland  in  1772. 

MOHHiEV.  The  capital  of  the  Government 
of  Mohilev  in  West  Russia,  situated  on  both 
banks  of  the  Dnieper,  483  miles  south  of  Saint 
Petersburg  and  375  miles  southwest  of  Moscow 
(Map:  Russia,  E  4).  It  lies  in  a  picturesque 
region  and  has  a  number  of  interesting  buildings. 
The  cathedral,  in  Greek  style,  whose  cornerstone 
was  laid  in  1780  by  Catharine  II.  and  the  Car- 
man Emperor  Joseph  II.,  the  town  hall  (1679) 
with  an  octagonal  tower,  and  the  new  theatre  are 
noteworthy.  There  are  also  at  Mohilev  some  in- 
teresting monasteries,  numerous  churches  of  dif- 
ferent denominations,  and  a  museum  with  note- 
worthy collections.  The  educational  institutions 
include  two  gymnasia,  two  theological  seminaries, 
several  special  schools,  a  manual  training  school, 
and  a  public  library.  Mohilev  produces  largely 
leather,  linseed  oil,  flour,  and  tobacco.  A  con- 
siderable part  of  its  inhabitants  are  also  en- 
gaged in  gardening  and  fishing.  Population,  in 
1897,  43,106,  including  over  20,000  Jews. 

MOHUiEV.  The  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Russian  Government  of  Po- 
dolia,  situated  on  the  Dniester,  89  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Kamenetz-Podolsk  (Map:  Russia, 
E  6).  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
gardening  and  the  transit  trade  in  agricultural 
products  and  lumber  with  Galicia  and  Odessa. 
Population,  in  1897.  22,100,  over  one-half  Jewish. 

MOHL,  m6l,  Hugo  von  (1805-72).  A  German 
botanist.  He  was  bom  in  Stuttgart;  studied 
medicine  and  natural  sciences  at  Tubingen,  and 
became  professor  of  botany  and  director  of  the 
botanic  garden  there  in  1835.  He  made  con- 
tributions of  the  utmost  importance  to  vegetable 
physiology.  He  wrote:  GrundzUfje  der  Anato- 
mic und  Physiologic  dcr  rcfjctahiliftchcn  Zclle 
(1851).  His  Vvrmischte  Schriftcn  hotanischen 
Inhalts  (1845)  contains  a  considerable  number  of 
his  most  important  monographs. 

MOHL,  Julius  von  (1800-76).  A  German 
Orientalist,  brother  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
bom  at  Stuttgart,  October  28.  1800:  studied  Per- 
sian and  Chinese  at  TUbinpen,  Paris,  I^ndon, 
and  Oxford;  was  professor  of  Oriental  literature 
in  Ttlbingen  (1826-32)  ;  went  to  Paris  and  became 
professor  of  Per«<ian  at  the  College  de  France  in 
1845;  and  in  1852  in^^pector  of  the  Oriental  de- 


partment of  the  national  printing  office.  He  died 
at  Paris,  January  4,  1876.  His  principal  work  is 
his  edition  of  Firdausi's  Shdh  NAmah  (1831-68), 
of  which  he  also  made  a  complete  French  trans- 
lation, published  after  his  death,  Le  livre  dee  roia 
traduit  et  comments  (1876-78).  He  wrote  also 
Dante  et  les  origines  de  la  litt^rature  italienne. 
His  wife,  who  was  Miss  Mary  Clarke,  maintained 
for  many  years  a  salon  frequented  by  the  wits 
and  scholars  of  her  time.  Consult  Simpson,  Let- 
ters  and  Recollections  of  Julius  and  Mary  Uohl 
(1887). 

MOHL,  RoBEBT  VON  (1799-1875).  A  German 
jurist  and  statesman,  brother  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  born  in  Stuttgart,  studied  law  at  Heidel- 
berg, GOttingen,  and  Tubingen,  and  in  1824,  after 
publishing  Das  Bundesstaatsrecht  der  Vereinig- 
ten  Staaten  von  'Sord-Amerika,  was  made  a 
professor  at  Tubingen.  But  his  attack  on  the 
political  regime  during  his  candidacy  for  the 
legislature  in  1845  forced  him  from  this  chair 
and  from  the  governmental  employ.  Almost  im- 
mediately afterwards  he  was  elected  to  the  Lower 
Chamber  of  WUrttemberg,  became  professor  at 
Heidelberg  ( 1847 ) ,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Vor- 
parlament  and  of  the  National  Assembly  at  Frank- 
fort. After  acting  for  seven  months  as  Minister  of 
Justice  in  the  Imperial  Ministry  set  up  by  the 
Frankfort  Parliament  he  returned  to  his  pro- 
fessorial duties  in  Heidelberg  (1849),  and  from 
1857  represented  the  university  in  the  First 
Chamber  of  Baden.  From  1861-66  he  was  repre- 
sentative of  Baden  at  the  German  Bund  at 
Frankfort,  and  during  1867-71  he  was  Ambassa- 
dor at  Munich.  A  year  before  Mohl's  death  he  was 
elected  to  the  German  Reichstag.  Among  his 
writings  are:  Staatsrecht  des  Komgreicha  Wurt- 
tetnherg  (1829-31)  ;  Die  deutsche  Polizeiwissen- 
schaft  (1832-34;  3d  ed.  1840)  ;  Encyklop&die  der 
Staatswissenschaften  (1859;  2d  ed.  1872);  and 
Das  deutsche  Reiohsstaatsrecht  (1873). 

MbHLEB,  m5n«r,  Johann  Adam  ( 1796-1838) . 
One  of  the  most  distinguished  modern  polemical 
divines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  was 
bom  at  Igersheim,  in  WUrttemberg,  May  6, 
1796.  He  received  his  education  at  the  gymna- 
sium of  Mergentheim,  the  lyceum  of  Ellwangen, 
and  the  I^niversitv  of  Tubingen.  He  received 
priest's  orders  in  1819,  and  for  a  short  time  was 
employed  in  missionary  duty.  In  1823  he  began 
to  lecture  on  canon  law  and  Church  history  at 
Tubingen,  and  in  1826  became  professor  extraor- 
dinary, in  1828  professor  ordinary  of  theology. 
His  earliest  publication  was  Die  Einhcit  in  dcr 
Kirche  odcr  das  Prinzip  des  Katholizismus 
(1825),  which  was  followed  in  1827  by  a  histo- 
rico-theological  essay  Athanasius  und  die  Kirche 
seiner  Zcit.  His  reputation  rests  mainlv  on  his 
f^tfmholik  (1832;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1843).  In 
1835  ^frihler  removed  to  the  University  of  ^fu- 
nich.  His  first  appointment  was  nominally  the 
chair  of  biblical  exegesis,  but  he  really  devoted 
himself  to  the  department  of  Church  history,  in 
which  his  opening  course  was  eniinentlv  success- 
ful. He  died  in  WUrzburg,  April  12,  1838.  His 
miscellaneous  works  were  collected  and  published 
posthumously  in  two  volumes  (Repensburg,  1839- 
40),  bv  his  friend  Dr.  Dollinger:  his  lectures  on 
Church  history  by  Gams  (ib.,  1867-70).  Con.sult 
his  biography  by  Wflrner  (Regensburg,  1866). 

MOHLEB,  John  Frederick  (1864—).  An 
American  physicist,  born  near  Carlisle,  Pa.     He 


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graduated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1887,  and  at 
Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1897,  and  after- 
wards was  appointed  professor  of  physics  at 
Dickinson.  His  researches  include  investigations 
on  the  surface  tension  of  water  below  0°  Centi- 
grade. He  assisted  in  the  discovery  that  the  pres- 
sure surrounding  the  electric  arc  changes  the 
wave-length  of  the  light  emitted,  and  discovered 
the  relation  of  the  'shift*  of  spectral  lines  to  the 
atomic  volume,  as  well  as  a  peculiarity  in  the 
light  spectrum  of  magnesium.  He  also  measured 
the  pressure  in  the  electric  light  spark.  His 
publications  include  A  Manual  of  Practical 
Phyaioa  (1897-1903),  and  numerous  articles  in 
scientific  publications. 

MOHN',  mOn,  Henbik  (1835—).  A  Norwe- 
gian meteorologist,  bom  at  Bergen,  and  educated 
at  Christiania.  In  1860  he  was  made  assistant 
in  astronomy,  and  in  1866  director  of  the  meteo- 
rological institute  of  the  Christiania  University. 
Mohn  represented  Norway  in  many  international 
congresses  of  meteorology  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Polar  Commission  which  organized  magnetic 
and  meteorological  stations  (1882  sqq.).  His 
writings  include  Les  orages  dans  la  peninsule 
scandinave  (with  Hildebrandsson,  1888)  and  a 
very  valuable  Orundzuge  der  Meteorologie  ( 1875; 
trans,  into  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  Hussian, 
Polish,  and  Flemish). 

M0090.     A  tropical  tree.     See  Hibiscus. 

MOHO.  A  honey-sucker  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands  whose  native  name  has  become  the  desig- 
nation of  a  local  genus  of  the  family  Meliphagi- 
d»,  which  contains  two  species,  the  yellow-tufted 
molio,  or  *oo'  or  *uho*  [Moho  nohilis)  and  an- 
other {Moho  apicalia).  They  are  handsome, 
long-tailed,  blackish  birds  with  bright  yellow  tufts 
of  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  wings,  and  some 
white  tail  feathers.  After  the  disappearance  of 
the  mamo  (q.v.)  the  feathers  of  the  moho 
were  used  for  making  the  ceremonial  robes  and 
ornaments  of  Hawaiian  chiefs,  until  they  were 
superseded  by  European  clothes  and  insignia  of 
rank.  Early  accounts  of  the  islands  record  that 
this  bird,  which  frequented  the  mountains  and 
forests,  and  had  much  the  appearance  and  habits 
of  a  North  American  oriole,  was  captured  by 
means  of  bird-lime.  Its  yellow  feathers  having 
been  plucked  out,  it  was  then  freed,  in  hope  that 
it  would  furnish  another  supply  the  next  year. 
These  feathers,  from  which  also  a  beautiful  head- 
dress (for  women)  called  *leis'  was  made,  were 
received  by  the  King  as  a  poll-tax;  yet  it  took 
many  years  to  collect  enough  for  a  mantle,  the 
price  of  which,  estimating  the  time  and  labor  at 
modern  standards,  would  probably  exceed  a  mil- 
lion dollars.  A  few  examples  of  these  feather 
cloaks  are  preserved  in  European  museums.  See 
Plate  of  Creepeks. 

MOHOCKS.  The  name  by  which  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Mohock  or  Mohawk  Club  of  London 
in  1711-12  were  known.  The  object  of  the  club 
was  mischief.  With  the  Restoration  it  had  be- 
come a  favorite  amusement  of  dissolute  young 
gentlemen  to  swagger  at  night  about  the  town, 
breaking  windows,  upsetting  sedans,  beating  quiet 
men,  and  offering?  rude  caresses  to  nrettv  women. 
The  Mohocks,  who  formed  one  of  the  ruffian  clubs 
of  the  time,  made  a  snecialtv  of  slittinji  men's 
noses,  beating  people,  and  rolling  women  in  hogs- 
heads down  Snow  Hill.     A  royal  proclamation 


dissolved  it  after  about  a  year's  existence.   Con- 
sult Swift,  Journal  to  SteUa, 

MOHBr  (Ar.  muhr,  colt,  from  maharay  to  be 
adroit).  A  West  African  gazelle  {Oazella  mohr) , 
called  the  'swift,'  and  among  the  largest  of  its 
group,  which  is  much  hunted  by  the  Arabs  of 
Senegal  because  its  stomach  often  contains  the 
bezoars  called  'mohr's  eggs,'  so  highly  valued  m 
Morocco  and  the  western  Sahara  for  their  sup- 
posed medicinal  properties. 

MOHB,  Charles  Theodob  (1824-1901).  An 
American  botanist  and  forester.  He  was  born  at 
Esslingen  in  Wtirttemberg;  studied  at  the  Stutt- 
gart Polytechnic;  and  with  Kappler  explored 
Dutch  Guiana  in  1845.  He  went  to  California 
on  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1849,  and,  after  four 
years  as  a  druggist  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  removed  to 
Mobile,  Ala.,  in  1857.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
committee  on  revision  of  the  United  States  Phar- 
macopoeia in  1890,  and  in  1892  gave  himself  up 
to  forestry  and  botany.  He  had  been  appointed 
botanist  of  the  Alabama  Geological  Survey  in 
1884,  and  agent  of  the  Forestry  Division  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1889.  He  contributed  to  Bemey's  Handbook  of 
Alabama,  and  wrote  The  Timber  Pines  of  the 
Southern  United  States  (1896-97)  ekud  Plant  Life 
of  Alabama  (1901). 

MO^HrXN",  Michael  (1620?-84).  A  noted 
English  actor  of  the  period  following  the  Restora- 
tion. He  had  been  a  soldier  both  in  the  Civil 
War  and  afterwards  in  Flanders,  where  he  got 
the  title  of  major,  by  which  he  was  known.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  company  in  the  early  days 
at  Drury  Lane,  then  the  Theatre  Royal,  and 
created  rftles  in  several  of  the  plays  of  Dryden 
and  of  Lee.  King  Charles  II.,  for  whose  father  he 
had  fought,  regarded  him  highly.  He  died  in 
London  in  October,  1684.  Consult:  Geneste,  Fm- 
tory  of  the  English  Stage  (Bath,  1832) ;  Doian, 
Annals  of  the  Stage  (ed.  Lowe,  London,  1888); 
Downes,  Roscius  Anglicanus  (repr.  London, 
1886). 

MOIDOBE,  moi'dSr  (Port,  moeda  d'our, 
money  of  gold ) .  A  former  gold  coin  of  Portugal, 
of  the  value  of  4800  reis,  or  nearly  $6.75.  It  was 
also  called  lisbonine. 

MOIQNOy  mwa'nyy,  Fban^ois  NAPOiioK 
Marie  (1804-84).  A  French  mathematician, 
bom  at  Gu§m^n6  in  Morbihan.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1822  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  mathematics  and  physics.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolution  of  1830  he  sought  refuge  with 
others  of  his  Order  in  Switzerland.  In  1836  he 
became  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  prepara- 
tory school  of  Sainte  Genevieve  in  Paris.  He  re- 
signed from  his  Order  in  1844  and  became  con- 
nected with  various  journals.  Among  his  works 
are  LcQons  de  calcul  diff^entiel  et  de  calcul 
integral  ( 1840-61 )  ;  Repertoire  d*optiqu€  mo- 
deme  (1847-50)  ;  Les  splendeurs  de  la  foi  (1879- 
83)  ;  and  Les  livres  saints  et  la  science  (1884). 

MOIB,  David  Macbeth  (1798-1861).  A 
Scottish  humorist,  bom  at  Musselburgh,  a  small 
seaport  near  Edinburgh,  January  5,  1798.  He 
studied  medicine,  and  practiced  in  his  native 
town.  Moir  became  widely  known  by  his  essays 
and  poems  contributed  to  Blackwood's  Maga^tnf 
under  the  signature  A  (delta).  He  died  July  6, 
1851.     Moir's  most  interesting  production  is  « 


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Scotch  novel  entitled  The  Autobiography  of  Man" 
sie  Wauoh  (1828;  new  ed.  1895).  Consult  also 
Poetical  Works,  ed.  with  memoir  by  Aird  (Edin- 
burgh, 1852). 

MOI^BA,  second  Earl  of.  An  English  general 
and  administrator  in  India.  See  Hastings,  Fran- 
cis Rawdon-Hastings,  Marquis  of. 

ICOIBE^  mw&r  (Fr.  mohair).  A  silk  figured 
by  the  peculiar  process  called  watering.  The 
silks  for  this  purpose  are  moistened  and  then 
folded  from  one  end  to  the  other  in  triangular 
folds.  After  being  thus  reduced  to  a  compara- 
tively small  length  they  are  submitted  to  heavy 
pressure,  generally  in  a  hydraulic  press.  After 
being  removed  from  the  press  the  fabric  is  found 
to  be  covered  with  wavy  lines.  As  only  one  side 
is  to  be  waved,  the  fabric  is  made  up  for  the 
press  with  a  pasteboard  above  each  second  fold. 
The  silk  is  next  hot-pressed,  and  the  side  next  to 
the  pasteboard  comes  out  glazed,  while  the  other 
remains  watered.  The  finest  kinds  of  watered 
silks  are  known  as  moirds  antiques.  The  same 
process  has  been  applied  to  woolen  fabrics  called 
moreen. 

MOIS,  m</6z  (an  Annamese  term  correspond- 
ing to  the  Cambodian  Peunong,  Loatian  Kha, 
Tonkinese  Myong,  etc.).  An  extensive  group  of 
so-called  savage  tribes  dispersed  over  the  table- 
lands and  mountains  between  the  Mekong  and  the 
Annamese  coast,  from  the  frontiers  of  Yun-nan 
to  Cochin-China.  They  have  been  regarded  as  one 
of  the  eight  groups  of  Farther  Indian  aborigines. 
In  spite  of  the  multitude  of  tribes  into  which  the 
Mois  are  divided,  they  exhibit  a  remarkable  uni- 
formity in  physical  type  and  manners.  Some 
scholars  regard  them  as  'Indonesians,*  but  this 
needs  proof.  In  physical  type  tbey  are  rather 
short,  dolichocephalic,  straight-eyed,  somewhat 
wavy-haired,  with  reddish  dirty- white  skin.  The 
Mois  are  as  a  rule  of  |>eaceful  disposition,  being 
hunters  and  husbandmen  of  a  primitive  sort. 
Some  of  them  are  noted  for  their  poisoned  ar- 
rows. In  the  Mois  a  sub-Caucasic  (white)  physi- 
cal trait  has  been  detected,  and  others  ally  them, 
by  reason  of  their  manners  and  customs,  and  im- 
plements, with  the  Malayan  peoples.  Formerly 
the  Mois  were  reported  to  be  Negritos  or  Papuans 
and  classed  with  the  black,  woolly-haired  peoples 
of  the  globe.  Consult  Dourisbouve,  Les  sauvagee 
Ba-Hnars  (Paris,  1873)  ;  Deniker,  Races  of  Man 
(London,  1900). 

MOISSACy  mwU's&k'.  A  town  of  France,  in 
the  Department  of  Tam-et-Garonne.  It  is  on 
the  river  Tarn,  and  on  the  railroad  from  Bor- 
deaux to  Cette  (Map:  France,  S.,  F  4).  The 
Church  of  Saint  Pierre,  dating  from  the  year 
1100,  with  its  elaborate  portal,  is  one  of  the 
most  curious  religious  edifices  in  France.  Mois- 
sac  has  a  good  trade  in  flour,  grain,  oil,  and 
wine.     Population,  in  1901,  8407. 

MOISSAN,  mwa'sUN^  Henbi  (1852-1907).  A 
Trench  chemist,  bom  in  Paris.  He  studied  at 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History;  became  con- 
nected with  the  School  of  Pharmacy  (1879),  its 
professor  of  toxicology  (1886)  and  of  mineral 
chemistry  (1889).  He  won  the  Lacaze  prize  in 
1887  for  his  valuable  experiments  with  fluorine, 
which  he  was  the  first  to  isolate  and  to  liquefy. 
His  most  striking  success  was  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  diamonds,  by  sudden  cooling  of  molten 
iron  or  silver  impregnated  with  carbon  (1893- 
©4).     More  practical  was  his  simplification  of 


the  production  of  acetylene  gas.  Moissan  con- 
tributed articles  on  chrome,  manganese,  and  iron 
to  Fr^my's  Encyclopedic  chimique  and  wrote: 
LHsolement  du  fluor  (1886);  Reproduction  du 
diamant  (1893);  Carbure  de  calcium  (1894); 
and  Etude  compute  des  carbones  amorphes  et  des 
graphites  (1898). 

MOISTTJBE.     See  Humidity. 

MOIVBE^  mwtt'vr',  Abraham  de.  A  French- 
English  mathematician.    See  De  Moivbe. 

MOJABBA^  mA-hftr'rA  (Port  name).  (1) 
Any  of  many  carnivorous  sea  fishes  of  moderate 
or  small  size,  allied  to  the  porgies  (Sparidse), 
and  constituting  the  tropical  family  (jerridae. 
Some  of  them  are  well  known  and  of  some  im- 
portance as  market  fishes.  The  small  silvery 
Pacific  Coast  species  of  the  genus  Eucinostomus 
are  called  'mojarritas.*  The  'mojarra  blanca'  or 
'broad  shad'  {Xystwma  cinereum)  is  a  favorite 
food  fish  on  both  coasts  of  Central  America  and 
in  Cuba.  Another  species  of  that  region  {Oerres 
olisthostomus)  is  called  *Irish  pompano'  and 
*muttonfish'  by  fishermen.  The  term  is  applied, 
by  the  aid  of  a  discriminative  adjective,  to  vari- 
ous outside  fishes,  e.g.  the  cow-pilot. 

MOJT,  md'j^.  A  town  of  Japan  situated  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Kiushiu, 
on  the  Strait  of  Shimonoseki  and  opposite  the 
city  of  that  name  ( Map :  Japan,  B  7 ) .  It  has 
grown  rapidly  to  an  important  place  since  1891. 
when  it  became  the  terminus  of  the  Kiushiu 
Railroad.  The  extensive  coal  deposits  in  the 
neighborhood  also  add  to  its  importance.  The 
Moji  side  of  the  channel,  which  is  here  one  mile 
wide,  is  more  convenient  as  a  landing  place  for 
steamers  than  the  port  of  Shimonoseki.  The  im- 
ports and  exports  at  Moji  in  1905  were  valued  at 
$8,289,721  and  $7,397,521  respectively.  Popula- 
tion, in  1898,  25,274;  in  1903,  38.065. 

MOJSISOVICSy  moi's^so'vlch,  Edmund  von 
(1839-97).  An  Austrian  geologist  and  student 
of  the  Alps.  He  was  bom  and  educated  at 
Vienna;  founded  the  Austrian  Alpine  Society — 
the  first  of  the  kind  in  Europe — in  1862,  and  in 
1869  a  like  association  in  Germany,  which  joined 
the  Austrian  society  in  1873.  In  the  Imperial 
Geological  Institute  he  became  chief  geologist  in 
1870,  and  assistant  director  in  1892.  His  more 
important  works  include  Das  Oebirge  um  Hall- 
statt  (1873-76);  Die  Dolomitriffe  von  SUdtirol 
und  Venetien  (1878-80)  ;  Die  Cephalopoden  der 
mediterranen  Triasprovinz  (1882);  Arktische 
Triasfaunen  (1886)  ;  Die  Cephalopoden  der  Hall- 
stutter  Kalke  (1893)  ;  and  Die  Cephalopoden  der 
oberen  Trias  des  Himalaya  (1896). 

M0KADDA8I,  mdk^d-d&-s$  (Ar.  AbU  *Abd 
Alldh  Muhammad  ibn  Ahmad  al-Mukaddasf,  or 
al-Makdisi).  A  famous  Mohammedan  geog- 
rapher. He  was  bom  at  Jerusalem  (whence  his 
name:  Mukaddasi  :=  from  Jerusalem)  in  946. 
His  father'  %\as  an  architect  and  gave  his 
son  a  good  education.  In  his  twentieth  year 
he  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  after- 
wards decided  to  devote  his  life  to  the  study 
of  geography.  For  a  score  of  years  he  jour- 
neyed up  and  down  through  the  Moslem  world, 
seeking  information  with  infinite  labor  and 
excellent  judgment.  In  985  he  published  his 
book,  dividing  it  into  three  parts:  (1)  what  he 
had  himself  seen;  (2)  what  he  had  leamed  from 
trustworthy  witnesses;    (3)    what  he  had  read. 


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He  then  resumed  his  travels  and  three  yean 
later  issued  a  new  and  enlarged  edition.  Mo- 
kaddasi's  travels  did  not  reach  quite  as  far  as 
those  of  some  other  Arabic  geographers,  but, 
judged  by  the  zeal  with  which  he  collected  hi^ 
material,  the  good  sense  he  showed  in  sifting  it, 
and  tlie  clear  and  logical  arrangement  of  his 
work,  he  is  easily  the  foremost  of  them  all.  It 
has  been  edited  by  De  Goeje  in  his  Bihliotheca 
Oeographorum  Arahicoruniy  vol.  iii.  {DeacripHo 
Imperii  Mo8lemtci  Auctore  Al-Mokaddaaiy  Ley- 
den,  1877)  ;  the  part  relating  to  Syria,  including 
Palestine,  has  been  translated  into  English  with 
notes  by  Le  Strange  in  the  Library  of  the  Pales- 
tine Ptlgrims*  Text  Society,  vol.  iii.  (London, 
1886).  Consult  also:  Kremer,  Kulturgeschichte 
dee  Orients,  voL  ii.  (Vienna,  1877);  Sprenger, 
Die  Post-  und  Reise-Routen  des  Orients  (Leip- 
zig, 1864)  ;  Le  Strange,  Palestine  Under  the 
Moslems  (London,  1890). 

MOKANKA,  m6-k&n^nA,  Al.  See  Hakim  ibn 
Allah;  Mohammedan  Sects. 

MOKI,  m5^6.  A  Pueblo  tribe  of  Arizona. 
See  Hopi. 

MOLA,  myiA,  Pietro  Francesco  (c.l621- 
C.1668) .  An  Italian  painter,  born  at  Coldre,  near 
Como.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cesari  in  Rome,  and 
afterwards  of  Albani  at  Bologna.  Many  of  his 
religious  works — somewhat  in  the  manner  of 
Guercino — were  executed  for  the  Popes  Innocent 
X.  and  Alexander  VII.  Just  before  his  death 
he  was  invited  by  Louis  XIV.  to  visit  France. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Mola  was 
Prince  of  the  Academy  of  Saint  Luke. 

MOLA  DI  BABI,  mTS^k  dd  ba'r$.  A  city  In 
the  Province  of  Bari  delle  Puglie,  Italy,  12  miles 
by  rail  from  Bari  (Map:  Italy,  M  6).  The  ex- 
ports comprise  grain,  olives,  live  stock,  and 
wine.    Population,  in  1901  (commune),  13,962. 

MOLA  DI  QAETA,  d^  gA-ft^tA.  The  old  name 
of  Formia  (q.v.),  a  seaport  in  South  Italy. 

MOLASSEy  md-Us'  ( Fr.  fern,  of  mol  from  Lat. 
mollis,  soft).  An  extensive  middle  Tertiary  de- 
posit, occupying  the  central  lake  region  of  Switz- 
erland between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura.  It  con- 
sists chiefly  of  sandstone,  marls,  and  limestones, 
but  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  it  usually  takes  the 
form  of  a  conglomerate  called  *Nagel  flue,*  which 
is  said  to  attain  the  astonishing  thickness  of 
from  6000  to  8000  feet  in  some  localities.  The 
molasse  includes  the  Oenigen  group  of  strata, 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  fossil  insects  and 
plants. 

MOLASSES.     See  Suoab. 

MOLAT,  mA'lft',  Jacques  Bernard  de  (c.l243- 
1314).  The  last  grand  master  of  the  Templars. 
Ho  w^as  a  native  of  Burjjundy,  and  entered  the 
Order  of  Templars  in  1265,  and  was  elected  grand 
master  in  1298.  About  this  time  Philip  IV.  of 
France  (1285-1314)  undertook  to  carry  out  the 
project  which  he  had  formed  to  destroy  the  Order, 
chiefly  because  the  French  monarchy  was  in  sore 
financial  straits,  and  the  Templars  were  very 
wealthy.  With  a  design  to  impose  upon  the 
credulity  of  Molay,  Philip  pretended  to  be  anx- 
ious for  a  new  crusade,  and  at  his  instigation 
Clement  V.  called  the  grand  masters  of  the  Tem- 
plars and  Knights  oif  Saint  John  to  Europe. 
The  call  was  answered  by  Molay,  who  appeared 
in  France  in  the  fall  of  1306,  accompanied  by  a 
chosen    band    of    distinguished    knights    of    the 


Order.  He  repaired  to  Poitiers  in  1307  to  ren- 
der his  allegiance  to  the  Pope,  but  nothing  was 
mentioned  about  investigating  the  affairs  of 
the  Order.  Soon  after  Philip  himself  appeared 
before  Clement  and  preferred  charges,  demand- 
ing the  dissolution  of  the  Order.  The  Pope, 
under  the  influence  of  Philip — for  this  was  the 
beginning  of  the  French  or  Avignon  Papacy- 
directed  that  an  investigation  should  be  under- 
taken. The  King,  however,  did  not  await  the 
proceedings  of  the  Pope  against  the  Order,  but 
procured  the  arrest  of  every  Templar  in  France, 
and  on  October  13,  1307,  Jacques  de  Molay  was 
seized  in  the  house  of  the  Temple  and  taken  be- 
fore special  commissioners  of  the  Inquisition. 
Although  the  Pope  was  indignant  at  this  pre- 
sumption on  the  part  of  Philip,  and  suspended 
the  power  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  premises,  the 
King  finally  compelled  him  to  take  part  in  the 
action.  Molay  was  examined  by  a  Papal  com- 
mission and  confessed  the  truth*  of  some  of  the 
charges  under  torture,  and  on  March  11,  1314, 
he  was  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment. 
He,  however,  immediately  retracted  all  he  had 
said,  and  thereupon  was  burnt  the  same  evening, 
protesting  the  innocence  of  the  Order.  Consult: 
Prutz,  Entwicklung  und  Vntergang  des  Tempel- 
herrenordens  (lierlin,  1888)  ;  Lea,  History  of  the 
Inquisition,  vol.  iii.  (Philadelphia,  1888).  See 
Templabs,  Knights. 

MOLBBCH,  m(M'b$K,  Chbistiax  (1783-1857). 
A  Danish  philologist  and  historian,  born  at 
Sor5.  He  had  a  position  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Copenhagen,  and  was  professor  of  literature 
in  the  university  of  that  city  from  1829  to  1843, 
being  simultaneously  co-director  of  the  Royal 
Theatre.  He  wrote  several  works,  critical,  poet- 
ical, historical,  and  philological,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  a  Danish  dictionary  (1833),  the 
first  of  real  value  ever  compiled.  He  also  wrote 
a  Danish  dialect  lexicon  (1833-41)  and  a  Danish 
glossary  (1857;  11  vols.,  1866).  His  other  works 
include:  Dansk  Uaand-Ordhog  til  Retskrivnings 
og  Sprogrigtigheds  Fremme  (1813)  :  Den  dantke 
Riimkronike  (1825)  ;  Henrik  Uarpestraigs  Lctge- 
hog  (1826)  ;  and  Den  aeldste  danske  BihelOv^- 
swtteUe  .    .    .    (1828). 

MOLBECH,  Christian  Kxun  Fredebk 
(1821-88).  A  Danish  poet  and  critic,  bom  at 
Copenhagen,  the  son  of  Christian  Molbech.  He 
was  professor  of  Scandinavian  literature  at  the 
University  of  Kiel  for  eleven  years  ( 1853-64), and 
wrote  several  romantic  dramas,  such  as  KVin- 
tekongens  Brud  (1845),  Venushjerget  (1842). 
Dante  {\S42) ,  and  Amhrosius  ( 1877),  and  puh- 
lished  collections  of  poems,  such  as  Bilhder  fra 
J €811  lAv  (1840),  Lyriske  Digfc  og  Romancer 
(1863),  Dctmring  (1*856),  and  Efterladte  Digie 
(1889).  As  critic  and  theatrical  censor  Mol- 
bech was  in  touch  with  stage  matters,  and  much 
of  his  work  in  this  line  is  of  interest.  The  most 
valuable  contribution  he  made  to  the  literature 
of  his  country  was  an  excellent  translation  of 
Dante,  Den  guddommelige  Komodie  (1851). 

MOLD  (AS.  molde,  Goth,  mulda,  ORG.  molta, 
dialectic  Ger.  Molt,  dust,  connected  with  Goth.. 
OHG.  malan,  (Jer.  mahlen,  Ir.  melim.  Lith.  maUi, 
Lat.  molere,  to  grind).  A  term  used  somewhat 
loosely,  so  that  it  frequent Iv  includes  the  com- 
mon green,  yellow,  and  black  mildews  (Penicil- 
liura,  Aspergillus,  and  Sterigmatocystis).  It 
should    be    restricted    to    the    large   cobweb  like 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOLD. 


679 


MOLE. 


growths  whose  fructification  has  the  form  of 
black  heads  on  upright  filaments^  the  commonest 
being  the  bread  mold   (Mucor).     See  Phtcomy- 

CETES. 

MOLD  ATT,  mM'dou  (Bohem.  Vitava),  The 
chief  river  of  Bohemia,  and  an  important  tribu- 
tary' of  the  Elbe  (Map:  Austria,  D  2).  It  rises 
in  the  Bohmerwald,  on  the  southwest  frontier,  at 
an  elevation  of  3800  feet  above  the  sea,  and  flows 
first  southeast,  then  northward  past  the  city  of 
Prague,  and  enters  the  Elbe  opposite  Melnik, 
after  a  course  of  265  miles.  It  becomes  naviga- 
ble at  Budweis. 

MOLDAVIA.  A  former  principality  in 
Southeastern  Europe,  now  forming,  together  with 
VVallachia  (q.v.)  and  the  Dobrudja  (q.v.),  the 
Kingdom  of  Rumania  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula, 
F  1 ) .  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  the 
Pruth,  which  separates  it  from  Russia;  on  the 
south  by  VVallachia,  and  on  the  west  by  Transyl- 
vania. Area,  14,759  square  miles.  Population, 
in  1899,  1,832,106.  The  chief  town  is  Jassy,  the 
capital  of  the  principality.  For  further  descrip- 
tion, see  Rumania. 

History.  The  Principality  of  Moldavia  was 
founded  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
turj'  by  the  Wallach  Voivode  Bogdan.  Its  cradle 
appears  to  have  been  in  the  northeastern  Car- 
pathians, near  the  sources  of  the  Theiss.  It  soon 
grew  to  be  a  large  State,  embracing,  in  addition 
to  the  present  Aloldavia,  Bukovvina  and  Bessa- 
1  abia.  The  dominion  over  this  region  was  coveted 
by  the  kings  of  Poland  and  Hungary,  and  the 
Moldavian  princes  leaned  now  on  the  one  power 
and  now  on  the  other,  neither  being  able  perma- 
nently to  asnert  its  over-lordship.  Prince  Stephen 
the  Great  was  a  powerful  ruler  (1457-1504).  He 
defied  the  armies  of  the  great  Sultan,  Mohammed 
II.,  winning  a  signal  victory  over  the  Turks  at 
Rakova  in  1475.  His  successors,  however,  were 
unable  to  withstand  the  growing  power  of  the 
Moslems,  and  early  in  the  sixteenth  century  Mol- 
davia became  tributary  to  the  Porte.  The  Turks 
proceeded  to  build  fortresses  in  the  Moldavian 
territory,  and  their  hold  on  the  country  was 
gradually  tightened,  although  Moldavia  re- 
mained without  the  sphere  of  Turkish  settle- 
ment. From  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  down  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Greek  Revo- 
lution' in  1821.  which  began  with  Ypsilanti's 
brave  deed  at  Jassi,  Moldavia,  as  well  as  Wal- 
lach ia,  was  governed  by  hospodars  appointed  by 
the  Sultan,  from  the  aristocratic  Greek  families, 
known  as  Fanariotes.  The  designs  of  Russia  in 
the  direction  of  dominion  in  the  regions  held  in 
subjection  by  the  Turks — designs  which  she 
sought  to  advance  by  claiming  a  protectorate 
over  the  Greek  Christians  in  the  Turkish  do- 
minions— violently  affected  the  fortunes  of  Mol- 
davia, which  lay  in  the  path  of  the  Russian 
armies,  and  was  repeatedly  subjected  to  Russian 
occupation.  In  1812  Bessarabia  was  ceded  by 
Turkey  to  Russia,  Bukowina  having  Ijeen  in  1777 
annexed  to  Austria.  After  1821  native  princes 
were  once  more  at  the  head  of  the  government. 
The  protectorate  accorded  to  Russia  by  Turkey 
in  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  (1829),  which 
threatened  to  make  Moldavia  and  Wallachla  mere 
dependencies  of  Russia,  was  terminated  by  the 
Crimean  War  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris  ( 1856) .  In 
1859-61  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  were  united  into 
the  Principality  of  Rumania.  In  March,  1907,  there 


was  a  peasant  uprising,  resulting  in  many  deaths 
and  great  loss  of  property.    See  Rumania. 

MOLDING.    See  Founding. 

MOLDING  (from  mould,  OF.  moller,  moler, 
moler,  Ft.  mouler,  Sp.,  Port,  moldar,  to  measure, 
from  Lat.  modulare^  to  measure,  from  modulus, 
measure,  diminutive  of  modus,  measure,  melody, 
manner,  mode).  A  curved,  plane,  or  irregular 
surface  used  as  an  ornament  in  cornices,  panels, 
arches,  etc.,  and  in  all  enriched  apertures  and 
members  of  buildings.  Their  projections  form 
the  main  element  of  light  and  shade  in  architec- 
ture. There  has  been  an  almost  continuous  in- 
crease in  their  varietv  and  richness  in  architec- 
tural history.  Babylonia,  Egypt,  Assyria,  and 
other  early  nations  produced  their  effects  more 
by  color  than  projections  and  were  satisfied  with 
a  few  simple  forms  such  as  the  fillet,  cavetto, 
ovals  and  torus.  In  classic  architecture  the 
moldings  are  few  in  number,  and  definitely  fixed 
in  their  forms.  There  are  eight  kinds,  viz.:  the 
cymQy  the  ovolo  (or  echinus),  the  talon,  the 
cavetio,  the  torus,  the  astragal,  the  scotia,  and 
the  fillet,  each  of  these  moldings  having  its 
proper  place  assigned  to  it  in  each  order.  (See 
C!oLUMN.)  A  great  variety  of  efl*ect,  however,  is 
secured,  especially  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
orders,  by  the  carved  surface  ornamentation  on 
the  moldings,  forming  such  systems  as  the  egg- 
and-dart,  the  anthemion,  the  pearl,  heart-leaf, 
and  other  variations. 

With  the  decline  of  classic  architecture  in  the 
fourth  century  moldings  went  out  of  fashion — 
partly  through  inability  to  carve  their  ornamen- 
tation (as  in  the  West),  partly  through  a  prefer- 
ence for  color  effects  ( as  in  the  Byzantine  style ) . 
But  with  the  rise  of  meditevai  art,  especially 
where  vaulting  was  used,  and  heavy  walls  became 
neces3ar}%  they  again  came  into  use.  The  doors 
and  windows,  which  had  always  been  simple  in 
outline  in  ancient  architecture,  were  deep-set  re- 
cesses, and  heavily-molded.  In  Romanesque  ar- 
chitecture, unlike  the  Classic,  these  openings 
were  the  main  molding  focus;  piers,  vaulting- 
ribs,  and  cornices  were  very  subsidiary.  In  the 
Gothic  style  the  use  of  moldings  was  extended  to 
almost  the  entire  surface  of  a  structure,  through 
the  use  of  tracery,  false  galleries,  and  the  lace- 
like decoration  of  surfaces. 

In  these  mediaeval  styles  the  moldings  are 
not  reduced  to  a  system  as  in  the  Greek  and 
Roman  styles,  but  may  be  used  in  every  variety 
of  form  at  the  pleasure  of  the  artist.  Roman- 
esque moldings  were  decorated  with  geometric 
and  with  stiff  and  conventional  foliated  orna- 
ment, often  copied  from  classic  models,  while 
Gothic  architecture  broke  from  tradition,  orna- 
menting its  molded  surfaces  largely  with  foli- 
ated designs  freely  copied  from  nature  with  be- 
wildering variety  and  truthfulness.  The  Renais- 
sance naturally  abandoned  the  wealth  of  Gothic 
ornamented  moldings  and  returned  to  classic 
simplicity,  copying  ancient  models  with  great 
accuracy  and  adding  but  little  to  the  ancient 
material,  even  in  decorative  details.  For  details 
consult  the  articles  on  the  different  historic 
styles  and  the  special  moldings. 

MOLE  (abbreviation  of  molewarp,  moldwarp, 
moiildtrarp,  OHG.  molttrerf,  multtrerfy  Ger.  Maul- 
wiirf,  from  AS.  molde,  dust  -f  weorpan,  Goth. 
irairpan,  OHG.  werfatiy  Ger.  werfen,  to  throw). 
A  small  mammal  belonging  to  the  order  Insecti- 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MOLE. 


680 


[OL^ 


▼ora  and  to  the  family  Talpids,  although  the 
name  is  often  applied  to  other  nearly  related 
forms.  It  is  a  small  animal,  generally  less  than 
eight  inches  in  length,  thickset,  with  short 
stout  limbS;  the  anterior  pair  powerful  and  espe- 
cially adapted  for  digging.  The  fur  is  dense  and 
soft,  lying  backward  or  forward  with  equal  ease ; 
the  tail  is  short;  and  the  eyes  are  very  small. 
In  many  species  the  eyes  are  covered  over  by  a 
membrane,  and  recent  investigations  on  the  com- 
mon American  mole  show  that  the  eye  itself  is 
much  degenerated,  and  probably  is  of  practically 
no  use  as  an  organ  of  sight.  Moles  are  subter- 
ranean in  their  habits,  and  more  or  less  noc- ' 
tumal.  They  are  very  voracious,  and  eat  animal 
food  exclusively.  The  earth-worm  is  the  prin- 
cipal article  in  their  diet,  but  all  other  worms, 
grubs,  caterpillars,  and  insects  are  readily  eaten, 
and  in  captivity  raw  meat,  small  birds  and  mam- 
mals, and  even  other  moles,  will  be  seized  and 
eaten  greedily.  Although  the  limbs  are  short, 
moles  are  capable  of  very  rapid  movements. 
When  in  pursuit  of  earth-worms,  moles  often 
travel  long  distances  underground,  and  frequently 
so  near  the  surface  that  the  earth  becomes  raised 
up  above  the  tunnel  which  they  make.  Moles 
are  therefore  constantly  hunted  and  trapped  by 
gardeners.  The  favorite  method  of  capture  is 
by  means  of  a  trap  set  in  one  of  these  under- 
ground galleries.  The  simplest  form  of  trap  is 
a  wire  noose  so  arranged  on  a  spring  that  when 
the  mole  enters  it  the  spring  is  released  and  the 
wire  is  drawn  taut. 

Moles  build  very  remarkable  nests,  or  homes, 
consisting  of  two  circular  galleries,  the  smaller 
above  the  larger,  and  connected  with  it  by  five 
straight  passages;  at  the  centre  is  a  chamber 
connecting  with  the  upper  gallery,  while  from 
the  lower  gallery  horizontal  passages  run  out  in 
all  directions.  From  these  horizontal  passages 
are  given  oflf  the  various  sub-surface  tunnels 
made  when  the  mole  is  in  search  of  food.  The 
central  chamber  and  circular  galleries  are  built 
in  a  mound  of  earth,  more  or  less  elevated  above 
the  surface,  and  larger  than  the  ordinary  heaps 
of  earth  or  'molehills'  thrown  up  by  these  animals. 
From  the  central  chamber  there  is  also  a  vertical 
tunnel  leading  downward  and  then  bending  up- 
ward again  U)  join  one  of  the  horizontal  gal- 
leries. The  young  are  not  brought  forth  in  the 
central  chamber,  but  in  a  special  chamber  formed 
where  two  or  three  horizontal  galleries  meet, 
which  is  lined  with  leaves  and  other  warm  ma- 
terials. Four  or  five  young  ones  are  usually  pro- 
duced at  a  birth,  and  some  writers  state  that  a 
second  brood  is  produced  late  in  the  summer. 
Moles  take  to  water  readily  and  swim  well,  so 
that  they  are  able  to  cross  considerable  lakes 
and  streams. 

The  anatomy  of  moles  is  interesting  because  it 
is  so  modified  as  to  adapt  the  animal  admirably 
to  its  manner  of  life.  The  fore  limbs  are  at- 
tached to  the  skeleton  so  far  forward  that  they 
lie  beside  the  neck  and  thus  add  but  little  to  the 
general  width,  yet  remain  sufficiently  long  to 
reach  earth  ahead  of  the  nose.  The  hind  limbs 
are  also  so  arran^jed  as  not  to  occupy  unneces- 
sary space,  the  hip  joints  being  closely  approxi- 
mated to  the  axis  of  (he  body.  The  humerus  is 
very  short  and  of  a  peculiar  shape,  and  the 
carpals  are  very  wide.  On  the  inner  (radial) 
side  of  the  hand  is  a  large  sickle-shaped  bone, 
regarded   by   some   as   a   prepollex.     The   teeth 


DBNTITIOH  OF  TBIC  MOLK. 


vary  in  number  from  36  to  44,  in  different  genera. 
The  Old  World  moles  have  42  or  44  teeth,  and 
the  first  and  second  upper  incisors  are  of  about 
the  same  size^  while  the  moles  of  America  have 
36  or  44  teeth,  and  the  first  upper  incisor  is 
much  larger  than 
the  second.  The 
common  mole  of 
Europe  ( Talpa  Eu- 
rapcea)  is  very 
widely  distributed, 
ranging  from  Eng- 
land to  Japan,  and 
from  the  Altai  to 
the  Himalaya 
mountains.  The 
eyes  in  this  spe- 
cies are  not  covered  by  a  membrane,  as  they 
are  in  the  rest  of  the  genus.  The  habits  of 
the  European  mole  have  been  carefully  stud- 
ied, and  the  remarks  made  above  in  regard  to 
the  burrows  and  nests  of  moles  refer  especial- 
ly to  that  species.  Seven  other  species  of  Talpa 
are  known,  chiefly  Asiatic,  but  only  two  occur 
south  of  the  Himalayas.  Moles  are  absent  from 
Africa  and  Australasia.  Two  peculiar  moles  oc- 
cur in  Tibet,  one  of  which  is  placed  in  a  distinct 
genus,  as  it  has  a  somewhat  narrower  hand  and 
only  42  teeth. 

The  American  moles  belong  to  the  genera 
Scalops,  having  36  teeth,  webbed  hind  feet,  and  a 
narrow,  slender  muzzle;  Scapanus,  with  44  teeth 
and  a  narrow,  tapering  muzzle;  and  Condylura, 
with  44  teeth  and  a  remarkable  snout- like  muz- 
zle, fringed  with  a  circle  of  about  20  slender, 
soft,  cartilaginous  processes.  This  last  genus 
contains  only  a  single  species,  the  well-known 
star-nosed  mole  {Condylura  cristata),  which  is 
not  uncommon  throughout  the  Northern  United 
States.  Its  vei^  curious  snout  is  somewhat  pig- 
like, but  the  fringing  processes  give  it  a  unique 
appearance.  In  habits  this  species  closely  re- 
sembles the  more  ordinary  moles.  The  common 
mole  of  the  Eastern  United  States  {Scalops 
aquaticus)  is  a  rather  shrew-like  animal,  partial 
to  the  banks  of  streams.  No  moles  occur  south 
of  the  United  States. 

The  name  mole  is  often  given  to  other  insectiv- 
orous burrowing  mammals,  as  the  mole-shrew  of 
Northwestern  America  {Nemotrichu8  0ibb9ii)y 
which  in  structure  approaches  the  desman  (q.v.), 
but  in  habits  is  somewhat  like  a  mole.  The  golden 
moles  (q.v.)  of  South  Africa  belong  to  an  en- 
tirely different  family,  the  Chrysochlorid«,  and 
are  not  closely  related  to  the  Talpidse,  although 
in  external  appearance  they  are  strikingly  like 
them.  There  are  seven  or  eight  species  in  the 
single  genus  Chrysochloris.  The  strange  'mar- 
supial mole*  ((j.v.)  of  Southern  Australia  and  the 
'duck  mole*  (i.e.  the  duckbill)  are  marsupials 
with  more  or  less  mole-like  appearance  and  habits. 

Moles  are  found  fossil  throughout  the  Ter- 
tiary strata  of  Europe,  a  fact  of  great  signifi- 
cance as  showing  how  ancient  must  be  the  in- 
sectivorous type  of  mammals.  The  genus  Talpa 
even  may  be  traced  back  as  far  as  the  Lower 
Miocene,  with  its  peculiarities  of  structure  al- 
ready well  developed. 

MOLE.     See  N.Evrs. 

MOL^,  mA'lA',  Lens  Matthieu,  Count  (1781- 
1855).  A  French  statesman.  He  was  a  de- 
scendant of  the  famous  French  magistrate  Mat- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


UOlA. 


681 


MOLECULES. 


tbieu  Mol6  (1584-1653),  prominent  at  the  time 
of  the  Fronde  (q.v.).  He  was  born  in  Paris, 
January  24,  1781.  His  father,  president  of  the 
Parliament  of  Paris,  died  by  the  guillotine 
in  1794.  After  spending  his  early  life  in 
exile,  he  returned  to  France,  and  first  at- 
tracted notice  by  his  Essais  de  morale  et  de 
politique  (1805),  in  which  he  vindicated  the 
Government  of  Napoleon  on  the  ground  of  neces- 
sity. The  attention  of  the  Emperor  was  then 
drawn  to  him ;  he  was  appointed  to  various  offices 
in  succession,  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  count 
and  to  a  place  in  the  Cabinet  (1813).  After 
Napoleon's  return  from  Elba  he  refused  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  declaration  of  the  Council  of  State 
banishing  the  Bourbons  forever  from  France,  and 
declined  a  seat  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  In 
1815  Louis  XVIII.  made  him  a  peer  of  France, 
and  he  voted  for  the  death  of  Marshal  Ney.  In 
1817  he  was  for  a  short  time  Minister  of  Marine, 
but  afterwards  acted  independently  of  party,  and 
was  one  of  the  principal  orators  in  the  Chamber 
of  Peers.  In  1830  he  became  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  in  Louis  Philippe's  first  Cabinet,  but  re- 
mained in  office  only  a  short  time.  From  1836 
to  1839  he  was  Prime  Minister  as  successor 
to  Thiers.  In  1840  he  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy.  From  that  time 
he  took  little  part  in  political  affairs,  but  after 
the  Revolution  of  1848  exerted  himself  to  rally 
and  unite  the  party  of  order  in  the  National 
Assembly,  to  which  he  had  been  elected.  After 
the  coup  d'6tat  he  retired  to  private  life.  He 
died  November  25,  1855. 

MOLECHy  moH^,  also  called  Moloch,  Mil- 
COM,  and  (Zeph.  i.  5)  Malcham.  A  heathen 
deity  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament  as  *the 
abomination  of  the  Ammonites.'  There  appears, 
however,  to  be  some  confusion  in  the  passages  in 
which  Molech  occurs  between  the  national  deity 
of  the  Ammonites  and  other  gods,  notably  a 
Canaanitish  sun-deity  who  also  bore  the  name 
melek  (king),  which  as  a  general  designation 
might  naturally  be  applied  to  various  gods.  The 
form  Molech  is  an  intentional  distortion  of  melek, 
introduced  by  Old  Testament  writers  to  avoid  the 

S renunciation  of  a  name  which  had  associations 
istasteful  to  them.  Most  of  the  passages  in 
which  it  occurs  have  reference  to  human  sacri- 
fice as  forming  an  essential  part  of  the  cult  of 
this  deity,  and  particularly  to  child  sacrifice  or 
the  sacrifice  of  the  first-bom,  euphemistically  re- 
ferred to  as  'passing  through  the  fire*  (Lev. 
xviii.  21;  II.  Kings  xxiii.  10).  We  are  told 
in  I.  Kings  xi.  7  that  Solomon  erected  a  sanc- 
tuary to  Milcom,  the  Ammonitish  deity,  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  which  Josiah  afterwards  defiled 
(II.  Kings  xxiii.  13).  It  does  not  follow,  how- 
ever, that  the  sacrifice  of  children  to  Molech 
at  Topheth  (Gehenna,  q.v.),  referred  to  in  II. 
Kings  xxiii.  10;  Jer.  vii.  31,  was  identical  with 
the  Milcom  cult.  In  II.  Kings  xvi.  3,  child  sac- 
rifice is  said  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the 
Canaanites;  and  Jeremiah  (xix.  5)  calls  the 
deity  to  whom  such  offerings  were  made  Baal. 
Hence  it  would  appear  that  the  rite  in  question 
has  been  wrongly  connected  with  the  Ammonitish 
cult,  though  it  is  not  unlikely  that  on  certain 
occasions  children  were  sacrificed  among  the 
Ammonites  as  well  as  among  the  Moabites  and 
Phcenicians.  The  rite  is  forbidden  in  the  Deu- 
teronomic   code    (Deut.    xviii.    10)    and   in   the 


Code  of  Holiness  (Lev.  xviii.  21;  xx.  2-6)  ;  and 
the  testimony  of  Jeremiah,  already  quoted,  and 
of  Ezekiel  (xvi.  20-21;  xxiii.  37-39)  is  sufficient 
to  prove  that  to  a  comparatively  late  period 
the  barbarous  rite  survived  among  the  Hebrews, 
though  very  possibly  it  was  only  a  last  resort, 
in  time  of  great  distress,  to  avert  disaster  or 
placate  an  angered  divinity  (cf.  II.  Kings  iii. 
27;  see  Mesua).  The  details  of  the  rites  of 
Molech  and  circumstances  of  his  worship  that 
are  given  are  inventions  of  the  rabbis.  All  that 
we  know  from  the  Old  Testament  is  that  the 
victims  were  first  slaughtered  and  then  burned 
(Ezek.  xvi.  20-21;  xxiii.  39;  Isa.  Ivii.  5).  Con- 
sult Baethgen,  Beitrage  zur  semitiachen  Relig- 
ionsgeachichte    (Berlin,  1888). 

MOLE  CBICKET.  Any  one  of  the  crickets 
of  the  genus  Gryllotalpa  and  its  close  allies, 
forming  a  tribe  Gryllotalpides,  remarkable  for 
the  dilated  front  legs,  which  superficially  re- 
semble those  of  the  mole,  and  which  are  admir- 
ably adapted  to  an  underground  life.  The  entire 
existence  of  the  insect  is  subterranean.  It  travels 
in  burrows  of  its  own  digging,  and  lays  its  eggs 
and  rears  its  young  in  the  same  excavation.  The 
adaptation  of  the  front  legs  to  the  economy  of 
the  insect  is  very  striking,  as  the  tibise  and  tarsi 
are  so  arranged  as  to  act  as  shears  with  which 
rootlets  are  severed.  Mole  crickets  are  furnished 
with  a  curious  auditory  apparatus  on  the  front 
leg  below  the  knee,  concealed  in  a  deep  fold  of 
the  surface.  The  male  makes  a  sound  which 
has  been  reduced  to  a  scale  by  Scudder,  and 
which  differs  from  the  songs  of  the  other  crickets. 
Sharp  calls  it  a  "dull,  jarring  note  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  goat-sucker."  The  mole  cricket  is 
principally  carnivorous  in  its  diet,  although  it 
feeds  also  to  some  extent  upon  vegetation,  and 
the  principal  damage  it  does  is  in  cutting  roots 
which  come  in  the  way  of  its  burrows.  It  is 
considered  the  most  destructive  insect  to  agri- 
culture in  Porto  Rico,  where  it  is  called  *changa.' 
The  female  lays  from  200  to  400  eggs,  and  the 
yoimg  are  at  first  gregarious,  the  mother  watch- 
ing over  them  and  supplying  them  with  food 
until  their  first  molt;  after  this  they  disperse 
and  begin  to  make  burrows  for  themselves.  These 
young  are  often  devoured  by  the  adult  males. 
Consult:  Sharp,  "Insects,'  in  Cambridge  Natural 
History,  vol.  v.  (London,  1895)  ;  Barrett,  The 
Ckanga,  or  the  Mole  Cricket  (Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  1893).  See  illustra- 
tion under  Cricket. 

MOiyECXJLES-MOLEOULAB    WEIGHTS 

(Fr.  moUcule^  from  Neo-Lat.  molecula,  diminu- 
tive of  Lat.  moles,  mass).  It  is  now  universally 
assumed  by  chemists  and  physicists  that  all 
bodies  are  made  up  of  very  small  but  finite  ma- 
terial particles,  the  weight  and  composition  of 
which  determine  the  various  properties  of  sub- 
stances. These  particles  are  called  molecules. 
Each  of  these  molecules  is  formed  by  a  group 
of  elementary  atoms,  the  sum  of  whose  weights 
equals  the  weight  of  the  molecule.  When  a  sub- 
stance is  divided  and  subdivided  by  physical  or 
mechanical  means  (e.g.  by  dissolving  a  small 
amount  in  a  very  large  volume  of  some  liquid 
and  dividing  the  latter  into  small  portions),  its 
molecules  become  separated  from  one  another 
without  undergoing  any  change.  When  the  sub- 
stance is  decomposed  chemically,  each  molecule 
breaks  up  and  its  unity  is  destroyed ;  but  atoms- 


Digitized  by 


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MOLECULES.  682  MOLECULES. 

are  assumed  to  be  incapable  of  subdivision  by  any  In  this  formula  p  denotes  the  pressure  tctually 

means.    See  Radium  ;  Heufm  ;  Electbon.  observed.     To  conform   to   the   theoretical  law, 

The    relative    weights    of    molecules,    termed  a 

molecular  weights,  are  among  the  most  impor-  ^«  *dd  to  p  the  quantity  ^    depending  on  the 

tant  constants  of  nature.     Their  precise  experi-  „.^_.i» ..*..^i     **     ^-         *  ^l  i      i         i 

menUl  determination  presents  no  difficulty  wl^t-  'P^^'^, •""["''  attraction  of  the  molecul<a,  tnd 
erer.  But  it  has  been  .hown  that  even  the  abac  t^f^'^*  also  upon  the  volume  occupied  by  the 
lute  dimensions  of  molecules,  their  absolute  «?';,??' /?'f'  "i"-  JiilS  k  *I°"""''i^''" 
weight,  their  actual  number  in  a  given  volume  ff^f^  ^V*^^Ir'",T  *"  "^  ^^  V"*  if'  ^^ 
of  lubstance,  their  specific  gravity' etc.,  can  he  ^^'^J'l^ZLJ'^^^^^  ''°'''™'  «"=t'}*»yr™P'*^ 
asceruined  with  bo^  dej^ee  of  probability.  ^J,  ,''*  .T-^^fJ^  *^:  ^'''f,,*" ''?'^"«*' *<»  "^.^P"^^ 
Brief  mention  may  be  made  here  of  iome  of  the  'TJL\,J^Hp^™.'^.7  h^»i  *"'  P"^»«-'-*-  «« 
simpler  methods  employed  in  searching  for  those  ^.T,  »^H  ?.S"  •  i.^  k  T^"^  "}  *?*  T^' 
absolute  dimensions  in  the  unseen  world  of  mole-  ^f^^  ""^  undiminished  by  their  mutual  attm- 
enles.  Such  theoretical  researches  are  carried  ^^TT^  ,  V*  *''%»«t'J»l  volume  withm 
out  mainly  on  the  principle  that  when  a  hypothe-  "^^^  the  molecules  are  free  to  move;  the  prod- 
sis  is  admitted  within  the  scope  of  an  cikat  sci-  "5*  «  evidently  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the 
ence,  we  must  have  exhaustive  knowledge  of  the  ''^P'*'  'f*' P"  =/'"""*"  '°'',  P'«>«'"«'-.  , 
deductions  that  can  possibly  be  made  frtjm  it.  The  attraction  of  the  molecules  and  their  vol- 
Only  by  correUting  the  deductions  with  facta  *""«  i«P«"'^/  "f,  ~'":«*'  VP?"  t^*  "»'""  »'  "^ 
can  we  judge  whether  the  hypothesis  is  reliable  8«f-  ^^  ^tually  determining  the  pressures  and 
or  not,  and  experience  teachlT  that  deductions  7'^.*  f  "'""""*  ?**«?•  n^""'^"  may  be  sub- 
seeminsly  incajiable  of  experimental  verification  'tituted  for  c,  p.  and  c  m  Van  der  Waals's  for- 
may  ultimately  not  be  so  at  all.  Of  course,  the  fV'»'  "nd  thus  equations  may  be  obUmed  ccn- 
calculation  of  the  absolute  dimensions  of  mole-  J?"»°8  only  two  unknown  quantities,  o  and  i. 
cules  is  also  fascinating  in  its<.lf.  Like  certoin  ^^^  numerical  values  of  which  can  then  be  easily 
speculations  in  astronomy,  it  shows  that  there  is  •=°"'P"t'^'|-.  ^h*  following  table  shows  the  values 
no  limit  in  the  depth  of  the  invisible  and  inaeces-  °\^*,^  *'«•  <^« /»•«'"?«  of  the  volume  of  a  gas 
Bible,  beyond  which  ex.ict  scientific  thought  can-  <'<^'«<'"y  occupied  by  its  molecules)  for  a  few 
not  be  expected  to  penetrate.  ?^^*,  *"<*  vapors.     The.se  values  are  calculated 

ABSOLUTE  DIME^VSIONB  OF   MOLECULES.  i"J.  ""«    If™P"'i"*""'    "^ J'?*^'*    ""t^^    (0°   C.) 

_.     ,      ,  ^  ,  ,        ..  ^  XL    1  •     ^-    ^i.  *°"  '""^  normal  atmospheric  pressure: 

The  fundammtal  hypotheses  of  the  kinetic  the- 
ory of  gases  lead  to  the  proposition  that  at  any  „  .J""?'''*'','?  AS™ 

.•'.''  .  XL  1  t  •      •  Corbiiiilc  ailj  (ta« _ O.OUOW 

given  temperature   the   volume  of   a   gas   is   in-  Nitrous  ox  i.Ihk«« o.WMd 

versely  proportional  to  its  pres'sure.     This  rela-  SulphurUioxlUe  gas o.ouiGl 

tion,  which  had  been  known  as  a  matter  of  fact  i{t;JiT^friu^ vapor,;;;;:;:;;:.;::;;::;::;;;;:;:;:::::;;:;:;:::::; S 

long  before  it  was  established  deductively,  may  Alcohol  vapor 0.00093 

also   be  expressetl   bv   sayintj   that   the   product  Ether  vapor 0.00144 

of  the  pressure  and  ^oiun^;  of  a  gas  is  constant:  g^^bTnVtaTphid. vapor.:::::::::.::::::::;:;: ■; !!:S!S 

pv  '=^  c. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  kinetic  theory,  v  .   ^''^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^f  these  figures  the  specific  grav- 

represents  in  this  formula  the  empty  space  with-  >*>'  o^  ^^^  molecules,  say  of  carbonic  acid,  mar 

in  which  the  molecules  of  the  gas  move— i.e.  the  ^    readily    calculated    as    follows :     At    0*   C. 

total  volume  filled  by  the  gas,  minuB  the  volume  a^^  under  normal  atmospheric  pressure,  22,350 

actually  occupied  bv  its  molecules.     As  long  as  ^"^^'^^    centimeters    of    carbonic    aeid    gas   wei^ 

the  gas  is  not  too  highly  compressed,  the  total  ^"^^^  ^4  grams.     The  volume  actually  occupied 

volume  may  be  used  in  the  above  formula  instead  ^Y  *^e   molecules   being   22.350  X  0.00050  cubw 

of    the    unknown    intermolecular    space.      For,  oentimeters,  one  cubic  centimeter  entirely  filled 

under  low  pressures,  the  difference  between  the  ^J   carbonic   acid   molecules,   with   no  space  be- 

vohiine  of  a  gas  and  the  volume  of  its  empty  tween  them,  would  evidently  weigh 
intermolecular  space  is  very  slight,   and   hence  44 

the    error    committed    amoimts    practically    to  22,350  X  0.00050 

nothing.      But   as    the   pressure   exerted   on   the  . 

gas  increases,  its  volume  becomes  small,  and  the  ^^  ^^^^^  \  grams;   i.e.  the  specific  gravity  of  • 

fraction    of    that    volume    aotiiallv   occupied    by  molecule  of  carbonic  acid  is  about  4.    Similarly, 

the    molecules    becomes    considerable.      In    other  **»^  specific  gravities  of  the  molecules  of  other 

words,  the  difference  between  the  volume  filled  substances  arc  found  to  be  as  follows: 
by  the  gas  and  the  empty  intermolecular  space  HrBsTANCB  Sp.  gr.  of  rodecolii 

becomes  too  great  to  be  neglected.     At  the  .same  o't'^h '"  d^'^^ii W 

time,  as  the  distance  between  the  molecules  be-  ^^thyh^ni^.*^.^....^.^.....!.....^.^^ 

comes  smaller,  they  begin  to  exercise  a  certain  Ethyl  chloride 2* 

amount    of    attraction    upon    one    another,    and  p'/j!'*^**^ \\ 

therefore  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  gas  on  the  Benzene. ............'............^^^^^^^^ 

vessel    containing    it    is    somewhat    diminished.  Carbon  dl»ulphlde *•* 

TTnder  such  circnmstanoes,  the  simple  formula  Considerations  of  a  somewhat  more  compli- 
ment .one<l  above  ceasfs  to  express  the  relation  p^,^,,  „„^„,^  ,^^  ,„  ^^  conclusion  tbat  at  0' 
between  the  nb^fnol  pressure  and  volume  of  p.,  ,„d  under  a  pressure  of  1  atmosphere,  m 
^Va  «"•',  the  following  formula  first  sug-  ^^^ic  millimeter  of  any  go*  or  capor  contiiM 
psted  by  Van  der  «aals,  has  to  be  employed  approximately  54.000.000,000.000.000  moleoules. 
insteaa:  t,j„^p  j  p,j^jp  „iiii,neter  of  hydrogen  »««" 
j  p  ^°  )(p_5)_e^  0.00009  milligram,  the  absolute  weight  of  » 
■         '■'/                    '  single  molecule  of  that  gas  is  therefore 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MOLECULES. 

0.00009 


683 


MOLECULES. 


64,000,000,000,000,000" 
0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,0166  millU 
gram. 
In  a  similar  manneij  the  absolute  weight  of  a 
molecule  of  any  other  gas  or  vapor  may  be  read- 
ily  calculated,  by  dividing  the  weight  of  one 
cubic  millimeter  by  54,000,000,000,000,000. 

MOLECULAB  WEIGHTS. 

The  practical  value  of  the  above  results  is, 
at  least  for  the  present,  not  nearly  so  ^;reat 
as  that  of  the  purely  relative  molecular  weights 
constantly  used  in  scientific  work.  For  it  is  on 
our  knowledge  of  these  relative  molecular  weights 
that  the  modem  theories  concerning  the  struc- 
ture and  the  mutual  relations  of  chemical  com- 
pounds, especially  the  numerous  compounds  of 
carbon,  are  based. 

Vapob-Density  Method.  The  molecular 
weights  of  gases,  or  of  substances  that  can  be 
obtained  in  the  state  of  vapor,  can  be  readily 
determined  by  ascertaining  the  density  of  the 
gas  or  vapor.  The  principle  involved  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  density  (D) — i.e.  the  weight  of  a  cer- 
tain volume  of  gas — is  obviously  the  product  of 
the  number  (n)  of  molecules  contained  in  that 
volume,  and  the  weight  (M)  of  each  molecule: 

D  =  nM, 
whence 

D 

M  =  ^- 
Now,  according  to  Avogadro's  rule,  equal  vol- 
umes of  all  gases  and  vapors  contain  the  same 
number  of  molecules,  provided  the  temperature 
and  pressure  are  the  same;  in  other  words,  the 
number  (n)  contained  in  a  given  volume  of  gas 
does  not  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  latter;  it 
is  the  same  for  all  gases.  For  any  two  different 
gases  we  shall  therefore  have 

whence 

M,_D, 

M,-D,' 
i.e.  the  molecular  tceighta  of  gases  are  propor- 
tional   to  their  densities.    Evukntly, 

80  that  if  Di  and  M^  stand  for  the  density  and 
weight  of  a  molecule  of  hydrogen  (the  lightest 
known  gas),  the  weight  of  a  molecule,  say,  of 
oxygen,  may  be  found  by  ascertaining  its  density 
referred  to  hydrogen  (i.e.  the  weight  of  any 
volume  divided  by  the  weight  of  the  same  volume 
of  hydrogen  at  the  same  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture) and  multiplying  that  density  by  the 
weight  of  a  molecule  of  hydrogen.  Now,  if  in- 
stead of  multiplying  the  densities  of  gases  by  the 
true  weight  of  a  molecule  of  hydrogen,  we  mul- 
tiply them  by  any  arbitrary  number,  we  obtain, 
instead  of  the  true  weights  of  the  molecules  of 
gases,  a  series  of  other  numbers  whose  values 
depend  on  that  of  our  arbitrary  number  for 
hydrogen.  But,  if  we  adhere  to  the  same  ar- 
bitrary number,  our  numbers  for  the  various 
gases  will  bear  the  same  ratios  to  one  another 
as  the  true  weights  of  their  molecules.  And 
since  in  studying  substances  and  reactions  we 
need  know  not  the  absolute,  but  the  relative 
weights  of  molecules,  we  may  assign  to  our 
Vol.  XII1.-44. 


standard  gas,  hydrogen,  any  arbitrary  number 
whatever.  For  reasons  explained  in  the  article 
Atomic  Weights,  the  molecular  weight  of 
hydrogen  is  assumed  to  be  2. 

Therefore,  to  determine  the  molecular  weight 
of  a  volatile  compound,  all  a  chemist  has  to  do 
is  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  a  given  volume  of 
vapor,  to  divide  that  weight  by  the  weight  of  an 
equal  volume  of  hydrogen  gas  at  the  same  pres- 
sure and  temperature,  and  to  multiply  the  vapor 
density  thus  obtained  by  2.  Water  vapor  is 
foimd  to  be  9  times  as  heavy  as  hydrogen  gas; 
hence,  its  vapor  density  is  said  to  be  9;  multi- 
plying 9  by  2,  the  molecular  weight  of  water  is 
seen  to  be  18.  The  vapor  density  of  chemical 
compounds  is  usually  determined  with  the  aid  of 
one  of  the  following  apparatus: 

A.  Dumas* s  Apparatus  consists  of  a  light  glass 
flask  (of  about  250  cubic  centimeters  capacity), 
whose  neck  is  bent  and  drawn  out  into  a  long  and 
narrow  point.  After  carefully  weighing  the 
flask,  a  few  grams  of  the  substance  to  be  ex- 
amined are  introduced  into  it;  it  is  then  im- 
mersed in  a  bath  whose  temperature  is  constant 
and  somewhat  higher  than  the  boiling-tempera- 
ture of  the  substance  in  the  flask. 

The  substance  soon 
begins  to  boil,  and  its 
vapors  drive  all  the  air 
out  of  the  flask.  When 
the  substance  has  com- 
pletely evaporated  and 
the  flask  contains  noth- 
ing but  its  vapor,  the 
open  end  is  carefully 
sealed  off  with  the  aid 
of  a  blowpipe.  On  cool- 
ing, the  flask  is  cleaned 
and  again  weighed.  Fi- 
nally, its  end  is  broken 
off  under  water,  which 
rushes  into  the  flask 
owing  to  the  low  pres- 
sure within;  and  when  the  latter  is  complete- 
ly fllled,  it  is  weighed  a  third  and  last  time, 
together  w^ith  the  end  that  has  been  broken 
off.  From  the  three  weighings,  the  weight  and 
the  volume  of  the  vaporized  substance  in  the  ap- 
paratus become  known.  Dividing  this  weight 
by  that  of  an  equal  volume  of  hydrogen  at  the 
temperature  of  the  bath  and  the  barometric  pres- 
sure under  which  the  determination  has  been 
carried  out,  we  get  the  vapor-density,  and  from 
this,  by  multiplying  by  2,  the  molecular  weight 
of  the  substance  examined.  Dumas's  apparatus 
can  be  employed  only  when  a  considerable  amount 
of  substance  is  available. 

B.  Victor  Meyer*s  Apparatus  consists  of  a 
wide  glass  tube  (a),  the  lower  end  of  which  is 
closed,  and  the  upper  joined  on  to  a  long  glass 
tube  (h)  of  smaller  diameter.  The  narrow  tube 
is  provided,  near  its  upper  end,  with  a  side-tube 
(c).  During  a  determination  this  apparatus  is 
placed  in  a  long  test-tube-like  vessel  {d)  contain- 
ing some  liquid  boiling  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  the  substance  to  be  exi>erimented  upon.  A 
little  of  the  substance  is  carefully  weighed  in  a 
small  glass  capsule;  the  rubber  stopper  closing 
the  top  end  of  the  apparatus  is  for  an  instant 
removed,  and  the  weighed  capsule  is  dropped  in. 
The  substance  quickly  evaporates,  driving  out 
through  the  side  tube  c  a  volume  of  air  equal 
to  the  volume  of  its  own  vapor.    The  air  is  col- 


DUMAS'S   APPARATUS. 


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lected  in  a  graduated  tube,  and  thus  the  volume 
of  the  vaporized  substance  becomes  known.  Di- 
viding the  weight  of  the  substance  taken  by  the 
weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  hydrogen,  at  the 
temperature  of  the  vaporized  substance  in  the 
apparatus  and  at  the  barometric  pressure  under 
which  the  determination  has  been  carried  out,  we 


YICTOB  meter's  APPABATUS. 

get  the  vapor-density,  and  from  this,  by  multiply- 
ing by  2,  the  molecular  weight  of  the  substance. 
Victor  Meyer's  apparatus  yields  precise  results 
and  requires  but  a  very  small  quantity  of  the 
substance  experimented  upon.  The  latter  cir- 
cumstance forms  an  important  advantage;  for 
the  preparation  of  large  quantities  of  a  substance 
often  involves  great  loss  of  time  and  is  some- 
times very  difficult. 

Method  of  Detebmination  of  Molecular 
Weights  by  Direct  or  Indirect  Measurement 
OF  THE  Osmotic  Pressure  of  Solutions.  In  the 
gaseous  state  a  small  mass  of  substance  occupies 
a  large  volume  of  space,  and  the  proi>erties  pecu- 
liar to  the  gaseous  state  are  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  molecules  of  a  gas  are  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  considerable  distances.  But  a  little 
sugar  dissolved  in  much  water  is  also  distributed 
throughout  a  large  volume;  the  molecules  of  su- 
gar are  likewise  separated  from  one  another  by 
considerable  distances,  and  this  is  why  the  prop- 
erties of  sugar  in  dilute  solution  are  very  much 
like  what  they  would  be  if  the  sugar  existed  in 
the  gaseous  state.  Thus,  within  the  volume  of 
a  solution,  sugar  (as  well  as  any  other  substance) 
has  been  proved  to  exert  a  pressure  equal  to  that 
which  it  would  exert  were  it  vaporized  and  in- 
closed within  a  vessel  whose  volume  is  equal  to 
that  of  the  solution.  The  pressure  of  a  substance 
in  solution  is  called  osmotic  pressure.  When 
equal  weights  of  different  gases  are  confined 
within  equal  volumes,  the  pressures  are  inversely 


proportional  to  the  molecular  weights  of  the 
gases.  Thus,  if  equal  quantities  by  weight  of 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  were  inclosed  within  vessels, 
say,  of  one  liter  capacity,  the  pressure  in  the 
vessel  containing  hydrogen  would  be  16  times  as 
great  as  the  pressure  in  the  vessel  containing 
oxygen;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  molecular 
weight  of  hydrogen  (2)  is  ^  the  molecular 
weight  of  oxygen  ( 32 ) .  The  reason  is  obviously 
this:  the  lighter  the  molecules,  the  greater  must 
be  their  number,  to  constitute  a  given  weight  of 
gas ;  but  the  greater  the  number  of  molecules,  the 
greater  the  pressure  of  the  gas ;  hence,  the  lighter 
the  molecules,  the  greater  the  pressure  of  a  given 
mass  of  gas.  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  equal 
weights  of  different  substances  in  solution,  the 
osmotic  pressures  are  inversely  proportional  to 
the  molecular  weights.  The  relative  molecular 
weights  of  soluble  substances  may  therefore  be 
found  by  preparing  solutions  having  equal  vol- 
umes and  holding  equal  weights  of  the  dissolved 
substances,  then  measuring  the  osmotic  pressures 
of  the  solutions.    See  Solution. 

But  as  the  direct  measurement  of  osmotic  pres- 
sure is  exceedingly  difficult,  indirect  methods 
of  measurement  are  usually  employed  by  the  in- 
vestigator. When  a  substance  enters  some  sol- 
vent, say  water,  it  changes  the  characteristic 
freezing  and  boiling  temperatures  of  the  solvent: 
the  freezing-point  is  lowered,  the  boiling-point  is 
raised.  Now,  the  depression  of  the  freezing-point 
and  the  elevation  of  the  boiling-point  have  been 
shown  to  be  proportional  to  the  osmotic  pres- 
sure of  the  solution.  Therefore,  instead  of  carrj- 
ing  out  a  direct  determination  of  osmotic  pr^- 
sure,  the  chemist  measures  the  change  of  freezing 
or  boiling  temperature  caused  by  dissolving  a 
given  weight  of  substance,  and  calculates  the 
molecular  weight  of  the  latter  on  the  principle 
that  the  change  caused  by  a  substance  is  in- 
versely proportional  to  its  molecular  weight.  The 
laboratory  methods  commonly  employed  in  de- 
termining the  depression  of  freezing-point  and 
the  rise  of  boiling-point  are  described  in  the 
articles  Freezing-Point  and  Boilino-Point. 

The  direct  and  indirect  osmotic-pressure  meth- 
ods just  referred  to  are  of  the  greatest  practical 
importance  to  the  chemist.  For  while  the  number 
of  substances  that  can  be  vaporized  (and  hence 
whose  molecular  weights  can  be  determined  by 
the  vapor-density  method)  is  limited,  practically 
all  substances  can  be  obtained  in  solution. 

Chemical  Methods.  It  is  often  possible  to 
determine  the  molecular  weight  of  a  substance 
by  purely  chemical  methods,  i.e.  by  studying  its 
formation  and  chemical  transformations.  Con- 
sider, for  example,  acetic  acid.  Analysis  lead-t 
us  to  assign  to  it  one  of  the  following  formulas : 
CH,0,  C,HA,  C,H,0„  C^HgO^,  etc.,  correspondinc 
to  the  molecular  weights,  30.  60,  90,  120,  etc. 
(See  Chemistry.)  Tlie  fact  that  acetic  acid  is 
readily  formed  from  ordinary  alcohol,  whose 
molecule  (C^H^O)  cannot  possibly  contain  less 
than  two  carbon  atoms  (because  for  every  two 
carbon  atoms  it  contains  a  single  atom  of  oxy- 
gen)— this  fact  renders  it  probable  that  the 
molecule  of  acetic  acid,  too,  contains  two  carbon 
atoms.  In  other  words,  it  becomes  probable  that 
CjH«Oa  is  the  formula,  and  hence  60  the  molecu- 
lar weight,  of  acetic  acid.  That  CH,0  cannot 
be  the  formula  of  acetic  acid  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  molecule  (CjHaO,Ag)  of  silver  ace- 


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685 


MOLSSWOBTH. 


tate,  a  compound  made  from  acetic  acid,  cannot 
possibly  contain  less  than  two  carbon  atoms 
(because  for  every  two  carbon  atoms  it  contains 
a  single  atom  of  silver).  To  sum  up,  the  mo- 
lecular weiffht  of  acetic  acid  is  probably  and  at 
least  60.  More  exact  information  chemical  meth- 
ods cannot  furnish.  The  vapor-density  method 
leads  to  the  definite  conclusion  that  the  molecu- 
lar weight  is  60  (the  vapor-density  of  acetic  acid 
is  30).  It  is  because  the  molecular  wei|;hts  found 
by  physical  methods  (i.e.  on  the  basis  of  Avo- 
gadro's  rule)  are  invariably  found  to  be  in  per- 
fect agreement  with  chemical  facts,  that  the 
molecular  theory  of  the  physicist  can  be,  and  is, 
inseparable  from  the  atomic  theory  of  the  chem- 
ist, the  two  theories  widening  each  other's  scope 
of  usefulness,  and  together  forming  a  powerful 
instrument  for  the  study  of  nature. 

See  Chemistbt,  and  consult  the  literature  of 
theoretical  and  physical  chemistry  recommended 
in  that  article.  See  also  Avogadbo's  Rule; 
Atomic  Weights;  Boiling-Point;  Fbeezing- 
Point;  Solution;  Gases,  General  Propebtiss 

OF. 

MOLENAEB,  mdHe-nar,  Jan  Miensze 
(?-1668).  A  Dutch  painter,  bom  at  Haarlem. 
He  is  thought  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Frans 
Hals  and  was  an  excellent  imitator  of  that  mas- 
ter. Later  he  adopted  the  style  of  Rembrandt. 
His  pictures  are  usually  scenes  of  peasant  life, 
painted  with  much  brilliancy  and  variety.  Some 
of  them  contain  as  many  as  forty  figures. 

HOLE  BAT.  Gne  of  the  rodents  of  the  fam- 
ily Spalacidee,  which  spend  their  lives  moving 
about  through  the  soil  like  moles,  and  have  as- 
smred  manv  mole-like  features  and  traits.  The 
countries  about  the  Mediterranean  contain  the 
typical  mole  rat  (Spalax  typhlua),  a  queer, 
yellowish-brown  creature  about  the  size  of  a  rat, 
with  the  minute  eyes  completely  covered  by  the 
skin  and  the  ears  and  tail  rudimentary.  Its  fur 
lies  either  way,  and  the  animal  seems  able  to  dig 
backward  as  well  as  forward.  It  constructs  tun- 
nels, like  those  of  moles,  throwing  out  heaps  of 
earth  at  intervals.  It  is  common  in  Egypt,  where 
it  burrows  in  sandy  soil  full  of  asphodels  and 
hyacinths,  whose  bulbs  it  eats  or  stores  in  large 
quantities  in  deep  chambers  underground.  South 
Africa  contains  several  closely  related  animals 
of  the  subfamily  Bathyerginae,  one  of  which,  the 
coastwise  'strand  mole*  {Bathyergus  fnariUmus)^ 
is  a  foot  long  and  numerous.  Its  eyes  are  still 
open,  but  are  mere  beads  of  little  use.  Still 
stranger  relatives  of  these  are  the  *sand  rats' 
( Heterocephalus )  of  Somaliland,  which  are 
about  the  size  of  mice,  almost  naked  and  blind. 
They  remain  always  under  ground,  tossing  the 
sand  out  of  the  crater-like  openings  from  their 
tunnels,  but  never  themselves  coming  to  the  sur- 
face. 

MOLESCHOTT,  mftlc-shot,  Jacob  (1822- 
93) .  A  physiologist  and  writer  on  dietetics,  bom 
at  Bois-le-Duc,  Holland.  He  studied  at  Heidel- 
berg, and  began  the  practice  of  medicine  at 
Utrecht,  whence  he  removed,  in  1847,  to  Hei- 
delberg, where  for  seven  years  he  lectured  on 
physiology  at  the  university.  A  real  or  supposed 
tendency  toward  materialism  in  his  lectures 
alarmed  the  authorities,  and  in  consequence  he 
resigned.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  professor  at 
Zurich,  and  in  1861  he  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  physiology  at  Turin.    He  was  called  upon  to 


fill  the  same  chair  in  Home  in  1879,  after  having 
become  an  Italian  Senator  in  1876.  He  was  a 
popular  lecturer,  and  his  physiological  researches, 
particularly  in  regard  to  diet,  muscular  forma- 
tion, the  blood,  and  bile,  are  of  value.  Without 
asserting  the  impossibility  of  a  spiritual  life,  he 
explained  the  origin  and  condition  of  animals  by 
the  working  of  physical  causes.  His  character- 
istic formula  was  *No  thou^t  without  phospho- 
rus.* His  most  important  works  are:  Physiologic 
des  Stoffwechsele  in  Pflanzeti  und  Thieren 
(1851)  ;  Der  Kreislauf  des  Lebens  (1852)  ;  Lehre 
der  Nahrungsmittel  (1858);  Physiologie  der 
yahrungsmittel  (1859) ;  Physiologisches  Skizafen- 
buck  (1861)  ;  Lehre  vom  Leben  (1867). 

MOLE-SHBEW.  A  book-name  for  the  com- 
mon North  American  short-tailed  shrew  {Blarina 
brevicauda).     See  Shrew. 

MOLESKIN  (so  called  from  its  soft,  thick 
shag,  like  the  fur  on  a  mole).  An  extra  strong 
double-twilled  fustian,  dyed  after  the  pile  is  cut. 
See  Fustian. 

MOLEBWOBTHy  m5lz'w$rth.  Sir  Guilford 
Lindsay  (1828 — ).  An  English  civil  engineer. 
He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  civil  engineers 
at  Putney.  In  1852  he  became  chief  assistant 
engineer  of  the  London,  Brighton,  and  South 
Coast  Railroad,  but  soon  resigned  to  conduct  the 
constructions  at  Woolwich  Arsenal  during  the 
Crimean  War.  After  practicing  his  profession  in 
London  for  a  number  of  years,  he  went  to  Ceylon, 
and  in  1862  became  chief  engineer  of  the  Govern- 
ment railroad  in  that  island.  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  director  of  public  works,  and  director- 
general  of  railways  to  the  Ceylon  Government; 
and  from  1871  to"  1889  was  consulting  engineer 
to  the  Indian  Government.  He  published  a 
Pocketbook  of  Engineering  Formiike,  which  is 
regarded  as  authoritative.  Among  his  other  pub- 
lications are:  State  Railways  in  India  (1872); 
Imperialism  in  India  (1885);  Imperialism  and 
Free  Trade;  Political  Economy  in  its  Relation 
to  Strikes;  Reason  and  Instinct  in  Ants;  Ma- 
sonry Dams;  and  Graphic  Statics, 

MOLESWOBTH,  Mart  Louisa  (Stewart) 
(1842 — ).  An  English  juvenile  writer.  She  was 
born  on  the  Continent,  and  spent  several  years 
in  France  and  Germany.  She  wrote  several 
novels  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1875  published 
her  first  book  for  children.  As  a  writer  of  juve- 
niles her  success  was  immediate.  Through  a  de- 
lightful verisimilitude  and  an  easy  grace  of  style 
she  found  wide  audience  for  a  dozen  and  more 
volumes.  Her  works  include:  Carrots  (1876)  ; 
Tapestry  Poems  (1879):  The  Oreen  Casket 
(1890)  ;  The  Laurel  Walk  (1898)  ;  and  The  Orim 
House  (1899). 

MOLEBWOBTH,  Sir  William  (1810-55).  An 
English  statesman,  known  as  the  originator  of 
"colonial  self-government."  He  was  born  in 
London.  May  23,  1810,  and  was  descended  from 
an  old  Cornish  family  of  large  possessions.  He 
early  showed  promise  of  distinction,  although  his 
university  career  at  Cambridge  was  cut  short  by 
his  sending  a  challenge  to  his  tutor  to  fight  a 
duel.  He  continued  his  education  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  at  a 
German  university.  He  succeeded  to  the  family 
baronetcy  in  1823.  After  making  the  usual  tour 
of  Europe,  he  returned  home,  and  threw  himself 
in  1831  into  the  movement  for  Parliamentary 
reform.     Next  year,  although  only  just  of  age. 


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MOLliBB. 


he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for  East 
Cornwall.  He  sat  for  Leeds  from  1837  to  1841. 
He  was  the  friend  of  Bentham  and  James  Mill, 
and  was  regarded  as  the  Parliamentary  repre- 
sentative of  the  * 'philosophical  radicals."  In 
1839  he  commenced  and  carried  to  completion,  at 
a  cost  of  six  thousand  pounds,  a  reprmt  of  the 
entire  miscellaneous  ^nd  voluminous  writings  of 
Hobbes,  which  were  placed  in  most  of  the  English 
university  and  provincial  libraries.  The  publica- 
tion did  him  great  disservice  in  public  life,  his 
opponents  endeavoring  to  identify  him  with  the 
freeth inking  opinions  of  Hobbes  in  religion  as 
well  as  with  the  philosopher's  conclusions  in 
favor  of  despotic  government.  In  1845  he  was 
elected  to  Parliament  for  Southwark,  which  he 
continued  to  represent  until  his  death.  He  was 
the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  abuses  connected 
with  the  transportation  of  criminals,  and  as 
chairman  of  a  Parliamentary  committee  brought 
to  light  the  horrors  of  the  convict  system.  He 
pointed  out  the  maladministration  of  the  colonial 
office,  explained  the  true  principles  of  colonial 
self-government,  prepared  drafts  of  constitutions 
for  remote  dependencies,  and  made  investigations 
as  to  the  true  and  natural  relations  between  the 
Imperial  Government  and  its  colonial  empire. 
Molesworth's  views,  although  at  first  unwelcome 
to  the  legislature,  were  adopted  by  successive 
administrations,  and  became  part  of  the  colonial 
p^Jlicy  of  Great  Britain.  In  January,  1853,  he 
accepted  the  office  of  first  commissioner  of  public 
works  in  the  Administration  of  the  Earl  of  Aber- 
deen, and  in  1855  the  post  of  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  Colonies  in  that  of  Viscount  Palmerston. 
Before  he  could  give  proof  of  his  administrative 
capacity  he  died,  October  22,  1855.  He  estab^ 
lished  the  London  Review,  a  new  quarterly,  in 
1835,  and  afterwards  purchased  the  Westminster 
Review,  the  organ  of  the  "philosophical  radicals." 
The  two  quarterlies  being  then  merged  into  one, 
under  the  title  of  the  London  and  Westminster, 
Molesworth  contributed  to  it  many  articles  on 
politics  and  political  economy.  The  enduring 
influence  of  his  views  was  attested  by  the  fact 
that  his  speech  on  the  abandonment  of  the 
Orange  River  Territory  in  1854  was  advanced  by 
the  Boer  Government  in  1878  as  the  chief  argu- 
ment for  the  British  m'ithdrawal  from  the  Trans- 
vaal. 

MOLESWOBTH,  William  Nassau  (1816- 
90).  An  English  clergyman  and  historian.  He 
was  born  near  Southampton,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  entered  the  English  Church.  He 
was  presented  to  Saint  Andrews,  Manchester,  in 
1841.  and  to  Saint  Clement  Spotland,  Rochdale, 
in  1844.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  coopera- 
tion and  had  an  interest  in  the  well-known  ex- 
periment of  cooperation  at  Rochdale.  His  most 
important  writings  are :  A  History  of  the  Reform 
Bill  of  18S2  (1864)  :  History  of  England  from 
the  Year  1830  (1871-73);  and  History  of  the 
Church  of  England  from  1660  (1882). 

MOLFET'TA.  A  city  in  the  Province  of 
Bari  delle  Puglie,  Italy,  16  miles  by  rail  from 
Bari  (Map:  Italy,  L  6).  The  city  is  pleasantly 
situated,  and  the  old  section,  surrounded  by  walls 
studded  with  towers,  presents  a  very  striking  as- 
pect when  approached  from  the  sea.  A  spacious 
harbor  adds  to  its  attractiveness,  and  serves  to 
render  it  an  extremely  important  commercial 
centre.  There  are  extensive  manufactures  of 
flour,  vermicelli,  soap,  bricks,  and  wine;  and  a 


large  export  trade  in  oil,  almonds,  carobs,  nitre, 
and  fish.  Population,  in  1801  (commune),  40,- 
135. 

MOLI^BEy  mdiy&r^.  The  name  assumed  by 
Jea:*  Baptiste  Poquelin  (1622-73).  The  great- 
est dramatist  and  perhaps  the  greatest  writer  of 
France.  Molidre  was  bom  January  15,  1622,  in 
Paris.  His  father  was  a  well-to-do  tradesman 
and  titular  'tapissier  valet-de-chambre'  of  the 
King,  an  oflSce  held  later  by  Moli^re.  Moli^re's 
mother  died  in  1632.  He  was  educated  by  the 
Jesuits  at  the  Collie  de  Clermont  (1636-41), 
and  came  into  touch  with  some  literary  men 
(Luillier,  Chapelle,  Gasaendi).  Some  say  be 
went  to  Orl^ns  to  study  law;  others  that  he 
studied  theology  at  the  Sorbonne;  and  others 
still  that  he  went  with  the  Court  as  a  minor 
officer  to  Narbonne,  and  formed  bohemian  asso- 
ciations, among  them  being  the  B^jarts,  whose 
daughter,  Armande,  he  afterwards  (1662)  mar- 
ried. In  1643  Moli^re  abandoned  his  office  and 
family  prospects  for  the  stage.  After  two  un- 
successful theatrical  ventures  he  was  imprisoned 
for  debt  (1645),  and  in  the  winter  of  1646-47  he 
became  chief  of  a  troupe  of  players  which  for 
twelve  years  (1647-58)  acted  in  the  provinces. 
In  October,  1658,  Moli^re  played  for  the  first  time 
before  the  King,  acting  in  NicomMe  and  Le  doc- 
teur  amoureuw.  In  these  years  of  wandering  Mo- 
li^re  learned  the  practical  side  of  his  profession; 
as  dramatic  adapter  and  composer  he  learned  its 
literary  side.  More  than  all,  he  learned  human 
nature  by  observing  the  provinces  in  the  excited 
period  of  the  Fronde  from  the  vantage  ground  of 
an  actor  who  could  view  objectively  the  panorama 
of  high  and  low  life;  and  at  the  same  time  as 
manager  he  gained  seriousness  from  responsi- 
bility, a  seriousness  that  gives  his  satire  some- 
times a  tinge  of  bitterness  and  always  the  seal  of 
superiority. 

On  Moli^re's  return  to  Paris  (1658)  he  had 
the  prestige  of  provincial  success,  and  he  had 
written  two  plays  which  he  thought  worthy  of 
preservation,  L*4tourdi  and  Le  d^t  amoureus. 
These  were  sufficiently  superior  in  their  easy,  nat- 
ural dialogue  and  the  alert  brilliancy  of  their 
style  to  win  for  him  a  CJourt  patronage  which  he 
never  lost  and  a  popularity  which  assured  his 
troupe  a  permanent  support  in  Paris.  This  work 
was,  however,  Italian  in  spirit;  but  in  1659 
Moliftre  discarded,  with  Les  prMeuses  ridicules, 
the  stereotyped  pattern,  with  its  stock  characters, 
and  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  comedy  with  the  first 
dramatic  satire  on  cultured  society  in  France. 
Not  the  affected  language  and  manners  of  the 
Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  but  those,  rather,  of  its 
bourgeois  imitators,  who  abounded  in  Paris,  were 
ridiculed  with  such  infinite  good  humor  that  the 
play  has  not  yet  lost  its  comic  force. 

As  typical  of  Moliftre's  genius,  though  of  a 
quite  other  phase  of  it,  is  Sganarelle  (1660),  the 
first  of  those  gay  yet  profound  farces  that  still 
hold  the  stage  because  they  evoke  first  a  laugh 
and  then  a  thoughtful  smile.  He  was  still  feel- 
ing his  way,  and  Don  Oarcie  de  Navarre  (1661), 
a  five-act  tragi-comedy  in  verse,  marks  a  relapse 
to  the  traditions  of  the  Spanish  stage.  V^le  des 
maris  (1661)  shows,  however,  a  decided  advance. 
The  plot  is  from  Terence,  but  the  aged  lover  i^ 
treated  with  a  pathos  and  a  fidelity  to  nature 
that  bear  the  print  of  genius.  From  this  point 
onward  it  becomes  necessary  to  distinguish  the 


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687 


work  of  Molifere  the  born  dramatist  from  that 
of  Moli^re  the  theatrical  manager  and  purveyor 
of  Court  entertainments.  He  wrote  very  much  in 
the  latter  capacity  that  he  would  not  have 
written  in  the  former.  The  financial  success  and 
prosperity  of  his  company  were  also  an  obliga- 
tion not  to  be  neglected.  To  satisfy  this  he  wrote 
conventional  comedies  and  extravagant  farces, 
and  to  please  the  royal  taste  he  composed  for 
festivals  at  Versailles  some  thirteen  semi-operatic 
comedies,  in  wliich  the  text  was  only  a  pretext 
for  dancing  and  singing,  wherein  high  dignitaries 
of  the  Court  sometimes  took  part.  He  was  dis- 
tracted, too,  by  bitter  attacks  which  he  conde- 
scended occasionally  to  answer  in  his  farces, 
though  such  controversy  seems  to  have  spurred 
him  to  his  greatest  efforts  and  lent  a  keener 
edge  to  his  attacks  on  hypocrisy  and  pharisaism. 

Lea  fUcheuw  (The  Bores),  a  comedy-ballet  in 
three  acts,  acted  at  Vaux  (August,  1661),  for 
Fouquet  on  the  eve  of  his  downfall,  illustrates 
this  diversion  of  genius,  and  is  interesting  because 
T^uis  XIV.  suggested  one  of  its  scenes;  V6cole 
dea  femmes,  which  follows  (December,  1662),  is 
an  exhibition  of  Moli^re's  mature  art  as  a  satirist 
aiming  at  social  and  moral  reformation,  and  La 
critique  de  Vicole  dea  femmea  with  L'impromptu 
de  Veraaillea,  which  immediately  follow  this  in 
1663,  ar6  answers  to  the  criticism  that  it  evoked 
—criticism  imbittered  by  Molifere's  success  and 
given  a  handle  by  his  marriage  ( February,  1662) 
to  Armande  B^jart.  She  was  probably  the  sister 
of  an  old  member  of  his  company,  herself  an 
actress,  and  her  indiscretions  were  a  source  of 
constant  vexation  and  jealousy  to  Moliftre. 

L*4col€  dea  femmea  is  the  first  of  Molifere's 
great  comedies,  the  first  great  serious  comedy  ot 
French  literature.  It  deals  with  the  part  of 
woman  in  society  and  her  proper  preparation  for 
it,  and  treats  both  in  a  spirit  more  liberal  than 
the  France  of  to-day  wnolly  approves.  This 
alone  would  have  insured  violent  criticism,  but 
to  it  was  added  a  bold  and  contemptuous  satire 
on  the  prevalent  materialistic  views  of  future 
punishment.  The  play  was  denounced,  not  merely 
as  vulgar  and  obscene,  but  as  impious — for  in- 
stance, by  Boursault  in  his  Portrait  du  peintre, 
Boursault  was  answered  by  name  in  the  merciless 
Impromptu  de  Veraailleaf  where,  too,  the  rival 
company  of  the  Hfttel  de  Bourgogne  were  parodied 
and  ridiculed. 

This  controversy  had  by  no  means  subsided 
when  Moli^re,  after  the  trivial  Mariage  foro4 
(1664)  and  La  prinoeaae  d'Mide  (1664),  two 
comedy-ballets,  provoked  redoubled  fury  by  two 
attacks  on  hypocrisy,  Tartufe  and  Don  Juan,  or 
Le  festin  de  Pierre,  Of  the  former  three  acts 
only  were  presented  in  1664.  Jesuits  and  Jan- 
senists  alike  winced  at  it,  and  five  years  of 
persistent  effort  barely  extorted  permission  to 
present  the  masterpiece  as  a  whole.  Don  Juan 
appeared  in  February,  1665,  and  in  August  the 
King  significantly  adopted  Molifere's  troupe  as 
his  own.  But  even  his  sympathy  had  its  limits, 
and  this  appointment  was  perhaps  in  the  nature 
of  a  consolation  for  the  suppression  of  Don  Juan 
in  the  midst  of  a  prosperous  run.  The  full  text 
of  this  play  is  preserved  to  us  only  in  a  copy 
kept  by  the  chief  of  police. 

While  awaiting  permission  to  act  Tartufe  in 
its  entirety,  with  Don  Juan  forbidden,  Moli^re 
wrote  Uamour  mMecin  (1666),  a  clever  attack 
on  the  medical  practitioners  of  his  day,  and  Le 


MOLrkBi;. 

miaanthrope  (July,  1666),  in  which  his  rivals 
and  critics  rightly  discerned  'a  new  style  of  com- 
edy,* wherein  the  constant  motive  forces  of 
universal  human  nature  are  shown  modified  by 
the  highest  refinement  to  which  civilization  had 
yet  attained.  The  easy  optimist  is  set  off  against 
the  noble  pessimist,  and  a  social  school  for 
scandal  supplies  the  lighter  comedy  and  offers  a 
pillory  for  fops  and  poetasters. 

About  this  time  Mol lire's  health  seems  to 
have  begun  to  fail.  Cold  and  fatigue  brought  on 
a  disease  of  the  lungs,  and  what  he  says  of  the 
distracted  and  pedantic  doctors  of  his  day,  when 
superstition  and  tradition  were  struggling  with 
one  another  and  with  half  understood  fragments 
of  science,  lent  sad  point  to  the  M^decin  malgrv 
lui,  the  second  of  his  noteworthy  attacks  on  the 
quackery  of  that  time.  Then  follows  a  period 
of  relaxed  activity  with  only  three  comedy- 
ballets,  M^licerte  (1666),  Le  paatoral  comique 
(1667),  and  Le  Sicilien  (1667),  followed  by  the 
comparatively  insignificant  Amphitryon  (1668), 
a  coarse  yet  witty  adaptation  from  Plautus.  In 
July  of  1668  Moli^re  shows  his  old  self  again  in 
George  Dandin,  an  immortal  type  of  the  man 
who  marries  above  his  social  station  and  suffers 
the  consequences  with  rueful  self-accusation.  The 
story  is  at  least  as  old  as  Boccaccio,  but  Moli^re'ft 
squirarchic  Sotenvilles  are  his  creation  and  an 
abiding  delight. 

This  little  master  stroke  wa^  followed  in  Septem- 
ber, 1668,  by  a  masterpiece,  Uavare,  whose  cen- 
tral figure,  the  caricatural  Harpagon,  is  one  of 
Moliftre's  greatest  studies  of  vitiated  character. 
Several  lighter  pieces  followed,  first  M,  de  Pour- 
ceaugnac,  a  comedy-ballet  with  much  raillery  at 
the  physicians;  then  Lea  amanta  magnifiquea 
(1670),  a  persifiage  of  astrological  extrava- 
gances; then  that  excellently  comic  farce,  Le 
hourgeoia  gentilhomme  (1670);  then  Paych^ 
(1671),  a  tragedy-ballet,  written  in  collaboration 
with  Comeille  and  (^inault.  The  music  was  by 
Lulli.  Then  followed  the  lively  Fourheriea  de 
Soapin  (1671)  ;  and  finally  the  Comteaae  d'Escar- 
hagnaa,  a  study  of  provincial  manners  and  an 
attack  on  financiers,  heralding  thus  Lesage's 
Turcaret,  Much  greater  than  any  of  these  are 
the  last  legacies  to  French  comedy  of  the  dying 
Moli^re,  Lea  femmea  aavantea  (1672),  and  Le 
malade  imaginaire  (1673)i  The  former  recurs 
to  the  subject  of  the  Pr^cieuae'a  ridiculea  and  with 
ripest  power  attacks  the  admirers  of  pedantry 
and  the  affectations  of  learning.  The  latter,  pri- 
marily a  last  gibe  at  physicians,  is  important  for 
its  widening  of  satiric  comedy  to  include  the  per- 
version of  childhood. 

Le  malade  imaginaire  was  first  acted  February 
10,  1673.  On  the  17th  Moli^re  imdertook  the  part 
of  the  hypochondriac  invalid,  though  suffering 
from  what  he  called  a  ^fluxion.'  In  a  fit  of  cough- 
ing he  burst  a  blood-vessel  on  the  stage  and  died 
at  his  house  a  half  hour  later.  His  enemies  pur- 
sued him  in  death.  He  was  buried  half  clandes- 
tinely. The  Archbishop  of  Paris,  thinking  Mo- 
li^re*s  ethics  irreconcilable  with  Christianity,  for- 
bade public  ceremony,  but  the  command  was 
evaded.  The  body  was  laid  in  Saint  Joseph's 
churchyard,  but  the  site  of  the  grave  is  uncer- 
tain. 

No  dramatist,  save  perhaps  Shakespeare  and 
Aristophanes,  ever  joined  so  much  wit  to  so 
much  seriousness  as  did  Moli^re.    There  is  often 


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688 


MOLINE. 


a  pathetic,  even  a  sad  background  to  his  scenes, 
but  this  never  gets  the  better  of  his  healthy 
humor.  This  humor  depends  for  its  effects  not 
so  much  on  plot  as  on  revelation  of  character, 
and  the  satire  is  directed  not  so  much  against 
the  excesses  of  nature  as  against  those  social 
faults  or  conventions  which  disguise  or  sup- 
press nature.  He  is  more  apt  to  typify  phases 
of  character  than  to  present  complex  natures,  and 
in  doing  this  he  gave  direction  to  the  develop- 
ment of  French  comedy  for  several  generations. 
There  is  no  question  that  in  the  analysis  of  char- 
acter Shakespeare,  even  Corneille,  is  more  pro- 
found, and  they  tell  a  story  with  more  dramatic 
force,  but  neither  Corneille  nor  Racine  gives  so 
accurately  picturesque,  so  fascinatingly  truthful 
a  portrait  of  French  society  as  we  find  in  the  nat- 
uralistic, observant  humorist,  Molifere. 

Of  Molifere's  Works  the  first  edition  was  by  his 
friends  and  fellow  actors,  La  Grange  and  Vinot 
( 1682)  ;  by  far  the  best  is  Despois  and  Mesnard's 
(11  voU.,  1873-96).  ExceUent,  also,  are  the 
editions  of  A.  France  (7  vols.,  1876-91)  and 
Monval  (8  vols.,  1882).  There  is  a  good,  cheap 
edition  in  2  vols,  with  a  study  by  Sainte-Beuve 
and  English  translations  by  Van  Laun  (6  vols., 
London,  1875-77),  Wall  (3  voK,  1876-77),  and 
Wormeley  (Boston).  Consult  for  Moliftre's  style, 
vocabulary, and  usage,  Livet,  Lexique  de  la  langue 
de  MolUre  (Paris,  1895-1897).  Of  the  lAves 
of  Moli^re  that  of  Mahrenholtz,  in  German  (Heil- 
bronn,  1881),  is  most  complete.  Consult  also 
the  periodical  Le  MoUMste ;  and  the  biographies 
by  Lotheissen  (Frankfort,  1K80)  ;  Moland  (Paris, 
1886);  Larroumet  (ib.,  1886);  Mesnard  (ib., 
1889);  Desfeuilles  (ib.,  1900);  and  Schneegans 
( Berlin,  1901 )  ;  the  full  Bibliographic  moliir- 
esque,  by  Paul  Lacroix  (Paris,  187§)  ;  and  Mar- 
ti nenche,  Moli&re  et  la  theatre  espagnol  (Paris, 
1906)  ;  Trollope,  Life  of  Moli^re  (London,  1905) ; 
ChatfieldTaylor,  Moli^e  (New  York,  1906). 

MOLINE,  House  of.     See  €om£:dib  Fban- 

KOLIN,  mon^n,  Johan  Peter  (1814-73).  A 
Swedish  sculptor,  born  at  GOteborg.  He  studied 
at  Copenhagen  with  the  medalist  Cliristensen, 
and  afterwards  in  Rome  (1845-53).  In  1853 
he  became  professor  at  the  Stockholm  Academy. 
Among  his  works  are  **The  Wrestlers"  (1862), 
"David,"  and  **Cupid  and  Psyche." 

MOLINA,  mA-le'nd,  Aloxso  de  (c.1510-c.85). 
A  Spanish  missionary  in  Mexico.  He  was  born 
at  Escalona,  Spain,  early  went  to  Mexico,  learned 
the  Aztec  language,  and  was  interpreter  to  the 
Franciscan  friars.  He  subsequently  joined  the 
Franciscan  Order,  and  rose  to  be  the  superior  of 
Santo  Evangelio  Province.  His  publications  in- 
clude translations  into  Aztec  of  the  catechism 
and  of  a  confessional  manual,  and  a  grammar 
of  that  language.  His  greatest  work  is  his  Die- 
cionario  de  la  lengua  ca»trllana  y  mexicana 
(1555;  rev.  ed.  1571). 

MOLINA,  m6-l?'nft,  Jian  Ionazio  (1740- 
1829).  An  Italian  historian  of  Cliile.  He  was 
born  at  Talca,  Chile;  studied  in  a  Jesuit  college 
at  Santiago;  taught  there  and  at  Bocalemo;  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty  became  librarian  at  San- 
tiago. He  joined  the  Jesuit"*  at  the  time  of  their 
expulsion  from  the  country,  and  went  to  Italy 
in  1767.  For  several  years  he  was  a  priest  at 
Imola,  and  in  1774  went  to  Bologna,  where  he 
taught  in  a  private  school.     His  views  of  the 


vitality  of  matter  and  of  the  sensibility  of 
metals  brought  him  into  disfavor  with  the  Cath- 
olic Church  and  he  was  removed  from  his  pro- 
fessorate for  a  time.  A  legacy  which  Molina 
received  in  1815  was  devoted  entire  to  the  foun- 
dation of  a  library  in  Talca.  His  Compendio  ^ 
di  atoria  del  Chile  (1776),  Saggio  8ulla  8toria 
naturale  del  Chile  (1782),  and  Saggio  deUa 
atoria  civile  del  Chile  (1787)  were  very  popular 
in  Europe  for  many  years,  though  they  have 
little  value. 

MOLINA,  Luis  (1535-1600).  A  celebrated 
Spanish  theologian,  specially  famous  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  controversy  about  divine  grace.  He 
was  born  at  Cuenca,  in  New  Castile,  entered  the 
Jesuit  Order  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  studied  and 
then  taught  theology  and  philosophy  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Coimbra  in  Portugal,  and  was  later  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at  Evora,  where  he 
taught  for  twenty  years.  He  then  returned  to 
Spain  to  devote  himself  to  literary  work,  and 
six  months  before  his  death  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  moral  theology  in  Madrid.  His  fame 
rests  mainly  upon  his  celebrated  work,  Concordia 
Libert  Arbitrii  cum  Orantas  Donis,  first  printed 
in  Lisbon,  1588,  but  not  published  until  the  fol- 
lowing year.  It  was  the  first  work  of  formal 
scholastic  theology  produced  by  the  Jesuit  Order, 
as  it  was  the  first  written  by  any  of  them  in 
the  nature  of  a  commentary  on  Saint  Thomas 
Aquinas;  and  scarcely  any  theological  work  has 
ever  excited  so  widespread  and  lasting  a  contro- 
versy. The  latest  edition  of  it  is  by  ^thilelleux 
(Paris,  1876).  (For  further  details  of  this  con- 
troversy, see  MouNiSM. )  Among  bis  other  works 
are  his  commentaries  on  the  first  part  of  the 
Summa  of  Aquinas  (1592)  and  De  Justitia  et 
Jure  (1592).  His  complete  works  were  pub- 
lished in  7  vols.  (Venice,  1614),  and  with  bi<^- 
raphy  and  bibliography  in  5  vols.  ( Cologne,  1733  j . 

MOLINA,  TiBSO  DE.  A  pseudonym  of  the 
Spanish  dramatist  Gabriel  Tellez  (q.v.). 

MOLTNABI,  m61«'n&'r^,  Gustavs  de  ( 1819 
— ).  A  Belgian  political  economist,  bom  at 
Li^ge.  He  be^me  a  physician  at  Brussels,  wrote 
works  on  homceopathic  medicine,  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  gained  some  distinction  as  a 
radical  journalist,  but  was  obliged  by  the  coup 
d'6tat  to  return  to  Belgium,  and  there  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  political  economy  in  the 
Mus6e  Royal  de  Plndustrie  Beige  (Brussels). 
In  1874  he  was  elected  corresponding  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science* 
of  the  Institut  de  France.  He  became  editor  of 
the  Journal  dea  Economistea  at  Paris  in  1881. 
He  assisted  in  establishing  the  journals  L'Econo- 
miate  Beige  and  La  Bourse  du  Travail^  and  pub- 
lished numerous  works,  including  Que^tums 
d'^conomie  politique  et  de  droit  puhlique  (2  vols., 
1861),  L^^olution  ^oonomique  du  XlX^me  aiiele 
(1880),  Lea  lots  naturellea  de  V^cmnomie  foli- 
tique  ( 1867 ) ,  and  Comment  ae  reaoudra  la  qves' 
tion  aociale   (1896). 

MOLINE,  m6-Un^  A  city  in  Rock  IsUnd 
County,  111. ;  on  the  Mississippi  River,  three  miles 
east  of  the  county-seat.  Rock  Island,  which  i« 
opposite  Davenport,  Iowa,  the  three  cities  being 
closely  connected  by  steam  and  electric  railroads, 
ferries,  and  bridges  (Map:  Illinois,  B  2).  The 
railroads  entering  the  city  are  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  Saint  Paul,  the  Chicago.  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific,  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and 


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MOLIKOS. 


Quincy.  Moline  derives  excellent  water  power 
from  the  river,  which  is  here  dammed  from  the 
shore  to  the  mid-river  island,  an  advantage  which 
has  contributed  to  Moline's  importance  as  an 
industrial  centre.  Coal  is  mined  in  the  vicinity. 
There  are  manufactories  of  steel,  elevator  and 
milling  machinery,  scales,  pianos,  organs,  plows, 
furniture,  carriages  and  wagons,  steam-engines, 
saw-  and  planing-mill  products,  foimdry  and  ma- 
chine shop  products,  and  pumps;  and  the  trade 
is  extensive  in  machinery,  farming  implements, 
grain,  lumber,  etc.  Moline  has  a  high-school 
library  and  a  public  library,  the  latter,  which 
was  founded  in  1872,  now  containing  about  9000 
volumes.  A  public  library  building  which  cost 
$60,000  was  completed  in  1904;  and  there  is  a 
new,  well -equipped  city  hospital.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  by  the  munici- 
pality. Population,  in  1890,  12,000;  in  1900, 
17,248;  in  1906  (local  est.),  22,500. 

MOLINET,  mA'16'n&',  Jean  (?-1507).  A 
French  poet  and  troubadour.  He  was  a  canon 
of  the  College  Church  of  Valenciennes,  chronicler 
of  the  House  of  Burgundy,  and  librarian  to  Mar- 
garet of  Austria,  then  regent  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. Molinet  was  one  of  the  'grands  rh^to- 
riqueurs';  his  poetry  is  pedantic,  heavy,  and 
complicated  in  rhythm,  and  his  prose  full  of 
Latinisms,  while  both  are  replete  with  astonish- 
ing puerilities.  A  volume  of  his  poems  was 
printed  in  1531,  and  his  chronicles  were  pub- 
lished by  Buchon  in  1828.  He  also  made  a 
prose  translation  of  the  Roman  de  la  rose  ( 1503) . 

MO^INISM.  The  name  commonly  applied 
to  the  doctrine  of  Molina  (q.v.)  on  the  relation 
between  divine  grace  and  the  will  of  man.  The 
problem  which  it  is  meant  to  solve  is  as  old  as 
the  fourth  century,  when  it  led  to  the  well-known 
Pelagian  controversy.  (See  Pelagiani81£. )  In 
reconciling  with  the  freedom  of  man's  will  the 
predestination  of  the  elect  to  happiness  and  of  the 
reprobate  to  punishment,  Molina  asserts  that  this 
predestination  is  consequent  on  God's  foreknowl- 
edge of  the  free  determination  of  man's  will,  and 
that  therefore  it  in  no  way  affects  the  freedom  of 
the  particular  actions.  Accordingly,  God  gives  to 
all  men  sufficient  grace  to  enable  them  to  live  vir- 
tuously and  merit  happiness ;  certain  individuals 
freely  correspond  to  this  grace,  while  others 
resist  it;  God  foresees  both  courses  and  on  them 
founds  His  decrees.  This  exposition  was  assailed 
in  the  schools  first  as  a  revival  of  the  Pelagian 
heresy,  inasmuch  as  it  appears  to  place  the 
efficacy  of  grace  in  the  consent  of  man's  will, 
and  thus  to  recognize  a  natural  power  in  man 
to  perform  supernatural  acts;  secondly,  as  set* 
ting  aside  altogether  what  the  Scriptures  repre- 
sent as  the  special  election  of  the  predestined,  by 
making  each  individual  the  arbiter  of  his  own 
predestination  or  reprobation.  The  Dominicans, 
who  were  never  very  friendly  to  the  Jesuits,  and 
who  felt  that  this  teaching  misrepresented  that 
of  their  great  authority.  Saint  Thomas,  entered 
fiercely  into  the  controversy;  the  name  of  Thorn - 
ists  is  generally  applied  to  them  and  to  the 
other  antagonists  of  Molina.  The  dispute  was 
brought  imder  the  cognizance  of  the  Inquisitor- 
General  of  Spain,  who  referred  it  to  Pope 
Clement  VIII.  In  1597  he  appointed  the  cele- 
brated Cangregatio  de  Auxiliis  Divirue  Oratice  to 
consider  the  entire  question ;  the  commission  con- 
sisted  of  eleven  members,  representing  different 


orders  and  schools.  Before  the  death  of  Clement 
VIII.  in  1606  it  had  already  held  68  sessions,  and 
17  more  were  held  imder  Paul  V.,  still  without 
leading  to  any  very  definite  result.  Paul  V. 
finally  dissolved  it  after  nine  years  of  anxious 
consultation,  and  in  1611  forbade  anything  to  be 
printed  on  either  side  without  license  from  the 
Inquisition.  The  decree  was  confirmed  by  Urban 
VIII.  in  1625  and  again  in  1641,  with  special 
reference  to  a  new  outbreak  of  controversy  occa- 
sioned by  the  publication  of  the  AuguaUnua  of 
Jansenius.  The  Jesuits  had  never  committed 
themselves  to  Molina's  doctrine  as  a  whole,  and 
they  came  gradually  to  a  general  support  of 
a  modified  form  of  it  known  as  Congruism, 
taught  especially  by  Suarez  and  Bellarmine. 
While,  according  to  the  supporters  of  this  teach- 
ing, Molina  had  placed  the  effective  power  of 
§race  altogether  in  the  assent  of  the  free  will, 
uarez  found  it  rather  in  the  perfect  harmony 
{congruentia)  of  grace  with  the  character,  tem- 
perament, tendencies,  and  habits  of  the  indi- 
vidual. The  real  congruism  of  Suarez  is,  how- 
ever, not  so  much  a  departure  from  the  teaching 
of  Molina  as  a  clearer  and  more  precise  defini- 
tion of  it.  Consult :  Schneemann,  Die  Entstehung 
und  Entwicklung  der  thomiatisch-moliniatiachen 
Kontroverae  (Freiburg,  1880)  ;  De  R6gnon, 
BaHea  et  Molina;  histoire,  doctrines,  critique 
m^taphyaique  (Paris,  1883)  ;  Gayraud,  Tho- 
mistne  et  Molinisme  (Paris,  1890). 

MOLINO  DEIi  BEY;  m6-le^n6  del  r&'6  (Sp., 
*King's  Mill').  A  series  of  massive  stone  build- 
ings, about  3000  feet  west  of  Chapultepec  (q.v.), 
and  about  three  miles  southwest  of  the  City  of 
Mexico;  the  scene,  September  8,  1847,  of  the 
most  hotly  contested  battle  of  the  war  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico.  At  the  close  of 
the  armistice  which  followed  the  battle  of  Chur- 
ubusco  (see  Mexican  War)  General  Scott  de- 
termined to  destroy  a  cannon  foundry  and  some 
military  supplies  supposed  to  be  located  here, 
and  on  September  7th  ordered  an  attack.  Early 
on  the  following  day  General  Worth,  at  the  head 
of  about  3500  men,  assaulted  the  buildings,  which 
had  been  strongly  fortified  and  were  then  gar- 
risoned by  a  force  of  4000  supported  by  an  ad- 
ditional cavalry  force  of  4000.  After  suffering 
severely  from  the  artillery  fire  the  Americans 
finally  drove  the  Mexicans  from  their  position, 
and  held  the  fortifications  for  the  rest  of  the  day, 
in  spite  of  a  large  Mexican  reinforcement  sent 
forward  by  Santa  Anna.  Of  the  Mexicans  690 
were  made  prisoners  and  probably  as  many  as 
3000  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  American  loss 
was  heavier,  in  proportion  to  the  force  engaged, 
than  in  any  other  battle  during  the  war,il6  being 
killed  and  671  wounded.  The  Mexicans,  suppos- 
ing the  attack  to  be  part  of  a  movement  against 
Chapultepec  (q.v.),  regarded  the  engagement  as 
a  victory  for  their  side,  and  still  commemorate  it 
as  such.  Consult:  H.  H.  Bancroft,  History  of 
Mexico,  vol.  v.  (San  Francisco,  1885)  ;  and 
Wilcox,  History  of  the  Mexican  War  (Washing- 
ton, 1892). 

MOLINOS,  mt-WntB,  Miguel  de  (1640-96). 
A  Spanish  mystic,  and  leading  representative  of 
the  doctrines  of  Quietism.  He  was  bom  at 
Patacina  in  Aragon  of  noble  parents,  and  pursued 
a  course  of  theolo^cal  studies  at  Pampelona  and 
Coimbra,  from  which  imiversity  he  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity.     Having  been  or- 


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M0LIK08. 


690 


KOLLEB. 


-dained  priest,  he  acquired  a  high  reputation  as 
a  director  of  conscience  and  a  master  of  the 
spiritual  life.  He  went  in  1669  to  Rome,  where 
he  made  the  same  impression  and  won  the  friend- 
ship of  man7  distinguished  people.  He  declined 
all  preferment,  and  deroted  himself  entirely  to 
the  direction  of  souls.  In  1675  he  published  an 
ascetical  treatise  in  Spanish,  under  the  name  of 
The  Bpiritual  Ouide,  which  had  a  wide  popu- 
larity and  was  translated  into  many  languages 
(into  English  ten  years  later;  reprinted  at 
Glasgow,  1885).  His  leading  principle  was  that 
of  habitual  abstraction  of  the  mind  from  sensible 
objects,  with  a  view  to  gain,  by  passive  contem- 
plation, not  only  a  profound  realization  of  God's 
presence,  but  so  perfect  a  communion  with  Him  as 
to  end  in  absorption  into  His  essence.  The  dan- 
gers of  his  doctrine  (for  an  examination  of 
which  and  its  subsequent  history,  see  Quietism) 
were  pointed  out  by  not  a  few,  among  them  the 
distinguished  Jesuit  Segneri;  but  so  great  was 
the  popularity  of  Molinos  that  no  decisive  steps 
were  taken  until,  in  1685,  he  was  cited  before 
the  Holy  Office  and  submitted  to  close  imprison- 
ment and  examination.  The  Inquisition  finally 
condemned  eighty-six  propositions  extracted  from 
his  writines,  and  in  a  decree,  which  was  con- 
firmed a  few  months  later  by  a  bull  of  Pope 
Innocent  XI.,  required  him  publicly  to  abjure 
them,  and  sentenced  him  to  imprisonment  for 
life.  He  underwent  public  penance  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  absolution,  but  was  detained  until  his 
death  in  1696.  Consult:  Bigelow,  Molinoa  the 
Quietist  (New  York,  1882) ;  Shorthouse,  Oolden 
Thoughts  from  the  Spiritual  Chuide  of  Molinos 
(London,  1883). 

MOLIQXJE,  m6i6k^,  Wilhelm  Bebnhabd 
(1802-69).  A  (jerman  violinist  and  composer, 
bom  at  Nuremberg.  His  father  was  a  musician 
and  the  boy  studied  various  instruments,  but 
finally  devoted  himself  to  the  violin.  In  1815 
he  received  somer  lessons  from  Spohr,  and  then 
studied  for  two  years  under  Rovelli  in  Munich. 
In  1820  he  succeeded  Rovelli  as  Court  violinist, 
and  after  several  successful  tours  became  leader 
of  the  Royal  Band  at  Stuttgart  in  1826.  In 
1849  he  resigned  to  go  to  England,  in  which 
country  he  remained  till  1866,  when  he  returned 
to  Cannstadt,  near  Stuttgart,  where  he  died. 
His  compositions,  especially  his  violin  concertos, 
are  still  in  use.  His  third  concerto,  in  D  minor, 
and  his  fifth  in  A  minor,  are  remarkable  works, 
and  are  the  best  examples  of  the  technical 
skill  and  clear-cut  harmonies  which  are  evident 
to  a  less  degree  in  his  duets,  sacred  compositions, 
and  instrumental  pieces. 

MOLITOB^  md'l^'tOr^,  Gabriel  Jean  Joseph, 
Count  (1770-1849).  A  Preneh  soldier,  bom  at 
Hayange  (Lorraine).  He  became  a  captain  of 
volunteers  in  1791,  by  1799  had  risen  to  the  rank 
of  general  of  brigade,  subsequently  was  commia- 
Bioned  a  general  of  division,  and  in  1805  fought 
in  the  Army  of  Italy  and  took  part  in  the  bat- 
'  tie  of  Austerlitz.  In  1807  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Pomerania,  in  1809  contributed  to 
the  victory  of  Wagram,  and  in  1811-13  was  in 
Holland.  He  was  appointed  inspector-general 
of  infantry  at  the  Restoration,  but  received  a 
command  in  Alsace  from  Napoleon  during  the 
Hundred  Days.  After  the  second  Restoration 
he  did  not  again  obtain  his  offices  until  1818. 
In  1823  he  commanded  the  Second  Army  Corps 


in  the  Spanish  expedition,  and  defeated  Balles- 
teros.  He  was  commissioned  marshal  (1823),, 
and  in  1847  became  commandant  of  the  Inva- 
lides. 

HOI/LAB!  (more  properly  maula,  Turkish 
pronunciation  mevla,  from  Ar.  ioalaya^  to  be- 
near).  Among  the  Turks,  the  title  of  a  superior 
judge.  The  mollahs  are  divided  into  two  classes. 
Those  in  the  first  class  exercise  jurisdiction  over 
the  more  important  pashaliks.  The  mollahs  of 
the  second  class  hold  office  for  a  lunar  month 
at  a  time,  and  their  lowest  rank  is  composed  of 
the  naibs  over  the  inferior  provinces,  towns,  and 
villages.  The  mollah  is  an  expounder  of  civil, 
criminal,  and  canon  law;  he  must,  therefore,  be 
a  lawyer  as  well  as  an  ecclesiastic.  Under  him 
is  the  qadi  (or  kadi),  judge  who  administers 
the  law,  and  superior  to  him  are  the  kadilesker 
and  the  mufti  (q.v.).  They  are  all,  however, 
subject  to  the  Sheikh  ul-Islam,  who  is  the  su- 
preme mufti.  In  Persia,  the  office  of  mollah,  who 
is  generally  called  akhUn,  is  similar  to  what  it  is 
in  Turkey.  This  superior  there  is  the  *sadr,* 
or  chief  of  the  mollahs. 

MOLLENBO,  mdl-lfinM6.  A  seaport  of  Pem, 
situated  seven  miles  south  of  Islay,  on  the 
Pacific  coast  (Map:  Peru,  C  7).  It  is  the  chief 
harbor  of  Southern  Peru  and  the  trading  centre 
for  the  mining  districts  of  the  interior,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railroad.  Its  exports 
are  alpaca,  wool,  quinine,  antimony,  silver,  and 
copper  ores.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States 
consular  agent.    Population,  2200. 

M'dLLENDOBF,  mSHen-ddrf,  Wichabd  Joa- 
chim Heinbich  von  (1724-1816).  A  Prussian 
general,  bom  at  Lindenberg.  He  was  in  the 
first  and  second  Silesian  wars,  and  was  promoted 
for  bravery  at  Soor  (1746).  In  the  Seven  Years^ 
War  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  major  and  received 
the  Order  for  Merit.  At  Torgau  (1760),  where 
he  showed  great  bravery,  he  was  captured  by 
the  Austrians,  but  he  was  released  in  1761,  and 
was  made  general  a  year  after.  M&Uendorf  was 
division  commander  in  the  War  of  the  Bavarian 
Succession  (1779);  Governor  of  Berlin  (1783); 
and  comrnander  in  1793  of  the  troops  which 
put  into  effect  the  second  partition  of  Poland. 
He  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Army  of  the  Rhine  in  1794.  In  1806  he  again 
took  the  field,  was  woimded  at  Auerst&dt  and 
captured  at  Erfurt,  but  was  released  by  Napo- 
leon, who  gave  him  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor. 

MOLLENHAXJEB,  mdHen-hou'Sr,  Edwakd 
(1827 — ).  An  American  violinist  and  composer, 
bom  at  Erfurt,  Prussia.  He  studied  under  Ernst 
and  Spohr,  and  had  become  famous  in  Germany 
and  at  Saint  Petersburg  before  he  was  twenty- 
five.  To  escape  conscription,  he  went  to  Ehigland. 
joined  Jullien,  and  accompanied  him  to  New 
York  City  in  1853.  He  settled  there  and  became 
a  founder  in  America  of  the  Conservatory  method 
of  teaching  the  violin.  MoUenhauer's  b^-known 
compositions  for  the  violin  are  his  quariets.  He 
also  wrote  the  operas,  The  Corsioan  Bride  ( 1861), 
Breakers  (1881),  and  The  Masked  Ball. 

MOI/LEB,  Geobg  (1784-1852).  A  German 
architect.  He  was  bom  in  Hanover,  and  studied 
architecture  in  Karlsruhe  and  Italy.  After  his 
return  from  Italy  he  was  appointed  (Uourt  archi- 
tect to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse.  He  designed 
the  ducal   palace   at   Wiesbaden,   a  number  of 


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691 


HOLLXJSX. 


public  buildings  and  private  residences  at  Darm- 
stadt, and  the  theatre  at  Mainz.  He  discovered 
the  original  design  of  the  Cologne  Cathedral, 
the  two  towers  of  which  have  been  finished  in 
accordance  with  his  published  facsimile.  His 
most  important  publications  include  Denk- 
tnoler  deut8cker  Baukunat  (1815-51)  and 
Beitrage  zu  der  Lehre  von  den  Konatruktionen 
(1833-44). 

M b'LLHAUSENy  m^l^ou-zen,  Bauiuin  ( 1825 
— ).  A  German  traveler  and  novelist,  bom 
at  Bonn.  He  studied  agriculture  in  Pomerania, 
and  spent  several  years  in  North  America,  travel- 
ing with  Duke  Paul  of  Wttrtteraberg  ( 1851 ) ,  and, 
at  the  instance  of  Humboldt,  acting  as  draughts- 
man to  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  far  West. 
After  a  second  trip  through  the  Western  part  of 
the  United  States,  especially  Colorado,  he  wrote 
Tagehuck  einer  Reise  vom  Mississippi  nach  den 
Kiisten  der  Siidsee  (1858)  and  Reisen  in  die 
Felsengehirge  Nordamerikas  (1861).  His  many 
novels,  mostly  on  American  topics,  include:  Die 
Halhindianer  (1861);  Das  Mormonenmadchen 
(1864;  3d  ed.  1871) ;  Das  Monogramm  (1874) ; 
Die  heiden  Yachten  (1891);  and  Fegefeuer  in 
Frappes  Wigwam  (1901). 

MOLLITIES  (mOl-Ush'I-ez)  OSTIUM.  See 
Osteomalacia. 

MOIXXJS^CA  (Lat.  nom.  pi.  neu.  of  mollus- 
ous,  from  mollis,  soft).  One  of  the  chief  divi- 
sions, or  phyla,  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  study 
of  which  is  CJonchology  or  Malacology.  The 
body  is  bilaterally  symmetrical  except  in  snails 
( Grastropoda ) ,  not  segmented  as  in  worms  and 
arthropods,  but  soft,  fleshy,  and  usually  protected 
by  a  bivalve  or  imivalve  shell;  moving  by  a 
'foot'  or  muscular  creeping  disk  in  gastropods, 
or,  in  bivalves,  by  a  tongue-like  process;  breath- 
ing by  external  gills  which  are  either  lamellate  or 
plume-like.  A  shell  is  secreted  by  the  fleshy 
mantle,  and  in  nearly  all  except  the  Pelecypoda 
(q.v.),  which  are  headless,  the  mouth  is  armed 
with  an  'odontophore,'  an  apparatus  of  muscles 
and  tendons  bearing  a  rasp-like  'lingual  ribbon' 
(radula)  for  sawing  or  cutting  the  food,  or  for 
drilling  holes  through  shells.  Many  mollusca 
in  their  young  or  larval  swimming  stages  begin  as 
a  'trochosphere'  (q.v.),  pass  through  a  *veliger' 
stage,  living  at  the  surface  of  the  sea  and  gradu- 
ally sinking  to  the  bottom  by  gravity  as  the  shell 
grows  larger  and  heavier.  The  Mollusca  form  a 
highly  specialized  group,  the  number  of  species 
amounting  to  upward  of  40,000,  about  one-half  of 
which  are  living,  the  other  extinct;  the  earliest 
known  species  occur  in  Cambrian  rocks.  The 
group  has  a  wide  geographical  and  bathymetrical 
range,  occurring  in  all 
seas  from  the  snore  to 
the  abysses  of  the 
ocean  and  also  on  land 
and  in  fresh  waters. 

The  affinities  of  this 
phylum  are  not  yet 
settled.  Molluskshave 
evidently  descended 
from  some  worm -like  form,  as  their  larvae  are  in 
some  cases  segmented  and  like  the  trochosphere 
or  'trochophore'  stage  of  sea-worms  (Annelida). 
In  the  adult,  segmental  organs,  like  those  of 
worms,  are  often  present.  On  the  whole  they  are 
a  grade  inferior  to  the  spiders  and  insects.  Mol- 
lusks  are  divided  into  five  classes,  i.e.:   (1)  Am- 


A  BBOMENTBD  LARVA. 

Trochosphere  of  Chiton. 


phineura;  (2)  Pelecypoda  (q.v.)  or  Lamelli- 
branchiata;  (3)  Scaphopoda  (q.v.)  ;  (4)  Gas- 
tropoda (q.v.);  and  (5)  Cephalopoda  (q.v.). 
The  Amphineura  comprise  a  few  forms  formerly 
supposed  to  be  worms  (Chietoderma  and  Neo- 
menia).  These  are  primitive  types  from  which, 
as  some  authors  think,  the  other  mollusks  may 
have  descended;  all  have  a  ladder-like  nervous 
system,  as  in  Chiton,  and  are  either  shell  less  or 
somewhat  like  that  of  some  Turbellaria  (q.v.) 
and  Peripatus  (q.v.).    See  Mollusk. 

MOIXXJSK.  An  animal  of  the  phylum  Mol- 
lusca (q.v.).  Mollusks  are  usually  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish from  other  animals  on  accoimt  of  their 
shell,  whence  they  are  commonly  called  'shell- 
fish'; but  the  more  we  study  their  development 
and  morphology  the  more  difficult  is  it  to  draw 
a  definite  line  between  them  and  certain  worm- 
like forms.  In  their  early  development  they 
travel  along  apparently  the  same  developmental 
path  as  the  worms  (planarians  as  well  as  an- 
nelids), and  then  diverge  into  a  separate  path. 
That  the  type  is  a  very  successful  one  is  proved 
by  the  enormous  number  of  species  both  living 
and  extinct — ^a  success  evidently  due  to  the  pro- 
tection afforded  them  by  their  shell.  In  bivalves 
as  well  as  univalves  (Gastropoda)  the  shell  is 
more  or  less  solid,  is  composed  mainly  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime  and  secreted  by  the  mantle. 

A  bivalve  mollusk  like  the  clam  is  completely 
protected  by  a  pair  of  solid  calcareous  shells  con- 
nected by  a  hinge  consisting  of  a  large  tooth  (in 
most  bivalves  there  are  three  teeth)  and  liga- 
ment. The  shells  are  equivalve  or  with  both 
valves  alike,  but  unlike  at  each  end,  the  head  end 
being  more  rounded.  Oq  the  interior  are  two 
muscular  impressions  or  'scars'  made  by  the  two 


TBAIfSTSIttB  SEOnOMS  OF  BTTALVl  MOLLUSKS. 

A  clam  (Mja)  and  a  freeh- water  mussel  (Unio),  showing 
the  ligament  (L)  and  adductor  musdd  (If). 

adductor  muscles.  The  shell  of  gastropods  is 
spiral,  and  that  part  of  the  animal  contained  in 
tne  skin  is  asymmetrical,  the  twist  or  torsion  be- 
ing due  to  gravity  or  lopping  over  of  the  young 
shell  in  the  larva  stage. 

As  to  the  most  primitive  forms  we  are  in  the 
dark.  The  most  characteristic  mollusks  are  the 
cephalopods.  They  are  bilateral  and  very  highly 
modified,  with  a  well  marked  head,  containing 
two  highly  specialized  eyes  and  two  ears.  The 
concentrated  ganglia  form  a  brain  with  cartila- 
ginous protections,  while  the  parts  around  the 
mouth  are  modified  to  form  the  tentacles  and 
funnel.  The  heart  and  blood  vessels  are  highly 
specialized. 

The  *foot*  is  a  modification  of  the  part  of  the 
mantle  below  and  behind,  the  mouth;  it  varies 
greatly  in  shape,  and  is  by  disuse  wanting  in 
oysters  and  other  fixed  forms;  in  the  pelecypods 
or  bivalves  it  is  tongue-shaped,  and  by  being  filled 


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with  water  is  thrust  out  between  the  valves  of 
the  shell,  so  that  by  means  of  it  the  clam  can  dig 
deep  into  the  mud,  or  the  fresh-water  mussel  can 
plow  its  way  through  the  sand.  In  the  snails 
(q.v.)  the  foot  forms  a  flattened  creeping  disk 
extending  along  the  whole  length  of  the  body.  See 
illustrations  under  Cone-shell  ;  Conch,  etc. 


A    BIVALVE   MOriNO. 

A  freeh-water  musfiel  (Unlo>  moring^  through  the  sand 
toward  the  left,  by  means  of  ite  extended  'foot.' 

In  the  clam  ((|.v.)  and  most  bivalves  the  hinder 
end  of  the  body  is  prolonged  into  a  double  siphon, 
popularly  called  the  'head,'  through  the  lower 
division  of  which  enters  the  water  laden  with 
microscopic  animals  and  larvse,  which  pass 
through  the  mantle-cavity  into  the  mouth,  which 
is  situated  at  the  opposite  end  from  the  siphons. 
The  upper  division  of  the  siphon  opens  out  op- 
posite tne  end  of  the  intestine,  whicn  makes  two 
and  a  half  turns  in  the  central  or  'visceral  mass/ 
which  is  composed  mostly  of  the  ovaries.  The 
bivalves  breathe  by  a  pair  of  leaf-like  gills,  on 
each  side  of  the  visceral  mass  between  it  and  the 
mantle;  in  the  gastropods  and  cephalopods  the 
gills  are  plume-like  processes,  called  'ctenidia.' 
There  is  in  mollusks  a  definite  heart,  which  in 
the  primitive  forms  is  three-chambered,  i.e.  a 
ventricle  and  two  auricles.  The  ventricle  in  the 
clam  and  most  other  bivalves  surrounds  the  in- 
testine; the  arteries  and  veins  are  well  devel- 
oped; the  blood  is  colorless.  Mollusks  as  a  rule 
differ  from  other  animals  in  the  nervous  system, 
the  ganglia,  connected  by  threads  (commissures) , 
being  grouped  aroimd  the  oesophagus,  one  pair 
(the  brain)  situated  above;  another,  the  pedal 
ganglia,  in  the  foot^  and  the  pair  of  visceral  gan- 
glia nearer  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  innervat- 
ing the  siphon,  gills,  digestive  canal,  and  heart. 
See  Gastbopoda;  Clam;  Otster;  Decapoda; 
and  the  accompanying  illustrations  and  plates. 

Sense-organs  vary  much  in  situation,  number, 
and  size.  The  eyes  of  the  scallop,  which  leads 
an  active  life,  leaping  out  of  the  sand  and  skip- 
ping over  the  surface,  are  large,  highly  devel- 
oped, and  numerous,  being  situated  around  the 
edges  of  the  mantle;  in  those  mollusks  which 
burrow  (clam)  or  are  fixed  (oyster),  or  live  in 
holes  in  limestone  or  coral,  etc.,  the  eyes  are 
atrophied.  In  the  squid  and  other  cephalopods 
they  are  large  and  as  complicated  as  those  of  a 
fish.  The  eyes  of  the  land  snails  are  borne  at 
the  ends  of  the  tentacles,  but  in  burrowing  ma- 
rine gastropods  they  may  be  wanting  through  dis- 
use, though  present  in  the  larvae. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  vision  in  gastro- 
pod mollusks  has  hitherto  been  very  scanty,  no 
observations  having  been  made  since  those  of 
Lesp^s  in  1851,  until  experiments  by  Willem 
brought  out  the  following  results :  ( 1 )  Snails  pos- 
sess a  well-developed  power  of  touch,  permitting 
them  to  i>erceive  feeble  jars  of  the  soil  beneath, 
and  slight  movements  of  the  surrounding  media. 
(2)  They  see  very  badly  and  direct  their  move- 


ments principally  by  means  of  the  senses  of  smell 
and  touch.  They  form  a  confused  image  oi  large 
objects  at  an  estimated  distance  of  about  a  centi- 
meter (.40  inch).  They  clearly  distinguish  the 
form  of  objects  only  at  a  distance  of  one  or  two 
millimeters.  (3)  The  fresh-water  snails  do  not 
have  distinct  vision  at  any  distance.  (4)  There 
does  not  exist  in  mollusks  a  special  visum  of 
movements,  such  as  insects  possess.  In  general 
pulmonate  mollusks  respond  to  the  action  of 
light,  in  a  degree  differing  in  different  species. 
They  have  dermatoptic  perceptions,  which  vtry 
much  in  intensitjr  in  different  species.  Organs  of 
orientation,  equilibrium,  or  nearing  are  the 
'otocysts.'  In  bivalves  a  single  one  is  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  foot;  in  cephalopods  they  aie 
large  and  placed  one  behind  each  eye.  The  oto- 
cyst  is  a  primitive  form  of  ear,  being  a  sack  con- 
taining a  minute  particle  of  lime,  the  otolith. 
The  sense  of  smell  resides  in  the  tentacles  of  the 
snail,  the  olfactory  nerve  branching  out  at  the 
end.  Also  near  the  visceral  ganglia  is  a  group  of 
sense-cells  (osphradia)  suppo^  to  be  either 
olfactory  or  for  testing  the  purity  of  the  water 
entering  by  the  respiratory  current  or,  in  snails, 
passing  directly  into  the  mantle-cavity.  Thus 
the  organs  of  smell  appear  to  be  in  all  the  forms 
represented  by  groups  of  specialized  cells,  which 
are  persistent  in  nerve-supply  and  position  in  all 
mollusks,  showing  that  the  sense  of  smell  is  all- 
important.  Special  organs  of  taste  are  as  yet 
unknown  in  mollusks.  Excretory  organs  are  t 
single  pair  of  highly  modified  tubes  (nephridit) 
situated  one  on  each  side  of  the  body  just  below 
the  heart.    See  Nervous  System,  Evolutiok  or 

THE;  EXCBETOBT  SYSTEM,  COMPARATIVE  ANAT- 
OMY OF  THE;  and  similar  titles. 

The  female  ovaries  and  male  reproductiTC 
glands  are  impaired.  The  eggs  are  small  and  ex- 
ceedingly numerous,  and  pass  out  in  bivalves 
among  the  folds  of  the  gills,  where  the  young 
develop.  The  animal  after  hatching  passes 
through  a  gastrula,  trochosphere,  and  veliger 
stage,  the  last  so  called  from  the  two  cUiated 
flaps  on  each  side  of  the  head.    Toward  the  end 


LABVAL  STAaCS  OF  MOLLX78K8. 

A.  A  trochosphere  of  the  cockle  (Cardlum^:  r,  dUftted 
crown ;  ff,  flagelhim.  B.  Veliger  stage,  with  the  shell  de- 
veloping; r,  Telum;  zn.  mouth;  /f,  llyer lobee :  t. stomach; 
i,  intestine;  mt,  mantle;  /,  foot;  ml,  mnsde;  d,  neirona 
ganglion. 

of  the  veliger  stage  the  shell  appears,  trising 
from  the  incipient  mantle  as  a  cup-shaped  body 
in  both  bivalves  and  univalves,  but  the  hinge  and 
separate  valves  are  indicated  very  early  in  the 
Pelecypoda.  In  the  young  Unio,  or  fresh-water 
mussel,  the  development  history  is  more  con- 
densed. The  velum  is  wanting  or  vestigial,  and 
the  young  live  between  the  gills  of  the  parent 


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MOLLY  MAaUIBES. 


fastened  to  each  other  by  their  threads  (byssus). 
The  shells  (glochidium)  are  triangular,  broader 
than  long,  with  the  apex  hooked. 

Fossil  Mollusks.  Remains  of  representatives 
of  all  the  classes  of  mollusks  occur  in  the  lowest 
Paleozoic  strata,  having  existed  from  the  Cam- 
brian period  down  to  the  present  time.  As  they 
are  so  abundant,  owing  to  their  preservation  as 
fossils  (the  shells  in  the  absence  of  the  animal 
being  as  a  rule  useful  in  classification),  the 
mollusks  are  of  great  value  as  time-marks,  and 
serve  to  distinguish  the  different  formations. 

The  class  which  occurs  fossil  in  the  earliest 
(Cambrian)  strata,  and  concerning  which  there 
is  no  doubt,  is  the  Gastropoda.  At  the  base  of  the 
Cambrian  (Olenellus  zone)  have  been  found  the 
shells  of  such  primitive  gastropod  genera  as 
Scenella,  Stenotheca,  Flatyceras,  Rhaphistoma, 
and  Pleurotomaria.  The  last-named  genus  is  re- 
markable for  having  persisted  to  the  present  time, 
as  it  is  still  found  at  great  depths  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  More  doubtful  are  the  pteropods  of  the 
Cambrian,  of  the  genera  Hyolithes,  Forellella, 
etc.,  though  their  shells  are  much  more  abun- 
dantly found  than  those  of  the  Gastropoda 
proper.  Of  pelecypods  the  Cambrian  forms  are 
obscure  and  doubtful,  the  only  ones  yet  found  be- 
ing a  tiny  little  shell  (Modioloides),  and  For- 
dilla,  which  may  turn  out  to  be  the  shell  of  a 
crustacean;  and  this  group  is  comparatively 
rare  even  in  the  Ordovician  strata.  Of  cephalo- 
pods  the  earliest  known  genus  is  Volborthella,  a 
minute  orthoceratite  detected  in  the  Lower  Cam- 
brian rocks  of  Finland  and  Esthonia,  and  in  the 
Saint  John  group.  Nova  Scotia. 

The  Cambrian,  Ordovician,  and  Silurian  mol- 
lusks present  (except  in  generic  and  specific 
characters)  comparatively  unimportant  differ- 
ences from  living  forms.  The  earliest  known 
pelecypods  were  the  forerunners  of  the  Nuculidse ; 
the  earliest  gastropods  were  Pleurotomaria  and 
allied  genera,  some  still  living  at  ^eat  depths; 
the  pteropods  were  in  the  main  similar  to  ex- 
isting forms,  while  the  earliest  cephalopods  were 
the  Orthoceratites,  which  are  straight,  uncoiled 
nautiloids.  In  tens  of  millions  of  years,  there- 
fore, the  shelled  mollusks  have  been  one  of  the 
most  numerous  and  characteristic  groups  of  in- 
vertebrates, and  became  more  and  more  differen- 
tiated and  abundant  in  species,  genera,  and 
families  as  time  went  on ;  moreover,  they  are  ex- 
tremely abundant  in  the  Mesozoic  and  Cenozoic 
eras,  hence  they  afford  unusually  favorable  data 
for  the  study  of  the  phylogeny  of  both  the  chief 
and  subordinate  groups.  This  state  of  thin^ 
was  taken  advantage  of  by  Alpheus  Hyatt  m 
studies  carried  on  for  nearly  forty  vears,  during 
which  he  applied  the  biogenetic  law  of  Fritz 
M tiller  and  Haeckel  to  the  cephalopods,  showing 
that  the  life  of  the  individual  during  its  rise 
and  decline  displays  phenomena  correlative  with 
the  collective  life  of  the  order  to  which  it  belongs. 
In  these  and  similar  studies  he  was  followed  by 
Wurtemberger  and  Neumayr.  Their  works  on 
fossil  cephalopods  bear  directly  on  such  subjects 
as  quick  evolution,  the  effects  of  changes  of  en- 
vironment, the  action  of  use  and  disuse,  acting 
throughout  numberless  generations.  The  facts 
gleaned  from  these  mollusks  also  bear  directly 
on  the  causes  and  mode  of  origin  of  the  different 
classes  not  only  of  mollusks,  but  of  all  other 
animal  groups.  The  famous  researches  on  the 
transmutations  of  the  Tertiary  shells  of  Stein- 


heim  by  Hilgendorf  and  by  Hyatt,  those  of  Neu- 
mayr on  the  successive  forms  of  Paludina,  and 
the  studies  in  the  variations  and  evolution  of 
other  types  by  later  authors,  prove  how  valuable 
the  shells  of  mollusks  are  in  such  studies. 

For  the  uses  by  man  of  mollusks,  as  food  or 
ornament,  or  money,  see  imder  Pelecypoda; 
Gastbopoda;  Pearl;  Clam;  Oyster;  Shell 
Money.  Consult:  Cuvier,  M^oires  pour  servir 
d  Vhiatoire  et  d  Vanatomie  des  mollusques 
(Paris,  1817);  Woodward,  Manual  of  the  MoU 
lu8ca  (4th  ed.,  London,  1880) ;  Adams;  The  Gen- 
era of  Recent  Sheila  (ib.,  1853-58) ;  Des- 
hayes,  Traits  4l6mentaire  de  oonchyliologie 
(Paris,  1839-57) ;  and  the  new  edition,  by  Sim- 
roth,  of  the  third  volume  of  Bronn's  Klaasen  und 
Ordnungen  des  Thierreichs;  Gould,  Invertebrates 
of  Massachusetts  (Boston,  1870)  ;  Fischer,  Man- 
uel de  conchyliologie  (Paris,  1883-88)  ;  Pelseneer, 
Introduction  d  V^tude  des  mollusques  (ib., 
1900) ;  Try  on  and  Pilsbury,  Manual  of  Conchology 
(Philadelphia,  1896) ;  Tiyon,  Manual  of  Conchol- 
ogy (Philadelphia,  1879-80);  Cooke,  "The  Mol- 
lusca,"  in  the  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vol. 
iii.  (New  York,  1896) ;  Keep,  West  American 
Shells  (San  Francisco,  1904);  Morphological 
works  of  Owen,  Gegenbaur,  Huxley,  Lamarck, 
Spengel,  Lacaze-Duthiers,  Bouvier,  Bourne,  Peck, 
Ihering,  Brooks,  Ryder,  Hyatt,  with  monographs 
by  Dall  on  deep-sea  forms  and  numerous  recent 
and  fossil  groups,  by  Binney,  Verrill,  Bush,  Con- 
rad, Kobelt,  Pfeiffer,  Martens,  Reeves,  Steams, 
Chemnitz,  Bourguignant,  Pilsbury,  and  others. 

MOLLWITZy  m6KwIts.  A  village  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  in  the  Government  of  Breslau,  seven 
miles  west  of  Brieg.  To  the  east  of  it  lies  the 
battle-field  where  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  gained 
his  first  victory  over  the  Austrians  imder  Mar- 
shal Neipperg,  April  10,  1741.  The  Prussian 
cavalry  was  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  Aus- 
trian and  put  to  fiight.  Frederick  left  the  field 
at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  Marshal  Schwerin, 
who  saved  the  day  with  the  infantry  after  a  five 
hours'  battle.  The  Austrians  suffered  heavily  In 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

MOLLY  HAaXTIBES,  m&-gwlrz^  A  secret 
order  which  existed  in  1854-77,  and  possibly  after- 
wards, in  the  anthracite  coal  mining  region  of 
northeastern  Pennsylvania.  Here  4(X)  collieries 
employed  60,000  men;  Americans,  Germans, 
Welshmen,  Englishmen,  and  Swedes  comprised  in 
one-half  the  number,  the  remainder  being  Irish. 
Among  the  latter  appeared  the  Molly  Maguires,  a 
branch  of  the  Physical  Force  Party  of  Ireland. 
The  order  is  alleged  to  have  been  affiliated  with 
the  'Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians.'  About  1865 
the  Molly  Maguires  first  became  generally  known 
as  a  dangerous  organization.  £i  1875,  having 
been  instrumental  m  forcing  a  general  strike  in 
the  coal  regions,  it  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  as- 
cendency in  the  councils  of  the  miners,  and  from 
that  period  was  prominent  in  assassinations  and 
other  outrages,  committed  usually  on  the  persons 
and  against  the  property  of  justices  of  the  peace, 
police  officers,  and  mining  bosses.  Only  Irish- 
men, or  the  sons  of  Irishmen,  who  professed  the 
Catholic  faith,  were  admitted  to  membership; 
but  by  the  laws  of  the  Church  they  could  not  re- 
main Catholics  in  good  standing.  The  order  was 
organized  in  divisions,  each  having  a  chief  official 
known  as  a  'body-master';  and  there  were  signs 
and  passwords  to  enable  members  to  distinguish 


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each  other.  These  signs  and  passwords  were 
given  to  the  members  by  the  body-masters, 
who  received  them  from  the  county  dele- 
gate, who  got  them  from  the  State  delegate,  to 
whom  they  were  furnished  by  the  national  dele- 

Site  or  national  board  in  New  York  City;  to  the 
tter  they  came  quarterly  from  Ireland,  by  the 
hands  of  the  steward  of  one  of  the  transatlantic 
steamships.  A  central  and  governing  organiza- 
tion known  as  The  Board  of  Erin*  held  quarterly 
meetings  in  England,  Scotland,  or  Ireland.  The 
final  exposure,  capture,  and  punishment  of  the 
Molly  Maguires  was  largely  due  to  the  energy 
and  determination  of  Franklin  B.  Gowan,  presi- 
dent of  the  Pennsylvania  and  Reading  Coal  and 
Iron  Company,  through  the  immediate  instru- 
mentality of  James  McParlan,  a  detective,  who 
joined  the  Molly  Maguires  and  became  acquainted 
with  their  members  and  the  secrets  of  their  or- 
ganization. Many  members  of  the  organization 
were  apprehended,  tried,  and  condemned,  and 
their  execution — ^that  of  a  number  of  them  occur- 
ring on  the  same  day — so  alarmed  the  members 
of  the  order  that  it  ceased  to  have  any  extended 
influence.  Consult:  Dewees,  The  Molly  Ma^ 
guirest  the  Origin,  Orowth,  and  Character  of  the 
Organization  (Philadelphia,  1877)  ;  and  Pinker- 
ton,  The  Molly  Maguires  and  the  Detectives 
(New  York,  1877). 

MOLLTMOKE.  One  of  the  many  variants 
of  mallemuck.     See  Fulhab. 

MOLMENTIy  mthmkDftA,  Pomfeo  Ghebabdo 
(1852 — ),  An  Italian  author,  bom  in  Venice. 
He  studied  law  at  Pisa  and  Padua,  and  practiced 
it  in  his  native  city,  where  he  subsequently  be- 
came professor  of  Italian  literature  at  the  Liceo 
Marco  Foscarini,  and  first  attracted  attention  by 
his  critical  essays,  Intftressioni  letterarie  (1873), 
followed  by  a  new  series  in  1879.  Of  several 
historical  works  concerning  Venice,  the  Storia  ctt 
Venezia  nella  vita  privata  (1880;  4th  ed.  1885) 
was  honored  with  a  prize.  His  studies  in  literary 
and  art  history  resulted  in  the  publication  of 
monographs  on  Carlo  Ooldoni  (1879)  ;  Antonio 
Fogazzaro  (1900);  on  the  painters  Oiorgione 
(1878),  Tiepolo  (1885),  and  Carpaccio  (1893)  ; 
and  of  Studi  e  ricerche  di  storia  e  d'arte  (1892 
and  1897),  besides  which  he  also  wrote  a  number 
of  tales,  such  as  Storie  vecchie  (1883)  and  La 
dogaressa  di  Venezia  (1884). 

MOLOCH.    See  Molech. 

MOLOCH,  m6^dk.  An  extremely  spinose 
lizard  (Moloch  horridus)  of  Western  and  South- 
em  Australia,  belonging  to  the  family  Agamids 
(see  Agama),  and  locally  known  as  *York  devil' 
or  'mountain  devil.*  It  is  5  to  7  inches  long, 
broad  and  flat,  and  its  thick  skin  is  covered  with 
spines  and  tubercles  much  like  those  of  the 
American  *homed  toad.'  This  skin,  which  is 
yellowish,  with  reddish-brown  blotches,  is  highly 
hygroscopic,  absorbing  water  like  blotting  paper. 
It  inhabits  sandy  districts,  is  quite  harmless,  and 
apparently  lives  entirely  upon  ants,  which  it 
catches  in  enormous  quantities  upon  its  long, 
glutinous  tongue.  Consult  Saville  Kent,  The 
Xaturalist  in  Australia.  See  Plate  with  article 
Lizard. 

MOLO  DI  GIBGENTI,  m6lA  dA  jAr-jAn'tA. 
The  former  name  of  Porto  Empedocle  (q.v.),  a 
seaport  in  Sicily. 


MOLOKAI.  md'16-kl^  One  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.    See  Hawaiian  Islai«ds. 

MOLOKAKI,  mo'l6-ktt'n6  (Russ.,  pi.  of  molo- 
kanA,  from  moloko,  milk).  A  Russian  sect.  It 
is  said  the  name  was  given  them  in  derision  by 
the  orthodox  because,  imlike  the  latter,  they  do 
not  observe  fasts.  They  call  themselves  Spiritual 
Christians.  They  are  rationalists,  basing  doc- 
trine and  practice  on  the  Scriptures  interpreted 
by  the  individual  judgment.  As  a  consequence 
much  diversity  of  opinion  prevails  among  them, 
a  condition  which  they  do  not  consider  repre- 
hensible. They  take  the  early  Apostolic  d^urch 
as  depicted  in  the  New  Testament  for  the  mode! 
of  their  ecclesiastical  organization  and  have  no 
hierarchy  or  paid  clergy.  A  presbyter  and  as- 
sistants are  chosen  from  their  own  number  to 
care  for  the  spiritual  and  moral  interests  of  the 
community.  At  their  religious  services,  held  on 
Sunday  in  private  houses,  as  they  are  not  allowed 
to  build  churches,  they  sing  psalms,  read  the 
Scriptures,  and  engage  in  religious  conversation. 
Doctrinal  difficulties  and  questions  of  interpreta- 
tion are  freely  discussed.  They  reverence  Jesus, 
but  do  not  believe  in  His  divinity,  and  consider 
the  miraculous  portions  of  the  New  Testament 
narrative  as  fabulous.  They  have  a  system  of 
strict  supervision  of  the  conduct  of  individuals. 
Offenders  against  morality  are  admonished  in 
private  or  public,  sometimes  excluded  from  the 
religious  meetings,  or  even  expelled.  They  are 
described  as  intelligent,  well  versed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  in  moral  conduct  and  material  pros- 
perity decidedly  superior  to  their  orthodox  neigh- 
bors. Because  of  their  principle  of  private  judg- 
ment and  readiness  to  change  their  views,  they 
are  easily  influenced  by  adventurers  or  fanatics; 
in  several  instances  communities  of  them  have 
been  led  astray  by  such  individuals.  They  have 
also  developed  a  tendency  to  break  up  into  dif- 
ferent sects,  one  of  which  has  adopted  many  of 
the  canons  of  the  Jewish  religion;  another  has 
made  the  common  ownership  of  property  one  of 
its  principles.  Their  origin  is  uncertain.  A 
vague  tradition  says  the  s^  was  founded  in  the 
sixteenth  century  by  foreign  Protestants.  Their 
original  seat  was  in  the  south.  They  have  been 
persecuted  by  the  Government,  and  many  have 
been  transported  to  remote  parts  of  the  Empire. 
Their  number  is  estimated  at  several  hundred 
thousand. 

MOLTING*  (MEng.  mouten,  mototen,  from 
Lat.  mutare,  to  change,  frequentative  of  movere, 
to  move,  Skt.  mft?,  to  push),  or  Ecdysis.  The 
process  of  periodically  shedding  the  skin,  or  in- 
tegument, or  its  appendages,  as  hair  or  feathers; 
exuviation. 

Molting  of  Plumaqk  in  Bibos.  The  change 
of  plumage,  or  shedding  of  the  old  feathers,  and 
their  replacement  by  a  new  set.  The  wh«le  plu- 
mage, says  Dwight,  may  be  renewed  or  only  a 
part  of  it.  In  the  case  of  most  of  the  passerine 
birds  there  are  two  seasons  of  molts  peculiar  to 
the  adults,  a  complete  one,  in  all  species,  follow- 
ing the  breeding  season,  and  an  incomplete  molt 
which  in  certain  species  precedes  the  nuptial  sea- 
son. "The  first,  the  post-nuptial,  restores  tlie 
worn-out  plumage,  the  second  (when  it  is  not 
suppresRod),  the  pre-nuptial,  adorns  birds  for 
the  nuptial  season."  In  a  few  species  the  pre- 
nuptial  molt  is  complete,  though  usually  the 
wing  and  tail  are  not  involved,  and  often  the 


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MOLTIHa. 


renewal  is  confined  to  ''a  sprinkling  of  new 
feathers  here  and  there."  Young  birds  may  also 
molt  several  times  before  they  even  acquire  the 
feathers  of  adult  structure,  and  many  species 
need  to  pass  through  at  least  two  molts  besides 
those  of  the  first  summer  before  the  plumage  be- 
comes  wholly  of  the  pattern  and  color  of  the 
adult.  The  loss  of  feathers  during  the  molting 
process  is  so  compensated  for  by  the  renewal  of 
feathers  that  few  birds  (the  Anatids  and  some 
other  groups  excepted)  lose  either  the  ability  to 
fly  or  the  protection  afforded  by  their  plumage. 
The  feather  areas  are  systematically  replaced, 
the  remiges  falling  out  one  after  another  in 
definite  sequence  and  almost  synchronously  from 
each  wing.  The  greater  coverts  are  regularly  re- 
placed before  the  fall  of  the  secondaries  beneath 
them,  the  lesser  coverts  before  the  median,  while 
even  in  the  rows  of  the  lesser  coverts  an  alterna- 
tion appears  to  be  attempted.  On  the  body  the 
protective  sequence  is  less  obvious,  but  the  molt 
regularly  begins  at  fairly  definite  points. 

The  month  of  August  marks  the  maximum  of 
the  molting  season,  though  there  is  more  or  less 
shedding  of  feathers  in  nearly  every  month  of  the 
year.  A  complete  molt  is  accomplished  in  from 
four  to  six  weeks,  while  partial  molts  require 
much  less  time.  A  resemblance  to  the  shedding 
of  the  skin  of  reptiles  is  seen  in  the  ecdysis 
of  the  scaly  feathers  of  the  penguin,  which  peel 
off  in  flakes. 

In  certain  species  of  European  grouse  thd 
elaws,  which  grow  to  an  inordinate  length  in 
winter,  may  be  partly  shed  or  worn  off  as  spring 
advances;  the  white  pelican,  both  sexes  of 
which  during  the  breeding  season  bear  on  the 
ridge  of  the  bill  a  homy  projection,  sheds  it,  so 
that  these  excrescences  may  be  'gathered  by  the 
bushel.*  The  puffin  (q.v.)  and  some  of  its  allies 
molt  even  the  homy  sneath  of  the  bill,  together 
with  the  outgrowths  over  the  eyes. 

Shedding  of  Horns,  etc.,  by  Mammals.  In 
mammals  the  periodic  shedding  of  the  hair  or 
pelage  is  comparable  with  molting;  as  is  also 
the  process  of  annually  shedding  the  antlers,  the 
new  antler  being  larger  and  consisting  of  a  larger 
number  of  branches  or  tines.  In  the  deer  family 
the  horns  of  the  male  are  deciduous  toward 
spring,  while  the  pronghom  drops  its  horns  in 
the  autumn. 

Molting,  or  Ecdybis  in  the  Lower  Classes. 
In  animals  like  Crustacea,  Myriapoda,  insects, 
and  spiders,  with  a  more  or  less  solid  exoskele- 
ton,  too  dense  to  permit  of  gradual  growth  or  in- 
crease in  volume,  there  must  be  a  periodical  cast- 
ing of  the  skin,  or  ecdysis.  The  same  occurs  in 
salamanders,  and  especially  in  the  scaly  reptiles, 
as  snakes  and  lizards. 

In  the  Crustacea,  insects,  and  similar  animals 
the  old  skin  dies  and  the  new  integument  is 
formed  by  a  secretion  thrown  out  by  the  inner 
layer  of  epithelial  cells  called  the  hypodermis. 
On  removing  the  shell  of  the  lobster  the  hypo- 
dermis is  seen  to  be  a  richly  colored  reddish  soft 
layer.  The  formation  of  the  new  layer  of  chit  in 
arrests  the  supply  of  nourishment  to  the  old 
skin,  so  that  it  dries  and  hardens,  and  is  finally 
shuffled  off.  In  the  crayfish  and  presumably  in 
the  lobster  (q.v.),  as  well  as  in  lizards  and 
snakes,  the  casting  of  the  old  skin  is  materially 
induced  and  aided  by  the  growth  on  the  surface 
of  the  hypodermis  of  a  layer  of  very  fine  and 


equally  distributed  hairs,  called  'casting  hairs,' 
wiiich,  by  their  rigidity  and  position,  mechanic- 
ally loosen  and  raise  the  old  skin.  These  re- 
main as  vestiges,  forming  spikes,  ridges,  or  warts, 
serving  to  ornament  the  crust  of  crabs,  or  the 
outer  edges  of  the  skin-scales  of  snakes  and 
lizards. 

In  insects,  where  casting  hairs  are  exceptional, 
the  loosening  and  casting  of  the  skin  is  Drought 
about  by  the  secretion  of  a  fluid  by  the  cells  of 
the  hypodermis.  This  fluid  spreads  over  the 
whole  surface  when  the  cells  ar^  still  soft  and 
not  hardened  by  exposure  to  the  air.  This  same 
fluid,  when  the  pupa  extricates  itself  from  the 
larval  skin,  extends  around  the  whole  pupa  and 
serves  to  protect  it  and  to  glue  together  the 
wings,  legs,  antenns,  etc.,  in  their  new  position. 

The  process  of  molting  as  seen  in  caterpillars 
(e.g.  Telea  Polpphemua)  is  thus.  It  changes  its 
skin  flve  times  l^fore  changing  to  a  chrysalis ;  and 
the  ecdysis  occurs  at  regular  periods,  i.e.  about 
every  ten  days  for  the  first  four  moltings,  while 
about  twenty  davs  elapse  between  the  fourth  and 
fifth  casting.  The  operation  usually  takes  place 
after  4  P.M.  A  little  before  this  time  it  holds  its 
body  erect,  grasping  a  leaf  with  the  two  pairs  of 
hind  legs  only;  the  skin  is  wrinkled  and  detached 
from  the  body  by  the  fluid  previously  mentioned ; 
the  body  now  energetically  contracts,  so  that  the 
skin  is  pulled  off  and  pushed  toward  the  end  of 
the  body;  the  skin  thus  becomes  so  stretched  that 
it  soon  tears  just  under  the  neck,  and  then 
separates  from  the  head.  When  this  is  accom- 
plished the  most  difficult  operation  is  over,  and 
now  the  process  of  casting  goes  on  very  rapidly. 
By  repeated  contractions  the  skin  is  folded  to- 
ward the  tail,  like  a  glove  when  taken  off,  and 
the  lining  of  the  spiracles,  mouth,  fore  stomach, 
and  rectum  comes  out  in  long  fllaments.  When 
about  one-half  of  the  body  appears,  the  shell  still 
remains  like  a  cap,  inclosing  the  jaws;  then  the 
worm,  says  Trouvelot,  as  if  reminded  of  this 
loose  skull-cap,  removes  it  by  rubbing  it  on  a 
leaf;  this  done,  the  worm  finally  crawls  out  of 
its  skin,  which  is  attached  to  the  fastening  made 
for  the  purpose.  Directly  after  the  ecdy^sis  the 
larva  increases  in  size,  the  head  being  distinctly 
larger  as  well  as  the  body,  which  soon  fllls  out. 

The  lobster  frequently  molts  after  maturity. 
But  in  insects  which  undergo  a  complete  meta- 
morphosis and  which  have  the  longest  lives  the 
number  of  molts  is  greatest.  When  the  number 
is  excessive  this  seems  to  be  due  to  some  physical 
cause,  such  as  lack  of  food  combined  with  low 
temperature.  In  caterpillars  the  number  of 
ecdyses  appears  to  be  dei>endent  on  climate. 

Bibliography.  For  birds,  consult :  J.  Dwight, 
Jr.,  "The  Sequence  of  Plumage  and  Molts  of  the 
Passerine  Birds,"  in  Annals  of  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Sciences,  vol.  xiii.,  part  I.  (New 
York,  1900),  with  a  full  bibliography  as  regards 
passerine  birds;  Newton  (with  Gadow),  Diction^ 
ary  of  Birds  (London,  1893-96)  ;  also  the  au- 
thorities mentioned  under  Cage-Birds. 

For  mammals:  Beddard,  Ma^nmalia  (London, 
1902)  ;  Caton,  Antelope  and  Deer  of  America 
(New  York,  1877). 

For  reptiles  and  Amphibia,  authorities  men- 
tioned under  Amphibia  ;  Snake. 

For  insects,  etc.:  Semper,  Animal  Life  as  Af- 
fected by  the  Natural  Conditions  of  Emstence 
(New  York,  1881)  ;  Packard,  Text-hook  of  Ento- 
mology  (New  York,  1898) ;  Max  Braun,  Veher 


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MOLTIKa. 


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MOLUCCAS. 


die  hUtologiachen  Vangdnge  hei  der  Hcutung  van 
Astacus  Fluviatilis  (Semper's  Arheiten  aus  dem 
soologischen  Inatitut  in  Wiirzburgf  vol.  ii.,  1875), 
with  the  writings  of  Trouvelot,  Riley,  Newport, 
Bugnion,  Gonin,  and  Tower. 

MOLTSB,  mdlt^e,  Hellmuth  Kabl  Bebn- 
HABD,  Count  yon  (1800*91).  A  famous  Prussian 
general.  He  was  bom  at  Parchim,  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  October  26,  1800.  In  181 1  he  was  sent 
to  the  Military  Academy  at  Copenhagen,  and 
in  1819  became  an  officer  in  the  Danish  service, 
but  in  1822  entered  the  Prussian  Army  as  second 
lieutenant  From  1823  to  1826  he  studied  at 
the  military  college  at  Berlin.  In  1832  he  served 
on  the  general  staff,  and  was  several  times  pro- 
moted, attaining  the  rank  of  captain  in  1835.  In 
the  same  year  he  went  to  the  Orient,  and,  with 
the  sanction  of  the  Prussian  authorities,  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  reorganization  of  the 
Turkish  Army  initiated  by  Mahmud  II.  In  1839 
Moltke  returned  to  Prussia.  His  promotion  was 
fairly  rapid;  in  1856  he  was  created  major-gen- 
eral, and  in  1858  he  became  chief  of  the  general 
staff.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-gen- 
eral. While  on  the  general  staff  Moltke  con- 
tinued that  remarkable  development  of  the  Prus- 
sian Army  which  had  been  begun  by  Scharnhorst 
in  1807.  Staff  schools  were  established,  and 
Moltke,  who  was  himself  a  lucid  lecturer, 
succeeded  in  inspiring  his  officers  with  an  en- 
thusiastic interest  in  their  work.  A  constant 
interchange  of  line  and  staff  duties  kept  the 
staff  in  touch  with  the  actual  discipline,  drill, 
and  handling  of  troops,  and  the  business  ad- 
ministration of  each  corps  and  division.  More- 
over, plans  for  possible  campaigns  and  topo- 
graphical surveys  of  neighboring  countries  were 
made  in  the  minutest,  details. 

The  first  test  of  the  system  came  in  1864,  with 
the  war  of  Prussia  and  Austria  against  I>en- 
mark.  The  full  revelation  of  the  Prussian  effi- 
ciency was  brought  about  by  the  Seven  Weeks' 
War  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in  1866. 
Europe  was  surprised  to  see  a  campaign  so  rapid 
and  successful  directed,  so  to  say,  from  the  seat 
of  government,  for  Moltke  had  not  gone  to  the 
front  until  shortly  before  the  end  of  the  war. 
the  great  strategist  received  from  his  King, 
William  I.,  the  Order  of  the  Black  Eagle,  and 
from  the  Prussian  Parliament  fifty  thousand 
marks.  The  Franco-German  War  of  1870-71  was 
the  crowning  triumph  of  Moltke's  career.  The 
war  had  been  long  expected,  and  the  marvelous 
readiness  of  the  Prussian  Army  was  in  striking 
contrast  to  the  disorder  existing  in  French  mili- 
tary affairs.  Moltke  did  not  himself  enter  France 
until  the  war  had  already  been  strategically  de- 
cided, but  it  was  his  plan  that  had  been  carried 
out  with  an  astounding  certainty  and  precision. 
He  was  rewarded  in  September,  1871,  by  promo- 
tion to  the  rank  of  field-marshal  and  a  large 
grant  of  money;  the  title  of  Count  had  been 
conferred  upon  him  in  1870.  Other  European 
States  also  showered  honors  upon  him.  On 
August  9,  1888,  Moltke  retired  from  active 
service.  In  1841  he  had  married  a  stepdaughter 
of  his  sister,  who  died  in  1868.  His  nephew, 
Lieutenant-General  Hellmuth  von  Moltke  (1848 
— ),  became  chief  of  the  general  staff  in  1906. 

Moltke's  writings  on  military  matters,  which 
include  valuable  essays  on  Turkish  affairs,  have 
all  been  published  in  various  editions,  the  best  be- 
ing Oeaammelte  Schriften  und  DenktcUrdigkeiten 


(8  vols.,  Berlin,  1892).  Some  of  his  letters  have 
been  translated  into  English  by  Napier  (London, 
1878) ;  and  by  Bell  and  Fischer,  Letters  of 
Moltke  to  His  Mother  and  Brothers  (London, 
1891).  Consult,  also:  Militcrische  Werke 
Moltkes,  edited  by  the  general  staff  (Berlin* 
1892  et  seq.) ;  Morris,  Biographical  and  Critical 
Study  of  Moltke  (London,  1894) ;  Herms,  Ton 
Moltke,  His  Life  and  Character  (ib.,  1892); 
Buchner,  Feldmarschall  Graf  Helmut h  von  Moltke 
(Lahr,  1895);  JUhns,  Feldmarschall  Moltke 
(Berlin,  1900);  Mttller,  Moltke  (3d  ed.,  StuU- 
gart,  1889)  ;  Fircks,  Feldmarschall  Graf  Moltke 
und  der  preussische  Generalstab  (2d  ed.,  Berlin, 
1887). 

MOIiXJCCAS,  or  Spice  Islands.  An  archi- 
pelago constituting  part  of  the  Dutch  posses- 
sions in  the  East  Indies,  and  comprising 
most  of  the  islands  situated  between  Celebes 
and  New  Guinea,  and  between  the  Philippines 
and  the  Timor  Archipelago  (Map:  Australasia, 
£2).  The  archipelago  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 
equator.  Its  a^[regate  area  is  21,516  square 
miles.  It  is  dividMi  into  the  Northern  and  South- 
em  Moluccas.  The  former  comprise  the  islands  of 
Gilolo,  the  Obi  group,  Temate,  Tidore,  and  Moro- 
tai,  with  the  adjacent  islets,  while  the  latter  take 
in  the  islands  of  Ceram,  Burn,  and  the  Kei,  Aru, 
and  Banda  groups  with  their  surrounding  islands. 
In  geologi^  structure  the  Moluccas  resemble 
the  island  of  Olebes,  being  mostly  composed 
of  Arduean  or  Paleozoic  rocks.  The  highest  point 
is  Mount  Nusa  Heli  in  Ceram,  10,000  feet  hi^. 
The  Moluccas  lie  in  the  line  of  volcanic  activity 
which  extends  from  the  Sunda  Islands  northward 
through  the  Philippines  and  Japan.  Many  of 
the  smaller  islands  are  of  volcanic  formation 
throughout,  and  on  Temate,  as  well  as  in  Gilolo, 
Morotai,  Banda,  and  Tidore,  there  are  active 
cones.  The  climate  is  hot,  but  as  a  rule  not 
unhealthful.  The  Moluccas  are  not  so  well 
watered  or  rich  in  vegetation  as  the  more  west- 
erly islands  in  the  Ihitch  East  Indies,  but  the 
production  of  spices,  from  which  they  derive 
their  name,  is  very  large.  The  betelnut,  nutmeg 
trees,  and  various  other  spice-producing  plants 
are  here  indigenous.  Coffee,  cacao,  tobacco,  in- 
digo, and  rice  are  cultivated  with  success,  and 
the  sago  palm  yields  the  staple  fruit  for  native 
consumption.  In  regard  to  the  fauna,  the  islands 
resemble  the  other  parts  of  the  Australasian 
region.  Besides  species  of  marsupials,  there  are 
wild  hogs,  civet  cats,  and  an  indigenous  species 
of  goats.  Birds  of  bright  plumage  abound  in 
the  forests.  Among  the  insects,  the  butterflies  are 
remarkable  for  their  size  and  the  brilliancy  of 
their  colors.  Sulphnr  is  the  most  important 
mineral  of  the  islands,  but  petroleum,  porcelain 
clay,  tin,  and  coal  are  also  found. 

Industry  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  raising  of 
spices  and  food  products.  While  the  clove-tree 
and  the  nutmeg  occur  in  all  the  islands,  clove- 
culture  is  carried  on  especially  in  Amboyna  and 
the  Uliassers,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  nut- 
meg in  the  Banda  Islands.  This  is  due  mainly 
to  the  fact  that  the  Dutch,  in  their  desire  to 
retain  their  supremacy  in  the  spice  market,  re- 
stricted the  cultivation  of  these  spices  to  the 
above-mentioned  islands  until  1863,  when  the 
restriction  was  taken  off.  The  trade  of  the 
group  is  centred  chiefly  around  Amboyna  >"" 
Temate.  The  exports  consist  mostly  of  cloves 
and  other  spices,  sago,  and  cocoanuts.    Admin- 


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MOLTNEUX. 


istratively  the  archipelago  is  divided  into  the 
two  residencies  of  Temate  and  Amboyna.  The 
chief  city  as  well  as  the  commercial  centre  is 
Amboyna  (<]^.v.),  on  the  island  of  the  same  name. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  400,000,  and  con- 
sists chiefly  of  Alfurese  (q.v.)  and  Malays,  the 
former  being  the  original  inhabitants,  and  found 
especially  in  the  interior  of  the  islands.  Some 
of  them  are  in  a  comparatively  high  state  of  civ- 
ilization. The  number  of  Papuans  and  foreigners 
is  insignificant. 

The  Moluccas  were  discovered  by  the  Por- 
tuguese in  1512  and  were  formally  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  them  in  1521.  They  were  soon, 
however,  taken  by  the  Dutch,  who  started  the 
cultivation  of  spices  here.  In  1605  Ambovna 
was  made  the  chief  station  of  the  Duteh  East 
India  Ck)mpany,  wfiich  also  built  forte  on  sev- 
eral other  islands.  With  the  annexation 
of  the  Moluccas  to  the  Duteh  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies,  the  Government  also  acquired  a  part 
of  New  Guinea  and  Celebes  and  a  few  other 
islands  which  constituted  parte  of  the  former 
vast  possessions  of  the  sultens  of  Ternate  and 
Tidore. 

BiBUOQBAPHT.  Wallace,  The  Malay  Archi- 
pelago (London,  1869)  ;  Botemeyer,  Die  Moluk- 
ken  (Leipzig,  1888) ;  Hemsley,  "Botany  of  Juan 
Fernandez,  S.  E.  Moluccas,  and  Admiralty 
Islands/'  in  Challenger  Voyage  Report8y  Botany, 
vol.  i.  (London,  1885)  ;  KUpenthal,  Ergebnisae 
einer  zoologischen  Forachungareise  in  den  Moluk- 
ken  and  Borneo  (Frankfort,  1897  et  seq.) ;  Mar- 
tin, Reiaen  in  den  Molukken,  Oeologiacher  Teil 
(Leyden,  1897  et  seq.). 

MOLUCHE,  m6-l?^ch&  (Western  people). 
An  important  tribe  of  Araucan  stock  (q.v.), 
residing  on  the  northern  headstreams  of  the 
Limay  River  in  Southwestern  Argentina.  They 
are  distinguished  for  their  light  complexion  and 
regular  features.  Unlike  most  of  their  kindred, 
they  are  sedentery  and  industrial,  having  large 
herds  of  sheep  and  extensive  apple  orchards, 
whence  they  are  sometimes  called  by  the  Span- 
iards Manzaneroa,  or  'Apple  people.' 

HOLY  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^Xv).  A  magic  herb 
with  a  black  root  and  white  flower,  given  by 
Hermes  to  Odysseus  as  a  protection  against  the 
magic  of  Circe.  In  later  writers,  the  word  is 
applied  to  garlic.    Cf.  Odyaaey,  X.  305. 

MOLYBDENITE  (from  molyhdena,  from 
Lat.  molyhdiBna,  from  Gk.  lufkO^aipa,  molyh- 
daina,  galena).  A  mineral  molybdenum  disul- 
phide  that  crystellizes  in  the  hexagonal  system 
m  soft,  flexible,  non-elastic  plates,  has  a  metel- 
lic  lustre,  and  is  of  a  bluish  gray  color.  It 
occurs  in  granite,  gneiss,  limestone,  and  other 
crystelline  rocks,  and  is  found  at  various  locali- 
ties in  Sweden,  Norway,  Finland,  Saxony,  France, 
Italy,  Canada,  and  in  the  United  States  at 
various  pointe  in  New  England,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  California.  It  was  long  con- 
founded with  certein  compounds  of  lead  and  of 
antimony  until  about  1778,  when  Scheele  clearly 
showed  that  it  was  quite  distinct  from  those 
substences.  It  is  said  that  a  fine  blue  pigment 
can  be  prepared  from  this  mineral,  which  has 
been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  indigo  in  dyeing 
silk,  cotton,  and  linen.     See  ^roLYBDE>UM. 

VOL'YBDE'NUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  moU 
yhdcena,  galena  or  litharge).  A  metallic  element 
discovered  in   1782  by  Hjelni.     The  name  was 


applied  by  the  anciente  to  various  substances 
eonteining  lead.  Subsequently  it  was  applied 
to  graphite  and  the  mineral  molybdenite.  Mol- 
ybdenum is  not  found  native,  but  in  combina- 
tion as  the  sulphide  {molybdenite) ,  as  the  oxide 
(molyhdite),  with  lead  {iculfenite),  and  with 
cobalt  ipateraite).  In  smaller  quantities  it  is 
also  found  in  other  minerals.  The  metal  itself 
is  obtained  by  heating  its  chloride  or  trioxide 
to  redness  in  a  current  of  hydrogen.  Molybde- 
niun  (symbol.  Mo;  atomic  weight,  96.)  is  a  silver- 
white  metel  with  a  specific  gravity  of  8.6,  and  a 
melting  point  above  that  of  platidlun.  It  com- 
bines with  oxygen  to  form  the  following  four  ox- 
ides: a  monoxide  (MoO),  a  sesquioxide  (Mo^Og), 
a  dioxide  (MoO,),  and  a  trioxide  (MoO.),  of 
which  the  trioxide  is  the  only  important  com- 
mercial compound  of  molybdenum.  The  trioxide, 
usually  called  "molybdic  acid,"  combines  with 
bases  to  form  molybdates,  of  which  the  am- 
monium molybdate,  (NH4),Mo04,  is  of  value  as 
a  reagent  for  phosphoric  acid.  Molybdenum  it- 
self is  used  for  hardening  steel. 

HOLYN)  mft-lln',  Pieteb  de  (c.1596-1661). 
A  Duteh  landscape  and  genre  painter,  bom  in 
London.  A  pupil  of  Frans  Hals  at  Haarlem, 
he  was  receivea  into  the  guild  there  in  1616^ 
and  elected  dean  in  1633.  Besides  land- 
scapes in  the  style  of  Jan  van  Goven,  enli- 
vened with  biblical  and  other  accessory  figures 
or  animals,  he  painted  village  festivals,  militery 
scenes,  and  the  like,  with  a  broad  touch  and 
wami,  forcible  coloring.  His  pictures  are  very 
rare.  The  Brunswick  Gallery  contains  a  fine 
landscape  of  "Sandhills  with  Group  of  Trees" 
(1626);  the  Berlin  Museum  a  "Ravine  vnih 
Figures"  of  very  powerful  effect.  In  the  Mu- 
seum at  Brussels  may  be  seen  a  "Night  Festival"^ 
(1625) ;  at  Haarlem*  the  "Sacking  of  a  Village'* 
(1630);  at  Hanover  a  "Surprise  by  Robbers" 
(1640)  ;  and  in  the  Louvre  a  "Cavalry  Atteck" 
(1643).  Several  of  those  attributed  to  him  in 
other  galleries  are  probably  by  Pieter  Mulier 
(q.v.). 

HOLYN,  Pieteb  de,  the  younger.     See  Mu- 

LIEB. 

HOLYNEUZ,  mon-nvks,  William  (1656- 
98).  An  Irish  philosopher  and  author,  bom  in 
Dublin.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, in  1675;  studied  law  at  the  Middle  Temple^ 
London,  in  1675-78;  published  a  translation 
(1680)  of  Descartes's  Meditationea  de  Prima 
Philoaophia  (1641);  and  in  1683  assisted  in 
founding  the  Dublin  Philosophical  Society.  In 
1680-90,  owing  to  the  disturbances  attending 
Tyreonnel's  government,  he  resided  in  Chester, 
England,  where  he  wrote  the  major  part  of  his 
Dioptrica  Xora;  A  Treatise  of  Dioptrics  (1692), 
which  long  continued  to  be  the  most  im- 
portent  work  on  the  subject.  From  1692  until 
his  death  he  represented  Dublin  University  in 
the  Irish  Parliament.  He  published  in  1698  his 
Case  of  Ireland  Stated,  in  Relation  to  Its  Being 
Bound  hy  Acts  of  Parliament  Made  in  England 
(1698),  his  best-known  work,  in  which  he  sought 
to  prove  the  independence  of  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment, and  which  evoked  much  discussion.  His 
further  writings  include  Sciothericum  Telcsco- 
picum  (1686),  describing  "a  new  contrivance 
of  adapting  a  telescope  to  a  horizontel  dial." 
The  philosophical  society  of  which  he  was  a 
foimder  was  dissolved  in  1688,  and  later  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 


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MOLZA. 


698 


MOKIEBS. 


irOLZA,  mAKtsA,  Francesco  Mawa  (1489- 
1544).  An  Italian  poet,  bom  at  Modena.  He 
went  as  a  youth  to  Rome,  and  after  living  for  five 
jears  in  Modena,  returned  to  Rome  in  1616. 
From  this  time  he  led  a  life  of  reckless  dissipa- 
tion. At  times  he  was  in  the  service  of  Cardinal 
Ippolito  de'  Medici,  and  again  in  that  of  Car- 
dinal Alessandro  Famesse,  but  he  wrote  much 
graceful  verse  in  the  meantime.  The  most  cele- 
brated of  his  poems  is  the  Ninfa  Tiberina,  com- 
posed in  honor  of  Faustina  Mancini.  Gamett 
compares  this  effort  with  Grajr's  Elegy  for  fault- 
less technique.  He  wrote,  besides  this  poem,  son- 
nets, burlesques,  romances,  elegies,  and  epigrams. 
His  complete  works,  imder  the  title  Poeste  vol- 
gari  e  latine,  were  published  in  1747-54.  His 
granddaughter,  Tabquinia  Molza  (1542-1607), 
was  also  a  poet.  Several  of  her  poems  have  been 
printed  with  the  works  of  her  grandfather. 

MOKBASA,  mdmbft^sA,  or  MOICBAZ.     The 

«hief  seaport  town  and  capital  of  the  British 
East  Africa  Protectorate,  situated  on  a  small 
«oral  island  off  the  coast  in  latitute  4**  3'  S.  and 
longitude  39**  43'  E.,  about  150  miles  north  of 
Zanzibar  Island  (Map:  Africa,  J  5).  The 
shores  of  the  island  are  rocky  and  abrupt;  the 
island  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  rail- 
way line.  Mombasa  is  an  important  commercial 
centre,  a  naval  coaling  station,  and  the  terminus 
of  the  Uganda  Railway.  It  has  a  fine  harbor 
with  an  iron  pier  and  a  stone  wharf.  There  are 
remains  of  ancient  buildings  which  testify  to  the 
former  prosperity  of  the  place,  but  the  houses 
generally  are  poorly  built.  The  chief  object  of  in- 
terest is  an  extensive  fort  on  a  scarped  rock  built 
in  1596  by  the  Portuguese  and  restored  in  1635. 
Here  are  the  offices  and  workshops  of  the 
British  East  Africa  Company,  and  a  new  Euro- 
pean hospital.  The  inhabitants,  the  majority  of 
whom  are  sunk  in  abject  poverty,  mostly  live 
in  wretched  hovels.  Mombasa  was  visited  by 
Vasco  da  Gama  in  1497,  and  held  by  the  Por- 
tuguese during  the  greater  part  of  the  period 
from  1529  to  1698,  when  it  appears  to  have 
become  independent.  The  English  held  it  from 
1824  to  1826,  after  which  it  passed  to  Zanzibar, 
and  was  ceded  in  1891  to  the  Imperial  British 
East  Africa  Company.  At  present  it  is  under  the 
direct  administration  of  the  Crown.  Population, 
in  1901,  estimated,  27,000. 

MOMBEBT,  mdro^ert,  Jacob  Isidob  (1829 
— ).  A  Protestant  Episcopal  scholar.  He  was 
bom  at  Cassel,  Germany,  November  6,  1829; 
studied  in  England  and  at  Leipzig  and  Heidel- 
berg; became  curate  at  Quebec,  Canada,  1857; 
rector  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1859;  rector  of  Saint 
John's  American  Church,  Dreiiden,  Saxony,  1870; 
returned  to  America  in  1875,  and  has  since 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  literary  work.  He  has 
written  Faith  Victorious,  a  life  of  Archdeacon 
Johann  Ebel  of  KOnigsberg  (1882);  Handbook 
of  the  English  Version  of  the  Bible  (1883); 
Great  Lives  (1886);  Life  of  Charles  the  Great 
(1889)  ;  Short  History  of  the  Crusades  (1894). 
In  1884  he  brought  out  a  verbatim  reprint  of 
the  edition  of  1530  of  William  Tyndale's  Five 
Books  of  Moses,  with  various  collations  and 
prolegomena. 

MOMENT  (Fr.  moment ,  from  Lat.  momen- 
turn,  movement,  alteration,  particle  sufficient  to 
turn  the  scales,  moment,  from  morere,  to  move, 
Skt.  miv,  to  push).     WTien  portions  of  matter 


are  in  rotation  about  an  axis,  those  physical 
quantities  which  are  used  to  d^cribe  motion 
of  translation — e.g.  force,  mcHnentum,  inertia, 
or  mass — cease  to  be  useful  in  expressing 
the  properties  of  the  angular  motion.  Anal- 
ogous expressions,  however,  can  be  found  which 
are  called  'moment  of  force,*  'moment  of  mo- 
mentum^' 'moment  of  inertia' — all  with  refer- 
ence to  the  axis  of  rotation,  which  play  the  same 
part  in  the  equations  of  rotati<Mi  as  do  force, 
momentum,  and  mass  in  translation.  The  mo- 
ment of  a  force  about  an  axis  is  the  product  of 
the  numerical  value  of  the  force  by  the  per- 
pendicular distance  from  the  axis  to  the  line 
of  action  of  the  force.  The  moment  of  mo- 
mentum of  a  particle  about  the  axis  is  the 
product  of  the  momentum  by  the  perpendicular 
distance  from  the  axis  to  the  direction  of  the 
velocity  of  the  particle.  (If  the  particle  forms 
part  of  a  rigid  body  rotating  about  a  fixed  axis, 
the  moment  of  momentum  equals  the  product 
of  the  moment  of  inertia  and  the  angular 
velocity.)  The  moment  of  inertia  of  a  rigid  bodj 
about  an  axis  is  the  summation  of  a  series  of 
terms,  Wjri* -|- t»,rt* -f  ,  etc.  (or  2mr*),  where 
mi  is  the  mass  of  a  particle  of  the  body  and  r 
is  its  distance  from  the  axis,  etc.  See  Me- 
chanics. 

MOMENTUM  (Lat.,  movement,  alteration, 
particle  sufficient  to  turn  the  scales,  moment) ,  or 
Quantity  of  Motion.  The  product  of  the  mass 
of  a  moving  particle  and  its  linear  velocity.  (It 
is  a  vector  quantity.)  Both  terms  were  used 
by  Galileo;  the  latter  by  Newton.  It  is  a 
fundamental  principle  of  mechanics  (q.v.)  that 
the  numerical  value  of  the  influence  of  any 
external  body  in  changing  the  motion  of  a 
moving  particle  is  the  rate  of  change  of  mo- 
mentum with  reference  to  the  time,  or  the 
change  in  one  second  if  the  change  is  uniform. 
The  total  change  of  momentum  in  any  time 
equals  the  'impulse'  of  the  external  force,  or  the 
product  of  the  force  and  the  interval  of  time. 
If  a  bullet  enters  a  target,  the  time  required  for 
it  to  come  to  rest  depends  upon  its  momentum; 
but  the  distance  it  enters,  upon  its  kinetic  en- 
ergy. Thus  to  produce  a  powerful  blow  a  great 
momentum  (mv)  is  required;  but  to  do  destruc- 
tive damage,  great  kinetic  energy  (%mt?*).  If 
a  system  of  bodies  is  moving  free  from  external 
influence,  the  geometrical  sum  of  the  linear 
momenta  of  all  the  bodies  of  the  system  remains 
unchanged  regardless  of  how  the  momenta  of 
the  individual  bodies  are  altered  by  impacts, 
explosions,  etc.  This  is  called  the  'principle  of 
thef  conservation  of  linear  momentum.*  (By 
geometrical  sum  is  meant  the  process  of  adding 
geometrically  the  lines  which  indicate  the  mo- 
menta of  the  individual  bodies  of  the  system.) 

If  a  rigid  body  is  rotating  about  a  fixed  axis, 
the  product  of  its  moment  of  inertia  about  this 
axis  and  its  angular  velocity  is  called  its  'angular 
momentum  ;*  and  it  plays  the  same  part  in  motion 
of  rotation  that  linear  momentum  does  m  trans- 
lation.    See  Mechanics. 

MOMIEBS,  mA'myA'  (Fr.,  mummers).  The 
name  given  in  derision  to  a  class  of  evangelical 
Protestants  of  Switzerland  and  adjacent  parts  of 
Germany  and  France,  which  sprang  up  about  1817. 
and  whose  members  exhibited  an  uncommon  de- 
gree of  fervor  in  their  religious  services.  They 
charged  the  national  Church  with  apostasy  from 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOMIEBS. 


699 


MONACI. 


the  reformed  faith,  especially  by  denying  the 
divinity  of  Christ.  This  subjected  them  to  oppo- 
sition, restraint,  and  fines.  Among  those  who 
belonged  to  the  Momiers  or  sympathized  with 
them  were  C^sar  Malan,  Louis  Gaussen,  Merle 
d'Aubigng,  and  F.  Monod  (qq.v.).  Out  of  this 
sect  sprang  the  French  society  styled  the  Evan- 
gelical Society  for  the  Conversion  of  Roman 
Catholics,  and  the  Free  Church  of  Switzerland. 
Consult:  Oeachichte  der  Momiers  (Basel,  1825) ; 
Von  der  Goltz,  Die  reformirte  Kirche  Oenfs  im 
19.  Jahrhundert  (Basel,  1864) ;  Chenevi^re, 
Quelquea  mots  sur  la  Oendve  religieuse  au 
XlXitne  Steele,  de  M,  le  Baron  de  Qoltz  (Ge- 
neva, 1863). 

MOMMSEN,  m6m^zen,  Theodob  (1817-1903). 
An  eminent  German  historian  and  archaeologist. 
He  was  bom  November  30,  1817,  at  Garding,  in 
8chleswig,  where  his  father  was  a  pastor.  From 
1838  to  1843  he  studied  at  the  University  of 
Kiel,  devotinff  himself  especially  to  legal  and 
historical  suojects.  From  1844  to  1847  he 
traveled  and  studied  in  Italy  and  France;  in 
1848  he  became  editor  of  the  Schlesvyighol- 
steinisohe  Zeitung  at  Rendsburg,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year  was  called  to  Leipzig 
as  professor  extraordinarius  of  law.  Two 
years  later,  however,  having  been  removed  for 
political  reasons,  he  withdrew  to  Switzerland, 
where  he  became  professor  of  Roman  law 
at  the  University  of  Zurich  in  1852.  After  two 
years  he  was  called  to  a  similar  position  at 
Breslau,  and  from  1858  he  was  professor  of 
ancient  history  at  Berlin.  From  1874  to  1896 
he  was  permanent  secretary  of  the  Berlin  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  also  served  as  Deputy 
in  the  Prussian  Parliament  from  1873  to  1882, 
and  was  a  powerful  factor  in  all  liberal  move- 
ments. Mommsen's  literary  activity  began  in 
1843  with  his  famous  monograph,  De  Coilegiis  et 
Sodaliciia  Romanorum,  and  from  that  time  he 
continued  to  make  most  important  contributions 
to  almost  every  field  of  classical  learning.  His 
greatest  works  are :  Die  unteritalischen  Dialekte 
(1860);  Rdmiaohe  Oeachichte  (1864-56;  vols, 
i.-iii.,  in  8th  ed.,  1888;  Eng.  trans.,  New  York, 
1894),  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  masterly 
histories  ever  written;  Romieche  Chronologie 
(2d  ed.  1859) ;  Die  Oeachichte  dea  rdmiachen 
MUnzioeaena  (1860);  R6miachea  Staatareoht 
(3d  ed.  1887-88)  ;  Romiaohea  Strafrecht  (1899). 
Mommsen  more  than  any  other  man  became  the 
founder  of  modem  Latin  epigraphy.  By  his 
publication  of  the  volume  Inaoriptionea  Regni 
Neapolitani  LatitUB  (1852)  a.iid  his  Inaoriptionea 
Confcederationia  Eelveticw  Latince  (1854),  he  set 
the  model  which  has  been  followed  in  the  great 
collection  of  Latin  inscriptions,  the  Corpua 
Inacriptionum  Latinarum,  which  has  been  pub- 
lished at  the  expense  of  the  Berlin  Academy 
since  1863.  Of  this  great  work  Mommsen  him- 
self edited  vols,  i.,  iii.,  viii.,  and  ix.,  and  pub- 
lished a  large  nimiber  of  epigraph ical  works, 
one  of  the  most  important  of  which  is  the 
Monumentufn  Ancyranum,  with  extensive  com- 
mentary (2d  ed.  1883).  He  also  edited  many 
Latin  authors,  the  Digest^  and  served  as  co-editor 
of  the  Monumenta  Oermanice  Historica.  For  a 
full  list  of  his  publications  up  to  1887,  consult 
Zangemeister,  Theodor  Mommaen  ala  Schrift- 
steller  (Heidelberg,  1887).  Two  of  Theodor 
Mommsen's  brothers  were  eminent  scholars  in 
bpecial  fields.  Tycho,  born  at  Garding,  May  23, 
Vol.  Xin.-46. 


1819,  studied  at  Kiel  and  was  engaged  in  educa- 
tive work  until  1885,  when  he  retired.  He  pub- 
lished a  critical  edition  of  Pindar  (1864)  and 
other  works  on  the  Greek  poet.  He  died  Decem- 
ber 1,  1900.  August,  bora  at  Oldesloe,  July  25, 
1821,  studied  at  Kiel,  was  also  engaged  in 
educational  work,  and  published  several  volumes 
relating  to  Greek  and  Roman  chronology. 

MOMOBa>ICA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  mordere, 
to  bite;  so  called  because  the  seeds  look  as  if 
bitten).  A  genus  of  the  natural  order  Gucur- 
bitaoese.  Momordica  Balaamina,  a  native  of 
Southern  Europe  and  of  the  East,  used  to  cover 
arbors,  produces  a  curious,  oblong,  much-warted 
fruit,  called  the  balsam  apple,  which,  when 
green,  is  infused  in  oil  to  form  a  vulnerary 
much  esteemed  in  Syria  and  some  other  coun- 
tries. The  large,  red,  thorny  fruit  of  Momordica 
oochinchinenaia,  called  gol-kakra  in  India,  is 
there  used  for  food.  Momordica  Charantia,  a 
native  of  Asia  and  Africa,  grown  as  an  orna- 
mental in  the  United  States,  is  noted  for  ita 
peculiarly  sculptured  seeds,  the  pulp  surroimd- 
ing  which  is  eaten  by  the  Chinese.  Momordica 
involucrata  is  also  cultivated  as  an  ornamental. 

MOMOSTENANOO;  mO'm6s-tA-nttn^gA.  A 
town  of  the  department  of  Totonicapan,  Guate- 
mala, 60  miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  Guate- 
mala (Map:  Central  America  B  3).  It  is  situ- 
ated on  a  high  plateau  in  the  midst  of  an  im- 
portant agricultural  region.  Its  inhabitants, 
chiefly  Indians,  are  also  engaged  in  weaving 
woolen  cloth.    Population,  in  1899,  about  18,000. 

MO'MOTOMOSO.    A  volcano  in  Central  Amer- 
ica, situated  on  the  northwestern  shore  of  Lake 
Managua  in  Nicaragua  (Map:  Central  America, 
D4).    Its  height  is  6124  feet.    It  is  still  actiye;' 
its  last  great  eruption  occurred  in  1852. 

MOMPOS,  mAm^p6s,  or  MOMPOX.  A  town 
of  the  Department  of  Bolfvar,  Colombia,  situated 
on  the  Magdalena,  110  miles  southeast  of  Car- 
tagena (Map:  Colombia,  C  2).  The  town  has 
two  colleges  and  several  elementary  schools.  It 
was  formerly  an  important  port,  but  the  river 
at  this  point  is  no  longer  navigable;  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is  the  manufacture 
of  jewelry,  tools,  and  instruments.  Population, 
10,000. 

MOOffUS  (Gk.  Mfijuoj,  MOmoa,  ridicule).  The  . 
personification  of  mocking  censure.  In  Hesiod  he 
IS  the  offspring  of  Night,  and  in  the  lost  epio 
poem,  Cypria,  he  seems  to  have  suggested  to  Zeus 
the  marriage  of  Thetis  and  the  birth  of  a  fair 
daughter,  which  would  together  bring  about  the 
Trojan  War.  His  story  was  chosen  for  satyr 
dramas,  and  his  name  became  proverbial  for  a 
carping  and  mocking  critic.  In  Lucian  and  his 
contemporaries  Momus  is  more  prominent  than 
in  the  earlier  writers,  and  criticises  all  the  gods 
for  their  defects,  even  to  the  shoes  of  Aphrodite, 
who  was  otherwise  faultless.  For  this  Zeus 
finally  drove  him  out  of  heaven. 

MONACHISM.     See  Monasticism. 

MONACI,  m6-nrch6,  Ebnesto  (1844— ).  An 
Italian  Romance  philologist,  bom  at  Soriano 
(Province  of  Rome).  He  studied  the  Romance 
languages  and  became  professor  of  Romance  phi- 
lology at  the  University  of  Rome  in  1876.  The 
Rivista  di  Filologia,  which  he  founded  in  1872, 
with  Stengel  and  Manzoni,  ceased  publication  in 
1876,   but  the   Oiomale  di  Filologia  Romanssa 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MONACL 


TOO 


MONAGHAK. 


(1878-84)  was  virtually  a  continuation  of  it. 
Honaci  published  detached  essays  along  the  same 
line  in  the  Sttidi  di  Filologia  Roinanza,suid  under 
the  following  titles:  Uffizi  drammatici  dei  disci- 
pHnati  delV  Umbria,  in  the  Riviata  di  Filologia 

(1872)  ;  II  Canzoniere  portoghese  della  Bihlio- 
teca  Vaticana  (1875)  ;  11  Canzoniere  portogheae 
Brancuti-Colocci  (1875-80)  ;  II  Canzoniere  chigi- 
ano  (with  Molteni,  1878)  ;  Testi  antichi  proven- 
zali   (1889). 

MONACO,  m5n^&-k0.  An  independent  Italian 
principality  and  the  smallest  sovereign  State  of 
Europe,  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
French  Department  of  Alpes-Maritimes  (Map: 
France,  S.,  M  6).  Its  area  is  about  8^2  square 
miles,  and  the  principality  practically  consists  of 
the  capital,  Monaco,  Monte  Carlo  (q.v.),  and  the 
village  of  Condamine,  between  the  two  towns. 
It  is  in  a  mountainous  country,  renowned  for  its 
picturesque  scenery.  It  is  without  industry  or 
commerce,  and  its  inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly 
in  providing  accommodations  for  tourists.  The 
government  of  the  principality  is  that  of  an  abso- 
lute hereditary  monarchy.  The  internal  affairs 
are  in  the  hands  of  a  Cfovemor-General,  who  is 
also  the  president  of  the  Council  of  State,  whose 
functions  are  merely  advisory.  There  is  a  court  of 
first  instance  and  a  court  of  justices  of  the  peace, 
but  no  jail,  all  prisoners  being  sent  to  France.  The 
judges  are  appointed  by  the  Prince,  mostly  from 
members  of  judicial  bodies  in  France,  and  the 
French  Code  has  been  adopted  with  some  modifi- 
cations by  the  principality.  The  police  force 
consists  of  86  gendarmes.  There  is  no  army  and 
little  taxation,  the  revenue  being  derived  almost 
entirely  from  the  profits  which  are  received 
from  the  famous  gaming  tables  at  Monte  Carlo. 
The  principality  forms  a  Roman  Catholic  bish<^- 
ric,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  recognized 
and  supported  by  the  State.  Population,  in 
1896,  15,180. 

Monaco  was  conferred  on  a  member  of  the 
Genoese  House  of  Grimaldi  in  980.  In  1450  the 
principality  passed  under  the  protection  of 
Aragon,  but,  dissatisfied  with  the  Spanish  rule, 
it  came  under  the  protection  of  France  in  1641. 
The  National  Convention  annexed  the  princi- 
pality to  France  in  1793.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Vienna  it  came  under  the  protection  of  Sar- 
dinia. In  1861  the  communes  of  Men  tone  and 
Roccabruna  (Roquebrune)  were  ceded  by  Sar- 
dinia to  France,  for  which  the  Prince  of  Mon- 
aco received  in  the  following  year  an  indemnity 
of  4,000,000  francs.  Consult:  M^tivier,  Monaco 
et  ses  princes  (La  Flfeche,  1865)  ;  Pember- 
ton.  The  History  of  Monaco,  Past  and  Present 
(London,  1867)  ;  Harris,  Monaco:  pidccs  his- 
toriques  et  trait 6s  (Nice,  1882)  ;  Boyer  de  Saint 
Suzanne,  Les  petits  4tats  de  V Europe:  la  princi- 
pautd  de  ilfona<;o(  Paris,  1884)  ;  Saige,  Documents 
historiques  relatifs  d  la  principaut^  de  Monaco 
(Monaco,  1890-91)  ;  id.,'  Monaco,  ses  origines  et 
son  histoire  (Paris,  1898)  ;  Moncharville,  Mo- 
naco, son  histoire  diplomatique:  la  question  des 
jeux  (Paris,  1898). 

MONACO.  The  capital  of  the  Principality  of 
Monaco,  situated  on  a  promontory  in  the  Mediter- 
yanean,  about  midway  between  Nice  and  Mentone 
(Map:  France,  S.,  M  5).  Its  chief  buildings  are 
the  palace  of  the  Prince,  with  a  beautiful  garden, 
and  the  new  cathedral,  built  in  the  Romano-By- 
zantine   style.      Near   the    town    is   the   famous 


gambling  resort  of  Monte  Carlo  (q.v.).  The  ad- 
joining commune  of  Condamine  has  a  railway 
station  and  some  industries.  Monaco  is  a  sea- 
bathing resort,  and  its  climate  is  considered  very 
healthful.  Population,  with  Condamine,  about 
10,000. 

MONACO,  II.  a  name  sometimes  applied  to> 
the  Italian  painter  and  monk  Don  Lorenzo- 
(q.v.). 

MO^AB  (from  Lat.  m^mas,  from  Gk.  iiavisy 
imit,  from  ujbmt,  monos,  single;  connected  with 
Ger.  man,  only,  Lith.  mindu,  throughout).  (1) 
In  early  modern  philosophy,  a  term  used  to  des- 
ignate the  ultimate  elements  of  reality  (Bruno). 
By  Leibnitz,  from  whose  system  the  name  has. 
derived  importance,  it  is  used  to  designate  the 
spiritual  atoms  which  compose  the  universe. 
(See  Leibnitz.)  (2)  In  biology,  a  generic  term 
for  a  simplest  organism  defined  as  being  with- 
out a  nucleus.  In  the  old  system  of  Ehrenberg,. 
!Monas  was  a  large  genus,  but  it  has  become  more 
and  more  restricted,  as  better  methods  and  ap- 
paratus have  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  nu- 
cleus where  none  was  believed  to  occur.  The- 
forms  once  included  in  the  genus  are  now  dis- 
tributed among  the  flagellate  Infusoria  on  the- 
one  hand  (HaeckePs  Monera;  see  Moneb),  and 
the  bacteria  on  the  other.  As  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  there  is  no  organism  without  nuclear 
matter,  the  name  is  practically  obsolete. 

MONAjyNOCK,  Grand.  An  isolated  moun- 
tain in  Cheshire  County,  in  the  southwestern  cor- 
ner of  New  Hampshire  (Map:  New  Hampshire, 
F  10) .  It  is  regarded  as  an  outlying  member  of 
the  WTiite  Mountain  group,  is  3186  feet  high,  and 
commands  a  fine  view  from  its  summit. 

MONAGAS,  mA-nft^gfts,  Jos£  Tadbo  (1784- 
1868 ) .  A  Venezuelan  soldier  and  politician,  bom 
near  Maturin.  He  served  with  distinction  durmg 
the  War  for  Independence  (1813-21),  and  in 
1846  was  elected  President  of  the  Republic.  At 
first  he  posed  as  a  reformer,  but  he  soon  forsook 
this  rOle  and  made  himself  dictator.  Congress 
refusing  longer  to  support  him,  he  dissolved  that 
body,  and  in  1850  defeated  ex-President  Paer 
(q.v.),  who  headed  an  insurrection  against  hi* 
authority.  The  next  year  he  secured  the  election 
of  his  brother  Jos6  Gregorio  to  the  Presidency, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  the  latter's  term,  id 
1856,  was  himself  reelected.  Two  years  later, 
however,  another  insurrection  broke  out  against 
him,  and  on  March  16,  1868,  he  was  forced  to- 
abdicate  and  to  leave  the  countiy.  Ten  years- 
later  he  returned  and  overthrew  President  Fal- 
c6n.  Congress  then  elected  him  Falcon's  suc- 
cessor, but  he  died  before  taking  oflSoe. 

MONAGHAN^  m5n^a-gan.  An  inland  county 
in  the  southern  part  of  Ulster,  Ireland  (Map: 
Ireland,  E  2).  Area,  500  square  miles.  The- 
surface  is  in  general  undulating  with  some  eteep 
hills,  the  highest  point  being  1250  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  soil  is  varied  in  character,  less 
than  half  the  area  of  the  county  being  arable, 
but  in  general  it  is  suitable  for  cereal  crops  (with 
the  exception  of  wheat)  and  flax.  The  principal 
towns  are  Monaghan  (q.v.),  the  county-seat.  Car- 
rickmacross.  Clones,  and  Castle  Blayney.  The* 
population  declined  from  200,500  in  1841  to- 
74.611  in  1901. 

MONAGHAN.  The  capital  of  County  Mon- 
aghan,  Ireland,   76  miles  northwest  of  Dublin 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONAGHAN. 


701 


MOKABCHY. 


(Map:  Ireland,  D  2).  Among  its  public  build- 
ings are  the  market-house,  court-house,  Roman 
Catholic  college,  and  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Mac- 
Carthain.  The  town  is  the  centre  of  a  trade  in 
fiax  and  grain.  Two  markets  for  agricultural 
produce  are  held  weekly,  and  there  is  also  a 
monthly  fair.     Population,  in  1901,  2932. 

MONAIiDESCHIy  mO'n&l-desOc^  Giovanni, 
Marchese.  An  Italian  noble  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  a  favorite  of  Christina  of  Sweden.  He 
was  a  member  of  a  noble  family  of  Ascoli  and  a 
leader  of  the  French  party  at  Rome;  and  after 
the  disgrace  of  Pimentelli  and  the  Spanish  party 
at  the  Swedish  Court,  came  into  the  favor  of 
the  Queen.  In  1657,  during  her  visit  at  the 
French  Court,  she  accused  him  of  high  treason 
and  had  him  assassinated  at  Fontainebleau.  The 
real  reason  for  his  murder  is  unknown.  Consult 
Martens,  Causes  ciUhres  (Leipzig,  1858). 

MO^A  (Sp.,  Port.,  It.,  female  monkey) 
MONKEY.  A  West  African  guenon  {Cercopithe- 
CU8  mcma)f  familiar  in  menageries  and  as  a  pet. 
It  is  of  small  size,  black  on  the  back,  with  the 
face  purple,  except  the  pink  lips  and  chin.  The 
under  surface  is  white,  abruptly  demarked  from 
the  black  mantle ;  ther  bushy  whiskers  are  yellow ; 
a  gray  band  extends  across  the  forehead;  and 
there  is  an  oval  white  spot  on  each  side  of  the 
root  of  the  tail.  It  is  a  docile  and  interesting 
animal.    Compare  Guenon  and  Diana  Monkey. 

MONABGH.     See  Milkweed  Buttebflt. 

MONABCHIANS  (from  Gk.  fiopapxia,  mon- 
archuL,  sole  power,  from  fi6papxos,  monarchos, 
monarch,  from  /i^pot,  monoSf  single  -|-  Apx^t-^t 
archein,  to  rule ) .  A  term  of  Christian  theology,  ap- 
plied to  certain  persons  in  the  early  Church  who  ob- 
jected to  the  orthodox  Christology,  on  the  ground 
that  it  suggested  two  gods  (or  three,  if  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  included ) ,  and  who  maintained,  in  op- 
position, what  was  called  the  divine  'Monarchy* 
(Gk. /iOMipx^)*  or  essential  oneness  of  the  Deity. 
The  questions  at  issue  were  the  relationship  of 
Christ  to  the  Father  and  Christ's  pre€xistence. 
If  Christ  was  God  incarnate,  as  the  Church 
taught,  then  it  must  follow,  said  some,  that  God 
the  Father  has  entered  the  world,  and  has  lived, 
suffered,  and  died  among  men.  Christ  then  would 
be  merely  a  form  or  mode  of  manifestation  of 
the  supreme  Deity,  who  might  reveal  Himselt  as 
Father,  Son,  or  Spirit.  This  doctrine  was  called 
Modalism,  or,  more  exactly.  Modal istic  Monarch i- 
anism.  It  was  also  known  as  Patripassianism, 
from  the  fact  that  it  represented  the  Father 
as  suffering.  Among  its  adherents  were  Praxeas, 
an  Asiatic  Christian,  who  visited  Romer  late  in 
the  second  century,  and  was  opposed  by  Tertul- 
lian  and  by  No^tus  of  Smyrna,  whose  views 
were  combated  by  Hippolytus.  The  most  cele- 
brated Modalist,  however,  was  Sabellius  (q.v.), 
who  flourished  early  in  the  third  century,  and 
who  taught  that  the  Trinity  consisted  of  three 
successive  manifestations  of  God  in  history. 
Eastern  Modalism  was  commonly  called  Sabel- 
lianism  after  him,  and  this  name  ultimately 
came  into  use  in  the  West  also. 

But  there  were  some  Christians  who  attempted, 
in  just  the  opposite  fashion,  to  answer  the  question 
how  Christ  was  related  to  God.  Their  method  was 
not  identification,  but  distinction.  Christ  they 
held  to  be  a  created  being,  a  man  like  other  men, 
hut  they  believed  He  became  the  Son  of  God  by 
adoption,  through  an  impartation  of  divine  pow- 


ers, usually  regarded  as  received  at  His  baptism. 
These  persons  are  known  as  Dynamic  Monarch- 
ians  (from  Gk.  dvrdfuts,  powers),  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  other  Monarchians  described 
above.  One  of  the  leaders  of  this  school  was 
Theodotus  the  Tanner,  who  came  to  Rome  from 
Byzantium  late  in  the  second  century,  and  was 
there  excommunicated  by  Pope  Victor  I.  Another 
leader  also  bore  the  name  Theodotus.  Her  was 
a  money-changer,  a  disciple  of  Theodotus  the 
Tanner.  Artemon,  in  the  third  century,  con- 
tinued the  same  teaching.  All  these  three  appear 
to  have  been  laymen.  The  Theodotians  and 
Artemonites  were  called  after  them,  and  figure 
prominently  among  the  third  century  heretics. 
Dynamic  Monarch ianism  found  an  able  repre- 
sentative in  Paul,  Bishop  of  Samosata  and  Prime 
Minister  of  Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  who  was 
excommunicated  by  an  Asiatic  s3mod  about  268. 
( See  Paul  of  Samosata.  )  The  Dynamic  Monarch- 
ians were  probably  much  less  numerous  than  the 
Modal  ists. 

Over  against  all  these  Mouarchians  of  either 
type  the  main  body  of  the  Church  maintained  the 
divinity  of  Christ  along  with  His  personal  distinc- 
tion from  the  Father.  The  orthodox  Logos-Chris- 
tology  was  developed  into  the  doctrine  that  Christ 
is  a  pre^xistent  divine  hypostasis  (q.v.),  who  be- 
came man  through  the  incarnation,  and  is  there- 
fore both  God  and  man,  two  natures  in  one  per- 
son. A  similar  view  was  held,  although  with  less 
distinctiveness  as  yet,  respecting  the  Holy  Spirit^ 
the  third  person  of  the  Trinity  (q.v.).  Irenseus, 
Tertullian,  Hippolytus,  Novatian,  and  especially 
Origen,  all  contributed  toward  this  doctrinal  de- 
velopment. Yet  by  teaching  that  the  Son  was 
subordinate  to  the  Father^  as  he  was  forced  to 
do  in  refuting  Monarchianism,  Origen  prepared 
the  way  for  Arianism,  the  most  serious  heresy 
of  the  fourth  century.  (See  Abius.)  Con- 
sult: Harnack,  History  of  Dogma ^  vol.  iii.  (Lon- 
don, 1897 )  ;  Fisher,  History  of  Christian  Doc- 
trine (New  York,  1896)  ;  Smith  and  Wace,  Dic- 
tionary of  Christian  Biography,  articles  "Theodo- 
tus," "Artemon,"  "Praxeas,"  "NoCtus,"  "Sabel- 
lius," "Paul  of  Samosata,"  etc. 

MONABCHY  (Lat.  monarchia,  from  Gk.  au>- 
popxla,  sole  power).  In  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  that  form  of  State  in  which  the  sovereign 
authority  is  vested  in  a  single  person.  It  is  only 
when  the  king  or  chief  magistrate  of  the  com- 
munity possesses  the  entire  ruling  power  that  he 
is,  in  the  proper  acceptation  of  the  term  a  mon- 
arch; but  in  a  mere  popular  sense  the  term 
'monarchy'  is  applied  to  any  State  in  which  the 
chief  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  single 
hereditary  ruler.  The  degenerate  form  of  mon- 
archy is  tyranny,  or  government  for  the  exclusive 
benefit  of  the  ruler.  When  the  head  of  the  State, 
still  possessing  the  status  and  dignity  of  royalty, 
shares  the  supreme  power  with  a  class  of  no- 
bles, with  a  popular  representative  body,  or 
with  both,  the  government,  though  no  longer  in 
strictness  monarchical,  is  called  in  popular  lan- 
guage a  mixed  or  limited  monarchy,  the  term 
absolute  monarchy  being  applied  to  a  government 
properly  monarchical.  If  the  monarch  in  the 
exercise  of  his  powers  is  restrained  by  the  pre- 
cepts of  a  constitution,  the  State  is  commonly 
styled  a  'constitutional  monarchy.*  Monarchy, 
most  usually  hereditary,  has  sometimes  been  elec- 
tive, a  condition  generally  attended  with  feuda 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONABCHY. 


702 


MONASTIC  ABT. 


and  difltractions,  as  was  the  case  in  Poland 
(q.T.)*  Constitutional  monarchy  may  be  in  its 
origin  elective,  or  combine  both  systems,  as  when 
one  family  is  disinherited  and  the  sceptre  de- 
clared hereditary  in  the  hands  of  another  imder 
certain  conditions^  as  occurred  in  England  in 
1688.    See  Govebnment;  King;  Repubuc. 

MONAS.     See  Monad. 

MONASTEBY  (Lat.  monaateriumy  from  Gk. 
fiomrr'^piow,  monastery,  solitary  dwelling,  from 
ftopaffrilis,  monastSs,  solitary  man,  monk,  from 
Hoifi.^ty,  monazein,  to  dwell  alone,  from  /i^i^ot, 
monosi,  single).  The  generic  name  of  the  resi- 
dence of  any  body  of  men  (or  even,  though  more 
rarely,  of  women)  bound  by  monastic  vows.  In 
its  strict  application,  it  is  confined  to  the  houses 
of  monks  properly  so  called,  but  is  frequently 
used  of  the  establishments  of  the  mendicant  and 
more  modem  orders.  The  older  monasteries  were 
divided  into  two  great  classes,  abbeys  and  pri- 
ories. The  former  name  was  given  only  to  the 
important  or  mother  houses,  governed  by  an 
abbot,  who  was  commonly  assisted  by  a  prior, 
sub-prior,  and  other  functionaries.  An  abbey  al- 
ways included  a  church,  and  the  English  word 
minster,  still  applied  to  churches  no  longer  part 
of  a  monastic  establishment,  had  its  origin  in 
the  Latin  monasterium,  A  priory  supposed  a  less 
extensive  and  less  numerous  community.  It  was 
governed  by  a  prior,  and  was  originally  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  an  abbey.  This  was  the 
Benedictine  rule;  but  in  other  orders,  such  as 
the  Carthusian,  the  title  of  prior  was  uniformly 
used  instead  of  abbot.  In  the  military  orders 
the  names  commandery  and  preceptory  were  used 
instead  of  abbey  and  priory.  The  name  cloister 
is  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  monastery, 
considered  as  an  inclosed  place;  the  term  is  also 
used,  in  a  narrower  sense,  to  designate  the  ar- 
caded  ambulatory  which  runs  around  the  inner 
court  of  the  buildings.  Below  the  officials  men- 
tioned above,  the  ordinary  monks  were  generally 
divided  into  two  great  classes:  choir  brothers 
(frequently,  in  later  times  almost  universally,  in 
holy  orders),  so  called  because  they  were  required 
and  by  their  education  qualified  to  take  part  in 
the  singing  of  the  choir  offices,  and  lay  brothers, 
who,  instead  of  this  duty,  had  the  household  cares 
of  the  community.  For  the  principles  of  monastic 
life  and  the  history  of  its  development,  see  MoN- 
ASTiciSM ;  and,  for  the  important  part  played  by 
monasteries  in  the  growth  of  architecture  and 
its  kindred  arts,  see  Monastic  Art. 

MONASTEBY,  The.  A  novel  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  (1820).  It  is  a  story  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, of  the  days  of  Murray,  the  Regent,  and  had 
for  its  sequel  The  Ahhot.  It  was  not  so  success- 
ful as  most  of  Scott*s  works,  partly  from  the 
supernatural  element  in  the  appearance  of  the 
White  Lady  of  Avenal. 

MONASTIC  ABT.  The  art  peculiar  to  the 
monastic  orders.  In  the  development  of  Chris- 
tian art  monasticism  was  at  times  the  determin- 
ing cause.  The  Basilian  and  other  groups  of 
monks  in  the  East  during  the  entire  Middle 
Ages;  the  Benedictines  in  the  West  from  the 
eighth  to  the  eleventh  century;  the  Cistercians 
during  the  twelfth;  the  Franciscans  and  Do- 
minicans, especially  in  Italy,  during  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  produced  a  large 
proportion  of  the  works  of  art  of  those  periods. 


The  influence  of  these  orders  was  seldom  exer- 
cised on  tlie  material  side  of  the  various  arts, 
but  more  generally  and  radically  on  the  choice 
and  treatment  of  subject. 

Basilian  Art.  The  monks  of  the  Order  of 
Saint  Basil  were  the  best  organized  and  most 
numerous  of  the  monastic  aggregations  in  the 
East,  and  their  influence  upon  Christian  art  was 
the  most  important  produced  by  Eastern  monas- 
ticism.  Oriental  monasteries  cannot  compare 
with  the  largest  in  the  West;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  study  of  them  is  more  interesting,  because 
so  many  more  remain  comparatively  intact  and 
are  of  so  early  a  date.  The  groups  in  the  Egyp- 
tian Desert,  for  example,  date  mainly  from  the 
fourth  and  flfth  centuries,  and  somer  of  those  in 
Old  Cairo  are  not  much  later.  The  usual  type  is 
an  immense  inclosure  surrounded  by  a  high  wall, 
like  that  around  an  Egyptian  temple.  Within 
the  court  the  monks'  cells  are  built  against  ths 
inner  edge  of  this  wall,  leaving  the  central  space 
free  for  two  or  three  churches,  a  large  refectory, 
a  strong  watch  tower  which  contains  the  treasury 
and  library.  Next  in  age  come  the  monasteries 
of  the  cities  of  Central  Syria  (fifth  and  sixth 
centuries),  with  a  common  cloister.  Scattered 
over  Syria  and  Palestine,  beginning  with  Justini- 
an's famous  monastery  of  Saint  Laba,  on  Mount 
Sinai,  are  monastic  establishments  of  the  Syrian 
monks  which  rivaled  those  of  Egypt.  They  have 
been  very  little  studied.  But  the  period  suc- 
ceeding the  Iconoclastic  movement  is  represented 
by  some  monasteries  at  Constantinople  (e.g. 
Saint  John  Stoudios),  Saloniki,  Chios,  Daphne, 
and  Saint  Luke  in  Greece,  and  especially  by 
those  of  the  Holy  Moimtain,  Mount  Athos,  the 
centre  of  Hellenic  monasticism  from  the  eleventh 
century  to  the  present  day.  The  general  plan 
of  the  Mount  Athos  monasteries  was  similar  to 
that  of  the  Egyptians,  with  the  difference  that 
a  better  organization  had  brought.  The  separate 
monasteries  were  dotted  over  the  mountain,  each 
in  its  inclosing  wall.  Their  churehes,  treasuries, 
frescoes,  and  manuscripts  have  been  carefully  stud- 
ied ;  they  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  groups 
remaining  from  the  Middle  Ages.  Some  of  the 
buildings  are  as  early  as  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries,  with  mosaic  pavements,  decorative 
sculptures  and  mosaics,  but  the  frescoes  are  all 
mucn  later.  The  most  interesting  group  in  Thes- 
saly  are  the  famous  monasteries  of  Meteora, 
which  the  visitor  can  reach  only  by  being  hauled 
in  a  basket  to  the  top  of  a  high  precipitous  rock. 
Here  the  buildings  are  not  as  old  as  at  Mount 
Athos.  In  the  strong  Byzantine  revival  under 
Basil  the  Macedonian  and  his  successors  (ninth 
and  tenth  centuries),  the  monks  played  an  im- 
portant part  as  colonists.  Traces  of  their  monas- 
teries and  himdreds  of  their  anchoretic  caves  with 
Byzantine  frescoes  are  found,  for  example,  in  Ca- 
labria, Apulia,  and  other  parts  of  Southern  Italy. 
Before  then,  in  the  eighth  century,  the  Icono- 
clastic persecutions  had  driven  to  Italy  many 
Basilian  monks,  who  as  painters  could  no  longer 
practice  their  art  safely  in  the  East.  They  gave 
the  strongly  Byzantine  tinge  to  the  art,  especial- 
ly the  painting  and  decorative  sculpture  of  the 
Roman  school,  which  thence  spread  over  the  rest 
of  Europe.  There  were  over  twenty  Greek  mon- 
asteries in  Rome,  large  and  small,  before  the 
eleventh  century.  That  of  Grottaferrata,  near 
Rome,  became  the  greatest  representative  of  the 
Basilians  in  the  West  outside  of  Southern  Italy, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONASTIC  ABT. 


708 


MONASTIC  ABT. 


and  still  has  interesting  early  mosaics  and  sculp- 
tures. 

While  the  monastic  and  lay  artists  of  Europe 
developed  their  styles  of  architecture  with  but 
little  reference  to  the  East,  the  arts  of  ivory 
carving,  enameling,  goldsmith  work,  mosaic, 
tapestry,  and  embroidery  were  perpetuated  in 
the  Eastern  monasteries  and  by  them  trans- 
mitted to  the  Western  monks  of  the  Garlovingian 
age.  To  the  Eastern  monks  also  was  due  a  domi- 
nant part  in  perfecting  the  system  of  Christian 
iconography  which  was  in  part,  at  least,  adopted 
in  the  West,  including  the  artistic  types  of  Christ, 
the  Virgin,  John  the  Baptist,  the  Apostles, 
angels,  and  saints,  as  well  as  the  arrangement  of 
most  of  the  subjects  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. This  influence  was  supreme  in  Italian 
painting,  for  example,  up  to  the  time  of  Giotto. 
With  the  name  of  the  monk  Panselinos  will  al- 
ways be  connected  that  written  text-book  of 
painters  used  until  the  present  day  by  Neo-By- 
cantine  artists. 

Benedictine  Abt.  The  earliest  establishments 
of  the  founder  of  the  Order  of  Saint  Benedict 
at  Subiaco  and  Monte  Cassino  have  left  no 
traces  to  show  that  they  had  any  special  ar- 
tistic significance.  Most  of  the  Western  mon- 
asteries of  the  seventh  century  were  of  wood, 
and  the  life  was  still  largely  anchoretic.  It  was 
in  the  eighth  century,  as  the  Garlovingian  era 
approaches,  that  Benedictine  life  became  more 
highly  organized,  types  of  monastic  buildings 
were  created  for  all  time,  and  monasteries  of 
great  wealth  and  power  arose,  taking  a  leading 
part  in  art.  Centula,  Lorsch,  Fontanella,  and 
Fulda  were  followed  by  Nanantula,  Monte  Cas- 
sino, Cava,  Saint  Gall,  Tours,  Reichenau,  and 
many  other  great  artistic  centres.  The  cloister, 
a  new  architectural  form  adapted  from  the  atri- 
um of  the  early  Christian  basilica,  became  the 
centre  around  which  the  monastic  buildings  were 
grouped.  For  the  general  plan  and  organization 
of  the  monastery  and  its  early  artistic  activity, 
consult  the  article  Benedictines. 

In  the  tenth  century  the  great  Benedictine  re- 
form took  place  at  Cluny,  which  henceforth  was 
the  leading  monastery  of  the  Order,  using  the 
establishments  of  Hirsau  and  Farfa  to  further 
her  artistic  and  other  reforms  in  Germany  and 
Ital^.  The  plans  used  in  rebuilding  and  reor- 
ganizing these  two  monasteries  were  borrowed 
from  Ciimy.  The  revival  which  ensued  led  to 
an  immense  increase  in  the  number  of  establish- 
ments. In  Italy  alone  art  became  partly  enfran- 
chised, with  a  notable  increase  of  lay  artists, 
due  to  the  great  prosj)erity  of  the  free  commimal 
cities. 

The  style  of  architecture  practiced  by  the 
Benedictines  during  these  centuries  did  not  show 
much  originality.  It  retained  in  the  churches 
the  old  basilfcal  type,  with  columns  and  wooden 
roof,  though  piers  w^ere  occasionally  used.  The 
lack  of  close,  organized  union  between  the  dif- 
ferent monasteries  of  the  Order  prevented  the 
creation  of  a  special  Benedictine  style.  The 
work  had  local  characteristics.  In  newly  con- 
verted and  civilized  regions  the  monks  were  al- 
ways the  pioneers  of  art,  and  in  this  way,  even 
without  special  style,  became  a  paramount  in- 
fluence. But  in  fresco  painting  and  in  the  minor 
and  industrial  arts,  the  case  was  different.  (See 
Benedictines.)  The  monks  partly  introduced 
Byzantine  methods  and  ideas,  as  in  the  school 


foimded  in  the  eleventh  century  by  Desiderius  at 
Monte  Cassino,  for  nearly  all  branches  of  art, 
partly  evolved  a  special  style  and  iconography, 
as  in  Germany  and  France.  The  lay  guilds  of  the 
late  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods  were  merely 
offshoots  from  these  monastic  schools.  The  in- 
tellectual attainments  of  the  monks  peculiarly 
qualified  them  in  developing  systematically  the 
themes  of  religious  art,  which  they  handed  on 
to  their  lay  successors,  who  had  but  to  accept 
and  vary  them. 

CiSTEBCiAN  Art.  The  Cistercian  monasteries 
were  not,  like  the  Benedictine,  centres  of  the 
industrial  and  minor  arts;  no  provision  was 
made  for  the  practice  of  ivory  carving,  gold- 
smith work,  enameling,  illuminating  manuscripts 
or  fresco  painting,  mosaic  work,  and  monumental 
sculpture.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  necessary 
to  train  a  school  of  architects  that  should  under- 
stand the  special  needs  of  the  Order  and  build 
according  to  its  rules.  This  school  originated 
in  Burgundy,  and  as  the  Order  spread  over  the 
whole  of  Europe  and  part  of  the  Orient  during 
the  twelfth  century  and  became  the  most  power- 
ful of  all  monastic  institutions,  as  w^ell  as  the 
most  perfectly  oi^nized,  its  architects  carried 
the  Burgundian  Cistercian  style  over  a  large 
part  of  the  then  civilized  world.  Pontigny  in 
France,  Maulbronn  in  Germany,  Fossanova  in 
Italy,  Veruela  in  Spain  are  typical  establish- 
ments in  good  preservation  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries.  The  high  walls  inclosing 
the  entire  establishment,  and  insuring  protec- 
tion against  raids,  as  well  as  marking  the  clois- 
tral limits,  were  entered  through  a  monumental 
gateway,  and  contained  large  warehouses,  barns, 
and  stables,  and  often  a  mill,  a  hospital,  and 
chapel,  as  well  as  the  main  quadrangle  of  build- 
ings, fianked  by  a  cemetery,  garden,  and  orchard. 
Of  this  quadrangle  the  church  usually  occupied 
the  left  flank,  facing  the  gateway,  the  dormi- 
tories being  on  the  front  and  rear  of  the  quad- 
rangle around  the  cloister,  on  the  second  floor, 
the  ground  floor  being  occupied  by  a  chapel  and 
chapter-house  on  the  side  near  the  church,  a 
refectory  and  kitchen  on  the  side  opposite  the 
church,  and  reception  rooms,  passageways,  and 
staircases  on  the  front. 

The  architectural  style  of  these  buildings  was 
plain  on  principle.  The  church  had  a  plain 
gable  front  without  towers,  and  its  material  was 
of  stone  or  bricks  left  undecorated  by  figured 
sculptures  or  frescoes.  The  practical  element, 
being  so  strongly  developed,  led  to  a  divorce  of 
the  decorative  from  the  structural  elements  in 
architecture.  Stress  was  laid  upon  forms  of 
vaulting,  and  the  Order  became  associated  with 
the  substitution  of  tunnel,  groin,  and  ribbed 
vaulting  for  wooden  roofs  throughout  a  large 
part  of  Europe.  But  the  infiuence  of  the  new 
Gothic  constructive  forms  commenced  in  Bur- 
gundy toward  1160,  and  the  Cistercian  archi- 
tects quickly  adopted  them  as  in  harmony  with 
their  own  ideas,  and  propagated  them  through- 
out Europe.  Nevertheless  the  Order  never  de- 
veloped the  Gothic  style  in  its  entirety  or  to 
its  ultimate  forms,  but  rested  satisfied  with  its 
elementary  stage  as  more  in  harmony  with  the 
simple  ideas  of  the  Order. 

The  monastic  buildings  of  Fossanova  in  Italy 
are  a  good  example  of  structures  built  by  French 
Cistercian  constructors  imported  from  Bur- 
gundy; those  of  the  neighboring  Casamari  ei^- 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MONASTIC  ABT. 


704 


M0NA8TICI8M. 


emplify  the  handiwork  of  the  native  artista 
taught  by  these  Frenchmen.  So  it  was  every- 
where, especially  in  GJemiany  and  England,  where 
local  peculiarities  soon  strongly  modified  the  im- 
ported styles,  and  before  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  original  strictness  of  the 
Order  was  relaxed,  and,  especially  in  France,  the 
entire  rich  system  of  Gothic  decoration  adopted, 
with  its  tracery,  floral  sculpture,  and  stained 
glass.  With  the  fourteenth  century  the  decadence 
of  the  Order,  replaced  in  popularity  by  the  Fran- 
ciscans and  Dominicans,  removed  it  as  a  serious 
factor  from  the  field  of  art. 

Franciscan  and  Dominican  Art.  The  mon- 
asteries of  these  Orders  were  in  or  near  the  cities, 
so  that  the  members  could  take  part  in  the  daily 
life  of  the  people.  There  were  ordinarily  no 
high  encircling  cloistral  walls,  no  arrangements 
for  teaching  the  arts  (except  occasionally  that 
of  illuminating  manuscripts  or  doing  goldsmith 
work),  no  warehouses.  The  art  of  the  mendi- 
cant orders  was  especially  important  in  Italy. 
At  the  beginning  the  Cistercian  style  furnished 
models  for  church  and  cloistral  architecture,  but 
soon  these  borrowed  traits  dropped  into  insig- 
nificance, when  compared  with  the  original  fea- 
tures that  were  developed.  The  emphasis  laid 
upon  preaching  in  their  churches  to  the  masses, 
and  thus  influencing  public  sentiment^  led  to  the 
creation  of  two  new  types  of  monastic  church — 
that  with  lofty  aisles  and  with  widely  spaced 
supports  between  nave  and  aisles,  and  the  hall 
church  type  with  no  aisles.  In  both  cases  the 
object  was  to  place  large  congregations  within 
sight  and  hearing  of  the  pulpit.  San  Francesco 
at  Assisi,  the  mother  monastery,  was  the  model 
for  the  hall-church  type ;  San  Francesco  and 
San  Domenico  at  Bologna  for  the  three-aisled 
type.  Of  the  greatest  churches  of  the  thirteenth 
century  in  Italy,  nearly  all  were  built  by  monks 
of  these  two  Orders — Santa  Maria  Novella  and 
Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  Santa  Maria  dei  Frari 
and  Santi  Giovanni  e  Paolo  at  Venice,  Santa 
Maria  sopra  Minerva  in  Home,  Sant'  Anastasia 
at  Verona,  San  Francesco  at  Ascoli. 

While  the  Orders  were  less  prominent  in  the 
architecture  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  they  certainly 
popularized  in  Germany  the  use  of  the  hall 
church,  which  became  a  very  common  type;  but 
the  predominance  of  cathedral  architecture  and 
the  continued  prosperity  of  the  Cistercians  limited 
their  sphere. 

Of  even  greater  importance  was  the  effect  of 
the  Orders  on  sculpture  and  painting.  The 
thought  and  feeling,  the  system  and  symbolism 
that  lay  behind  the  great  schools  of  fresco  paint- 
ing of  Florence,  Siena,  and  other  Italian  centres, 
as  well  as  the  French  schools  of  cathedral  sculp- 
ture at  Chartres,  Hheims.  Amiens,  Bourges, 
Paris,  are  due  to  the  influence  of  Saint  Francis, 
Saint  Dominic,  and  their  successors,  such  as 
Saint  Bonaventura  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  The 
encyclopaedic  thinkers  who  furnished  the  ideas  and 
directed  the  hand  of  sculptors  and  painters  were 
the  teachers  of  these  Orders,  who  also  directed 
the  thought  of  the  universities  of  Europe.  The 
frescoes  in  the  Church  of  San  Francesco  at  Assisi, 
in  the  Cappelli  dei  Spagnuoli  at  Florence,  the 
Palazzo  Pubblico  at  Siena,  the  tower  at  Florence, 
and  of  Orvieto  Cathedral,  are  their  work,  in 
flvmbolism,  in  teaching,  in  all  their  higher  value. 
The  bold  attempt  to  represent  the  origin,  char- 
acter, and  history  of  the  universe  in  art,  made 


by  the  decorators  of  the  French  Gothic  cathe- 
drals, had  precisely  the  same  source.  The  corre- 
sponding printed  pages  are  to  be  found  in  Vin- 
cent of  Beauvais's  Speculum  Universale  and 
other  similar  literary  encyclopaedias.  It  is  bj 
reading  the  life  and  legends  of  Saint  Francis, 
by  studying  the  important  r6\e  of  the  preachers 
in  the  popular  movements,  by  reading  the  ser- 
mons of  the  great  preachers,  that  one  can  realize 
how  clearly  the  mystic  and  allegorical  art  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  is  a  crea- 
tion of  these  Orders  and  merely  a  part  of  a 
great  wave  of  social  reform  that  was  due  largely 
to  them.  Giotto,  the  Gaddi,  Orcagna,  Andrea 
Pisano,  and  other  artists,  while  not  members  of 
the  Orders,  expressed  their  ideals. 

Other  Orders.  Of  all  the  Western  Orders,  only 
one  returned  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  anchoretic 
idea  and  expressed  it  in  beautiful  architectural 
movements.  This  was  the  Carthusian  Order 
(Chartreux)  of  Saint  Bruno,  founded  in  the 
eleventh  century.  The  individual  cell  life  of  each 
member  determined  the  form  and  character  of  the 
monastic  buildings,  which  covered  a  great  extent 
of  ground,  usually  around  two  immense  cloisters 
or  open  courts. 

The  secularizing  of  art,  which  began  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  was  carried  further  forward 
by  each  century  of  the  Renaissance.  What  the 
art -guilds  commenced  humanism  completed.  The 
monastic  Orders  exercised  no  influence  in  art 
after  the  fourteenth  century,  even  though  some 
individual  members  were  prominent  artists,  such 
as  Fra  Angelico,  Filippo  Lippi,  Bartolommeo, 
the  painters;  Fra  Giocondo,  the  architect;  etc 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  The  entire  theme  of  monastic 
art  is  so  interwoven  with  the  history  of  Chris- 
tian art  as  a  whole,  as  to  have  eluded  treatment 
Lenoir,  Architecture  monastique  (Paris,  1852- 
66) ,  has  given  a  very  good  summary  of  this  part 
of  the  subject.  Other  general  works  are:  Wiese, 
Veber  das  Verhaltnis  der  Kunst  zur  Religum 
(Berlin,  1878)  ;  Springer,  Klosterlehen  und 
Kloaterkunat  (Bonn,  1886);  Schlosser,  Die 
abendldndische  Kloateranlage  des  fruheren  Mit- 
telalters  (Vienna,  1889):  Kraus,  Oeschichte  der 
christUchen  Kunst  (Freiburg,  1896);  for  the 
Basilians,  Brockhaus,  Die  Kunst  in  den  Athoi- 
Kloatem  (Leipzig,  1890),  and  Balhr,  Le  mon- 
ast^re  hyzantin  de  Tehrassa  (Paris,  1897) ;  for 
the  Benedictines,  Kratzinger,  Die  Benediktiner- 
orden  und  die  Kultur  (Heidelberg.  1876);  for 
the  Cistercians,  Sharpe,  The  Architecture  of  the 
Cistercians  (London,  1874)  ;  for  the  Dominicans 
and  Franciscans,  Enlart,  Origines  fran^aises  de 
Varchitecture  gothique  en  Italic  (Paris,  1894). 
Consult,  also,  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
Christian  Art;  Benedictines;  Cistercians. 

MONASTICISM.  The  general  term  used  to 
describe  the  system  under  which  those  men  and 
women  live  who  have  abandoned  the  world  for 
religious  reasons,  and  live,  whether  separately 
or  in  community,  in  the  pursuit  of  perfection. 
The  vows  under  which  they  live  (for  details  sec 
Vow)  are  based  upon  what  are  known  as  the 
evangelical  counsels  (q.v.),  or  maxims  collected 
from  the  teachings  of  Christ  to  guide  those  who 
are  desirous  of  attaining  perfection  in  this  life 
From  their  being  bound  by  such  vows,  these 
people  are  known  as  religious  (Lat.  religare,  to 
bind ) .  The  term  monk  is  correctly  applied  only 
to  the  members  of  the  older  or  more  strictly 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOKASTICISK. 


705 


MOKASTICISK. 


•cloistered  societies,  and  not  to  the  mendicant 
Orders,  sucli  as  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans, 
whose  members  are  termed  friars.  The  word 
monk  is,  however,  sometimes  loosely  applied  to 
•any  who  sacrifice  worldly  advantages  and  rela- 
tionships to  give  themselves  wholly  to  the  ser- 
vice of  God  and  their  neighbor  under  the  vows 
of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 

Forms  of  monasticism  existed  among  the  so- 
called  pagan  nations  long  before  Christ.  Buddha 
found  the  institution  a  practically  essential  fea- 
ture of  Brahmanism  wnen  he  began  his  work 
about  the  sixth  century  before  Christ.  Among 
the  Brahmans,  all  of  the  members  of  the  three 
highest  castes  were  supposed  to  pass  through  a 
stage  of  life  as  anchorites,  apart  from  all  family 
relations,  or  were  to  be  mendicants  absorbed 
■entirely  in  religious  contemplation.  Not  all  of 
the  high-caste  Brahmans  followed  this  religious 
prescription.  Out  of  these  anchorites  and  mendi- 
•cants  Buddha  created  a  monastic  Order,  for 
whom  he  drew  up  a  set  of  rules  that  contain 
many  analogies  with  the  rules  of  Christian  reli- 
g^ious  Orders.  Confucius  also  taught  at  least  the 
principles  of  monasticism,  and  there  seem  to 
nave  been  some  followers  of  his  advice  in  this 
matter  among  his  disciples  at  all  times.  Among 
the  Greeks  tJe  members  of  the  Orphic  brother- 
hood and  the  followers  of  Pythagoras  showed 
marked  tendencies  to  monasticism.  In  Egypt 
the  worship  of  Serapis  was  associated  with  the 
foundation  of  monasteries.  The  largest  institu- 
tion of  the  kind  was  that  at  Memphis,  which 
flourished  just'  after  the  Alexandrian  period. 
German  antiquaries  have  pointed  out  many 
similarities  between  the  old  Egyptian  monasti- 
cism and  the  later  Christian  monastic  founda- 
tions in  the  same  country. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  Nazirites  (q.v.)  of  the 
Old  Testament  may  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
monastic  Order,  to  which,  it  is  supposed,  Samuel, 
Samson,  John  the  Baptist,  and  James  the  Just 
belonged.  The  prophet  Elijah  is  known  as  a 
hermit  and  an  encourager  of  this  life.  There  is 
a  very  old  tradition  that  he  was  the  original 
founder  of  the.  Carmelites  (o.v.) ;  and  when 
Saint  Jerome  foimded  his  Oraer  of  monks  at 
Bethlehem  he  said,  "We  have  our  example  in 
Elijah,  the  prince  of  monks ;  our  chief  is  Elisha ; 
our  leaders  the  prophets  who  dwelt  in  fields  and 
solitudes  and  built  their  tents  along  the  streams 
of  the  Jordan."  The  Essenes  (q.v.)  seem  to 
have  had  some  of  the  characteristics  of  a  reli- 
gious Order;  in  fact,  it  has  been  thought  that 
their  mode  of  life  was  the  same  in  many  par- 
ticulars as  that  prescribed  centuries  later  by 
the  rule  of  Saint  Benedict. 

The  first  reference  to  the  monastic  life  in 
Christian  writers  is  considered  by  some  to  be  a 
letter  of  Saint  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  a  disciple 
of  the  Apostle  John,  who  writes  a.d.  107  to  a 
convent  of  virgins.  The  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(154)  formulated  rules  for  those  who  assumed 
the  monastic  life,  and  especially  for  the  regula- 
tion of  their  relations  to  bishops.  The  first 
Christian  hermits  seem  to  have  established  them- 
selves on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  in 
ante-Christian  times  the  Therapeutse,  an  Order 
of  pagan  hermits,  had  been  established.  Not  long 
afterwards  the  desert  regions  of  upper  E^ypt 
became  a  favorite  retreat  for  those  who  fled  from 
the  persecutions  of  the  dHiristians  so  frequent 
during  the  third  century,  or  who  found  the  vices 


of  the  decadent  Roman  Empire  intolerable. 
Among  the  earliest  of  these  fathers  of  the  desert 
was  Paul  of  Thebes  (q.v.),  who  lived  for  over 
one  hundred  years  (228-340?)  on  the  fruit  of 
the  date  tree  and  water,  clothing  himself  in 
palm  leaves.  After  Paul  came  Antony  (q.v.), 
who  was  the  first  to  gather  together  the  scat- 
tered hermits  in  lauras.  These  first  coenobites 
had  their  collections  of  cells  in  the  deserts 
of  the  Thebaid.  The  life  of  Saint  Antony 
was  written  by  Athanasius,  at  whose  request 
he  abandoned  his  solitude  for  a  time  during 
the  troubles  caused  by  the  Arians.  While  the 
heresy  was  rampant,  Antony  established  him- 
self at  Alexandria,  and  the  fame  of  his  sanctity, 
as  well  as  his  gentleness  and  learning,  drew 
many  disciples  to  him.  Not  a  few  of  these  new 
followers  accompanied  Antony  when  he  again 
retired  to  the  desert.  His  greatest  disciple  was 
Macarius  of  Alexandria,  who  died  in  394, 
and  whose  reputation  for  wisdom  and  saintli- 
ness  attracted  many  monks  to  the  various  her- 
mitages over  which  he  ruled.  Apparently  about 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  monks  began 
to  live  together  under  a  common  roof,  and  build- 
ings began  to  be  erected  as  monasteries  instead 
of  the  separate  cells  in  which  the  hermits  had 
lived.  Pachomius  (q.v.)  founded  an  immense 
monastery  about  340,  on  the  island  of  Tabennae, 
in  the  Nile.  He  drew  up  for  his  subjects  a 
monastic  rule,  the  first  definite  set  of  regula- 
tions of  the  kind  on  record.  Many  thousands  of 
disciples  fiocked  to  him,  and  he  founded  several 
other  monasteries  for  men,  and  one  for  women 
under  the  direction  of  his  sister.  All  of  these 
institutions  recognized  the  authority  of  a  single 
superior — an  abbot  or  archimandrite.  They  con- 
stitute the  original  type  of  the  religious  Order. 
Saint  Basil  the  Great  (q.v.)  made  a  visit  to  the 
Egyptian  monasteries  shortly  after  his  student 
days  at  Athens,  about  the  time  that  Pachomius 
was  beginning  his  work.  Basil,  on  his  return 
to  Asia,  founded  monasteries  in  Pontus  and 
Cappadocia,  thus  acquiring  the  name  of  Father  of 
Monasticism  in  the  East.  The  Greek  Father 
drew  up  a  set  of  rules,  still  extant,  which  has 
infiuenced  subsequent  founders  of  religious  Orders 
more  than  any  other. 

Saint  Jerome  translated  the  rule  of  Pachomius 
into  Latin  for  the  use  of  his  own  monks  at 
Bethlehem  and  of  certain  of  the  Latins  in  Italy. 
Dom  Gasquet  says  that  in  the  time  of  Saint 
Jerome  and  Saint  Augustine  the  monastic  life 
was  well  recognized  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
Church's  system.  There  was  no  established  code 
of  rules,  however,  to  which  all  the  monks  were 
bound  to  conform  themselves;  an  individual 
might  pass  from  this  or  that  house  to  any  other 
in  which  the  monastic  life  was  led.  Monasteries 
continued  to  spring  up  in  many  parts  of  the  West 
during  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries. 
One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  was  situated 
on  the  islands  of  L4rins  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  oflf  the  coast  of  France,  near  the  present 
town  of  Cannes.  Another  was  that  founded  by 
Saint  Martin  of  Tours  at  Poitiers,  under  the 
direction  of  Saint  Hilary.  Bishop  of  that  city. 
Many  monasteries  flourished  in  Ireland  during 
these  centuries  and  furnished  missionary  monks 
who  spread  not  only  Christianity,  but  also 
civilization  and  an  awakening  love  for  literature 
and  the  arts,  among  the  barbarians  who  had  over- 
run the  Continent  of  Europe.    Columbanus,  an 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOHASnCISlC. 


706 


XONASTIGISX. 


Irish  monk  of  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  drew 
up  a  monastic  rule  that  because  of  its  strictness 
has  been  the  model  of  many  subsequent  austere 
Orders.  Perpetual  silence,  complete  abstinence 
from  flesh  meat,  daily  fasting,  labor,  reading, 
prayer,  poverty,  humility,  and  chastity  are  the 
essence  of  his  prescriptions. 

The  monastic  rule  which  had  most  influence 
in  the  West,  however,  was  that  of  Saint  Bene- 
dict, who  about  529,  after  a  youth  passed  as  a  soli- 
tary, gathered  some  monks  who  had  been  attract- 
ed to  his  solitude  at  Subiaco  and  founded  the 
Monastery  of  Monte  Cassino.  This  became  the 
mother  house  of  Western  monasticism.  Bene- 
dict founded  seven  other  monasteries  (among 
them  one  for  women  imder  the  direction  of  his 
aister.  Saint  Scholastica,  at  Piombiarole,  about 
five  miles  from  Monte  Cassino),  and  deservedly 
bears  the  name  of  patriarch  of  the  monks  of  the 
West.  Benedict's  rule  is  characterized  by  a  wide 
and  wise  discretion.  To  secure  the  end  more 
certainly,  those  who  desired  to  walk  in  the  path 
of  the  Gospel  counsels  under  his  guidance  prom- 
ised a  lifelong  obedience.  "This  was  the  first 
introduction  of  a  profession  for  life  according  to 
the  rule;  and  it  was  known  to  the  monk  who 
wished  to  fight  imder  the  law  that  as  the  rule 
says  'From  that  day  it  was  not  lawful  for  him 
to  withdraw  his  neck  from  the  yoke  of  the  rule.' 
The  result  of  this  introduction  was  twofold:  on 
the  one  hand  it  established  firmly  the  perpetuity 
of  the  cloistral  family  life,  that  stability  in  the 
community  which  has  since  become  the  charac- 
teristic mark  of  monasticism;  and  on  the  other 
hand  for  the  only  will  of  the  abbot  or  superior, 
it  substituted  a  code  of  laws  by  which  his  gov- 
ernment was  to  be  guided."  (Gasquet.)  Never- 
theless the  rule  itself  shows  that  though  Saint 
Benedict  required  obedience  to  his  code  of  regu- 
lations, he  never  intended  to  forbid  other  cus- 
toms and  practices.  In  fact,  he  expressly  refers 
his  followers  to  the  rule  of  Saint  Batsil  and 
others  for  further  guidance. 

The  immediately  succeeding  centuries  saw  a 
wonderful  development  of  monasticism  in  the 
West.  The  monasteries  became  the  home  of 
learning.  Monks  were  the  teachers  of  the  world, 
and  went  forth  as  missionary  preachers  into 
England,  Germany,  and  the  nations  of  Northern 
and  Central  Europe.  Agriculture  as  well  as 
civilization  became  their  care,  and  the  first  seri- 
ous attempt  to  do  away  with  serfdom  was  \mder 
their  rule.  Education  for  women  developed  first 
in  the  convents  and  then  spread  to  their  sisters 
in  the  world,  imtil  women  were  better  educated 
than  at  any  preceding  period  in  history.  In  the 
monasteries  and  convents  expert  nursing  of  the 
sick  and  wounded  and  the  first  germs  of  modem 
clinical  medicine  developed.  Many  members  of 
royal  families  became  monks  and  nuns,  and  the 
first  glimmer  of  understanding  between  different 
orders  of  society  appeared. 

According  to  the  rule  of  Saint  Benedict,  each 
'monastery  was  separate  and  wholly  distinct, 
with  an  independent  life  of  its  own.  The  first 
serious  attempt  at  union  was  made  at  a  great 
assembly  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  817,  under 
'  the  guidance  of  Saint  Benedict  of  Aniane.  Here 
rules  for  the  better  regulation  of  monastic  life 
were  passed.  Benedict  had  great  influence  with 
the  Emperor  Louis  the  Pious,  the  son  of  Charle- 
magne. He  planned  to  secure  the  most  absolute 
uniformity  among  the  monks  of  all  monasteries^ 


and  was  seconded  in  his  effort  by  the  sovereign. 
Benedict  was  chosen  as  general.  This  assembly 
caused  a  reawakening  of  the  monastic  spirit 
throughout  Europe,  and  affected  also  England, 
where  the  Concordia  Regularis,  which  prescribed 
one  set  of  monastic  customs  for  the  whole  of 
England,  was  adopted.  In  the  next  century  oc- 
curs the  greatest  name  in  monastic  history,  that 
of  Cluny.  The  ideal  of  Cluny  was  the  existence 
of  one  great  central  monastery,  with  dependen- 
cies spread  over  many  lands  and  forming  a  vast 
feudal  hierarchy.  The  subordinate  monasteries 
were  dependents  in  the  strictest  sense.  Their 
superiors  were  not  called  abbots,  but  priors. 
The  superior  of  every  house,  however  neat,  was 
the  nominee  of  the  Abbot  of  Cluny;  the  profes- 
sion of  every  member  was  made  in  the  name  and 
with  the  sanction  of  the  Abbot  of  Cluny.  Cluny 
remains,  in  spite  of  the  defects  of  its  feudal 
character,  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  history 
of  the  eleventh  century.  The  authority  of  Peter 
the  Venerable,  the  contemporary  of  Saint  Ber- 
nard, was  recognized  by  2000  dependent  monas- 
teries. The  Cistercian  system  of  monasticism  is 
the  next  feature  of  historical  development.  It 
was  founded  by  Saint  Stephen  Harding,  an  Eng- 
lishman, who  early  left  his  own  countiy  to  live 
in  France.  He  adopted  the  rule  of  Saint  Bene 
diet;  the  heads  of  other  houses  were  abbots,  but 
attached  to  the  mother  house  by  the  obligation 
of  yearly  assembling  at  Citeaux,  while  the  Abbot 
of  Ctteaux  had  the  right  to  visit  all  other  mon- 
asteries, and,  while  forbidden  to  interfere  with 
the  management  of  their  temporalities  without 
the  consent  of  the  community,  could  insist  on  re- 
forms in  discipline  if  he  deemed  them  necessary. 
The  greatest  of  the  Cistercians  was  Saint  Ber- 
nard, who  founded,  with  thirty-two  young  nobles, 
the  Monastery  of  Clairvaux. 

During  the  Crusades  came  the  organization 
of  religious  bodies  for  definite  pious  purposes 
whose  members  were  bound  by  the  usual  obliga- 
tions of  monasticism,  yet  did  not  withdraw  en- 
tirely from  the  world.  The  Knights  of  Saint 
John  (see  Saint  John  op  Jebusalem,  Kxights 
or),  the  Knights  Templars  (q.v.),  and  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights  (q.v.)  are  the  best  known  of  these. 
Incited  by  their  example,  or  as  a  result  of  the 
same  spirit,  many  non-military  religious  Orders 
were  founded  during  and  just  after  tne  Ousades, 
with  the  purpose  of  definite  work  to  be  accom- 
plished outside  of  the  monasteries. 

The  fourth  Lateran  Council  decreed  that  no 
further  religious  Orders  should  be  founded,  yet 
the  first  quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century  saw 
the  rise  of  two  great  mendicant  Orders,  those  of 
Saint  Francis  (see  Franciscans)  and  of  Saint 
Dominic  (see  Dominicans).  The  members  of 
these  Orders,  in  spite  of  their  vow  of  absolute 
poverty,  soon  became  prominent  in  the  Church 
and  in  the  universities,  and  as  poets,  preachers, 
philosophers,  writers,  scientists,  and  teachers. 
The  next  great  advance  in  monasticism  was  the 
foundation  of  the  Jesuits  ((j.v.),  a  teaching, 
preaching  missionary  Order  with  a  special  vow 
to  go  wherever  they  should  be  sent  by  the  Pop^ 
Their  institute  has  proved  the  model  on  which 
most  modem  religious  congregations  have  been 
based. 

Monasticism  has  been,  at  least  in  the  West, 
in  constant  development,  always  growing  more 
closely  in  touch  with  the  shifting  enyiromn^* 
in  which  it  was  placed  in  the  course  of  time.  W 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XONASnCISBC 


707 


monbtJttttx. 


skeptical  spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
unfavorable  to  monastic  evolution,  but  the  nine- 
teenth saw  a  reawakening.  Persecution  and 
confiscation  for  political  and  pecuniary  reasons 
have  reduced  the  numbers  of  religious  communi- 
ties ;  but  under  a  system  of  true  religious  liberty, 
as  in  the  United  States^  wide  extension  of  the 
religious  Orders  has  come  about.  There  are  over 
8000  members  of  religious  Orders  for  men,  about 
two-thirds  of  whom  are  priests,  and  about  45,000 
members  of  religious  Orders  for  women. 

For  further  details  of  the  monastic  life,  the 
general  arrangement  of  monasteries,  and  the 
relation  of  the  older  Orders  to  the  development 
of  European  civilization,  see  the  articles  on  the 
various  Orders,  and  especially  Benedictinbs. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Henrion,  nistoire  dea  ordres 
religieuw  (Paris,  1836) ;  Montalembert,  The 
Monks  of  the  West  (Eng.  trans.,  with  introduc- 
tory sketch  by  Dom  Gasquet  (London,  1896) ; 
Feasey,  Monasticiain  (ib.,  1898) ;  Weingarten, 
Uraprung  dea  Mdnohthuma  (Gotha,  1877) ;  M5h- 
ler,  Oeachichte  dea  Monchthuma  in  der  Zeit 
seiner  Entatehung,  ed.  DOllinger  (Begensburg, 
1839)  ;  Wishart,  Short  History  of  Monka  and 
Monaateriea  (2d  ed.,  Trenton,  1903) ;  Woodhouse, 
Monaaticiam,  Ancient  and  Modem  (London 
1896)  ;  Hamack,  Monaaticiam,  Ita  Ideala  and 
Ita  Hiatory  (Eng.  trans..  New  York,  1895); 
Allies,  The  Monastic  Life,  from  the  Fathera  of 
the  Deaert  to  Charlemagne  (London,  1896) ; 
Smith,  Chriatian  Monaaticiam  from  the  Fourth 
to  the  Ninth  Centuriea  (ib.,  1892)  ;  Gasquet,  If on- 
<iatic  Conatitutionai  Hiatory  (ib.,  1896)  ;  Jameson, 
Legenda  of  the  Monaatic  Ordera  (ib.,  1860) ; 
Bertouch,  Oeachichte  der  geiatlichm  Oenoaaen- 
achaften  (Wiesbaden,  1888)  ;  Heimbucher,  Die 
Orden  und  Congregationen  der  katholiavhen  Kirche 
(Paderbom,  1896  sqq.).  Consult  also  the  bibli- 
ography given  in  the  articles  on  the  different 
Orders.  Useful  general  treatments  may  also  be 
foimd  in  Lecky,  Hiatory  of  European  Morals 
(London,  1869),  adverse;  Maitland,  Dark  Agea 
(London,  1844)  ;  Carlyle,  Paat  and  Preaent  (ib., 
1843),  the  last  two  favorable. 

MONASTIB^  m5n'A-8t^r'.  A  fortified  seaport 
on  the  east  coast  of  Tunis,  66  miles  southeast  of 
the  city  of  Tunis.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  strong 
wall  crowned  with  towers,  and  has  a  number  of 
mosques,  and  a  normal  school  established  by  the 
French.  The  chief  manufactures  are  soap  and 
oil.  Population,  about  6000.  Monastir  is  the 
ancient  Ruspina. 

MONASTIB,  or  Bitolia.  The  capital  of  the 
Vilayet  of  Monastir,  Macedonia,  European  Tur- 
key, in  a  broad  valley  of  the  Nije  Mountains,  86 
miles  northwest  of  Saloniki,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  rail  (Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  C  4).  It 
is  an  important  garrison  town,  with  large  bar- 
racks, military  hospital,  arsenal,  etc.  There  are 
several  mosques,  a  school  of  arts  and  sciences, 
and  other  educational  institutions.  The  town 
carries  on  a  large  trade  in  wheat,  tobacco,  wool- 
ens, and  skins,  principally  with  Constantinople, 
and  makes  gold  and  silver  ware,  and  carpets. 
Population,  about  45,000,  of  whom  two-fifths  are 
Mohammedans. 

MONAUIi,  mA-naK.  The  Anglo-Indian  name 
for  any  of  the  gorgeously  plumasred  and  crested 
pheasants  of  the  srenus  Lophophorus.  which  in- 
liabit  the  forests  of  the  Himalayas.    The  three  or 


four  species  are  objects  of  sport,  and  their  skins 
are  in  demand  for  millinery. 

MON^AZITE  (from  Gk.  fMpdi;iuw,  monazein, 
to  be  solitary,  from  ft^pot,  monoa,  single).  A 
phosphate  of  the  cerium  group  of  metals,  prin- 
cipally cerium,  lanthanum,  and  didymium,  with 
varying  amounts  of  thoria  and  silica.  It  is 
yellow,  red,  or  reddish  brown  in  color,  has  a 
resinous  lustre,  and  crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic 
system,  the  crystal  individuals  measuring  only 
a  fraction  of  an  inch  in  length.  Monazite  is  com- 
mercially valuable  owing  to  its  containing 
thorium,  which  is  utilized  in  the  form  of  oxide  in 
the  manufacture  of  Welsbach  and  other  gas- 
mantles.  The  ceriiun  obtained  from  the  separa- 
tion of  the  metallic  oxides  is  employed  as  cerium 
oxalate  in  pharmacy.  Monazite  occurs  in  asso- 
ciation with  the  older  crystalline  rocks,  especial- 
ly granite  and  gneiss,  in  the  Southern  Appala- 
cShians,  Brazil,  Norway,  Silesia,  and  Russia,  but 
the  only  important  sources  of  the  mineral  are 
North  Carolina  and  Brazil.  The  deposits  in 
North  Carolina  are  of  placer  nature  and  occur 
along  the  channels  of  the  streams  which  have 
concentrated  the  heavier  minerals  in  the  lower 
layers  of  the  sands  and  gravels.  In  Brazil  the 
deposits  are  found  along  the  seashore.  The 
monazite  is  obtained  by  washing  the  sands  and 
gravels  in  sluices,  a  process  similar  to  gold- wash- 
ing. The  concentrates  thus  obtained  contain 
from  70  to  90  per  cent,  of  monazite,  with  1.587 
per  cent,  of  thoria.  The  output  of  monazite  in 
the  United  States  in  1901  was  748,736  pounds, 
valued  at  $59,262. 

MONBOIVDO,  James  Burnett,  Lord  (so 
called,  by  Scotch  custom,  as  lord  of  session) 
(1714-99).  A  Scottish  judge  and  author,  bom 
at  Monboddo,  Kincardineshire.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  at  Edin- 
burgh, and,  in  civil  law,  at  Groningen,  was  ad- 
mitted a  member  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  at 
Edinburgh  in  1737,  and  gained  some  distinction 
at  the  bar  from  his  management  of  the  well- 
known  Douglas  cause.  He  was  well  versed  in 
the  law,  both  at  the  bar  and  on  the  bench,  and 
prepared  a  collection  of  the  Deciaiona  of  the 
Lords  of  Council  and  Session  (1826;  in  Brown's 
Supplement  to  the  Dictionary  of  Decisions),  He 
was,  however,  far  better  known  as  a  litterateur, 
in  particular  through  his  Origin  and  Progress  of 
Language  (6  vols.,  1773-92)  and  Ancient  Meta- 
physics (6  vols.,  1779-99),  in  defense  respectively 
of  Greek  literature  and  Greek  philosopny,  both 
erudite,  formerly  ridiculed  for  their  eccentricities 
and  paradoxes,  and  now  generally  regarded  as 
singularly  acute  in  their  observations,  and  scien- 
tifically in  advance  of  their  time.  They  exhibit 
some  interesting  correspondences  with  the  Neo- 
Kantian  philosophy  and  the  Darwinian  theory. 

MONBuT^ru,  m6n-bvt't?5?5,  or  Mangbattu. 
A  country  in  Central  Africa,  between  latitudes 
3*  and  4*  N.,  and  longitudes  28*  and  29**  E., 
containing  about  4000  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation once  estimated  at  1,500,000.  It  is  an  ele- 
vated tableland,  2500  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
through  it  the  Kibaly  and  Gadda  rivers  flow  to 
form  the  Welle.  The  soil  (producing  tobacco, 
sucrar  cane,  sesame)  is  so  fruitful  that  little 
cultivation  is  necessary.  The  inhabitants  are 
cannibals  of  chocolate-color,  practicing  polygamy 
and  circumcision,  and  wearine  garments  made  of 
bark   cloth.     They  are   skillful   smiths.     Since 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


moubOtttx. 


708 


XONDOffEDO. 


Schweinfurth  visited  their  powerful  and  popu- 
lous kingdom,  it  is  said  to  mive  been  almost  de- 
populated by  slave-traders  and  Mahdists. 

MONCADAy  m6n-kii'Da,  Francisco  de,  Conde 
d'Osuna,  Marques  d'Aitona  (1586-1635).  A  Span- 
ish diplomat,  soldier,  and  historian,  born  at 
Valencia.  At  first  ambassador  at  the  Court  of 
the  Emperor  Ferdinand  IL,  he  was  in  1633  ap- 
pointed generalissimo  of  the  Spanish  forces  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  twice  defeated  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  He  published  a  work  of  considerable 
historical  value  entitled  Ewpedici^n  de  los  Cata- 
lanes  y  Aragoneses  contra  Turcoa  y  Oriegoa 
(1623). 

MONCALIEBI,  mAn'kA-lyft^r^.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Turin,  Italy,  situated  on  the 
Po,  five  miles  south  of  Turin  (Map:  Italy,  B  3). 
The  royal  palace,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
has  a  picture  gallery.  The  town  has  brick 
and  lime  kilns,  and  manufactures  matches.  Popu- 
lation (commune),  in  1881,  11,379;  in  1901,  11,- 
561. 

MONCEAUX,  mON's^,  Pabc  de.  A  Paris 
park,  attractively  laid  out  in  1778  bjr  the 
Ihike  of  Orleans,  afterwards  known  as  Philippe 
Egalit^,  which  became  a  fashionable  resort  and 
a  favorite  place  for  f^tes  and  balls.  It  became 
national  property  during  the  Revolution,  was 
restored  to  the  Orleans  family  at  the  Restoration, 
and  was  finally  purchased  by  the  city  of  Paris, 
and  converted  into  a  public  park.  The  grounds 
originally  covered  some  50  acres,  of  which  half 
were  sold  by  the  municipality  for  building  pur- 
^ses.  It  contains  an  oval  lake  with  a  Corinthian 
colonnade,  a  number  of  statues,  and  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  plants. 

MONCEY,  mdN'sA',  Bon  Adbien  Jean  not  de, 
Duke  of  Conegliano  (1754-1842).  A  French  sol- 
dier, bom  at  Moncey  (Doubs).  He  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  the  campaign  of  the  Pyrenees  in  1794, 
and  was  made  a  general  in  the  same  year.  In 
the  Italian  campaign  of  1800-01  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  and  after  his  return  to 
France  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Conegliano 
(1808).  In  the  succeeding  war  with  Spain  he 
fought  brilliantly,  especially  at  Saragossa  in 
1809.  Moncey  advised  against  the  invasion  of 
Russia,  and  did  not  accompany  the  army  thither 
in  1812,  but  he  was  prominent  in  the  defense  of 
Paris  against  the  allied  forces  in  1814.  Louis 
XVIII.  made  him  a  peer,  and  Moncey  remained 
faithful  to  the  King  during  the  events  of  the 
Hundred  Days.  His  refusal  of  the  presidency  of 
the  Council  deputed  to  try  Marshal  Ney  lost 
him  all  his  honors;  but  a  year  later,  after  a 
brief  imprisonment,  these  were  returned  to  him. 
He  made  his  last  active  campaign  in  Spain  in 
1823. 

MONCK,  mfink,  Charles  Stanley,  fourth 
Viscount  (1819-94).  A  British  politician,  born 
at  Templemore  in  Tipperary,  Ireland.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was 
called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1841.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  member  for  Ports- 
mouth in  1852,  and  was  reelected  in  1855,  but 
was  unsuccessful  in  1857.  He  was  a  I^ord  of 
the  Treasury  from  1855  to  1858,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Governor-General  of  Canada  in  1861. 
He  was  reappointed  in  1867  on  the  confederation 
of  the  provinces  into  the  Dominion,  but  resismed 
the  next  year.     In  1871  he  served  on  the  Irish 


national  education  commission,  and  on  the  eom- 
mission  to  carry  out  the  act  for  the  disestablish- 
ment of  the  Irish  Church.  He  succeeded  hia 
father  as  viscount  in  the  Irish  peerage  in  1849, 
and  was  made  a  viscount  in  the  peerage  of  Great 
Britain  in  1866. 

MONCIiOVA,  m6n-kiyv&.  A  town  of  the 
State  of  Coahuila,  Mexico,  situated  103  miles 
northwest  of  the  capital,  Saltillo,  on  the  Mexican 
International  Railroad,  and  the  terminus  of  a 
branch  line  to  Cuatro  Cienegas  (Map:  Mexico, 
H  4).  It  is  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  and 
stock-raising  district,  and  contains  some  rail- 
road shops  and  a  big  cotton  factory.  Monclova 
was  settled  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  was  important  as  the 
starting-point  for  the  early  Spanish  entradat 
into  Texas.  Under  their  rule  it  continued  to  be 
the  seat  of  government  for  this  portion  of  New 
Spain,  and  during  a  brief  period  was  the  capital 
of  the  dual  State  of  Coahuila  and  Texas.  The 
population  in  1900  was  6684. 

MONCBIEFF,  m^n-krgf^  William  Thomas 
(1794-1857).  An  English  dramatist,  bom  in 
London,  son  of  a  Strand  tradesman,  named 
Thomas.  The  name  Moncrieif  he  assumed  for 
theatrical  purposes.  MoncriefT's  first  success  was 
at  Ashley's  with  The  Dandy  Family;  and  in  1820 
The  Lear  of  Private  Life,  with  Junius  Brutus 
Booth  as  hero,  enjoyed  a  long  run.  But  his  most 
popular  production  was  Tom  and  Jerry  (1821), 
a  dramatization  of  Life  in  London  by  Pierce 
Egan  (q.v.),  whose  Boxiana  Moncrieff  had  begun 
to  publish  in  1818.  He  managed  Vauxhall  (har- 
dens in  1827,  and  in  1833  leased  the  City  Theatre. 
Soon  afterwards  his  sight  failed,  and  in  1843 
he  became  totally  blind.  The  following  year  he 
entered  the  Charterhouse  in  London.  Moncrieff*s 
theatrical  reminiscences  were  published  in  the 
Sunday  Times  in  1851.  He  edited  Selections 
from  Dramatic  Works  (London,  1850),  with  24 
of  his  own  plays. 

MONCBIEFF  FITS.  Excavations  used  in 
the  system  of  gun-mounting  originated  by  Sir 
Alexander  Moncrieff  (1829 — ),  for  the  heavy 
ordnance  of  coast  batteries,  first  introduced  about 
1868.  This  system  utilizes  the  recoil  of  tlic 
gun  after  discharge  to  return  it  to  the  loading 
position,  at  the  bottom  of  the  pit.  It  Is  re- 
placed in  the  firing  position  by  means  of  hydro- 
pneumatic  machinery. 

MONCrON,  mtiok'ton.  A  town  and  port  of 
entry  in  Westmoreland  County,  New  Brunswick, 
Canada ;  on  the  Petitcodiac  River,  and  the  Inter- 
colonial and  the  Moncton  and  Buctouche  rail- 
roads; 89  miles  northeast  of  Saint  John  (Map: 
New  Brunswick,  E  3 ) .  It  is  at  the  head  of  river 
navigation,  and  has  a  fine  harbor.  It  manu- 
factures cotton,  flour,  and  planing  mill  products, 
leather,  iron,  and  wooden  ware.  The  general 
offices  and  principal  shops  of  the  Intercolonial 
Railroad  are  located  here;  and  there  is  a  large 
trade  in  lumber  and  agricultural  products.  The 
United  States  is  represented  by  a  commercial 
agent.  A  feature  of  the  river  is  the  tidal  wave, 
four  to  six  feet  high,  which  flows  in  from  the  Bay 
of  Funay.     Pop.,  1891,  8762;  1901,  9026. 

MONBOftEDO,  mdn'dd-nyfi^D6.  A  town  of 
Northwestern  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Lnco, 
situated  in  a  mountain  valley  12  miles  from  the 
Biscayan   coast    (Map:    Spain,   B    1).     It  was 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


moSTdonedo. 


709 


KONETABY  COMMISSION. 


anciently  an  important  town.  It  has  a  cathedral 
begun  in  the  thirteenth  century,  with  a  baroque 
iagade.  There  are  marble  quarries  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  town  manufactures  cotton  and 
linen  fabrics.    Population,  in  1900,  10,619. 

MONDOVi^  m6n'dd-v6^  A  town  of  North- 
western Italy,  in  the  Province  of  Cuneo,  42  miles 
Bouth  of  Turin  (Map:  Italy,  B  3).  It  had  a 
university  from  1560  to  1719.  Among  its  notable 
structures  are  the  Cathedral  of  San  Donato,  dat- 
ing from  1450,  a  citadel  with  a  Gothic  tower,  a 
royal  lyceum,  and  a  bishop's  palace.  There  are 
three  public  libraries.  In  the  vicinity  are  inter- 
esting remains  of  ruined  buildings.  There  are 
manilfactures  of  machinery,  cloth,  silk,  paper, 
and  earthenware.  At  the  battle  of  Mondovi,  on 
April  21,  1796,  the  Sardinians  were  totally  de- 
feated by  the  French.  Population  (commune), 
in  1881,  17,902;  in  1901,  19,255. 

MOKEB  (from  Neo-Lat.  moneron,  from  Gk. 
4wyifi/nit,  moner^y  solitary,  from  fidvos,  monoa, 
single  +  dpaplwKtiw,  ararinkeiUy  to  join).  The 
simplest  form  of  Protozoa,  and  the  nearest  to 
-what  may  have  been  the  most  primitive  living 
being.  The  Monera  of  Haeckel  differ  from  the 
rhizopods  (Amoeba,  etc.)  in  wanting  a  nucleus 
and  contractile  vesicles.  Their  body-substance  is 
homogeneous  throughout,  not  divided  into  a 
tenacious  outer  and  soft  inner  mass,  as  in  Amoeba. 
They  move  by  the  contraction  of  the  body  and 
the  irregular  protrusion  of  portions  of  the  body, 
forming  either  simple  processes  (pseudopodia)  or 
a  network  of  gelatinous  threads.  The  food,  as 
some  diatom,  desmid,  or  protozoan,  is  swallowed 
whole,  being  surroimded  and  engulfed  by  the 
body,  and  the  protoplasmic  matter  then  absorbed. 
The  simplest  form  known,  and  supposed  to  be 
really  a  living  being,  is  HaeckeFs  Protamoeba. 
It  is  like  an  amoeba,  but  is  not  known  to  have 
a  nucleus  and  vacuoles.  It  reproduces  by  sim- 
ple self -division,  much  as  in  Amoeba.  The 
individual  moner — for  example,  Protamoeba — is 
simply  a  speck  or  drop  of  transparent,  often  col- 
orless, viscid  fluid.  This  drop  of  protoplasm 
has  the  power  of  absorbing  the  protoplasm  of 
other  living  beings,  and  thus  of  increasing  in 
size — i.e.  growing;  and  in  taking  its  food  makes 
various  movements,  one  or  more  parts  of  its 
body  being  more  movable  than  others,  the  faculty 
of  motion  thus  being  for  the  moment  specialized ; 
it  has  apparently  the  power  of  selecting  one  kind 
of  food  in  preference  to  another,  and,  finally, 
of  reproducing  its  kind  by  a  process  not  only  of 
simple  self-division,  but  also  of  germ-production. 
Consult:  Haeckel,  History  of  Creation  (New 
York,  1876).    See  Protista. 

MONET,  mA'n&^  Claude  (1840-).  A 
French  landscape  painter,  the  leader  of  the  Im- 
pressionist School.  He  was  born  in  Paris.  When 
a  youth  he  entered  the  atelier  of  the  Classicist 
Gleyre,  but  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  style  of 
work  executed  there  caused  his  withdrawal.  In 
the  beginning  his  fancy  was^strongly  drawn  to  the 
work  of  Corot,  and  certain  mannerisms,  which  dis- 
appeared witii  increasing  years,  indicate  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Barbison  School.  He,  however,  ad- 
mitted no  master,  and  for  the  most  part  drew  his 
inspiration  directly  from  nature,  apparently  car- 
ing little  for  subject,  detail,  or  composition.  His 
aim  is  chiefly  to  reproduce  the  effects  of  light  and 
air,  to  portray  the  fleeting  aspect  of  things.  To 
Monet  the  efl'ects  of  complementary  contrasts  and 


color  mixtures  are  so  distinctive  and  certain, 
that  to  those  not  similarly  trained  his  repre- 
sentation of  them  appears  affected  and  exag- 
gerated, but  when  seen  under  subdued  light  and 
from  the  requisite  point  of  distance,  they  show 
great  excellence.  His  earlier  style  may  be  stud- 
ied in  "The  Mouth  of  the  Seine  at  Honfleur" 
(1866);  "Camille;"  "Fontainebleau  Forest" 
(1866);  "Vessels  Leaving  Havre"  (1868),  and 
many  landscapes  produced  before  1875.  Among 
his  later  worli  may  be  mentioned :  "Bordighera" 
— the  town  in  the  half  distance,  led  up  to  by  a 
foliaged  foreground;  "The  Orchard" — a  land- 
scape, vibrating  with  light  and  showing  well 
the  possibilities  of  Monet's  use  of  pure  color; 
"On  Cape  Martin,  Near  Mentone;"  "Studies  of 
Rouen  and  its  Cathedral;"  "Low  Tide  at  Pour- 
ville;"  "Snow  at  Port  Villers;"  "Church  of 
Verna;"  "Church  of  Varangeville."  Consult: 
Duret,  Le  peintre  Claude  Monet  (Paris,  1878) ; 
Van  Dyke,  Modem  French  Maaiera  (New  York, 
1896). 

MOKETABY  COMMISSION  of  the  U.  S. 
CoNOBESS.  The  fall  in  the  value  of  silver  after 
1873  was  the  source  of  much  debate  in  the  Forty- 
fourth  Congress,  and  in  August,  1876,  a  joint 
resolution  was  passed  for  the  appointment  of  a 
commission  of  three  Senators  and  three  Represen- 
tatives, together  with  experts  chosen  by  the 
former,  to  inquire  into:  (1)  the  causes  and 
economic  effects  of  the  decline  in  silver;  (2)  the 
policy  of  restoring  the  double  standard;  (3)  the 
policy  of  retaining  in  circulation  the  legal  tender 
notes;  and  (4)  the  best  means  for  resuming 
specie  payments.  The  commission  as  organized 
consisted  of  Senators  John  P.  Jones,  Lewis  V. 
Bogy,  and  George  S.  Boutwell;  Representatives 
Randall  L.  Gibson,  George  Willard,  and  Richard 
P.  Bland.  William  S.  Groesbeck  of  Ohio  and 
Prof.  Francis  Bowen  of  Massachusetts  were  the 
expert  members  of  the  commission,  and  George 
M.  Weston  of  Maine  was  appointed  its  secretary. 
The  meetings  of  the  commission  were  held  in  New 
York  and  Washington  in  the  winter  of  1876-77. 
The  majority  report  of  the  commission  declared 
that  the  recent  production  of  silver  relatively  to 
gold  had  not  been  greater  than  formerly,  but 
that  the  decline  in  the  value  of  silver  had  resulted 
mainly  from  the  demonetization  of  silver  in  Ger- 
many, the  United  States,  and  the  Scandinavian 
States,  the  closure  of  the  mints  of  Europe  to 
its  coinage,  the  temporary  diminution  of  the 
Asiatic  demand,  the  exaggeration  of  the  yield  of 
the  Nevada  silver  mines,  and  the  fear  of  further 
action  against  silver  coinage  by  the  governments. 
The  policy  of  adopting  the  gold  standard  was  con- 
demned in  severe  terms,  and  the  imrestricted 
coinage  of  both  metals  was  recommended.  The 
report  further  stated  that  an  attempt  to  intro- 
duce monometallism  would  result  in  a  ruinous 
contest  for  a  gold  standard  with  the  European 
nations,  while  if  silver  were  remonetized  by  the 
United  States  the  effect  would  be  to  attract  that 
metal  from  other  countries  while  it  was  cheap, 
in  exchange  for  what  the  United  States  had  to 
export;  and  that  the  latter  country  would  thus 
have  the  benefit  of  the  rise  which  the  commission 
believed  would  take  place  in  its  value  when  the 
temporary  causes  of  its  depression  had  passed. 
Boutwell  made  a  minority  report  against  re- 
monetization  of  silver  except  on  the  basis  of  in- 
ternational agreement,  and  Prof.  Francis  Bowen 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONBTABY  COMMISSION. 


710 


MONETABY  CONPEBEHCES. 


dissented  from  the  majority  report,  arguing  in 
general  for  the  gold  basis,  but  declaring  in 
favor  of  the  remonetization  of  silver  on  adding  to 
the  quantity  of  pure  silver  in  a  dollar  enough  to 
make  its  bullion  value  equal  to  the  then  value 
of  a  gold  dollar. 

The  Government  published  a  summary  of  this 
report  together  with  papers  prepared  for  the 
commission  on  *' Asiatic  trade  and  flow  of  silver 
to  the  East;"  "Constitutional  powers  of  Congress 
and  the  States  with  respect  to  metallic  money;" 
'^Legislation  on  subsidiary  silver  coin;*'  and  "The 
Trade  Dollar."  In  addition  to  these  the  Govern- 
ment published  a  collectipn  of  valuable  statistics 
gathered  by  the  commission  relating  to  the  pro- 
duction, distribution,  and  relative  value  of  the 
two  metals  and  to  the  monetary  systems  of  for- 
eign countries. 

MOKETABY  C0N7EBEKCES,  Intebna- 
TiONAL.  Conferences  between  representatives  of 
the  United  States  and  various  European  powers 
for  the  discussion  of  imited  action  with  refer- 
ence to  monetary  matters  were  held  in  1867, 
1878,  1881,  and  1892. 

France,  on  completing  the  Latin  Monetary 
Union  (q.v.),  indulged  in  the  hope  that  other  na- 
tions might  join  the  imion,  and  brought  the  mat- 
ter to  the  attention  of  other  governments  through 
diplomatic  channels.  France  called  the  confer- 
ence of  1867  during  the  exposition  of  that  year 
with  the  thought  of  furthering  this  project. 
Nineteen  States  were  represented  at  the  confer- 
ence. The  first  question  debated  was  whether 
an  existing  system  or  a  wholly  new  one  was  best 
adapted  to  secure  international  coinage.  The 
answer  was  in  favor  of  an  existing  system,  and 
it  was  admitted  that  the  system  of  the  Latin 
Union  would  probably  be  best  adapted  to  this 
purpose.  A  second  question  was:  "Is  there  a 
possibility  of  establishing  at  this  time  identities 
or  partial  coincidences  of  monetary  types  on  a 
wide  scale,  on  the  basis  and  with  the  condition  of 
the  adoption  of  the  silver  standard  exclusively  ?" 
A  third  question  repeats  this  inquiry  for  the  gold 
standard  exclusively,  and  a  fourth  for  the  double 
standards  with  a  common  ratio.  These  questions 
were  discussed  together,  but  the  debate  was  not 
properly  one  of  standards.  The  conference  de- 
clared unanimously  in  favor  of  the  gold  stand- 
ard as  a  basis  of  an  international  coinage.  But 
in  this  conference  the  whole  question  of  stand- 
ards was  incidental.  Whether  a  unit  should  be 
adopted  for  all  the  nations  or  whether  coinci- 
dences in  the  value  of  the  coins  should  be  effected 
were  the  most  important  questions  considered. 
Finally  a  resolution  was  adopted  that  all  gold 
coins  which  were  multiples  of  5  francs  should 
have  legal  circulation  in  all  the  contract- 
ing States.  The  work  seemed  to  be  complete  and 
the  conference  adjourned  with  mutual  congratu- 
lations. But  there  the  matter  ended,  as  no 
treaties  to  carry  out  the  plans  were  contracted. 

Quite  different  was  the  purpose  of  the  confer- 
ences of  1878,  1881,  and  1892.  A  fall  in  the 
value  of  silver  as  compared  with  gold  had  taken 
place  and  the  silver  currency  threatened  to  de- 
preciate seriously  and  perhaps  endanger  the 
monetary  systems  of  those  countries  in  which  the 
double  standard  existed.  In  1867  the  ratio  be- 
tween silver  and  gold,  which  for  many  years  had 
been  below  the  French  ratio  of  1  to  15%,  rose 
above  it  and  in  1874  rose  above  the  American 


ratio  of  1  to  16,  and  by  1878  had  reached  1  to 
17.94.  In  the  meantime  prices  had  begun  to  fail 
The  initiative  for  the  conference  of  1878  pro- 
ceeded from  the  United  States.  The  comage 
law  of  February  of  that  year  authorized  the 
President  to  invite  "the  governments  of  the 
coimtries  composing  the  Latin  Union  so  called, 
and  of  such  other  European  nations  as  he  may 
deem  advisable,  to  join  the  United  States  in  a 
conference  to  adopt  a  common  ratio  between  gold 
and  silver,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing,  in- 
ternationally, the  use  of  bimetallic  money,  and 
securing  fixity  of  relative  value  between  those 
metals."  In  response  to  the  invitation  of  the 
United  States,  the  principal  nations  except  Ger- 
many sent  representatives  to  the  conference, 
which  met  in  Paris  in  August,  1878.  Consider- 
able solicitude  was  expressed  at  the  conference 
lest  silver  should  be  wholly  discarded,  though  no 
agreement  could  be  reached  on  bimetallism.  This 
in  particular  was  the  attitude  of  Great  Britain, 
concerned  as  she  was  for  the  currency  of  India. 
The  most  bitter  hostility  to  bimetallism  was 
exhibited  b^  Belgium  and  Switzerland,  while 
France,  their  partner  in  the  Latin  Union,  was 
distinctly  in  favor  of  it.  In  its  advocacy  of  the 
principle  the  United  States  was  handicapped  by 
the  fact  that  it  was  on  a  paper  basis  and  that  it 
was  a  producer  of  silver.  The  proposals  of  the 
United  States  were  rejected,  the  European  na- 
tions imiting  in  the  declaration  "that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  maintain  in  the  world  the  monetary 
functions  of  silver  as  well  as  those  of  gold,  but 
that  the  selection  for  use  of  one  or  of  the  other  of 
the  two  metals,  or  of  both  simultaneously,  should 
be  governed  by  the  special  position  of  each  State, 
or  of  each  group  of  States."  The  conference  was 
thus  without  result. 

In  1881  another  conference  was  held  at  Paris. 
Events  were  rapidly  proving  that  the  alleged 
scarcity  of  gold  was  a  fact.  The  United  States 
began  to  import  gold  and  this  drew  upon  the 
European  stock.  The  Bank  of  England  saw  its 
gold  reserves  diminish  and  seemed  unable  to 
check  the  outflow.  In  France  the  reserve  of  gold 
in  the  Bank  declined,  while  silver  increased.  As 
the  proportion  of  silver  in  the  metallic  reserve 
increased  doubts  began  to  be  expressed  whether 
gold  payments  would  be  maintained.  Germany 
saw  the  completion  of  her  monetary  reform  in- 
definitely postponed  by  her  inability  to  sell  her 
stock  of  silver  coin  except  at  a  great  sacrifice. 
In  the  United  States  the  pressure  for  free  silver 
continued.  France  was  the  prime  mover  in  this 
conference,  though  the  United  States  joined  in 
issuing  the  invitations.  Great  Britain  exhibited 
great  reserve  in  the  conference  and  the  delegates 
of  other  States  declared  themselves  bound  by 
strict  instructions.  The  discussions  were  able 
and  learned,  but  fruitless,  and  the  conference 
adjourned  without  result. 

It  was  not  imtil  1892  that  another  effort  was 
made  to  effect  monetary  reform  by  means  of  s 
conference.  In  1891  the  President  was  author- 
ized to  call  a  conference.  Great  Britain  ex- 
hibited more  interest  than  usual,  and  while  she 
declined  to  join  a  conference  whose  only  ohjed 
was  the  discussion  of  bimetallism,  consentedte 
take  part  in  a  conference  to  discuss  an  enlarged 
monetary  use  of  silver.  The  British  Govern- 
ment appointed  delegates  in  sympathy  with  w- 
metallic  proposals  and  sanctioned  the  appo^'^ 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONETABY  CONFEBENCE& 


711 


XONEY. 


ment  of  pronounced  bimetallists  by  the  GoTem- 
ment  of  India. 

The  reception  of  the  proposals  of  the  United 
States  on  the  Ck>ntinent  of  Europe  was  less  cor- 
dial. France  was  especially  lukewarm,  and  did 
not  accept  the  proposal  that  the  conference 
should  be  held  at  Paris.  Arrangements  were 
finally  made  for  a  meeting  at  Brussels.  Germany 
was  non-committal,  but  consented  to  be  repre- 
sented at  the  conference.  England  and  the 
United  States,  as  it  appeared,  were  to  be  the 
moving  forces  in  this  conference.  All  was  In 
readiness  for  a  meeting  in  May,  1892,  when  the 
fear  of  cholera  in  Europe  caused  its  postpone- 
ment to  November. 

This  delay  was  fatal,  for  in  the  meantime  two 
political  events  had  occurred  which  altered  the 
attitude  of  the  leading  nations.  In  England  the 
Conservative  Party  was  overthrown  and  gave 
place  to  the  Liberals,  who  had  little  sympathy 
with  bimetallism.  The  new  Ministry  added  to 
the  delegation  two  men  who  were  avowed  op- 
ponents of  bimetallism.  In  the  United  States 
the  election  of  1892  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
party  in  power.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
delegation  from  the  United  States  could  not 
make  any  binding  promises  for  the  incoming  Ad- 
ministration. Accordingly  the  conference  had 
little  promi3e  of  success.  When  it  met  it  was 
proposed  to  discuss  any  plans  for  enlarging  the 
use  of  silver,  especially  such  as  might  be  pro- 
posed in  the  conference  before  taking  up  the  sub- 
ject of  bimetallism.  This  was  a  programme  of 
discussion  rather  than  of  action,  and  after  some 
twelve  sessions  of  fruitless  debate  the  confer- 
ence adjourned  without  any  action. 

Consult  the  reports  of  the  conferences — ^that 
for  1867  being  included  in  the  appendix  of  that 
of  1878 — issued  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment; Wallace,  International  Monetary  Confer- 
enceSf  in  which  the  events  leading  up  to  the 
conferences  are  carefully  portrayed.  See  also 
Bibliography  with  the  article  Monet. 

MONEY  (OF.  monete,  monoief  monnoye,  Fr. 
monnaxe^  from  Lat.  moneta,  money,  mint,  from 
Moneta,  an  epithet  of  Juno,  in  whose  temple  at 
Rome  money  was  coined,  from  monere,  to  warn, 
connected  with  meminisse,  to  remember,  Gk. 
fiipqunt^  merimnoa,  anxious,  Skt.  amar,  to  re- 
member). The  medium  of  exchange  and  measure 
of  value.  Whatever  fills  these  functions,  however 
crudely,  is  money.  Of  all  the  substances  which 
have  been  used  as  money,  gold  and  silver  take 
the  first  place,  and  the  discussion  of  money 
usually  has  these  in  view.  It  is  well  to  remem- 
ber, however,  that  some  of  the  humbler  functions 
of  money  are  to-day  performed  by  nickel  and 
copper,  and  that  in  times  past  not  only  other 
metals,  tin,  lead,  iron,  and  platinimi,  have  been 
used  as  money,  but  also,  especially  among  primi- 
tive peoples,  a  wide  variety  of  other  objects. 
Jevons  enumerates  among  other  things,  furs, 
skins,  leather,  sheep,  cattle,  wampum,  cowries, 
grains,  olive  oil,  tobacco,  and  salt,  as  being  in  use 
at  one  time  or  another  for  this  purpose.  Primi- 
tive as  these  may  be,  the  enumeration  seems  to 
emphasize  the  fact  that  it  is  not  a  substance 
per  ae  that  we  designate  as  money,  but  a  sub- 
stance invested  with  a  certain  utility. 

So  important  is  this  function  in  modern  life 
that  we  cannot  readily  conceive  of  a  society  with- 
out some  mechanism  to  perform  It.    And  indeed 


from  the  earliest  days  of  recorded  history  we 
find  references  to  money,  and  there  are  few  among 
the  primitive  peoples  of  our  own  time  which  do 
not  possess  it  in  rudimentary  form.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  highly  civilized  nations  of 
modem  Europe  and  America  and  their  early 
progenitors  or  the  savage  tribes  of  Africa  does 
not  consist  so  much  in  the  fact  that  we  use 
money  and  they  do  not,  as  in  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  used.  Even  though  money  Is  re- 
corded as  known  among  the  most  primitive  peo- 
ples, it  is  then  of  only  occasional  use,  it  does 
not  penetrate  into  every  relation  of  social  life. 
Peoples  whose  social  organization  is  based  upon 
slavery  and  patriarchal  conditions  have  little 
need  for  money,  nor  is  the  need  great  among  a 
pastoral  or  agricultural  people  when  there  is 
little  differentiation  of  occupation.  On  the  other 
hand,  among  highly  organized  industrial  peoples 
where  nearly  all  produce  not  for  individual  needs, 
but  for  sale  in  the  market,  money  is  in  constant 
and  universal  demand. 

The  primary  function  of  mon^  is  that  of  a 
medium  of  exchange;  aad,  if  in  the  theory  of 
money  to-day  this  characteristic  receives  scant 
notice,  it  is  not  because  it  is  not  fundamentally 
important,  but  rather  because  it  is  comprehended 
with  comparative  ease.  Other  functions  are  all 
derived  from  the  primary  fimction,  medium  of 
exchange. 

Whatever  the  substance  used  as  money  may  be 
it  becomes  an  object  of  imiversal  desire.  In  primi- 
tive society  the  most  widely  desired  object  came 
to  be  used  as  money.  The  fact  that  an  object 
is  universally  desired  fits  it  in  the  first  instance 
for  use  as  money,  but  after  it  acquires  that  func- 
tion it  is  desired  not  chiefly  for  its  own  sake,  but 
for  its  command  over  other  things.  At  an  early 
date  the  desire  for  personal  adornment  singled 
out  the  precious  metals  as  money  par  excellence, 
but  at  the  present  time  it  is  not  because  gold 
is  beautiful  that  we  desire  it,  but  because  as 
money  it  procures  for  us  whatever  we  may  desire. 

In  the  second  place,  money  is  the  measure  of 
value.  The  acts  of  buying  and  selling  fix  upon 
the  objects  bought  and  sold  relative  values,  and 
it  was  only  a  slight  step  to  extend  the  conception 
of  value  to  things  not  sold  or  bought,  or  which  are 
not  intended  for  sale.  All  things  capable  of  sale 
can  be  valued  in  terms  of  money.  All  credit  opera- 
tions depend  upon  this  fact.  Since  the  value  of 
the  money  in  use  in  any  society  is  insignificant 
as  compared  with  its  total  wealth  valued  in 
terms  of  money,  it  has  been  argued  that  the  func- 
tion of  money  as  a  measure  of  value  is  far  more 
important  than  its  fimction  as  a  medium  of 
exchange.  And  in  fact  the  further  we  get  away 
from  primitive  conditions  of  trading,  the  more 
important  does  this  derivative  function  become. 
When  all  wealth  is  valued  in  terms  of  money 
barter  of  a  higher  order  becomes  possible.  In 
the  new  form  of  barter,  however,  the  exchange 
of  commodities  is  indirect.  Modem  commerce 
is  largely  based  upon  it,  and  while  it  is  most 
apparent  in  international  trade,  where  balances 
only  are  settled  by  the  transfer  of  money,  it  is 
no  less  widespread  and  fundamental  in  domestic 
trade.    See  Credit;  Bank,  Banking. 

From  the  function  of  a  measure  of  value  is 
derived  a  subordinate  function  of  the  greatest 
practical  importance,  namely  the  function  of 
money  as  a  standard  of  value.  A  standard  of 
value  is  simply  a  measure  by  which  values  at  dif- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONET. 


712 


MONEY. 


ferent  periods  are  compared.  The  measure  of 
value  contemplates  the  estimation  of  commodi- 
ties at  the  same  time;  the  standard  of  value, 
their  estimation  at  different  times.  The 
standard  of  value  is  often  called  the  stand- 
ard of  deferred  payments.  Credit  organization 
involves  future  payments.  These  payments  are 
expressed  in  money  and  present  goods  are  trans- 
ferred for  a  promise  to  pay  money  in  the  future. 
In  the  ordinary  transactions  of  mercantile  life 
the  futurity  contemplated  is  not  far  distant,  but 
in  many  operations,  both  public  and  private,  a 
lapse  of  years  is  contemplated.  In  such  contracts 
stability  in  the  value  of  money  is  of  the  highest 
importance ;  and  were  it  not  that  money  has  been 
subject  to  certain  variations,  it  is  quite  possibb 
that  it  would  not  have  been  foimd  necessary  to 
differentiate  this  function  from  that  of  a  meas- 
ure of  value. 

The  substances  which  at  various  times  in  the 
world's  history  have  fulfilled  these  several  func- 
tions have  not  performed  the  office  equally  well, 
and  gradually  all  except  gold,  silver,  certain 
minor  metals,  and  paper  have  been  eliminated 
among  advanced  nations.  The  selection  of  the 
precious  metals  for  this  purpose  is  due  in  pan 
to  certain  physical  characteristics  and  in  part  to 
economic  conditions.  In  the  first  place,  they  are 
durable,  and  while  it  is  true  that  there  is  always 
some  loss  through  abrasion,  the  process  is  a  re- 
markably slow  one.  Secondly,  they  are  homo- 
geneous and  divisible.  If  a  given  quantity 
be  divided  into  parts,  those  parts  will  be 
absolutely  alike,  and  the  sum  of  the  parts 
will  e^ual  the  whole.  Finally,  they  are  port- 
able, since  relatively  to  their  weight  they  are  of 
high  value.  Other  objects  such  as  precious  stones 
excel  the  metals  in  portability,  but  they  do  not 
present  the  other  necessary  qualities  of  divisibil- 
ity and  homogeneity.  Furthermore,  it  should  be 
remarked  that  the  metals  are  relatively  stable 
in  value,  a  result  of  their  durability,  since  the 
existing  stock  is  always  so  much  greater  than 
the  annual  output  that  violent  fluctuations 
in  supply  are  avoided.  Some  writers  have  in- 
sisted that  the  money  substance  should  itself  pos- 
sess value,  and  have  gone  so  far  as  to  speak  of 
the  necessity  of  'intrinsic'  or  inherent  value. 
The  use  of  the  word  'intrinsic*  evidently  indicates 
a  confusion  of  thought.  These  writers  mean  that 
the  money  substance  should  possess  a  'utility' 
apart  from  that  which  it  gains  by  virtue  of  its 
money  function.  It  may  be  true  that  no  sub- 
stance without  utility  could  have  become  estab- 
lished as  money,  but  this  initial  primary  utility 
is  insignificant  after  it  has  acquired  the  greater 
utility  which  attaches  to  it  as  a  medium  of  ex- 
change and  measure  of  value. 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  besides  the 
precious  metals  which  possess  in  a  high  degree 
the  qualities  named,  other  substances,  minor 
metals  and  paper,  are  used  as  money  among  ad- 
vanced peoples.  The  rdle  of  the  former  is  quite 
subordinate.  For  use  in  minor  exchanges 
they  are  sufficiently  portable  and  they  possess  the 
other  physical  qualities  named.  Since  their 
quantity  is  limited,  and  provision  is  usually  made 
for  convertibility  into  money  made  of  the  pre- 
cious metals,  their  value  is  not  less  stable  than 
that  of  gold  and  silver.  The  problems  of  paper 
money  are  more  complicated,  since  it  is  used  in 
far  greater  quantities  and  for  large  payments. 


In  portability  it  excels  the  metals,  and,  while  it  is 
not  literally  indestructible  or  divisible,  the  ease  of 
replacement  of  old  notes  by  new,  or  one  denomi- 
nation by  another,  is  a  substitute  for  these  quali- 
ties. Its  'intrinsic  value,'  i.e.  its  utility  for  non- 
monetary uses,  is  of  course  a  negligible  quan- 
tity. Far  more  important  is  the  question  of  the 
stability  of  its  value.  This  question  we  can 
answer  only  after  an  investigation  of  the  laws 
which  govern  the  value  of  money. 

There  are  two  explanations  of  the  value  of 
money,  one  that  it  is  fixed  by  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand^  the  other  that  it  is  fixed  by  tbe 
costs  of  production.  These  are  the  general  ex- 
planations of  value  and  are  complementary 
rather  than  antagonistic.  The  first  is  the  law  of 
market  value,  the  second  of  normal  value.  In 
the  case  of  freely  reproducible  goods,  while  mar- 
ket value  may  at  a  given  moment  vary  from  nor- 
mal value,  it  cannot  maintain  such  variation  for 
any  length  of  time.  Money  is  in  a  less  degree 
freely  reproduced  than  most  of  the  other  gMxis 
with  which  it  can  be  compared.  We  should,  there- 
fore, without  neglecting  the  influence  of  the  cost 
of  production,  expect  to  find  that  in  the  fixation 
of  the  value  of  money  supply  and  demand  are 
the  dominant  factors. 

Before  discussing  what  the  supply  of  money 
and  the  demand  for  it  are,  it  may  be.  well  to  call 
attention  to  the  way  in  which  the  value  of  money 
is  expressed.  The  values  of  all  commodities  are 
expressed  in  money  as  prices.  Ccmversely,  the 
prices  of  commodities  express  the  value  of 
money.  We  speak  of  prices  as  high  or  low,  but 
we  might  as  well  speak  of  money  as  cheap  or 
dear.  Money  is  cheap  when  prices  are  high,  and 
is  dear  when  prices  are  low.  When  wheat  rises 
from  50  cents  a  bushel  to  $1  a  bushel,  we  say  it 
has  risen  in  value,  but  we  might  also  say  that 
the  wheat  price  of  money  has  fallen,  because  in 
the  first  instance  it  required  two  bushels  of 
wheat  to  secure  a  dollar  m  exchange  and  in  tbe 
second  instance  only  one  bushel.  Wheat  in  our 
illustration  stands  for  commodities  in  general, 
and,  while  the  rise  in  price  of  one  commodity  does 
not  mean  that  money  has  fallen  In  value,  yet  if 
all  commodities  rise  in  price  we  cannot  escape 
the  conclusion  that  it  has  so  fallen.  Prices  and 
the  value  of  money  are  therefore  reciprocals. 

The  supply  of  money  is  the  amount  of  money  in 
existence.  This  has  led  some  writers  to  say 
that  the  value  of  money  depends  upon  its  quan- 
tity. Other  thin^  being  equal,  this  is  true;  but 
it  does  not  in  itself  furnish  an  adequate  ex- 
planation of  the  value  of  money.  Assuming  that 
no  other  influences  are  at  work,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  any  increase  in  the  quantity  of  mon7 
will  lower  its  value  and  that  any  decrease  will 
enhance  it.  There  is  a  certain  money  work  to 
be  performed,  a  certain  volume  of  exchanges  to  be 
transacted.  If  the  units  of  money  are  numerous, 
each  transaction  will  call  for  a  larger  number  of 
units  than  when  the  money  units  are  relatively 
few.  Every  increase  in  the  world's  money 
supply  has  been  followed  by  a  rising  in  prices 
or  a  fall  in  the  value  of  money.  If  the  fall  is 
not  commensurate  with  the  increase  in  amount, 
it  iS  because  the  quantity  of  money  is  not  the 
exclusive  factor  in  fixing  the  value  of  money. 
Monetary  legislation  endeavors  to  adjust  supply 
to  demand  by  providing  an  automatic  regul«t^<*" 
of  the  quantity  of  money.  Under  a  metallic  cur- 
rency system  we  usually  find  provisions  for  thf* 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONET. 


713 


MONET. 


free  coinage  of  the  standard  money  metal. 
Should  money  increase  in  value,  i.e.  should  prices 
fall  and  thus  reveal  an  inadequate  supply,  free 
coinage  will  in  a  measure  correct  this  by  attract- 
ing to  monetary  use  such  supplies  of  the  metal  as 
are  available  for  this  purpose.  So  far  as  na- 
tions using  the  same  standard  are  concerned 
there  is  a  natural  flow  of  the  metals  from  one 
country  to  another  which  prevents  any  undue 
deficit  or  redundancy  in  any  one  of  the  countries 
involved.  This  adjustment  takes  place  auto- 
matically through  the  course  of  trade.  When 
currency  is  redimdant  in  any  country,  prices  will 
be  high  in  that  country  and  imports  will  be  large 
relatively  to  exports.  The  settlement  of  the 
resulting  unfavorable  balances  will  diminish  the 
currency  of  the  country  where  it  was  formerly 
redundant  and  so  diminish  prices.  If  money  Is 
scarce  in  any  country,  prices  will  be  low,  exports 
large  relatively  to  imports,  and  the  resulting 
favorable  balances  will  bring  gold  into  the  coun- 
trj'.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  international 
trade  speedily  corrects  any  local  excess  or  deficit. 

A  general  excess  or  deficit  in  the  money  sup- 
ply carries  with  it  a  certain  correction  also,  but 
the  operation  is  slower.  If  prices  rise,  showing 
a  fall  in  the  value  of  money,  mining  enterprises 
become  less  profitable,  and  the  additions  to  the 
volume  of  money  will  tend  to  grow  less.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  prices  fall,  showing  a  rise  in  the 
value  of  money,  mining  enterprises  become  corre- 
spondingly profitable  and  capital  will  seek  em- 
ployment in  them.  This  is  likely  to  increase  the 
production  of  the  metals  and  by  increasing  the 
supply  to  check  the  rise  in  value.  These  eff'ects 
will  not  be  immediate,  as  capital  has  great  in- 
ertia, and  its  withdrawal  from  one  line  of  ac- 
tivity and  transfer  to  another  cannot  be  instan- 
taneous. 

The  value  of  money,  as  of  any  other  commod- 
ity, is  immediately  dependent  upon  supplv  and 
demand.  The  supply  of  money  admits  of  easy 
definition;  but  the  demand  for  money  cannot  be 
so  precisely  stated.  It  has  been  paraphrased  as 
the  amount  of  money  work  to  be  done,  but  this 
money  work  cannot  be  expressed  in  statistical 
statements.  The  elements  which  enter  into  it 
can,  however,  be  stated.  The  most  important 
and  the  positive  element  in  the  case  is  the  volume 
of  exchanges  to  be  accomplished.  Whatever  in- 
creases the  volume  of  exchanges  increases  the  de- 
mand for  money ;  whatever  diminishes  the  volume 
diminishes  the  demand.  Division  of  labor  and 
the  evolution  of  a  money  economy  are  the  most 
important  factors  in  this  increase  of  the  money 
demand.  Without  a  commensurate  increase  of 
supply,  prices  under  such  conditions  must  fall. 
A  diminution  in  the  world's  demand  for  money 
is  not  likely,  but  a  diminution  in  the  local  de- 
mand, effecting  a  temporary  rise  of  prices  before 
the  correcting  influence  of  international  trade  is 
felt,  may  and  does  occur. 

But  the  volume  of  the  exchanges  is  only  one 
of  several  elements  in  determining  the  demand 
for  money.  The  first  of  these  is  the  rapidity  of 
monetary  circulation,  the  second  the  use  of 
credit,  both  of  which  economize  the  use  of  money. 
It  is  obvious  that  all  simultaneous  cash  transac- 
tions require  the  use  of  different  pieces  of  money. 
But  the  transactions  of  a  day  or  a  year  are  not 
simultaneous  and  the  same  piece  of  money  may 
fill  its  functions  as  a  medium  of  exchange  many 
times.    When  the  circulation  is  sluggish  the  de- 


mand for  money  for  a  given  volume  of  exchanges 
is  far  greater  than  when  it  is  rapid.  Savings 
banks,  for  example,  serve  to  increase  the  rapidity 
of  circulation.  They  gather  up  the  savings  of 
the  poor  which  would  otherwise  be  locked  up, 
and  restore  this  money  to  circulation.  In  coun- 
tries where  savings  take  the  form  of  private 
hoards,  as  is  largely  the  case  in  France,  more 
money  is  required  per  capita  than  in  Great  Brit- 
ain or  the  United  States. 

Far  more  important  in  its  effect  upon  the 
money  demand  is  the  use  of  credit  (q.v.),  bal- 
ances only  being  paid  in  money.  The  country 
storekeeper  who  takes  from  the  farmer  butter 
and  eggs  on  account,  paying  in  supplies  as  his 
customer's  needs  arise,  furnishes  a  homely  illus- 
tration of  the  way  in  which  credit  minimizes  the 
demand  for  money.  In  the  larger  business  world 
the  trade  relations  are  rarely  of  such  great  sim- 
plicity, but  by  the  mechanism  of  centres  of  credit 
or  banks  the  transactions  of  a  town  or  of  even 
larger  areas  are  reduced  to  a  mutual  exchange 
of  goods  and  debts  are  canceled  without  the  inter- 
vention of  money.  Banks  and  clearing-houses 
(see  those  articles)  are  the  agencies  by  which 
credit  is  organized. 

Supply  and  demand  as  affecting  the  value  of 
money  are  not  wholly  unrelated  phenomena,  and 
the  explanation  of  monetary  changes  cannot  bo 
found  in  one  element  without  the  other.  An  ex- 
cess of  supply  stimulates  demand,  and  prevents 
prices  from  rising  as  high  as  they  otherwise 
would.  A  diminution  of  supply  slackens  demand 
and  prevents  prices  from  falling  as  much  as  they 
otherwise  would.  This  interaction  of  supply  and 
demand  prevents  changes  in  the  money  supply 
from  producing  effects  in  the  increase  or  decrease 
of  prices  commensurate  with  the  changes  in  the 
volume  of  money.  It  modifies  but  does  not 
obliterate  the  significance  of  such  changes. 

Having  considered  what  fixes  the  value  of 
metallic  money,  we  are  now  ready  for  the  ques- 
tion what  determines  the  value  of  paper  money. 
Despite  differences  of  detail,  there  are  for  the 
purpose  of  this  discussion  but  two  classes  of 
paper  money — convertible  and  inconvertible.  The 
first  is  secondary  money,  representing  metallic 
money,  and  deriving  its  value  from  the  latter; 
the  second  is  itself  primary  money,  and,  like  all 
primary  or  standard  money,  derives  its  value 
from  the  relation  of  supply,  and  demand. 

Paper  money  in  the  first  instance  was  purely 
secondary  or  representative  money.  It  was  prac- 
tically a  storage  receipt  for  gold  and  silver. 
Such  receipts  calling  for  metallic  money  on  de- 
mand could  and  did  serve  in  lieu  of  the  latter 
in  making  exchanges.  Such  money  offers  no 
theoretical  difficulties.  Its  circulation  is  that  of 
metallic  money  in  another  form.  The  advantage 
of  such  money  is  that  it  forms  a  convenient 
mode  of  avoiding  the  cumbersomeness  of  metallic 
money.  This  is  the  function  of  the  gold  and  sil- 
ver certificates  issued  by  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment, each  of  which  represents  a  correspond- 
ing quantity  of  metal  in  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury, and  whose  presence  in  the  monetary  circula- 
tion does  not  in  the  slightest  degree  affect  its 
volume. 

But  such  certificates  are  not  the  only  form  of 
representative  paper  money,  nor  the  most  Im- 
portant. The  history  of  banking  shows  that  the 
depositaries  of  metnllic  money  soon  learned  that 
under  normal  conditions  coin  would  not  be  de« 


Digitized  by 


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MONET. 


714 


MONEY. 


manded  at  any  one  time  for  the  full  amount  of 
the  outstanding  notes  or  certificates,  and  that 
a  considerably  larger  sum  could  be  kept  in  cir- 
culation than  the  metallic  reserve.  They  be- 
gan, therefore,  to  issue  notes  in  excess  of  the 
reserve  without  infringing  upon  the  character* 
istics  of  convertibility  in  coin  on  demand.  Such 
money  is  called  by  the  economists  bank  money, 
and  it  is  immaterial  whether  it  is  issued  by  banks 
or  by  the  Government.  Such  money  derives  its 
value  from  the  metallic  currency  upon  which  it 
is  based,  but,  unlike  the  certificates  already  de- 
scribed, it  enlarges  the  volume  of  the  monetary 
circulation.  The  issue  of  such  money  economizes 
the  use  of  the  metals,  and  in  so  far  as  it  substitutes 
an  inexpensive  for  an  expensive  substance  as 
money  is  a  saving  of  wealth  to  the  community. 

If  the  principle  of  convertibility  is  not  main- 
tained, bank  money  becomes  paper  money  pure 
and  simple.  It  has  usually  been  by  the  failure 
of  banks  or  of  governments  to  maintain  the 
promise  of  redemption  that  such  money  has 
arisen.  When  this  takes  place  paper  money  falls 
in  value,  or,  as  it  is  usually  expressed,  coin  is  at 
a  premium.  This  would  not  of  itself  cause  a  disap- 
pearance of  coin,  but  it  usually  happens  that 
paper  money  is  so  multiplied  in  volume  that  coin 
disappears  and  paper  becomes  the  sole  standard. 
This  substitution  takes  place  by  virtue  of  Gresh- 
am's  law  (q.v.).  Such  changes  from  a  metallic 
to  a  paper  currency  are  not  effected  without  vio- 
lent convulsions  and  much  suffering;  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  however  ill  it  does  the 
work,  paper  money  under  such  circumstances  per- 
forms all  the  functions  of  a  medium  of  exchange, 
a  measure  of  value,  and  a  standard  of  deferred 
payments.  Its  value,  like  that  of  other  money, 
depends  upon  its  quantity  in  relation  to  the  de- 
mand for  money.  As  its  quantity  is  likely  to  be 
increased  without  reference  to  the  demands  of 
trade  in  response  to  the  fiscal  necessities  of  the 
Government,  its  value  is  unstable  and  uncertain. 
But  this  is  not  inherent  in  the  nature  of  paper 
money;  and  there  may  be  conditions,  as  in  Aus- 
tria during  the  greater  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  under  which  paper  money  maintains  a 
relative  stability  in  value. 

The  adjustment  of  the  monetary  circulation  to 
the  needs  of  trade  has  given  rise  to  composite 
money  systems,  in  which,  whatever  may  be  the 
standard,  gold,  silver,  and  paper  are  usually  com- 
bined, tinder  a  single  gold  standard  paper  is 
generally  used  for  larger  payments,  while  silver 
IS  used  for  the  smaller.  Both  are  representative 
money  in  such  cases.  Silver  is  Issued  as  token 
coinage.  A  token  coin  is  one  whose  bullion  value 
is  less  than  its  face  value  and  whose  legal  power 
to  pay  debts  is  limited.  Such  coins  are  issued 
by  Government  authority  only,  and  pass  current 
at  their  nominal  values  by  virtue  of  legal  enact- 
ment. In  a  well -ordered  system,  provision  is 
usually  made  for  the  redemption  of  such  coins 
in  standard  money  when  presented  in  specified 
quantities.  Of  such  nature  are  the  fractional  sil- 
ver coins  of  the  United  States  and  the  minor 
coinage. 

Under  a  single  silver  standard  there  is  no  theo- 
retical reason  why  gold  tokens  should  not  be 
used  for  larger  pnyments,  but  there  is  the  prac- 
tical reason  that  gold  is  expensive  and  that  it  is 
not  absolutely  necessary  for  such  payments  to 
be  made  in  metal.  ITnder  surh  a  standard  as 
prevailed  in  Germany  before  1873,  paper  is  used 


for  larger  payments,  and  it  was  one  of  the  objee- 
tions  to  such  a  silver  standard  that  it  afforded 
so  wide  a  scope  for  the  issue  of  paper  money. 

Before  the  introduction  of  token  coins  nations 
had  for  centuries  endeavored  to  secure  the  con- 
current circulation  of  gold  and  silver  under  a 
svstem  of  bimetallism.  Under  such  a  system,  if 
the  market  ratio  between  the  two  metals  diverged 
from  the  legal  ratio  one  of  the  metals  was  certain 
to  be  exported.  When  this  occurred  it  always  oc- 
casioned much  distress  if  the  silver  were  the 
metal  exported,  for  it  robbed  the  people  of  the 
small  change  of  daily  life.  Hence  we  nnd  among 
the  nations  which  clung  the  longest  to  the  bi- 
metallic theory,  that  before  it  was  abandoned 
measures  had  been  taken  to  reduce  the  minor 
silver  coins  to  the  character  of  tokens  in  order 
that  they  might  not  be  withdrawn  from  the 
country  for  export.  With  the  introduction  of 
token  coinage  emd  the  adoption  of  the  plan  of 
issuing  certificates  to  represent  the  larger  coins 
the  discussion  of  bimetallism  assumed  quite 
a  different  aspect.  The  arguments  drawn  from 
the  difficulty  of  insuring  the  circulation  of  silver 
were  almost  entirely  excluded  from  the  discussion, 
which  then  centred  upon  the  question  whether 
gold  alone  or  gold  and  silver  in  combination,  pro- 
vided the  combination  could  be  kept  intact,  fur- 
nished the  better  standard  of  value.     See   Bi- 

HETALLISK. 

History  or  Monet  in  the  United  States. 
The  situation  in  which  the  early  colonists  in 
America  found  themselves  was  such  that  they 
could  draw  little  from  the  monetary  experience 
of  the  mother  coimtry.  During  the  colonial  peri- 
od they  took  from  the  mother  country  the  desig- 
nations pounds,  shillings,  and  pence.  Having 
no  mines,  their  stock  of  money  had  to  be  im- 
ported, and  since  they  drew  more  wealth  from 
England  than  they  could  export  to  that  country, 
it  was  quite  impossible  to  accumulate  a  monetary 
stock  in  this  way.  The  little  that  was  brought 
over  by  the  colonists  soon  foimd  its  way  back  to 
the  mother  country,  and,  in  the  early  days  espe- 
cially, resort  was  had  to  various  shifts  to' remedy 
the  dearth  of  money.  Various  articles  of  food 
and  produce  were  made  receivable  for  taxes  and 
other  purposes.  Of  these  the  most  widely  known 
was  the  tobacco  currency  of  Maryland  and  Vir- 
ginia. In  some  of  the  colonies  resort  was  had  to 
the  wampum  currency  of  the  Indians.  But  far 
more  important  in  their  effects  were  the  measures 
taken  to  prevent  coin  from  leaving  the  country 
and  the  issue  of  paper  money.  One  of  the  early 
devices  resorted  to  was  to  give  the  En^ish  cur- 
rency a  higher  nominal  value  than  its  face  value. 
It  was  argued  that,  if  in  the  colonies  a  shilling 
piece  circulated  as  one  and  a  half  shillings,  it 
would  not  be  exported.  This  process  of  rating 
coins  had  been  used  frequently  in  England  for 
the  gold  coinage.  The  different  colonies  acting  In- 
dependently rated  the  shilling  at  different  values, 
and  the  result  was  a  series  of  colonial  pounds 
differing  from  each  other  and  from  the  English 
pound.  In  1706  a  proclamation  of  Queen  Anne 
put  a  stop  to  this  practice  and  fixed  the  nominal 
value  of  the  pound  in  each  of  the  colonies  at  the 
existing  rate.  While  the  money  of  account  was 
for  each  colony  a  colonial  pound,  the  actual 
money  in  circulation  was  a  motley  collection  of 
coins  of  English,  French.  Portuguese,  and  Span- 
ish origin.  The  Spanish  dollar  was  the  most 
widely  known  and  circulated,  and  it  thus  became 


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MONET. 


715 


MONEY. 


the  term  by  which  the  currencies  of  the  colonies 
were  compared.  In  retail  trade  the  shilling  as 
a  division  of  the  dollar  has  persisted  to  our  o\ni 
day.  Furthermore,  as  the  Spanish  dollar  was 
common  to  all  the  colonies,  it  was  the  term  in 
which  later  the  common  obligations  were  •  ex- 
pressed by  the  Continental  Congress,  and  thus 
became  the  basis  of  our  national  coinage. 

Of  even  greater  importance  in  fixing  the  mone* 
tary  habits  of  the  people  was  the  issue  of  paper 
money.  The  first  issue  was  in  1690  in  Massachu- 
setts, and  was  made  to  meet  the  expenses  of  an 
expedition  against  the  French  in  Canada.  The 
notes  were  received  with  reluctance  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  fell  to  a  discount,  which  was  removed  by 
an  act  of  the  Colonial  Legislature,  which  placed 
a  premium  on  them,  as  compared  with  coin,  in  the 
payment  of  taxes.  Then  South  Carolina  issued 
bills  in  1712,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  all  the  colonies  followed  these  examples. 
Issued  at  first  to  meet  extraordinary  expenses  of 
the  governments,  the  public  clamor  for  more 
money  became  so  great  that  notes  were  issued 
later  without  any  such  plea  in  extenuation.  In 
the  situation  of  the  colonies  the  plea  for  more 
money  to  make  trade  easy  was  urged  with  pe- 
•culiar  force.  In  Massachusetts  a  series  of  issues 
had  taken  place;  and  in  1749  exchange  upon  Lon- 
don, which  was  normally  133  pounds  colonial  for 
100  pounds  sterling,  had  risen  to  1100  pounds 
for  100  pounds  sterling.  Parliament  having 
voted  £138,649  to  reimburse  the  colony  for  its 
share  in  the  expedition  against  Louisburg,  this 
sum  was  used  by  the  colony  to  redeem  its  paper 
issues  at  the  rate  of  II  to  1,  and  from  that  time 
onward  Massachusetts  was  on  a  specie  basis. 
Some  of  the  colonies,  as  for  example  Rhode  Isl- 
and, North  and  South  Carolina,  had  issued  paper 
money  far  more  extravagantly  than  Massachu- 
setts; while  others,  notably  Pennsylvania,  had 
pursued  a  more  conservative  policy.  In  the  latter 
•colony  there  were  two  kinds  of  bills,  exchequer  and 
loan  bills.  The  first  were  issued  by  the  colonial 
treasury  in  anticipation  of  taxes,  but  the  amount 
outstanding  is  said  not  to  have  exceeded  the 
probable  receipts  of  two  or  three  years.  There 
were  no  sudden  issues  of  large  quantities  and  the 
amount  of  the  issue  was  kept  fairly  uniform. 
The  loan  bills  were  issued  to  individuals  on 
landed  security,  plate,  or  other  valuable  assets. 
With  such  security  there  was  comparatively 
little  danger  of  an  overissue,  and  the  records 
show  that  there  were  comparatively  few  bad 
debts. 

In  1751  Parliament  forbade  the  further  issue  of 
notes  by  the  colonies,  and  more  or  less  successful 
efforts  were  made  by  them  to  redeem  their  out- 
standing notes.  When,  however,  the  colonies 
united  for  their  struggle  with  Great  Britain,  the 
only  fiscal  resource  which  seemed  open  to  them 
was  the  issue  of  paper  money.  The  first  issue 
was  in  August,  1775,  for  300,000  Spanish  dol- 
lars. Elaborate  provision  was  made  in  the  law 
for  the  redemption  of  this  currency,  and  the 
amount  fixed  for  which  each  colony  was  held  re* 
sponsible.  Other  issues  followed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, and  the  pretense  of  redemption  pro- 
visions was  soon  dropped.  As  much  as  nine 
millions  was  issued  before  any  depreciation  took 
place,  but  with  the  constantly  expanding  volume 
of  the  currency  this  could  not  last  long.  The 
followincf  figures  tell  the  story  of  the  rapid  mul- 
"tiplication  and  depreciation  of  this  money: 
Vol.  XIU.-46. 


Price  of  a  Spanish  sUvtr 

dollar  la  Continental 

currency 

Issued  1776 30.064.464 January  1, 1777 l\i 

Added  1777 26,426,833 "  1778 4 

1778 66,966,260 "  1779 9 

1779 149,703,856 •«  1780 45 

1780 82,908,320 "  1781 100 

1781 11,408,095 "  1782 600 

857,476,887 

In  the  meantime  every  device  known  to  the 
law  was  tried  in  vain  to  prevent  the  depreciation. 
The  most  stringent  penalties  enacted  against 
those  who  refused  to  receive  Continental  money 
at  its  face  value  failed  utterly  to  arrest  the  faU 
in  value.  Such  enormous  issues  together  with 
those  of  the  several  State  governments  prac- 
tically destroyed  the  value  of  the  paper  money. 
As  this  paper  was  never  redeemed,  it  was  in  ef- 
fect a  tax  upon  the  people  which  caused  much 
suffering  and  distress. 

After  the  collapse  of  the  Continental  currency 
the  circulation  of  the  countnr  consisted  of  specie, 
largely  obtained  through  foreign  loans,  State 
notes,  and,  to  a  very  limited  extent,  bank  notes. 
In  1782  the  Bank  of  North  America,  at  Philadel- 
phia, was  chartered  by  the  Continental  Congress. 
It  was  a  private  institution  with  a  large  Govern- 
ment subsidy  and  issued  notes.  It  rendered  im- 
portant services  to  the  nation,  but  its  note  is- 
sues amoimted  to  only  $400,000.  Before  the 
Federal  Constitution  was  adopted  banks  of  like 
character  had  been  chartered  in  Boston,  New 
York,  and  Baltimore,  and  bank  issues  acquired  a 
recognized  place  in  our  monetary  circulation. 

The  Federal  Constitution  vested  the  power  to 
coin  money  in  the  Central  Government,  and  for- 
bade the  States  making  anything  but  gold  and 
silver  a  legal  tender  for  the  pajnnent  of  debt. 
This  eliminated  State  issues,  and  from  this  time 
until  the  Civil  War  the  monetary  circulation  con- 
sisted of  United  States  specie,  foreign  specie,  and 
bank  notes. 

Among  the  first  acts  of  Congress  was  to  declare 
the  values  at  which  foreign  coins  should  circulate 
and  be  received  at  the  Government  offices.  Of 
these  foreign  coins  the  most  common  was  the 
Spanish  dollar,  which  as  late  as  1857  was  re- 
ceived in  all  payments  at  the  post-offices  of  the 
United  States.  In  1792  a  law  was  passed  es- 
tablishing a  national  gold  and  silver  coinage.  In 
the  history  of  money  prior  to  the  gold  discoveries 
of  California  specie  played  a  subordinate  part, 
its  chief  function  being  for  small  change  and  as 
a  reserve  for  banking  operations.  We  may 
therefore  glance  at  the  history  of  bank-note  issues 
before  taking  up  that  of  metallic  currency. 

While  the  Constitution  debarred  the  States 
from  issuing  money,  it  did  not  prevent  them  from 
establishing  banks  and  giving  to  the  latter  the 
power  to  issue  notes  as  they  might  see  fit.  After 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  State  banks  mul- 
tiplied rapidly.  In  1791  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States  was  chartered  with  a  capital  of  $10,000,- 
000.  Its  notes  were  received  everywhere  and 
were  the  natural  medium  of  payments  between 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  bank  acted 
as  a  controlling  agent  over  the  State  banks,  since 
by  receiving  or  refusing  to  accept  their  notes,  it 
could  make  or  mar  their  credit.  When  in  1811 
its  charter  expired  the  State  banks  were  unre- 
strained in  their  issue  of  notes.  In  1811  Gallatin 
estimated  the  note  circulation  of  these  banks  at 
$46,000,000,  but  in  1814  it  had  swelled  to  $100«- 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MONEY.  716 

000,000,  while  trade  was  crippled  by  war,  and 
specie  was  drained  from  the  country.  Great  em- 
barrassment was  felt  by  the  Government  from 
the  fact  that  as  the  only  medium  of  exchange 
such  State  bank  notes  could  hardly  be  refused 
in  payments,  while  with  the  suspension  of  specie 
payments  by  the  banks  their  value  depended  upon 
the  vagaries  of  bank  management.  This  state  of 
affairs  called  loudly  for  a  remedy,  and  the  re- 
organization of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States 
was  planned.  It  was  eventually  accomplished 
in  1816,  and  for  twenty  years  it  exercised  on  the 
whole  a  salutary  influence  upon  the  monetary 
circulation.  When  in  1836  its  charter  expirea, 
State  bank  notes  again  ran  riot  and  precipitated 
the  disastrous  panic  of  1837.  In  the  days  of  de- 
pression which  followed  the  States  generally  put 
their  banking  systems  in  order.  &  long,  how- 
ever, as  any  State  countenanced  the  loose  meth- 
ods which  had  formerly  brought  the  whole  sys- 
tem into  disrepute,  some  were  bound  to  suffer 
from  such  iniquity,  but  the  mass  of  suffering  was 
greatly  reduced.  This  was .  in  part  due  to  the 
gold  discoveries  of  California,  which  furnished 
the  nation  with  a  larger  supply  of  metal  than 
had  ever  been  known,  and  made  it  comparatively 
easy  for  the  banks  to  maintain  an  adequate  re- 
serve. When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  the  State 
bank  system  was  at  its  best,  and  the  agitation 
which  culminated  in  1863  in  the  national  bank- 
ing system  had  its  origin  more  in  the  fiscal  neces- 
sities of  the  Government  than  in  any  immediate 
need  of  reform  of  the  State  banks. 

The  unit  of  value  adopted  in  the  act  of  1792 
mentioned  above  was  a  dollar  of  37 IH  grains  of 
pure  silver — practically  the  Spanish  dollar  then 
current — or  a  gold  dollar  of  24.76  grains,  thus 
providing  a  bimetallic  system  with  free  coinage 
of  the  two  metals  at  a  ratio  of  15  to  1.  There 
had  not  been  for  many  years  any  material  change 
in  the  production  of  the  precious  metals,  and  the 
ratio  adopted  corresponded  fairly  well  with  the 
market  ratio.  While  no  great  quantity  of  metal 
was  coined  in  the  mints  of  the  United  States  for 
the  first  twenty  years  of  our  history,  and  as  be« 
fore  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  1812  the  tide  of 
importation  was  in  our  favor,  the  system  worked 
satisfactorily.  With  the  war  and  the  heavy 
importations  of  merchandise  which  followed  an 
export  of  specie  began  and  it  was  found  that 
gold  was  favored.  This  change  in  the  market 
ratio  was  largely  due  to  the  outbreak  of  the  re- 
volt against  the  Spanish  domination  in  South 
America  and  the  slackening  of  supplies  of  silver 
from  that  region.  Agitation  began  for  a  new 
ratio,  which  did  not  culminate  in  legislation  un- 
til 1834.  At  this  epoch  the  United  States  mined 
no  silver,  while  a  certain  amount  of  gold,  con- 
siderable for  that  time,  was  being  drawn  from  the 
Appalachian  gold  region.  When,  therefore,  the 
new  ratio  was  adopted  it  was  deemed  wise  to 
be  upon  the  side  of  favoring  gold  rather  than  sil- 
ver. Laws  of  1834  and  1835  changing  the  weight 
and  fineness  of  the  coins  established  the  ratio 
of  15.988  to  1,  familiarly  16  to  1,  although  the 
market  ratio  was  15.625  to  1.  The  divergence 
was,  however,  too  slight  to  affect  materially  the 
supply  of  silver,  but  in  1849  gold  was  discovered 
in  California,  resulting  in  a  decreased  value  of 
gold  as  compared  with  silver.  Moreover,  a  metal- 
lic surplus  appeared  in  our  own  markets,  and 
silver  began  to  be  exported.  As  all  the  silver  in 
circulation  was  divisionary  coin,  it  was  feared 


MONEY. 


that  a  dearth  of  small  change  would  result.  The 
exportation  of  silver  had  already  seriously  de- 
pleted the  stock  of  half  dollars,  the  largest  silver 
coin  in  use,  and  had  begun  to  threaten  the  quar- 
ter dollars  when  in  1853  Congress  reduced  the 
fineness  of  silver  coins  less  than  one  dollar  from 
900  to  835  and  made  them  tokens  to  be  issued 
only  on  Government  account.  In  so  doing  it 
did  not  affect  the  status  of  the  silver  dollar,  for 
which  as  before  free  coinage  existed — an  empty 
privilege,  since  the  silver  dollar  had  a  higher 
bullion  value  than  the  gold  dollar.  From  the 
establishment  of  the  mint  until  1850  the  aggre- 
gate coinage  of  the  United  States  was  $196,000,- 
000,  and  in  this  total  gold  and  silver  were  about 
equally  represented.  In  the  next  ten  years,  1851- 
60,  no  less  than  $403,000,000  were  coined,  of 
which  less  than  $48,000,000  were  silver.  Such  a 
change  denotes  not  only  that  gold  predominated 
in  the  metallic  circulation  of  the  period,  but 
also  that  the  metallic  circulation  itself  became 
a  thing  of  moment  in  the  community. 

The  Civil  War  introduced  new  elements  into 
our  monetary  circulation — paper  money  and  the 
national  bank  note.  Soon  after  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities  specie  payments  were  suspended. 
The  Government  seemed  to  have  exhausted  every 
device  of  borrowing  when  it  grasped  the  danger- 
ous expedient  of  paper  issues.  Treasury  note* 
bearing  interest  had  several  times  in  the  history 
of  the  nation  been  resorted  to,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  act  of  February  25,  1862,  was  passed 
that  non-interest-bearing  notes  were  issued.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars  of  notes  were 
autiiorized  and  they  were  declared  a  legal  tender 
for  all  debts,  public  and  private,  except  duties 
upon  imports  and  interest  upon  the  public  debt 
Subsequent  issues  in  July,  1862,  and  March, 
1863,  brought  up  the  aggregate  amount  author- 
ized to  $450,000,000.  This  fiood  of  paper  money 
drove  gold  to  a  premium  and  swept  away  the 
silver  subsidiary  coinage.  It  became  necessary  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  latter,  and  small  notes 
called  postage  and  later  fractional  currency  were 
authorized  in  1862  to  the  extent  of  $50,000,000. 
From  the  highest  denominations  down  to  three 
cents,  the  monetary  circulation  of  the  nation 
was  paper  only,  the  issues  of  the  United  States 
Government  and  the  issues  of  the  banks.  In  1863 
the  national  banking  system  was  organized,  but 
few  banks  availed  themselves  of  the  privilege  of 
a  national  charter  until  after  March  31,  1865, 
when  a  tax  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  circulation  of 
State  banks  outstanding  after  August  1,  1866, 
was  enacted.  This  doomed  the  State  bank  notes, 
and  banks  which  clung  to  the  note-issuing  privi- 
lege organized  under  the  national  law. 

When  peace  had  been  declared  the  condition  of 
the  currency  received  attention.  The  volume  of 
paper  outstanding  was  reduced  to  $356,000,000 
before  1868.  In  that  year  the  fear  of  a  monetary 
stringency  due  to  contraction  of  the  currency 
caused  Congress  to  abandon  this  policy,  and  this 
postponed  the  day  of  redemption.  In  1873  ad- 
ditional issues  were  made  and  the  amount  out- 
standing raised  to  $382,000,000,  which  limit  was 
fixed  as  a  maximum.  In  1875  the  Resumption 
Act  was  passed  providing  for  a  return  to  specie 
payments  January  1,  1879.  Some  slight  progress 
toward  a  metallic  basis  had  already  been  made 
by  calling  in  the  fractional  currency.  The  Re- 
sumption Act  authorized  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  to  sell  bonds  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONET. 


717 


MONEY. 


Tiding  a  gold  supply  sufficient  to  redeem  the 
notes.  It  also  removed  the  restriction  which  had 
previously  rested  on  the  volume  of  the  national 
bank  currency,  and  provided  that  when  additional 
bank  notes  were  issued  an  amount  of  legal- 
tender  notes  equal  to  80  per  cent,  of  such  issues 
should  be  retired.  The  fear  of  contraction  which 
had  dictated  a  bill  to  repeal  the  entire  Resump- 
tion Act,  which  failed  only  through  the  Presi- 
dent's veto,  succeeded  in  May,  1878,  in  abolish* 
ing  this  retirement  provision,  but  not  before  the 
volume  of  notes  had  been  reduced  to  $346,681,016, 
at  which  point  the  issue  stands  to-day.  Much 
trepidation  was  felt  lest  resiunption  should  not 
succeed  and  lest  the  applications  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  notes  should  exhaust  the  reserve  pro- 
vided. But  these  fears  proved  groundless,  and 
resumption  was  effected  quietly  and  without  dif- 
ficulty. From  1879  the  notes  have  been  con- 
vertible into  gold  upon  demand.  No  fixed  reserve 
of  gold  for  this  purpose  was  prescribed  by  law, 
but  the  practice  of  the  Treasury  has  been  to  keep 
on  hand  nominally  at  least  $100,000,000  for  this 
purpose.  Whenever  the  reserve  fell  below  this 
limit,  grave  concern  was  felt,  and  more  than  once 
resort  was  had  to  the  issue  of  bonds  to  sustain 
the  reserve.  The  law  of  1900  provides  a  reserve 
of  $160,000,000  for  the  redemption  of  these 
notes,  and  provides  more  effective  and  more  ex- 
peditious means  for  its  replenishment. 

Before  1862  the  centre  of  interest  and  discus- 
sion in  our  monetary  circulation  lay  in  the  notes 
of  banks.  It  was  then  transferred  to  the  paper 
issues  of  the  Government,  and  after  1876  to  sil- 
ver. During  the  Civil  War  period  the  United 
States  began  to  produce  silver  as  well  as  gold  in 
considerable  quantities,  but  as  all  our  money 
was  paper  this  did  not  affect  the  monetary  circu- 
lation. In  1870  a  revision  of  the  coinage  laws 
was  undertaken  with  the  purpose  of  codifying 
existing  law.  One  of  the  features  of  the  codi- 
fication was  the  omission  of  the  silver  dollar  from 
the  list  of  coins.  The  measure  was  an  executive 
one  and  there  was  considerable  difficulty  in  se- 
curing for  it  the  attention  of  Congress,  which  lis- 
tened impatiently  while  its  provisions  were  be- 
ing explained.  Between  1870  and  1873,  when  it 
became  a  law,  it  had  been  thoroughly  discussed 
in  Congress  and  should  have  been  well  under- 
stood. The  omission  of  the  silver  dollar  made  the 
United  States  theoretically  a  gold  standard  coun- 
try. This  law  which  effected  the  demonetization 
of  silver  was  the  famous  'crime  of  1873,'  con- 
cerning the  passage  of  which  the  wildest  state- 
ments were  current  at  a  later  date.  The  simple 
fact  is  that  at  the  time  no  one  was  aware  of  the 
significance  of  the  demonetization  of  silver. 

The  agitation  for  the  resumption  of  specie 
payment  brought  forward  the  contest  between 
contractionists  and  inflationists.  The  latter 
failed  in  their  efforts  to  balk  the  resumption 
policy,  but  the  general  feeling  on  which  their 
argument  rested,  that  a  healthy  currency  must 
expand  with  the  needs  of  the  coimtry,  had  to  be 
reckoned  with.  This  led  in  1876  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  Monetary  Commission  (q.v.),  whose 
report  presented  in  1877  favored  the  free  coinage 
of  silver  and  thus  began  the  long  battle  for  that 
ideal.  Germany  had  adopted  the  gold  standard 
and  was  selling  silver,  the  mines  of  the  United 
States  continued  to  increase  their  output,  and 
silver  was  falling  in  the  market  below  the  legal 
ratios  established  by  long  usage  in  bimetallic 


coimtries.  A  bill  for  the  free  coinage  of  silver 
passed  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1878. 
The  Senate,  however,  was  unwilling  to  accept 
for  the  United  States  alone  the  whole  burden  of 
the  rehabilitation  of  silver,  and  a  compromise 
resulted  in  the  Bland-Allison  Act,  which  was 
passed  over  the  President's  veto,  February  28, 
1878.  It  provided  that  not  less  than  $2,000,000 
worth  of  silver  nor  more  than  $4,000,000  worth 
should  be  purchased  monthly  and  coined  into 
standard  silver  dollars  (412^  grains  of  silver 
900  fine),  which  should  be  a  full  legal  tender  for 
all  debts,  public  and  private,  without  exception. 
It  also  authorized  the  President  to  call  an  inter- 
national conference  for  the  adoption  of  interna- 
tional bimetallism  at  a  common  ratio  to  be  agreed 
upon.  It  also  permitted  the  issue  of  silver  cer- 
tificates in  sums  of  $10  and  upward  for  standard 
silver  dollars  deposited  in  the  Treasury.  No  re- 
lief came  from  the  international  conference,  and 
the  coinage  went  on  increasing  in  volume  as  the 
price  of  silver  fell.  Soon  embarrassment  was 
caused  by  the  tendency  of  these  dollars  to  return 
to  the  Treasury,  as  less  than  $60,000,000  were 
absorbed  by  the  circulation.  There  was  no  dif- 
ficultyj  however,  after  a  law  of  1886  permitted 
the  issue  of  certificates  in  denominations  of  $1, 
$2,  and  $5.  While  the  number  of  dollars  in  cir- 
culation is  not  large,  there  is  no  obstacle  to  the 
circulation  of  silver  certificates. 

Under  the  law  of  1878,  which  continued  in  force 
until  1890,  $378,000,000  were  coined.  The  price 
of  silver  continued  to  fall  and  with  it  the  price 
of  other  commodities.  International  bimetallism 
as  a  remedy  for  falling  prices  continued  to  gain 
favor  among  economists,  and  the  agitation  for 
free  silver  coinage  in  the  United  States  grew  in 
strength.  In  1890  again  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives passed  a  free  coinage  bill,  but  a  compro' 
mise  worked  out  in  the  Senate  was  finally  ac- 
cepted and  became  law.  This  provided  for  the 
purchase  of  4,500,000  ounces  of  silver  monthly 
and  the  issue  of  Treasury  notes  for  the  cost  price 
thereof.  These  notes  were  a  legal  tender,  and  the 
privilege  was  given  to  the  Treasury  Department 
to  coin  the  silver  thus  purchased  and  replace  the 
notes  with  silver  certificates.  The  embarrass- 
ments of  the  Treasury  and  the  difficulty  of  keep- 
ing the  growing  mass  of  silver  money  at  a  parity 
with  gold  led  in  1893  to  the  repeal  of  the  com- 
pulsory silver  purchase  provision.  Under  this 
law  168,000,000  ounces  of  silver  had  been  pur- 
chased and  Treasury  notes  to  the  amount  of  $155,- 
000,000  issued.  The  repeal  of  the  act  in  1893 
took  place  only  after  a  severe  struggle,  and  the 
friends  of  silver  did  not  give  up  the  fight.  The 
Presidential  contest  of  1896  was  fought  out  on 
the  free  coinage  question  and  resulted  in  the 
signal  defeat  of  the  Silver  Party.  In  1900  a  new 
currency  law  was  passed  which  squarely  defined 
the  gold  dollar  as  the  standard  of  value  in  the 
United  States.  It  provided,  as  already  stated,  a 
larger  reserve  for  the  redemption  of  the  legal- 
tender  notes.  The  attempt  to  make  silver  dol- 
lars redeemable  in  gold  was,  however,  unsuccess- 
ful. The  same  measure  favored  the  expansion  of 
the  national  bank  note  issues  by  permitting  note 
issues  to  the  amount  of  the  par  value  of  the 
bonds  deposited  and  by  reducing  the  tax  upon 
the  circulation  of  banks. 

See  articles  Bank,  Banking;  Bimetallism; 
Currency;  Foreign  Money;  Gbesham'b  Law; 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


MONET. 


718 


MONGOL  DYNASTIESL 


Latin  Union;  Monetaby  Commission;  Mone- 
tary CONFEBENCES. 

Bibliography.  The  mass  of  literature  relating 
to  money  is  so  enormous  that  the  selection  of 
references  must  be  confined  chiefly  to  those  which 
deal  with  the  question  from  the  American  view- 
point. Reference  should,  however,  be  made  to  the 
Reports  of  the  International  Monetary  Confer- 
ences of  1867,  1878,  1881,  and  1892,  and  the 
Reports  of  the  English  Commissions  on  the  De- 
pression of  Trade,  on  the  Relative  Value  of  Gold 
and  Silver,  and  on  the  Indian  Currency.  Among 
works  which  deal  with  the  theory  of  money,  men- 
tion may  be  made  of:  Jevons,  Money  and  the 
Mechanism  of  Exchange  (New  York,  1894)  ;  id.. 
Investigations  in  Currency  and  Finance  (London, 
1884)  ;  Nicholson,  Motiey  and  Monetary  Prob- 
lems (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1895);  Walker,  Money  (New 
York,  1878).  In  reference  to  the  money  question 
in  the  United  States,  the  following  works  may  be 
consulted  with  profit:  Sumner,  History  of  Amer- 
ican Currency  (New  York,  1878) ;  Knox,  United 
States  Notes  (ib.,  1884)  ;  Laughlin,  History  of 
Bimetallism  in  the  United  titates  (ib.,  1886); 
Taussig,  The  Silver  Situation  in  the  United  States 
(1893) ;  Laughlin,  Report  of  the  Monetary  Com- 
mission of  t)^  Indianapolis  Conference  (Chicago, 
1898)  ;  Noyes,  Thirty  Years  of  American  Finance 
(New  York,  1898);  Watson,  The  History  of 
American  Coinage  (ib.,  1899);  Bullock,  The 
Monetary  History  of  the  United  States  (ib., 
1900)  ;  White,  Money  and  Banking  (2d  ed.,  Bos- 
ton, 1902)  ;  Laughlin,  Principles  of  Money  (New 
York,  1903)  ;  Kinley,  Money  (ib.,  1904) ;  Conant, 
Principles  of  Money  and  Banking  (ib.,  1905); 
Johnson,  Money  and  Currency  (Boston,  1906). 

MONEYWOBT.  A  popular  name  for  vari- 
ous plants  of  the  genus  Lysimachia   (q.v). 

MONPOBTE  DE  LEHOS,  mdn-fdr'tA  dA 
Ift'mfts.  A  town  of  Northwestern  Spain,  in  the 
Province  of  Lugo,  situated  in  a  fertile  valley, 
35  miles  south  of  Lugo,  with  which  it  has  rail- 
road connection  (Map:  Spain,  B  1).  Near  by  is 
a  hill  on  which  are  the  ruins  of  a  castle  of  the 
lords  of  Lemos.  The  town  has  a  secondary  school 
installed  in  an  attractive  old  Jesuit  convent.  The 
chief  industry  is  cattle-raising,  and  there  are 
some  manufactures  of  cloth,  soap,  and  chocolate. 
Population,  in  1900,  12,999. 

MONGEi,  mdNzh,  Gaspard  (1746-1818).  A 
French  mathematician,  bom  at  Beaune.  He  was 
educated  at  Beaune  and  at  Lyons,  and  when  only 
sixteen  years  old  obtained  a  position  to  teach 
physics  and  mathematics  at  the  latter  place. 
From  there  he  went,  in  1765,  to  the  school  of 
engineering  at  M^ziferes  as  designer.  He  was 
soon  made  assistant,  and  in  1768  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  military  school  itself.  In 
1780  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris,  and  in  1783  was  appointed 
examiner  of  the  naval  pupils.  From  that  time 
he  lived  in  Paris.  In  1792  he  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Marine,  and  the  next  year  he  took 
an  active  part  in  organizing  the  national  de- 
fense. He  was  also  active  in  the  organization 
of  public  education,  was  one  of  the  first  profes- 
sors in  the  Ecole  Normale,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.  He  went 
with  Bonaparte  to  Egypt  in  1798,  undertook  the 
direction  of  the  Egyptian  Institute,  and  conduct- 
ed the  search  for  Egyptian  antiquities.  In  1805 
he  was  appointed  Senator,  and  in  1806  received 


the  title  of  Comte  de  P6luse.  After  the  Restora- 
tion he  lost  his  offices,  and  at  this  time  he  fell 
into  a  state  of  melancholy  from  which  he  neyer 
recovered.  He  is  famous  chiefly  as  the  founder 
of  descriptive  geometry  (see  Geometry),  a  sci- 
ence long  kept  as  a  Government  secret.  But  he 
made  important  contributions  to  other  branches 
of  mathematics  as  well.  The  development  of 
modem  geometry  dates  from  him;  he  introduced 
into  analytic  geometry  of  three  dimensions  a 
thorough  treatment  of  linear  equations,  completed 
the  study  of  surfaces  of  the  second  degree  which 
had  been  begim  by  Euler,  and  established  the 
principles  of  the  integration  of  partial  diflferential 
equations  in  connection  with  the  theory  of  surfaces. 
Following  are  his  principal  publications:  Traiti 
iUmentaire  de  statique  (1788;  8th  ed.  1846); 
04om^trie  descriptive  (1795;  7th  ed.  1847;  new 
German  ed.  1900)  ;  Application  de  Vanalyse  h 
la  g6omitrie  des  surfaces  du  premier  et  deuxiime 
dcgr4  (1795;  5th  ed.  1850).  Consult:  Dupin, 
Essai  historique  sur  les  travaux  scientifiques  de 
Monge  (Paris,  1819)  ;  Brisson,  Notice  historique 
sur  Monge  (Paris,  1818)  ;  Obenrauch,  Monge, 
der  Begrunder  der  darstellenden  Geometric  als 
Wissenschaft  (Brflnn,  1893-94). 

HOKGHYBy  monger^,  or  MUKGHIB.  The 
capital  of  a  district  in  Bengal,  British  India,  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Ganges,  having  steam 
ferry  communication  with  its  railway  station 
on  the  north  bank,  34  miles  northwest  of  Bha- 
galpur  (Map:  India,  E  3).  The  city,  extend- 
ing for  six  miles  along  the  river  bank,  has  a 
picturesque  appearance,  and  is  dominated  by  a 
fort  containing  the  district  offices  and  headquar- 
ters, on  a  rocky  elevation.  During  the  eigh- 
teenth and  nineteenth  centuries  Monghyr  was 
noted  for  its  manufactures  of  firearms,  swords, 
and  ironware,  which  are  still  in  local  demand. 
Cotton,  cloth,  shoes,  furniture,  and  soap  are 
manufactured,  and  there  is  a  large  trade  in  agri- 
cultural produce,  especially  butter.  Population, 
in  1891,  57,077;  in  1901,  35,880. 

HONGIBELIiO,  m6n'j^bel16.  The  Sicilian 
name  for  Etna  (q.v.). 

M'6NG  KAI,  mSng  nl.  An  eastern  State  of 
the  feudatory  Southern  Shan  States,  British 
Burma.  Area,  2716  square  miles.  Population, 
estimated  at  24,000.    Capital,  M(5ng  Nai. 

MONGOL  DYNASTIES  (Mongolian,  prob- 
ably from  mong,  brave) .  From  the  earliest  times 
the  tribes  that  became  known  as  Mongols  about 
the  twelfth  century  dwelt  in  Eastern  Asia,  in 
and  about  the  modem  Mongolia.  They  were 
organized  and  made  a  great  conquering  power 
by  Genghis  Khan  (1162-1227).  The  great  Asi- 
atic empire  which  was  made  his  by  conquest  was 
divided  among  his  sons,  of  whom  Ogotai  received 
Northern  China  and  Mongolia  and  succeeded  his 
father  as  Great  Khan.  Under  Kublai  Khan,  the 
grandson  of  Genghis,  who  became  Great  Khan 
in  1259,  the  empire  was  practically  divided  into 
four  parts.  The  first,  actually  ruled  by  the 
Great  Khan,  included  China,  Korea,  Mongolia, 
Manchuria,  and  Tibet,  with  its  capital  at  Pe- 
king. (See  Kublai  Khan  and  Chinese  Empibe.) 
The  second,  the  Middle  Tatar  Empire,  given  by 
Genghis  to  his  son  Tchagatai,  included  Sim- 
garia,  Transoxiana,  Afghanistan,  and  a  part  of 
Chinese  Turkestan.  Its  history  differs  in  no  wa^ 
from  that  of  other  Asiatic  States  until,  under 
a  weak  descendant  of  Tchagatai,  the  real  power 


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MONGOL  DYNASTIES. 


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MONGOLIA. 


fell  into  the  hands  of  the  ruthless  Tamerlane  or 
Timur  (q.v.)  >  who  made  Samarkand  the  capital  of 
his  empire.  The  third  division  of  the  empire  of 
Genghis  Khan,  the  Empire  of  Kiptchak  (q.v.), 
or  Uie  Grolden  Horde^  was  assigned  to  Batu,  a 
grandson  of  Genghis  bj  his  eldest  son  Jujy.  In 
1237  a  vast  Mongol  horde  entered  Russia  (q.v.)> 
and  after  carrying  destruction  through  that 
country  with  fire  and  sword  and  forcing  the 
princes  to  do  homage,  pressed  into  Poland  and 
Germany,  and  on  the  field  known  as  the  Wahl- 
statt,  near  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  defeated  an  army 
of  Poles,  Silesians,  and  Teutonic  Knights  in 
April,  1241,  suffering  such  heavy  losses,  however, 
as  to  be  compelled  to  retreat.  In  the  same 
year  another  army  imder  Batu  Khan  over- 
whelmed the  Hungarians  under  their  King, 
B6la  IV.  In  1242  Batu  Khan  was  recalled 
to  Asia  by  the  news  of  the  death  of  Ogotai. 
As  long  as  the  House  of  Batu  continued  the 
Kiptchak  Mongols  or  Tatars  held  Russia  in 
vassalage,  and  kept  Eastern  Europe  in  constant 
terror.  They  met  their  first  defeat  at  the  hands 
of  the  Russians  in  1380;  but  their  strength  was 
most  seriously  undermined  by  the  new  Tatar 
invasion  under  Timur  (q.v.)  in  1389.  The  em- 
pire dissolved  into  the  separate  khanates  of 
Kazan,  Astrakhan,  and  the  Crimea.  In  1480  the 
Russians  emancipated  themselves  from  the  over- 
lordship  of  the  Mongols.  The  khans  of  the 
Crimea  became  vassals  of  the  Turkish  sultans  in 
1476.  Kazan  was  conquered  by  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible of  Russia  in  1662,  and  Astrakhan  in  1664. 
The  fourth  division  included  Persia,  Georgia, 
Armenia,  Khorasan,  and  part  of  Asia  Minor. 
In  1263  Mangu,  the  fourth  Great  Khan,  a  grand- 
son of  Genghis,  sent  his  brother  Hulaku  to  gov- 
ern this  pait  of  the  empire  and  to  complete  the  con- 
quest begun  by  Genghis.  Hulaku  crossed  the 
Oxus,  destroyed  the  sect  of  the  Assassins  (q.v.), 
took  Bagdad,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Abbas- 
side  caliphate  (1268).  He  reduced  Persia  to 
complete  subjection,  and  added  Mosul,  Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria,  and  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor  to 
the  Mongol  conquests.  He  became  the  foimder 
of  a  dynasty  known  as  the  Ilkhans,  which 
ruled  over  Persia  till  1336.  His  religion 
was  the  pure  theism  of  his  house,  and  he 
was  broadly  tolerant  toward  both  Christian 
and  Moslem.  His  wife  was  a  Christian.  He 
established  his  capital  at  Maraghah,  in  Azer- 
baijan, and  there  maintained  a  court  where 
science  and  the  arts  were  liberally  cultivated. 
Hulaku  assumed  independent  sovereignty  upon 
the  death  of  Mangu  Khan.  He  died  in  1266,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Abaka,  whose  ability 
and  virtues  excelled  those  of  his  father.  He  had 
the  advantage  of  being  able  to  treat  the  country 
as  an  organizer  rather  than  as  a  conquerors 
The  son  of  a  Christian  mother,  he  married  a 
daughter  of  the  Greek  Emperor  Michael  Pa- 
Isologus,  and  is  thought  to  have  been  himself  a 
Christian.  He  was  a  devoted  patron  of  learning. 
His  reign  was  for  the  most  part  peaceful;  but 
he  expelled  from  his  realms  a  Tatar  army,  de- 
feating the  invaders  near  Herat.  He  died  in 
1282.  Abaka  Khan  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
baptized  under  the  Christian  name  df  Nicholas 
(Mongol  Nikudftn),  who  became  a  Mohammedan 
and  persecuted  the  Christians  and  Mongols  until 
he  was  warned  to  desist  by  his  powerful  uncle, 
Kublai  Khan.  When  he  apostatized  he  took  the 
name  of  Ahmed.    He  was  put  to  death  in  1284 


by  Argun,  the  son  of  Abaka,  who  then  ascended 
the  throne.  He  followed  the  liberal  and  pro- 
Christian  traditions  of  his  father  and  grand- 
father. He  opened  diplomatic  relations  with  Eu- 
rope, whither  he  sent  a  Genoese,  Buscarelli,  as 
his  agent.  He  proposed  to  make  an  alliance  with 
the  Pope,  England,  and  France  against  the  Mo- 
hammedan power.  Marco  Polo,  the  famous  Vene- 
tian traveler,  conducted  a  Mongol  bride  from  the 
Court  of  Kublai  to  Argun,  but  the  latter  died 
before  their  arrival,  in  1291.  His  successor, 
Kai  Katu,  died  in  1294,  and  the  direct  succes- 
sicm  was  restored  by  Ghazan  Khan,  the  son  of 
Argun.  He  waged  a  successful  war  with  the 
Egyptian  Sultan,  and  continued  the  friendly  in- 
tercourse with  Europe  which  his  father  had 
begun.  In  his  later  years  he  adopted  Mohamme- 
danism. He  was  a  patron  of  literature,  like  his 
predecessors,  and  caused  a  history  of  the  Mon- 
gols to  be  written  by  one  of  the  scholars  at 
his  Court.  He  made  many  improvements,  es- 
pecially in  the  administration  of  justice, 
and  built  roads  and  established  post  routes.  He 
died  in  1303.  His  brother  and  successor,  Mo- 
hammed Kudah  Bundah,  made  Es-Sultaniyeh  his 
capital,  attached  himself  to  the  Moslem  sect  of 
Ali,  and  died  in  1316.  The  son  of  the  last 
prince,  Abu  Said,  was  a  mere  child,  and  the 
common  experience  of  absolute  monarchies,  a 
struggle  for  power  between  leading  chiefs,  fol- 
low^ his  accession,  and  introduced  the  seeds  of 
weakness  into  the  Mongol  Dominion.  Juban,  who 
was  successful  in  this  rivalry,  married  the  young 
Khan's  sister;  but  when  Abu  Said  became  of 
age  he  showed  the  spirit  of  his  race,  and  defeated 
and  killed  his  aspiring  vassal  in  1327.  His 
death  in  1336  was  the  practical  end  of  the  Mon- 
gol monarchy  in  Persia.  His  successors  imtil 
1344  were  mere  puppets  in  the  hands  of  ambi- 
tious chiefs,  and  anarchy  made  easy  the  con- 
quests of  Timur.  Timur  was  likewise  of 
Mongol  origin,  and  akin  to  the  family  of  Gen- 
ghis. The  Mogul  (or  Mongol)  dynasty  in  India 
(q.v.)  was  founded  by  one  of  his  descendants, 
Baber,  in  1626.  Consult:  Howarth,  History  of 
the  Mongols  (4  vols.,  London,  1876-88)  ;  Mark- 
ham,  History  of  Persia  (London,  1874)  ;  Yule, 
Cathay  and  the  Way  Thither  (London,  1866)  ; 
Hammer-Purgstall,  Qesohichte  der  goldenen 
Horde  (Pest,  1840)  ;  id.,  Oeschichte  der  Ilchane 
(Darmstadt,  1842). 

MONGOLIA.  The  land  of  the  Mongols;  a 
Chinese  colonial  possession,  which  stretches 
through  Central  Asia  from  Eastern  Turkestan, 
Sungaria,  and  the  Altai  Mountains  on  the  west, 
to  Manchuria  on  the  east,  and  northward  from 
China  proper  to  the  four  Siberian  provinces  of 
Tomsk,  Yeniseisk,  Irkutsk,  and  Transbaikalia. 
The  term  is  sometimes  stretched  to  include  Sun- 
garia on  the  west,  where  many  Mongols  dwell, 
and  Koko-nor,  which  lies  north  of  Tibet,  but  is 
separated  from  Mongolia  proper  by  the  Chinese 
Pro\ince  of  Kansu.  The  area  in  the  narrower 
sense  is  estimated  at  about  976,300  square  miles. 

Physical  Featukes.  Three  physically  dis- 
tinct regions  are  recognizable:  (1)  A  central 
elevated  plateau  known  as  the  Desert  of  Gobi, 
2500  to  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  600 
miles  or  more  in  breadth,  and  extending  from 
southwest  to  northeast  for  1000  miles.  It  may 
be  described  as  an  almost  treeless  stony  or  gravel- 
ly plain,  diversified  by  ranges  of  low  barren  hilla 


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MONGOLIA. 


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MONGOLIA. 


a  few  hundred  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the 
country,  and  marked  here  and  there  with  pro- 
jecting crags  and  shattered  peaks  apparently  of 
volcanic  origin.  Toward  the  west  and  southwest 
are  parts  over-blown  with  loose  sands,  which 
fill  the  bottoms  of  the  smaller  valleys,  or  form 
fantastic,  ever-changing  ridges  and  hillocks,  pre- 
senting a  weird  and  dreary  aspect,  and  travers- 
able only  by  camels.  Elsewhere,  however,  espe- 
cially toward  the  Hurku  Hills  in  the  west,  and 
in  the  northeastern  section,  are  found  many  wide 
grassy  plains,  with  patches  of  scrub  and  furze, 
and  clumps  of  parched  flowers,  merging  in  the 
north  into  the  rich  pasture  land  and  fairly  wooded 
hill  country  south  and  east  of  the  Kentei  con- 
tinuations of  the  Yablonoi  Mountains  of  Si- 
beria. (2)  A  still  more  elevated  plateau  from 
3000  to  6000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
lying  to  the  northwest  of  this  so-called  desert 
plateau,  and  bounded  toward  Sungaria  and  Si- 
beria by  the  Altai  and  the  Sayan  Mountains. 
This  is  the  region  sometimes  called  Outer  Mon- 
golia. It  is  a  mountainous  country,  clad  with 
forests  and  intersected  with  numerous  streams. 
The  chief  mountains  are  the  Tannu,  the  Tais- 
khir,  the  Kara-Adsirga,  the  Arzy-Bodgo,  the 
Khangai,  and  the  Chamur,  with  a  general  north- 
west to  southeast  trend.  (3)  The  fertile,  undu- 
lating, and  well-wooded  region  usually  called 
Eastern  or  Inner  Mongolia,  lying  to  the  south 
and  southeast  of  the  Gobi,  and  intersected  by  the 
greater  Khingan  Mountains  and  their  southwest- 
em  continuations.  It  lies  alon^  the  Manchurian 
provinces  of  Kirin  and  Shing-king,  and  stretches 
westward  along  the  Great  Wall  as  far  as  Kwei- 
hwa-ch'ing. 

Htdboobapht.  With  the  exception  of  the 
southwest  parts  of  the  Gobi  Plateau,  the  coimtry 
is  fairly  well  watered,  and  even  in  those  regions 
numerous  rills  are  encountered,  which,  however, 
speedily  lose  themselves  in  the  sand.  W^ater, 
however,  may  be  found  almost  everywhere  by 
digging  a  few  feet.  Unfortunately,  these  regions 
are  so  frequently  wind-swept  that  the  water  holes 
are  soon  covered  over  or  hidden  by  the  fine  dust 
with  which  the  winds  are  laden.  The  drainage 
of  the  country  is  partly  to  the  north,  into  Lake 
Baikal  by  the  Eder,  the  Orkhon,  and  other  trib- 
utaries of  the  Selengha,  and  partly  to  the  north- 
east and  east  by  the  Onon,  through  the  Shilka, 
and  by  the  Kerulen,  through  the  Dalai-nor  and 
the  Argun  into  the  Amur.  The  extreme  eastern 
part  of  Mongolia  drains  partly  into  the  Amur 
through  the  Nonni  and  the  Sungari  of  Man- 
churia, and  partly  to  the  sea  by  the  Shira-muren, 
which  finds  its  way  into  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li  by 
the  Liao.  There  are  several  lakes  in  Kobdo  and 
Uliassutai,  some  of  them  brackish,  from  which 
some  thousands  of  tons  of  salt  are  obtained.  The 
largest  is  Kosogol  (5200  feet  above  sea-level), 
near  the  Russian  frontier.  On  the  extreme  east, 
partly  in  Manchuria,  is  the  Dalai-nor,  and  there 
are  many  lakes  of  less  extent  in  Southeast  Mon- 
golia. 

Geology  and  Minerals.  The  country  seerfis 
to  be  built  up  of  granites,  gneisses,  and  crystal- 
line schists  of  Archflean  age,  and  there  are  indi- 
cations of  its  being  rich  in  minerals.  In  the 
Sayan  Mountains  immense  beds  and  boulders  of 
nephrite  have  been  found,  and  in  the  Kitoi  Alps, 
near  Lake  Baikal,  are  great  deposits  of  serpen- 
tine and  graphite.  Silver  ores  and  graphite 
have  also  been  found  on  the  Mongolian  side,  and 


coal,  apparentlv  of  Jurassic  age,  has  been  found 
in  the  Tannu  Mountains  and  the  Yenisei  basin, 
as  well  as  near  Kukuhoto  (Kwei-hwa-ch'ing), 
near  the  great  bend  of  the  Yellow  River.  In  the 
lower  or  central  plateau  red  and  brown  con- 
glomerates, sandstones^  and  clays  are  common, 
and  both  crystalline  and  mountain  limestone 
abound  in  the  Khingan  range. 

Soil,  Climate,  and  Vegetation.  Except  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  lakes  and  rivers,  along  the 
rich  alluvial  borderlands  of  the  Khingan  ran^, 
and  the  loess  deposits  north  of  Shansi  and  Chili- 
li,  the  soil  is  poor  and  little  agriculture  is  pos- 
sible. In  Southeast  Mongolia,  where  the  average 
summer  temperature  is  77**  F.,  indigo,  cotton, 
opium,  and  rice  are  produced,  as  well  as  the 
usual  cereals,  while  in  Central  Mongolia  only 
small  quantities  of  wheat,  oats,  buckwheat,  and 
millet  are  grown.  In  the  northwest  agriculture 
is  attempt^  only  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes 
and  along  the  lower  courses  of  the  rivers.  Win- 
ter lasts  for  from  six  to  eight  months,  and  in 
December  the  mercury  falls  in  some  places  to 
30**  F.  below  zero.  The  air  is  dry;  cold 
northwest  winds  prevail;  northeast  winds  bring 
moisture,  south  and  southeast  winds  dry  heat. 
At  Urga,  the  capital,  in  latitude  48**  20^  N., 
longitude  107**  30^  E.,  600  miles  north -northwest 
of  Kalgan,  the  annual  rainfall  is  only  9^ 
inches,  and  the  mean  summer  temperature  64" 
F.,  and  at  Uliassutai,  in  the  northwest,  5400 
feet  above  sea-level,  the  July  temperature  is  66° 
F.    The  snowfall  is  never  great. 

Fauna.  The  fauna  resembles  that  of  Siberia, 
and  is  not  extensive.  It  is  richest  in  fur-bearing 
animals,  as  hares,  foxes,  sables,  and  squirrels, 
and  there  are  deer,  marmots,  black  bears,  Kjang 
or  moimtain  goats,  ounces,  and  wolves.  The  woItcs 
never  run  in  packs,  seldom  attack  men,  and  are 
far  from  brave.  Droves  of  wild  camels,  ponies, 
asses,  and  mules  are  found,  and  their  young  are 
sometimes  captured.     Among  game  birds  is  the 

Cartridge.  Except  in  the  settled  regions  near 
;hina,  cats  and  chickens  are  seldom  seen.  No 
encampment  is  complete,  however,  without  a 
pack  of  barking,  currish  dogs.  The  camel  is  two- 
humped,  but  does  not  possess  the  water  cells  of 
the  camels  of  the  Arabian  desert. 

Industries.  Mongolia  has  no  manufactures. 
The  chief  industry  is  the  rearing  of  flocks  and 
heids,  and  the  breeding  of  horses.  In  the  north- 
west, and  to  a  less  eidtent  elsewhere,  huntbg  is 
engaged  in,  and  furs,  skins,  deers'  horns,  etc., 
form  important  articles  of  trade.  Felt  and  cer- 
tain kinds  of  woolen  goods  are  produced,  and 
two  kinds  of  silk  are  woven  in  the  rich  agricul- 
tural districts  occupied  by  the  Chinese  and  the 
sedentary  Mongols  (i.e.  the  region  between  the 
desert  and  the  Great  Wall),  whose  trade  is  with 
North  China.  Trade  centres  chiefly  in  Urga» 
Kobdo,  Uliassutai,  and  Maimaichin,  opposite  the 
Russian  town  of  Kiakhta  (840  miles  north-north- 
west of  Kalgan  (q.v.),  also  an  important  trade 
centre),  and  Kuku-koto,  or  Kwei-hwa-ch'ing.  a 
walled  Chinese  town  near  the  great  bend  of  the 
Yellow  River,  and  an  important  point  of  de- 
parture for  the  trade  with  East  Turkestan 
and  Hi.  Other  cities  are  Jehol  (q-j)  5 
Lama-miao,  160  miles  northeast  of  Peking; 
Pa-K*ow,  60  miles  east  by  south  of  Jehol; 
Chi-fung-hien,  150  miles  northeast  of  Jehol;  and 
Hada,  situated  in  latitude  42**  10'  N.  and  longi- 
tude  119**   E.     Trade  is  carried  on  mostly  by 


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721 


MONGOLIA. 


barter,  furs,  woolen  stuffs,  skins,  sheep,  camels, 
horses,  etc.,  being  exchanged  for  salt,  timber, 
tea,  silk,  cottons,  sugar  candj,  etc.  Brick  tea  is 
the  chief  medium  of  exchange. 

A  very  extensive  and  important  transit  trade 
passes  through  Mongolia  from  Peking,  through 
Kalgan  and  Urga  to  Kiakhta  in  Siberia,  tea  being 
the  chief  commodity  from  China.  This  gives  con- 
siderable employment  to  several  of  the  tribes  as 
conductors  of  the  caravans,  particularly  the  Su- 
nids,  who  occupy  the  central  portion  of  the  Gobi, 
and  thousands  of  camels  are  employed.  Roads — 
i.e.  well-beaten  tracks — abound,  and  run  in  all  di- 
rections, except  in  the  sandy  parts,  and  there  are 
usually  two  or  more  to  every  important  place, 
camels  going  one  way  and  ox-carts  another,  de- 
pending on  the  pasturage  and  the  water.  There 
are  few  cities  or  towns,  the  Mongols  being  for 
the  most  part  tent-dwellers  who  usually  camp 
on  one  spot  all  winter,  but  move  occasionally 
during  summer  to  some  suitable  pasturage  with- 
in their  OMm  tribal  limits. 

Population  and  Government.  The  country 
is  ruled  as  a  military  colony  by  the  Li  Fan  Yuen, 
or  'Ck)lonial  Department,*  at  Peking.  The  popu- 
lation has  been  estimated  at  from  2,000,000  to 
6,000,000.  The  latter  number  seems  excessive, 
but  probably  includes  the  inhabitants  of  Sun- 
garia  and  Koko-nor,  as  well  as  the  very  large 
number  of  Chinese  who  have  taken  up  their  abode 
here  as  merchants  and  farmers.  The  Mongols 
are  divided  into  aimaks  or  tribes,  each  governed 
by  its  own  chieftain,  and  subdivided  for  military 
purposes  into  Koshun,  or  ^banners.*  The  north- 
em  half  of  the  coimtry  is  occupied  (1)  by  four 
khanates  (eighty- three  banners)  —  Dzassaktu, 
Sain-noin,  Tsushetu,  and  Tsetsen — each  governed 
by  a  prince  claiming  descent  from  Genghis  Khan, 
controlled  by  two  Manchu  residents,  whose  seat 
is  at  Urga,  the  capital.  The  four  khanates  are 
composed  entirely  of  Khalkhas,  the  most  powerful 
of  all  the  tribes.  (2)  By  Kobdo  and  Ulianghai, 
dependencies  of  Uliassutai,  ruled  by  their  own 
chieftains,  and  a  Chinese  Amban  or  Minister 
Resident  at  Uliassutai.  The  rest  of  the  country 
— known  as  Inner  Mongolia — ^is  occupied  by 
twenty-four  aimaks  or  tribes,  each  with  its  own 
hereditary  chieftain,  the  whole  divided  into  forty- 
nine  banners,  forming  six  corps.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  the  Kortchin,  on  the  Man- 
churian  border,  who  joined  the  Manchus  in  the 
conquest  of  China,  and  the  Ordos  within  the 
great  bend  of  the  Yellow  River.  The  Chakhars 
and  Bargou  are  not  included  in  the  jurisdiction 
of  Mongolia;  their  pasture  lands  are  now  in- 
cluded within  the  Province  of  Pe-chi-li.  They 
are  governed  by  a  Tu-tung,  or  lieutenant-general^ 
who  resides  at  Kalgan.  Similarly  the  Tumets 
north  of  Shan-si  are  included  in  that  province, 
and  are  (with  the  Ordos)  controlled  by  a  gen- 
eral residing  at  Kwei-hwa-chMng.  The  people 
pajr  no  taxes  to  China;  only  a  cattle  tax  to  the 
princes,  who  pay  a  certain  nominal  tribute  to 
the  Emperor  of  CJhina,  whom  they  acknowledge 
as  paramount,  agreeing  to  have  no  relations 
with  any  foreign  power.  The  princes  furnish 
certain  military  contingents  when  needed,  and 
are  required  to  visit  Peking  at  stated  periods. 
Their  military  forces  consist  entirely  of  cavalry. 

Religion.  Buddhism  was  introduced  by  Kub- 
lai  Khan,  and  the  Mongols  are  now  strongly  de- 
voted to  Lamaism  (q.v.).  Several  males  of  each 
family  become  lamas  or  priests,  and  in  this  they 


are  encouraged  by  the  Chinese  Government. 
There  are  numerous  great  lamaseries  in  Mongolia 
— e.g.  in  the  vicinity  of  Jehol  (q.v.) — and  tem- 
ples are  found  well  scattered  over  the  country. 
The  spiritual  head  of  Mongolian  Buddhism  is 
the  Kutuktu,  or  Living  Buddha — ^next  in  impor- 
tance to  the  Grand  Lama  of  Tibet — ^who  resides 
at  Urga. 

Social  Life.  The  Mongols  are  a  cheerful, 
good-natured,  and  hospitable  people.  They  live 
in  tents  (yurta)  of  a  very  close-grained  dark 
fabric,  lined  with  felt,  with  a  hole  in  the  roof 
for  escaping  smoke,  its  occupants  squatting  on 
the  felt-covered  floor,  supporting  their  backs 
against  the  boxes  and  chests  which  line  the 
'wall.*  There  is  no  furniture  beyond  small  tables. 
Though  Buddhists,  they  are  not  averse  to  flesh- 
eating;  but  few  except  princes  and  nobles,  or 
specially  wealthy  persons,  can  afford  such  a 
luxury.  Their  ordinary  food  consists  of  prepara- 
tions of  milk  and  millet,  buckwheat  flour,  oat- 
meal, and  the  like.  Mutton,  however,  is  kept 
in  the  houses  of  the  well-to-do  for  festive  occa- 
sions, for  the  entertainment  of  guests,  or  to  be 
used  when  prescribed  medically.  Except  among 
princes  and  the  agricultural  Mongols  bordering 
on  China,  chopsticks  are  not  used — the  fingers 
or  a  spoon  suffice.  Women  are  not  secluded  as 
in  China,  and  in  their  marriage  customs  a  sem- 
blance of  the  primitive  fashion  of  wiving  by 
'capture*  is  retained. 

Language.  Mongolian  is  an  agglutinative 
language,  belonging  to  the  Ural-Altaic  family. 
It  is  closely  allied  to  the  Manchu,  and  in  its 
grammatical  procedures  it  greatly  resembles 
Korean.  Throughout  Mongolia  proper  it  is 
free  from  dialectal  differences^  but  slight  dif- 
ferences exist  in  Kalmuck  (as  in  Sungaria) 
and  among  the  Buriatic  Mongols  of  Siberia.  It 
was  reduced  to  writing  in  the  time  of  (jenghis 
Khan,  the  alphabet  then  introduced  being  bor- 
rowed from  that  of  the  Uighur  Turks  of  Kash- 
gar,  who  had  at  an  earlier  period  borrowed 
fiieirs  from  the  old  Syriac  which  had  been  intro- 
duced by  the  Nestorian  missionaries.  It  consists 
of  seventeen  consonants,  seven  vowels,  and  five 
diphthongs.  These  are  grouped  on  the  left  of  a 
vertical  stem  forming  syllables  which  are  ar- 
ranged in  columns  read  downward  and  from  left 
to  right.  As  in  Korean,  case  is  indicated  by 
appended  particles;  the  plural  is  formed  by 
separable  affixes;  there  is  no  grammatical  gen- 
der; there  are  no  relatives,  and  very  few  true 
conjunctions;  the  verb  is  very  elaborate,  the  ad- 
jective uninflected ;  prepositions  become  post-posi- 
tions, the  govemea  word  precedes  that  which 
governs  it;  and,  as  in  China,  the  book  language 
differs  somewhat  from  the  spoken.  The  litera- 
ture is  not  extensive.  It  comprises  Buddhist 
scriptures  and  some  translations  from  the  Chi- 
nese; some  folk-lore  and  fairy  tales,  and  the 
great  history  of  the  Eastern  Mongols,  written  in 
the  seventeenth  century  by  Sanang  Setsen.  Both 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  were  done  into  Mon- 
golian by  Stallybrass  and  Swan  in  1836-46. 

History.  Little  is  known  of  the  origin  and 
early  history  of  the  Mongols.  They  are  referred 
to  in  the  history  of  the  T'ang  dynasty  (seventh 
century),  but  they  begin  to  find  a  place  in  world 
history  only  in  the  appearance  of  Temu-jin, 
later  known  as  Genghis  Khan  (q.v.),  the  leader 
of  a  great  wave  of  bloodshed  and  conquest  which 
overspread  Asia  and  struck  terror  into  Europe. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONGOLIA. 


722 


MONGOLIAN  BACE. 


Mongolia  proper  during  this  period  has  no  his- 
tory; its  people  were  making  history  for  them- 
selves, but  outside  their  own  country.  Driven 
out  of  China  in  1368  by  the  foiuider  of  the 
Ming  dynastv,  the  contemporary  of  Timur,  the 
Khalkhas,  who  had  established  their  rule  there 
under  Kublai,  retired  to  their  former  home  north 
of  the  Gobi,  still  hoping  for  an  opportunity  to 
reconquer  their  lost  territory,  but  a  great  leader 
did  not  arise.  In  1643  a  new  dynasty  came  to 
the  throne  of  China — the  Manchus — with  the  help 
of  certain  of  the  Mongol  tribes  whose  seats  lay 
near  the  Manchurian  frontier.  In  1688  war  broke 
out  between  the  Eleuths  of  Sungaria  and  the 
Khalkhas,  and  the  latter,  being  defeated  in  1690, 
sought  the  aid  and  protection  of  China.  Both  were 
cheerfully  given;  but  it  was  not  till  seven  years 
later  that  warlike  operations,  led  by  the  Emperor 
K'ang-hi  in  person,  resulted  in  the  utter  defeat 
of  the  Eleuths,  and  the  death  of  their  leader.  Gal- 
dan.  Sungaria  became  a  Chinese  possession,  and 
all  the  tribes  of  Mongolia  became  vassals  of  the 
Emperor.  Valuable  presents  from  time  to  time, 
the  softening  influence  of  Buddhism,  the  spread 
of  Monachism,  and  the  personal  influence  of  the 
Dalai  Lama  of  Tibet  have  preserved  peace  ever^ 
since. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  Prjevalsky,  Mongolia,  the 
Tangut  Country,  and  the  Solitudes  of  Tibet, 
trans,  by  Delmar  Morgan  (London,  1876); 
Keclus,  ^oui;eUe  geographic  univeraelle,  vol.  vii. 
(Paris,  1882) ;  Pumpelly,  Geological  Researches 
in  China,  Mongolia,  and  Japan  (Washinston, 
1866) ;  Gilmour,  Among  the  Mongols  (New  York, 
1883)  ;  id..  More  About  the  Mongols  (ib.,  1803) ; 
Kockhill,  The  Land  of  the  Lamas  (ib.,  1891) ;  id.. 
Diary  of  a  Journey  Through  Mongolia  and  Tibet 
(Washington,  1894)  ;  Podzn^eff",  Mongolia  and 
the  Mongols  (Saint  Petersburg,  1896)  ;  and  for 
the  history,  lyOhsson,  Histoire  des  Mongols  (The 
Hague,  1834-36)  ;  Wolfi*,  Geschichte  der  Mongolen 
(Breslau,  1872)  ;  Howorth,  History  of  the  ifon- 
gols  (London,  1876-78)  ;  Elias,  History  of  the 
Moghuls  of  Central  Asia  (ib.,  1898) ;  Boulger, 
History  of  China  (ib.,  1898). 

MONGOLIAN  BACE.  That  division  of  man- 
kind which  is  characteristically  Asiatic  and  had 
its  primitive  home  on  the  continent  of  Asia, 
whence  it  has  sent  out  branches  into  Europe, 
Africa,  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and,  in  the 
opinion  of  some  authorities,  even  to  the  con- 
tinent of  America.  Brinton,  who  termed  this 
the  Asian  race,  included  in  it  the  Sinitic  peoples 
(Chinese,  Tibetans,  Indo-Chinese)  and  the 
Sibiric  peoples  (Tungusic,  Mongol ic,  Tataric, 
Finnic,  Arctic,  and  Japanese-Korean  groups), 
while  he  regarded  the  Malayo-Polynesian  peoples 
as  a  branch  descended  from  some  ancestral  tribe 
in  Asia.  Keane  modifies  this  view  and  regards 
the  Malay  type  as  distinctly  Mongol  ic,  and  also 
has  an  Oceanic  Mongol  group  (including  all 
the  peoples  of  Malaysia  and  Polynesia  who  are 
not  of  Indonesian,  Negritic,  Australasian, 
Papuan,  or  Melanesian  stocks),  one  of  the  divi- 
sions of  his  Homo  Mongolicu».  Both  these 
scholars  reject  the  theory  which  would  derive  the 
American  aborigines  from  a  Mongolian  stock. 
Some  of  the  earlier  ethnologists  saw  a  large  Mon- 
golian ('Turanian')  element  in  Western  Asia 
and  Europe,  of  which  fragments  were  to  be  seen 
in  Sumerians  and  Hittites,  Pelasgians  and  Etrus- 
cans, Iberians  and  Basques,  Picts,  and  other  iso- 


lated peoples.  Abimdant  evidence,  however,  is 
now  forthcoming  that  Europe  and  Western  Asis 
have  from  prehistoric  times  been  in  the  pos- 
session of  peoples  belonging  to  the  Mediterranean 
branch  of  the  white  race  and  their  more  northern 
and  southern  congeners.  The  view  of  other  au- 
thorities that  the  Celts  are  largely  Mongolian 
lacks  proof,  as  do  also  the  views  of  those  arch®- 
ologists  who  explain  certain  industrial  and  social 
phenomena  of  later  prehistoric  Europe  by  in- 
vasions of  Mongolian  or  Mongolized  peoples  from 
Asia.  Outside  of  the  Finno-Ugrian  or  Ural- 
Altaic  peoples  of  Northeastern  Europe  and  the 
later  Mongol  and  Turko-Tataric  peoples  of 
Southeastern  Russia,  the  Magyars  of  Hungary, 
the  Turks  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  the  Huns, 
Avars,  and  Bulgars,  who  came  in  the  wake  of  the 
great  migration  of  Germanic  peoples  (the  last- 
named  still  surviving  to  some  extent  in  the  Sla- 
vicized  Bulgarians),  the  Mongolian  population  of 
Europe  has  probably  never  amounted  to  much  at 
any  epoch,  the  greatest  invasions  having  taken 
place  in  historical  times  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
Western  Asia,  Europe,  and  Northern  Africa  haTe 
been  as  characteristically  the  environment  of  the 
white  as  the  great  mass  of  the  Asiatic  continent 
has  been  that  of  the  yellow  race. 

The  members  of  the  Mongolian  race  possess,  as 
a  rule,  straight,  coarse  hair  (abundant  on  the 
head,  less  on  the  face,  very  scanty  on  the  body), 
yellowish  skin,  a  brachycephalous  (or  meso- 
cephalous)  head-form,  prominent  cheek-bones,  a 
roundish  face,  a  small  nose,  and  small  black  eyes, 
with  slight  elevation  of  outer  angle  and  vertical 
fold  of  skin  over  the  inner  canthus.  Their 
stature  is  medium  or  below  the  average.  The 
^Mongolian  spots'  (q.v.)  are  also  considered  by 
some  ethnologists  a  differentiating  characteristic 
of  this  race.  (Certain  bodily  characteristics,  as 
the  relative  proportion  of  trunk,  limbs,  and  head 
of  the  typical  Mongolian,  have  led  many  authori- 
ties to  consider  this  the  most  child-like  of  all 
the  human  races.  Color  of  skin,  stature,  and  other 
peculiarities  of  a  somatic  nature  account  for  the 
opinion  of  some  that  the  Mongolian  race  is 
nearest  to  the  original  human  stock,  while  the 
white,  black,  bro^n,  and  red  races  are  held  to 
represent  greater  divergences  from  the  primitive 
type.  That  the  Mongolian  type  should  be  the 
nearest  to  the  original  race  and  at  the  same 
time  the  closest  to  the  child,  who  best  represents 
the  general  human  type,  is  very  probable.  Phys- 
ically, then,  the  Mongolian  race  is  of  peculiar 
interest.  Intellectually  it  runs  a  gamut  equal 
to  that  of  the  white  race,  from  the  lowest  tribes 
of  Siberia,  through  the  half-civilized  peoples  of 
Central  Asia  and  the  borders  of  China,  to  the 
great,  ancient,  and  almost  stagnant  civilization 
of  China,  and  beyond  that  to  the  rapidly  advanc- 
ing and  progressive  Japanese. 

Consult:  Mfiller,  Der  ugrische  Volksstamm 
(Leipzig,  1837);  Rittich,  Die  Ethnographie 
Rusalands  (Gotha,  1878)  ;  Latham,  Rwsian 
and  Turk  (Ix)ndon,  1878);  Helle  von  Same, 
Die  Volker  des  osmanischen  Reiches  (Vienna, 
1877);  VAmb^ry,  Die  primitive  Kultur  da 
turko-tatarischen  Volkes  (Leipzig,  1879);  id., 
Uraprung  der  Magyar  en  (Vienna,  1883);  id.» 
Daa  Turkenvolk  (Leipzig,  1885) ;  Winkler.  Ural- 
altUische  Volker  und  Sprachen  (Berlin,  1884); 
Ujfalvy,  Expedition  scientifique  francaise  en  R^' 
sic,  en  Sib^rie,  etc.  (Paris,  1878-80)  ;  Ten  Kate, 
Zur  Craniologie  der  Mongoloiden  (Berlin,  1882) ; 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONGOLIAN  BACE. 


72d 


MONISM. 


HQUer,  Unter  Tungusen  und  Jakuten  (Leipzig, 
1882) ;  Radloff,  Aus  Sihirien  (Leipzig,  1884-93)  ; 
Martin,  Sihirica  (Stockholm,  1897) ;  Miuizinger, 
Die  Japaner  (Berlin,  1898);  Jacob,  Oestliche 
Kulturelemente  im  Abendlande  (ib.,  1902) ;  Ren4- 
Sifert,  Jaunea  et  hlanca  en  Chine  (Paris,  1902) ; 
Haberer,  Schddel  und  Skeletteile  aus  Peking:  Ein 
Beitrag  zur  aomatiaohen  Ethnologie  der  Mongolen 
(Jena,  1902). 

MONGOLIAN  SPOT&  A  term  applied  by 
anatomical  anthropologists  to  certain  temporary 
pigment-spots,  bluish,  gray,  or  blackish  in  color, 
found  particularly  in  the  sacro-limibar  region  and 
on  the  buttocks  of  new-born  children,  so  fre- 
quently as  to  be  regarded  as  a  characteristic 
of  the  Mongolian  races.  These  spots  usually 
disappear  between  the  ages  of  two  and  five,  al- 
though they  not  infrequently  last  until  the  sev- 
enth year,  and  are  occasionally  found  even  in 
adults.  Some  anthropologists  regard  these  spots 
as  the  most  important  distinctive  race-character- 
istic of  the  Mongolians.  They  have  been  reported 
from  Chinese,  Japanese,  Koreans,  Indo-Chinese, 
Malays  and  Polynesians,  Malagasy,  Ainu,  Tun- 
gus,  Kalmucks,  Moneols,  as  well  as  among 
Eskimos,  Mexican  Indians,  and  even  in  full- 
blooded  Europeans.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
they  may  be  rather  a  mark  of  the  Indonesian 
than  of  the  Mongolian  race,  but  at  all  events,  in 
view  of  the  fact  tha^  they  are  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  the  Mongolian  race,  and  may  possibly 
turn  out  to  be  quite  common  even  in  the  white 
race,  for  the  present  their  value  as  a  real  race- 
characteristic  is  very  doubtful.  Consult  Wardle, 
''Evanescent  Congenital  Pigmentation  in  the 
Sacro-Lumbar  Region,"  in  the  American  Anthro- 
pologist, vol.  iv.  (New  York,  1901). 

MONGOLIAN  STTBBEGION.  In  zoSgeog- 
raphy,  a  subdivision  of  the  Palearctic  Rei^ion, 
which  includes  the  tablelands  of  Central  Asia, 
from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Japan.  Its  separation 
from  other  Asiatic  faunal  regions  is  mainly  on 
ornithological  grounds,  and  is  neither  distinct 
nor  important. 

MONGOOSE.  One  of  the  various  spellings  of 
MuNGOOS  (q.v.). 

MbNG  PAI,  mSng  p&^d.  The  southwestern- 
most  of  the  feudatory  Shan  States  of  British 
Burma.  Estimated  area,  1000  square  miles. 
Population,  about  17,000. 

M5NG  pan,  mSng  p&n.  An  eastern  Stete  of 
the  feudatory  Southern  Shan  Stetes,  British 
Burma  (Map:  Burma  C  2).  It  is  named  after 
lis  village  capital.  Area,  2299  square  miles. 
Population,  estimated  at  9000. 

MONIEB  DE  LA  SIZEBANNE,  m6'ny&^ 
de  \k  s^z'rAn',  Maubice  (1837—).  A  French 
philanthropist,  bom  at  Tain.  He  became  blind 
at  an  early  age,  and  was  educated  at  the  Jeunes 
Aveugles,  an  institution  in  which  he  was  made 
a  professor  in  1873.  He  compiled  a  bibliography 
of  books  especially  printed  for  the  blind,  and 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  alleviation  of 
their  lot.  His  own  works  include:  Les  aveugles 
utiles  (1881);  Jean  Guadet  et  les  aveugles 
(1886);  Les  aveugles  par  un  aveugle  (1888); 
and  Diw  ans  d*^tudes  et  de  propagande  en  faveur 
des  aveugles  (1890). 

MONTEE-WTTiLTAMS,  m(/nl-§r  wlKytimz, 
Sir  MoNiEB  (1819-99).  An  English  Sanskrit 
scholar,  bom  at  Bombay.     He  entered  Oxford 


University  in  1838,  but  soon  obtained  an  Indian 
writership  and  studied  at  the  East  India  Col- 
lege, Haileybury,  where  he  gained  the  first  prize 
in  all  the  Oriental  subjecte.  He  resigned  his 
Indian  appointment,  however,  returned  te  Ox- 
ford, and  graduated  in  1844.  He  teught  at 
Haileybury  and  at  Cheltenham,  and  in  1860  be- 
came Boden  professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Oxford.  His 
main  work  while  at  Oxford  was  the  foundation 
of  the  Indian  Institute,  completed  in  1896,  of 
which  he  was  curator  till  his  death  and  to 
which  he  gave  a  valuable  manuscript  collection. 
Among  his  works  are:  A  Practical  Grammar  of 
the  Sanskrit  Language  (4th  ed.  1877)  5  An  Eng- 
lish and  Sanskrit  Dictionary  (1851);  Indian 
Epic  Poetry  (1863);  an  edition  of  SakuntalA 
(2d  ed.  1876),  and  a  translation  of  this  drama 
(6th  ed.  1890) ;  A  Sanskrit  and  English  Diction- 
ary (1872);  Indian  Wisdom  (3d  ed.  1876); 
Modern  India  and  the  Indians  (1878);  Budd- 
hism ( 1889 )  ;  Br&hmanism  and  Hinduism  ( 1891 ) . 

MONISM  (Gk.  fjuSvoty  monos,  single) ,  A  phil- 
osophical term,  in  its  broadest  sense  designating 
all  systems  of  philosophy  which  define  the  sum 
total  of  reality  as  unitary,  either  in  organization 
or  in  substance.  It  is  thus  opposed  to  dualism 
and  pluralism. 

In  this  broad  sense,  as  indicating  merely  the- 
final  imity  of  all  reality,  monism  represenU  the 
ideal  of  nearly  every  system  of  philosophy,  and 
indeed  by  some  thinkers  it  is  considered  to  be 
the  only  legitimate  philosophical  ideal.  In  the 
hbtory  of  philosophy  the  first  conscious  effort 
to  attain  a  monistic  system  appears  in  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Eleatics.  Among  the  lonians  there 
had  been  philosophers  who  derived  all  phe- 
nomena from  a  single  primal  element,  but  the 
Eleatics  were  the  earliest  te  assert  the  immutable- 
unity  of  all  that  is  real.  They  did  not,  however, 
definitely  fix  the  nature  of  the  unitery  being. 
That  nature  might  be  of  two  sorts — ^material  or 
spiritual.  The  ancient  Atomiste  advanced  the 
doctrine  of  a  material  being,  while  Anaxagoras. 
and  Plate,  although  in  neiiJier  case  atteining  a 
pure  monism,  clearly  pointed  the  way  of  modern 
idealism. 

The  first  thoroughgoing  monism,  in  a  more  ex- 
act and  restricted  sense,  appears  in  the  philos- 
ophy of  Spinoza,  after  scholastic  controversies  had 
crystellized  the  conception  of  substance  and  at- 
tribute. Spinoza  taught  that  both  material  and 
ideal  phenomena  are  attributes  of  one  underlying - 
substence  which  forms  the  monistic  reality.  His 
doctrine  is  thus  analogous  te  the  'mind-stufl^ 
theory  (q.v.),  which  teaches  that  matter  and 
mind  are  diverse  aspecte  of  one  reality,  and  is 
generally  identified  as  the  modem  'scientific 
monism.'  But  materialism,  if  it  asserts  that 
mind  may  be  identified  with  matter,  is  also 
monistic;  while  idealism,  denying  the  reality  of 
matter,  represente  the  opposing,  complementery 
form  of  the  doctrine.  Idealistic  monism  is  itself 
of  two  types,  however.  On  the  one  hand,  there 
is  that  type  which  identifies  the  monistic  reality 
with  some  one  psychical  element — as  in  Schopen- 
hauer, who  finds  the  essence  of  all  things  in  blind 
will ;  and  on  the  other,  there  is  that  type  which 
unifies  in  a  world-consciousness  all  the  diversities 
of  phenomena.  Similar  te  this  latter  is  the 
Hegelian  monism  which  expresses  the  unification 
in  logical  terminology,  as  the  reconciliation  of^ 
opposites  in  a  higher  synthesis. 


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MONITOBIAL  SYSTEIC 


The  term  monism  is  relatively  recent,  having 
been  first  used  by  Christian  Wolf  (1679-1754) 
to  designate  types  of  thought  which  endeavored 
to  do  away  with  the  dualism  of  body  and  mind. 
For  a  considerable  period,  it  was  used  with  ex* 
plicit  reference  to  relations  involved  in  the 
epistemological  problem  (see  Knowledge,  The- 
OBT  of)  ,  but  in  contemporary  thought  it  has  b^n 
extended  to  the  senses  indicated. 

MOOriTA  SBCBE^A  SOd'ETATIS 
JE'SU  (Lat.  secret  instructions  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus).  The  title  of  a  book  purporting  to 
contain  private  instructions  for  the  members  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  first  published  at  Cracow  in 
1614  without  any  author's  name.  It  was  at> 
tributed  by  the  enemies  of  the  Jesuits  to  Claudio 
Acquaviva,  the  general  of  the  Order ;  and,  though 
it  was  condemned  by  the  O)ngregation  of  the 
Index  in  1616  as  ''falsely  ascribed  So  the  society, 
Calumnious,  and  full  of  defamatory  matter,"  it 
was  for  a  long  time  received  as  authentic  by 
these  same  enemies.  Its  genuineness  has  long 
ceased  to  be  defended  by  scholars,  whatever  their 
point  of  view.  Recent  investigations  of  the  Cra- 
cow Academy  have  made  it  practically  certain 
that  it  was  written  by  the  man  whom  the  Bishop 
of  Cracow  names  as  its  suspected  author  in  the 
year  following  its  publication — Jerome  Zahor- 
owski,  a  former  Jesuit,  who  had  been  dismissed 
from  the  Order  for  ill  conduct,  and  took  this 
means  of  revenging  himself.  Consult:  Duhr, 
JeauitetirFaheln  (Freiburg,  1891);  Huber,  Der 
Jesuiienorden  (Berlin,  1873). 

MONITEXJB,  md'n^'tSr',  Le  (Fr.,  the  Moni- 
tor). A  French  journal  founded  May  5,  1789,  by 
C.  J.  Panckoucke  under  the  title  Oazette  Nor 
iionaUj  ou  le  Moniteur  Univerael,  Its  great  im- 
portance as  a  register  of  events  begins  with  the 
crisis  of  August  10,  1792.  Its  issues  for  the 
years  1789-99  were  reprinted  in  32  volumes  by 
Gallois,  L'Ancien  Moniteur  (Paris,  1840-46).  In 
NivOse  of  the  year  VIII.  (1800)  the  Moniteur 
began  to  publish  officially  the  Actes  du  Oouveme- 
ment.  In  1811  it  took  as  its  sole  title  Moniteur 
Universel.  From  Julv,  1814,  to  February,  1815, 
the  official  part  of  the  journal  was  suspended, 
the  Government  issuing  irregularly  a  Journal 
OfficieL  After  this  the  Moniteur  was  again  rec- 
ognized as  the  Government  organ  and  so  con- 
tinued until  1868,  when  the  official  part  was 
separated  from  the  Moniteur  and  took  the  title 
Journal  Offioiel, 

MOMTTOB  (Lat.  monitor,  one  who  warns, 
from  moncre,  to  warn;  so  called  because  the 
lizard  was  supposed  to  give  warning  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  crocodile).  A  large,  semi-aquatic 
pleurodont  lizard  of  the  Old  World,  of  the  familv 
Varanidffi,  characterized  by  a  long,  deeply  cleft, 
smooth  tongue.  The  neck  is  relatively  long  and 
the  skin  is  almost  smooth ;  the  tail  is  very  long, 
often  laterally  compressed,  forming  a  powerful 
swimming  organ,  and  the  teeth  are  large  and 
pointed.  There  are  nearly  30  species,  all  in  the 
single  genua  Varanua,  inhabiting  Africa,  South- 
em  Asia,  and  thence  to  Australia,  but  absent 
from  Madagascar.  Some  species  reach  a  length 
of  six  or  seven  feet,  and  all  are  rapacious,  seizing 
whatever  animals  they  can  master.  Although 
most  of  them  live  in  or  around  the  water,  others 
occur  in  dry  inland  regions  or  in  the  woods.  The 
most  familiar  is  the  Nile  monitor  {Varanus 
Niloticus) ,  which  inhabits  all  of  Africa  except  the 


northwestern  part.  It  is  greenish-gray,  more  or 
less  mottled.  This  species  spends  most  of  its 
time  in  the  water  and  is  of  service  in  keeping 
down  the  crocodiles,  for  whose  eggs  it  searches, 
and  whose  youn^  it  captures  in  the  water.  A 
well-known  species  of  the  East,  found  from 
Northern  India  to  the  Philippines,  is  Varanus 
aalvator,  called  in  Ceylon  *Kabara-goya.'  It  is 
amphibious,  but  wanders  widely  in  the  forests 
and  climbs  trees  with  great  agility.  Ckmsult: 
Gadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (London,  1901) ; 
Mason  and  Theobald,  Burma,  Its  People  and 
Productions  (London,  1882) ;  Tennent,  Natural 
History  of  Ceylon  (London,  1861).    See  Plate  of 

LiZABDS. 

MONITOB,  The.  One  of  the  most  famous 
vessels  and  the  first  successful  ironclad  in  the 
history  of  the  United  States  Navy.  It  was  built 
at  Greenpoint,  L.  I.,  under  the  direction  of  John 
Ericsson  (q.v.)  ;  was  launched  on  January  30, 
1862,  and  on  March  6,  1862,  under  the  command 
of  Lieutenant  John  L.  Worden,  started  for 
Hampton  Roads,  Va.,  where  she  arrived  on  the 
night  of  March  8th.  During  this  day  the  Con- 
federate ir<Miclad  vessel,  the  Virginia  (commonly 
known  as  the  Merrimac,  its  name  prior  to  its 
capture  at  Norfolk  by  the  Confederates),  had 
destroyed  or  disabled  a  large  part  of  the  Federal 
fleet  in  the  harbor.  On  Simday,  the  9th,  the 
Monitor  engaged  the  Virginia  in  an  indecisive 
battle  lasting  several  hours,  the  Virginia  finally 
withdrawing  up  the  Elizabeth  River.  Neither 
vessel  was  very  seriously  injured,  and  only  a  few 
men  were  wounded  on  either  side.  Lieutenant 
Worden,  however,  being  seriously  injured  on  the 
Monitor,  On  May  15,  1862,  in  company  with  the 
Oalenay  the  Naugatuck,  Port  Royal,  and  Aroos- 
took, the  Monitor  participated  in  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  capture  Richmond,  and  on  December 
31,  1862,  while  en  route  to  Beaufort,  N.  C,  the 
Monitor  sank  in  a  windstorm,  four  oflScers  and 
seventeen  men  being  drowned.  The  engagement 
between  the  Monitor  and  the  Virginia  { or  Merri- 
mac)  was  one  of  the  most  important  and  sig- 
nificant in  the  naval  history  of  the  world,  dem- 
onstrating as  it  did  the  value  of  armored  ves- 
sels and  the  relative  uselessness  of  the  old-style 
wooden  warships.  Consult  Bennett,  The  Moni- 
tor and  the  Navy  Under  Steam  (Boston,  1900) ; 
Johnson  and  Buel  (eds.).  Battles  and  Leaders  of 
the  Civil  War,  vol.  i.  (New  York.  1887)  ;  Wilson, 
Ironclads  in  Action  (London.  1896);  and  Hill, 
Twenty-siw  Historic  Ships  (New  York,  1903). 
See  the  article  Ships,  Abmobed. 

HONITOB  BUG.  A  local  name  in  California 
for  the  blood-sucking  conenoee  {Conorhinus  son- 
guisuga).    See  Coi^enose. 

MONTTOBIAL  SYSTEM  OF  MUTXTAL 
INSTBUCnOK.  A  term  applied  to  a  system 
of  school  organization  and  instruction  popular 
during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  oentiuy  in 
Great  Britain,  and  to  a  less  degree  in  some  Con- 
tinental countries  and  in  America.  It  was  em- 
ployed in  1796  by  Dr.  Andrew  Bell,  superin- 
tendent of  the  Orphan  Asylum  at  Madras,  who 
made  use  of  the  more  advanced  boys  in  the  school 
to  instruct  the  younger  pupils.  In  1797  the  idea 
was  introduced  into  England,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  it  was  taken  up  by  Joseph  Lancaster 
(q.v.),  who  improved  and  popularized  the  meth- 
od. Hence  the  system  is  often  called  the  Bell  or 
the  Lancastrian  system  of  instruction. 


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MONITOBIAL  SYSTEM. 


725 


MONK. 


The  monitorial  system  was  at  once  effectual 
and  economical.  By  the  employment  of  clever 
boys  under  the  direction  of  the  master,  both  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  order  and  for  giving  in- 
struction, the  school  might  be  made  self-opera* 
tiVe,  and  several  hundred  boys  taught  with  the 
employment  of  only  one  adult  superintendent. 
The  pedagogical  idea  upon  which  the  system  was 
based  was  that  the  school  life  of  the  child  is 
divided  into  two  periods:  in  the  first  the  child 
should  receive  all  the  aid  that  the  teacher  can 
give  him  consistent  with  the  development  of 
self-helpfulness;  in  the  second  he  snould  be 
taught  to  apply  what  he  has  acquired  to  the 
study  of  other  branches,  and  to  the  teaching  of 
others,  when  he  should  be  thrown  as  much  as  pos- 
sible upon  his  own  resources.  The  original  or- 
ganization of  such  schools  was :  ( 1 )  the  master, 
who  was  the  ultimate  and  absolute  authority; 
(2)  the  usher,  who  was  a  sort  of  superintendent 
of  management  and  discipline ;  ( 3 )  the  subushers, 
who  had  charge  of  school-room  materials;  (4)  the 
teachers,  who  had  general  oversight  of  two  or 
three  classes  or  groups;  (5)  the  assistants,  who 
had  charge  of  each  group  or  class;  (6)  the 
tutors,  who  assisted  each  child  in  the  preparation 
of  his  lesson.  In  general,  all  these  officials  under 
the  master  were  pupils,  the  pupils  of  one  class 
becoming  in  turn  the  tutors  of  the  one  below. 
Lancaster's  improvement  upon  the  general  scheme 
was  the  division  of  classes  into  small  groups,  and 
the  formulation  of  detailed  methods  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  elementary  branches. 

Consult:  Gill,  Systems  of  Education  (Boston, 
1889)  ;  Sharpless,  English  Education  (Xew  York, 
1892);  Meiklejohn,  An  Old  Educational  Re- 
former  (London,  1881);  Lancaster,  Improve' 
ments  in  Education  (London,  1805) ;  Bell,  Ele- 
ments   of  Tuition    (London,    1805).     See   Lan- 

CASTEB. 

MONIXTSZKOy  m6'nyvsh^6,  Stanislaw 
(1820-72).  A  Polish  composer,  bom  in  Ubiel, 
•  Government  of  Minsk,  Russia.  He  perfected  his 
musical  education  under  Rungenhagen  of  Berlin, 
in  which  city  he  also  taught  for  a  livelihood,  but 
subsequently  settled  in  Vilna.  He  was  a  prolific 
composer.  He  became  director  of  the  Warsaw 
Opera,  and  held  a  faculty  position  at  the  War- 
saw Conservatory.  His  works  include  niunerous 
songs,  church  music,  chamber  music,  orchestral 
ana  instrumental  pieces,  and  fifteen  national  Po- 
lish operas. 

MONK.    See  Monasticism. 

MONKy  or  HONCKy  Geobge,  first  Duke  of 
Albemarle  (1608-70).  An  English  general,  to 
whom  the  Stuart  Restoration  was  due.  He  was 
bom  at  Potheridge,  Devonshire,  December  6, 
1608.  Coming  under  the  ban  of  the  law  for 
thrashing  a  civil  officer  who  illegally  attempted 
to  arrest  his  father,  he  volunteered  for  service 
in  Spain,  where  he  distinguished  himself  on  se- 
cret service.  In  1629  he  entered  the  Dutch  Army, 
and  acquitted  himself  gallantly  at  Breda.  In 
1639,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Scottish  troubles, 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  and  won  ad- 
ditional renown  by  saving  the  English  guns  In 
the  rout  at  Newbum.  In  1642-43  he  commanded 
a  regiment  against  the  Irish  rebels,  gained  several 
victories,  and  was  appointed  Governor  of  Dublin. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War  he  fought  as  a 
volunteer  for  the  King,  and  in  the  Royalist  defeat 
-at  Nantwich    was   taken   prisoner   by   Fairfax. 


Charged  with  high  treason,  he  was  committed  to 
the  Tower,  where  he  remained  |or  two  years.  He 
regained  his  freedom  by  consenting  to  serve  in 
Ireland.  His  conduct  commended  itself  to  Crom- 
well, who  made  him  lieutenant-general  and  chief 
of  artillery.  Parliament  appointed  him  (Joveraor 
of  Carricldfergus  and  gave  him  a  gratuity  of  £500. 
In  1650  Cromwell  took  him  to  Scotland,  and,  on 
account  of  his  brilliant  conduct  at  Dunbar,  left 
him  as  commander-in-chief  to  complete  the  sub- 
jection of  that  country.  In  1653  he  became  con- 
spicuous in  a  new  capacity  as  a  sea  fighter  and, 
associated  with  Blake  and  Deane,  won  two 
great  naval  battles  over  the  Dutch  Admiral 
Tromp.  He  took  part  in  the  commission  to  ar- 
range the  union  of  Scotland  and  England,  and 
went  to  the  former  country  as  Governor  in  1654, 
with  much  difficulty  maintaining  his  rule  against 
the  Presbyterians.  Charles  II.  tried  to  secure 
his  support,  but  Monk  sent  the  letter  to 
Cromwell.  After  the  Protector's  death  Monk  de- 
clared in  favor  of  Richard  Cromwell  and  assumed 
the  defense  of  public  order  when  Lambert's  in- 
surrection threatened  a  military  despotism.  On 
January  1,  1660,  Monk  crossed  the  border  with 
6000  men,  joined  Fairfax  at  York,  and  entered 
London,  February  3d,  without  opposition.  His 
intentions  were  not  Imown  until  February  28thy 
when,  owing  to  the  unsettled  condition  of  affairs 
and  knowing  of  the  national  wish  to  bring  back 
the  Stuarts,  he  called  together  the  Presbyterian 
members  expelled  from  Parliament  in  1648,  and 
created  a  majority  for  the  King.  Charles  II.  was 
formally  declared  King  on  May  8th.  He  made 
Monk  Duke  of  Albemarle,  Privy  Councilor, 
Chamberlain,  and  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Devon  and 
Middlesex.  In  1665,  as  Governor  of  London  dur- 
ing the  plague,  Moi^  remained  at  his  post  when 
every  one  else  had  fled  who  could.  The  King  then 
employed  him  against  the  Dutch  at  sea.  In  Jime, 
1666,  De  Ruyter  with  an  overwhelming  force 
defeated  him  in  a  three  days'  battle  off  Diinkirk. 
In  the  month  following,  Albemarle  ^ined  a  com- 
plete and  sanguinary  victory  over  De  Ruyter  off 
the  North  Foreland.  During  the  last  years  of 
his  life  Monk  lived  in  a  measure  retired  from 
political  and  social  life.  He  died  at  Newhall, 
Essex,  January  3,  1670. 

Consult:  Calendar  of  Domestic  State  Papers, 
1649-60  (London,  1875-86) ;  Thurloe  State  Papers 
(London,  1742)  ;  Firth,  Scotland  and  the  Com- 
moMcealth,  1751-53  (Edinburgh,  1895) ;  id., 
Scotland  and  the  Protectorate,  1654-59  (ib., 
1899) ;  Clarendon  State  Papers  (Oxford,  1786) ; 
Clarendon,  History  of  the  Rebellion  (ib.,  1888) ; 
id.,  Life  (ib.,  1827);  Pepys,  Diary  (London, 
1893-96)  ;  Gumble,  Life  of  General  Monck  (ib., 
1671),  is  of  special  importance  since  the  author 
was  chaplain  to  Monk  in  1659-60,  and  had  spe- 
cial opportunities  for  obtaining  information; 
Oiizot,  Monck,  or  the  Fall  of  the  Republic  and 
the  Restoration  of  the  Monarchy,  trans,  by  Scoble 
(London,  1851);  Gardiner,  History  of  England 
1603-42  (New  York.  1883-84)  ;  id..  History  of  the 
Great  Civil  War  (ib.,  1897). 

MONK,  Maria  (c.1817-50).  A  Canadian  im- 
postor. In  1835  she  claimed  to  have  escaped 
from  the  nunnery  of  the  Hdtel  Dieu  in  Montreal, 
and  told  of  many  revolting  practices  alleged  to 
have  been  carried  on  within  the  walls.  She  came 
to  New  York,  and  so  impressed  many  people  of 
standing  that  they  continued  to  believe  her  after 


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MONK.  V26 

she  was  proved  to  be  of  bad  character,  and  her 
story  to  De  a  clumsy  invention.  Her  tale  was 
printed  in  Awful  Disclosures  hy  Maria  Monk 
(1836)  and  Further  Disclosures  (1836).  More 
than  200,000  copies  were  sold,  and  a  violent  anti- 
Catholic  agitation  resulted.  William  L.  Stone,  of 
the  New  York  Commercial  Advertiser,  visited 
Montreal  and  exposed  her  in  Maria  Monk  and  the 
Nunnery  of  the  Hdtel  Dieu  (1836).  For  this  he 
was  abused  by  the  'Know  Nothings,'  who  made 
much  capital  of  the  story. 

MONK  BAT.  A  bulldog*  or  'mastir  bat  ( q.v. ) . 

HONK-BIBD.     The  friar-bird   (q.v.). 

MONKEY  (with  double  diminutive  ending 
k-ey,  from  OF.  monne,  from  It.  monna,  Olt.  mona, 
she-monkey,  old  woman,  contraction  of  madon- 
na, lady,  from  mia  donna,  my  lady,  from  mia, 
from  Lat.  meus,  mine,  and  donna,  from  Lat. 
domina,  lady;  apparently  so  called  from  the  re- 
semblance of  a  monkey's  face  to  that  of  an  old 
crone).  A  popular  name  for  a  large  number  of 
mammals  of  the  order  Primates.  In  the  broadest 
sense,  a  monkey  is  any  primate  except  a  man 
or  a  lemur.  Many  of  these,  however,  are  better 
known  under  more  particular  names,  as  the  mar- 
mosets, apes,  gibbons,  etc.,  and  it  will  be  proper 
here  to  consider  'monkey*  as  including  only  the 
members  of  the  two  families  Cebidse  and  Cercopi- 
thecidse,  further  excepting  baboons  and  macaques 
(qq.v.),  which  have  short  tails,  limbs  nearly 
equal  and  not  specially  adapted  to  an  arboreal 
life,  and  the  muzzle  projecting  so  that  the  face 
is  more  or  less  dog-like.  We  may,  therefore,  re- 
gard the  monkeys  in  a  strict  sense  as  including 
all  of  the  Obidae,  and  of  the  Orcopithecidse  all 
except  (Dynocephalus  and  Macacus,  and  their 
nearest  allies. 

New  WoBiD  Monkeys.  The  Cebidse  are  ex- 
clusively American  and  include  not  less  than  10 
genera  and  about  50  species.  They  are  readily 
distinguished  from  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  World 
by  the  presence  of  36  teeth,  the  absence  of  a  bony 
external  auditory  meatus,  the  absence  of  ischiatio 
callosities,  and  the  presence  of  a  broad  intemarial 
septum.  On  account  of  the  latter  characteristic, 
they  were  at  one  time  grouped  as  a  suborder,  the 
Platyrrhini,  while  the  Old  World  monkeys,  since 
they  have  a  narrow  septum,  were  called  Catar- 
rhini,  but  these  terms  have  now  largely  passed 
out  of  use.  The  principal  kinds  of  American 
monkeys  are  the  howlers,  sakis,  uakaris,  teetees, 
squirrel-monkeys,  spider-monkeys,  barrigudos, 
and  sapajous.  The  howlers  (genus  Mycetes) 
are  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary  cries 
which  they  are  capable  of  emitting  owing  to 
the  enormous  enlargement  of  the  hollow  hyoid 
bone  and  vocal  apparatus.  The  face  is  supplied 
with  a  long  beard,  the  tail  is  long  and  very  pre- 
hensile, and  the  color  is  very  variable,  though 
usually  dark.  In  intelligence,  the  howlers  are 
ranked  among  the  lowest  of  the  American  mon- 
keys, although  in  size  among  the  largest.  The 
sakis  are  long-tailed  monkeys  of  the  genus 
Pithecia,  having  a  well-developed  thumb  and  the 
lower  incisors  inclined  forward;  they  also  have 
the  rami  of  the  mandible  expanded,  though  not 
so  much  so  as  in  the  howlers.  A  number  of 
species  are  known,  all  South  American,  but  vary- 
ing greatly  in  the  character  of  the  hairy  coat, 
the  beard,  and  the  bushiness  of  the  tail ;  all  are 
arboreal,  have  powerful  voices,  and  make  inter- 
esting pets,  some  species  showing  great  attach- 


MONXEY. 


ment  to  their  masters.  The  uakaris  differ  from 
all  the  other  American  monkeys  in  having  a 
short  baboon-like  tail,  in  spite  of  which  they  are 
exclusively  arboreal.  They  are  limited  in  their 
range,  and  die  soon  after  being  sent  away  from 
their  own  home.  There  are  three  species,  of  the 
genus  Uacaria.  The  teetees  (Callithrix)  are 
small  Brazilian  monkeys  with  vertical  lower  in- 
cisors and  a  long  non-prehensile  tail,  distinguished 
from  the  squirrel-monkeys  ( Chrysothrix )  by  the 
small  canine  teeth  and  the  bushy  tail.  Four 
species  of  squirrel-monkeys  are  known  from 
Northern  South  America;  they  have  very  large 
eyes  and  disproportionately  long  hind  limbs  and 
taiL  The  spider-monkeys,  comprising  the  genera 
Ateles  and  Eriodes,  are  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  Cebidffi.  Ateles,  of  which  a  dozen  or  more 
species  are  known,  lacks  a  thumb,  the  coat  is  not 
woolly,  while  Eriodes,  with  only  three  species, 
has  a  rudimentary  thumb,  and  a  woolly  coat.  All 
these  monkeys  have  the  form  slender,  the  limbs 
very  long,  and  the  tail  extremely  prehensile  and 
naked  b&aeath  at  the  tip.  Although  so  perfectly 
adapted  to  an  arboreal  life,  they  are  not  specially 
active,  and  the  power  of  grasping  by  the  hand  is 
very  imperfect,  owing  to  the  lack  of  a  thumb. 
They  range  from  Southern  Mexico  and  Central 
America  southward  to  Southeastern  Brazil.  The 
barrigudos  (Lagothrix)  are  similar  to  the  spider- 
monkeys,  but  have  a  thumb  and  are  much  heavier. 
They  rank  with  the  howlers  as  the  largest  Ameri- 
can monkeys.  The  sapajous  are  somewhat  smaller 
and  stouter  than  the  spider-monkeys  and  are  the 
favorite  species  in  captivity,  which  they  bear 
very  well.  They  have  a  thumb,  and  the  under 
surface  of  the  tail  is  hairy;  at  least  20  species 
have  been  described,  all  of  the  genus  Cebus. 

These  monkeys  are  all  active  animals,  chiefly 
diurnal,  though  a  few  of  the  smaller  forms  are 
nocturnal.  They  live  almost  wholly  in  trees  and 
feed  upon  fruits  and  insects  chiefly,  though  eggs, 
young  birds,  and  even  some  reptiles  may  vary  the 
diet.  They  are  themselves  constantly  hunted  by 
the  Indians,  who  use  them  for  food,  and  also 
use  or  sell  the  skins.  The  flesh  of  monkeys  is 
said  to  be  good  eating,  and  some  travelers  speak 
in  the  highest  terms  of  the  meat  of  some  of  the 
spider-monkeys.  The  Cebidie  are  not  only  in- 
ferior to  the  Old  World  monkeys  in  size,  but  in 
intelligence  do  not  compare  with  them.  The 
sapajous  are  perhaps  the  most  intelligent  of  the 
American  species,  and  in  captivity  make  very 
interesting  pets.  Most  of  the  monkeys  seen  in 
the  United  States  with  organ-grinders  are  of 
this  kind.  The  South  American  Indians  shoot 
them  with  arrows,  the  tips  of  which  are  slightly 
poisoned  with  curare,  and  when  the  animal  thus 
wounded  has  been  captured,  it  is  fed  with  salt, 
which  is  an  antidote  to  the  poison.  The  habits 
of  monkeys  are  so  well  known  that  the  verb  'to 
monkey*  has  passed  into  current  use  as  an  un- 
mistakable expression  for  meddlesome  activity. 

Old  World  Monkeys.  Turning  now  to  the 
Old  World  monkeys,  which  have  32  teeth,  an 
external,  bony  auditory  meatus,  ischiatic  callosi- 
ties, and  a  narrow  intemarial  septum,  and  leav- 
ing out  of  account  the  baboons  and  macaques,  we 
face  an  assemblage  of  five  genera  and  something 
like  45  species.  Three  of  the  genera  are  confined 
to  Africa  and  two  to  Asia.  Cercocebus  is  an 
African  genus  of  four  species,  with  teeth  like  a 
macaque,  but  with  a  long  tail.  Cercopithecus  is  a 
large  African  genus  of  rather  slender,  long-taikd 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


AMERICAN    MONKEYS 


1.  PINCHE  MARMOSET  (Midas  CEdlpus). 

2.  BLACK  SPIDER  MONKEY  (Ateles  paniscus). 

3.  BALD  UAKARI  (Uacaria  calva). 


4    WEEPER  SAPAJOU  (Cebus  capuclnus) 

5.  BLACK  HOWLER  (Mycetes  caraya). 

6.  WHITE-HEADED  SAKI  (PIthecIa  leuoocephai 


dOgle 


MONKEYS   OF  THE    OLD    WORLD 


1.  GUEREZA  (Colobus  guereza).  . 

2.  PROBOSCIS   MONKEY  (Nasalis  larvatus). 

3.  HANUMAN  or  SACRED  MONKEY  (Semnopithecus 

entellus). 


4.  DIANA  MONKEY  (Cercopithecus  Diana). 

5.  PIQTAILED  MONKEY  (Macacus  nemettrin 

6.  SOOTY  MANQABEY  (Ceroocebus  fuli^inotu 


■#e 


MONXSY.  71 

monkeys,  including  some  of  the  best  known  spe* 
•cies.  The  thumb  is  of  large  size,  both  hands  and 
feet  are  adapted  for  running  as  well  as  climbing, 
and  the  stomach  is  simple  and  not  sacculated. 
They  live  in  troops  and  make  pillaging  expedi- 
tions  into  cultivated 
grounds  under  the  leader- 
ship of  an  old  male.  Of 
the  various  species  of 
this  genus  which  are  in 
the  market  as  pets,  the 
mangabeys  (q.v.)  are 
favorites;  they  are  usu- 
ally blackish,  with  more 
or  less  white.  The  best 
known  of  African  mon- 
keys is  the  common  green 

io«  or  A  mouksy.    «,!v«i.^«        / rt.^^^^^*u^^.^ 

r»ndlowereeri«.of   '»°?.^*'y.    {Cercopxtheous 

calhtnchua) ,  which  is  of 

medium    size    and    olive 


DBKTITIOM    or  A    MONKEY. 

Upper  e 
teeth,  left  side,  of  the  ^reen 


monkey :   J,    Incisors ;     c,    _    _         _ 

^^/^2f'ift^'*.M«lSr?*"*  green  in  color.  Itiswidely 

molars.  (Cf.  Lanoub.)  »•  j.  .l   x  j  •      a*  •  j 

distributed  m  Africa,  and 

over  200  years  ago  was  introduced  into  Saint  Kitts, 
Grenada,  and  some  others  of  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
where  it  has  been  quite  destructive  to  crops.  In 
identifying  the  various  less  known  species  of  Cerco- 
pithecus,  one  of  the  most  important  points  is  the 
color  of  the  nose.  Nasalis  is  a  notable  genus  con- 
taining a  single  species,  the  proboscis  monkey 
(q.v.)  of  Borneo,  m  which  the  nose  is  greatly 
prolonged  into  a  real  proboscis.  This  species 
bears  captivity  poorly  and  few  living  specimens 
have  been  seen  in  Europe  or  America.  Semno- 
pithecus  includes  a  dozen  or  more  Asiatic  species, 
such  as  the  well-known  hanuman  and  the  langurs 
(qq.v.).  The  last  genus,  Colobus  (see  Gubreza; 
Kino  Monkey),  includes  about  a  dozen  African 
monkeys  with  the  thumb  rudimentary  or  wanting. 
Many  of  them  are  handsomely  decorated  with 
long,  silky  hair,  and  the  pelts  have  considerable 
commercial  value,  being  used  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  women's  boas,  muffs,  etc.  The  Old  World 
monkeys  do  not  differ  essentially  from  the 
Cebidffi,  but  they  are  not  so  exclusively  arboreal 
and  the  tail  is  not  prehensile.  In  many  species 
•cheek  pouches  are  present,  in  which  food  may  be 
stored,  and  such  forms  have  the  stomach  simple, 
but  in  those  forms  where  there  are  no  cheek 
pouches  the  stomach  is  sacculated  in  an  extraor- 
<dinary  manner.  The  latter  monkeys  are  ex- 
clusively herbivorous  and  live  largely  on  shoots 
and  leaves.  Monkeys  breed  usually  but  once  a 
jear  and  produce  only  one  or  two  young  ones  at 
a  birth. 

The  fossil  remains  of  monkeys  have  been  found 
in  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  Brazil,  and  as  far 
back  as  the  Middle  Miocene  of  Europe. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  Consult  standard  natural  his- 
tories, especially  the  books  of  Jerdon,  Blanford, 
Blyth,  and  Wallace  on  India  and  the  East;  &nd 
•of  Azara,  Humboldt,  Bates,  Wallace,  Tschudi, 
Waterton,  Belt,  Gosse,  and  Alston,  on  South  and 
Central  America.  The  latest  general  popular  ac- 
count is  Forbes,  "A  Handbook  to  the  Primates," 
in  Allen's  Natural  History  (London,  1897).  See 
Mammalia;  Pbimates;  Ape;  etc. 

MONKEY  BBEAD.  A  tropical  tree  and  its 
•edible  fruit.    See  Aoansonia. 

HONKPISH.  (1)  The  angel-fish  (Squatina 
vulgaris),  a  cartilaginous  fish  of  nearly  cosmo- 
politan distribution,  which  has  characteristics  of 
l>oth  the  sharks  and  the  rays.     It  grows  to  a 


n  MONMOUTH, 

length  of  five  feet.  Fossil  monkflsh  are  found 
from  Upper  Jurassic  through  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  rocks.  (2)  The  angler  (q.v.). 

MONKOSOnSE,  William  Cosmo  (1840- 
1901).  An  English  art  critic  and  poet,  bom  in 
London,  March  18,  1840.  He  was  educated  at 
Saint  Paul's  School.  In  1867  he  became  a  clerk 
in  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  in  1893  Assistant 
Secretary  of  Finance.  His  verse  comprises:  A 
Dream  of  Idleness  and  Other  Poems  (1865); 
Com  and  Poppies  (1890),  containing  many  beau- 
tiful lyrics;  and  The  Christ  Upon  the  Hill 
(1896).  Among  his  publications  on  art  are: 
The  Italian  Pre-Raphaelites  ( 1887)  ;  The  Earlier 
English  Water-Colour  Painters  (1890);  In  the 
National  Gallery  (1896)  ;  British  Contemporary 
Artists  (1899).  He  also  wrote  Lives  of  Turner 
(1879)  and  Leigh  Hunt  (1893),  and  contributed 
many  articles  to  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biog^ 
raphy. 

MONK  SEAL.  The  West  Indian  seal  (Mon- 
achus).     See  Seal. 

MONKSHOOD.     See  Aconite. 

MONK'S  TALE,  The.  One  of  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Tales,  a  miniature  reproduction  of 
Boccaccio's  Falls  of  Illustrious  Men. 

MONLUC,  or  MONTLUC,  m^JN'lvk^  Blaise 
DE  (1502-77).  A  French  warrior  and  historian 
and  autobiographer,  bom  in  Armagnac,  near  Con- 
don, now  in  the  Department  of  (jers.  Fifty 
years  he  was  abroad,  always  doing  something,  and 
he  remembered  what  he  had  done.  He  shared  in 
the  campaigns  of  Francis  I.,  and  got  leave  from 
him  for  the  Duke  d'Enghien  to  start  the  fight  at 
Consoles  (1644).  Under  Henry  II.,  in  1655,  he 
held  oflf  the  Emperor's  troops  at  Siena.  He 
foUght  the  Huguenots  in  Guienne.  A  slash  in 
the  face  caused  him  to  withdraw  for  two  years 
(1670-72),  and  in  this  forced  repose  he  wrote  his 
Commentaires,  He  detested  letters,  but  the  ex- 
ample of  Caesar  set  him  to  writing  of  what  he 
had  done  and  seen.  Monluc  wrote  admirably, 
with  the  fire  of  a  glory-loving  Qascon.  He  wa« 
not  in  the  least  a  philosopher,  though  he  meant 
his  Commentaires  to  be  useful  to  posterity.  With- 
out understanding  the  movements  of  his  time, 
he  saw  distinctly  what  went  on  about  him. 
Monluc  gives  an  extraordinarily  vivid  series  of 
pictures  of  his  adventures  in  France  and  Italy. 
His  Commentaires  are  highly  valuable  to  the 
historians,  and  their  style  makes  them  de- 
lightful reading  to  those  who  are  simply  looking 
for  a  man.  Monluc  died  in  Estilla,  near  Agen. 
Consult  the  Commentaires  et  lettres  de  Blaise 
de  Monluc,  ed.  by  Ruble  (Paris,  18(54-72)  ;  al?o 
Normand,  Les  mSmorialisteSf  Monluc  (ib.,  1892). 

MONMOUTH,  mdn'milth.  A  municipal  bor- 
ough and  market-town,  the  capital  of  Monmouth- 
shire, England,  situated  amid  beautiful  scenery, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Monnow  and  the  Wye,  17 
miles  south  of  Hereford  (Map:  England,  D  6). 
Its  church,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century, 
is  surmounted  by  a  lofty  spire.  Of  its  castle,  the 
favorite  residence  of  John  of  Qaunt,  and  the 
birthplace  of  Henry  V.,  the  ruins  only  remain. 
A  building  said  to  be  the  study  of  G^eoffrey  of 
Monmouth  is  all  that  exists  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery.    Population,  in  1901,  61(X). 

MONMOUTH.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Warren  County,  111.,  27  miles  east  by  north  of 
Burlington,  Iowa;   on  the  Chicago,  Burlington 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONMOUTH. 


728 


MOHMOUTHSHIBE. 


and  Quincy  and  the  Iowa  Central  railroads 
( Map :  Illinois,  B  3 ) .  It  is  the  seat  of  Monmouth 
College  (United  Presbyterian),  founded  in  1856; 
and  the  Warren  County  Library  is  here.  The 
city  has  farming,  coal-mining,  horse-breeding, 
and  commercial  interests,  controlling  a  large 
trade  in  grain,  produce,  livestock,  and  in  the 
principal  manufactured  products,  which  include 
agricultural  implements,  sewer  pipe,  pottery, 
stoneware,  soap,  stump-pullers,  gloves,  boxes,  and 
cigars.  Settled  in  1836,  Monmouth  was  incor- 
porated first  in  1852.  The  government,  under  a 
charter  of  1874,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
biennially,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  the  water-works.  Population, 
in  1900.  7450;  in  1905  (local  cen.),  9680. 

MONMOUTH,  Battle  of.  A  battle  fought 
June  28,  1778,  during  the  American  Revolution, 
near  Monmouth  Court  House,  in  the  tovra  of 
Freehold,  Monmouth  County,  N.  J.,  between  an 
American  army  under  General  Washington  and 
an  English  army  under  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  The 
latter,  evacuating  Philadelphia  ob  June  18th,  re- 
treated across  New  Jersey,  and  on  the  26th 
reached  Freehold,  whence  on  the  27th  he  started 
for  Sandy  Hook.  Washington,  following  closely, 
resolved  to  attack  Clinton's  left  wing,  8000 
strong,  marching  in  the  rear,  and  detailed  €ren. 
Charles  Lee  with  6000  troops  to  assail  its  flank 
imtil  he  could  come  up  with  the  main  division. 
Lee  advanced  accordingly,  but  instead  of  attack- 
ing, intentionally  wasted  time  in  feinting  and 
executing  futile  manoeuvres,  and  after  a  little 
skirmishing,  ordered  a  general  retreat.  Washing- 
ton rapidly  pushed  forward,  rebuked  Lee  with 
great  severity,  and  rallying  the  demoralized 
troops,  checked  the  advance  of  the  British,  who 
made  determined  but  unsuccessful  attacks  on 
the  American  left  under  Stirling  and  the  Ameri- 
can right  under  Wayne  and  Greene.  The  English 
then  fell  back  and  took  up  a  strong  position,  but, 
during  the  night,  withdrew  to  the  heights  of  Mid- 
dletown.  Though  usually  claimed  as  a  victory 
for  the  Americans,  the  battle  was  strategically 
drawn,  neither  side  gaining  any  decisive  advan- 
tage. The  Americans  lost  362  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing,  the  British  416,  many  on  each  side 
being  prostrated  by  the  intense  heat  (96**  in  the 
shade).  Lee  was  shortly  afterwards  tried  by 
court-martial  for  his  conduct,  was  found  guilty  of 
disobeying  orders  and  of  making  a  shameful  re- 
treat, and  was  suspended  from  command  for  a 
year.  Consult:  Dawson,  Battles  of  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1856)  ;  and  Carrington,  Bat- 
tles of  the  American  Revolution  (Xew  York, 
1876). 

MONMOUTH,  James,  Duke  of  (1649-85). 
A  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  England  by  Lucy 
Walters  or  Walter.  Charles  committed  the  boy 
to  the  care  of  Lord  Crofts,  who  gave  him  his  own 
name.  On  the  Restoration.  Monmouth,  then  Mr. 
James  Crofts,  came  to  England  with  the  Queen 
Dowager  and  was  lodged  at  the  royal  palaces  of 
Hampton  Court  and  MVTiitehall.  He  was  married 
in  1663  to  Anne,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Buc- 
cleuch,  and  was  created  Duke  of  Monmouth,  as- 
suming as  family  name  his  wife's  name  of  Scott. 
At  the  period  of  Titus  Oates's  plot  (1678), 
rumors  that  the  Trotestant  Duke'  was  the  Kinjfs 
legitimate  son  spread  far  and  wide;  but  the 
King  declared  solemnly  before  the  Privy  Council 
that  he  had  never  married  Lucy  Walters.   Mon- 


mouth was  sent  into  Scotland  in  1679,  for  the 
purpose  of  quelling  the  rebellion  of  the  radical 
Presbyterians.  He  defeated  the  Covenanters  at 
Both  well  Bridge;  but  his  humanity  to  the  fleeing 
and  wounded  was  so  conspicuous  and  his  recom- 
mendations to  pardon  tne  prisoners  were  so 
urgent  as  to  bring  upon  him  the  violent  censure 
of  the  King  and  Lauderdale.  He  thus  became  the 
idol  of  the  English  Noncomformists.  The  return 
of  the  Duke  of  York  and  the  exile  of  Monmouth 
soon  followed.  In  Holland  he  allied  himself  to 
the  leaders  of  the  Nonconformist  party,  exiled 
like  himself,  and  when  he  returned  to  London  he 
was  received  with  such  demonstrations  of  joy  as 
to  convince  him  that  he  was  the  people's  choice 
as  successor  to  his  father.  In  16iB0  he  made  a 
quasi-royal  progress  through  the  west  of  Eng- 
land with  the  design  probably  of  courting  the 
Nonconformists,  and  two  years  afterward  he 
traversed  some  of  the  northern  counties.  The 
King  and  his  brother  were  alarmed,  and  Mon- 
mouth was  placed  for  a  short  time  under  arrest. 
In  1684  Monmouth  went  to  the  Netherlands  and 
remained  abroad  until  the  death  of  Charles,, 
whereupon  he  returned  to  England.  Landing  in 
1685,  he  assumed  the  title  of  James  II.  and 
headed  a  rebellion  against  the  Government.  News 
of  the  defeat  of  Argyle,  who  at  the  head  of  the 
Scottish  exiles  had  attempted  an  insurrection  in 
Scotland,  made  Monmouth  despondent.  Never- 
theless on  July  6th  he  attacked  a  superior  royal 
force  which,  under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of 
Feversham,  was  encamped  at  Sedgemoor,  near 
Bridgewater.  W^hen  his  ammunition  failed  the 
Duke  fled  and  his  troops  were  massacred.  Mon- 
mouth was  foimd  concealed  in  a  ditch,  and  was 
brought  to  London.  Gaining  an  interview  with 
the  King,  he  made  the  most  humiliating  submis- 
sion, but  in  vain,  even  the  shortest  respite  being 
refused.  On  July  15,  1685,  he  was  beheaded  on 
Tower  Hill.  In  the  *Bloody  Assize,'  under  Judge 
Jeffreys  (q.v.),  Monmouth's  adherents  paid  a 
fearful  penalty  for  their  participation  in  his  rash 
rebellion.  Consult:  Roberts,  Lt/e,  Progress ,  and 
Rebellion  of  James,  Duke  of  Monmouth  (London, 
1844)  ;  Collins,  Peerage  of  England,  vol.  iii.  (5th 
ed.,  ib.,  1779)  ;  Fergusson,  Robert  Fergusson,  the 
Plotter,  or  the  Secret  of  the  Rye-House  Con- 
spiracy and  the  Story  of  a  Strange  Career 
(Edinburgh,  1887)  ;  Grey,  Secret  History  of  the 
Rye-House  Plot,  and  of  Monmouth's  Rebellion  in 
1685  (London,  1754)  ;  Hyde,  Correspondence  of 
Henry  of  Clarendon  and  James,  Earl  of  Abingdon, 
Chiefly  Relating  to  the  Monmouth  Insurrection, 
1683  85  (Oxford,  1896)  ;  Macaulay,  History  of 
England  (New  York,  1868)  ;  and  various  other 
histories  of  England. 

MONMOUTH  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational 
institution,  opened  in  1856  at  Monmouth,  111., 
under  the  control  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church.  The  college  courses  are  arranged  in 
seven  groups,  all  leading  to  the  degree  of  B.A. 
There  are  preparatory  and  graduate  departments 
and  schools  of  music  and  art,  with  a  total  regis- 
tration, in  1906-7,  of  471.  The  library  contained 
about  0000  volumes.  The  faculty  numbered  23. 
The  campus  occupies  thirteen  acres,  and  with  the 
buildings  is  valued  at  about  $100,000,  the  whole 
value  of  the  property  being  $120,000.  The  en- 
dowment is  $240,000 'and  the  income  $36,966. 

M0NM0UTH8HIBE.  A  maritime  county 
in  the  west  of  England,  bounded  south  by  iht 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MOHMOXTTHSHIBE. 


729 


MOKOGOTYLEDOK& 


estuary  of  the  Severn^  northeast  hy  Hereford- 
shire, and  east  by  Gloucestershire  (Map:  Eng- 
land, D  5).  It  has  a  coast  line  of  22  miles. 
Area,  535  square  miles.  The  surface  is  elevated 
in  the  north  and  northwest,  in  the  Sugarloaf  at- 
taining a  maximiun  altitude  of  1856  feet.  The 
coast  districts  are  low  and  fertile,  and  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Usk  and  Wye  wheat,  barley,  and 
oats  are  grown.  The  county  is  celebrated  for  its 
mineral  wealth,  and  abounds  in  collieries  and 
iron-works.  The  scenery  is  unusually  varied  and 
beautiful,  and  its  picturesqueness  is  enhanced 
by  numerous  Roman  antiquities,  and  the  feudal 
remains  of  Raglan,  Caldecot  and  Chepstow  cas- 
tles, and  Llanthony  and  Tintem  abbeys.  Until 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  Monmouth  was  part  of 
South  Wales,  and  the  Welsh  language  is  still 
spoken  in  some  districts.  Chief  towns,  Newport, 
Abertilleiy,  Blaenavon,  Pcmtypool.  Capital,  Mon- 
mouth. Population,  in  1891,  262,400;  in  1901, 
292,300. 

MOKNIEBy  m6'iiyk%  Henbi  Bonaventubs 
(1806-77).  A  French  caricaturist  and  author, 
born  June  6,  1805,  in  Paris.  He  first  won 
attention  by  pen-sketches  and  lithographic  illus- 
trations of  Stranger  (1828),  which  revealed 
his  power  of  catching  typical  traits.  Thus 
he  was  led  to  write  and  illustrate  such  comic 
yet  faithful  records  of  Paris  street  life  as  Seines 
populairea  (1830), or  thelf^otrc*  de  M,  Joseph 
Prudhomme  (1857).  In  1831  he  became  an 
actor,  excelling  in  plays  of  his  own  writing,  but 
he  soon  abandoned  the  stage.  Many  of  his  later 
pictured  stories  have  been  adapted  for  dramatic 
presentation,  e.g.  Un  voyage  en  HoUande,  Les 
bourgeois  de  Paris,  and  Le  honheur  de  vivre  auw 
champs.  He  died  in  Paris,  January  3,  1877. 
Consult:  Champfleury,  Henri  Monnier,  sa  vie, 
son  oeuvre  (Paris,  1889) ;  and  Beraldi,  Les  gra- 
veurs  du  XlXdme  siicle,  vol.  x.  (ib.,  1890). 

MOKNIEB^  Jean  Marie  Albebt  Mabcel 
(1863— K  A  French  explorer  and  author,  bom 
in  Paris,  and  educated  at  the  Condorcet  Lyceum. 
In  1886-87  he  explored  the  Andes  and  the  Ama- 
zon. In  1891-92  he  went  with  Captain  Ringer's 
African  expedition  to  the  Ivory  CJoast,  and  in 
1894,  as  correspondent  of  the  Temps,  he  began  a 
journey  across  the  least  traveled  parts  of  Asia, 
which  lasted  three  years.  Among  his  writings 
are:  Un  printemps  sur  le  Pacifique  (1885); 
De*  Andes  au  Pard  (1890);  La  France  noire 
(1894)  ;  and  Tour  d*Asie  (1899). 

MOKNIEB,  Marc  (1827-85).  A  French 
writer,  kno\vn  mostly  for  his  studies  of  Italy. 
He  was  bom  in  Florence  and  passed  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  in  Geneva,  where  he  was  professor 
at  the  university.  His  works  include  an  Etude 
historique  de  la  conquSte  de  la  Sidle  par  les 
Sarrasins  (1847)  ;  Histoire  du  brigandage  dans 
Vltalie  m^ridionale  (1862);  La  Camorra,  mys- 
Ures  de  Xaples  (1863)  ;  PompH  et  les  PompHcns 
(1864)  ;  Conies  populaires  en  Italie  (1880)  ;  Un 
avcfiturier  du  siMe  dernier,  Le  comte  Joseph 
Gorani  (1884);  Histoire  de  la  litt^rature  mo- 
deme;  La  renaissance  de  Dante  d  Luther  (1884), 
followed  by  La  r^forme  de  Luther  d  Shakespeare 
(1885)  ;  also  Les  amours  permises  (1861)  ;  Luci- 
oles,  in  verse  (1853)  ;  La  vie  de  J6sus,  in  verse 
(1873)  ;  and  Le  charmeur  (1882). 

MONNOYEB,  mA'nwft'yft',  Jean  Rapttste 
(1634-99).     A  French  still-life  painter,  bom  at 


Lille.  After  study  in  Antwerp,  he  worked  at 
Lille,  and  later  went  to  London,  where  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Lord  Montagu,  Queen  Mary,  and  Queen 
Anne  to  decorate  their  palaces.  There  are  eight 
pieces  by  him  in  the  Louvre.  He  belongs  to  the 
Flemish  school,  and  although  he  does  not  equal 
the  masters  of  still-life  painting,  he  was  an 
agreeable  colorist,  and  his  arrangements  are  in- 
teresting. 

MONOC'ACYj^  Rattle  of.  A  battle  fought 
at  Monocacy  Junction,  Md.,  about  five  miles 
from  Frederick,  on  July  9,  1864,  during  the  Civil 
War,  between  about  6000  Federals  under  General 
Lew  Wallace  and  about  20,000  0)nfederate8  un- 
der Creneral  Early.  The  Federal  force  was  de- 
feated, but  succeeded  in  delaying  Early's  march 
upon  Washington,  and  thus  rendered  a  valuable 
service.  General  Grant,  in  his  Memoirs,  says: 
"General  Wallace  contributed  on  this  occasion, 
by  the  defeat  of  the  troops  under  him,  a  greater 
benefit  to  the  cause  than  often  falls  to  the  lot  of 
a  commander  of  an  equal  force  to  render  by 
means  of  a  victory." 

MONOOHOBD  (Lat.  monochordos,  mono- 
chordon,  from  Gk.  ftov6xopSov,  monochord,  neu. 
sg.  of  uovSxopdogy  monochordos,  having  a  single 
chord,  irom  //<5vof ,  monos,  single  +  x^P^*  chords 
string) .  A  very  ancient  musical  instrument  used 
to  determine  the  mathematical  proportions  of  in- 
tervals. It  consists  of  a  single  string  stretched 
over  a  sounding-board.  Any  division  of  this 
string  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  movable  bridge 
sliding  on  a  graduated  scale.  In  this  manner 
every  interval  can  be  produced  with  absolute 
acoustic  purity.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the 
monochord  was  used  to  illustrate  intervals  sound- 
ing simultaneously,  and  for  this  purpose  several 
strings,  each  with  a  separate  bridge,  were  added. 
In  this  form  it  became  the  precursor  of  the 
clavichord  (q.v.).  See  Plate  of  Musical  Instbu- 

MENTS. 

KONOCHBOME  (ML.  monochroma,  from 
Gk.  fiov6xpi^fji(K9  monochrOmos,  having  a  single 
color,  from  fi6yoc^  moTWs,  single  -f  xP^f^t  chrCma, 
color).  A  painting  done  in  the  various  shades  of 
a  single  color.    See  Camateu. 

MONOCLINE  (from  Gk.  fidvoc,  monos, 
single  -f  kX/vc/v,  klinein,  to  incline).  A  ^log- 
ical term  applied  to  an  abrupt  inclination  of 
strata  connecting  the  same  beds  lying  at  different 
levels.  A  monocline  may  be  regarded  as  a  modi- 
fied form  of  the  anticline  (q.v.).  Folds  of  this 
character  are  developed  on  a  grand  scale  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region. 

MON'OCOT'YLE^DONS  (from  Gk.  /«W, 
monoSy  single  -f-  KOTv?.7f^6v,  koiyl^dUn,  cup-shaped 
cavity,  from  Kori'hi,  kotyU,  socket).  One  of  the 
two  great  divisions  of  angiosperms  (q.v.).  The 
name  means  *one  cotyledon,'  and  suggests  one  of 
the  distinguishing  features  of  the  group,  namely 
that  the  embryo  developed  within  the  seed  has 
but  one  cotyledon  or  seed-leaf;  while  in  the  other 
group  (dicotyledons)  it  has  two.  The  fact  that 
the  embryo  has  only  a  single  cotyledon  is  not  so 
significant  as  its  position.  At  one  end  of  the 
axis  of  the  embryo  the  root  tip  is  organized, 
while  at  the  other  end  the  cotyledon  is  developed^ 
the  stem  tip  coming  out  on  the  side  of  the  axis. 
In  dicotyledons  the  tips  of  the  roots  and  those 
of  the  stems  occupy  the  ends  of  the  axis,  and  the 
cotyledons  come  out  on  the   side.     The  most 


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MOKOGOTYLEDOK& 


730 


MOKOSCISM. 


easily  recognized  characters  of  the  mono- 
cotyledons, nowever,  are  as  follows:  Woody 
strands  scattered  in  the  stem,  as  in  a  com  stalk, 
and  not  forming  a  definite  cylinder^  parallel- 
veined  leaves  (not  reticulately  veined),  and  parts 
of  the  flowers  in  threes  (never  in  fives  or  fours). 
None  of  these  characters  is  without  exception, 
hut  their  combination  usually  indicates  a  mono- 
cotyledon, the  final  test  being  the  character  of 
the  embryo.  Formerly  the  members  of  the  group 
were  called  'endogens,'  but  the  name  has  been 
abandoned  in  this  connection  and  is  applied  in 
a  totally  different  way.  The  whole  assemblage  of 
monocotyledons  numbers  about  20,000  living  spe- 
cies, and  among  them  are  some  of  the  most 
conspicuous  and  useful  of  plants.  As  illustra- 
tions the  following  prominent  groups  may  be 
mentioned:  Pond  weeds,  grasses,  palms,  lilies, 
and  orchids. 

MONOD^  m6'ny,  Adolphb  (180266).  A 
French  Protestant  minister.  He  was  bom  at 
Copenhagen,  his  father  having  been  a  Re- 
formed clergyman  from  Geneva.  He  studied 
in  Paris  and  Geneva,  and  was  pastor  of  a 
small  Protestant  congregation  at  Naples  (1825- 
27).  In  1828  he  became  pastor  at  Lyons,  where 
he  remained  till  1831  and  founded  the  Free 
Evangelical  Church.  In  1836  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Montauban,  and  held  this 
position  for  eleven  years.  During  this  time  he 
traveled  in  Southern  France,  preaching  and  in- 
structing the  people  who  were  attracts!  by  the 
power  of  his  discourses.  In  1847  he  became 
pastor  at  Paris,  where  he  drew  large  crowds  by 
his  eloquent  preaching.  His  literary  works  were 
chiefly  sermons  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1866),  and  A, 
Monod*8  Farewell  to  E%8  Friends  and  to  the 
Church  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1867).  Consult 
S.  ^L  (a  daughter).  Life  and  Letters  of  A.  Monod 
(London,  1886). 

MONOD,  FRfiDfeRio  (1794-1863).  A  French 
Protestant,  brother  of  Adolphe  Monod.  He  was 
bom  in  Monnaz,  Canton  of  Vaud,  Switzer- 
land; educated  at  Geneva;  entered  the  minis- 
try in  1820,  and  the  same  year  succeeded  his 
father  as  pastor  of  the  National  Protestant 
Church  of  France  in  Paris.  He  established 
in  1824  the  Archives  du  Christianisme^  the 
dhief  organ  of  the  Evangelical  French  Protest- 
ants, and  continued  its  editor  until  his  death. 
After  officiating  twelve  years  as  pastor  of  the  ora- 
toire,  he  united  with  Count  Gasparin  and  others 
in  an  attempt  to  restore  a  rule  of  faith  in  the 
Reformed  Church  which  would  exclude  rational- 
ists, by  making  an  acknowledgment  of  the  divin- 
ity of  Christ  essential  to  membership.  Failing  in 
this,  they  left  the  National  Protestant  Church  in 
1849  and  organized  independent  congregations 
which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Free 
Evangelical  Church  of  France. 

MONOD,  Gabriel  (1844—).  A  French  his- 
torian, born  at  Havre.  He  studied  at  the  Ecole 
Normale,  and  in  Italy  and  Germany,  and  in  1869 
began  to  teach  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes, 
where  he  became  director  of  the  historical -philo- 
logical section,  and  in  1905  became  professor  at 
the  College  de  France.  Monod  was  editor  of 
the  Revue  Critique  and  founded  with  Fagniez 
the  Revue  Historique  (1876).  He  wrote  Alle- 
mands  et  Frangais  (1871)  ;  Etudes  critiques  sur 
les  sources  de  Vhistoire  m^omn^tcnnc(  1872-85)  ; 
Jules  Michelet    (1875);   Bibliographic  de  Vhis- 


toire de  France  (1888) ;  and  Les  mattres  de  Vhis- 
toire, Kenan,  Taine,  Michelet  (1894);  Portraits 
et  souvenirs  (1897);  Souvenirs  d^ adolescence 
(1903);  Jules  Michelet   (1905). 

MON'ODEI/PHIA  (Neo-Lat,  from  Gk. 
/i6i*Df.  monos,  single  -f  deX^,  delphys,  womb). 
The  largest  and  highest  of  the  subclasses  of  mam- 
mals, equivalent  to  Eutheria  (q.v.).  This  term, 
now  passing  into  disuse,  refers  to  the  fact  that 
the  vagina  and  uterus  in  the  female  are  always 
single.    Compare  Obntthodelphia  ;  Dioelphia. 

MONODY  (Lat.  monodia,  from  Gk.  fwv(ftdia, 
solo,  lament,  from  /aJvof,  monos,  single  -+-  (^^ 
6d9,  song,  ode,  from  aSeiv,  adeiUf  to  sing).  An 
elegy  in  which  the  mourner  is  supposed  to  lament 
alone.  Among  the  finest  English  examples  of  the 
monody  are  Milton's  Lyt^das,  Tennyson's  In 
Memoriam,  and  Matthew  Arnold's  Scholar-Oipsy 
and  Thyrsis, 

MONODY.  A  style  of  music  which  first  was 
cultivated  in  Italy  about  1600.  Up  to  that  time 
serious  composers  had  always  used  polyphony 
(q.v.)  •  The  Renaissance  awakened  a  deep  interest 
in  the  works  of  the  ancient  Greek  dramatists, 
and  in  Florence  a  number  of  learned  musicians 
and  literary  men  attempted  to  reconstruct  the 
music  of  those  plays.  It  was  felt  that  the  poly- 
phonic style,  employing  a  number  of  voices,  was 
not  suited  to  accompany  the  words  of  a  drama, 
where  distinct  enunciation  of  every  word  was 
the  prime  consideration.  Attempts  were  made 
to  write  for  a  solo  voice  with  instrumental  ac- 
companiment. For  this  purpose  famous  madri- 
gals (see  Madrigal)  were  arranged  so  that  one 
part  was  assigned  to  the  voice,  while  the  others 
were  played  on  some  instrument.  The  inad- 
equacy of  this  soon  made  itself  felt,  and  com- 
posers began  to  write  original  compositions  for 
a  solo  voice.  This  new  style,  employing  only  one 
voice,  was  called  monody,  as  against  polyphony, 
a  style  with  many  voices.  The  instrumental  part 
of  the  earliest  of  these  compositions  is  exceed- 
ingly primitive,  consisting  of  scarcely  more  than 
a  figured  bass  (q.v.).  Sut  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  opera  the  progress  of  monody 
was  very  rapid.  Monody  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  homophony  (q.v.),  which  is  a  later 
development,  and  which  does  not  exclude  elabo- 
rate contrapuntal  work  in  the  accompanying 
parts. 

MONCE^CISM  (from  Gk.  /i6voc,  monos,  single 
+  oZ/cof ,  oikos,  house).  The  word  means  pri- 
marily the  condition  of  a  'single  household'  in 
plants,  which  means  that  the  male  and  the  female 
organs  occur  upon  the  same  individual.  In  its 
original  application,  however,  it  referred  to  the 
fact  that  in  many  seed  plants  the  stamens  and 
pistils  occur  upon  the  same  individual,  but  this 
application  arose  from  the  mistaken  idea  tha^ 
stamens  and  pistils  are  sex  organs.  The  con- 
trasting term  is  dioecism,  referring  to  the  con- 
dition in  plants  in  which  the  male  and  female 
organs  occur  upon  different  individuals.  The 
application  of  the  term  to  a  non-sexual  condition 
in  the  flowering  plants  is  unfortunate,  for  it 
means  that  monoecism  in  mosses  and  ferns  refers 
to  one  fact  and  in  flowering  plants  to  quite 
a  different  one.  Among  the  mosses  the  mon<B- 
cious  habit  is  very  usual,  the  same  sexual  plant 
(srametophyte)  bearing  both  sex  organs  (antheri- 
dium  and  archegonium ) .  Among  the  true  ferns 
monoecism  is  almost  universal,  the  characteristic 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


TYPES   OF  MONOCOTYLEDONS 


1.  AN  ORCHID  (Lady's-sllpper). 

2.  A  LILY  (Dog's-tooth  violet). 


A  GRASS  (Sugar-cane).  .  T 

A  PALM  (o.t^p..^j,|^g^  by  v^oogle 


Digitized  by 


Google 


MONCECISM.  731 

small  gametopliyte  (prothallium)  bearing  both 
antheridium  and  archegonium.  With  the  intro- 
duction of  heterospoiy  (q.v.),  however,-  the 
sexual  plants  are  absolutely  differentiated,  one 
individual  being  male  and  another  female.  Since 
all  the  flowering  plants  are  heterosporous,  it 
follows  that  they  are  essentially  not  moncecious 
in  the  sense  of  the  term  as  used  among  mosses 
and  ferns.  In  the  application  of  the  term  to 
stamens  and  pistils,  however,  rather  than  to 
sex  organs,  the  majority  of  flowering  plants  are 
found  to  be  ^monoecious' ;  that  is,  with  the  sta- 
mens and  pistils  not  only  upon  the  same  plant, 
but  in  the  same  flower. 

MONOGRAJMl  (Lat.  monogra/mma^  from  Gk. 
ftopoypdfAfiaroSt  monoyrammato8,  consisting  of  a 
single  letter,  from  Gk.  fjubvot,  monos,  single  4-  ypofi- 
fUL,  gramma,  letter,  from  yp&4>€iPf  graphein,  to 
write) .  A  character  composed  of  two  or  more  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet,  often  interlaced  with  other 
lines,  and  used  as  a  cipher  or  abbreviation  of  a 
name.  A  perfect  monogram  is  one  in  which  all 
the  letters  of  the  word  are  to  be  traced.  The  use 
of  monograms  began  at  a  very  early  date.  They 
are  found  on  Greek  coins,  medals,  and  seals,  and 
are  particularly  numerous  on  the  coins  of  Mace- 
donia and  Sicily.  Both  on  coins  and  in  MSS. 
it  was  the  practice  to  present  the  names  of 
States  and  cities  by  monograms,  of  which  above 
600  are  known,  but  some  have  not  been  de- 
ciphered. Monograms  occur  on  the  family  coins 
of  Rome,  but  not  on  the  coins  of  the  earlier  Koman 
_  emperors.  Constantine  placed  on  his  coins 
s^  one  of  the  earliest  of  Christian  monograms 
which  is  to  be  traced  in  the  recesses  of  the 
catacombs,  composed  of  the  first  and  second  let- 
ters of  XPoTTOf  ( Christus) ,  a  monogram  which  also 
appeared  on  the  Labarum  (q.v.),  and  was  con- 
tinued on  the  coins  of  the  succeeding  emperors 
of  the  East  down  to  Alexander  Comnenus  and 
Theodorus  Lascaris.  We  often  find  it  combined 
with  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Greek  al- 
phabet (Rev.  i.  8).  Another  well-known  mono- 
gram is  that  of  the  name  of  Jesus,  IHS,  from 
the  first  three  letters  of  IHZoOf,  though  some- 
times explained  as  standing  for  the  three  Latin 
words  Ie8U8  Hominum  Salvator  (Jesus,  Saviour 
of  Men). 

Popes,  emperors,  and  kings  of  France  during 
the  Middle  Ages  were  in  the  practice  of  using  a 
monogram  instead  of  signing  their  names.  Al- 
most all  the  coins  of  the  French  kings  of  the 
Carlovingian  race  bear  their  respective  mono- 
grams, as  also  do  those  of  Alfred  and  some  of 
the  other  Saxon  kings  of  England. 

Painters  and  engravers  in  (3Jermany  and  Italy 
have  used  monograms  to  a  large  extent  as  a 
means  of  distinguishing  their  %vork8.  In  these, 
the  initial  letters  of  their  names  were  often 
interwoven  with  figures  of  a  symbolical  char- 
acter, so  as  to  form  a  rebus  on  the  artist's  name. 
The  first  typographers  distinguished  their  pub- 
lications by  wood-cut  vignettes,  whose  inven- 
tion is  ascribed  to  the  elder  Aldus;  but  besides 
these,  each  made  use  of  a  monogram  or  cipher, 
a  series  of  which,  well  known  to  the  bibliographer, 
fixes  the  identity  of  the  ancient  editions,  Ger- 
man, Italian,  and  English,  from  the  invention 
of  printing  down  to  the  middle  or  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  For  a  detailed  account  of  the 
monograms  of  early  printers  and  others,  consult: 
Brulliot,  Dictionnaire  des  monogrammes  (Mu- 
nich, 1832-34)  ;  Home,  Introduction  to  Bihliog- 
Vol.  X III— 47. 


MONONGAHELA. 


rap/ty,- vol.  ii.  (London,  1814);  Herbert  and 
Ames,  Typographical  Antiquities  (ib.,  1749)  ; 
Leutsch,  Universal  Monogram-Work  (Gera, 
1893)  ;  Schiller,  Monogramme  (Ravensburg, 
1897  et  seq.). 

HON'OGBAFTUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  /A6wf, 
monoSy  single  +  ypawr^t,  graptos,  marked  with 
letters,  from  7pd^&y,  graphein,  to  write).  A 
genus  of  extinct  graptolites  found  in  and  char- 
acteristic of  rocks  of  Silurian  age.     See  Gbap- 

TOLITE. 

MO^O  LAKE.  A  lake  in  Mono  County,  east 
central  California.  It  lies  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  , 
at  an  altitude  of  6730  feet,  and  is  surrounded 
by  mountains  rising  6000  to  7000  feet  above  its 
surface  (Map:  California,  D  2).  Its  area  is  now 
about  85  square  miles,  but  ancient  beaches  show 
that  it  was  formerly  nearly  four  times  as  large. 
It  has  no  outlet,  and  its  waters  are  so  salty  that 
fish  cannot  live  in  them.  Sodium  carbonate  and 
bicarbonate  constitute  nearly  one-half  of  the 
salts  held  in  solution,  and  these  are  therefore 
of  considerable  commercial  value. 

MONOLITH  (Lat.  monolithua,  from  Gk. 
fiop6\i$os,  consisting  of  a  single  stone,  from 
ftSpoSy  monoSy  single  +  TUffos,  lithos,  stone).  A 
monument,  statue,  obelisk,  column,  shaft,  or 
other  architectural  member  formed  of  a  single 
stone  or  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  Monolithic 
columnar  shafts  of  large  size  and  highly  colored 
marbles  did  not  become  popular  with  the  Romans 
until  the  Imperial  period.  (See  Column.)  In 
Egypt,  and  especially  in  India,  there  are  examples 
of  monolithic  temples,  as  at  Abu-Simbel,  and  in 
the  cave-temples  and  monasteries  at  Ajanta,  El- 
lora,  Karli,  etc.,  and  the  open-air  monuments  at 
Ellora,  Dhumnar,  and  many  other  places.  Of 
monolithic  blocks  in  ancient  architecture  some 
of  the  largest  are  at  Baalbek  in  Syria,  one 
measuring  about  70  X  21  X  14  feet.  A  remark- 
ably high  shaft  was  one  quarried  at  Vinal  Haven, 
Me.,  115  feet  high  and  weighing  150  tons. 

HON'OHA^IA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  fiSpos, 
monoa,  single  -h  fjMvlay  mania,  madness).  A 
form  of  insanity  in  which  there  is  one  sys- 
tematized delusion  which  dominates,  while  it 
does  not  impair,  the  intellect  of  the  lunatic.  The 
central  delusion  may  be  replaced  in  part  by 
minor  related  delusions,  and  it  may  be  concealed 
upon  occasions,  or  for  a  long  period  of  time. 
Ability  is  not  incompatible  with  this  form  of 
insanity. 

MONOMETALLISM.  See  Bimetallisic  ; 
Money. 

MONONGAHELA,  m6-n6n'g&-h§'l&.  One  of 
the  headstreams  of  the  Ohio  River.  It  rises  in 
the  Alleghany  Mountains  in  Randolph  County, 
West  Virginia,  and  fiows  northward  with  many 
windings  through  a  fertile  and  populous  valley 
abounding  in  coal  and  timber  (Map:  Pennsyl- 
vania, B  8).  At  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  it  joins*  the 
Allegheny  River  to  form  the  Ohio.  Its  total 
length  is  about  300  miles,  and  by  a  system  of 
nine  locks  it  has  been  made  navigable  for  steam- 
boats to  MorgantowTi,  W.  Va.,  106  miles  above 
Pittsburg.  Four  more  locks  are  now  in  con- 
struction above  Morgantown,  and  the  Govern- 
ment plans  to  make  the  river  navigable  to 
Fairmount  in  Marion  County,  at  the  junction  of 
its  two  main  headstreams.  The  principal  tribu- 
tary  is   the   navigable   Youghiogheny.     On  the 


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MONOPODIAIi  BBANCHOra. 


banks  of  the  Monongahela,  a  few  miles  from 
Fort  Duquesne  (now  Pittsburg),  the  Anglo- 
American  army  of  Braddock  was  defeated  by 
the  French  and  Indians  on  July  9,  1755. 

MONONGAHELA.  A  city  in  Washington 
County,  Pa.,  on  the  Monongahela  River,  31  miles 
south  of  Pittsburg;  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Pittsburg  and  Lake  Erie  railroads  (Map:  Penn- 
sylvania, B  7).  It  is  in  a  productive  coal  region, 
and  is  engaged  largely  in  coal-mining.  The  man- 
ufactures include  glass  and  lamp  factories,  ma- 
chine shops,  foundries,  planing  mills,  paper  mills, 
flour  mills,  etc.  Settled  as  early  as  1792,  Mon- 
ongahela was  not  incorporated  until  1873,  the 
charter  of  that  year  being  still  in  operation  and 
providing  for  a  mayor,  annually  elected,  and  a 
bicameral  council.  Population,  1900,  5173;  1906 
(local  cen.),  9172. 

MONONGAHELA,  Battle  of  the.  See 
Bbaddock,  Edwabd,  and  Fbench  at«)  Indian 
Wab. 

MONOPH^SITES  (Gk.  fu)Po<f>wrlTris,  mono- 
phyaitia,  one  who  affirms  the  single  nature  of 
God,  from  fjubpos^  monoay  single  +  ^t^cf,  phyais, 
nature).  The  name  applied  to  a  large  number 
of  Christians  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
who  maintained  that  Christ  had  only  one  nature, 
as  against  the  orthodox  doctrine  that  in  Him 
humanity  and  divinity  were  perfectly  united 
without  detriment  to  either.  The  Monophysites 
called  the  orthodox,  by  analogy,  Dyophysites, 
i.e.  believers  in  two  natures  (Gk.  3«5o,  two, 
and  4>^ii),  The  controversy  sprang  out  of  the 
fourth  century  discussions  respecting  the  Trinity 
(q.v.),  and  the  connecting  link  may  be  found  in 
the  speculations  of  ApoUinaris  of  Laodioea 
(d.  392) ,  who  raised  the  question  how  the  divine 
and  the  human  could  exist  together  in  Christ. 

The  Monophysite  controversy  passed  through 
several  preliminary  stages.  One  of  these  is 
marked  oy  the  name  of  Xestorius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  whose  Christology  was  suspected 
to  be  unsound,  and  who  was  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (431),  under  the  leadership 
of  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  (See  Xestobius; 
Ephesus,  Councils  or.)  Another  stage  is  con- 
nected with  the  monk  Eutyches  (q.v.),  who  held 
a  peculiar  view  of  the  natures  in  Christ,  difl*er- 
ent  from  that  of  Nestorius,  yet  open  to  sus- 
picion. He,  too,  was  adjudged  heretical  (448), 
and  although  he  was  received  back  into  fellow- 
ship by  the  *Robber  Synod'  of  Ephesus  (449), 
his  vindication  did  not  stand.  Meanwhile,  Pope 
Leo  I.  (440-461)  had  written  to  the  Bishop  of 
Constantinople  his  celebrated  *Tome,'  or  letter, 
in  which  he  defined  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the 
two  natures.  This  document  was  brought  into 
requisition  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451), 
and  upon  it  was  based  the  official  decree  which 
set  forth  the  orthodox  Christology.  According 
to  this  definition,  Christ  is  "perfect  in  deity  and 
perfect  in  humanity,  truly  God,  and  truly  man, 
.  .  .  one  and  the  same  Christ,  in  two  natures 
without  confusion,  change,  division,  or  separa- 
tion." The  adoption  of  the  Chalcedonian  decree 
may  be  regarded  as  terminating  the  theological 
and  introducing  the  political  period  of  the  Mono- 
physite controversy. 

The  problem  at  that  time  confronting  the 
Empire  was  that  of  harmonizing  the  theolog- 
ically discordant  elements  of  the  population. 
Christianity    being   the    State    religion,    it   was 


necessary  for  all  to  accept  whatever  doctriiial 
decisions  might  be  reached  by  the  proper  authori- 
ties. But  a  large  part  of  the  Eastern  Church, 
was  strongly  Monophysite,  and  would  not  sur- 
render its  convictions,  in  spite  of  the  Coimcil. 
The  Emperors  themselves  did  not  all  think  alike, 
althouf^h  they  all  sought,  if  possible,  to  unify 
the  opinions  of  their  subjects.  A  usurper  in  the 
East,  Basiliscus  by  name,  issued  a  decree  con- 
demning the  definition  of  Chalcedon  (476).  and 
while  many  of  the  Eastern  clergy  accepted  hi» 
decree,  a  storm  of  opposition  was  aroused.  A 
later  Emperor,  Zeno,  endeavored  to  reach  a  com- 
promise by  his  Henoticon,  or  instrument  of  union 
(482),  which  practically  ignored  what  had  been 
accomplished  at  Chalcedon,  and  reverted  to  the 
Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan  creed  as  the  sole 
standard  of  orthodoxy.  Pope  Felix  condemned 
the  Henoticon,  and  the  result  was  a  schism  be- 
tween East  and  West,  lasting  for  about  thirty- 
five  years  (484-519).  Before  the  close  of  tie 
fifth  century  several  national  churches  had  been 
formed  in  the  East,  independent  of  Constanti- 
nople, yet  patriarchal  in  their  organization,  and 
all  professing  the  Monophysite  faith,  e.g.  the 
Jacobites,  Maronites,  Armenians,  Copts,  Abys- 
sinians,  etc.  In  Egypt  some  of  the  most  extreme 
Monophysites  separated  from  the  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  and  formed  a  sect  of  their  own.  They 
were  called  AcephcUiy  i.e.  'without  a  head.'  Jus- 
tinian (527-565),  a  champion  of  orthodoxy,  at- 
tempted to  induce  his  subjects  to  unite  on  the 
basis  of  the  Chalcedonian  decree,  and  partially 
succeeded,  chiefly  by  forcing  his  will  upon  the 
Fifth  Ecumenical  Council  (553).  But  his  most 
important  utterances  on  the  subject  pleased 
neither  party,  and  by  a  sort  of  irony  of  fate 
at  the  close  of  his  life  he  was  said  himself  to 
have  fallen  into  a  heresy  akin  to  Monophysitism 
(cf.  Evagrius,  Hist,  Eccles.,  iv.  39).  Only  after 
the  separation  of  the  schismatic  churches  of  the 
East,  and,  still  more,  after  the  rise  of  Moham- 
medanism, which  forced  Oriental  Christians,  in 
self-defense,  to  seek  closer  relations  with  Rome, 
can  the  long  Monophysite  struggle  be  said  to 
have  come  to  an  end.  The  two-nature  doc- 
trine, as  defined  at  Chalcedon,  triumphed,  in 
spite  of  its  inherent  difficulties,  and  remained 
the  orthodox  faith  of  Christendom.  Consult: 
Gibbon,  Roman  Empire^  chap.  47  (ed.  by  J.  B. 
Bury,  London,  1896-1900)  ;  Harnack,  History  of 
Dogma,  vol.  iv.  (London,  1898)  ;  Fisher,  His- 
iory  of  Christian  Doctrine  (Xew  York,  1896)  ; 
Smith  and  Wace,  Dictionary  of  Christinn  Biog- 
raphy, article  "Person  of  Christ,  CJontroTersies 
Respecting**  (London,  1887)  ;  Hutton,  The  Church 
of  the  Sixth  Century  (London,  1897)  ;  Hefelo.  His- 
tory  of  the  Councils,  vols.  iii.  and  iv.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1883-95). 

MON'OPNEU'MONA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Gk.  fiSvos,  fnonoa,  single  +  xpc^fuap,  pneu- 
mOn,  lung).  An  order  of  fishes,  so  called  from 
the  simple,  unified  condition  of  the  lung-sac.  It 
comprises  a  single  family,  Ceratodidffi,  and  genus, 
Ceratodus,  in  which  the  lateral  jointed  rays  of 
the  archipterygium  are  well  developed.  It  rep- 
resents a  very  ancient  stock,  of  which  only  the 
barramunda  (q.v.)  of  Australia  now  exists. 
Compare  Dipnoi. 

MONOPODIAL  BRANCHING  (from  Gk. 
^op&wovs,  monopouSf  single-footed,  from  fi6mt^ 
monos,  single  -j-  ^o6s,   potta,  foot).    The  method 


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MONOPODIAL  BBAKCHING. 


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MONOPOLY. 


in  which  the  axis  of  a  plant  develops  continu- 
ously from  an  apical  and  the  branches  arise  from 
lateral  ends.    See  Bbanghing. 

MONOPOLI,  mdndp^6-l«.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Bari,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Adriatic, 
25  miles  southeast  of  Bari  (Map:  Italy,  M  7). 
It  is  surroimded  by  walls,  and  has  a  fortress 
constructed  in  1652  by  Charles  V.  There  is  a 
cathedral.  Along  the  coast  near  by  are  curious 
tombs  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  and  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  city.  Weaving  and  dyeing  are  the  prin- 
cipal industries.  The  trade  is  in  olive  oil  and 
wine.  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  20,918 j 
in  1901,  22,546. 

MONOPOLY  (Lat.ntonopoZti4m,  from  Gk.  fiopo^ 
T(6Xioy,  right  of  exclusive  sale,  iiovonoKla,  mono- 
pClia,  exclusive  sale,  from  /i6pos,  monoSf  single 
-f  TvKetVf  polein,  to  sell ) .  In  its  strictest  sense, 
a  grant  of  the  Crown  or  State  to  a  private  in- 
dividual or  corporation  of  an  exclusive  right 
to  carry  on  a  certain  class  of  business  or  traffic. 
In  a  general  and  more  modem  sense  it  signifies 
such  control  of  a  given  class  of  articles  or  of 
the  traffic  in  them  as  will  make  it  possible  to 
raise  their  price  higher  than  the  level  of  prices 
fixed  by  free  competition.  A  typical  example 
of  a  monopoly  of  the  first  class  is  the  grant 
of  a  patent  right,  which  in  effect  gives  the  grantee 
an  exclusive  control  over  the  production  of 
and  traffic  in  the  patented  article;  a  common 
example  of  monopolies  of  the  second  class  is  the 
exclusive  control  of  mineral  or  other  special 
products  of  the  land  by  virtue  of  ownership  of 
land.  Monopolies  may  be  classified  as  public 
or  private  according  as  they  are  managed  by 
the  Grovemment  or  by  private  individuals,  associ- 
ations, or  corporations. 

Private  monopolies  may  be  classified  as  (1) 
legal  monopolies,  resting  upon  a  grant  from  the 
Government  of  exclusive  privileges  for  manufac- 
ture or  sale;  (2)  natural  monopolies,  which  are 
based  upon  the  control  of  a  limited  natural 
product  through  the  ownership  of  land  or  other 
natural  resources,  or  of  exclusive  natural  facili- 
ties for  transportation;  and  (3)  capitalistic 
monopolies,  which  hold  their  power  over  prices 
by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  an  enormous  capital 
is  required  in  certain  industries  so  that  an 
established  plant  always  has  a  great  advantage 
over  a  new  competitor.  This  last  form  of 
monopoly  is  discussed  at  length  in  the  article 
Trusts. 

Legal  monopolies  have  generally  been  granted 
to  private  persons  for  some  real  or  ostensible 
service  to  the  commonwealth.  Sometimes  such 
a  grant  was  made  primarily  for  fiscal  purposes. 
Thus  the  monopoly  of  the  issue  of  bank  notes 
in  England,  granted  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  to  the  Bank  of  England,  was 
a  reward  for  the  considerable  services  of  that 
corporation  to  the  national  exchequer.  In  early 
times  the  exclusive  right  of  sale  or  production 
of  a  commodity  was  frequently  granted  to  in- 
dividuals in  return  for  a  fixed  sum  paid  into 
the  public  treasury.  The  danger,  however,  of 
such  monopolies  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  probable 
profits  were  as  a  rule  underestimated  through 
the  influence  of  favoritism,  with  the  result  that 
the  sums  secured  by  the  treasury  were  not  com- 
mensurate with  the  vexation  to  the  public.  Too 
frequently  these  exclusive  privileges  were  granted 
to  Court  favorites  whose  actual  services  to  the 
commonwealth   merited   no   such   reward.     Mo- 


nopolies by  grant  first  acquired  prominence  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  her  frequent  grants 
of  monopolies  in  articles  of  common  use  were 
r^arded  as  a  great  abuse  and  brought  forth  the 
protests  of  Parliament.  Such  articles  as  salt, 
leather,  coal,  soap,  cards,  beer,  and  wine  were 
thus  monopolized,  and  indeed  there  was  hardly 
any  article  of  common  necessity  of  which  the 
sale  was  not  thus  restricted  for  the  benefit  of 
the  great.  The  practice  was  continued  until 
the  statute  21,  James  I.,  c.  3,  known  as  the 
Statute  of  Monopolies,  was  enacted  by  Parlia- 
ment in  1623.  This  statute  abolished  all  exist- 
ing monopolies  with  certain  exceptions,  as 
patents  and  manufactures  of  war  supplies  and 
materials,  and  forbade  the  creation  of  monop- 
olies, except  by  grant  made  by  authority  of  act 
of  Parliament. 

Somewhat  similar  in  character  were  the  special 

Srerogatives  granted  about  this  time  to  the 
last  India  and  other  trading  companies.  The 
monopoly  of  trade  which  was  a  characteristio 
of  these  companies  was  held  by  many  to  be  a 
feature  essential  to  their  success.  It  may  be 
remarked  that  monopoly  privileges  did  not  pre- 
vent failure  on  the  part  of  the  many  companies 
which  from  time  to  time  were  established  by 
France,  though  they  may  have  been  a  valuable 
adjunct  to  the  more  vigorous  administration  of 
the  English  and  Dutch  companies. 

The  limited  m(mopoly  for  a  term  of  years 
which  at  the  present  time  is  granted  to  the 
holders  of  patents  and  copyrights  is  somewhat 
akin  in  principle  to  those  just  discussed,  but  is 
justified  by  other  considerations  of  public  policy. 
It  differs  from  them  in  that  the  objects  to 
which  such  rights  pertain  are  essentially  new 
creations,  and  the  exclusive  privileges  which 
they  convey  act  as  a  stimulus  to  productions 
which  are  of  public  benefit.  While  copyright 
aims  to  secure  to  writers  a  reward  for  their 
labors,  there  are,  in  general,  few  restrictions 
upon  the  use  of  these  privileges.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  aim  of  patent  legLslation  is  in  some 
countries  not  only  to  stimulate  invention,  but 
to  secure  the  widest  utilization  of  improved 
processes.  The  monopoly  which  the  patent  right 
confers  cannot  be  used,  therefore,  for  the  ex- 
clusive benefit  of  its  possessor.  Persons  who 
fail  to  provide  for  the  commercial  utilization 
of  their  patents  forfeit  their  rights.  German 
law,  for  instance,  provides  for  an  annual  fee  for 
the  issuing  of  patents  which  grows  larger  as 
time  progresses,  and  under  this  law  ineffective 
patents  or  those  which  are  not  commercially  prof- 
itable lapse  and  cease  to  be  a  bar  to  further 
applications  of  the  principle  upon  which  they  are 
based.  The  power  of  granting  monopolies  is 
subject  to  restrictions  of  both  the  United  States 
and  the  various  State  constitutions.  The  ques- 
tion as  to  how  far  a  State  may  grant  exclusive 
privileges  to  conduct  a  business  depends  pri- 
marily upon  the  Constitution  of  the  State,  and 
hence  is  a  question  of  constitutional  law  outside 
the  scope  of  this  article.  The  Fourteenth  Amend- 
ment of  the  United  States  Constitution,  which 
provides  that  "No  State  shall  make  or  enforce 
any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or 
immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States,  nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property  without  due  process  of  law,"  is  a 
direct  limitation  upon  the  powers  of  a  State 
to  grant  monopolies  indiscriminately.     It  does 


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MONOTHEISM. 


not,  howeyer,  prevent  a  State  from  giving  ex- 
clusive privileges  to  conduct  public  callings  upon 
the  theory  that  power  to  regulate  and  control 
public  callings  was  an  essential  right  of  the 
State,  recognized  at  common  law  and  not  in- 
tended to  be  destroyed  by  the  Fourteenth  Amend- 
ment. Thus  the  State  may  grant  the  exclusive 
right  to  o]>erate  public  ferries,  turnpikes,  rail- 
roads, grain  elevators,  etc. 

Nor  does  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  preclude 
a  State  from  granting  exclusive  privileges  in  the 
proper  exercise  of  its  police  power. 

The  State  may  thus  grant  monopolies  for  the 
sale  of  liquor,  or  the  sale  of  lottery  tickets,  or 
the  erection  of  a  slaughter-house,  or  the  conduct 
of  a  slaughtering  business  within  a  city.  See 
PuBuo  Calling;  (Constitutional  Law;  Police 

POWEB. 

The  United  States  Constitution  expressly  con- 
fers upon  Congress  the  power  of  granting  copy- 
rights and  patents  to  authors  and  to  the  origina- 
tors of  useful  inventions.  No  other  power  to 
create  monopoly  is  expressly  vested  in  Congress, 
and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  without  such  power, 
except  when  incidental  to  the  exercise  of  powers 
expressly  granted  by  the  Constitution,  as,  for 
example,  the  power  to  regulate  commerce,  bor- 
row money,  or  collect  duties  and  imports. 

Natural  monopolies  exist  where  the  conditions 
of  the  enterprise  are  such  as  to  preclude  com- 
petition. In  a  general  way,  economists  some- 
times speak  of  the  possession  of  land  as  con- 
stituting a  natural  monopoly.  As  monopoly  im- 
plies a  lack  of  competition  as  well  as  special 
privilege,  the  term  strictly  applies  only  to  cases 
in  which  the  ownership  of  the  privileges  is 
centred  in  one  person,  or  at  least  a  very  few 
persons  capable  of  acting  in  harmony.  Land  and 
other  natural  resources,  such  as  water  power 
and  mineral  wealth,  are  so  widely  diffused  that 
monopoly  in  a  strict  sense  rarely  arises  from 
their  ownership.  The  most  important  instances 
of  the  so-called  natural  monopolies  arise  in  con- 
nection with  certain  public  services,  particularly 
in  cities,  and  are  usually  connected  with  the 
right  of  way  through  public  highways.  Such 
services  are  the  furnishing  of  gas,  water,  trans- 
portation, and  communication  in  cities.  As  the 
right  to  make  use  of  the  city  streets  to  lay  gas 
and  water  pipes,  electric  conduits,  or  to  build 
tramways  cannot  be  granted  to  all,  competition 
in  furnishing  such  services  is  practically  ex- 
cluded. In  some  respects,  particularly  as  con- 
cerns the  right  of  way  through  municipalities, 
steam  railroads  belong  in  the  same  class.  Com- 
petition among  them  is  possible  on  a  larger 
scale  than  among  street  railways,  but  they  un- 
doubtedly possess  some  elements  of  natural  mo- 
nopoly. 

As  the  policy  of  the  law  has  eliminated  from 
our  economic  life  legal  monopolies  which  do 
not  conform  to  the  principle  of  public  interest, 
so  there  is  a  growing  demand  that  these  natural 
monopolies  shall  be  administered  in  the  public 
interest.  In  its  extreme  form  it  calls  for  the 
municipalization  of  such  enterprises,  while  many 
who  are  unwilling  to  accept  this  solution  demand 
far  greater  caution  in  the  granting  of  franchises 
and  a  much  stricter  supervision  of  the  manner 
in  which  such  franchises  are  used  than  has  here- 
tofore been  common  in  American  municipalities. 

Monopoly  Price.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that 
the  price  of  the  commodities  or  services  con- 


trolled by  a  public  monopoly  is  subject  to  any 
general  law.  The  Grovemment  may  tix  prices 
below  cost  of  service,  or  it  may  purposely  make 
them  so  high  as  to  discourage  consumption.  Pri- 
vate monopolies,  on  the  o^er  hand,  naturally 
aim  to  secure  the  greatest  net  profit;  and  the 
price  which  will  yield  the  greatest  surplus  above 
cost  may  be  termed  monopoly  price.  The  deter- 
mination of  such  a  price  is  a  difiicult  matter  in 
practice,  since  a  large  number  of  fact<M-s  have 
to  be  taken  into  account.  If  the  monopolized 
commodity  is  a  necessity  of  life,  as,  for  example, 
salt,  the  price  may  be  fixed  very  high,  since  high 
prices  would  not  greatly  diminish  consumption. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  commodity  is  an 
article  of  luxury,  or  one  out  of  a  group  of 
commodities  which  satisfy  the  same  want,  a 
material  rise  in  price  will  greatly  limit  con- 
sumption, so  that  while  a  large  profit  may  be 
made  on  each  unit  sold,  small  sales  will  reduce 
total  profits.  Again,  it  may  be  that  an  increase 
in  the  quantity  of  service  performed  or  goods 
produced  will  by  no  means  demand  a  propor- 
tional outlay.  In  that  case  the  monopoly  may 
best  subserve  its  own  interests  by  keeping' prices 
low.  Thus  a  street  railway  company  can  gen- 
erally double  the  number  of  passengers  carried 
without  doubling  the  cost  of  service;  and  may 
therefore  find  it  profitable  to  lower  fares.  See 
Tbusts;  Patent;  Copyright. 

Bibliogbaphy.  The  most  satisfactory'  recent 
general  discussion  of  monopoly  is  Ely's  Monop- 
olies and  Trusts  (New  York,  1900).  For  a 
concise  discussion  of  monopoly  price,  consult 
Marshall,  Principles  of  Economics  (London, 
1895),  pp.  632-547.  A  scholarly  discussion  of  the 
theory  of  monopoly  is  Schilffle's  Theorie  der 
ausschliessenden  Ahsatzverhdltnisse  (Tubingen, 
1867).  An  interesting  discussion  of  a  fiscal  mo- 
nopoly is  Wicksett,  Studien  iiher  das  oster- 
reichisohe  Ta haksmonopol  ( Stuttgart,  1 897 ) .  Con- 
sult, also.  King,  "Alcohol  Monopoly  in  Switzer- 
land," Economic  Review  (1893),  and  Raffalovich. 
"State  Monopoly  of  Spirits  in  Russia,"  Journal 
of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London  ( 1901 ) .  See 
bibliography  under  article  Trusts. 

MONOPTEBAL  (from  Lat.  monopteros.  from 
Gk.  fwp^Ttpos,  having  a  single  row  of  columns, 
from  fi69oSj  monos,  single  -|-  rrtpSp,  pteron, 
wing,  row  of  columns).  A  circular  building  in 
Gneco-Roman  architecture,  in  which  a  single  row 
of  columns  surrounds  the  central  space  or  cells 
and  carries  the  roof.  Such  are  the  temple  of 
Vesta  at  Rome  and  that  at  Tivoli. 

HON^OTHEISM  (from  Gk.  ^wf,  monos, 
single  -f  ^f,  theos,  god).  The  belief  that  there 
is  but  one  God,  in  distinction  from  polytheism, 
belief  in  many  gods.  It  has  been  held  that 
monotheism  was  a  primitive  belief,  and  there 
are  many  references  to  the  pure  primitive  belief 
in  one  God.  Not  only  was  this  assumed  in  the 
case  of  the  Hebrews,  who  with  the  Mohamme- 
dans and  Christians  are  the  best  type  of  mono- 
theists,  but  even  in  the  case  of  India  the  Hindus 
in  the  works  of  early  Sanskrit  scholars  are 
credited  with  having  had  and  lost  a  primitive 
monotheism.  The  opposite  view  has  been  strong- 
ly enforced  in  the  last  decades  by  the  work  of 
historians,  anthropologists,  and  philologists.  Thus 
the  Hebrews  became  monotheists  only  after  re- 
jecting, in  the  course  of  a  long  struggle,  an  ear- 
lier belief  in  gods  of  stone,  divine  animals,  and 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONOTHEISM. 


785 


MONKAD. 


gods  of  other  peoples;  traces  of  this  belief  being 
still  discoverable  in  the  Bible  itself,  as  well  as 
historically  proved  by  what  we  now  know  of  ear- 
lier religious  affinities  of  the  Hebrews.  So,  too, 
Mohammedanism  was  first  of  all  a  protest  against 
theriolatry,  litholatry,  and  other  forms  of  poly- 
theism. In  India^  monotheism  was  an  evolution 
from  pantheism,  when  it  was  not  directly  bor- 
rowed from  Mohammedanism  or  Christianity,  as 
is  the  case  with  most  of  the  reforming  sects  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Zoroas- 
trianism  was  also  essentially  a  monotheistic  re- 
ligion, based  upon  an  earlier  polytheism ;  though 
its  dualistic  nature,  expressed  by  the  conflict  be- 
tween good  and  evil,  and  its  retention  of  the 
older  gods  as  great  spirits,  cause  it  to  be  popu- 
larly regarded  as  polytheistic.  Thus  also  the 
Egyptians  worked  out  from  a  chaos  of  hetero- 
geneous gods  the  idea  of  one  only  real  God;  and 
in  the  highest  expression  of  their  religion  they 
may  be  said  to  be  monotheistic,  though  this 
monotheism  is  rather  a  pantheistic  expression  of 
monotheism.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  Chris- 
tianity is  not  monotheism;  that  no  trinitarian- 
ism  can  be  a  pure  monotheism,  but  must  be  a 
tritheism — that  is,  a  belief  in  three  gods. 
Two  objections  to  this  view  may  be  pointed 
out.  In  the  first  place,  the  corresponding  trini- 
tarianism  of  India  in  no  wise  invalidates  the 
belief  in  the  unitarian  pantheistic  God,  of  which 
the  three-in-one  are  merely  different  expressions. 
Secondly,  the  earliest  creed  of  Christianity,  as 
given  in  I.  Cor.  viii.  4  f.,  is  clearly  monothe- 
istic. Finally,  it  must  be  observed  that  neither 
in  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  nor  in  its 
accepted  significance  is  there  any  objection  to 
the  view  that  monotheism  may  be  a  form  of 
pantheism.  The  nature  of  Grod,  whether  monistic 
or  part  of  a  dualistic  system,  is  not  deducible 
from  the  definition,  though,  doubtless,  in  the 
ordinary  use  of  the  word,  it  is  understood  that 
the  God  of  monotheism  is  a  creative  intelligent 
spirit  governing  the  universe  and  not  one  iden- 
tical with  it. 

MONOTH'^LITISM,  more  correctly  MONO- 
THELETISM  (from  Lat.  monothelitcB,  from  Gk. 
fupodeXijTai,  monotheUtaiy  from  ftAvoSy  monoa, 
single  +  ^eXiyri^f,  theUtea,  one  who  wills,  from 
Bikeiv,  thelein,  to  will ) .  The  name  of  a  seventh- 
century  heresy  which  asserted  the  existence  of 
one  will  in  Christ  instead  of  two.  It  was  a 
direct  outgrowth  of  the  Monophysite  heresy  (see 
MoNOPH YSITES ) ,  for  if  Christ  had  only  one 
nature,  of  course  He  had  also  only  one  will. 
Orthodoxy,  however,  drew  the  logical  conclusion 
from  its  two-naturo  doctrine,  which  had  been 
formulated  at  Chalcedon  (451),  and  maintained 
that  there  were  two  wills  in  Christ,  correspond- 
ing to  His  divine  and  human  natures  respectively. 
The  controversy  over  this  question  involved  most 
of  the  Eastern  Church,  and  its  influence  was  felt 
in  Rome.  The  Emperor  Heraclius  (610-641), 
threatened  by  the  advances  of  Mohammedanism 
and  by  danger  from  the  Persians,  strove  to 
reunite  his  (Christian  subjects,  who  had  been 
sadly  divided  over  the  Monophysite  question  and 
had  formed  schismatic  churches,  e.g.  Armenians, 
Jacobites,  etc.  Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  Cyrus,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  were 
workincr  along  the  same  line,  with  some  measure 
of  success,  by  interpreting  the  decree  of  Chalce- 
don in  such  a  way  as  to  persuade  the  Mono- 
physites    to   accept   it.        But   a    monk   named 


Sophronius,  who  visited  Alexandria  and  learned 
what  was  going  on,  denounced  the  movement  as 
a  relapse  into  the  heresy  of  Apollinaris,  whose 
views  had  long  since  been  condemned.  (See 
Apollinabis.)  Pope  Honorius  tried  to  allay 
this  strife  by  seeking  to  quiet  Sophronius,  thus 
taking  a  dangerously  temporizing  stand.  But 
Sophronius  was  soon  elevated  to  the  Patriarchate 
of  Jerusalem  (634),  and  his  continued  opposition 
to  the  measures  of  Sergius  and  Heraclius  was 
now  more  serious.  The  Western  Church,  as  a 
whole,  was  logical  enough  to  share  the  views  of 
Sophronius.  This  appeared  in  the  action  of  a 
Roman  synod  in  640,  which  asserted  the  doctrine 
of  the  two  wills.  After  some  thirty  years  the  East- 
ern Church  was  brought  to  the  same  position,  and 
the  Sixth  Ecumenical  Council  (Constantinople, 
680)  adopted  dyothelitism  as  a  Catholic  dogma. 
The  same  Coimcil  condemned  the  monothelite 
leaders,  Sergius  and  Cyrus,  and  along  with  them 
Pope  Hononus,  for  not  promptly  suppressing  the 
incipient  heresy.  This  properly  ends  the  Christo- 
logical  controversies  which  for  three  hundred 
years  had  agitated  the  Church.  Monothelitism 
found  a  home  among  the  Maronites  of  Mount 
Lebanon,  and  their  name  was  long  synonymous 
in  the  East  >^ith  Monothelites.  In  the  twelfth 
century  the  Maronites  entered  the  Roman  com- 
munion. 

Consult:    Hefele,  History  of  the  Councils,  vol. 

V.  (Edinburgh,  1896)  ;  Hamack,  History  of 
Dogmay  vol.  iv.  (London,  1898)  ;  Fisher,  History 
of  Christian  Doctrine  (New  York,  1896)  ;  Gibbon, 
Roman  Empire,  chap.  47  (ed.  by  J.  B.  Bury,  Lon- 
don, 1896-1900)  ;  Smith  and  Wace,  Dictionary  of 
Christian  Biography,  article  "Person  of  Christ." 

MON'OTBEME  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
fiAvos,  monos,  single  -f  rp^fuiy  tr^ma,  perfora- 
tion). A  mammal  of  the  order  Monotremata, 
which  is  coextensive  with  the  sub-class  Proto- 
theria,  and  embraces  the  low  egg-laying  mam- 
mals (Omithodelphia)  duckbill  and  echidna 
(qq.v.).  The  term  connotes  the  fact  that  in  the 
reproductive  organs  of  this  group  the  orifices  of 
the  urinary  canal,  the  intestinal  canal,  and  the 
generative  canal,  open,  as  in  birds,  into  a  com- 
mon cloaca.  See  Protothebia.  For  fossil  forms, 
see  ^Mammalia. 

MONdVAB,  m6-n6'var.  A  town  of  South- 
eastern Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Alicante,  sit- 
uated among  the  mountains,  18  miles  northwest 
of  Alicante  (Map:  Spain,  E  3).  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  good  buildings,  a  large  and  handsome 
church,  and  a  casino  with  a  beautiful  park. 
Great  quantities  of  wine  are  produced  in  the 
vicinity,  and  the  town  manufactures  woolen 
and  cotton  textiles,  leather,  soap,  and  spirits.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  quarries  of  marble,  gypsum, 
and  building  stone.    Population,  in  1900,  10,573. 

MONBAD,  mdn'rftt,  Ditlev  Gothard  (1811- 
87).  A  Danish  statesman  and  ecclesiastic,  bom 
in  Copenhagen.  He  studied  theology  and  Oriental 
philology  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  spent 
a  year  in  Paris,  and  after  the  death  of  Frederick 

VI.  entered  political  journalism  as  author  of 
Flyvende  politiske  Breve  (1840-42).  In  1846  he 
had  settled  as  pastor  of  a  parish  in  Laaland,  but 
he  was  active  in  the  rising  of  1848,  and  was 
Minister  of  Education  in  the  March  Ministry  of 
that  year.  With  political  success  came  ad- 
vancement in  the  Church?  but  in  1854,  because 
of  his  continued  opposition  to  Oersted's  ministry, 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KONBAD. 


736 


MONBOE. 


he  was  removed  ircym  his  see  of  Laaland.  In 
Hall's  Cabinet  Monrad  held  various  posts  in  the 
Department  of  Education,  and  became  Minister 
once  more  in  May,  1859.  Hall  resigned  at  the 
end  of  1863.  Monrad  formed  a  new  Cabinet,  in 
which  he  took  the  portfolio  of  finance.  But  the 
war  with  Prussia  forced  him  from  power 
(1864),  and  with  his  family  he  went  to 
New  Zealand  in  the  following  year,  not  to 
return  until  1869,  when  his  property  had  been 
destroyed  in  the  Maori  campaigns.  He  received 
his  old  bishopric  in  1871,  and  from  1882  to  1886 
was  member  of  the  Danish  Parliament.  Consult 
the  biography  by  Graae  (Copenhagen,  1887). 

MONBEALE,  m6n'rA-anft.  A  city  in  the 
Province  of  Palermo,  Sicily,  five  miles  southwest 
of  Palermo,  with  which  it  has  electric  railway 
connection  (Map:  Italy,  H  9).  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop.  Its  cathedral,  dating  from  the 
twelfth  century,  is  a  fine  example  of  the  Norman- 
Sicilian  style.  The  bronze  doors  are  beautifully 
ornamented,  and  the  walls  are  almost  completely 
covered  with  mosaics  representing  biblical  scenes. 
The  Benedictine  monastery,  with  its  beautiful 
cloisters,  is  now  used  as  a  school  building,  and 
has  a  library  of  17,000  volumes.  There  is  a 
trade  in  oil,  com,  fruit,  and  almonds.  Popula- 
tion (commune),  in  1881,  19,543;  in  1901,  23,778. 

HONBO;  mtin-ro^,  Alexander  (Primus) 
(1697-1767).  An  eminent  Scotch  anatomist,  bom 
in  London.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  then  studied  under  Cheselden  and 
Boerhaave.  In  1720  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  anatomy  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
which  had  up  to  that  time  offered  no  courses  in 
the  subject.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  in  1781.  Consult  the  memoir  bv  his 
son,  Dr.  Donald  Monro,  prefixed  to  his  Works 
(Edinburgh,  1781). 

HONBO,  Alexander  (Secundus)  (1733-1817). 
A  Scotch  anatomist;  younger  son  of  Alexander 
Monro  (Primus)  (q.v.),  whom,  in  1764,  he  suc- 
ceeded as  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  His  most  important  work  is  his 
Observations  on  the  Structure  and  Functions  of 
the  Nervous  System  (1783),  in  which  he  describes 
the  *  foramen  of  Monro.* 

HONBOE^  A  city  and  the  parish  seat  of 
Ouachita  Parish,  La.,  76  miles  west  of  Vicks- 
burg,  Miss.;  on  the  Ouachita  River,  and  on  the 
Queen  and  Crescent  Route,  Saint  Louis,  Iron 
Mountain,  and  Southern,  and  other  railroads 
(Map:  Louisiana,  D  1).  The  Federal  Govern- 
ment building  is  a  prominent  structure  of  the 
city.  A  considerable  cotton  trade  is  carried  on, 
and  there  are  large  cotton  compresses,  cotton- 
seed-oil mills,  and  extensive  manufactures  of 
various  lumber  products,  bricks,  etc.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  its  water-works  and  electric- 
light  plant.  Population,  1900,  6428;  1906  (local 
est.),  10,000. 

MONBOE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Monroe  County,  Mich.,  35  miles  south-southwest 
of  Detroit;  on  the  Raisin  River,  and  the  Michigan 
Central,  the  Pere  Marquette,  the  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern,  and  the  Detroit  and  Toledo 
Shore  Line  railroads  (Map:  Michigan,  F  7).  It 
lias  an  orphan  asylum  and  a  home  for  the  aged, 
a  public  library  with  6000  volumes,  Saint  Mary's 
Academy,  a  fine  court-house,  and  an  armory  and 
opera  house  that  cost  $30,000.    In  Monroe  is  the 


mother  house  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary,  who  owti  valuable  property  here. 
The  city  is  in  a  fertile  region  and  is  an  important 
depot  for  shipment  of  grain  and  fruit.  It  has 
extensive"  nurseries,  fisheries,  and,  among  the  in- 
dustrial plants,  stove  and  furnace  works,  flour, 
lumber,  and  paper  mills,  canning  factories,  agri- 
cultural implement  works,  furniture  factories, 
board  mills,  box  factory,  etc.  The  government  is 
administered  under  a  charter  of  1895,  which  pro- 
vides for  a  mayor,  annually  elected,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  Population,  in  1900,  5043;  in 
1904,  6128. 

Monroe  was  settled  as  'Frenchtown*  by  a  com- 
pany of  Canadians  in  1784,  and  received  its 
present  name,  in  honor  of  James  Monroe,  in 
1815.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  the  River 
Raisin,  January  22-23,  1813,  in  which  397  of  the 
American  force  were  killed  and  537  captured, 
only  33  escaping,  while  of  the  British,  24  were 
killed  and  158  woimded.  A  number  of  the  pris- 
oners wounded  and  unable  to  march  were  left 
here  under  inadequate  protection,  and  were  sub- 
sequently massacred  by  the  Indians.  This  gave 
rise  to  the  battle-cry,  "Remember  the  River 
Raisin."  Monroe  was  chartered  as  a  citv  in 
1836. 

MONBOE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Union  County,  N.  C,  150  miles  southwest  of 
Raleigh;  on  the  Seainmrd  Air  Line  Railroad 
(Map:  North  Carolina,  B  3).  It  has  gold  mines 
of  some  value,  and  the  manufactories  include  large 
cotton  and  knitting  mills  and  buggy  factory. 
Population,  1900,  2427;  1906  (local  cen.),  4025. 

MONBOE.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Green  County,  Wis.,  37  miles  south  by  west  of 
Madison;  on  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  railroads  (Map: 
Wisconsin,  D  6).  It  has  manufactures  of  con- 
densed milk,  cheese,  lumber,  carriages,  safe  pro- 
tections, foundry  and  machine-shop  products, 
boilers,  etc.,  and  enjoys  considerable  trade  in  the 
products  of  the  adjacent  region,  which  is  inter- 
ested chiefly  in  farming,  stock-raising,  and  dairy- 
ing. The  city  maintains  a  public  library  with 
about  5000  volumes.  Monroe  was  incorporated  as 
a  village  in  1859,  and  in  1882  was  chartered  as  a 
city.    Population,  in  1900,  3927;  in  1905,  4269. 

MONBOE,  Fort.    See  Fobt  Monroe. 

MONBOE,  James  (1758-1831).  The  fifth 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  was  bom  in 
Westmoreland  County,  Va.,  April  28,  1758; 
and  was  sent  to  W'illiam  and  Mary  CJollege  to  be 
educated,  but  his  studies  were  soon  interrupted 
by  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  W^ar,  when 
he  left  college  and  enlisted  in  the  American  army. 
He  joined  a  Virginia  regiment  near  New  York  in 
1776  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and  took  part 
in  the  battles  of  Harlem  Heights,  White  Plains, 
and  Trenton,  in  the  last  of  which  he  was 
wounded.  During  the  campaigns  of  1777-78  he 
served  on  the  staff  of  the  Earl  of  Stirling 
(William  Alexander),  taking  part  in  the  battles 
of  Brandywine,  (Sermantown,  and  Monmouth. 
Although  his  services  were  highly  commended  by 
the  Commander-in-Chief,  Monroe  was  disap- 
pointed in  the  way  in  which  they  were  rewarded, 
and  his  career  in  the  army  afiir  1778  was  un- 
important. It  was  at  this  time  that  he  formed 
an  acquaintance  with  Jefferson,  who  was  then 
(Governor  of  Virginia,  and  the  event  marks  the 
beginning  of  an  intimacy  that  lasted  during  the 


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remainder  of  their  lives  and  was  destined  to  have 
a  decisive  influence  upon  the  career  of  Monroe. 
In  1782,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  he  was  elected 
to  a  seat  in  the  Legislature  of  Virginia,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Virginia  Executive  Council.  His 
next  legislative  service  was  in  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation,  of  which  he  was  an  influential 
member  for  three  successive  terms  from  1783  to 
1786.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  delibera- 
tions upon  the  vital  questions  of  the  period:  the 
trade  relations  of  the  States,  the  navigation  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  the  government  of  the  west- 
■em  territory.  To  inform  himself  of  conditions 
in  the  West,  he  twice  crossed  the  Alleghanies, 
-and  the  informatipn  which  he  acquired  had  a 
marked  influence  u{>on  his  course  in  Congress. 
Upon  his  retirement  from  Congress  in  1786  he 
was  again  chosen  to  a  seat  in  the  Legislature, 
-and  in  1788  became  a  member  of  the  State  con- 
vention called  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution. 
In  this  body  he  supported  Patrick  Henry  in  his 
futile  opposition  to  the  Constitution,  making 
several  lengthy  arguments  against  ratification.  In 
1790  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  where  he  served  until  1794.  In  the  Sen- 
ate he  acted  with  the  Anti-Federalists,  opposing 
vigorously  the  Administration  of  Washington.  He 
was  nevertheless,  in  1794,  appointed  Minister  to 
France  as  the  successor  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  the 
probable  explanation  of  the  appointment  being  his 
friendly  attitude  toward  France  and  the  desire 
of  the  President  to  offset  the  appointment  of 
Jay,  a  stanch  Federalist,  as  Minister  to  Eng- 
land. He  arrived  in  France  just  after  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  and  was  received  by  the  Convention, 
August  15,  1794.  In  an  address  to  the  Conven- 
tion he  used  expressions  which,  in  view  of 
the  strained  relations  between  the  United  States 
and  France,  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
Administration,  and  in  other  respects  his  course 
did  not  entirely  commend  itself  to  the  Govern- 
ment. He  was  accordingly  recalled  in  1796,  and 
Charles  C.  Pinckney  was  appointed  as  his  suc- 
cessor. Upon  his  return  the  reasons  and  pro- 
priety of  his  recall  became  the  subject  of  a 
spirited  controversy  and  caused  party  feeling  to 
run  high.  For  a  time  Monroe  retired  to  private 
life,  from  which  he  was  called  to  assume  the 
Governorship  of  Virginia  in  1799,  a  position 
which  he  held  imtil  1802.  The  accession  of  Jef- 
ferson to  the  Presidency  in  1801  insured  Monroe's 
return  to  national  politics,  and  in  the  following 
^'ear  he  was  again  sent  to  France  as  an  additional 
plenipotentiary  to  aid  Robert  R.  Livingston  in 
the  negotiations  already  begun  for  the  purchase 
of  New  Orleans  and  a  district  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  at  the  same  time  was  in- 
structed to  negotiate  with  Spain  for  the  purchase 
of  the  Floridas.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  by  which  France  sold  Louisiana  to  the 
United  States  (1803)  Monroe  was  sent  as  Min- 
ister to  England  and  subsequently  to  Spain.  A 
treaty  was  finally  concluded  with  England,  but, 
not  being  satisfactory  to  the  President  on  the 
question  of  impressment  and  indemnity,  it  was 
never  laid  before  the  Senate.  The  negotiations 
with  Spain  for  the  cession  of  the  Floridas  were 
likewise  unsuccessful.  In  1807  Monroe  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  his  course  was  again  the 
subject  of  controversy.  Again  he  served  in  the 
Virginia  Assembly,  and  in  1811  was  chosen  a 
second  time  Governor  of  Virginia,  but  held  the 
office  only  a  short  time,  being  called  to  the  Cabi- 


net of  President  Madison  as  Secretary  of  State  in 
the  same  year.  He  held  this  office  until  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  Presidency  in  1817,  and  for  a  time  in 
1814  and  1815  also  acted  as  Secretary  of  War. 
As  head  of  the  War  Department  he  took  pre- 
cautions for  the  defense  of  W^ashington  against 
an  attack  from  the  British  forces,  and  won  popu- 
larity by  the  vigorous  measures  which  he  adopt- 
ed in  the  prosecution  of  military  operations.  In 
the  year  1816,  while  in  his  fifty-ninth  year,  he 
was  elected  President  of  the  United  States,  hav- 
ing received  183  electoral  votes,  against  34  cast 
for  the  Federalist  candidate,  Rufus  King.  Four 
years  later  he  was  reelected,  receiving  every 
vote  in  the  electoral  college  except  one.  This 
was  due  to  the  passing  of  the  Federalist  Party, 
or,  more  correctly,  to  the  breaking  down  of  party 
lines,  so  that  there  were  no  longer  Federalists 
or  Republicans.  The  principal  subjects  which  oc- 
cupied the  attention  of  the  Government  during 
the  eight  years  of  Monroe's  Administration  were 
the  defense  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  en- 
couragement of  internal  improvements,  the  Sem- 
inole War,  the  acquisition  of  Florida,  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise,  and  the  relations  with  Eu- 
rope in  regard  to  South  American  affairs,  which 
resulted  in  the  annunciation  of  the  permanent 
policy  of  the  Government  known  as  the  *Monroe 
Doctrine'  (q.v.).  Noteworthy  events  of  a  spec- 
tacular character  during  his  term  were  the  tour 
of  the  President  through  the  East  and  the  West, 
and  the  visit  of  Lafayette.  The  period  of  his  ad- 
ministration was  known  as  the  *era  of  good  feel- 
ing,* on  account  of  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
country  and  the  absence  of  party  strife.  Vast  in- 
ternal improvements  were  undertaken,  and  the 
westward  movement  of  the  population  was 
marked.  Five  new  States — ^Mississippi,  Illinois, 
Alabama,  Missouri,  and  Elaine — were  admitted  to 
the  Union. 

At  the  close  of  his  second  term  Monroe  re 
tired  to  private  life,  residing  in  Virginia  and  in 
New  York,  where  he  died  July  4,  1831.  During 
the  year  preceding  his  death  he  served  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  Constitutional  Convention, 
this  being  his  last  public  service. 

Monroe's  Writings  (New  York,  1898 — )  have 
been  edited  by  S.  M.  Hamilton,  librarian  of  the 
Department  of  State  in  Washington.  A  calendar 
of  his  Correspondence  was  published  in  Bulletin 
1^0.  2y  1893,  of  the  Bureau  of  Rolls  and  Library, 
State  Department.  A  biography  of  James  Mon- 
roe was  written  for  the  "American  Statesman 
Series,"  by  D.  C.  Gilman  (Boston,  1883;  2d  ed. 
1898) ,  in  the  apj>endix  to  which  is  a  bibliography 
of  ^lonroe  and  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

HONBOE  DOCTRINE.  The  term  applied  to 
the  policy  of  the  United  States  regarding  foreign 
interference  in  American  affairs.  It  takes  its 
name  from  President  Monroe,  who  in  his  message 
to  Congress  in  1823  first  gave  it  formal  announce- 
ment. It  is  sometimes  stated  as  the  corollary  of 
Washington's  policy  of  neutrality  toward  all 
European  affairs.  In  modern  conception  it  is 
the  policy  of  the  United  States  to  regard  any 
attempt  on  the  part  of  a  European  power  to  gain 
a  foothold  in  this  hemisphere  by  conquest,  or  to 
acquire  any  new  establishment  in  North  or  South 
America  as  an  act  hostile  to  the  United  States. 
Yet  it  does  not  contravene  the  right  of  any 
nation  to  enforce  indemnity  for  injuries  to  its 
subjects,  physical  or  financial,  but  applies  only 
to    territorial   aggression    by    foreign    powers. 


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whether  temporary  or  permanent.  The  concep- 
tion of  the  policy  is  one  of  gradual  growth, 
and  as  far  as  it  has  authority  in  international 
law  it  rests  upon  the  principle  of  the  right  of  a 
sovereign  State  to  protect  its  own  interests  from 
dangerous  aggression.  With  the  wide  and  com- 
plex development  of  modem  American  interests, 
appeal  to  this  argument  is  strengthened,  yet  the 
assertion  of  the  doctrine  in  its  extreme  form  is 
always  attended  with  the  danger  of  grave  inter- 
national complications. 

The  'doctrine'  is  based  upon  two  passages  in 
Monroe's  message,  and  has  a  twofold  relation — 
a  non-colonization  and  a  non-intervention  fea- 
ture. The  first  passage  referred  to  the  boundary 
dispute  in  the  Northwest,  then  in  issue  between 
Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States, 
Russia  having  assumed  to  exclude  foreigners 
from  disputed  territory  extending  to  the  fifty- 
first  parallel  of  latitude.  President  Monroe  said : 
"The  occasion  has  been  judged  proper  for  assert- 
ing as  a  principle  in  which  the  rights  and  inter- 
ests of  the  United  States  are  involved,  that  the 
American  continents,  by  the  free  and  independent 
conditions  which  they  have  assumed  and  main- 
tained, are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  sub- 
jects for  future  colonization  bv  any  European 
powers."  Both  the  conditions  which  inspired  the 
passage  and  its  language  prove  that  it  related  to 
an  acquisition  of  territory  by  original  occupation 
or  settlement ;  that  it  did  not  include  acquisition 
by  gift,  purchase,  or  like  voluntary  transfer,  or 
by  conquest.  Further,  while  it  did  not  strictly 
commit  the  United  States  to  the  application  of 
the  principle  to  territory  other  than  that  imme- 
diately in  dispute  in  the  Northwest,  in  prospec- 
tive consideration  it  involved  tlie  vast  tracts  of 
unclaimed  land  on  the  continent  still  unexplored 
and  unoccupied,  upon  which  the  establishment 
of  a  European  colony  with  the  exclusive  trade 
policies  then  professed  by  all  Continental  govern- 
ments could  not  fail  to  prejudice  the  trade  rela- 
tions of  the  United  States.  The  controversy  in 
question  was  settled  by  the  treaty  of  1825  with 
Russia,  but  the  doctrine  formulated  was  again 
asserted  in  1826  by  President  J.  Q.  Adams  in 
the  proposed  instructions  of  the  United  States 
delegates  to  the  Panama  Congress  (q.v.),  its 
application,  however,  being  limited  to  its  adop- 
tion by  each  separate  State  as  a  protection 
of  the  territory  claimed  by  that  State,  and 
not  committing  the  powers  concerned  as  a  body 
to  "a  joint  resistance  against  any  future 
attempt  to  plant  a  colony."  The  question,  how- 
ever, was  not  considered  by  the  Panama  Con- 
gress, owing  to  the  non-arVival  of  the  United 
States  delegates,  and  this  phase  of  the  doctrine 
remained  in  abeyance  for  twenty  years. 

The  second  part  of  the  Monroe  message  related 
to  the  proposed  action  of  the  Holy  Alliance  as 
announced  by  the  resolutions  of  the  Congress  of 
Verona  (November,  1822),  directed  against  the 
system  of  representative  government  in  Europe, 
and  aiming  at  the  reimposition  of  the  Spanish 
yoke  upon  the  South  American  colonies,  then  in 
a  state  of  revolt,  the  independence  of  which  the 
United  States  had  already  recognized.  This  ac- 
tion of  the  Powers  threatened  English  commercial 
interests  already  established  with  these  States, 
and  England  promptly  proposed  to  the  United 
States  a  joint  declaration  by  the  two  govern- 
ments against  their  action;  but  without  awaiting 
a   reply   from   this  Government,   on   October   9, 


1823,  she  gave  notice  to  the  French  Ambassador 
of  her  unfriendly  attitude.  This,  followed  by 
President  Monroe's  declaration,  summarily 
checked  the  Powers.  **VVe  owe  it,  therefore,"  said 
Monroe,  "to  candor  and  the  amicable  relations 
existing  between  the  United  States  and  these 
Powers  to  declare  that  we  should  consider  any 
attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their  system  to 
any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to 
our  peace  and  safety.  With  the  existing  colonies 
and  dependencies  of  any  European  Power  we  have 
not  interfered  nor  shall  we  interfere.  But  with  the 
governments  who  have  declared  their  indepen- 
dence and  manifested  it,  and  whose  independence 
we  have  on  great  consideration  and  just  prin- 
ciples acknowledged,  we  could  not  view  any 
interposition  for  the  purpose  of  oppressing  them, 
or  in  any  other  manner  controlling  their  destiny, 
than  as  a  manifestation  of  an  imfriendly  dispo- 
sition toward  the  United  States."  While  Mon- 
roe's declaration  was  intended  to  meet  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  time,  the  principle  was  no  novel 
one,  but  rather  the  embodiment  of  an  idea  that 
had  developed  with  the  growth  of  nationality, 
and  had  been  expressed  in  various  forms  in  pre- 
vious papers  and  correspondence  of  Monroe, 
Adams,  and  Jefferson.  Two  months  before  the 
publication  of  the  message  Jefferson  had  written : 
"Our  first  and  fundamental  maxim  should  be 
never  to  entangle  ourselves  in  the  broils  of  Eu- 
rope. Our  second,  never  to  suffer  Europe  to 
intermeddle  with  Cis-Atlantic  affairs."  The 
declaration,  having  accomplished  its  purpose, 
practically  disappeared  in  its  application  with 
respect  to  the  Holy  Alliance,  and  the  development 
of  the  policy  for  the  next  generation  was  the  out- 
g^o^\'th  of  the  colonization  feature. 

In  1846  President  Polk  took  the  first  step 
toward  extension  of  the  principle.  The  north- 
west boundary  was  again  in  issue,  this  time  with 
Great  Britain,  and  the  Adntinistration  was  com- 
mitted to  the  annexation  of  Texas.  ''It  should 
be  distinctly  announced  to  the  world,"  said 
Polk,  "as  our  settled  policy,  that  no  future  Euro- 
pean colony  or  dominion  shall  with  our  consent 
be  planted  or  established  in  any  part  of  the 
North  American  continent."  The  ooctrine  was 
thus  made  to  include  acquisition  by  voluntary 
transfer  or  conquest  of  occupied  territory,  and 
a  virtual  protectorate  over  other  American  States 
in  its  application  was  announced,  though  limited 
to  North  America,  Again  in  1848,  when  the 
question  of  the  occupation  of  Yucatan  arose, 
Polk  issued  a  second  manifesto  against  the 
acquisition  of  such  territory  by  voluntary  trans- 
fer or  cession.  In  1853,  when  the  Cuban  annexa- 
tion discussion  was  at  its  height,  a  resolution 
was  introduced  into  the  Senate  combining  the 
doctrines  of  Monroe  and  Polk;  but  it  failed  of 
passage,  and  the  doctrine  has  never  received  ex- 
press legislative  sanction  either  by  resolution  or 
statute.  It  is  therefore  not  a  part  of  the 
law  of  the  land,  though  with  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  interests  of  the  United  States 
the  policy  in  relation  to  both  North  and  South 
America  has  been  generally  accepted  by  both 
political  parties  and  the  people,  and  its  prin- 
ciples have  been  given  repeated  recognition  dur- 
ing the  past  half  century  in  our  foreign  policy. 
The  interference  of  the  United  States  in  Mexico, 
resulting  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  in 
1866,  and  President  Cleveland's  declaration  to 
Great  Britain  in  connection  with  the  Venezuelan 


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M0NSIET7B. 


boundary  dispute  in  1895,  are  the  notable  exam- 
ples of  such  recognition.  Notwithstanding  the 
protests  of  the  United  States  Government, 
during  the  progress  of  the  Civil  War,  the  French 
had  secured  a  foothold  in  Mexico  and  attempted 
to  install  Maximilian,  an  Austrian  prince,  on  the 
Mexican  throne.  With  the  conclusion  of  peace 
a  formal  demand  for  withdrawal  was  made,  and 
General  Sherman  was  sent  to  the  Mexican  frontier 
with  a  large  force.  After  some  delay  in  negotia- 
tions the  French  Emperor  withdrew  his  troops, 
and  Maximilian  was  left  to  his-  fate.  In  the 
Venezuelan  affair,  representations  having  been 
made  by  our  Government  that  the  action  of  Great 
Britain  was  a  violation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
the  latter  yielded  to  the  suggestion  of  the  United 
States  and  consented  to  an  arbitration,  thus 
effecting  an  amicable  settlement. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  is  sometimes  held  to  com- 
mit the  United  States  to  a  protectorate  over 
other  American  States,  requiring  this  country 
to  espouse  their  quarrels  though  unable  to  con- 
trol their  actions.  It  has  never  been  within  its 
intent  to  forbid  European  nations  to  employ  force 
in  the  settlement  of  their  just  demands  upon  this 
continent.  In  1842  Great  Britain  blockaded  San 
Juan  de  Nicaragua;  in  1851  she  laid  an  em- 
bargo on  the  western  coast  of  Salvador,  in  1894 
she  occupied  the  Nicaraguan  port  of  Corinto, 
and  in  1903  the  combined  German  and  English 
fleets  maintained  a  blockade  of  the  Venezuelan 
coast  to  secure  the  collection  of  their  claims  for 
indemnity.  The  requirements  of  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine as  a  national  policy  were  fully  met  with 
the  assurance  to  the  United  States  of  good  faith 
on  the  part  of  the  Powers  concerned  and  that  no 
Venezuelan  territory  would  be  taken  in  settle- 
ment of  the  indemnity.  While  the  building  of  an 
interoceanic  canal  and  the  position  which  the 
United  States  has  had  as  a  world  power  since 
the  close  of  the  war  with  Spain  have  rendered  the 
problem  attending  the  application  of  the  doctrine 
more  complex,  the  increased  respect  which  it  has 
insured  our  demands  has  greatly  decreased  the 
difficulties  of  its  enforcement. 

Consult:  Henderson,  American  Diplomatic 
Queationa  (New  York,  1901);  Edgington,  The 
Monroe  Doctrine  (Boston,  1904);  Kasson,  Evo- 
lution and  History  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (Bos- 
ton, 1904) ;  and  International  Law.  For  Euro- 
pean views  of  this  Doctrine,  consult  Bar  rat  Mont- 
ferrat,  De  Monroe  d  Rooaevelt  (Paris,  1905),  and 
Petoft,  La  Doctrine  de  Monroe  (Paris,  1900). 

MONB(KyiA.  The  capital  of  the  negro  Re- 
public of  Liberia,  West  Africa,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Paul  River,  on  the  coast 
(Map:  Africa,  C  4).  It  has  an  unhealthful 
climate.  Its  exports  are  palm  oil  and  kernels, 
dyewoods,  and  rubber.     Population,  about  6000. 

MONSy  mONs.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Hainault,  Belgium,  situated  on  the  Trouille, 
about  35  miles  southwest  of  Brussels  (Map:  Bel- 
gium, B  4).  It  was  formerly  encircled  by  a  line 
of  fortifications.  Their  site  is  now  occupied  by 
promenades.  The  most  interesting  building  in 
Mons  is  the  late-Gothic  Cathedral  of  Saint  Wal- 
trudis  (1450-1589),  having  a  well-proportioned 
interior  decorated  with  reliefs  and  stained-glass 
windows.  The  HOtel  de  Ville  is  a  late-Gothic 
building  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with  a  facade 
adorned  with  statuettes  and  a  baroque  tower. 
The  educational  institutions  comprise  a  normal 


school,  a  seminary  for  teachers,  a  fine  library, 
and  an  archsological  museum  and  picture  gal- 
lery. Mons  lies  in  one  of  the  most  important 
coal-mining  districts  of  Belgium,  known  as  Bo- 
rinage,  and  manufactures  woolen  and  cotton 
goods  and  iron  products.  The  trade,  mostly  in 
grain  and  coal,  is  facilitated  by  the  Canal  de 
Cond€,  which  connects  Mons  with  the  Scheldt. 

Mons  is  believed  to  occupy  the  site  of  a  Roman 
castrum  built  by  Julius  Csesar.  It  attained  some 
importance  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  owed  not  a 
little  of  its  prosperity  to  Baldwin  VI.,  Count  of 
Flanders,  later  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  from 
whom  it  received  a  charter  in  1200.  It  was 
repeatedly  taken  during  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV, 
Population,  in  1900,  25,483;    1906,  27,147. 

MONS,  or  Talaino.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
unhealthy  delta  regions  of  the  rivers  Irrawaddy, 
Sittong,  and  Salwen  in  Indo-China.  They  con- 
sider themselves  the  aborigines  of  the  whole  of 
Lower  Burma.  Their  former  habitat  is  now 
largely  occupied  by  Burmese-Mon  half-breeds. 
They  are  probably  one  of  the  eight  groups  of 
aborigines  of  Indo-China.  Their  language,  which 
is  of  the  monosyllabic  type,  seems  to  belong  in 
the  same  class  with  the  Khmer,  and  perhaps  the 
Khasia. 

MONSEIGNEUB,  mON's&'nySr'  (Fr.,  my 
lord,  plural  meaaeigneurs) ,  Originally  a  French 
title  applicable  to  royal  or  Imperial  princes, 
cardinals,  archbishops,  and  bishops  of  France, 
and  accorded  in  courtesy  to  the  high  officers  of 
government  and  persons  generally  of  high  rank. 
The  title  was  not  applied  to  bishops  until  about 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  they 
acquired  it  by  concerted  action  in  addressing 
each  other  in  that  way.  Their  title  previously 
was  simply  monaieur.  A  law  of  the  French  Con- 
vention in  1801  interdicted  the  use  of  the  title 
for  bishops  and  archbishops,  and  required  them 
to  confine  their  signature  titles  and  their  ad- 
dresses to  each  other  to  the  words  citoyen 
or  monaieur.  Among  English-speaking  Roman 
Catholics  the  title  is  applied  in  its  Italian  form, 
monaignore,  not  only  to  bishops,  but  to  priests, 
who  are  distinguished  by  the  nonorary  appoint- 
ment as  domestic  prelates  to  the  Pope. 

MON^ELL,  John  Samuel  Bewley  (1811- 
75).  A  Church  of  England  divine  and  hymn- 
writer.  He  was  bom  in  Londonderry,  Ireland,. 
March  2,  1811;  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  B.A.,  1832.  He  was  ordained  priest. 
1835,  and  died  as  rector  of  Guildford,  England, 
April  9,  1875.  He  was  a  popular  hynm  writer; 
Julian's  Dictionary  of  Hymnology  gives  a  list 
of  seventy-three  of  his  hymns  which  are  in  cur- 
rent use.  One  of  his  prose  works,  Our  New  Vicar 
(1867;  13th  ed.  1890),  has  had  a  large  sale. 

MONSEBBAT,  mdn'sgr-rftt^  A  mountain  in 
Spain.     See  Montsebbat. 

MONSIEXTB,  me-sye'.  A  French  title  former- 
ly addressed  to  persons  of  medium  rank;  now 
universally  employed  in  French  by  all  gentlemen 
in  addressing  each  other.  It  is  also  used  as  a 
prefix  to  titles  of  rank,  and  as  a  form  of  respect 
m  mentioning  a  third  person.  In  the  Middle- 
Ages  the  title  was  given  to  saints,  and  as  a  pre- 
fix to  the  names  of  popes  and  of  members  of  the 
royal  family  when  alluded  to  in  the  third  person. 
Later  Monaieur^  used  without  a  proper  name, 
was  the  special  title  of  the  oldest  brother  of  the- 
French  King. 


Digitized  by 


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MONSIGNY. 


740 


M0N8TBANCE. 


MONSIGKY,  mON's^'nyy,  Piebbe  Alexandbe 
BE  (1729-1817).  A  French  composer,  born  at 
Fauquembergue,  Pasde-Calais.  He  received 
«ome  instruction  in  harmony  from  Gianotte,  in 
Paris,  and  in  1759  produced  his  first  opera,  Lea 
•aveux  indiscrete.  Its  success  was  immediate, 
and  Monsigny  followed  it  up  with  Le  oadi  dup4 
{ 1761 ) .  From  this  time  he  had  the  poet  Sedaine 
as  collaborator.  Together  they  wrote:  On  ne 
s'avise  jamais  de  tout  (1761)  ;  Le  rot  et  le  fer- 
mier  (1762)  ;  Rose  et  Colas  (1766)  ;  Le  d4serteur 
(1769) ;  and  Le  faucon  (1772).  After  F4li(D,  ou 
Venfant  trouvi  (1777;  text  by  Sedaine),  Mon- 
signy ceased  to  write. 

MONSOOK^  ( from  Fr.  monson,  moncorij  mous- 
son.  It.  monsoney  Sp.  monzdn,  Port.  moncSo,  from 
Malay  mUsim,  season,  year,  monsoon,  from  Hind. 
tnausinif  from  Ar.  mausim,  monsoon,  from  ma- 
sama,  to  mark).  In  general,  any  wind  or  sys- 
tem of  winds  that  changes  regularly  with  the 
months  or  seasons.  This  term  was  brought 
to  England  from  the  East  Indies  by  the  Portu- 
guese, Spanish,  and  Italian  navigators.  Its  use 
in  English  first  occurs  in  HakluyVs  Voyages,  In 
India,  Siam,  and  the  East  Indies  there  is  a  very 
regular  change  of  the  winds  with  the  seasons. 
They  blow  from  southwest  or  south  from  April  to 
October,  and  from  northeast  or  north  from  Oc- 
tober to  April.  The  existence  of  these  winds  in 
India  was  first  made  known  to  the  Europeans 
by  the  expeditions  of  Alexander  the  (ireat. 
Modern  knowledge  of  the  corresponding  winds 
in  Siam  and  the  Philippines  dates  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixteenth  century;  similar  regular 
seasonal  changes  in  the  wind  direction  charac- 
terize many  portions  of  the  globe,  so  that  Aus- 
tralia, Texas,  Brazil,  Africa,  and  Europe  haVe 
prevailing  winds  at  each  season  of  the  year; 
yet  the  contrast  is  nowhere  so  strongly  marked 
as  on  the  south  and  southeast  coasts  of  Asia  and 
the  neighboring  islands.  During  the  winter  sea- 
son the  cool  air  from  the  interior  of  the  conti- 
nent, flowing  outward  and  keeping  near  the 
ground,  becomes  a  north  or  northeast  wind  as  it 
flows  southward  over  the  China  Sea  into  the  Bay 
of  Bengal  and  into  the  Arabian  Sea.  This  wind 
«ven  passos  beyond  the  equator  to  latitude  10** 
S.,  by  which  time  it  has  been  deflected  into  a 
west  wind  and  flows  eastward  over  the  north- 
western coast  of  Australia.  South  of  this  zone 
of  north  winds  are  the  southeast  trade  winds  of 
the  Southern  Hemisphere.  By  reason  of  the 
change  from  winter  to  summer  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent becomes  heated;  consequently  the  north- 
east monsoon  ceases  and  a  strong  indraught  takes 
place,  and  eventually,  in  July  and  August,  the 
greater  part  of  the  air  over  the  south  Indian 
Ocean  responds  to  this  indraught,  so  that  from 
latitude  25°  S.  to  latitude  6°  S.  a  strong  south- 
east trade  wind  prevails.  Between  latitudes  6** 
south  and  5°  north  this  southeast  trade  crosses 
the  equator  as  a  southerly  wind,  and  turning 
toward  the  right  becomes  the  southwest  monsoon 
wind  of  India,  Siam,  and  the  adjacent  seas.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  considered  doubtful  whether  the 
winds  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  could  thus 
cross  the  equator  and  enter  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, but  the  monsoon  charts  published  daily 
for  many  years  by  the  Government  of  India 
leave  us  no  room  to  doubt  this  remarkable 
change.  In  the  midst  of  the  southeast  trades 
of  the  southern  Indian  Ocean  occur  violent 
typhoons,   which  move   from   the   neighborhood 


of  Java  and  Northern  Australia  westward  and 
away  from  the  equator,  turning  in  their  course 
before  they  reach  Madagascar  and  move  south- 
eastward until  they  are  lost.  These  typhoons 
generally  develop  in  the  South  Indian  Ocean 
when  the  northeast  monsoon  is  at  its  maximum 
in  India. 

The  southwest  monsoon  is  usually  accompanied 
by  rain  in  portions  of  India  and  in  the  adjacent 
East  Indies.  The  northeast  monsoon  brings  rain 
to  the  west  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  In  gen- 
eral, the  locations  of  the  rain  areas  vary  with 
the  direction  of  the  wind  in  accordance  with  the 
rule  that  a  wind  that  is  forced  to  ascend  over  a 
hilly  coast  brings  rain  to  it.  Through  this  inter- 
change between  the  seasons  of  northeast  and 
southwest  monsoons,  all  of  India  has  an  oppor- 
tunity of  being  well  watered  and  of  raising  an- 
nual crops  of  grain.  Nevertheless  it  occasionally 
happens  that  the  southwest  monsoon  fails  to 
bring  much  rain;  this  may  indeed  happen  for 
several  successive  years  (as  in  1895  and  1896, and 
again  in  1899),  by  reason  of  which  distressing 
famines  and  great  loss  of  life  are  caused.  Since 
1880  the  Government  meteorologists  of  India,  H. 
F.  Blanford  and  John  Eliot,  have  devoted  a  great 
deal  of  attention  to  methods  of  predicting  the 
probable  character  of  the  monsoon  rains.  These 
predictions  are  generally  issued  in  the  month  of 
April  and  relate  to  the  coming  months  of  July 
and  August.  A  remarkably  large  percentage  of 
these  predictions  have  been  successful,  but  the 
failure  of  the  forecasts  for  1899  indicated  that 
abnormal  conditions  prevailed  in  some  distant 
region,  and  has  greatly  stimulated  the  study  of 
the  relation  between  the  Indian  monsoon  and  the 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  over  the  whole  globe. 

The  general  statement  of  the  conditions  that 
bring  about  monsoons  is  discussed  at  length  by 
Prof.  William  Ferrel  in  A  Treatise  on  the  Winds 
(New  York,  1889).  He  has  emphasized  the  im- 
portant rule  that  monsoons  are  stronger  in  pro- 
portion as  the  heated  interior  land  surface  is 
elevated  above  sea-level.  On  the  coast  of  Ja- 
maica, West  Indies,  the  diurnal  sea  breeze  is 
remarkably  strong,  owing  to  the  steep  gradient 
of  the  land  as  it  ascends  from  sea-level  to  the 
tops  of  mountains.  In  India  the  southwest  mon- 
soon develops  on  a  grand  scale  because  of  the 
average  elevation  of  the  Himalayas,  which  stretch 
east  and  west  for  1300  miles  at  an  average  alti- 
tude of  18,000  feet,  and  also  because  of  the 
mountains  and  plateaus  behind  the  Himalayas 
in  the  interior  of  Asia.  The  monsoon,  like  the 
daily  land  and  sea  breeze,  depends  for  its  inten- 
sity ultimately  on  the  heat  produced  by  solar 
radiation.  Any  change  in  the  radiation  will  pro- 
duce corresponding  effects  on  the  monsoon.  E.  D. 
Archibald,  in  'Nature  (June  22,  1893,  London), 
has  maintained  that  there  are  systematic  mon- 
soon variations  parallel  to  the  variations  of  the 
spots  on  the  sun.  But  these  changes  are  barelv 
appreciable,  and  further  investigation  may  modi- 
fy his  results. 

MONS  SA'CEB  (Lat.,  Sacred  Mount).  A 
hill  near  Rome,  made  famous  by  the  secession 
thither  of  the  Plebs  in  B.C.  494.  It  is  conjectur- 
ally  identified  with  an  eminence  near  the  Ponte 
Nomentano,  about  three  miles  from  the  Porta  Pia. 

MONSTEB.     See  Monstbosity. 
MONSTRANCE   (OF.  monstrance,  from  ML 
monstrantia,  monstrance,  from  Lai.  manstrare. 


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MOKSTBANCE. 


741 


MONSTROSITY. 


to  show,  from  monatrum,  portent,  monster,  from 
fnonerCf  to  warn,  admonish),  or  Ostensobt.  The 
sacred  utensil  employed  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  the  con- 
secrated host  for  the  adoration  of  the  people,  as 
well  while  it  is  carried  in  procession  as  when  it 
is  exposed  upon  the  altar  on  occasions  of  special 
solemnity  and  prayer.  The  use  of  the  monstrance 
probably  dates  from  the  establishment  of  the  fes- 
tival of  Corpus  Christi  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  foot  or  stand  upon 
which  it  rests,  and  the  repository  or  case  in 
which  the  host  is  exhibited.  The  latter  contains  a 
small  semi-circular  holder  called  the  lunula,  or 
•crescent,  in  which  the  host  is  fixed. 

MONSTBEIiETy  mOn'stre-l&^  Enouerrand  de 
( 1390-1453) .  A  French  chronicler,  probably  bom 
in  Picardy.  Of  his  life  practically  nothing  is 
known.  According  to  his  o^vn  testimony,  he  was 
present  at  the  interview  between  Jeanne  d*Arc 
and  the  Duke  of  Bourgogne.  In  1430  he  had  a 
civil  and  military  office  in  Compiftgne;  later  he 
was  provost  at  Cambrai  and  bailiff  at  Walincourt, 
His  Chronique,  which  covers  the  years  1400-1444, 
and  continues  the  narratives  of  Froissart,  is  a 
clear  and  exact  narrative  of  the  time,  written 
with  little  charm  of  style.  The  latest  edi- 
tion is  that  of  Dougt  d'Arca  (1857-62).  There  is 
an  English  translation  by  Thomas  Johnes  (1810). 

MONSTBOSITY  (Lat.  monatrositas,  from 
mon8tro8U8f  mon8truo8U8,  monstrous,  from  mon- 
strum,  monster,  portent)  (in  Anatomy).  All 
departures  from  the  normal  development  of  the 
human  foetus  or  of  the  young  of  the  higher  ani- 
mals are  now  considered  under  the  subject  of 
teratology.  These  deviations  from  the  normal 
may  vary  from  the  comparatively  slight  and  com- 
mon anomalies  (such  as  hare-lip  and  supernu- 
merary digits)  to  forms  which  are  so  strange  and 
hideous  that  they  merit  beyond  question  the 
name  of  monsters.  Although  the  system  of  Saint 
Hilaire  is  by  no  means  perfect,  and  is  not  based 
on  embryonic  laws,  yet  it  has  the  advantage  of 
a  familiar  nomenclature,  and  groups  together 
forms  which  present  similar  external  character- 
istics. Under  his  classification  we  have  four  gen- 
eral groups:  Jlemiteratics,  Heterotaxica,  Herma- 
phroditics,  and  Monsters. 

Hemiteratics.  In  this  group  are  included  all 
forms  of  anomalies  which  show  unusual  develop- 
ment, but  which  are  not  exaggerated  enough  to  be 
regarded  as  monsters  nor  specific  enough  to  be 
considered  members  of  the  second  or  third  class. 

This  group  is  subdivided  into  (1)  Anomalies 
of  volume,  with  general  diminution  or  increase, 
as  in  dwarfs  and  giants.  This  abnormal  devel- 
opment may  affect  only  a  part  of  the  body,  as  the 
extremities,  or  the  breasts,  or  the  muscular  sys- 
tem. 

(2)  Anomalies  of  form,  resulting  in  deform- 
ities of  the  head,  of  the  stomach,  or  of  the  pelvis. 

(3)  Anomalies  of  color,  presenting  the  inter- 
esting condition  of  albinism  or  abnormal  melan- 
ism. 

(4)  Anomalies  of  structure,  as  represented  by 
the  persistent  cartilaginous  condition  of  bones 
or  the  ossification  of  parts  that  normally  should 
consist  of  cartilage. 

(5)  Anomalies  of  disposition  include  hernia, 
club-foot,  extrophy  of  the  bladder,  and  curva- 
ture of  the  spine.* 

(6)  Anomalies  of  connection  are  especially 
varied.    Bones  have  unusual  articulations;  mus- 


cles have  abnormal  attachments;  and  arteries 
and  veins  give  off  branches  in  violation  of  ana- 
tomical regularity. 

(7)  Anomalies  of  continuity  show  an  imper- 
forate condition  of  vagina,  rectum,  or  cesophagus, 
or  a  union  of  the  kidneys,  of  the  digits,  or  of  the 
teeth. 

(8)  Anomalies  of  closure  and  disjunction  are 
illustrated  by  a  vaginal  septum  and  by  cleft 
palate  and  hare-lip. 

(9)  Anomalies  of  number  embrace  many  vari- 
eties represented  by  an  increase  or  decrease  in 
the  nimiber  of  digits,  teeth,  breasts,  or  other 
parts. 

Heterotaxigs  include  those  forms  which  show 
transposition  of  the  internal  viscera,  either  of 
the  thorax  or  of  the  abdomen.  Rarely  we  find 
only  a  single  organ  transposed;  often  all  are  in 
an  abnormal  position,  but  this  change  is  accom- 
panied by  no  interference  of  nutrition  nor  of 
function.  So  at  times  the  heart  will  be  found 
on  the  right  side  or  the  liver  on  the  left,  and 
yet  the  individual  is  unconscious  of  any  irregu- 
larity. 

Hermaphroditics.  Ahlfeld  defines  a  true  her- 
maphrodite as  an  individual  possessing  func- 
tionally active  glands  of  both  sexes,  with  ex- 
creting ducts  and  external  genitals,  so  that  the 
offices  of  both  sexes  can  be  fulfilled.  Indisputable 
evidence  of  such  a  case  has  not  been  adduced,  al- 
though there  are  numerous  instances  where 
glands  presenting  the  histological  characteristics 
of  both  sexes  have  been  present  in  one  person. 
False  hermaphrodites  present  typical  glands  oif 
one  sex  and  others  of  a  more  or  less  mixed  or 
modified  type.  They  are  usually  masculine  in 
sex.  There  are  all  degrees  of  «fibnormality  in 
development,  from  a  slight  enlargement  of  the 
vesicula  prostatica  (the  masculine  uterus  of 
Weber),  without  any  alteration  in  the  external 
genitals,  to  a  fully  developed  uterus  with  tubes 
and  vagina  complete  in  a  male  subject.  The 
penis  in  these  cases  is  rudimentary,  and  a  condi- 
tion of  hvpospadias  (a  malformation  of  the 
penis,  in  wiiich  the  orifice  of  the  urethra  is  under- 
neath or  behind  the  glands)  exists.  The  scrotum 
is  ill  developed,  and  the  testicles  remain  in  the 
abdomen.  The  absence  of  ovaries  is  not  detected, 
so  that  the  mistake  in  sex  may  naturally  per- 
sist until  a  post-mortem  examination  reveals 
their  absence  and  the  true  sexual  nature  of  the 
individual  is  apparent.    See  Hermaphrodite. 

MoNSTROSTTiES.  In  this  class  we  will  first 
consider  autositic  single  monsters  which  are  ca- 
pable of  independent  existence  in  the  womb,  and 
are  the  result  of  an  arrest  in  development,  of 
fusion,  or  of  displacement  of  important  parts. 
(1)  Ectromelus. — This  group  includes  aborted 
or  imperfectly  formed  extremities  which  present 
various  degrees  of  shortening  or  else  are  entirely 
absent.  Some  cases  show  rudimentary  limbs, 
but  perfectly  formed  hands  and  feet  which  ap- 
pear to  come  immediately  from  the  trunk.  (2) 
Symmelus. — The  pelvis  and  lower  extremities  in 
the  individuals  of  this  group  are  imperfectly 
developed,  and  the  two  lower  limbs  are  more  or 
less  fused.  Sometimes  this  fusion  is  complete 
and  the  feet  are  wholly  lacking.  (3)  Celostoma. 
— The  individuals  in  this  class  show  a  varying 
degree  of  cleft  in  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  or 
of  the  thorax,  and  consequent  eventration.  Ano- 
malies of  the  intestinal  tracts  and  of  the  urinaiy 
and  genital  apparatus  are  frequent  accompani- 


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MONSTBOSITT. 


742 


KONTAGNA. 


ments.  Malformations  of  the  head  are  classified 
under  the  next  three  groups — (4)  exencephalus, 
(5)  pseudencephalus,  and  (6)  anencephalus.  In 
^roup  (4)  a  malformed  brain  exists,  situated 
in  part  at  least  within  a  cranial  cavity  of  which 
the  walls  are  imperfect.  In  group  (5)  the 
cranium  is  even  more  rudimentary  and  the  brain 
tissue  is  but  poorly  represented,  while  in  the 
anencephalus  the  true  nerve  elements  are  wholly 
lacking  in  the  mass  of  tissue  lying  within  the 
shallow  and  imperfect  cranial  cavity.  These 
brainless  monsters  are  almost  always  feminine. 
In  (7)  the  cyclocephali  the  eyes  approach  the 
mid  line  and  more  or  less  closely  unite.  These 
organs  are  poorly  developed  or  rudimentary,  and 
the  nose  is  atrophied,  although  in  certain  in- 
stances a  hypertrophied  proboscis  may  arise 
from  above  the  fused  sockets.  The  lower  jaw  is 
poorly  developed  or  wanting  in  (8)  the  octoceph- 
alic,  and  the  ears  approach  each  other  and  fre- 
quently become  fused  below.  The  mouth  is  of 
course  distorted  to  an  exceptional  degree. 

Omphalositic  single  monsters  are  embryos  de- 
pendent on  other  embryos  within  the  womb  for 
their  own  imperfect  development.  The  primary 
foetus  is  usually  well  formed,  and  supplies  both 
itself  and  the  parasite  with  blood  by  means  of 
an  extensive  anastomosis  of  placental  and  um- 
bilical vessels. 

When  the  heart  is  present  in  omphalosites  it  is 
incomplete.  The  circulation  is  sluggish,  and  an 
overgrowth  of  connective  tissue  results  with  the 
formation  of  lacunae  and  cysts  and  frequently 
marked  oedema.  The  highest  development  of 
these  monsters  is  reached  in  the  paracephalus. 
In  this  anomaly  the  extremities  are  more  or  less 
definitely  present,  the  head  has  an  imperfect 
cranium  and  imperfect  face,  the  cervical  verte- 
brae are  rudimentary,  the  diaphragm  is  defec- 
tive, and  the  lungs  are  absent  or  else  incom- 
plete. There  is  of  course  no  sign  of  life  in 
these  forms  after  birth. 

Composite  Monsters  embrace  all  forms  in 
which  there  is  a  reduplication  of  the  principal 
parts  of  the  body.  There  may  be  two  distinct 
faces  and  heads  closely  fused  together,  or  the 
duplicity  may  be  only  slightly  suggested  (Dipro- 
sopus).  In  other  cases  (Dicephalus)  the  heads 
may  be  quite  distinct,  and  even  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body  are  double,  with  three  or  four  arms 
present.  The  internal  organs  are  duplicated  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  division.  Although 
specimens  of  this  group  are  seldom  bom  alive, 
and  still  more  rarely  live,  yet  we  have  a  well- 
marked  instance  of  this  class  recorded  in  the 
case  of  the  Tocci  brothers  (1877),  who  grew  up 
and  thrived  for  many  years.  In  the  third  class 
(Tschiopagus)  two  separate  distinct  bodies  are 
present  which  are  joined  by  the  coccygeal  and 
sacral  bones.  Only  one  case  is  recorded  which 
lived  beyond  the  third  year.  The  Pyopagi  are 
very  rare.  In  these  two  separate  bodies  are  so 
joined  together  in  the  sacral  region  that  the  two 
individuals  stand  back  to  back.  The  Dipygi  are 
cases  which  show  a  reduplication  of  the  pelvis,  of 
tlie  genitals,  and  of  the  extremities.  If  four  legs 
are  present  they  are  not  all  equally  well  devel- 
oped, but  the  two  inner  legs  are  much  smaller. 
This  division  of  the  body  from  below  may  be 
carried  still  further  (Syiicephalus)  ;  and  if  the 
union  is  simply  confined  to  the  heads,  these  speci- 
mens are  included  in  the  Craniopagus. 

In  some  instances  the  reduplication  is  almost 


complete,  and  the  union  is  comparatively  slight, 
occurring  at  some  point  between  the  umbilicus- 
and  the  lower  thorax.  The  most  famous  case  is. 
that  of  the  Siamese  twins,  who  lived  to  be  sixty- 
three  years  old.  In  February,  1902,  the  Hindu 
twins  Rodica  and  Doodica,  who  had  been  joined 
in  a  fashion  similar  to  the  Siamese  twins,  were 
divided  by  operation  in  Paris,  France.  Rodica 
survived,  but  her  sister  died  of  tuberculosis. 

Double  Parasitic  Monsters.  In  this  class  a 
more  or  less  perfectly  formed  body  is  attached 
to  a  well-formed  individual,  but  it  has  no  sepa- 
rate existence,  receiving  its  nourishment  wholly 
from  the  other. 

Triple  Monsters  are  rare,  and  we  know  of  but 
one  case  of  a  three-headed  child — ^that  recorded 
by  Saint  Hilaire,  bom  in  1832  in  Catania.  Con- 
sult: Saint  Hilaire,  Histoire  des  anomalies  de 
Vorganisation  (Paris,  1832-36)  ;  Hirse  and  Pier- 
sol,  Human  Monstrosities  (Philadelphia,  1891); 
Fitch,  "Hermaphroditism,"  in  Sew  York  Medical 
Journal  (November  22,  1890). 

MONSTBOSITT.  A  botanical  term  applied 
to  a  peculiar  or  unusual  form  of  an  organ  or  of 
the  whole  body;  better  designated  by  the  tenn 
malformation  (q.v.), 

MONT,  MENT,  or  MENTTJ.  An  Egyptian 
deity,  originally  the  local  god  of  Hermonthis 
(q.v.),  where  he  had  an  ancient  temple.  His 
chief  characteristics  were  strength  and  valor, 
and  'strong  as  Mont'  and  *brave  as  Mont'  were 
favorite  epithets  of  the  Egyptian  kings.  Under 
the  New  Empire,  Mont  became  the  national  god 
of  war,  who  fought  for  the  armies  of  Egj'pt  and 
gave  might  and  victory  to  the  King.  In  inscrip- 
tions of  this  period  he  is  styled  *Lord  of  Thebes, 
dwelling  in  Hermonthis.'  In  the  later  theo- 
logical system  he  was  identified  with  the  sun- 
god  under  the  name  of  Mont-RO.  With  the  de- 
cline of  Thebes  and  the  rise  of  Hermonthis  to 
supremacy  over  the  surrounding  district,  Mont 
gamed  correspondingly  in  importimce,  and  usurped 
in  some  measure  the  devotion  formerly  paid  to 
Amon.  Magnificent  temples  were  dedicated  to 
him  at  Karnak  and  at  Medamut,  near  Thebes, 
by  the  Pharaohs  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty;  and 
at  Tud,  the  ancient  Tuphium,  are  the  remains  of 
a  small  temple  of  the  god  built  in  Ptolemaic 
times.  Mont  is  usually  represented  as  a  hawk- 
headed  deity  wearing  upon  his  head  the  solar 
disk  and  two  tall  plumes.  At  his  ancient  seat  of 
worship,  Hermonthis,  his  sacred  animal  was  the 
bull  Bakh,  called  Bacis  by  the  Greeks.  Consult 
Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians 
(New  York,  1897). 

MONTAGNAy  mdn-tft'nyi,  Bartolommeo 
(c.1450-1523).  An  Italian  painter,  bom  at  Or- 
zinuovi  (near  Brescia).  He  is  thought  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Mantegna  at  Padua;  per- 
haps studied  also  under  Ballini  and  Carpaccio; 
was  active  about  1480  at  Vicenza,  and  subse- 
quently in  Bassano,  Verona,  and  Padua.  His 
works  are  rather  severe  in  design  and  sharply 
drawn,  and  ample  in  color  after  the  manner  of 
the  eatlier  Venetians.  They  include  such  ex- 
amples as  the  frescoes  illustrating  the  life  of 
Saint  Blasius  (in  the  Church  of  San  Nazaro 
at  Verona),  "Madonna  Enthroned  with  Three 
Saints  and  Bernardino  da  Feltre"  (Berlin  Mu- 
seum), and  "Ecce  Homo"  (Louvre,  Paris). 
Others  are  in  the  Venice  Academy,  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  and  churches  in  Vicenza. 


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MONTAGXr. 


MONTAGNAIS^  mON't&'ny&'  (Fr.,  mountain- 
<eer8).  A  name  applied  to  two  American  In- 
dian tribal  groups.  ( 1 )  A  group  of  closely  cog- 
nate Algonquian  tribes  in  Quebec  Province  and 
Labrador,  Canada^  extending  along  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River  from  near  the 
entrance  of  the  Saint  Maurice  nearly  to  the  Gulf 
and  inland  to  the  main  divide.  They  have  great- 
ly decreased  in  number  from  sickness  and  star- 
vation resulting  from  the  destruction  of  their 
former  game  supply.  No  separate  census  is  kept, 
as  they  are  officially  grouped  with  the  Nascopi, 
T^tes-de-Boule,  and  other  tribes  and  bands.  So 
far  as  can  be  learned  from  the  reports,  they  ap- 
pear to  make  their  principal  living  by  hunting, 
fishing,  making  bark  canoes,  snowshoes,  and  moc- 
casins, and  acting  as  guides  to  tourists. 

(2)  A  name  somewliat  loosely  applied  to  cer- 
^in  Athapascan  tribes,  more  particularly  the 
Chippewyan,  in  the  mountain  region  stretching 
from  the  Churchill  River  northward  to  the 
<5reat  Slave  Lake,  including  also  the  country 
about  Caribou,  Hatchet,  and  Athabasca  lakes 
in  British  America.  They  have  all  been  Chris- 
tianized by  Catholic  missionaries. 

MONTAGNANA,  mOn'tA-nyrn&.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Padua,  Italy,  22  miles  southwest 
of  Padua  (Map:  Italy,  F  2).  It  is  still  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  towers,  and  has  a  Gothic 
cathedral  and  a  palace  with  paintings.  Its  chief 
trade  is  in  spun  silk,  wool,  hemp,  and  coarse  cot- 
ton textures.  Population  (commune),  in  1881, 
9941;   in   1901,   10,364. 

MONTAGNABBS,  mON'tA'nyftr'  (Fr.,  moun- 
taineers). The  name  first  applied  in  France  in 
1790  to  the  Revolutionary  members  of  the  Nation- 
al Assembly,  who  occupied  the  high  seats  in 
the  rear  of  the  amphitheatre  where  the  Assembly 
met.  In  the  Convention  (q.v.)  it  was  applied 
to  the  entire  Radical  Left,  composed  of  Jacobin** 
(q.v.)  and  Cordeliers  (q.v.),  in  distinction  from 
the  Girondists  (q.v.),  who  occupied  the  lower 
seats  in  the  hall.  The  history  of  the  Convention 
till  June,  1793,  is  almost  entirely  the  history  of 
the  struggle  between  the  Gironde  and  the  Moun- 
tain. The  former,  comprising  the  philosophers, 
statesmen,  orators,  scientists,  and  men  of  letters 
in  the  Convention,  were  republicans  at  heart, 
but  were  not  ready  to  go  to  extremes.  The 
Mountain  was  made  up  of  men  of  less  renown, 
but  men  of  action,  earnest  and  uncompromising. 
Upon  the  question  of  Louis  XVI.*s  fate  the  issue 
between  the  two  parties  was  practically  fought 
out.  Then,  as  in  the  crisis  brought  on  by  foreign 
invasion  and  internal  disorder,  the  Girondists 
showed  themselves  irresolute.  The  Montagnards 
in  condemning  the  King  challenged  all  Europe, 
took  the  guidance  of  the  Revolution  into  their 
own  hands,  and  some  time  after  (June  2,  1793) 
destroyed  all  opposition  by  arresting  the  leaders 
of  the*  Gironde  and  sending  them  to  the  guillo- 
tine. The  subsequent  acts  of  the  Convention  were 
the  acts  of  the  Montagnards,  under  their  leaders 
Danton,  Marat,  Robespierre,  and  Collot  d'Her- 
bois.  In  1848  the  Radicals  under  Louis  Blanc 
and  Ledru  Roll  in  called  themselves  Montagnards. 
See  French  Revolution. 

MONTAGTJy  mtin'tA-gA  or  m6n'-,  Basil 
(1770-1851).  A  British  lawyer  and  author, 
natural  son  of  John  Montagu,  fourth  Earl  of 
Sandwich.  He  was  educated  at  the  Charter- 
house and  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.     In 


1705  he  went  to  Lcmdon,  where  he  studied  for  the 
bar,  to  which  he  was  admitted  three  years  later, 
and  soon  afterwards  he  began  to  publish  works 
dealing  with  legal  subjects.  He  interested  him- 
self particularly  in  relieving  the  conditions  of  the 
debtor  class,  and  succeeded  in  securing  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  death  penalty  for  certain  crimes. 
Among  his  writings  are :  An  Enquiry  Respecting 
the  Mode  of  Issuing  Commissions  in  Bankruptcy 
(1810) ;  An  Enquiry  Respecting  the  Expediency 
of  Limiting  the  Creditor's  Pmcer  to  Refuse  a 
Bankrupt's  Certificate  (1809);  The  Opinions  of 
Different  Authors  Upon  the  PwUshment  of  Death 
(1809)  ;  and  Enquiries  Respecting  the  Insolvent 
Debtors*  Bill,  loith  the  Opinions  of  Dr,  Paley,  Mr. 
Burke,  and  Dr.  Johnson  Upon  Imprisonment  for 
Debt  (1816).  His  edition  of  Bacon's  works  oc- 
casioned Macaulay's  well-known  essay  in  the 
Edinburgh  Review  ( 1837 ) . 

MONTAGU,  Chabi£S,  first  Earl  of  Halifax. 
An  English  poet  and  statesman.  See  Halifax, 
Charles  Montagu,  Eabl  of. 

3CONTAGT7,  Edwabd,  first  Earl  of  Sandwich. 
See  Sandwich. 

KONTAGTT^  Elizabeth  (Robinson)  (1720- 
1800).  An  English  writer  and  society  leader, 
bom  at  York.  In  1742  she  married  Edward  Mon- 
tagu, grandson  of  the  first  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
who  on  his  death  left  her  a  large  fortune.  With 
abundance  of  wealth  and  possessing  literary  tal- 
ent, she  became  a  leader  m  London  society,  and 
numbered  among  her  regular  visitors  Lord  Lyt- 
tleton,  Horace  Walpole,  Dr.  Johnson,  Burke, 
Garrick,  and  Sir  Josnua  Reynolds.  The  epithet 
of  *blue  stocking'  was  first  applied  to  her  gather- 
ings. In  1760  she  wrote  three  Dialogues  of  the 
Deady  published  in  Lord  Lyttleton's  work  by  that 
name,  and  in  1769  an  Essay  on  the  Writings 
and  Oenius  of  Shakespeare,  Compared  with  the 
Greek  and  French  Dramatic  Poets,  that  received 
high  praise  from  her  contemporaries.  Her  corre- 
spondence in  great  part  was  published  in  1809-13. 
Consult  also  Doran,  A  Lady  of  the  Last  Century 
(London,  1873);  and  Elizabeth  Montagu,  the 
Queen  of  the  Bluestockings,  Her  Correspond- 
ence from  1720  to  1761  (2  vols..  New  York, 
1906). 

MONTAGU,  John,  fourth  Earl  of  Sandwich. 
See  Sandwich. 

MONTAGU,  Lady  Mary  Wortley  (1689- 
1762).  An  English  poet  and  letter- writer,  eld- 
est daughter  of  Evelyn  Pierrepont  (afterwards 
Duke  of  Kingston) .  She  was  baptized  in  London, 
May  26,  1689.  From  her  brother's  tutor  or  by 
herself  she  learned  Latin,  and  read  widely  in 
English  drama  and  romance.  When  a  mere  girl 
she  was  toaste^  by  her  father  at  the  Kit-Cat 
Club,  and  on  her  appearing  there  was  admitted 
a  member  by  acclamation.  Without  the  approval 
of  her  family  she  privately  married  (August  12, 
1712)  Edward  Wortley  Montagu,  a  Whig  mem- 
ber of  Parliament,  with  whom  she  lived  for  a 
time  in  retirement.  On  the  accession  of  (Jeorge 
I.  she  went  to  London  with  her  husband.  There 
her  beauty  and  wit  attracted  unusual  attention 
at  Court,  and  she  was  much  admired  by  the 
wits,  especially  by  Pope.  In  1716  appeared  sur- 
reptitiously her  Court  Poems,  afterwards  called 
Town  Eclogues.  The  same  year  she  set  out  with 
her  husband  on  his  embassy  to  Constantinople. 
At  Adrianople  she  became  interested  in  inocula- 
tion for  smallpox  (1717),  and  on  her  return  in- 


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MONTAIGNE. 


troduced  the  practice  into  England.  During  her 
travels  in  the  East  she  wrote  her  well-known 
Letters,  delightful  in  themselves  and  valuable 
for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  time.  Returning  to  England 
(1718),  the  Montagus  soon  settled  near  Pope  at 
Twickenham,  and  Lady  Mary  became  one  of  the 
best-known  women  in  London  society.  Pope  had 
addressed  verses  to  her,  and  had  kept  up  a  cor- 
respondence during  her  absence.  The  friendship 
was  now  renewed  on  more  intimate  terms,  but 
by  1722  they  quarreled.  Pope  seems  to  have 
made  a  declaration  of  love,  which  was  met  with 
a  burst  of  laughter.  Pope  afterwards  satirized 
her  as  *Sappho'  in  various  poems.  Swift  lam- 
pooned her  m  The  Capon's  Tale  (1726).  In  the 
Epilogue  to  the  Satires  (1738)  she  is  accused  by 
Pope  of  starving  a  sister  and  forswearing  a  debt, 
and  in  the  Imitations  of  Horace  (1733)  a  worse 
charge  is  brought  against  her  (first  satire,  2d 
book,  i.  84).  For  imknown  cause  she  left  her 
husband  in  1730,  and  lived  abroad  for  many 
years,  chiefly  in  Italy.  Her  husband  died  in  1761, 
and  the  next  year  she  returned  to  England,  at  the 
request  of  her  daughter.  Lady  Bute.  She  died 
August  21,  1762.  Consult  her  Works,  edited  by 
her  great-grandson,  Lord  Wharncliffe  (London, 
1837;  new  eds.  1887  and  1893).  See  Inocula- 
tion. 

MONTAGUE,  m5n^t&-gA.  A  town,  including 
several  villages.  Turner's  Falls  being  industrially 
the  most  important,  in  Franklin  County,  Mass., 
separated  from  Greenfield  by  the  Connecticut 
River,  and  on  the  Fitchburg,  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford,  and  the  Central  Vermont 
railroads  (Map:  Massachusetts,  B  2).  It  haa 
three  public  libraries  and  extensive  manufactures 
of  cotton  goods,  paper,  pulp,  cutlery,  hardware, 
water-wheels  and  pumps,  soap  and  toilet  articles, 
bricks,  and  fishing  rods.  The  government  is 
administered  by  town  meetings.  Montague  was 
settled  about  1716,  and  was  incorporated  as  a 
district  in  1753.    Pop.,  1900,  6160;  1905,  7015. 

MONTAGUE  HOUSE.  (1)  A  former  Lon- 
don mansion  built  for  the  first  Duke  of  Montague. 
It  was  bought  by  the  Government  at  the  time  of 
the  purchase  of  the  Sloane  collection,  which, 
with  the  Harleian  manuscripts  and  the  Cot- 
tonian  library,  were  deposited  in  it,  forming  the 
nucleus  of  the  British  Museum.  The  expansion 
of  the  museum  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  made  the  addition  of  a  wing 
necessary,  and  the  building  was  finally  replaced 
by  the  present  British  Museum  between  1823  and 
1852.  (2)  A  modem  building  in  Whitehall, 
London,  the  residence  of  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch, 
containing  a  large  collection  of  pictures  and 
miniatures. 

MONTAIGLON,  mON'tA'glON',  Anatole  de 
CorRDE  DE  (1824-95).  A  French  bibliographer 
and  paleographer,  bom  in  Paris.  A  student  at 
the  Ecole  des  Chartes,  he  obtained  his  diploma 
as  archivist  in  1850,  and  held  positions  succes- 
sively at  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  the  Arsenal 
Library,  and  that  of  Sainte  Genevieve,  until  he 
became  professor  of  bibliography  at  the  Ecole 
des  Chartes.  His  numerous  works,  which  deal 
chiefly  with  the  origin  of  French  art  and  litera- 
ture, include:  M ^moires  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire 
de  Vacad&mie  royale  de  peinture  (1853)  ;  Cata- 
logue raisonn^  de  Voeuvre  de  Claude  Mellan 
d*Abheville   (1858);   Notice  historique  et  hiblio- 


graphique  sur  Jean  P^lerin,  dit  le  Viateur 
( 1861 )  ;  Recueil  gdn^al  et  complet  des  fabliau 
des  Xlll^e  et  XIV erne  si^cles  (9  vols.,  1872- 
90) ;  and  Un  voyageur  anglais  d  Lyon  sous  Hetwi 
IV.  (1881). 

MONTAIGNE,  m6n-tftn',  Fr.  pron.  mdw'ti'- 
ny',  Michel  Eyquem  de  (1533-92).  A  great 
French  essayist  and  moralist.  Montaigne  got 
his  name  from  the  ChAteau  Montaigne,  near  the 
Dordogne,  in  P^rigord,  where  he  was  bora  Feb- 
ruary 28,  1533.  The  family  fortune  waa  begun 
by  Michel's  great-grandfather,  a  merchant  and 
citizen  of  Bordeaux.  The  essayist's  father 
turned  him  over  to  a  nurse,  who  reared  him 
in  a  hamlet  on  his  father's  estate.  As  be 
tells  us  himself,  he  was  awakened  in  the 
morning  with  music,  and  his  father  had  him  so 
well  drilled  in  Latin  that  when  he  went  to  the 
College  de  Guyenne  at  Bordeaux  he  astounded 
every  one  by  his  Latinity,  though  he  was  but  six 
years  old.  The  boy's  mother  was  Antoinette  de 
Loupes  (i.e.  Lopez),  of  a  Jewish  family,  which 
had  come  from  Spain.  To  judge  by  Saint  Aubin's 
engraving  after  the  original  portrait  at  the 
Ch&teau  Montaigne,  the  essayist  had  an  oval 
face,  a  good-sized  nose,  a  wrinkled  forehead, 
high  cheek  bones,  and  a  smallish  chin.  He  wore 
a  short  beard,  with  a  moustache,  and  his  mouth 
hardly  suggests  the  sweetness  of  temper  so  ap- 
parent in  his  essays. 

After  eight  years  under  the  famous  Andr§ 
de  Govea,  master  of  the  Coll^  de  Guyenne,  then 
the  best  school  in  France,  Montaigne  seems  to 
have  studied  law  in  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse  till 
1554.  His  essays,  however,  are  scarcely  the  woric 
of  a  lawyer,  but  rather  of  a  genial,  ever-inquisi- 
tive, and  usually  whimsical  humorist.  Sooner 
or  later  Montaigne  skirted  most  of  the  hills  of 
knowledge,  rarely  exerting  himself  to  climb  to 
their  tops,  but  seeing  very  clearly  from  the  level. 
At  the  College  de  Guyenne  he  had  continued  his 
studies  in  the  language,  literature,  and  history 
of  Rome,  and  had  taken  part  in  the  Latin  plays 
written  for  him  and  his  mates  by  Buchanan  and 
Muret.  This  we  know  from  Montaigne's  own 
words ;  but  we  also  learn  from  him  that  he  was 
lazy  and  careless,  and  that  in  reading  he  followed 
his  whims.  At  twenty-one,  as  a  younger  son,  he 
was  cared  for  by  being  made  a  member  of  the  Gour 
des  Aides  at  P^rigueux,  and  three  years  later  he 
was  appointed  counselor  of  Parliament  at  Bor- 
deaux. Thus  he  met  Etienne  de  la  Bo^tie  (q.v.), 
and  there  sprang  up  between  them  a  friendship 
that  lasted  till  La  Bo^tie's  death  in  1563.  At 
thirty-three  Montaigne  wedded  Frangoise  de  la 
Chassaigne,  yielding  to  convention,  for  he  de- 
clares he  "would  not  have  married  Wisdom  her- 
self* for  his  own  pleasure.  He  tells  us  that  he 
lost  "two  or  three '  children  in  babyhood,  but  a 
daughter  survived  him.  Montaigne  had  done 
his  first  literary  work  in  1568  by  translating  the 
Theologia  Naturalis  of  Haimond  Sebond,  a  Span- 
iard who  had  been  a  professor  at  Toulouse  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  This  book  was  the  text  for 
Montaigne's  most  famous  essay  in  skepticisna,  the 
Apologie  de  Raimond  Sebond.  In  1570  Mon- 
taigne edited  the  literary  remains  of  La  Boftie. 
After  this  he  seldom  left  his  estate,  except  for 
visits  to  Paris  and  an  eighteen  months'  visit 
to  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy  in  1580.  Of 
this  voyage  he  left  an  interesting  diary,  partly 
in  French  and  partly  in  Italian,  first  published 
in   1774,  and  edited  by  A.  d'Ancona   (Citta  di 


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Castello,  1880).  He  was  elected  (1581)  and  re- 
elected Mayor  of  Bordeaux.  His  last  years  were 
brightened  by  the  Platonic  affection  of  an  adopted 
daughter,  Mile,  de  Goumay,  a  Parisian,  who  at 
nineteen  had  been  attracted  by  his  essays,  of 
which  she  later  prepared  a  valuable  edition 
(1597).  Montaigne  suflfered  much  toward  the 
close  of  his  life  from  gravel  and  stone.  In  1592 
he  died  of  quinsy,  receiving  devoutly  the  last 
offices  of  the  Church,  though  his  mottoes  Que 
sais'jef  (What  do  I  know?)  and  QuHmportef 
(What  matters  it?)  are  those  of  an  easy-going 
skeptic. 

The  essays,  of  which  the  first  were  written  in 
1572,  beginning  in  self -analysis,  finally  came  to 
take  for  their  field  the  knowledge  of  man  in  gen- 
eral. WTiolly  unsystematic  though  they  are,  they 
show  an  insatiable  curiosity,  which  seeks  rather 
its  own  stimulation  than  the  satisfaction  of  a 
definite  conclusion.  Montaigne  drew  the  ma- 
terial for  his  reflections  not  so  much  from  his 
own  surroundings  as  from  Seneca,  Lucretius, 
and  the  historians,  from  Plutarch,  Xenophon,  and 
the  anthology  of  Stobseus,  and  from  the  biogra- 
phies of  Diogenes  Lagrtius,  as  well  as  from  Ital- 
ian letter-writers  and  historians.  Behind  their 
thought  he  often  sheltered  his  own,  preferring 
rather  to  suggest  that  others  had  doubted  than 
that  he  himself  was  other  than  a  royalist  and  a 
Catholic.  Suspended  judgment,  contented  de- 
tachment, and  a  practical  epicureanism  are  the 
teachings  of  Montaigne,  who  observes  that  "men 
are  tormented  by  what  they  think  about  things, 
not  by  the  things  themselves."  "However  specious 
novelty  may  l^,"  says  he,  "I  change  not  easily, 
for  I  fear  to  lose  by  the  change.  ...  So  I 
have,  by  God*s  grace,  kept  without  worry  and 
turmoil  of  conscience  the  old  beliefs  of  our  reli- 
gion through  all  the  sects  and  divisions  that  our 
century  has  brought  forth."  His  attitude  was 
not  heroic,  but  it  proved  contagious ;  for  the  anti- 
Christian  or  simply  non-Christian  current  which 
can  be  noted  in  the  seventeenth  century,  passing 
through  Moliftre  or  through  Descartes  and  finally 
reaching  Voltaire,  seems  to  have  its  source  in 
Montaigne.  Rationalism,  Epicurean  or  Cartesian, 
is  already  by  implication  in  the  essays.  In  his 
own  day  Montaigne  stood  almost  alone  among 
men  who  were  hasty  in  thought  and  quick  to  act. 
Few  French  works  have  exercised  so  great  and 
lasting  an  influence  on  the  writing  and  thought 
of  the  world  as  the  essays  of  Montaipie.  He 
Htands  alone  and  secure  among  the  world's  writ- 
ers. Through  Florio  (q.v.),  who  published  his 
admirable  translation  in  1603,  Montaigne  was 
known  to  Shakespeare,  and  he  very  slightly  in- 
fluenced Francis  Bacon,  ten  of  whose  essays  ap- 
peared in  1597.  He  has  fascinated  great  men  in 
every  civilized  country  and  in  every  generation — 
never,  perhaps,  more  than  now. 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  Editions  of  the  essays  ap- 
peared in  1580,  1582,  and  1588,  each  containing 
changes  as  well  as  new  material.  In  1595  his 
family,  aided  by  Mile,  de  Goumay  and  Pierre 
de  Brach,  published  what  they  called  "a  new 
edition  found  after  the  author's  death  and  aug- 
mented by  him  by  a  third  more  than  was  in  pre- 
ceding impressions."  The  text  of  1595  forms  the 
base  of  Courbet  and  Royer*s  edition  (Paris,  1872- 
91 ) ,  which  has  also  Montaigne's  letters.  There 
is  in  the  municipal  library  of  Bordeaux  a  copy 
of  the  edition  of  1588,  with  many  autograph 
notes  by  Montaigne,  differing,  often  considerably, 


from  the  changes  in  the  editions  of  1595.  These 
notes  were  used  in  the  not  very  accurate  editions 
of  Naigeon  (Paris,  1802),  of  Desoer  de  TAul- 
naye  (ib.,  1818),  and  of  Amaury-Duval  (ib., 
1820).  Convenient  for  general  use  is  the  edition 
of  Leclerc  (ib.,  1865).  Montaigne's  Eaaaya 
were  translated  by  Florio  in  time  to  be 
used  by  Shakespeare,  and,  as  it  seems,  by 
Ben  Jonson  also.  Florio's  rendering  waa 
reSdited  by  C.  Cotton  and  revised  by  Haz- 
litt  (London,  1893).  Consult:  GrUn,  La  vie 
puhlique  de  Montaigne  (Paris,  1855)  ;  Malvezin, 
M,  de  Montaigne,  son  origine,  aa  famille  (ib., 
1875)  ;  Bonnefon,  Montaigne,  Vhomme  et  Voeuvre 
(ib.,  1893),  reprinted  in  the  san>e  author's  Lea 
amia  de  Montaigne  (ib.,  1898) ;  Stapfer,  Mon- 
taigne (ib.,  1894),  and  La  famille  et  lea  amia 
de  Montaigne  (ib.,  1896) ;  alsoNerlet,  Etudes  lit' 
t^airea  (ib.,  1882) ;  Champion,  Introduction 
aux  eaaaia  de  Montaigne  (ib.,  1899).  Works  in 
English  are  the  Livea  of  Montaigne  by  Saint  John 
(London,  1858)  and  Lowndes  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Emer- 
son, "Montaigne,"  in  Repreaentative  Men  (Bos- 
ton, 1850)  ;  Pattison,  in  Eaaaya  (ib.,  1889)  ;  Nor- 
ton, Studiea  in  Montaigne  (3  vols.,  New  York, 
1904)  ;  Dowden,  Michel  de  Montaigne  (Philadel- 
phia, 1905).  A  specially  luminous  treatment 
of  the  man  and  his  attitude  toward  life  is  in 
Pater,  Oaaton  de  Latour  (London,  1896).  There 
is  a  good  bibliography  appended  to  Bonnefou, 
"Montaigne,"  in  Petit  de  Julleville,  Hiatoire  de 
la  langue  et  de  la  lilt  Mature  frangaiae,  vol.  iii. 
(Paris,  1897). 

MONTALEMBEBT,  mON'tA'laN'bftr'; 
Charles  Forbes  de  Tbyon,  Count  (1810-70). 
A  French  historian  and  publicist.  He  was 
bom  in  London,  May  29,  1810,  of  an  ancient 
noble  family,  his  father,  who  had  been  driven 
out  by  the  Revolution,  having  entered  the  English 
service.  His  mother  was  of  the  Scottish  family 
of  Forbes,  to  which  circumstance  may  be  as- 
cribed Montalembert's  knowledge  of,  and  strong 
admiration  for,  English  social  and  political  in- 
stitutions. He  began  his  studies  at  Fulham, 
near  London,  and  finally,  after  some  time  spent 
in  Stockholm  with  his  father,  who  was  Ambassa- 
dor to  Sweden,  completed  them  in  Paris.  At 
twenty,  already  an  ardent  champion  of  Catholi- 
cism and  of  popular  freedom,  he  joined  Lamen- 
nais  (q.v.)  on  the  staff  of  the  Avenir,  and  co- 
operated with  him  in  the  establishment  of  free 
schools.  He  accompanied  Lamennais  on  his  un- 
happy journey  to  Rome,  and  then  to  Munich, 
and  remained  in  close  sympathy  with  his  views, 
even  after  his  master  had  gone  further  away 
from  orthodoxy  in  Parolea  d*un  croyant  (1834). 
At  the  end  of  that  year,  however,  he  broke  with 
Lamennais  and  definitely  submitted  to  the  Papal 
decisions.  He  still  maintained  his  ardent  desire 
to  demonstrate  the  close  relations  of  his  faith 
and  popular  liberty,  and  took  great  delight  in 
the  study  of  mediieval  history,  the  first  fruit  of 
which  was  his  Hiatoire  de  Sainte  Eliaaheth 
d'Hongrie  (1836).  Three  years  later  appeared  a 
collection  of  his  studies  in  mediwval  art,  which 
be  vigorously  exalted  over  corrupt  modem  stand- 
ards under  the  title  Du  vandalisme  et  du  catho- 
licisme.  In  1835,  having  now  attained  the  re- 
quired age,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of 
Peers,  where,  young  as  he  was,  he  stood  out  at 
once  as  a  champion  of  religion.  After  the  Revo- 
lution of  1848  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  and  took  his  seat  on  the 


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Kight,  though  acting  occasionally  with  the  Left. 
He  had  a  decisive  influence  in  bringing  about 
French  intervention  in  Italy  and  the  restoration 
of  Pius  IX.  to  Rome.  Ue  was  elected  to  the 
Legislative  Assembly  also,  and  for  a  time  con- 
trived, while  he  continued  the  same  line  of  policy 
as  regarded  Church  interests,  to  give  a  general 
support  to  the  Government  of  Louis  Napoleon. 
His  flrst  break  with  that  Government  was  on  the 
question  of  the  proposed  confiscation  of  the  Or- 
leans property,  and  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  De- 
cember 2,  1851,  the  breach  became  irreconcilable. 
From  that  time  he  continued  to  be  the  implacable 
assailant  of  the  arbitrary  repression  of  public 
opinion  which  characterized  the  measures  of  Na- 
poleon III.  Failing  of  reflection  in  1857,  he  de- 
voted himself  thenceforth  to  literature,  in  which 
his  eminence  had  been  recognized  by  election  to 
the  Academy  in  1861.  Devoted  son  of  the  Church 
as  he  was,  he  clung  to  his  early  passion  for  free- 
dom of  thought,  and  took  a  pronounced  position 
in  favor  of  the  view  that  the  Papal  syllabus  of 
1864  and  the  declaration  of  infallibility  were  both 
inopportune.  He  died  March  13,  1870.  Besides 
a  large  number  of  articles,  he  left  many  books 
of  great  interest,  of  which  the  following  have 
been  translated  into  English:  Catholic  Interests 
in  the  yineteenth  Century  (1852);  The  Politi- 
-cal  Future  of  England  (1856);  Constitutional 
Liberty  (1858)  ;  Pius  IX.  and  France  in  18J^9 
<ind  1859  ( 1861 )  ;  Pius  IX.  and  Lord  Palmer- 
ston  (1863);  Memoir  of  the  Ahh^  Lacordaire 
(1863).  Of  these  and  other  works  a  collected 
edition  in  French  appeared  in  eight  volumes 
(Paris,  1860-68).  But  to  English  readers  he 
is  best  known  by  his  brilliant  series  of  his- 
torical studies,  Les  moines  d'occident  (5th  ed. 
1874-77),  translated  as  The  Monks  of  the  West, 
from  Saint  Benedict  to  Saint  Bernard  (new  ed. 
by  Gasquet,  London,  1895).  Consult  his  Life  by 
Mrs.  Oliphant  (London,  1872),  and  by  de  Meaux 
(Paris,  1897);  also  Lecahnet,  Montalemhert 
d'aprvs  ses  papiers  et  sa  correspondance  (ib., 
1895-1901). 

MONTALEMBEBT,  AUrc  Ren6,  Marquis  de 
(1714-1800).  A  French  general.  lie  was  bom 
at  AngoulOme,  entered  the  army  at  eighteen,  and 
served  in  Germany  (1733)  and  in  Italy  and 
Bohemia  ( 1742) .  He  wrote  much  on  fortification 
after  his  election  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and,  in  spite  of  opposition  to  his  novel  theories, 
was  intrusted  with  the  fortification  of  the  island 
-of  Aix  in  1779.  He  recognized  the  defects  of  the 
bastion  system  of  defense  in  fortifications,  and 
advocated  the  employment  of  casemates  for  pro- 
tected gun  fire.  His  theories  were  first  adopted 
by  Prussia,  and  formed  the  basis  of  what  after- 
wards became  known  as  the  polygonal  system  of 
defense.  He  is  also  famous  for  his  works:  La 
fortification  perpendiculaire  (1776),  and  L*art 
dcfciisif  8up6rieur  d.  Voffensif  (1796).     See  FoB- 

TIFICATION. 

MONTALVAN,  mOn'tAl-vftn',  Juan  Perez  de 
(1602-38).  A  Spanish  dramatist.  With  the 
depree  of  doctor  of  theology,  he  joined  the 
priestly  Congregation  of  Saint  Peter  at  Madrid. 
Already  a  successful  dramatist  at  seventeen,  he 
passed  under  the  influence  of  Lope  de  Vega,  who 
urged  him  to  the  composition  of  his  Orfro(  1624), 
a  work  produced  in  competition  with  Jauregui's 
Orfro.  In  the  same  year  he  produced  some 
eight  tales,  which  were  translated  into  French 
•and   published   at  Paris   as  early  as   1644.      A 


prose  work,  the  Vida  y  purgatorio  de  San  Pa- 
tricio (1627),  deals  with  the  familiar  legend 
of  Saint  Patrick's  Purgatory,  and  afiTorded  the 
material  whence  Calderon  was  to  derive  his  play 
on  the  subject.  A  collection  containing  tales 
and  other  compositions  more  or  less  dramatic 
in  form  is  the  Paratodos  (1632).  It  is  as  a 
playwright  that  Montalvfln  stands  highest, 
ranking  as  one  of  the  more  important  of  the 
dramatists  next  in  consequence  to  Lope  and 
Calderon.  He  himself  prepared  two  editions  of 
his  pieces,  published  in  1638  and  1639  and  re- 
printed in  1652.  The  favorite  among  the  dramas 
IS  the  Amantes  de  Teruel.  Selected  plays  of 
Montalvfin  may  be  found  in  vol.  xlv.  of  the 
Bihlioteca  de  autores  espaiioles, 

MONTALVOy  mdn-t&Kvd,  Gabcia  Ordonez  de. 
A  Spanish  author,  who  flourished  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  To  him  is  due 
the  first  Spanish  version  now  extant  of  the 
famous  romance  of  Amadis.  Utilizing  the  ma- 
terial of  previous  writers,  he  prepared  his  version 
after  1492.  The  greater  part  of  his  work  may 
have  been  mere  translation  from  the  Portuguese, 
but  he  also  added  matter  of  his  own.  In  his 
own  composition,  the  Sergas  de  Esplandian^  he 
tells  of  Amadis's  son.  We  know  of  Montalvo  only 
that  he  was  Governor  of  the  city  of  Medina  del 
Campo.  Both  the  Amadis  and  the  Sergas  de 
Esplandian  are  published  in  vol.  xl.  of  the  Bihlio- 
teca de  autores  espaiioles.  Consult:  Baist  on  the 
Spanish  Amadis,  and  K.  M.  de  Vasconcellos  on 
the  Portuguese  Amadis  in  their  articles  on  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  literature  in  Groeber's  Orund- 
riss  der  romanischen  Philologie,  vol.  ii.  (Strass- 
burg,  1900). 

MONTANA,  mdn-t&^nA  (Lat.,  mountainous). 
A  Northwestern  State  of  the  American  Union, 
lying  between  44*  6'  and  49**  (the  international 
boundary)  north  latitude,  and  between  104°  and 
116**  west  longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Canadian  provinces  of  British  Columbia. 
Alberta,  and  Assiniboia;  on  the  east  by  the  Da- 
kotas ;  on  the  south  by  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  and 
on  the  west  by  Idaho.  Montana  ranks  third  in 
size  among  the  States  of  the  Union.  Its  greatest 
length  from  east  to  west  is  along  the  48th  par- 
allel, 540  miles;  and  its  average  width  from 
north  to  south,  275  miles.  Its  area  is  146,572 
square  miles,  of  which  796  square  miles  is  water. 

Topography.  The  eastern  three-fifths  of  the 
State  consist  of  rolling  plains,  lying  at  an  ele- 
vation of  from  1800  feet  in  the  northeast  to  about 
4000  feet  among  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. These  mountains  take  up  the  western  por- 
tion. The  Main  Divide  nms  from  Yellowstone 
Park  for  some  distance  along  the  southwestern 
boundary,  after  which  it  turns  eastward,  and 
then  crosses  the  State  obliquely  in  a  northi^'est 
direction.  The  general  elevation  of  its  crest  is 
about  6500  feet,  and  the  peaks  rise  from  8000  to 
11,300  feet.  Mount  Douglas  represents  the 
highest  elevation  of  the  State.  Thus  the  range 
is  considerably  lower  here  and  also  less  rugged 
than  farther  south  in  Wyoming  and  Colorado.  A 
great  longitudinal  basin  separates  the  Main 
Divide  from  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  which 
form  the  western  boundary,  and  whose  crest  lies 
throughout  between  7000  and  8000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  mountain  region  is  diversified  by 
numerous  spurs,  valleys,  and  outlying  ranges. 

Htdbogbapht.  The  Main  Divide  separates  the 


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MONTANA. 


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MONTANA. 


Missouri  system  from  the  Columbia  River  system, 
these  two  receiving  the  drainage  of  the  State. 
The  Missouri  River  springs  from  three  main  head- 
streams  in  the  extreme  southwestern  portion  and 
in  Yellowstone  Park.  It  flows  first  northward 
along  the  eastern  base  of  the  mountains,  then 
eastward  through  the  great  plains  to  the  eastern 
boundary,  just  beyond  which  it  receives  its  first 
large  tributary,  the  Yellowstone,  which  drains 
the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  State.  The  Clark 
Fork  of  the  Columbia  River,  with  its  two  main 
branches,  the  Missoula  and  the  Flathead,  drains 
the  great  western  basin,  the  latter  branch  flowing 
through  Flathead  Lake,  the  only  lake  of  consid- 
erable size  in  the  State.  Both  the  Missouri  and 
the  Yellowstone  are  navigable  for  small  boats 
more  than  300  miles  from  the  boundary,  and  the 
Clark  Fork  is  also  navigable  for  some  distance 
into  Montana.  The  railroads,  however,  have  sup- 
planted the  rivers  as  means  of  communication. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  in  general  very  dry, 
liealthful,  and  exhilarating.  There  is  a  great  an- 
nual range  of  temperature,  in  general  from  30** 
and  40**  Selow  zero  to  over  100**  above.  At  some 
stations  the  temperature  has  been  more  than  60** 
below  zero,  while  the  same  locality  may  have 
an  annual  range  of  over  150^.  The  average  mean 
temperature  for  the  State  is  70**  for  the  warmest 
and  11**  for  the  coldest  month.  The  extreme 
cold  of  winter  is  often  tempered  by  the  warm 
and  dry  chinooka  (q.v.),  which  blow  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  from  the  mountain  ranges  and 
absorb  a  large  amount  of  moisture  from  the  snow 
they  melt.  Blizzards  occur  only  in  the  eastern 
plains,  and  tornadoes  are  unknown.  The  rain- 
fall is  generally  insufiicient  to  support  agricul- 
ture  without  irrigation,  amounting  to  only  about 
12  inches  per  annum. 

Soil  and  Veqetatiow.  The  principal  valleys 
are  characterized  by  fine  level  meadows  with  a 
rich  loamy  soil,  and  are  occupied  by  extensive 
cattle  ranges.  The  eastern  plains  are  almost 
treeless  prairies,  the  river  courses  alone  being 
fringed  with  willow,  cottonwood,  and  similar 
trees.  There  are  extensive  forests  of  conifers  in 
the  mountain  region  of  the  western  half  of  the 
State,  amounting  in  1900  to  about  42,000  square 
miles,  or  29  per  cent,  of  the  State's  area.  A 
considerable  portion  of  this,  however,  has  been 
burned  over.  The  National  Government  has 
reserved  forest  areas  within  the  State  amounting 
(1907)  to  27,101  square  miles.  The  product  in 
1905  was  valued  at  $3,024,674.  Yellow  pine,  red 
fir,  and  tamarack  are  the  principal  varieties. 

For  Fauna,  see  paragraphs  under  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  United  States. 

Geology  and  Minerals.  The  eastern  and 
western  halves  of  the  State  differ  widely  in  their 
geological  structure.  The  eastern  plains  consist 
mainly  of  undisturbed  strata  of  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  rocks,  the  latter  forming  the  extreme 
eastern  portion.  Narrow  belts  of  Jurassic  and 
Carboniferous  rocks  skirt  the  Cretaceous  forma- 
tions on  the  west  along  the  base  of  the  mountains. 
The  mountainous  half  has  a  complex  structure, 
with  much  folding  and  faulting.  In  the  south 
the  Archffian  granite  cores  and  outpourings  of 
Tertiary  lava  predominate  on  the  surface,  while 
north  of  the  Missouri  the  main  range  is  synclinal, 
the  peaks  being  of  Paleozoic  formation. 

Building  materials  such  as  limestone,  slate, 
granite,  sands,  and  clay  are  abundant,  and  there 

You  XI1I.-48. 


are  large  deposits  of  marble  of  various  hues. 
Bituminous  coal  is  found  along  the  eastern 
base  of  the  mountains,  and  extensive  beds  of 
lignite  exist  in  the  east  along  the  Missouri  and 
Yellowstone  rivers,  while  petroleum  is  also  found. 
Copper  is  very  abundant,  and  lead,  iron,  and  sil- 
ver ores  also  exist,  the  silver  generally  in  con- 
junction with  the  copper;  gold  has  been  found  in 
great  quantities  in  many  parts  of  the  State. 
Around  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri  and  Yel- 
lowstone there  are  numerous  hot  springs  and 
geysers. 

Mining.  The  prosperity  of  Montana  has  been 
due  largely  to  tne  development  of  its  mineral 
resources.  Within  a  radius  of  two  miles  of 
Butte  City,  an  annual  value  of  $50,000,000  worth 
of  copper,  silver,  and  gold  was  mined  1900  0. 
The  copper  output  of  the  State  for  1906  was  169,- 
969  long  tons,  as  against  411,000  for  the  whole 
United  States,  this  being  about  20  per  cent,  of 
the  product  of  the  world.  The  State  stands 
second,  and  is  a  close  rival  to  Colorado  in  the 
production  of  silver.  The  output  of  silver  in 
1906  was  15,463,470  fine  ounces.  Silver,  as  also 
gold,  is  obtained  from  the  same  mines  as  copper. 
Montana  ranks  fifth  as  a  gold-mining  State,  and 
its  -output  has  had  an  annual  value  of  about 
$4,500,000  since  1897.  Since  1895  the  product  of 
the  coal  mines  has  averaged  1,600,000  tons  annu- 
ally. The  annual  production  of  lead  stood  at 
about  10,000  short  tons  from  1894  to  1900;  it 
has  since  decreased,  being  3200  tons  in  1905. 
Sapphires  of  a  superior  quality  are  found,  the 
stones  being  the  most  valuable  of  any  of  the 
precious  stones  mined  in  the  United  States. 

Agriculture.  In  that  part  of  the  State  lying 
west  of  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
the  rainfall  is  generally  sufficient  for  agricul- 
tural purposes.  East  of  this  range,  however,  the 
rainfall  is,  as  a  rule,  inadequate,  and  purely  agri- 
cultural pursuits  can  be  carried  on  with  profit 
only  in  those  sections  where  irrigation  is  possible. 
The  numerous  streams  supply  an  abundance  of 
water  which  may  be  utilized  for  irrigation,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  it  will  be  possible  to  reclaim 
one-fifth  of  the  total  area  of  the  State.  Already 
considerable  land  has  been  brought  under  irriga- 
tion by  the  construction  of  numerous  small  tem- 
porary ditches;  and  large  canals  of  a  more  per- 
manent nature,  and  affecting  more  extensive 
areas,  are  being  constructed.  The  irrigated  area 
increased  from  351,000  acres  in  1890  to  951,000 
in  1900,  w^hen  it  was  56  per  cent,  of  the  improved 
farm  area,  and  to  1,500,000  acres  in  1906.  The 
irrigated  region  is  mainly  in  the  southwest 
quarter  of  the  State,  the  supply  being  obtained 
from  the  tributary  headwaters  of  the  Missouri 
and  from  the  Yellowstone  River.  Projex'tH  now 
(1906)  being  advanced  by  the  United  States 
Reclamation  Service  in  the  various  river  valleys 
of  the  State  will  increase  the  irrigable  area  by 
1,489,800  acres.  The  average  cost  per  acre  for 
the  construction  of  ditches  was  the  remarkably 
low  figure  of  $4.89,  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  majority  of  the  ditches  are  of  private  owner- 
ship, and  without  expensive  dams  and  headgates. 
Large  grazing  areas  are  included  in  the  farms 
of  the  State,  and  the  average  size  of  farms  is 
therefore  exceptionally  large — 885.9  acres  for  the 
entire  State — but  varying  from  174  acres  in  Car- 
bon County  to  3093  in  Yellowstone  County. 

The  great  development  of  the  mining  industry 
created  an  excellent  home  market,  afforded  the 


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principal  impetus  to  the  growth  of  agriculture, 
and  determined  in  part  the  region  of  its  develop- 
ment. Hay  is  the  principal  crop,  its  acreage 
being  almost  twice  that  of  any  other  crop. 
Alfalfa  and  clover  are  the  principal  varieties  of 
tame  hay  grown.  Oats,  wheat,  and  barley  yield 
abundant  crops.  Com  is  but  little  grown,  owing 
to  the  short  siimmer  season  and  cool  nights. 
The  acreage  of  flax  in  1906  was  24,855.  Potatoes 
are  a  favorite  crop.  The  acreage  of  sugar  beets 
in  1906  was  6200.  The  apple  and  other  temperate 
zone  fruit*  flourish  and  are  largely  cultivated, 
(^n  the  whole  a  greater  variety  of  products  can 
be  raised  than  can  be  on  the  plains  to  the  east. 

Stock-Raisino.  Until  recently  stock-raising 
had  largely  monopolized  the  interest  of  the 
agriculturists.  This  industry  is  still  advancing, 
though  it  is  of  less  relative  importance  than 
formerly.  The  State  greatly  exceeds  any  other 
in  the  number  of  sheep  and  in  the  production  of 
wool.  Formerly,  the  males  were  shipped  to 
Eastern  States  to  be  fed  for  the  market,  but  with 
the  increased  production  of  alfalfa  it  is  being 
found  possible  to  fatten  them  within  the  State. 
The  number  of  cattle  has  also  shown  a  consider- 
able increase,  and  the  breed  has  greatly  im- 
proved. The  herds  are  not  so  large  as  formerly, 
but  are  more  numerous.  Much  attention  is  also 
given  to  the  raising  of  horses  for  the  Eastern 
market.  Although  the  State  is  far  north,  no 
great  inconvenience  is  ordinarily  experienced  on 
account  of  the  weather.  In  sheltered  valleys 
cattle  and  horses  roam  all  winter,  and  the  per- 
centage of  loss,  except  in  unusual  seasons,  is 
small.  The  tendency  of  the  snow  to  drift  leaves 
large  areas  of  grass  exposed,  enabling  the  stock 
to  feed  without  assistance.  Sheep  often  require 
hay  and  some  protection  from  storms. 

In  the  following  comparative  tables  will  be 
seen  the  relative  importance  of  the  principal 
farm  product  (in  acres)  and  varieties  of  do- 
mestic animals,  and  the  changes  which  occurred 
in  the  first  six  years  of  this  century: 


Hay 

Wheat.. 

OftU 

Barley.. 

Corn 

Potatoes 


1900 


190G 


876.712 
92,132 
133,938 
22,»48 
3,301 
9,C13 


373.827 
137,389 
196,802 

14,313 
3,980 

14,099 


Dairy  cows.. 
Other  cattle 

Horses 

Mules  and 

Bheep  

Swine 


1900 


45,03« 

923,351 

329,972 

2,867 

4,215,214 

49.49G 


1906 


61,634 

964.679 

239,149 

3,561 

6,751.746 

69,896 


Manufactures.  The  State  is  too  recently  set- 
tled for  manufacturing  to  have  become  normally 
developed,  being  as  yet  limited  largely  to  purely 
domestic  industries.  The  census  of  1900  showed 
1080  establishments  with  10,117  wage-earners  and 
products  valued  at  $57,075,824.  In  1905,  382 
of  these  establishments,  with  8957  wage-earners, 
manufactured  products  valued  at  $06,415,452. 
One  of  the  largest  copper  smelters  in  the  world  is 
at  Anaconda,  and  the  abundant  water  power, 
aff'orded  chiefly  by  the  Missouri,  has  also  served 
to  develop  this  industry  at  Butte,  Great  Falls,  and 


other  points.  Coke  is  manufactured  for  use  in 
the  reducing  works.  The  superior  quality  of  the 
barley  grown  has  stimulated  the  production  of 
malt  liquors.  Slaughtering,  the  manufacturing 
of  flour  and  grist  mill  products,  and  lumber  and 
timber  products  are  rapidly  developing. 

Tbanspobtation.  Colorado  alone  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  States  excels  Montana  in  railroad  fa- 
cilities. Two  lines,  the  Northern  Pacific  and 
the  Great  Northern,  completely  traverse  the 
State  from  east  to  west.  Each  of  these  has  a 
number  of  branch  lines  or  feeders.  There  are 
also  other  lines,  principally  in  the  western  part 
of  the  State.  Butte  is  exceptionally  well  pro- 
vided, being  the  centre  for  four  difl'erent  lines. 
The  total  mileage  for  the  State  (1906)  is  3370, 
an  increase  of  1159  miles  since  1890  and  of  325 
since  1900.  There  are  2.29  miles  of  railroad 
for  every  100  square  miles  of  territory,  and  114 
miles  for  every  10,000  inhabitants.  In  many  sec- 
tions stages  are  the  only  means  of  conveyance, 
and  in  mountain  regions  saddle  horses  and  pack 
mules  are  largely  used.  At  places  on  the  Yel- 
lowstone, flat-bottomed  ferry-boats  are  used,  at- 
tached by  ropes  and  pulleys  to  elevated  cables 
stretched  across  the  river. 

Banks.  Montana  has  a  stringent  banking 
law,  which  provides  for  the  organization  of  State 
banks,  trust  companies,  and  savings  banks  under 
the  strict  supervision  of  the  State  Auditor.  The 
national  bank  system  existed  before  Montana  was 
admitted  as  a  State.  The  first  national  bank 
was  organized  in  1867,  and  there  were  23  in 
1902.  State  (or  rather  Territorial)  banks  were 
fir.*t  organized  between  1880  and  1890. 

The  condition  of  the  various  banks  in  1906,  ex- 
clusive of  5  private  banks,  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


Number  of  banka. 

Capital 

Surplus. 

Cash,  etc 

Loans    

Deposits. 


National 


33 


93,070,000 

1,100,000 

2,007,000 

16,279,000 

24,032,000 


»7 


$2,270,000 

468,000 

1,702,000 

11,184,000 

15,882,000 


Government.  The  present  Constitution  is  the 
only  one  the  State  has  had,  and  was  adopted  in 
1889.  An  amendment  may  be  secured  if  approved 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members  elected  to 
each  House  and  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  people. 
By  the  same  methods  a  constitutional  convention 
may  be  called.  Voters  must  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States  who  have  resided  in  the  State  one 
year,  and  in  the  local  districts  as  required  by  law. 
The  sufi'rage  is  denied  unpardoned  felons  and 
idiots  or  insane  persons.  Women  vote  at  school 
district  elections  and  are  eligible  to  the  office  of 
school  superintendent.  Women  who  pay  taxes 
may  vote  upon  such  questions  as  are  specifically 
submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  taxpayers.  By  an 
amendment  approved  in  November,  1906,  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  use  of  the  initiative  and 
referendum  in  legislation. 

The  Senate  consists  of  26  members  elected  for 
a  term  of  four  years,  and  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives is  composed  of  72  members  elected  for 
a  term  of  two  years.  The  Legislature  meets  every 
two  years  and  its  sessions  are  limited  to  sixty 
days. 


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Revenue  bills  originate  with  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. 

ExECUTiVB.  A  Governor,  Lieutenant-Governor, 
Secretary  of  State,  Attorney-General,  Treasurer, 
Auditor,  and  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion are  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  each. 
The  Governor's  veto  is  overridden  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  House.  He  grants  pardons,  etc., 
subject  to  the  approval  of  a  Board  of  Pardons. 
The  Lieutenant-Governor,  President  of  the  Sen- 
ate, and  Speaker  of  the  House  are  respectively 
in  the  line  of  succession  to  the  Governorship,  in 
case  of  the  vacancy  of  that  oflSce. 

Judiciary.  There  is  a  Supreme  Court  of  three 
members,  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years.  There 
are  district  courts  in  districts  created  by  the 
Legislature,  in  each  district,  one  or  more  judges 
being  elected  for  a  period  of  four  years.  Each 
township  elects  two  justices  of  the  peace,  who 
serve  two  years.  Each  county  elects  a  county 
attorney. 

Local.  In  each  county  three  commissioners 
are  elected  for  six  years.  Other  county  officers 
are  elected  for  two  years,  as  follows :  clerk,  sher- 
iflf,  treasurer,  school  superintendent,  surveyor,  as- 
sessor,  coroner,  and  public  administrator. 

The  State  has  a  local  option  law ;  the  legal  rate 
of  interest  is  10  per  cent. ;  any  rate  is  allowed  by 
contract,  and  there  is  no  penalty  for  usury.  The 
capital  is  Helena.  The  State  has  one  Representa- 
tive in  the  National  Congress. 

MnjTiA.  The  population  of  militia  age  in 
1900  was  83,574.  The  number  of  the  militia  in 
1006  was  421. 

Finances.  The  budget  of  Montana  before  ad- 
mission to  Statehood  was  a  very  limited  one, 
ranging  from  $30,000  to  $50,000.  Montana  has 
no  fimded  debt.  The  unpaid  registered  warrants 
are,  however,  interest-bearing  and,  for  a  few 
weeks  before  the  annual  taxes  become  delinquent, 
they  sometimes  amount  to  several  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars.  Several  State  institutions  issue 
bonds  secured  by  the  several  land  grants,  but  the 
State  is  not  responsible  for  the  interest  or  prin- 
cipal of  these  bonds,  and  they  therefore  do  not 
constitute  a  State  debt.  The  receipts  have 
grown  rapidly,  and  in  1906  amounted  to  $2,174,- 
362,  which  was  divided  into  more  than  twenty- 
five  different  funds,  sixteen  of  which  are  for 
schools  and  universities.  The  income  is  derived 
from  a  general  property  tax  (50  per  cent.),  sale 
of  lands  ( 25  per  cent. ) ,  licenses  ( 10  per  cent. ) , 
etc.  The  expenditures  were  $1,979,814.  The 
balance  on  hand,  December  1,  1906,  was  $840,- 
191,  of  which  sum  about  75  per  cent,  belonged  to 
various  school  funds. 

Population.  The  following  shows  £he  popula- 
tion by  decades :  1870,20,595;  1880,39,159;  1890, 
132,159;  1900,243,329;  1906  (federal  est.),  373,- 
675.  Most  of  the  people  live  in  the  western  or 
mining  section  of  the  State.  There  is  a  large 
excess  of  the  male  sex.  The  total  foreign-born 
(1900)  numbered  67,067.  In  1900  Butte  had  a 
population  of  30,470;  Great  Falls,  14,930;  Helena, 
10,770;  Anaconda,  9453.  Federal  estimates  of 
their  population  in  1906  were:  Butte,  with  sub- 
urbs, 43,624;  Great  Falls,  21,500;  Helena,  16,770; 
Anaconda,  12,267. 

Indians.  The  tribal  Indians,  chiefly  Crows, 
Blackfeet,  Yankton  Sioux,  Assiniboins,  Gros 
Ventres,  and  Pend  d'Oreilles,  are  located  on  six 
reservations,  embracing  an  area  of  14,845  square 
miles  of  fine  agricultural  and  grazing  land,  of 


which  only  a  small  portion  is  cultivated.  They 
are  making  some  progress,  but  their  first  efforts 
have  been  attended  with  a  great  deal  of  waste 
and  of  misdirected  energy.  They  are  reckless  in 
the  use  of  farm  machinery,  and  often  unskillful 
in  irrigation.  The  Crow  reservation  of  1520 
square  miles  was  opened  to  settlement  in  1906. 

Reugion.  The  majority  of  the  Church  popu- 
lation belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  Methodists,  Presbyterians,  Episcopalians,  and 
other  denominations  also  have  a  following. 

Education.  In  1900,  6.1  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation above  ten  years  of  age  was  illiterate.  The 
educational  system  of  the  State  has  the  advan- 
tage of  a  liberal  financial  support.  By  act  of 
Congress,  two  sections  out  of  every  township,  be- 
sides certain  other  public  lands  and  public  land 
revenues,  are  set  apart  for  educational  purposes. 
The  average  length  of  140  days  for  the  school 
term  is  a  creditable  showing,  but  it  is  represen- 
tative only  of  the  towns  and  more  thickly  popu- 
lated centres,  there  being  large  numbers  of  scnools 
in  the  sparsely  settled  rural  districts  having 
much  shorter  school  terms.  A  law  passed  in  1903 
made  education  compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  fourteen  for  the  full  schooling  period. 
High  schools  are  established  when  the  electors  of 
the  county  demand  them,  and  twelve  counties 
have  thus  provided  themselves.  In  1906  the 
census  registered  72,498  children,  48,744  of  whom 
were  enrolled  in  the  public  schools,  the  average 
daily  attendance  being  34,738.  The  total  expen- 
ditures for  the  public  schools  in  1906  was  $1,- 
745,106.  The  teachers  numbered  1741,  the  aver- 
age monthly  salary  of  male  teachers  being  $87.30, 
and  of  female  teachers,  $56.07.  The  State  main- 
tains the  following  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing: State  University,  at  Missoula;  Agricultural 
College,  at  Bozeman;  School  of  Mines,  at  Butte 
City;  and  a  Normal  College,  at  Dillon. 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  The 
State  Board  of  Charities  and  Reform  consists  of 
three  members.  There  is  a  State  Orphans*  Home 
at  Twin  Bridges,  a  State  Soldiers*  Home  at  Co- 
lumbia Falls,  and  a  school  for  the  deaf  and  the 
blind  at  Boulder  (attendance  of  deaf  and  blind 
children  is  compulsory).  The  State  Insane  Asy- 
lum at  Warm  Springs  is  operated  under  contract, 
at  the  rate  of  65  cents  per  diem  per  capita.  The 
number  thus  cared  for  increased  from  195  in 
1892  to  788  in  1906.  There  is  a  State  reforma- 
tory at  Miles  City.  The  State  penitentiary  is 
at  Deer  Lodge,  where  the  convicts  are  employed 
according  to  the  public  accounts  system.  The 
prisoners  on  Jan.  1,  1906,  numbered  462. 

HiSTOBT.  The  Sieur  de  la  Verendrye  is  said 
to  have  traversed  the  region  now  included  in  the 
State  of  Montana  in  1742.  In  1804  the  Lewis 
and  Clark  expedition  crossed  Montana  from  the 
northeast  to  the  extreme  southwest,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year,  on  their  return  journey  from  the 
Pacific  Coast,  descended  the  Missouri  and  the 
Yellowstone  in  two  parties,  meeting  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  rivers  near  the  present  eastern  boun- 
dary  of  Montana.  Trading  posts  were  erected  on 
the  Yellowstone  River  by  Manuel  Lisa  in  1809, 
William  H.  Ashley  in  1822,  and  the  American 
Fur  Company  in  1829.  In  1840  Father  Peter 
John  de  Smet  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  began  mis- 
sion work  among  the  Flathead  Indians,  and  this 
was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  a  perma-  . 
nent  mission  among  the  Indians  of  Bitter  Root 
Valley  in  September,   1841.     Fort  Benton  was 


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founded  by  the  American  Fur  Company  in  1846. 
Gold  was  discovered  as  early  as  1862  by  Fran- 
cois Finlay,  a  half-breed,  near  the  Hellgate  River, 
but  the  discovery  aroused  little  attention  till 
1857,  when  John  Silverthom  appeared  at  Fort 
Benton  with  a  large  quantity  of  gold  dust  which 
he  had  obtained  in  the  mountains.  In  the  winter 
of  1860  James  and  Granville  Stuart  settled  on 
t3k>ld  Creek  in  the  Deer  Lodge  Valley,  attracted 
by  the  rumors  of  gold  in  that  region,  and  in  the 
following  year  they  commenced  mining  on  a 
small  scale,  having  been  joined  in  the  meanwhile 
by  three  other  pioneers.  Rich  placers  were  soon 
discovered  at  various  points  in  tne  mountains  and 
an  active  immigration  set  in,  mining  settlements 
springing  up  at  Bannack  City  on  Grasshopper 
Creek,  on  the  Bighole  River,  and  on  North 
BouMer  Creek.  In  May,  1863,  gold  was  dis- 
covered at  Fair  weather  Gulch,  near  Alder  Creek. 
The  town  of  Virginia  City  sprang  up  near  the 
spot,  and  within  a  year  it  had  a  population  of 
4000.  In  1863  the  Territory  of  Idaho,  including 
the  present  Montana,  was  set  off  from  Washing- 
ton and  Dakota,  and  on  May  22,  1864,  the  Terri- 
tory of  Montana  was  erected  from  land  taken 
from  Idaho.  The  early  settlers  were  naturally 
of  a  reckless  and  lawless  character  and,  as  a  re- 
sult, for  a  considerable  length  of  time  life  and 
property  were  in  jeopardy.  The  existing  state  of 
affairs  was,  however,  remedied  by  the  stem  ad- 
ministration .introduced  by  the  establishment  of 
vigilance  committees.  The  Montana  Post,  the 
Arst  newspaper  in  the  Territory,  was  published 
at  Virginia  City  in  1865.  In  1874  the  seat  of 
government  was  removed  from  Virginia  City  to 
Helena.  On  June  25,  1876,  occurred  the  disas- 
trous fight  between  General  Cu&ter  and  t\.3  Sioux 
Indians  under  Sitting  Bull  on  the  Little  Big  Horn 
River. 

The  prosperity  of  the  Territory  was  increased 
by  the  completion  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Rail- 
road in  1883,  surveys  for  the  route  having  been 
made  as  early  as  1853  by  Isaac  I.  Stevens  under 
authority  of  Congress.  About  1880  began  the 
development  of  silver  and  copper  mining,  which 
soon  surpassed  in  importance  the  gold-mining 
industry,  the  value  of  the  output  of  the  two 
metals  rising  from  $1,000,000  for  both  in  1880  to 
more  than  $18,000,000  for  silver  and  nearly  $37,- 
000,000  for  copper  in  1901.  In  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, 1884,  a  constitutional  convention  framed  a 
Constitution  which  "was  ratified  by  the  people  in 
November,  and  application  was  made  to  Congress 
for  admission  into  the  Union.  No  action  was 
taken,  however,  until  February,  1889,  when  an 
enabling  act  was  passed  by  Congress.  On  No- 
vember 8,  1889,  Montana  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  by  proclamation  of  the  President  after  a 
State  Constitution  had  been  framed  and  State  of- 
ficers elected.  From  the  first  politics  in  Montana 
were  marked  by  a  spirit  of  bitter  partisanship, 
which  led  to  frequent  delays  in  legislation.  In 
January,  1891,  the  dispute  between  two  rival 
legislatures  was  settled  only  by  a  conscienceless 
bargain  between  the  Democrats  and  the  Repub- 
licans. The  influence  of  the  great  mining  corpor- 
ations has  also  proved  a  source  of  political  evil. 
In  national  elections  Montana  was  Republican  in 
1802;  fusion  of  Democrats  and  Populists  in  1896 
and  1900;  and  Republican  in  1904.  The  Govern- 
ors of  the  Territory  and  State  of  Montana  have 
been  as  follows: 


TKBBITOBIAL 

Sidney  Edgerton l«i« 

Thomas  V.  Meagher  (acting) 1866-66 

Green  Clay  Smith 18«6^ 

James  M.  Ashley 1869-70 

Benjamin  F.  Potts 187088 

John  8.  Crosby 1883-84 

B.  Piatt  Carpenter 18»4-86 

Samuel  T.  Hauner 1886-86 

H.  P.  Leslie 18e*« 

Benjamin  F.  White 188» 

STATE 

Joseph  K.  Toole Democrat 188MJ 

John  E.  Rick arde Republican 18W-9T 

Robert  B.  Smith Democrat  and  Populist..  1897-1901 

Joseph  K.  Toole "  *•  "       1»1  — 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  United  States  Geographical 
and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories  (Wash- 
ington, 1872-74)  ;  Mineral  Resources  of  the 
United  States  (Washington,  1892);  Montana 
Agriculture,  Labor,  and  Industry  Bureau  Annual 
Report  (Helena,  1893  et  seq.)  ;  Montana  Histor- 
ical Society  Contributions  (ib.,1877  et  seq.)  ;  Ban- 
croft, The  Northwest  Coast  {S&n  Francisco,  1884) ; 
id.,  Washington,  Idaho,  Montana  (ib.,  1890). 

MONTANA,  UNTVEBsmr  of.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  at  Missoula,  Mont.,  founded  in 
1895.  It  maintains  a  preparatory  department, 
departments  of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts, 
a  school  of  engineering,  and  oflTers  graduate 
courses,  leading  respectively  to  the  degrees  of 
B.A.,  B.S.,  M.A.,  and  M.S.  There  is  also  a  summer 
school  of  science  and  a  biological  station.  Tui- 
tion is  free.  The  university  had  in  1906-7  a  stu- 
dent enrollment  of  360  and  22  instructors.  The  li- 
brary contained  16,000  volumes.  The  endowment 
consists  of  72  sections  of  land  given  by  Congress 
in  1892.  The  income  fund  arises  from  the  ren- 
tal of  lands  unsold,  from  licenses  to  cut  trees, 
and  from  the  interest  on  the  proceeds  of  the  sales 
of  lands  invested  in  the  permanent  university 
fund,  which  is  applied  to  the  payment  of  bonds 
issued  in  1897  for  the  construction  and  equipment 
of  buildings.  The  income  for  maintenance 
amounted  in  1906  to  $65,000.  The  value  of  the 
property  was  $250,000,  including  a  campus  of  40 
acres  and  buildings  valued  at  $140,000. 

HONTANELLI,  m6n'tA-n$ia«,  GirsEFPe 
(1813-62).  An  Italian  author  and  statesman, 
bom  at  Fucecchio,  January  21,  1813.  He  studied 
law  at  Pisa  and  began  to  practice  there,  compos- 
ing meanwhile  the  verses  which  appeared  in  a 
small  volume  at  Florence  in  1837.  He  became 
professor  of  commercial  law  in  the  University  of 
Pisa,  identified  himself  with  the  Liberal  Party 
there,  and  with  two  cooperators  founded  L'ltalia, 
a  periodical.  After  the  rising  of  1849  he  became 
one  of  a  triumvirate  which  also  included  Guer- 
razzi  and  Mazzini.  When  the  dictatorship  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Guerrazzi,  Montanelli  went 
on  a  mission  to  Paris,  where  he  remained,  prac- 
tically in  exile,  for  some  ten  years.  During  this 
period  he  wrote  a  number  of  his  works:  a 
poem,  La  tentazione;  a  tragedy,  Camma;  and  a 
few  political  and  historical  treatises ;  the  Schiar- 
imenti  nel  processo  politico  contro  il  ministero 
democratico  (1852);  the  Appunti  storici  sulla 
rivoluzione  italiana  (1859)  ;  and  the  most  note- 
worthy of  all  his  writings,  the  Memorie  sulV 
Italia  e  specialmente  sulla  Toscana  dal  ISlk  al 
1849  (1853).  He  returned  to  Italy  in  1859  and 
advocated  the  formation  of  a  central  Italian 
kingdom.  He  was  a  deputy  to  the  Tuscan  As- 
epinbly,  but  there  he  accomplished  little,  lor  all 


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MONTAXJBAN. 


parties  looked  upon  him  with  distrust  and  he 
found  himself  with  hardly  any  adherents.  In 
L*Impero,  il  papato  e  la  democrazia  in  Italia 
(1859)  he  defended  his  own  standpoint.  Having 
founded  the  short-lived  Nuova  Europa,  he  entered 
the  Italian  Parliament  in  1861,  and  died  June 
17,  1862.  Consult:  Redi,  Ricordo  hiografieo  di 
Giuseppe  Montanelli  (Florence,  1883)  ;  Proven- 
zal.  Alia  cara  memoria  di  Giuseppe  Montanelli 
(Leghorn,  1862). 

T/LOTSTTASbS,  mAn-ta'ny&8,  Martinez  Juan 
(?-1649).  A  Spanish  sculptor  in  wood,  bom 
probably  at  Alcal&  la  Heal.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Pablo  de  Kojas  in  Granada,  and  afterwards 
worked  in  Seville.  His  sculptures  there  include 
a  "Conception,"  in  the  Cathedral,  an  altar  with 
figures  of  saints  and  a  life  size  "CHirist  on  the 
Cross,'*  in  the  University  Church,  and  some 
statues  in  the  gallery  of  the  city.  These  are 
fine  examples  of  his  art,  which  is  notable  for 
purity  of  style  and  beauty  of  expression.  In 
1635  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  made  a  model 
for  an  equestrian  statue  of  Philip  IV.,  and  where 
Velazquez  painted  his  portrait,  which  is  now  in 
the  Prado  Museum. 

MONTA'NTTS(Lat.,  from  Gk.  Moi^av6s,  Mon- 
tanos).  A  Phrygian  convert  to  Christianity  about 
156.  He  is  said  to  have  been  formerly  a  priest  of 
Cy bele  ( q.v. ) .  He  undertook  to  restore  the  faith 
and  practice  of  the  primitive  Church,  but  was 
finally  excluded  from  fellowship  as  a  heretic. 
Montanus  taught  that  direct  divine  revelation  still 
continued, and  that  he  himself  was  the  mouthpiece, 
of  the  Paraclete,  promised  in  John  xiv.  16. 
Hence  his  movement  is  often  called  the  'new 
propheov.*  He  revived  the  primitive  conception 
of  the  speedy  return  of  Christ  to  earth,  to  es- 
tablish His  kingdom,  and  the  elect  were  sum- 
moned to  gather  at  the  Phrygian  village  of 
Pepuza,  there  to  await  their  Lord.  In  view  of 
the  immediate  end  of  the  present  age,  asceticism 
was  their  rule  of  life,  and  martyrdom  was  courted 
as  a  blessing  and  even  a  duty.  Montanus  in- 
sisted upon  strict  ecclesiastical  discipline,  thus 
rebuking  the  alleged  laxity  and  worldliness  in 
the  Church  at  large.  He  declared  it  wrong  to 
grant  forgiveness  of  mortal  sin,  and  believed  that 
the  holiness  of  the  Church  could  be  preserved  only 
by  excluding  all  ofTenders  from  membership.  He 
denied  that  the  hierarchy  possessed  any  right  or 
power  to  restore  holiness  when  it  had  been  for- 
feited through  sin,  and  thus  he  took  his  stand 
against  the  theory  of  sacramental  grace.  Close- 
ly associated  with  Montanus  were  two  women, 
Prisca  (or  Priscilla)  and  Maximilla,  supposed 
to  be  endowed  like  himself  with  the  spirit 
of  ecstatic  prophecy.  Like  the  'spiritual 
gifts'  of  the  Apostolic  age  (cf.  I.  Cor.  xii.), 
the  prophetic  spirit  might  rest  upon  any  one,  and 
this  divine  equipment  marked  out  the  leaders 
of  the  CJhurch.  Revelation  was  imparted  without 
any  activity  on  the  prophet's  part;  he  was  pas- 
sive like  the  lyre  when  struck  with  the  plectrum. 
Maximilla  was  held  to  be  the  last  of  the  prophets. 
She  died  in  179.  Montanus's  death  was  earlier, 
but  the  exact  year  is  unknown.  The  Montanists 
spread  rapidly,  and  Asiatic  synods  were  early 
held  against  them.  They  were  known  in  Rome 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Soter  (165-174),  who 
pronounced  an  adverse  judgment  upon  their 
claims,  as  did  several  of  his  successors.  They 
were  excluded  from  the  Catholic  Church,  and  or- 


ganized A8  a  separate  body.  Their  most  distin« 
guished  convert  was  Tertullian  (q.v.),  whose 
later  writings  are  the  chief  literary  monuments 
of  the  Montanist  movement.  Excluded  from  the 
Catholic  Church,  the  Montanists  did  not  long 
survive  in  the  West,  but  in  the  East  they  are 
found  as  late  as  the  sixth  century,  when  Justin- 
ian finally  suppressed  them. 

Consult  the  later  writings  of  Tertullian,  trans- 
lated into  English  in  The  Ante-Nioene  Fathers, 
edited  by  Roberts  and  Donaldson,  American  edi- 
tion, vols.  iii.  and  iv. ;  Bonwetsch,  Geschichte  des 
Montanismus  (Erlangen,  1881)  ;  Hamack,  His- 
tory of  Dogma,  vol.  ii.  (London,  1896)  ;  Smith 
and  Wace,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography, 
article  "Montanus"  (London,  1877-87)  ;  Raing, 
The  Ancient  Catholic  Church  (New  York,  1902). 

MONTABOIS,  mON'tar'zh^.  The  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Loiret, 
France,  75  miles  south  of  Paris  by  rail,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Loing  and  the  Vernisson,  and 
at  the  junction  of  three  canals  connecting  the 
Seine  and  the  Loire  ( Map :  France,  N.,  H  5 ) .  Among 
its  chief  buildings  are  the  thirteenth-century 
Church  of  La  Madeleine,  the  town  hall  contain- 
ing an  art  gallery,  and  the  remains  of  the  former 
imposing  twelfth-century  castle,  which  was  capa- 
ble of  accommodating  6000  men.  A  bronze  monu- 
mental group  commemorates  the  *Dog  of  Mon- 
targis,'  who  is  said  to  have  revealed  his  master's 
murderer  by  constantly  following  him;  a  fight 
between  the  suspect  and  the  dog,  suggested  by 
Charles  V.,  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  criminal, 
who  confessed  and  was  executed.  ( See  Aubby  de 
MoNTDiDiEB.)  There  are  considerable  manufac- 
tures of  paper,  cotton  goods,  and  cutlery,  and  a 
good  trade  in  grain,  wax,  and  honey.  Anciently, 
Montargis  was  the  capital  of  Gatinais.  During 
the  English  occupation  it  was  attacked  on  several 
occasions,  and  successfully  resisted  a  siege  in 
1427.  Until  the  palace  at  Fontainebleau  was 
built,  the  castle  at  Montargis  was  a  favorite 
royal  residence  and  became  known  as  "the  Cradle 
of  the  Children  of  France."  Population,  in  1901, 
12,351. 

MONTAUBAN,  mON't^-bUN^  The  capital  of 
the  Department  of  Tam-et-Garonne,  France,  situ- 
ated on  an  elevation  above  the  river  Tarn,  in  a 
rich  and  beautiful  coimtry,  31  miles  north  of 
Toulouse  (Map:  France,  S.,  F  4).  It  is  a  hand- 
some, well-built  town,  has  a  Renaissance  cathe- 
dral finished  in  1739,  a  Protestant  theological 
college,  a  public  library,  and  a  splendid  museum 
in  the  town  hall,  the  ancient  castle  of  the  counts 
of  Toulouse.  Cloth,  sugar,  and  metal  ware  are 
manufactured  and  there  is  a  trade  in  horses, 
grain,  oil,  and  wine.  Montauban  originated  in 
the  Abbey  of  Saint  Th^odard  or  Montauriol,  built 
in  the  eighth  century  on  the  site  of  the  Roman 
Mons  Albanus.  The  town's  growth  dates  from 
its  opening  up  in  1144  by  Count  Alphonse  of 
Toulouse  as  a  refuge  for  serfs.  It  suffered  severe- 
ly during  the  Albigensian  wars  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  It  was  an  episcopal  see  from  1317  to 
1560,  when  the  inhabitants  who  had  embraced 
the  Protestant  faith  destroyed  the  cathedral. 
As  one  of  the  Huguenot  strongholds,  it  was  a 
frequent  object  of  attack.  In  1621  it  was  un- 
successfully besieged  by  the  forces  of  Louis  XTII. 
for  eighty-six  days.  The  fall  of  La  Rochelle 
in  1629  entailed  its  submission  and  the  de- 
struction of  its  fortifications.     Ingres,  the  art- 


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752 


HOHTCALK. 


ist,  was  bom   at  Montauban.     Population,   in 
1901,  30,606. 

HONTAXTKy  m6n-tftk^  An  Algonauian  tribe 
formerly  inhabiting  the  eastern  end  of  Long  Isl- 
and, and  claiming  sovereignty  over  most  of  the 
other  tribes  of  the  island.  Their  principal  vil- 
lage was  near  Montauk  Point.  When  first  known 
they  were  a  numerous  people,  but  having  been 
reduced  by  a  pestilence  in  1658  to  about  600 
souls,  they  were  invaded  by  the  Narragansett  from 
the  mainland  and  forced  to  seek  shelter  among 
the  white  settlers  at  Easthampton.  A  century 
later  only  162  remained.  Many  of  these  joined 
a  kindred  band  in  New  York  about  1788,  and  in 
1829  only  about  30  were  left  on  Long  Island.  By 
1870  these  had  dwindled  to  about  a  half  dozen. 

HONTAUK  POINT.  A  promontory  at  the 
eastern  end  of  Long  Island,  in  Suffolk  Coimty, 
N.  Y.  (Map:  New  York,  J  5).  On  it  are  located 
a  stone  lighthouse,  170  feet  high;  a  Daboll  fog- 
trumpet  ;  and  a  United  States  life-saving  station. 
The  United  States  army  had  an  encampment  here 
during  the  Spanish- American  War.  It  was  named 
after  the  Montauk  Indians. 

MONTATJSIEB,  mON'tA'zyA^  Charles  dk 
Sainte-Maure,  Marquis  de  ( 1610-90) .  A  French 
soldier.  He  was  educated  at  Sedan,  rose  rapidly 
in  the  army,  and  in  1646  became  Governor  of 
Saintonge  and  Angoumois.  He  was  a  patron 
of  Boileau  and  Racine,  and  was  famed  for 
his  brusque  manners  and  his  austere  piety. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  was  the  original  of 
Moli^re*s  Misanthrope.  He  was  the  long-time 
suitor  of  Mile,  de  Rambouillet,  first  dame  d*hon- 
neur,  whom  he  married  and  for  whom  he  pre- 
pared the  Ouirlande  de  Juliet  a  book  of  unpub- 
lished autograph  verse  by  various  authors.  Mon- 
tausier  was  guardian  of  the  Dauphin  (1668-79). 

HONTB^LIABBy  mON'b&'lyar'.  The  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Doubs, 
France,  9  miles  southwest  of  Belfort  (Map: 
France,  N.,  M  5 ) .  It  lies  in  a  valley  between  the 
Vosges  and  Jura  mountains,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Allaine  and  the  Lisaine,  and  on  the  Rhone- 
Rhine  Canal.  The  strikingly  situated  castle, 
dating  from  the  fifteenth  century  and  largely 
rebuilt  in  the  eighteenth  century,  was  an  im- 
portant German  post  during  the  battle  of  H^ri- 
court  in  1871.  There  are  various  fortifications 
in  addition  to  the  castle.  Among  several  public 
statues  there  is  one  to  Cuvier,  the  naturalist, 
bom  here  in  1769.  The  principal  industries  are 
watchmaking  and  the  manufacture  of  hardware, 
silk  and  cotton  goods,  and  agricultural  instru- 
ments. Wine,  leather,  cheese,  and  the  famous 
*Montb^liard  cows*  are  exported.  Montb^liard 
belonged  to  WUrttemberg  from  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth  century  (with  intermissions)  down  to 
the  time  of  the  French  Revolutionary  wars. 
Population,  in  1900,  10,034,  chiefly  Protestants. 

HONT  BLANC,  m6N  blftN  (Fr.,  White  Moun- 
tain). The  highest  mountain  in  Europe  outside 
of  the  Caucasus.  It  forms  with  the  bordering 
heights  an  independent  elongated  ridge  of  the 
Western  Alps,  on  the  boimdary  between  France 
(Savoy)  and  Italy  (Piedmont)  (Map:  France, 
S.,  L  3 ) .  It  is  situated  a  short  distance  west  of 
the  Pennine  Alps  and  north  of  the  Graian  Alps, 
about  40  miles  south  of  Lake  Geneva.  It  is 
composed  of  crystalline  strata  which  exhibit  the 
fan-shaped  arrangement  characteristic  of  Alpine 
peaks.     The  highest  point   (15,781  feet),  gener- 


ally known  as  Mont  Blanc,  is  in  France,  7  miles 
south  of  the  Swiss  boundary.  It  is  covered  by  an 
immense  cap  of  ice  more  than  76  feet  thick,  from 
which  glaciers  extend  downward  in  all  directions, 
feeding  the  tributaries  of  the  Rhone  on  the  north 
and  of  the  Po  on  the  south.  The  largest  glaciers 
run  northward  into  the  Valley  of  Chamonix 
— the  chief  being  the  Glacier  du  G4ant,  which 
extends  almost  Ui  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  and 
is  known  in  its  lower  course  as  the  Mer  de  Glace. 
The  line  of  ]>erpetual  snow  is  at  an  altitude  of 
8600  feet.  The  summit  is  surrounded  by  a  series 
of  lower,  steep  and  needle-like  crags  (aiguilles) , 
and  the  ascent  is  dangerous  and  fatiguing, 
many  persons  having  perished  in  the  attempt. 
The  first  ascent  was  made  in  1786  by  the  guide 
Balmat,  induced  by  a  prize  offered  by  the 
scientist  Saussure,  who  himself  accomplished  the 
ascent  the  following  year  and  made  some  of  the 
earliest  scientific  observations  in  high  altitudes. 
The  summit  is  now  ascended  by  large  numbers 
of  tourists  every  year.  Two  meteorological  and 
astronomical  observatories  are  located  on  Mont 
Blanc,  one  built  in  1890  at  an  altitude  of  14,324 
feet,  the  other  built  in  1893  on  the  summit.  Con- 
sult: Doblhoff,  Der  Montblanc  (Vienna,  1880)  ; 
GUssfeldt,  Der  Montblanc  (Berlin,  1894);  Du- 
parc,  Le  Montblanc^  au  point  de  vue  g^ologique 
et  p^rographique  (Geneva,  1896)  ;  Durier,  Le 
Montblanc  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1897)  ;  Mathews,  The 
Annals  of  Mont  Blanc  (London,  1898)  ;  Whym- 
per,  Chamoniw  and  the  Range  of  Montblanc  (7th 
ed.,  London,  1902)  ;  and  the  authorities  referred 
to  under  Mountain  Climbing. 

MONTCALM  de  Saint- V£ban,  mON-k&lm'  de 
sflN  v&'rftN',  Louis  Joseph,  Marquis  de  (1712- 
59 ) .  A  distinguished  French  general  in  America. 
He  was  bom  at  Candiac,  near  Ntmes,  Febru- 
ary 29,  1712,  and  entered  the  army  at  the 
age  of  fourteen.  At  eighteen  he  was  a  cap- 
tain. He  served  in  Italy  and  Germany  for 
many  years,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Piacenza  in  1746.  In  May,  1756,  he  was 
sent  to  Canada  to  command  the  P^ench  forces. 
He  captured  Fort  Ontario  at  Oswego  in  August 
of  the  same  year.  The  next  year  he  forced  the 
capitulation  of  Fort  William  Henry  at  the  head 
of  Lake  George,  with  an  English  garrison  of  2500 
men,  capturing  42  guns  and  a  large  amount  of 
stores.  In  1758  he  defended  Fort  Ticonderoga 
with  3600  Canadians  against  General  Abercrom- 
by  at  the  head  of  15,000  English,  repulsing  the 
latter  after  a  determined  attack  (July  8th).  Lack 
of  troops,  ammunition,  and  provisions,  and  the 
large  reinforcements  of  the  English,  obliged 
Montcalm  to  retire  all  his  forces  the  following 
year  to  Quebec,  which  was  menaced  by  a  powerful 
army  under  General  Wolfe.  Ill  supported  by 
the  French  Government  and  forced  to  cope  with 
disaffection  among  the  authorities  in  Canada, 
Montcalm  foresaw  the  ultimate  downfall  of  the 
French  power  in  America,  but  prepared  to  meet 
it  with  a  heroic  determination  which  has  lent  so 
much  romantic  interest  to  his  last  days.  The 
struggle  around  Quebec  began  July  31,  1759,  and 
the  siege  continued  for  six  weeks  imtil  Wolfe's 
scaling  of  the  Heights  of  Abraham  above  the  city 
tempted  the  French  to  a  battle  in  the  field,  in 
which  the  English  were  victorious,  September  13, 
1759.  Wolfe  fell  dead  in  the  moment  of  victory, 
and  Montcalm  was  borne  from  the  field  mortally 
wounded  and  died  the  following  day.    The  city 


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753 


HONTE  CASSINO. 


was  surrendered  a  few  days  after  his  death,  and 
its  fall  signalized  the  end  of  the  French  power  in 
Canada,  in  1827  Grovemor  Dalhousie,  of  Canada, 
caused  a  monument  to  be  erected  in  Quebec  to 
the  joint  honor  of  the  two  brave  generals.  The 
best  work  on  Montcalm  is  by  Parkman,  Montcalm 
and  Wolfe  (Boston,  1885).  Consult  also:  Bonne- 
chose,  Montcalm  et  le  Canada  frangais  (Paris, 
1877)  ;  Falgairolle,  Montcalm  devant  la  po8t6rit^ 
<ib.,  1886). 

MONTCEAU-LES-MINES,  m<iN's6'l&'m6n'. 
A  town  of  Eastern  France,  in  the  Department  of 
SaOne-et-Loire,  situated  on  the  Canal  du  Centre, 
■31  miles  northwest  of  Mflcon.  It  is  the  centre  of 
■a  coal-mining  region  and  has  iron  foundries, 
machine  shops,  spinning  and  weaving  factories. 
Population,  in  1901,  9327 ;  of  commime,  28,779. 

MONT  CENIS,  mON  se-nfi'.  See  Cenis, 
Mont. 

MONTCHBESTIEN,  mON'kr&'tyllN',  An- 
TOINE  DE  (c.1576-1621).  A  French  playwright 
and  economist.  His  father  was  an  apotliecary. 
Having  left  his  birthplace,  Falaise,  the  lad 
went  to  the  College  of  Caen.  In  1596  he  pub- 
lished the  tragedy  of  Sophonisbe,  which  was 
followed  by  UEcossaise,  ou  Marie  Stuart;  Les 
Lac^nea;  David;  Aman;  a  revision  of  Sopho- 
mwfte  called  La  Carthaginoise;  and  Hector 
(1604).  Meanwhile  Montchrestien  was  working 
'On  a  history  of  Normandy,  which  was  never 
printed  and  is  now  lost.  A  duel  caused  him  to 
flee  to  England,  whence  he  returned  with  a 
headful  of  economic  theories.  He  started  a  steel 
mill  at  Aussonne-sur-Loire  with  a  store  in  Paris. 
His  Traits  d*4conomi€  politique  appeared  in  1615. 
Our  expression  Apolitical  economy'  is  merely  a 
translation  of  the  phrase  coined  by  Montchrestien. 
He  was  slain  during  a  Huguenot  stir  near  Falaise, 
October  8,  1621.  Consult:  Duval,  M&moire  sur 
Antoine  de  Montchrestien  (Paris,  1868)  ;  Funck- 
Brentano,  Montchrestien,  aa  vie  et  son  oeuvre  ( ib., 
1889)  ;  Sporleder,  Ueher  Montchritiens  *Ecos- 
saise*  (Marburg,  1892)  ;  Petit  de  Julleville,  Les 
tragedies  de  Montchrestien   (Paris,  1891). 

MONTCLAIB^  A  town  in  Essex  County, 
N.  J.,  5  miles  north  by  west  of  Newark,  on  the 
Lackawanna  Railroad  and  the  Greenwood  Lake 
branch  of  the  Erie  Railroad  (Map:  New  Jersey, 
D  2).  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  slope 
of  one  of  the  ranges  of  the  Orange  Moim tains, 
its  highest  point  having  an  elevation  of  about 
650  feet,  the  average  elevation  being  about  300 
feet,  and  is  chiefly  a  residential  town,  though 
of  some  reputation  as  a  summer  resort.  The 
heights  command  a  fine  view  of  New  York  and 
its  harbor.  The  town  has  a  hospital,  two  orphan 
asylums,  a  public  library  of  13,000  volumes,  and 
the  Montclair  Military  Academy.  Population,  in 
1890,  8656;   in  1900,  13,962;  in  1905,  16,370. 

Until  separately  incorporated  in  1868,  Mont- 
clair was  a  part,  first  of  Newark,  and  then  of 
Bloom  field.  The  upper  section  was  settled  by 
Dutchmen  from  Hackensack  and  called  Speer- 
town,  the  lower  by  Englishmen  from  Newark  and 
called  successively  Cranetown  and  West  Bloom- 
field.  The  present  name  was  not  adopted  until 
1865.  Consult  Harris,  An  Historical  Sketch  of 
Montclair  (Montclair,  1881). 

MONT-DE-MABSAN,  mON'de'mAr'saw'.  Cap- 
ital of  the  Department  of  Landes,  Southwestern 
France,  situated  on  the  Midouze  River,  64  miles 


south  of  Bordeaux  (Map:  France,  F  8).  It  has 
a  normal  school,  a  library,  and  a  lyc^.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  resins,  oil,  and  plaster, 
which,  together  with  wine  and  live  stock,  are 
the  chief  exports.  Population,  in  1901,  8785; 
of  commune,  11,604. 

HONTEBELLO,  mdn't&-b«ia6.  A  village  in 
the  Province  of  Pavia,  Italy,  12  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Pavia  (Map:  Italy,  D  3).  There 
on  June  9,  1800,  the  French  under  Lannes  de- 
feated the  Austrians.  The  engagement  is  some- 
times called  the  battle  of  Casteggio,  after  a 
neighboring  town.  Five,  years  later  the  victor 
received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Montebello.  In 
May,  1859,  the  Austrians  were  again  defeated 
here  by  the  imited  armies  of  the  French  and  the 
Piedmbntese.    Population,  in  1901,  2119. 

MONTE  CABLO,  k^r^d.  A  town  in  the 
principality  of  Monaco  (q.v.),  picturesquely  situ- 
ated on  a  beautiful  and  isolated  elevation  rising 
above  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  a  little  over 
one  mile  northeast  of  Monaco,  the  capital  of  the 
principality  ( Map :  France,  S.,  M  5 ) .  The  climate 
is  celebrated  for  its  salubrity  and  mildness.  The 
town  is  most  attractively  laid  out  as  a  pleasure 
resort,  and  its  scenic  surroundings  are  celebrated. 
The  Casino,  containing  the  gaming  rooms  to  which 
Monte  Carlo  owes  its  fame,  and  the  principality 
its  welfare,  is  a  splendid  building  amid  beautiful 
gardens,  and  contains  besides  the  salles  de  jeii, 
a  luxuriously  appointed  salle  des  fites,  a  reading 
room,  etc.  Tlie  chief  games  played  are  roulette 
and  trente-et-quarante,  with  stakes  ranging  from 
1  to  1200  and  from  4  to  2400  dollars  respec- 
tively. The  gaming  tables  of  Monte  Carlo  are  pat- 
ronized by  people  from  all  over  the  world,  but  are 
forbidden  to  the  natives  of  the  principality.  The 
town  was  founded  in  1856,  and  has  been  used 
as  a  gambling  resort  since  its  foundation.  In 
1863  the  Casino  was  leased  for  fifty  years  to  M. 
Francois  Blanc,  after  whose  death  the  control  of 
the  concern  passed  to  the  Sociit6  Anonyme  des 
Bains  de  Mer  et  Cercle  des  Etrangers,  capitalized 
at  30,000,000  francs.  The  company  besides  pay- 
ing the  Prince  an  annual  rent  of  $340,000,  pays 
the  expenditure  of  the  Government,  maintains  the 
charitable  and  religious  institutions  of  the  prin- 
cipality, takes  care  of  the  palace  groimds,  etc. 
The  magnitude  of  the  operations  of  the  company 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  according  to 
the  budget  for  1896-97  the  expenditures  for  that 
season  amounted  to  $4,061,580,  of  which  $633,100 
were  spent  on  the  maintenance  of  the  Court  and 
the  principality,  $3,360,300  on  the  management 
of  the  Casino  and  its  adjuncts,  and  $170,450  on 
press  subvention.  The  town  had,  in  1890,  3794 
inhabitants,  who  depend  for  a  living  on  the 
patrons  of  the  Casino. 

MONTE  CASSINO^  kfts-sS'nd.  A  monastery 
situated  on  a  hill  overlooking  Cassino  (q.v.)  in 
the  Province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  45  miles  northwest 
of  Naples  (Map:  Italy,  H  6).  It  was  founded  by 
Saint  Benedict  about  529  on  the  site  of  a  temple 
of  Apollo,  and  was  the  original  home  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Order.  It  underwent  various  vicissitudes, 
and  the  present  buildings  were  erected  from 
1637  to  1727  on  the  foundations  of  several  pre- 
decessors; they  are  remarkable  for  their  noble 
architecture,  internal  appointments,  and  beauti- 
ful situation.  The  library  and  archives  are  his- 
torically famous.  In  1866  the  monastery  was 
enrolled   as   a   ^national   monument.'     Consult: 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HONTE  CASSINO. 


764 


MOKT^TJT. 


Tosti,  Storia  delta  badia  di  Jdontexscisaino  (Na- 
ples, 1842-43)  ;  Taeggi,  Paleografia  artistica  di 
Montecasaino  (Monte  Cassino,  1870  et  seq.)  ; 
Hickenbach,  Monte-Casaino  von  seiner  Grilndung 
bis  zu  seiner  hochsten  Bliite  unter  Abt  Deaiderius 
(Einsiedeln,  1884-85). 

MONTECATINI  DI  VAL  DI  NIEVOLE, 

ni6n't6-k&-t€^n^  d*  vftl  d^  n^-a'v6-lft.  A  town  in 
the  Province  of  Lucca,  Italy,  24  miles  northwest 
of  Florence  (Map:  Italy,  E  4).  Its  warm  baths 
are  much  frequented  by  invalids.  Population 
(commune),  in  1901,  8748. 

HONTE  CBISTI,  kris^t^.  A  seaport  of  the 
Republic  of  Santo  Domingo,  situated  on  the  north 
coast  near  the  Haitian  frontier.  The  town  has  a 
large  harbor  7  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  the 
station  of  a  United  States  consular  agent.  Popu- 
lation, 3000. 

HONTE  CBISTO,  kris'td.  A  small  island 
off  the  west  coast  of  Italy,  28  miles  south  of 
Elba  ( Map :  Italy,  E  6 ) .  It  consists  largely  of  a 
mountain  of  granite,  rising  2000  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  was  made  a  penal  colony  in  1874.  Monte 
Cristo  acquired  fame  through  Dumas's  novel 
The  Count  of  Monte  Cristo, 

MONTE  CRISTO,  The  Count  of.  The  most 
famous  romance  of  Alexandre  Dumas  (1844-45), 
founded  on  Penchet*s  A  Diamond  and  a  Ven- 
(jcance.  The  hero,  Edmond  Dant^,  is  unjustly 
imprisoned  in  the  Chateau  d'lf  (see  If),  escapes, 
and  after  discovering  a  fabulous  treasure  on 
the  island  of  Monte  Cristo,  pursues  with  his 
vengeance  those  to  wliora  his  sufferings  were 
due.  The  work  abounds  in  melodramatic  sit- 
uations and  excitement  and  attained  immediate 
success. 

li:ONTECnTCOOLI,m6n't&-k?3S^6.1^,or  MON- 
TECUCULI,  mun't&-koo'kv-l«,  Raimondo, 
Count  (1009-80).  An  Austrian  general.  He 
was  born  near  Modena,  February  21,  1609,  and 
entered  the  Austrian  artillery  as  a  volunteer 
under  his  uncle,  Ernesto,  Count  Montecuccoli, 
in  1625.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
he  was  employed  in  various  services,  military 
and  diplomatic.  In  1657  he  was  sent  to  sup- 
port John  Casimir  of  Poland  against  the 
Swedes  and  Prince  RAk6czy  of  Transylvania,  and 
compelled  RAk6czy  to  make  peace  with  Poland, 
and  to  break  his  alliance  with  the  Swedes.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  made  a  field-marshal,  and 
was  sent  to  aid  the  Danes  against  the  Swedes, 
in  which  also  he  was  eminently  successful.  In 
1660  he  commanded  the  army  sent  to  oppose  the 
Turks,  who  had  broken  into  Transylvania,  and 
after  an  indecisive  warfare  of  three  years  he  won 
the  great  battle  of  Saint  Gotthard,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Raab,  August  1,  1664.  In  the  war  between 
France  and  Holland,  in  which  the  Emperor  took 
part  with  Holland,  Montecuccoli  was  given  the 
command  of  the  Imperial  army  in  1672.  He 
took  Bonn,  and  notwithstanding  the  endeavors 
of  Turenne  to  prevent  it,  effected  a  junction  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange.  In  1675  he  was  opposed  to 
Turenne  on  the  Rhine,  and  they  spent  four 
months  in  manoeuvres  in  which  neither  could  gain 
any  advantage.  After  the  death  of  Turenne  Mon- 
tecuccoli pursued  the  French  across  the  Rhine. 
The  Emperor  Leopold  made  him  a  prince  of  the 
Empire,  and  the  King  of  Naples  bestowed  on  him 
the  Duchy  of  Melfi.  He  died  at  Linz,  October 
16,  1680.    His  memoirs  were  published  in  French 


(Amsterdam,  1770),  and  in  the  original  Italian 
by  Ugo  Foscolo  (Milan,  1807),  and  by  Grass! 
(Turin,  1821)'.  Consult,  also:  Campori,  Rai- 
mondo  Montecuccoli,  la  sua  famiglia  e  i  suoi 
tempi  (Florence,  1877)  ;  Grossmann,  Raimund 
Montecuccoli  (Vienna,  1878). 

MONTEFIASCONE^  mdn'tA-f^ftako^nA  (It.,, 
bottle-mountain).  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Rome,  Italy,  nine  miles  northwest  of  Viterbo.  It 
is  situated  three  miles  from  the  railway  station 
at  an  altitude  of  2010  feet,  commanding  a  mag- 
nificent view.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls;  its 
chief  buildings  are  the  incomplete  Cathedral  of 
Santa  Margherita,  and  the  early  eleventh-century 
Romanesque-Gothic  Church  of  San  Flaviano. 
Montefiascone  is  celebrated  for  its  high  quality 
wines.  The  town  dates  from  the  sacred  Etruscan 
Fanum  Voltumnae.  Population  of  commune,  in 
1901,  9371. 

MONTEFIOBB,  m6n't6-fI-o'r^,  Claude  G. 
(1858—).  An  English  educator  and  author.  He 
was  bom  in  London  of  Jewish  parents,  and  was 
educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  devoted 
himself  to  communal  work  in  behalf  of  London 
Jews,  held  various  high  offices  in  Jewish  institu- 
tions in  London,  and  with  Israel  Abrahams  edited 
the  Jexoish  Quarterly  Review.  Montefiore  de- 
livered the  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1892  On  the 
Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion^  as  Illustrated  by 
the  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews,  With  Israel 
Abrahams  he  wrote  Aspects  of  Judaism  (2d  ed. 
1895). 

MONTEFIORE,  Sir  Moses  Hayim  (1784- 
1885).  A  Jewish  philanthropist.  The  scion  of 
a  wealthy  Anglo-Italian  banking  family,  he  was 
bom  at  Leghorn,  Italy.  He  was  educated  in  Lon- 
don, became  a  member  of  the  Stock  Exchange, 
and  in  1824,  having  realized  a  large  fortune, 
retired  from  commercial  pursuits,  and  com- 
menced a  crusade  for  the  amelioration  of  his 
race.  In  1812  he  had  married  Judith  Cohen,  a 
relative  of  the  Rothschild  family.  He  was  stren- 
uous in  his  efforts  to  remove  the  civil  disabilities 
of  Jews  in  England,  and  finally,  overcoming  great 
opposition,  received  the  honors  of  election  as 
High  Sheriff  of  Kent,  and  Sheriff  of  London  in 
1837,  when  he  was  knighted.  In  1846  Queen 
Victoria  made  him  a  baronet.  From  1827-75  he 
made  seven  journeys  to  the  Orient,  conferring 
great  benefits  on  his  kindred, and  being  everywhere 
received  by  the  rulers  with  the  greatest  marks  of 
respect.  He  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  at 
Ramsgate,  where,  in  1865,  he  had  endowed  a 
Jewish  college  to  the  memory  of  his  wife,  who 
died  in  1862.  He  died  there  July  28,  1885,  in  his 
101st  year.  Consult  Loewe  (ed.).  Diaries  of  Sir 
Moses  and  Lady  Montefiore  (London,  1890). 

MONTE'GO  BAY.  A  seaport  on  the  north 
coast  of  Jamaica,  18  miles  west  of  Falmouth 
(Map:  West  Indies,  C  3).  It  has  a  good  harbor 
defended  by  a  battery,  and  a  general  trade  of 
some  importance.  A  United  States  agent  resides 
in  the  town.    Population,  about  5000. 

MONT^GTJT,  mON'tA'gg',  Jean  Baptistb  Jo- 
seph Emile  (1825-95).  A  French  writer  and 
editor,  born  at  Limoges.  He  practiced  law  until 
1847,  when  he  entered  the  field  of  letters  by  an 
article  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  on  the 
philosophy  of  Emerson.  Later  he  translated  the 
works  of  Emerson,  Macaulay.  and  Shakespeare 
into   French,  and  it  is  chiefly  because  of  his  . 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HONTlgaXTT. 


755 


MONTEN. 


introducing  these  writers  to  French  readers  that 
he  is  remembered.  In  1857  he  became  an  editor 
of  the  Revue  dea  Deuw  Mondes,  but  resigned  in 
1862  to  join  the  Moniteur  Vniverael,  Among  his 
writings  are:  Lea  Pays-Bos:  impressions  de  voy* 
age  et  d*art  (1869)  ;  UAngleterre  et  ses  colonies 
australes  (1879);  Pontes  et  artistes  de  Vltalie 
(1881) ;  and  Esquisses  littdraires  (1893). 

MONTELEONE  DI  CALABBIA,  m6n'tA-l&- 
6'nA  dA  kA-ia^br^-A.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Catanzaro,  Italy,  on  a  hill  overlooking,  and  about 
two  miles  from,  the  Gulf  of  Santa  Eufemia,  13% 
miles  by  rail  east  of  Tropea  (Map:  Italy,  L  9). 
It  is  a  garris<Hi  town  and  the  see  of  a  bishop.  Its 
ruined  castle  was  built  by  Roger  the  Norman. 
It  has  a  trade  in  silk  and  oil.  Monteleone  is  on 
the  site  of  the  Greek  Hipponium  mentioned  as 
early  as  b.c.  389,  and  the  Roman  Vibo  Valentia; 
it  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1783.  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  12.047; 
in  1901,  12,997. 

MONTfeLIMAa,  mON'tft'l^'mftr'.  The  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of 
Drdme,  France,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Rou- 
bron  and  Jabron,  27  miles  by  rail  south  of 
Valence  (Map:  France,  S.,  J  4).  It  is  irregularly 
built  on  a  castle-crowned  hill,  commanding  fine 
prospects  of  the  Vivarais  Mountains.  Among  its 
chief  institutions  are  a  chamber  of  agriculture,  a 
communal  college,  and  a  public  library.  It  has 
sawmills,  manufactures  of  building  materials,  of 
silk,  cotton,  corsets,  hats,  and  spirituous  liquors, 
and  is  famed  for  'Mental imar  nougat,'  an  almond 
candy.  In  the  vicinity  coal  and  lignite  are  mined. 
Mont^limar  is  on  the  site  of  the  Acusium  of  the 
Romans;  the  thermal  spring  at  Bondonneau,  2V2 
miles  to  the  southeast,  anciently  used  by  them, 
was  rediscovered  in  1854.  The  town  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Saracens  and  rebuilt  by  Montheil 
d'Adh^mar  in  the  tenth  century.  Here  Calvinism 
was  first  embraced  in  France.  Coligny  besieged 
the  towTi  unsuccessfully  in  1569.  Population,  in 
1901,  13,351. 

MONTELTTPO,  m6n'tA-lo<5'p6,  Baccio  da 
(1449-C.1533).  An  Italian  sculptor  and  architect, 
bom  at  Montelupo,  near  Florence.  He  worked  in 
the  style  of  Verrocchio,  and  his  sculpture  shows 
power  and  technical  ability.  He  made  a  fine 
statue  of  Saint  John  the  Evangelist  for  Orsan- 
michele  in  Florence ;  a  Hercules  for  Francesco  de' 
Medici,  and  a  number  of  crucifixes  carved  in 
wood,  one  of  which  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Convent 
of  San  Marco  in  Florence. 

HOKTELTJPO,  Raffaello  da  (1503cl567). 
An  Italian  sculptor  and  architect,  the  son  of 
Baccio  da  Montelupo.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Michel- 
angelo and  assisted  him  in  his  works.  He  made 
three  statues  for  the  tomb  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  and 
partly  built  the  monuments  to  Leo  X.  and 
Clement  VII.  in  the  CJhurch  of  Santa  Maria 
sopra  Minerva  in  Rome,  besides  executing  a 
figure  of  Saint  Damian  in  the  Medici  Chapel 
in  Florence,  several  bas-reliefs  in  the  Casa  Santa 
at  Loreto,  and  the  tomb  of  Baldassare  Turini  in 
the  Duomo  of  Pescia.  His  last  work  was  in  con- 
nection with  the  cathedral  at  Orvieto,  of  which 
he  was  superintendent.  He  left  part  of  an  auto- 
biography, which  is  translated  in  Perkins,  TuS' 
can  Sculptors    (London,   1864). 

MONTEMAYOB,  m6N'tA-mft-y6r',  Jorge  de 
(c.1515-61).     A  Spanish   poet,  bom  at  Monte- 


m6r-o-Velho,  near  Coimbra,  Portugal.  Little 
is  known  as  to  the  details  of  his  life.  He 
is  thought  to  have  gone  to  England  and 
to  the  Netherlands  in  the  train  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  and  he  perished  in  a  duel  or  was  murdered 
in  1561.  With  the  exception  of  a  couple  of  songs 
and  a  few  lines  of  prose  in  Portuguese,  contained 
in  his  famous  pastoral  romance,  he  composed 
wholly  in  Castilian.  His  literary  renown  is  based 
on  his  unfinished  Diana  enamorada,  a  work 
modeled  on  the  Italian  pastoral  novel.  It  mingles 
verse  with  the  prose,  and  beneath  the  fiction  of 
the  pastoral  situation  veils  the  love  experiences 
of  the  author  himself.  An  English  version,  made 
by  Bartholomew  Young  in  1583  (printed  in 
1598),  is  of  importance  because  of  the  influence 
which  it  had  upon  Sidney's  Arcadia,  As  Monte- 
mayor's  romance  remained  incomplete,  several 
Spanish  continuations  of  it  were  made.  The  best 
is  that  of  Gaspar  Gil  Polo  (1564).  Lyrics  of 
Montemayor  are  to  be  found  not  only  in  the 
Diana,  but  also  in  his  Cancionero  (Antwerp, 
1544  and  later) .  An  edition  of  Montemayor  came 
out  in  1886  at  Barcelona.  Consult:  Schttnherr, 
Jorge  Montemayor,  sein  Lehen  und  sein  Schdfer- 
roman  (Halle,  1886)  ;  the  Reuue  hispanique,  vol. 
ii.,  pp.  304  ff.  (Paris,  1895)  ;  Rennert,  Ths  Span- 
ish Pastoral  Romances  (Baltimore,  1892). 

MONTEM  CXTSTOM,  The.  A  famous  tradi- 
tional  custom  at  Eton  College.  Its  origin  is  lost 
in  obscurity ;  it  is  described  in  Malim's  Consuetu- 
dinarium  of  1560.  Until  1758  its  observance  took 
place  in  January;  when  it  was  changed  to  Whit- 
sun  Tuesday,  it  was  held  every  second  or  third 
year,  and  triennially  from  1775,  until  it  was 
abolished  in  1847,  owing  to  the  disorder  which 
attended  it.  It  was  a  procession  of  the  Eton 
boys,  attired  in  fancy  dresses,  to  a  certain  mound 
{ad  montem,  hence  the  name)  known  as  Salt 
Hill.  They  were  licensed  to  levy  contributions, 
known  as  *salt,'  from  every  visitor,  and  the  re- 
ceipts were  given  to  the  captain  of  the  day,  who 
kept  what  was  left  after  the  expenses  of  the  fes- 
tivity were  paid  to  help  him  in  his  university 
career.  For  a  full  account,  consult  Sterry,  An- 
nals  of  Eton  College   (London,  1898). 

HONTEHOBELOS,  mdn't&-m6-rfl^os.  A 
town  of  the  State  of  Nueva  Le^n,  Mexico,  42 
miles  south  of  Monterey,  on  the  Monterey  and 
Mexican  Gulf  Railway  (Map:  Mexico,  J  5). 
It  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  irrigated  region, 
celebrated  for  its  production  of  fruits,  especially 
oranges.  Its  municipal  population,  in  1895, 
was  about  3,500. 

MONTEN,  mAn'ten,  Dietmch  (1799-1843).  A 
German  battle  painter,  bom  at  Dttsseldorf,  where 
he  began  to  study  at  the  Academy  in  1821.  In 
the  same  year  he  became  a  pupil  of  Peter  Hess 
in  Munich,  where,  after  a  visit  to  Italy  and  study 
trips  in  other  parts,  he  made  his  permanent  home. 
The  success  of  some  battle-pieces  he  exhibited 
led  to  his  being  commissioned  to  paint  in  the 
Arcades  of  the  Royal  Garden  three  historical 
episodes,  but  his  reputation  dates  more  especially 
from  his  "Finis  Poloniae"  (1832,  National  Gal- 
lery, Berlin),  depicting  the  departure  of  the  Poles 
from  their  country  in  1831,  a  painting  which  be- 
came widely  known  through  lithographic  repro- 
ductions. Other  specimens  from  his  brush  in- 
clude "Death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Lfltzen" 
(1835,  Hanover  Museum)  and  "Napoleon  on  a 
Reconnaissance"  (New  Pinakothek,  Munich). 


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HONTENEOBO,  mdn't&nfi^grd.  An  indepen- 
dent principality  of  Europe,  situated  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  (q.v.), 
between  latitudes  41**  55'  and  43''  18'  N^,  and 
longitudes  IS""  30'  and  20''  £.  The  name  Monte- 
negro, given  to  the  country  by  the  Venetians, 
is  a  translation  of  the  Slavic  Crnagora  (pro- 
nounced cher-nA-g^rA ) ,  which  signifies  Black 
Mountain.  The  mountains,  however,  are  not  black, 
but  are  white  or  grayish.  The  name  was  not  known 
before  the  reign  of  Cmojevic,  the  Black  Prince, 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  he  is  supposed  to 
have  given  his  name  to  the  mountains.  The 
country  is  bounded  by  the  Turkish  Sanjak  of 
Novibazar  on  the  northeast,  by  Albania  on  the 
southeast,  by  the  Austrian  province  of  Dalma- 
tia  on  the  southwest,  and  by  Herzegovina  on 
the  west  and  north.  It  has  a  short  sea  frontage 
but  no  good  port  on  the  Adriatic.  The  area 
is  estimated  at  3506  square  miles.  Montenegro 
is  a  part  of  .the  great  Karst  limestone  plateau 
which,  beginning  in  Southern  Austria,  extends 
along  the  east  side  of  the  Adriatic  through  Tur- 
key and  Greece.  It  is  crowded  with  mountains 
from  2500  to  over  8000  feet  in  height,  the  high- 
est elevations  being  in  the  northeast.  Nearly 
the  whole  country  is  covered  by  the  Karst  for- 
mation and  has  the  peculiarities  of  similar  lime- 
stone formations.  Looked  at  from  above  the  land 
would  seem  to  be  honeycombed  with  cells  due  to 
the  agency  of  water.  Rivers  fully  formed  sudden- 
ly rise  out  of  the  rocks  and  disappear  as  suddenly. 
Here  they  have  scooped  out  wide  valleys  and 
there  they  have  merely  produced  sink  holes  into 
which  they  vanish.  Thus  large  parts  of  the 
country  have  little  surface  water,  and  the  in- 
habitants use  rain  water  or  snow.  The  two 
important  rivers  are  the  Zeta  and  the  Moraca. 
The  Zeta  disappears  in  a  chasm  on  the  plain 
of  Niksic  and  reappears  miles  away  at  the  head 
of  the  Zeta  Valley,  the  largest  valley  and  the 
most  fertile  part  of  Montenegro.  The  Moraca 
flows  between  stony  banks,  along  which  no  track 
leads,  and  joins  the  Zeta,  and  their  waters  empty 
into  the  Lake  of  Scutari,  on  the  borders  of  Al- 
bania. 

Around  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Scutari  is  a 
narrow  plain,  where  agriculture  is  intensive;  but 
there  is  no  agriculture  among  the  stony  wastes  of 
the  Karst  and  no  crops  are  raised  excepting  in 
the  alluvial  valley  of  the  Zeta  and  some  smaller 
streams  and  along  the  coast.  Grain,  tobacco, 
potatoes,  and  other  vegetables  are  grown.  The 
vine  and  fig  thrive  also,  and  the  olive  is  produced 
along  the  narrow  coastal  plain.  The  mean  an- 
nual temperature  is  from  61°  in  these  regions  to 
35**  on  the  higher  parts  of  the  plateau.  On  the 
whole  the  climate  is  raw  excepting  in  the  low- 
lying  river  valleys  and  along  the  coast.  The  pas- 
ture lands,  poor  as  they  are,  afford  grazing  for 
cattle,  goats,  and  sheep,  which  are  the  chief 
riches  of  the  cotmtry.  There  are  about  600,000 
sheep  and  goats,  60,000  cattle,  8000  swine,  and 
3000  horses. 

The  flora,  though  sparse  on  the  whole,  includes 
a  considerable  variety,  on  account  of  the  diversity 
of  climate.  Practically  all  the  useful  plants  the 
people  require  are  grown.  Scattering  beeches  and 
oak  trees  are  about  all  that  relieve  the  monotony 
of  the  mountains  except  in  the  still  almost  inac- 
cessible north,  where  flne  oak,  beech,  and 
pine  forests  are  found.  The  fauna  includes  the 
bear,  wolf,  and  fox,  and  a  considerable  number 


of  aquatic  and  other  birds.  The  most  important 
fish  is  the  bleaz,  a  C(msiderable  quantity  of  which 
is  exported. 

The  people  were  estimated  in  1905  to  number 
260,000.  They  are  thinly  scattered  over  the  lower 
grounds,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  their  rude 
stone  huts  with  one  door,  one  window,  and  root 
of  straw,  stand  at  intervals  of  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile;  around  them  are  little  patches  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes.  The  settlements 
are  connected  with  one  another  by  bridle  tracks 
about  three  feet  broad  winding  over  limestone 
boulders  and  covered  with  a  loose  sliding  surface 
of  limestone  blocks  of  all  sizes.  Such  is  the 
characteristic  aspect  of  the  settled  parts  of  Mon- 
tenegro outside  of  the  towns.  There  are  no  roads 
excepting  a  few  recently  built  which  connect 
Cetinje,  Podgoritza  (Podgorica)  and  Niklicf  with 
one  another  and  the  coasts.  The  Montenegrins 
have  not  desired  roads,  and  for  ages  took  care 
not  to  construct  them  because  they  feared  they 
would  open  their  country.  The  Montenegrins  are 
an  offshoot  of  the  Servian  branch  of  the  Slavic 
race.  Physically  they  are  among  the  largest  and 
finest  people  in  Europe  and  the  conditions  of  their 
moimtain  life  in  a  poor  country  have  developed 
peculiarities  that  make  them  easily  distinguish- 
able from  the  Servians.  They  are  a  race  of  war- 
riors, always  ready  to  take  arms  against  external 
encroachments  and  equally  ready  to  defend  at 
home  what  they  regard  as  their  personal  rights. 
They  have  thus  the  reputation  of  being  excitable, 
quarrelsome,  and  violent,  but  every  man,  even  the 
poorest,  has  the  bearing  and  dignity  of  a  gentle- 
man. Theft  is  unknown,  and  drunkenness  almost 
unheard  of.  A  recent  report  from  a  town  official 
said  that  the  only  persons  who  had  been  in  the 
prison  for  a  half  year  were  five  men  who  had  told 
ghost  stories  which  were  prejudicial  to  public 
morality.    Women  are  universally  respected. 

Elementary  education  is  free  and  nominally 
compulsory,  though  many  of  the  women  cannot 
read.  The  Montenegrins,  who  comprise  about 
nine-tenths  of  the  population,  are  members  of 
the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  their  metropolitan 
obtaining  his  commission  from  the  Holy  Synod 
in  Russia.  The  remainder  of  the  inhabitants 
(Albanians  and  Serbs)  are  either  Roman  Cath- 
olics or  Mohammedans.  The  government  until 
December,  1905,  was  a  mild  paternal  despotism 
depending  on  the  will  of  the  Prince,  who  filled  all 
•  executive  offices;  under  the  absolutist  r^me 
only  the  best  men  filled  every  grade  of  offices 
throughout  the  country.  In  1905,  however,  the 
Prince  promulgated  a  constitution  and  summoned 
a  national  assembly  of  members  popularly  elected. 
A  parliamentary  regime  was  therefore  introduced. 
The  country  also  has  a  complete  system  of  local 
government.  There  are  several  hundred  village 
councils,  elected  every  three  years,  levying  taxes, 
distributing  charities,  and  appointing  supenis- 
ors  of  education. 

There  is  no  standing  army,  but  all  men  physi-  ' 
cally  fitted  are  trained  as  soldiers  and  liable  to 
be  called  to  arms,  the  militia  numbering  about 
36,000  infantry  and  1200  artillery.  The  State 
revenue,  about  $600,000  a  year,  is  chiefly  derived 
from  customs  duties  (about  $140,000  a  year), 
the  salt  monopoly,  and  the  land  and  cattle  taxes. 
The  Prince's  civil  list  is  about  $40,000  a  year, 
besides  a  subvention  from  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment. Austrian,  Russian,  and  Turkish  money, 
weights,  and  measures  are  in  use.    The  principal 


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towns  are  Cetinje  (q.v.),  the  capital  (which  is 
but  a  few  miles  distant  from  the  Dalmatian  sea- 
port of  Cattaro),  Podgoritza,  Dulcigno,  and 
Nik$i<5. 

The  external  trade  is  small.  In  1905  the  im- 
ports amounted  to  $944,000,  and  the  exports, 
$346,000.  The  sales  abroad  are  dried  fish,  insect 
powder  (the  two  chief  exports),  smoked  sar- 
dines, mutton,  cattle,  goats,  sheep,  wool,  furs 
and  hides,  cheese,  tobacco,  wine,  and  olive  oil. 
Cattle  are  shipped  to  Malta,  Austria,  Italy,  and 
France.  The  chief  imports  are  salt  from  Turkey, 
petroleum  from  Russia  (both  Government  monop- 
olies), maize,  cottons,  hardware,  sugar,  coflfee, 
and  rice.  A  narrow  gauge  railway  is  to  be  con- 
structed from  Antivari  to  Niksic,  a  distance  of 
100  miles,  for  the  development  of  the  iron  mines 
which  are  being  opened.  There  are  528  miles  of 
telegraph  line.  Of  educational  institutions  Mon- 
tenegro has  a  gymnasium,  a  theological  seminary, 
and  a  girls'  high  school  in  Cetinje,  and  120  com- 
mon schools. 

History.  Montenegro  belonged  in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  the  great  Servian  kingdom,  but  after 
the  power  of  the  Servians  was  broken  by  the 
Turks  in  1389  at  the  battle  of  Kossovo  (q.v.), 
the  Montenegrins  under  their  Prince,  who  was 
of  the  royal  blood  of  Servia,  maintained  their 
independence,  though  compelled  to  relinquish  the 
plains  about  Scutari,  with  their  chief  fortress 
of  Zabliak,  and  to  confine  themselves  to  the 
mountains  (1485).  In  their  warfare  against  the 
Turks  the  Montenegrins  leaned  upon  Venice,  mis- 
tress of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic.  In 
1516  their  last  secular  Prince  resigned  his  office, 
and  transferred  the  Government  to  the  Vladika 
or  Bishop,  and  the  secular  and  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority was  thereafter  united  in  the  Prince- 
Bishop.  The  dignity  of  Prince-Bishop  was  elec- 
tive; by  the  side  of  the  chief  magistrate  was  a 
civil  governor.  The  Ottoman  rulers  continued  to 
assert  their  claims  to  Montenegro,  and  included 
it  in  the  Pashalic  of  Scutari;  but  the  Montene- 
grins, in  their  rocky  fastnesses,  succeeded  gener- 
ally in  asserting  their  independence,  and  more 
than  once  the  Moslem  invaders  met  with  disaster. 
In  1696  the  office  of  Vladika  ceased  to  be  elective. 
In  that  year  the  present  reigning  dynasty  of 
Petrovicf-NjegoS  was  inaugurated  in  the  person 
of  Danilo  Petrovi^.  For  a  century  and  a  half 
the  succession  was  from  uncle  to  nephew,  the 
Vladika  not  being  permitted  to  marry.  In  1710 
the  Montenegrins  sought  and  obtained  the  pro- 
tection of  Russia,  the  Czar  agreeing  to  grant 
them  an  annual  subsidy,  while  they,  on  their 
part,  agreed  that  the  Vladika  was  to  be  con- 
secrated by  the  Czar.  In  1796  the  Prince-Bishop 
Peter  I.  defeated  the  Pasha  of  Scutari,  who  had 
invaded  Montenegro,  and  for  the  next  quarter 
of  a  century  there  were  no  more  Turkish  inva- 
sions. The  Montenegrins  rendered  important  aid 
to  Russia  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury against  the  French  in  Dalmatia,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  attack  on  Ilagusa  and 
the  capture  of  Curzola,  but  they  were  not  al- 
lowed to  realize  their  dream  of  becoming  masters 
of  the  seaport  of  Cattaro.  Peter  IT.,  who  ruled 
from  1830  to  1851,  made  great  efforts  to  civilize 
his  people  and  improve  their  condition.  He  es- 
tablished the  Senate,  introduced  schools,  and 
endeavored,  though  unsuccessfully,  to  put  an  end 
to  internal  feuds  and  predatory  expeditions  into 
the   neighboring   provinces.     In    1851   the   last 


Prince-Bishop  died,  and  his  successor,  Danilo  I., 
in  1852  separated  the  religious  from  the  secular 
supremacy,  retaining  the  latter  under  the  title 
of  Gospodar,  or  Prince.  In  1852  war  broke  out 
with  the  Turks,  who,  imder  Omer  Pasha,  invade^ 
the  coimtry,  but  through  the  intervention  of  the 
Powers  peace  was  arranged,  February  15, 
1853.  Danilo  went  to  the  Paris  Conference  In 
1856  to  obtain  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
Montenegro,  but  his  efforts  were  unavailing.  In 
1861  the  Montene^ins  stirred  up  an  insurrection 
against  the  Turkish  rule  in  Herzegovina,  which 
was  soon  suppressed,  and  in  return  they  were  so 
hard  pressed  by  the  Turks  that  they  were  glad 
to  agree  to  a  treaty  (1862),  by  which  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Turkey  over  Montenegro  was  recog- 
nized. Fresh  complications  caused  Montenegro 
to  declare  war  against  Turkey  in  January,  1875, 
but  a  compromise  was  effected.  Montenegro, 
however,  supported  the  insurrection  against  Tur- 
key that  broke  out  in  Herzegovina  a  little  later, 
and  in  July,  1876,  was  again  at  war.  The  Mon- 
tenegrins cooperated  with  the  Russians  against 
their  hereditary  enemy  during  the  war  of  1877- 
78;  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878)  the 
European  Powers  recognized  the  independence  of 
Montenegro  with  a  greatly  enlarged  territory, 
including  Xik5i<f,  Podgoritza,  and  the  port  of 
Antivari,  together  with  the  seaboard  district 
thereto  appertaining.  This  was  guarded  by  a 
restriction  prohibiting  Montenegro  from  having 
a  navy  and  providing  that  its  waters  should  be 
closed  to  ships  of  war  of  all  nations.  In  1880  the 
Great  Powers  made  over  Dulcigno  to  Monte- 
negro. On  October  24,  1896,  Helena,  the 
third  daughter  of  Prince  Nicholas  I.,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  in  1860,  married  Victor  Em- 
manuel, Prince  of  Naples,  who  succeeded  his 
father,  Humbert,  as  King  of  Italy  in  1900.  In 
October,  1905,  the  Prince  proclaimed  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  autocratic  system  and  summoned  a 
popular  National  Assembly  which  met  on  De- 
cember 19.  The  Prince  thereupon  promulgated 
a  Liberal  constitution  to  which  he  took  an  oath, 
and  a  regular  parliamentary  ^vemment  with  a 
responsible  ministry  was  instituted. 

BiBLiooBAPHT.  Delarue,  MonUn^gro,  histoire, 
description^  moeurs,  etc.  (Paris,  1862)  ;  Schwarz, 
Montenegro  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1888)  ;  Hassert, 
Rexse  durch  Montenegro  (Vienna,  1893)  ;  id., 
"Beitrftge  zur  physischen  Geographic  von  Mon- 
tenegro," in  Petermanns  Mitteilungen  (Grotha, 
1895)  ;  Norman,  The  Near  East  (London,  1896)  ; 
Miller,  The  Balkans  (London,  1896)  ;  id..  Travel 
and  Politics  in  the  Near  East  (ib.,  1898)  ;  and 
for  the  history:  Andric,  Oeschichte  des  FUrsten- 
tums  Montenegro  (Vienna,  1853)  ;  Crousse,  La 
p&ninsule  gr^co-slave  (Brussels,  1876)  ;  Denton, 
Montenegro,  Its  People  and  Their  History  (Lon^ 
don,  1877)  ;  Ma  ton,  Histoire  du  Mont&n6gro 
(Paris,  1881);  Carr,  Montenegro  (Oxford, 
1884)  ;  CJoquelle,  Histoire  du  Mont&ndgro  et  de  la 
Bosnie  (Paris,  1895). 

MONTENOTTE,  mdn'tA-ndt'tA.  A  village  in 
the  Province  of  Genoa,  Italy,  26  miles  west  of 
Genoa  (Map:  Italy,  C  3).  Here,  on  April  12, 
1796,  Napoleon  won  his  first  victory  )ver  the 
Austrians. 

MONTEPIN,  mON'tA'pftN',  Xavieb  Aymon, 
Count  de  (1824-1902).  A  French  writer,  bom 
at  Apremont  (Haut-SaOne).  He  studied  at  the 
Ecole  des  Chartes,  entered  journalism  in  1848, 


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HONTE  BOSA. 


founded  Le  Canard,  was  a  contributor  to  the  anti- 
revolutionary  Pamphlet  and  Lampion,  and  with 
de  Calonne  published  two  satirical  pamphlets,  Lea 
trots  joum^es  de  F^vrier  and  Le  gouvemement 
proviaoire.  He  wrote  almost  a  hundred  works  of 
fiction,  originally  published  as  feuilletons  in  the 
Petit  Journal,  and  more  than  a  score  of  plays. 
His  plays  were  frequently  the  result  of  collabora- 
tion, and  in  several  instances  were  based  upon 
his  own  stories.  Titles  of  the  former  include 
Les  chevaliers  du  lansquenet  { 1847 )  ;  L*officier 
de  fortune  (1857);  Le  ventriloque  (1876);  Le 
secret  de  Titan  (1883);  La  policidre  (1897); 
of  the  latter,  Le  conn^tahle  de  Bourbon  and  Ta* 
harin  (with  Grange,  1873). 

HONTEPXJLCIANO,  mdn'tA-pvl-cha'nA.  A 
town  in  the  Province  of  Tuscany,  Italy,  28  miles 
southeast  of  Siena.  It  is  situated  six  miles  from 
its  railway  station,  at  an  altitude  of  2070  feet, 
and  is  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  landscape.  It 
is  surrounded  by  mediaeval  ramparts,  has  inter- 
esting houses,  palaces,  churches,  and  a  cathedral 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  town  is  famous 
for  its  wines.  Population  of  commune,  in  1901, 
15,399. 

MONTEBEAir,  mON't'-r^.  A  town  in  the 
Department  of  Seine-et-Marne,  France,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Seine  and  Yonnc,  49  miles  south- 
east of  Paris  by  rail  (Map:  France,  X.,  II  4). 
Its  chief  buildings  are  the  parish  church,  dating 
from  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  Chateau  of 
Surville.  Porcelain  and  coarser  pottery,  agricul- 
tural and  other  machinery  are  manufactured,  and 
there  are  iron  foundries,  sugar  refineries,  and  a 
general  commerce  in  agricultural  produce  and 
cattle.  On  the  bridge  across  the  river  John  the 
Fearless,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  was  assassinated 
in  1419,  at  the  instigation  and  in  the  presence  of 
the  Dauphin,  afterwards  Charles  VII.;  and  in 
the  immediate  vicinity,  on  February  18,  1814, 
Napoleon  gained  his  last  victory  over  the  Allies, 
which  is  commemorated  in  a  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  the  conqueror,  on  the  bridge,  by  Pajol, 
son  of  a  general  who  commanded  in  the  battle. 
Population,  in  1900,  7929. 

MONTEBEY,  m6n'tA-ra^  The  capital  of  the 
State  of  Nuevo  Le6n,  Mexico,  situated  1600  feet 
above  sea-level,  160  miles  west  of  Matamoros 
(Map:  Mexico,  J  5) .  It  is  a  handsome  city  with 
well-paved  and  clean  streets,  and  is  surrounded 
by  beautiful  gardens  and  orchards.  The  town 
has  a  fine  cathedral  and  Government  buildings, 
and  among  its  educational  institutions  are 
schools  of  law  and  medicine,  and  a  theological 
seminary.  It  is  an  important  railroad  jimction 
and  carries  on  an  active  trade,  especially  with 
the  United  States.  It  has  a  number  of  consider- 
able manufacturing  establishments,  including 
foundries,  sawmills,  carriage  factories,  flour 
mills,  breweries,  and  a  large  factory  for  woolen 
goods.  There  is  also  a  growing  interest  in  silver 
mining;  a  large  smelting  plant  is  in  operation. 
Population,  in  1895,  45,695;  of  the  municipality, 
56,326;  in  1900,  62,266;  of  the  municipality,  72,- 
250.  Monterey  was  founded  under  the  name  of 
Le6n  in  1581,*  and  received  its  present  name  in 
1599.     See  Montebey,  Battle  of. 

HONTEBEY.  A  city  in  Monterey  County, 
Cal.,  125  miles  by  rail  south  by  east  of  San 
Francisco;  on  Monterey  Bay,  and  on  the  South- 
ern Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  California,  D  6) . 
The  leading  industries  are  farming,  cattle-raisinijr. 


fishing,  canning,  oil  trade,  glass  manufacture,, 
and  lime  brick  works;  but  Monterey  is  most 
important  as  a  resort.  It  has  an  admirable  site 
with  beautiful  surroundings,  a  climate  remark- 
ably mild  and  equable,  and  fine  facilities  for 
bathing.  There  are  interesting  specimens  of  the 
picturesque  architecture  left  from  the  Spanish 
occupation.  Among  the  many  points  of  interest 
are  the  San  Carlos  Mission,  the  old  custom  house, 
and  Cclton  Hall,  in  which  the  convention  in  1849 
met  to  frame  the  State  Constitution.  Population, 
1900,  1748;  1906  (local  est.),  4000. 

In  1770  the  Spanish  established  here  the  mis- 
sion and  presidio  of  San  Carlos  Borromeo  de 
Monterey.  In  1818  the  place  was  captured  by 
insurgents.  From  1840  to  1845  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  province.  It  was  captured  and  held  for  a 
day  in  1842  by  Commodore  Jones  (U.  S.  N.), 
acting  under  the  impression  that  war  had  broken 
out  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  In 
1846  (July  7)  the  American  flag  was  raised  here 
by  Commodore  Sloat,  and  in  1847  Monterey  be- 
came the  seat  of  the  military  Government  of 
California.  The  State  CJonstitutional  Convention 
was  held  here  in  1849,  and  the  city  was  incor- 
porated in  the  following  year. 

MONTEBEY,  Battle  of.  After  the  battles 
of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (qq.v.), 
during  the  war  between  the  United  Stated  and 
Mexico,  General  Taylor  remained  for  some  time 
at  Matamoros,  and  in  September,  1846,  with  a 
force  of  about  6700  men  proceeded  against  Mon- 
terey, then  strongly  fortified  and  defended  by 
about  10,000  Mexicans  imder  General  Ampudia. 
Gn  September  19th  he  arrived  before  the  city, 
and  on  the  21st  simultaneous  attacks  were  made 
by  Generals  Worth  and  Garland  on  the 
fortified  heights  west  of  the  city,  and  the  re- 
doubts on  the  east  respectively.  The  former  suc- 
ceeded, but  the  latter  was  repulsed  with  consid- 
erable loss.  The  fighting  continued  on  the  22d 
and  23d,  General  Worth  entering  from  the  west 
and  driving  the  Mexicans  before  him  until  they 
reached  a  strongly  fortified  position  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  city.  General  Ampudia  then  made 
overtures  of  surrender,  and  on  the  24th  the  terms 
were  finally  agreed  upon.  The  Mexicans  were  to 
march  out  of  Monterey  with  their  small  arms 
and  accoutrements,  one  field  battery,  and  twenty- 
one  rounds  of  ammunition,  seven  days  being  al- 
lowed them  to  evacuate;  a  mutual  armistice  ot 
eight  weeks  was  agreed  upon;  and  the  munitions 
of  war  and  supplies,  together  with  the  city  and 
its  fortifications,  were  to  be  left  in  the  h&nds  of 
the  Americans.  Much  dissatisfaction  was  ex- 
pressed in  the  United  States,  and  even  by  the 
Administration  at  Washington,  when  the  terms 
of  this  ^capitulation*  became  known,  but  Taylor 
fully  justified  his  apparent  leniency.  During  the 
three  days  the  Americans  lost  more  than  500  in 
killed  and  wounded,  the  Mexicans  a  very  much 
larger  number,  though  the  exact  figures  have 
never  been  determined.  Consult:  Ladd,  The  War 
with  Mexico  (New  York,  1883);  and  Howard, 
General  Taylor  (New  York,  1892). 

MONTE  BOSA,  mAn'tA  r^zA.  Next  to  Mont 
Blanc  the  highest  peak  in  the  Alps.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  boundary  between  Italy  and  the  Swiss 
Canton  of  Valais,  where  the  Pennine  and  the  I>e- 
pontineAlps  meet  (Map:  Italy,  C2).  It  has  eight 
principal  peaks,  all  exceeding  13,000  feet  in 
height,  and  the  highest,  the  Dufour  Spitre,  at- 


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759 


MONTESQXTIETJ. 


tainlng  an  altitude  of  15,217  feet,  564  feet  less 
than  that  of  Mont  Blanc.  It  is  covered  with 
glaciers  on  all  sides^  and  has  an  abrupt,  almost 
precipitous  slope  on  the  east,  while  on  the  west 
the  great  Gomer  Glacier  slopes  more  gradually 
toward  the  base  of  the  Matterhom.  The  main 
structure  of  the  mountain  is  gneiss,  while  the 
upper  parts  consist  of  mica-slate.  Iron,  copper, 
and  gold  are  found,  and  several  mines  are  worked, 
one  at  an  altitude  of  11,000  feet.  The  passes 
over  the  chain  near  Monte  Rosa  are  among  the 
loftiest  and  most  difficult  in  the  Alps,  and  the 
peak  itself  is  very  difficult  of  ascent.  The  feat 
was  first  accomplished  by  the  Smith  brothers  in 
1855. 

HONTESA,  mdn-ta^s&,  Obdeb  of  cub  Ladt 
OF.  An  order  founded  in  1317  by  James  II.  of 
Aragon  to  take  the  place  of  the  Templars  after 
their  dissolution.  The  city  and  Castle  of  Montesa 
in  Valencia  were  given  to  it  and  it  was  endowed 
with  the  property  formerly  belonging  to  the 
Templars.  It  acknowledged  the  Order  of  Cala- 
trava  as  its  superior.  In  1587  it  was  united  with 
the  Spanish  Crown  and  is  now  a  Court  order  with 
two  classes. 

MONTE  SAN  OIUIilANO,  m^n'tA  sAn  j^ 
lyjl'nd.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Trapani, 
Sicily,  situated  on  a  high  mountain,  four  miles 
northeast  of  the  town  of  Trapani  (Map:  Italy, 
G  9).  On  the  moimtain  (anciently  Eryx)  are 
the  remains  of  a  famous  temple  of  Venus. 
The  town  has  a  church  dating  from  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  remains  of  numerous  ancient 
buildings.  There  are  oil  works  and  marble 
pits.  Population  (commime),  in  1881,  21,388; 
in  1901,  28,939. 

MONTESANOy  m6n't^-sa'nA.  A  io\m  and  the 
county-seat  of  Chehalis  County,  Wash.,  48  miles 
by  rail  west  by  south  of  Oljrmpia ;  at  the  head  of 
tide-water  navigation  on  the  Chehalis  River,  and 
on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  Wash- 
ington, B  4).  It  is  in  a  lumbering  and  farming 
district,  and  has  salmon  fisheries,  a  creamery, 
and  manufactories  of  furniture,  shingles,  sash 
and  doors,  sawed  lumber,  etc.  There  is  a  salmon 
hatchery  on  the  Chehalis  River,  three  miles  above 
the  town.  Population,  in  1900,  1194;  in  1906 
(local  cen.),  2740. 

MONTE  SANT'ANOELO^  mdn'tA  silnt-an'- 
jft-lA.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Foggia,  Italy, 
situated  27  miles  northeast  of  Foggia,  on  one 
of  the  Gargano  group  of  mountains,  at  a  height 
of  2765  feet  CMap:  Italy,  L  6).  The  C^hurch  of 
Saint  Michael  is  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  Popula- 
tion (commune),  in  1881,  19,234;  in  1901,  21,- 
870. 

MONTESINOSy  mon'tA-se'nAs,  Febnando 
(c.  1593-C.1655).  A  Spanish  historian.  In  his 
youth  he  went  to  Peru,  and  eventually  became  a 
member  of  the  Supreme  Administrative  Council 
at  Lima.  W^hile  employed  in  this  capacity  he 
visited  difi'erent  parts  of  Peru,  studying  Peru- 
vian history.  The  fruits  of  his  archapological  re- 
search appeared  in  two  historical  works,  the 
Memorias  antiguas  hisforiales  del  Pertt,  which 
was  translated  into  French  in  1849  by  Temaux- 
Compans  and  the  Anales  Nuei^as  del  PerU, 

MONTESPAN,      mON't'-spftN^        Francoise 

ATHfiNAiS     DE     ROCHECHOUABT     DE     MORTEMART, 

[Marquise  de  (1641-1707).  Mistress  of  Louis 
XIV.     She  was  bom  at  the  Chateau  of  Tonnay- 


Charente,  the  second  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Mortemart.  She  was  the  wittiest  and  most 
beautiful  member  of  a  family  renowned  for  its 
wit  and  beauty,  and  soon  became  the  most  popu- 
lar of  the  Queen's  ladies-in-waiting  at  Versailles. 
She  married  the  Marquis  de  Montespan  in  1663 
and  lived  imhappily  with  him  ever  afterwards. 
About  1668  she  became  the  King's  mistress, 
sharing  her  power  for  some  years  with  La 
Valliftre  (q.v.),  whom  she  finally  supplanted. 
Till  1678  she  ruled  the  King  and  the  Court, 
dictated  matters  of  policy,  and  was  imcrowned 
Queen  of  France.  From  that  time  on  she  was 
gradually  supplanted  in  the  King's  affections 
by  Mme.  de  Maintenon,  whom  she  had  hired  as 
governess  for  the  children  she  had  borne  the  King. 
She  left  Court  about  1690,  wandered  disconso- 
lately over  France,  and  finally  found  peace  in  a 
convent.  Of  her  children  by  the  King  the  best 
known  were  the  Duke  de  Maine,  the  Ck)unt  de 
Toulouse,  Mademoiselle  de  Nantes,  and  Made- 
moiselle de  Blois,  who  married  the  subsequent 
Regent  Orleans. 

MONTESQTTIETT,  mON't's-ky©',  Chables  de 
Secondat,  Baron  de  la  BrMe  et  de  (1689-1755). 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  politico-philosophical 
writers  of  France.  He  was  bom  January  18, 1689, 
at  his  father's  Chftteau  of  BrMe,  near  Bordeaux, 
of  a  distinguished  family  of  Guienne  and  one 
noted  for  the  number  of  eminent  lawyers  it  pro- 
duced. He  was  a  brilliant,  versatile  scholar,  illu- 
minating his  solid  legal  attainments  by  an  ardent 
love  of  the  classics  and  of  science.  In  1714  he 
was  appointed  a  Councilor  of  the  Parlement 
of  Bordeaux,  and  two  years  after  president 
of  the  Parlement.  He  cared  nothing,  how- 
ever, for  the  routine  of  legal  practice  or  for 
the  requirements  of  official  duty,  and  as  his 
fortune  was  ample  he  was  enabled  to  gratify 
his  taste  for  study,  travel,  and  observa- 
tion without  hindrance.  He  was  a  good  deal  of 
a  skeptic  and  free  thinker  and  loose  in  his 
morals,  but  in  the  field  of  politics  he  was  the 
clearest  thinker  of  his  time.  His  first  published 
work  was  his  famous  Lettres  persanes  (1721),  in 
which,  in  the  character  of  a  Persian,  he  ridicules, 
with  exquisite  humor  and  perspicuous  criticism, 
the  religious,  political,  social,  and  literary  life  of 
his  countrymen.  Although  he  did  not  spare  the 
Academy  in  these  letters,  he  was  made  a  member 
of  it  in  1728.  In  1726  Montesquieu  resigned  his 
office  in  the  Parlement  of  Bordeaux,  and  spent 
some  years  in  foreign  countries.  In  England  he 
spent  two  years,  during  which  he  was  much 
in  the  company  of  Lord  Chesterfield  and  other 
distinguished  personages.  He  was  frankly  an 
admirer  of  the  English  political  system,  a  fact 
which  appears  in  his  great  contribution  to  polit- 
ical science.  After  his  return  to  France  he  pub- 
lished his  Considerations  sur  les  causes  de  la 
grandeur  et  de  la  decadence  des  Romains  ( 1734) , 
a  masterly  review  of  Roman  history.  It  was  fol- 
lowed after  a  long  interval  by  his  Dialogues,  de 
Sylla  et  d^EucratCy  et  de  Lysimaque  (1748), 
published  under  an  assumed  name,  in  which  the 
motives  and  feelings  of  a  despot  are  skillfully 
analyzed.  In  the  same  year  appeared  his  great 
work,  on  which  he  had  been  engaged  for  twenty 
years,  the  Esprit  des  lois,  in  which  he  attempted 
to  discover  the  relation  between  the  laws  of 
different  countries  and  their  local  and  social  cir- 
cumstances. The  book  proved  immensely  popular. 

The  Esprit  des  lots  is  one  of  the  classics  of 


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HOHTESQTJIETJ. 


760 


MONTEVIDEO. 


political  science,  one  of  the  path-breaking  works 
in  establishing  the  science  of  politics  upon  an  his- 
torical rather  than  an  a  priori  basis.  It  has 
assured  Montesquieu  a  place  among  the  foremost 
political  philosophers  of  all  times.  Without 
adopting  Voltaire's  hyper-eulogistic  criticism, 
that  "when  the  human  race  had  lost  their 
charters,  Montesquieu  rediscovered  and  restored 
them/'  it  may  be  said  that  it  was  the  first  work 
in  modem  times  in  which  the  questions  of  civil 
liberty  were  ever  treated  in  an  enlightened  and 
systematic  manner.  The  Esprit  des  lois,  next  to 
Locke's  Essay  cm  Government,  was  probably  the 
political  work  best  known  to  the  statesmen  of 
the  American  Revolution  and  early  constitutional 
period,  and  its  influence  was  marked  in  the  dis- 
cussions attending  the  adoption  of  the  Constitu- 
tion. It  was  bitterly  attacked  in  Montesquieu's 
own  day  for  its  radical  attitude  in  regard  to  the 
Church  and  religion,  and  for  its  alleged  Anglo- 
mania, but  it  was  admired  by  the  reform  partv 
in  France  and  by  the  Moderates  of  the  French 
Revolution,  though  not  popular  in  France  in 
later  days.  It  is  divided  into  thirty-one  parts. 
The  first  eight  deal  with  laws  in  general,  their 
nature  and  principles;  the  next  five  with  laws 
relating  to  offense  and  defense,  political  liberty, 
and  taxation;  the  next  twelve  with  laws  in  re- 
lation to  climate,  soil,  manners  and  customs, 
commerce,  population,  and  religion;  the  twenty- 
sixth  deals  with  laws  in  their  relation  to  the 
affairs  which  they  determine;  the  remaining 
five  books,  relating  to  Roman,  French,  and 
feudal  law,  are  a  kind  of  historical  supple- 
ment. The  collective  editions  of  his  works  are 
numerous.  The  best  is  that  of  Laboulaye  in  7 
vols.  (Paris,  1875-79).  All  of  his  important 
works  have  been  translated  in  numerous  editions. 
The  best  short  work  on  Montesquieu  is  Sorel, 
Montesquieu^  trans,  by  Masson  (London,  1887)  ; 
the  standard  authority  is  Vian,  Histoire  de  la  vie 
et  des  (Tuvres  de  Montesquieu  (Paris,  1879). 
There  are  good  essays  by  Doumie,  Brunetiftre,  and 
Zevort.  Consult,  also,  Ix)well,  Ere  of  the  French 
Revolution  ( Boston,  1893 ) ;  llbert,  Montesquieu 
(Oxford,  1904). 

MONTESQTJIOTJ-FfeZENSAC,  mftN't'skft- 
oo'  f&'zilN'sAk',  Robert,  Count  de  (1855 — ).  A 
French  poet  and  author,  bom  in  Paris.  His  first 
verse,  in  the  volume  Les  chauves-souris  (1892), 
attracted  considerable  attention,  because  of  its 
unusual  form,  imaginative  quality,  and  a  cer- 
tain fastidiousness  of  language,  characteristics 
which  appear  in  all  his  writings.  His  poetical 
works  include:  Le  chef  des  odeurs  suaves 
(1893);  Le  parcours  du  r^ve  au  souvenir 
(1895)  ;  Les  hortensias  hleus  (1896)  ;  Les  perles 
rouges  (1899)  ;  Les  paons  (1901)  ;  and  Prices 
pour  tous  (1901).  He  also  became  well  knowTi 
as  a  'confCreneier  du  salon,*  and  in  this  capacity 
he  visited  the  L'nited  States  in  1903.  His  prose 
essays  are  contained  in  Roseaux  pensants  (1897), 
and  Aufels  priviUgi^s   (1899). 

MONTEVERDE^  mdn'tA-var'da,  or  MONTE- 
VEBDI,  Claudio  (1567-1643).  An  Italian  com- 
poser, born  at  Cremona.  He  rebelled  against 
the  limited  and  arbitrary  musical  forms  of 
his  day,  and  made  valuable  innovations.  Be- 
fore then,  'preparation*  was  considered  a 
necessity  for  every  dissonance;  but  Monte- 
verde  attacked  directly,  without  preparation, 
the    dissonances    of    the    chords    of    the    domi- 


nant seventh,  the  leading  tone  seventh,  the  dimin- 
ished seventh,  and  in  some  instances  the  chord 
of  the  dcmiinant  ninth.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  the 
movement  that  led  to  modem  opera.  He  im- 
proved and  enlarged  the  orchestra,  and  in  his 
operas  gave  to  the  instruments  a  score  compara- 
tively free  from  the  limitation  of  the  voice 
parts;  an  innovation  which  gained  for  him  the 
title  of  'the  father  of  the  art  of  instrumenta- 
tion.' But  few  of  his  works  survive,  and  while 
one  or  two  of  the  smaller  pieces,  madrigals,  etc., 
have  been  republished  within  comparatively  re- 
cent times,  the  few  really  representative  works 
that  remain  are  in  the  possession  of  museums 
or  collectors.  His  works  consisted  in  part  of: 
Orfeo  (1603)  ;  Arianna  (1608)  :  II  combat timento 
di  Tancredi  e  Clorinda  (1624);  Proserpine 
rapiia  ( 1630) ;  Adone  ( 1639)  ;  Le  nozze  di  Enea 
con  Lavinia  (1641)  ;  II  ritorno  d*Uliss€  in  patria 
i  1642 )  ;  songs,  motets,  church  music,  and  ves- 
pers. During  his  career  he  was  maestro  to  the 
Duke  of  Mantua  (1603)  and  maestro  di  capella 
at  San  Marco,  Venice  (1613).  He  died  in  Venice. 
See  Opera. 

MONTE VEBDE,  GiULio  (1837—).  An  Ital- 
ian sculptor,  born  at  Bistagno  (Piedmont).  He 
studied  at  the  Academy  of  Rome,  where  he  after- 
wards became  professor  of  sculpture.  His  works 
include  the  groups  '*The  Genius  of  Franklin" 
and  "Jenner  Inoculating  His  Daughter,"  the 
monument  to  Victor  Emmanuel,  in  the  Pantheoa 
at  Rome,  and  the  statue  "The  First  Inspiration 
of  Columbus,*'  in  the  Art  Museimi  at  Boston. 

MONTEVIDEO,  mdn't*-vId'^-6,  8p.  pron. 
m6n'tA-v6-Da'6.  The  capital  of  Uruguay,  situated 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  estuary  of  the  Rio  de 
la  Plata,  68  miles  east  of  Buenos  Ayres  (Map: 
Uruguay,  F  11).  It  is  built  on  a  peninsula 
running  westward  from  the  mainland,  and  in- 
closing the  bay  forming  the  harbor.  On  the 
west  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  bay,  opposite 
the  city,  rises  the  Cerro,  a  picturesque  mountain, 
in  connection  with  which  the  name  Montevideo 
is  derived.  The  ground  of  the  peninsula  rises 
graduallv  from  the  water  on  either  side  to  the 
central  bridge,  giving  the  city,  besides  an  im- 
posing appearance,  an  excellent  natural  drainage,, 
which,  together  with  its  pleasant  climate,  good 
water  supply,  sewerage  system,  and  general  sani- 
tary conditions,  makes  it  a  very  healthful  place 
of  residence.  The  streets  are  wide,  straight, 
and  well  paved,  and  are  regularly  laid  out 
both  in  the  new  and  the  old  quarters.  The 
latter  occupies  the  western  end  of  the  pen- 
insula, and  is  the  chief  commercial  quarter.  The 
central  portion,  occupying  the  eastern  end  of 
the  peninsula,  contains  the  cathedral  and  the 
chief  public  buildings.  From  the  base  of  the 
peninsula  the  new  parts  of  the  city  spread  out 
like  a  fan  over  the  heights  of  the  mainland,  with 
large  avenues  radiating  in  all  directions,  along 
nearly  all  of  which  street  railway  lines  run  to 
the  suburbs. 

Tlie  principal  street  is  that  of  the  D^imoctavo 
de  Julio,  which  runs  down  the  central  ridge  of 
the  peninsula,  and  terminates  in  the  Plaza  de  la 
Independiencia,  the  principal  square  of  the  city, 
surrounded  by  prominent  buildings  and  colon- 
nades. There  are  several  other  squares,  some  of 
which  have  gardens  and  statues.  Many  of  the 
streets  are  lined  with  shade  trees,  and  the  Prado, 
outside   of  the   city,   is  a   handsome  park  and 


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promenade.  The  cathedral  is  a  large  and  con- 
spicuous, though  not  very  artistic  structure,  but 
the  Church  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  is 
beautiful.  The  chief  educational  institution  is 
the  university,  with  faculties  of  law,  medicine, 
mathematics,  and  pharmacy,  and  (1901)  417 
students.  There  are  also  a  seminary,  a  normal 
school,  several  Catholic  and  foreign  academies,  a 
national  museum,  a  public  library,  with  38,000 
volumes,  and  a  large  number  of  public  schools. 
The  packing  industry  has  attained  great  dimen- 
sions, 200,000  cattle  being  slaughtered  and  ship- 
ped annually.  As  an  outlet  for  the  products  of 
the  south  central  part  of  the  continent,  the  posi- 
tion of  Montevideo  is  even  more  favorable  than 
that  of  Buenos  Ayres.  In  its  present  condition 
the  bay  has  become,  from  filling,  unsuitable  for 
large  modem  ocean  vessels. 

In  1899  a  plan  for  harbor  improvements  in- 
volving an  expenditure  of  from  $15,000,000  to 
$20,000,000  was  approved  by  the  Government.  It 
contemplates  the  deepening  of  the  channel  and 
other  parts  where  necessary  to  24*4  feet  at  low 
water,  and  the  building  of  a  careening  dock  of 
sufficient  depth  to  hold  the  largest  vessels.  Work 
was  begun  in  1901.  In  1898,  85  per  cent,  of  the 
imports  and  03  per  cent,  of  the  exports  of  Uru- 
guay passed  through  the  port,  the  values  of  the 
imports  and  exports  of  the  city  being  respectively 
$21,135,967  and  $19,272,554.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  hides,  preserved  beef,  and  live  cattle, 
as  well  as  agricultural  products.  In  1904,  4633 
vessels,  aggregating  6,406,000  tons,  entered  the 
port,  and  4677  ships,  with  6,409,000  tons  cleared 
It.  The  population  of  Montevideo  has  grown 
almost  wholly  during  the  last  half  century,  the 
increase  being  chiefly  due  to  immigration.  In 
1828  it  had  a  population  of  9000;  in  1862,  46,766; 
in  1892,  238,080;  and  in  1905  it  was  estimated 
at  298,533.  Nearly  one-third  of  the  population 
are  foreigners,  the  chief  nationalities  represented 
being  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Brazilian. 

Montevideo  owes  its  origin  to  a  fort  built  in 
1717  by  the  Viceroy  of  Buenos  Ayres  to  check 
the  encroachments  of  the  Portuguese.  The  first 
settlements  of  civilians  around  the  fort  began  in 
1726.  Its  commercial  importance  was  not  recog- 
nized until  fifty  years  afterwards.  In  the  war 
of  independence  the  Spaniards  maintained  pojs- 
session  of  it  until  1814.  In  1828  it  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  new  Republic  of  Uruguay.  Be- 
tween 1842  and  1851  it  was  besieged  at  intervals 
by  Oribe  (q.v.) ,  who  was  supported  by  the  Argen- 
tine dictator,  Rosas,  and  has  since  been  dis- 
turbed by  internal  dissensions.  It  has  neverthe- 
less steadily  prospered,  chiefly  owing  to  its  great 
natural  advantages. 

Consult:  Bordoni,  Montevideo  e  la  repubhUca 
dell*  Uruguay  (Milan,  1885)  ;  Vincent,  Round 
and  About  South  America  (New  York,  1890)  ; 
Childs,  Spanish  American  Republics  (London, 
1891). 

MON'TEVID^O.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Chippewa  County,  Minn.,  134  miles  by 
rail  west  of  Minneapolis;  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Minnesota  and  Chippewa  rivers,  and  on  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad  (Map; 
Minnesota,  B  6) .  It  has  a  public  library,  a  State 
high  school,  and  Windom  Institute  (Congrega- 
tional), and  a  public  hall  building  that  cost  $20,- 
000.  The  industrial  establishments  include  sev- 
eral grain  elevators,  flouring  mills,  cheese  fac- 


tories, and  a  creamery.  There  is  in  the  vicinity 
a  fine  monument  which  marks  the  surrender  of 
the  Sioux  chief  Little  Crow  in  the  Indian  out- 
break of  1862.  Population,  in  1890,  1437;  in 
1900,  2146;  in  1905.  2695. 

HONTEZ,  mdn^t^s,  Lola.  The  assumed  name 
of  Maria  Dolores  Eliza  Rosanna  Gilbert,  an 
adventuress,  born  probably  in  Ireland,  in  1818 
according  to  some,  in  1824  according  to  her 
own  statement.  When  very  young  she  married 
a  Captain  James,  followed  him  to  India,  grew 
weary  of  him  and  came  back  to  Europe.  She 
appeared  as  a  danseuse  in  all  the  Continental 
capitals,  and  attracted  a  fair  amount  of  noto- 
riety by  her  beauty  and  escapades.  In  1847  she 
became  the  mistress  of  King  Louis  I.,  of  Bavaria, 
who  made  her  Countess  of  Landsfeld  and  allowed 
her  to  have  considerable  influence  in  the  govern- 
ment. An  insurrection  in  1848  drove  the  King 
from  his  throne,  and  Lola  from  Munich.  She 
went  to  London,  married  Stafford  Heald,  a 
guardsman,  was  divorced  from  him  quickly,  and 
came  to  America  in  1851.  She  traveled  over  the 
country,  acting  in  a  play  entitled  Lola  Montez  in 
Bavaria f  married  a  number  of  times,  lectured, 
published  books,  and  fitnally  settled  in  New  York, 
devoting  herself  to  rescue  work.  She  died  at 
Astoria,  Long  Island,  January  17,  1861.  Her 
writings  comprise  The  Arts  of  Beauty ,  and 
Lectures  (1858),  the  latter  containing  an  auto- 
biography. 

MON'TEZU'MA.  A  town  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Poweshiek  County,  la.,  72  miles  east  of 
Des  Moines,  on  the  Iowa  Central  and  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Iowa, 
E  3 ) .  There  are  considerable  manufacturing  in- 
terests, and  it  has  a  foundry  and  machine  shop,  a 
creamery,  and  manufactories  of  cement  block,  etc. 
There  are  deposits  of  coal  in  the  adjacent  region, 
which  is  engaged  chiefly  in  agriculture,  stock- 
raising,  and  dairying.  Population,  in  1890,  1062; 
in  1900,  1210;  in  1905,  1284. 

MONTEZUMA,  or,  more  correctly,  MOTE- 
CXTHZOMA.  The  name  of  two  celebrated  war 
chiefs  of  ancient  Mexico.  Montezuma  I.  ( 1390?- 
1464)  was  the  son  of  HuizilihuitI,  ruler  of 
Tenochtitlan  (Mexico),  and  during  the  reigns  of 
his  father,  his  uncle,  and  his  brother,  acquired 
fame  as  a  warrior  in  numerous  expeditions 
against  surrounding  tribes.  In  1436  he  was 
elected  "Emperor,"  and  soon  after  entered  into  a 
war  against  the  town  of  Chalco  to  the  southeast 
of  Mexico.  Chalco  was  destroyed  and  many  of 
its  inhabitants  were  carried  to  Mexico,  where  they 
were  oflfered  up  as  sacrifices  during  the  festivitiea 
attending  the  coronation  of  Montezuma.  In  this 
reign  the  Mexicans  extended  their  conquests  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
capital  was  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified,  and 
a  vast  system  of  dams  was  begun  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  city  against  inundation. — Montezuma 
II.  (? — 1520),  the  last  of  the  Aztec  rulers  of 
Mexico,  became  "Emperor"  in  1502,  succeeding 
his  uncle  Ahuizotl.  His  reign  began  with  the 
usual  warlike  expedition  undertaken  with  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  human  sacrifices  for  the 
royal  coronation.  Montezuma  II.  was  successful 
in  extending  the  limits  within  which  the  domi- 
nation of  tlie  City  of  Mexico  (Tenochtitlan)  was 
recognized,  especially  toward  the  south,  his  ex- 
peditions reaching  both  Honduras  and  Nicara- 
gua.    The  national  tradition  that  Quetzalcoatl,, 


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762 


MOHTFOBT. 


a  tribal  divinity  or  hero,  would  return  from  the 
sun-rising,  white  in  color  and  bearded,  rendered 
the  Aztec  chieftain's  course  vacillating  and  weak 
when  he  was  informed  of  the  landing  of  Cortes 
(q.v.).  He  tried  by  diplomacy  and  gifts  to  keep 
the  Spaniards  away  from  his  city,  but  refused 
to  fight  them  until  too  late  to  oppose  their  prog- 
ress effectively.  After  Cortes  reached  the  city, 
Montezuma  allowed  himself  to  be  detained  as  a 

Srisoner,  his  uncertainty  as  to  what  should  be 
one  paralyzing  all  action  by  his  warriors  imtil 
the  Spaniards  had  made  their  position  secure. 
When  the  Mexicans  refused  longer  to  endure  the 
actions  of  their  Spanish  visitors  and  called  upon 
Montezuma's  brother,  Cuitlahuatzin,  to  lead  them 
against  the  white  men,  Montezuma,  acting  pre- 
sumably under  pressure  from  Cortes,  endeavored 
to  quiet  the  revolt.  Failing  in  this,  he  was 
probiably  killed  by  the  Spaniards,  who  gave  out 
that  he  died  as  a  result  of  a  blow  from  a  stone 
thrown  by  one  of  his  own  people,  while  he  was 
trying  to  address  them  from  the  roof  of  the 
house  occupied  by  the  Spaniards  (June  27,  1520) . 

MONTPAUCON,  mON'f6'k6N',  Bernard  de 
(1655-1741).  A  French  scholar  and  antiquary. 
He  was  bom  at  the  Castle  of  Soul  age  in  Langue- 
doc;  entered  the  army  about  1672,  and  served 
under  Turenne ;  but  after  the  death  of  his  mother 
entered  the  Benedictine  Order  (1676)  at  the  Ab- 
bey of  La  Daurade  in  Toulouse.  He  went  to 
Paris  in  1687  to  share  in  the  translation  into 
Latin  of  the  Greek  Church  fathers  and  in  the 
great  Benedictine  patrology,  and  spent  two  years 
(1698-1700)  in  research  in  Italy.  Among  his 
works  are:  Diarium  Italicum  (1702);  Palceo- 
graphia  Qrceca  (1708)  ;  UantiquiU  expliqu^e  et 
representee  en  /inures  (1719-24)  ;  and  editions 
of  Athanasius  (1G93),  of  Origen*s  Hexapla 
(1713),  and  of  John  Chrysostom  (1718-34). 
Consult  De  Broglie,  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  et 
les  Bernardino  (Paris,  1891). 

MONTFEBRAT,  mON'fe-rU'  (It.  Monferrato). 
Formerly,  an  independent  duchy  of  Italy,  bound- 
ed by  the  territory  of  Genoa,  the  Po,  and  the 
Maritime  Alps.  It  was  divided  into  upper  and 
lower  Montferrat,  the  former  including  the  cities 
of  Iklondovi,  Acqui,  and  Alba ;  the  latter,  Alessan- 
dria, Asti,  and  Casale.  ITie  capital  was  Casale. 
Montferrat,  after  the  disruption  of  the  Frankish 
empire,  was  ruled  by  its  own  margraves  or  mar- 
quises till  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. This  house  for  a  long  time  disputed  the 
sovereignty  of  Piedmont  with  the  rulers  of  Savoy. 
Some  of  its  members,  notably  Boniface  II.  (q.v.), 
became  celebrated  in  connection  with  the  Cru- 
sades. On  the  death  of  Marquis  John  I.,  in  1305, 
the  second  son  of  his  sister,  lolande  or  Irene,  who 
was  Empress  of  Constantinople,  succeeded  to 
[Montferrat,  becoming  the  founder  of  the  family 
of  !Montferrat-Palaeologus,  which  became  extinct 
in  1533,  when  Montferrat  passed  in  1536  to  the 
Gonzagas  of  J^Iantua,  for  whom  it  was  erected 
into  a  duchy.  In  1631  the  dukes  of  Savoy  ob- 
tained possession  of  a  portion  of  Montferrat,  and 
in  1703,  with  the  consent  of  the  German  Em- 
pejor,  the  remaining  portion  passed  under  their 
sway,  and  was  incorporated  with  their  dominions. 

MONTFORT,  mON'fOr'  (Montfort  l'Amau- 
RY).  The  name  of  a  noble  French  house,  de- 
scended from  the  early  counts  of  Hainault.  It 
took  its  name  from  a  castle  on  a  'strong  mount* 
between  Paris  and  Chartres.     The  first  member 


of  importance  was  Simon  III.,  Count  of  Montfort 
TAmaury  and  Evreux,  who  married  Amicia^  sis- 
ter of  Robert  Beaumont,  Earl  of  Leicester.  His 
second  son  was  the  famous  Simon  de  Montfort, 
Count  of  Toulouse.  This  nobleman,  so  conspicuous 
in  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  ( q.v. ) ,  was 
bom  about  the  year  1150.  In  1198  he  went  to 
Palestine  at  the  head  of  a  troop  of  French 
knights,  but  failed  to  accomplish  anything 
against  the  Saracens,  and  was  obliged  to  return. 
In  1202  he  joined  the  fourth  Crusade,  which, 
however,  was  soon  diverted  from  its  purpose 
(see  Crusade),  in  consequence  of  which  Mont- 
fort abandoned  it  and  went  to  the  Holy  Land, 
where  he  did  some  fighting  against  the  infidels. 
In  1208  he  engaged  in  the  war  against  the  Al- 
bigenses, and  signalized  himself  by  his  relentless 
ferocity  and  his  brilliant  successes.  He  was  in- 
vested with  the  territories  of  the  leader  of  the 
Albigenses,  Count  Raymond  VII.  of  Toulouse, 
He  was  killed  by  a  stone  at  the  siege  of  Toulouse, 
June  26,  1218.  His  son  Amaury  continued  the 
struggle,  lost  nearly  his  whole  patrimony,  but 
was  recompensed  by  Louis  VIII.,  who  made  him 
Constable  of  France.  He  died  about  1241.  The 
brother  of  Amaury  was  the  Simon  de  Montfort 
(q.v.)  famous  in  English  history. 

MONT'FORT,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Leicester 
(c.1208-65).  A  famous  English  statesman.  He 
was  the  third  son  of  Simon  de  Montfort  (see 
Montfort),  the  leader  in  the  Crusade  against 
the  Albigenses,  and  was  bom  in  France.  He  in- 
herited the  title  of  Earl  of  Leicester  from  his 
grandmother,  Amicia  de  Beaumont,  sister  and 
heiress  of  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester.  In  1231 
Simon  received  the  lands  which  his  father  had 
held,  his  elder  brother  Amaury  having  resigned 
his  claim  to  him.  In  1238  he  married  Eleanor, 
sister  of  King  Henry  III.,  and  the  youthful 
widow  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke.  In  1239  he  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Earl  of  Leicester.  In  1248  he 
was  sent  by  the  King  to  undertake  the  command 
in  Gascony.  He  held  this  oflBce  until  1252,  amid 
constant  revolts;  was  charged  with  having  gov- 
erned badly,  and  quarreled  frequently  with  the 
King;  but  he  was  supported  by  the  nobles  in 
England.  After  his  resignation  Henry  III.  was 
soon  compelled  to  ask  his  aid.  It  is  probable 
that  he  was  a  stem,  ruthless,  but  not  an  unjust 
governor.  In  1258  the  King's  debts  were  so 
great  and  the  rapacity  of  his  foreign  relatives 
so  unbearable,  that  the  people  were  in  a  state  of 
insurrection.  The  barons  assembled,  and  under 
the  direction  of  Montfort  held  the  celebrated 
Parliament  at  Oxford.  Thev  passed  statutes  to 
enforce  the  provisions  of  Magna  Charta.  and 
from  this  resulted  the  Provisions  of  Oxford 
(q.v.),  and  a  little  later  followed  the  Provisions 
of  Westminster  (q.v.).  The  King  swore  to  ob- 
serve them,  but  sent  forthwith  to  the  Pope 
praying  to  be  absolved  from  his  oath.  The  bull 
of  absolution  arrived.  Henry  set  his  barons  at 
defiance,  and  finally  both  sides  agreed  to  submit 
the  matter  in  dispute  to  Louis  IX.  of  France, 
and  he  rendered  a  decision,  on  January  23,  1264, 
which  upheld  Henry  III.  in  all  points.  (See 
MisE  OF  Amiens.)  The  nobles,  however,  would 
not  accept  the  decision,  and  took  up  arms.  They 
were  aided  by  the  whole  middle  class,  who  looked 
up  to  Montfort  as  their  champion  and  leader, 
and  the  war  began  with  the  battle  of  Northamp- 
ton.   At  Lewes  (1264)  the  Royal  forces  were  sig- 


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763 


MONTQOMEBY. 


nally  discomfited  and  the  King  taken  captive.  The 
conditions  imposed  upon  the  King  were  summed 
up  in  the  Mise  of  Lewes  (q.v.) ,  and  Montfort  was 
the  real  ruler  of  the  kingdom.  In  summoning 
a  Parliament  for  1265  to  deliberate  upon  the 
measures  to  be  adopted  at  this  great  crisis,  writs 
were  issued  to  the  sheriffs  in  1264  by  Montfort 
directing  them  to  return  two  knights  for  each 
shire,  and  two  citizens  for  every  borough,  which 
is  of  importance  in  the  development  of  the  rep- 
resentation of  the  commons  as  an  estate  of  the 
realm  in  Parliament.  A  second  war  broke  out, 
after  the  young  Duke  of  Gloucester  deserted  the 
baronial  party  and  joined  the  King.  Prince 
Edward  (afterwards  Edward  I.)  encountered  the 
barons  at  Evesham  with  a  greatly  superior 
army.  When  defeat  was  inevitable,  the  great 
leader  refused  to  flee,  and  fell  fighting  bravely 
(August  4,  1265).  The  death  of  Sfontfort  filled 
the  whole  land  with  mourning;  the  people  be- 
wailed their  dead  champion,  and  the  Franciscans 
pointed  to  his  glorified  spirit  in  heaven,  regard- 
less of  the  fact  that  on  purely  political  grounds 
he  had  been  excommunicated  in  1264.  The  influ- 
ence of  Montfort  was  felt  after  his  death,  and 
his  policy,  in  general,  Nvas  followed  by  Edward  I. 
(q.v.).  Consult:  Devic  et  Vaissftte,  Histoire  de 
Languedoc,  vol.  vi.  (Toulouse,  1879)  ;  Pauli, 
Simon  de  Montfort,  translated  by  Miss  Goodwin 
(London,  1876)  ;  Prothero,  Simon  de  Montfort 
(London,  1877)  ;  but  especially  B4mont,  Simon 
de  Montfort  (Paris,  1884);  also  Stubbs,  Con- 
stitutional History,  vol.  ii.  (4th  ed.,  Oxford, 
1896;  Stubbs,  Early  Plantagenets  (5th  ed..  New 
York,  1886)  ;  and  Green,  History  of  the  English 
People,  vol.  i.  (London,  1895). 

MONTQOLFIEB^  m6N'g5l'fyA',  Joseph  Mi- 
chel (1740-1810),  and  Jacques  Etienne  (1745- 
99).  Two  French  inventors,  bom  at  Vidalon-lez- 
Annonay  in  Ardfeche.  They  were  the  sons  of  a 
paper  manufacturer,  and  though  Etienne  studied 
architecture,  he  gave  up  his  profession  to  take 
charge  of  his  father's  factory,  as  Joseph  had  gone 
into  business  for  himself.  The  two  orothers  be- 
came interested  in  aeronautics  (q.v.),  and  their 
fame  rests  upon  their  achievement  in  making  the 
first  successful  balloons.  For  this  work  Louis  XVI. 
decorated  Etienne  with  the  Order  of  Saint  Mi- 
chel, gave  Joseph  a  pension  of  1000  livres,  raised 
their  father  to  the  nobility,  and  later  granted 
the  brothers  40,000  francs  that  they  might  de- 
vote their  whole  attention  to  atrial  navigation. 
Their  work  was  interrupted  by  the  Revolution, 
and  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  Etienne,  who  had 
been  administrator  of  his  department,  was  de- 
nounced and  escaped  only  through  the  devotion 
of  his  workmen.  Napoleon  decorated  Joseph  and 
appointed  him  to  various  offices,  and  the  Institute 
in  1807  elected  him  a  member  of  its  section  of 
general  physics.  He  made  several  other  inven- 
tions of  considerable  value,  among  them  the 
parachute,  and  published  Discours  sur  Va^ostat 
(1783)  ;  Les  voyageurs  a&iens  (1784)  ;  and,  in 
collaboration  with  his  brother,  M&moire  sur  la 
machine  a^rostatique  (1784).  Consult  Turgan, 
Les  hallons  (Paris,  1851). 

HONTGOMEBIE,  mdnt-gtim^erl,  Alexan- 
der (C.1556-C.1610).  A  Scottish  poet.  He  evi- 
dently received  a  scholarly  training  and  for  a 
time  held  an  official  position  at  the  Court  of 
James  VI.  Some  years  were  spent  in  foreign 
travel.  The  Cherrie  and  the  Slae  (1597),  still 
popular   among   the   Scofch,   gives  him    a   con- 

VOL.  XIII.— 49. 


spicuous  place  in  a  period  of  the  literature  of 
his  country  which  was  without  poetic  genius. 
The  poem  lacks  design,  but  contains  many  pas- 
sages of  homely  beauty.  He  is  also  author  of 
some  sonnets  and  a  scurrilous  poem,  entitled 
The  Flyting  Between  Montgomery  and  Pohoart 
( 1621 ) .  A  collection  of  his  works  was  published 
by  Laing  in  1821,  and  another,  edited  by 
Cranstoun  for  the  Scottish  Text  Society,  ap- 
peared in  1887. 

MONTGOMEBY.  The  capital  of  Alabama, 
and  the  county-seat  of  Montgomery  County,  180 
miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Mobile ;  on  the  Alabama 
River,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  and  on  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville,  the  Mobile  and  Ohio, 
the  Central  of  Georgia,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line, 
the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Western  of  Alaba- 
ma, and  other  railroads  (Map:  Alabama,  C  3). 
The  city  is  built  on  the  high  river  bank,  and  has 
many  spacious  old-fashion^  residences  and  large 
gardens.  Its  principal  buildings  are  the  State 
Capitol,  a  United  States  Government  building, 
the  city  hall,  court-house.  Masonic  Temple,  and 
the  Carnegie  Library.  A  fine  Confederate  monu- 
ment is  located  on  the  grounds  of  the  Capitol. 
Among  the  charitable  and  educational  institu- 
tions are  the  city  infirmary,  an  orphanage,  and 
a  home  for  widows,  a  State  normal  school  for 
colored  pupils,  and  public.  State,  and  Supreme 
Court  (31,000  volumes),  and  State  Board  of 
Health  libraries.  There  are  about  fifty  acres  of 
public  parks. 

Montgomery  has  a  large  cotton  market,  its 
annual  trade  being  about  200,000  bales.  Owins 
to  its  accessibility  to  timber  and  deposits  of  coal 
and  iron,  it  has  developed  also  into  a  manu- 
facturing centre  of  considerable  importance.  By 
the  census  of  1900  it  held  second  rank  among 
the  cities  of  the  State,  with  an  invested  capital 
of  $2,930,782  and  a  production  valued  at  $5,035,- 
190.  Besides  the  various  establishments  repre- 
senting the  cotton  industry,  there  are  railroad 
car  and  repair  shops,  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  carriage  and  wagon  works,  confectionery 
factories,  fertilizer  factories,  marble  works, 
cracker  factories,  barrel  factories,  etc. 

Under  a  revised  charter  of  1897  the  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  biennially  elected,  and 
a  city  council,  which  elects  or  confirms  the 
executive's  nominations  of  all  administrative 
officials.  The  various  municipal  departments, 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  schools,  are  gov- 
erned by  single  heads.  The  city  spent  in  1904  in 
maintenance  and  operation  more  than  $520,000, 
the  principal  items  being  about  $105,051  for  in- 
terest on  debt,  $36,527  for  the  water-works,  $40,- 
505  for  the  police  department  (including  police 
courts,  jails,  reformatories,  etc.),  $54,230  for 
schools,  $26,910  for  the  fire  department,  and 
$21,360  for  municipal  lighting,  and  $25,700  for 
street  expenditures.  The  water-works  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  municipality,  having  been 
acquired  in  1898.  The  system,  which  includes  53 
miles  of  mains,  cost  about  $580,000.  Population, 
1900,  30,346;  1906  (local  est.),  40,000. 

Montgomerv  was  founded  in  1817  as  "New 
Philadelphia,'*  and  in  1819,  with  a  population  of 
600,  it  was  consolidated  with  "East  Alabama 
Town"  as  Montgomery.  Incorporated  in  1837,  it 
supplanted  Tuscaloosa  as  the  State  capital  in 
1847.  The  famous  "Alabama  Platform"  was 
adopted  here,  February  14,  1848,  and  Mont- 
gomery was  the  seat  of  the  Confederate  Govem- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KONTQOMEBY. 


764 


KONTGOMEBY. 


ment  from  February  to  May,  1861.  It  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Union  Army  April  12,  1865.  Con- 
sult Powell  (editor),  Historic  Tauma  of  the 
Southern  States  (New  York,  1000). 

MOHTGOICS&Y,  Florence  (1843-).  An 
English  novelist  of  Irish  parentage.  Her  most 
popular  books  are  for  children  or  child-lovers; 
they  include:  A  Very  Simple  Story  (1866); 
Peggy  and  Other  Tales  (1868);  Misunderstood 
(1869);  Throum  Together  (1872);  Thunried 
(1873);  Wild  Mike  and  His  Victim  (1874); 
Seaforth  (1878)  ;  The  Blue  VeU  (1883)  ;  Trans- 
formed (1886);  The  Fisherman's  Daughter 
(1888);  Colonel  Norton  (1895);  Tony  (1897); 
and  Prejudged  (1900). 

MOHTQOMBBY,    Fobt.     See   Fobt    Moi^- 

GOMEBT. 

MOHTQOXS&Y^  Gabbiel,  Count  de  (1530- 
74).  A  French  knight  of  Scottish  extraction. 
He  was  an  officer  in  the  Scottish  Life  Guard  of 
the  King  of  Francef,  and  in  a  tournament  held 
June  29,  1559,  accidentally  inflicted  a  mortal 
wound  on  Heniy  II.  Montgomery,  although 
blameless,  left  France,  and  soon  after  embraced 
Protestantism  in  England.  On  the  commence- 
ment of  the  religious  wars  in  1562,  he  returned 
to  his  native  countiy  to  support  the  Protestant 
cause,  and  defended  Rouen  with  great  bravery. 
In  the  third  civil  war  he  was  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Protestants,  and  gained  many  advantages 
over  the  Royalists  in  Languedoc  and  B^arn. 
During  the  massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew's  he 
happened  to  be  at  Paris,  but  fled  to  England, 
owing  his  escape  to  the  fleetness  of  his  norse. 
In  April,  1573,  he  appeared  off  Rochelle  with  a 
small  fleet,  but  failed  in  accomplishing  anything. 
Next  year,  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  Huguenots, 
he  landed  in  Normandy  and  commenced  war 
there;  but  being  compelled  at  last  to  surrender 
the  Castle  of  Domfront,  he  was  carried  to  Paris, 
and  was  beheaded. 

MONTQOXS&Y,  James  (1771-1854).  An 
English  poet,  the  son  of  a  Moravian  preacher. 
James  Montgomery  was  bom  at  Irvine,  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  November  4,  1771.  At  the  age  of 
seven  he  was  sent  to  the  Moravian  settlement 
at  Fulneck,  near  Leeds,  to  prepare  for  the 
Moravian  ministry.  To  the  annoyance  of  the 
Moravians,  his  leisure  at  school  was  employed 
in  the  composition  of  epics  on  King  Alfred  and 
the  fall  of  man.  In  1787  he  ran  away,  and  after 
four  years  of  various  employment  became  en- 
gaged as  clerk  to  the  editor  of  The  Sheffield 
Register.  In  1794  he  started  The  Sheffield  Iris, 
which  he  edited  till  1825.  He  was  twice  flned 
and  imprisoned  in  York  Castle  for  libel.  He 
afterwards  became  a  moderate  Conservative,  and 
in  1835  was  granted  a  Government  pension  of 
£150.  He  died  at  Sheffield,  April  30,  1854.  His 
principal  volumes  of  verse  are:  The  Wanderer 
of  Switzerland  (1806)  ;  The  West  Indies  (1809)  ;  • 
The  World  Before  the  Flood  (1812)  ;  Greenland 
(1819);  and  The  Pelican  Island,  and  Other 
Poems  (1826).  Montgomery  is  now  chiefly  re- 
membered for  his  hymns  (collected  in  1863),  of 
which  nearly  a  hundred  are  still  in  use.  Among 
them  are  Oo  to  Dark  Gethsemane,  and  Forever 
with  the  Lord.  Montgomery  had  little  depth 
and  drew  his  observations  from  books  rather 
than  from  nature.  HLs  fame  is  kept  up  not  by 
lovers  of  literature,  but  by  lovers  of  reli^ous 
feeling.    Consult:  Lives  by  Holland  and  Everett 


(London,  1854-56),  and  h^r  King  (ib.,  1858); 
Poetical  Works,  ed.  by  their  author  (ib.,  1841; 
reprint  1881),  and  by  Carruthers  (Boston, 
1860). 

MONTQOMEBY,  John  Bebbisn  (1794-1873). 
An  American  naval  officer,  bom  in  Allentown, 
N.  J.  He  entered  the  Navy  as  a  midshipman 
in  1812;  served  in  the  attack  on  Kingston, 
Canada,  in  November  of  the  same  vear,  and  in 
the  capture  of  York  in  April  of  the  following 
^ear;  and  for  gallantly  on  board  the  Niagara 
in  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie,  September  10, 
1813,  received  a  vote  of  thanks  and  a  sword 
from  Congress.  In  1815  he  served  in  Decatur's 
s<iuadron  in  the  war  with  Algiers,  was  made  a 
lieutenant  in  1818,  and  commander  in  1839. 
During  the  Mexican  War,  in  command  of  the 
sloop  Portsmouth,  he  took  possession  of  various 
places  on  the  coast  of  California,  blockaded 
Mazatlan  for  some  months,  and,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Captain  Lavalette  in  the  Congress,  cap- 
tured Guaymas.  He  was  made  a  captain  m 
1853,  commanded  the  Pacific  Squadron  in  1860- 
61,  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  commodore 
(retired  list)  in  1862,  and  became  a  rear-admiral 
in  1866. 

MONTGOMEBY,  Richabd  (1736-75).  An 
American  soldier,  prominent  in  the  French  and 
Indian  War  and  the  American  Revolution.  He 
was  bom  near  Feltrim,  Ireland,  and  was  educated 
at  Saint  Andrew's  College  and  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  In  1754  he  obtained  a  commission  as 
ensign  in  the  British  Army,  came  to  America 
with  his  regiment  in  1757,  during  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  and  displayed  personal  cour- 
age and  military  sagacity  at  the  siege  of  Louis- 
burg  and  in  various  actions.  In  1760  he  was 
made  adjutant  of  his  regiment,  and  in  1762 
was  promoted  to  be  captain.  After  the  conquest 
of  Canada  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  against 
Havana  and  Martinique,  and  in  1765,  after  being 
stationed  in  New  York  for  two  years,  returned  to 
England,  where  he  remained  until  1772,  when, 
selling  his  commission,  he  emigrated  to  New 
York.  In  1775  he  represented  IXitchess  County 
in  the  first  Provincial  Convention,  and  in  June 
was  appointed  by  Congress  brigadier-general  in 
the  Continental  Army.  He  was  second  in  com- 
mand of  the  expediti(Mi  sent  under  General  Philip 
Schuyler  against  Canada,  but  owing  to  the  ill- 
ness of  Schuyler,  became  the  actual  leader  in 
October.  He  at  once  pressed  forward,  and 
before  the  end  of  November  captured  successively 
Chambly,  Saint  Johns,  and  Montreal.  In  the 
next  month  he  joined  Benedict  Arnold  before 
Quebec.  On  December  9th  Montgomery  was  pro- 
moted to  be  major-^neral.  On  December  31st, 
shortly  after  midnight,  the  assault  upon  the 
town  was  attempted.  Montgomery  scaled  the 
Cape  Diamond  bastion  and,  pressing  forward  at 
the  head  of  his  troops,  was  instantly  killed  by 
the  first  and  only  volley.  The  undisciplined  co- 
lonial troops  were  then  overwhelmed  and  a  pre- 
cipitate retreat  ensued.  Montgomery's  conduct 
and  character  were  eulogized  in  Parliament  by 
Burke,  Chatham,  and  even  Lord  North ;  Congress 
recognized  his  services  by  resolutions  of  respect, 
and  by  its  order  a  monument  was  erected  in  his 
bono/ in  front  of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  New  York 
City,  where  in  1818  his  remains  were  interred 
with  impressive  ceremonies.  Consult  Armstrong, 
Life  of  Richard  Montgomery  (Boston,  1834),  In 
Sparks*s  "American  Biography." 


Digitized  by 


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MONTGOHEItY.  765  MONTH. 

MONTGK)MEBY,    Robebt     (1807-55).      An  ranks  next  to  the  day  in  importance.    There  are 

English  preacher.     He  was  bom  in  Bath;  grad-  several   other   periods   used   by   astronomers   to 

uated  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in  1833;  was  which  the  name  'month'  is  applied,  as  the  nodal 

ordained  in  1835;  served  as  pastor  at  Whittinff-  month  (27  days,  5  hours,  5  minutes,  36  seconds), 

ton,  Shropshire,  and  the  Church  of  Saint  Jude  from    ascending   node    to   ascending   node    (see 

in   Glasgow,   and   in    1843   became   minister   at  Nodes)  ;    the   anomalistic  month    (27   days,    13 

Percy  Chapel,  Saint  Pancras,  London,  where  he  hours,  18  minutes,  37  seconds),  from  perigee  to 

remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life.     He  was  an  perigee;    and    the    solar   month,    which    is   the 

impressive    and    successful    preacher    and    very  twelfth   part  of  a  solar  year,  consisting  of  30 

popular,  wrote  much  on  theological  subjects,  and  days,  10  hours,  29  minutes,  and  4  seconds.    Dis- 

in  his   later  days   was   interested   in   works   of  tinct   from   all   these   is   tiie   civil   or   calendar 

benevolence.    He*  was  most  widely  known  through  month,  fixed  by  law  for  ordinary  purposes,  and 

his  numerous  poetical  compositions,  which  were  consisting  of  a  fixed  number  of  days — from  28 

extravagantly  praised  by  readers  who,  enjoying  to  31 — according  to  the  particular  month.     The 

their  religious  tone  and  facile  versification,  over-  calendar  months,  with  the  number  of  days  belong- 

looked  their  poetical  defects,  and  were  condemned  ing  to  each,  are  as  follows : 
by  literary  critics  like  Macaulay,  after  whose  D^i 

reviews  they  lost  their  popularity.     Editions  of  i.  January 81 

his   poems   appeared   in    1839,    1840,    1841,   and  2.  February..^^...^^.^.^.. 2i^ 

1863.  3.  March ^!^.^!!^.""""'!!i''^il''^^^^^ 

MONTGOMEBT,  Sir  Robert  (1809-87).  A  t  }^zz::::::::::z::':z:::z:z::::^ 

British  administrator  in  India.     He  was  born  in  e'.  JuneV.V"".""""""^^^^^^^^^ 

County  Donegal,  Ireland,  and  received  his  educa-  7.  July..... 31 

tion  at  Foyie  College,  Londonderry,  and  at  J- September :'*:''.v:::::'.' ■■.':::■:::*::::::::::::";:■'  :'::::3o 

Wraxall  Hall  School,  North  Wiltshire,  England,  lo!  October.....!!!.'!!!!!!!!"!!!'.!!!!!!!!.""'.*.!!.'!!.*."!.!!!!!!!*.!!!  '../.".*.".".8l 

He  entered  the  Bengal  civil  service  in  1827,  was  JJ.  JJo^®"}}^^ fj 

actively  engaged  in  organizing  the  Punjab  after  ^^'  ^^^^^°^^ *^ 

the  annexation  of  that  province,  and  at  the  out-         The  names  by  which  the  months  arf  designated 

break  of  the  Sepoy  Mutiny  was  the  highest  civil  throughout  Christendom  were  given  them  by  the 

officer  in  its  capital  city,  Lahore.     He  promptly  Romans.    In  the  earliest  time  the  runiter  of  Ro- 

disarmed  the  Sepoy  garrison,  and  thus  not  only  man  months  seems  to  have  been  ten,  namely :  ( 1 ) 

saved  the  Punjab  from  the  horrors  which  befell  Martins,    (2)   Aprilis,    (3)    Mair^,   (4)   Junius; 

the  neighboring  provinces,  but  made  it  a  rally-  the  remaining  six  were  numb«;ied  as  the  fifth 

ing  point  from  which  the  British  began  the  task  month,   sixth  month,  ete.;    (.^)    Quinctilis,    (6) 

of  reconquest.     In  1858  he  became  chief  commis-  Sextilis,  (7)   Septembris,  (8)   Octobris,   (9)  No- 

sioner  of  Oudh,  and  the  next  year  Lieutenant-  vembris,  (10)  Decembr is.  Tb©  months  are  thought 

Governor  of  the  Punjab.     In  1865  he  resigned  to  have  been  lunar;  but  hr.^  the  year  was  filled 

and  returned  to  England,  where  he  was  appointed  out  is  unknown.     To  the  time  of  the  kings  is 

one  of  the  council  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  ascribed  a  reform  according  to  which  were  added 

India.     Consult  Dod well  and  Miles*s  J5ew^aZ  CtviZ  two    new    months,    Janaarius    and    Februarius. 

Servants  (London,  1839).  February  had  28  day?,  March,  May,  Quinctilis, 

MONTOOM^BYSHIBE.    An  inland  county  ?°d  October,  31 ;  the  rest  29.  The  sum  is  356,  be- 

of  North  Wales   between  Shronshire  on  the  east  ***«  ^°^  ^^  excess,  seeing  354  days  go  to  the  lunar 

^«  4r\.^  «,««*    /Tif«^     T?««i««^    n  A\       A^««    7Q7  making  mouths  of  31  davs  mstcad  of  30,  as  usual, 

^..-^  Z»h  '  !i*P '  *   "&5™l;!nt^f '  -^I  «  '"'id  to  have  been  that  luck  lies  in  odd  numbew 

square  miles;  almost  wnolly  mountainous.     Ine  .    x  xu-  i       x«       •         i     xu  •    x,    ^  ^* 

mineral  wealth  is  not  great,  but  copper,  lead,  and  ^"^  ^^}^  explanation  is  only  the  conjecture  of 

zinc  are  obtained;    aSd   millstonesrsiates,  and  t^«r^'!^^ff"^ii  ht'^nTiJ^fi;^.  f t^  ^nX 

limestone   are   quarried.     The   uplands   provide  year  was  eflfect*^  by  intercalating  two  months, 

nasturai?^  and  cattle-  sheen  and  the  nure  breed  respectively  of  22  and  23  days,  inserted  after 

Jf  WelXnoSies  c^^^^^^  Sins"  are  rear^     The  Februaiy  23d,  the  feast  of  the  Terminalia  (and 

Wehh  flannelma^^^^^  "*"*^1   conclusion   of   the   year),    added   in    the 

^'tn  STe  "uX     Th^^  ^^^  o'  ^  '^^^'^^^^  ^^^?:''^  ^he  odd  day  still 

but  the  countv  business  is  carried  on  at  Welshpo^i  ^/^  'T""^ '  .TTl""^'  ^"^  Pontifices,  who  were 

and  Newton\lternately.     Population,  in   1891,  J^'^'««d  ^><J  ^^^  <*^*y  ^^  °^*^H^  ^*>«  ^"*?«?^V 

58,000;  in  1901,  54,900.  tion,  were,  by  reasons  superstitious  or  politi^^^ 

'       '  *      '  often  induced  to  neglect  their  task;  accordingly, 

MONTH  (AS.  mdndp    Goth.  mSn^ps,    OHG.  the  Roman  months  were  constantly  varying  from 

nUlnOd,  Ger.  Monat;  connected  with  Olr.  wf,  Lett,  their  proper  seasonal  position  and  required  ar- 

mSnes,  Lat.  mensis,  Gk.  ti-fiv,   m^n,  month,  Skt.  bitrary   adjustment     In   the   reform   of   Julius 

m««,  moon,  month,  probably  from  Skt.  md,  to  Caesar   (see  Caij:ndar)   the  ten  days  additional 

measure,    and    ultimately   connected   with    Eng.  required  to  make  a  true  solar  year  were  dis- 

moon).     Originally   the    period    of   the    moon's  tribu ted  among  the  deficient  months  of  29  days; 

revolution  round  the  earth.     If  this  is  reckoned  two  each  were  given  to  Sextilis,  December,  and 

from  the  position  of  the  moon  among  the  stars  January;  one  each  to  April,  Quinctilis,  Septem- 

to  her  return  to  the  same  position,  the  period  is  ber,  and  November.  Hence  our  present  numeration, 

called  a  sidereal  month,  and  averages  27  days,  The   year   was    made   to   begin    with    January, 

7   hours,   43   minutes,    11*^    seconds   in   length;  shortly   after   the   winter   solstice.     The   month 

but  if  from  new  moon  to  new  moon,  it  is  longer,  Quinctilis  received  the  name  of  Julius,  and  later 

being  on  the  average  29  days,  12  hours,  44  min-  Sextilis   took    that   of   Augustus.      The   Roman 

utes,  3  seconds;  this  is  called  a  synodic  month,  names  were  adopted  throughout  Europe.     In  the 

( Sec  Synodic.  )    The  latter  period  forms  one  of  the  French  revolutionary  calendar  ( see  Calendar)  the 

three  natural  measures  of  the  lapse  of  time,  and  months  received  new  names,  which  had  reference 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MONTH. 


766 


MONTIANO  Y  LXnTAHDO. 


to  the  weather,  vegetation,  and  harvest,  but  these 
were  discarded  when  the  revolutionary  calendar 
went  out  of  use.  As  to  symbolic  art,  the  months 
have  borrowed  from  the  zodiacal  sicns.  (See 
Zodiac.)  In  poetry,  they  have  received  symbolic 
representation  chiefly  on  the  basis  of  their  sea- 
sonal characteristics  in  Central  and  Western 
Europe.  Consult:  Chambers,  ^ooA;  of  Days,  and 
Hone,  Everyday  Book,    See  Cauendab;  Moon. 

MONTH.  In  law,  both  solar  (or  calendar) 
and  lunar  months  are  recognized.  At  the  early 
common  law,  where  the  term  was  not  otherwise 
defined,  it  was  held  to  mean  the  lunar  month  of 
28  days,  except  in  case  of  commercial  paper 
and  other  mercantile  obligations,  when,  by  the 
custom  of  merchants,  it  was  deemed  to  mean  the 
calendar  month  of  30  or  31  days.  By  statute 
in  England  the  term  month,  where  it  occurs  in 
statutes,  must  be  interpreted  to  mean  calendar 
month,  but  this  does  not  alter  the  common  law 
rule  as  to  contracts  and  other  transactions.  In 
the  United  States  generally,  the  term,  imless 
otherwise  defined,  is  usually  construed  to  mean 
a  calendar  month.  It  is  so  defined  in  New  York 
by  statute.  However,  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
word  where  found  in  statutes,  it  seems  the  com- 
mon law  rule  still  prevails  in  some  jurisdictions. 
See  Time. 

MONTHOLON,  mdN'tMdN^  Chables  Tris- 
tan, Marquis  de  (1783-1853).  A  French  soldier 
and  writer  of  Napoleonic  memoirs.  He  was 
descended  from  an  ancient  French  family  and 
was  bom  in  Paris.  He  displayed  great  zeal  on 
behalf  of  the  First  Consul  on  the  18th  Bru- 
maire  in  the  capacity  of  chef  d'escadron,  served 
in  a  number  of  campaigns,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Wagram.  Napoleon  made  him  his 
chamberlain  in  1809.  He  became  brigadier-een- 
eral  in  1814,  and  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  in  the  Department  of  Loire.  On  Napo- 
leon's abdication,  Montholon  remained  in  France, 
held  aloof  from  the  Bourbons,  and  joined  the 
Emperor  on  his  return  from  Elba.  He  was 
present  at  Waterloo  and  accompanied  Napoleon 
to  Saint  Helena,  continuing  his  devoted  atten- 
tions to  him  till  he  breathed  his  last,  and  having 
b^n  named  in  his  will  as  one  of  his  trustees, 
spared  no  exertion  to  carry  its  provisions  into 
effect  For  participating  in  Louis  Napoleon's 
unsuccessful  coup  at  Boulogne,  in  1840,  Montho- 
lon was  sentenced  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment, 
but  was  pardoned  in  1848.  With  General  Gour- 
gaud  he  published  M&moirea  pour  aervir  d  Vhie- 
toire  de  France  sous  NapoUon  Merits  d  Sainte 
H6Une  sous  sa  dict4e  (1823).  He  was  also  the 
author  of  RScits  de  la  captivity  de  Sainte  H^line 
(1847). 

MONTH'S  MIND.  In  the  Koman  Catholic 
Church,  the  requiem  mass  celebrated  for  a  de- 
ceased person  a  month  after  death,  as  'year's 
mind'  was  used  for  an  anniversary  mass  in  a 
similar  ease. 

MONTHYON,  mON'tA'ON'.  An  incorrect  spell- 
ing of  Montyon  (q.v.). 

MONTI,  mftn't*,  Vincenzo  (1754-1828).  An 
Italian  poet,  bom  near  Fusi^ano.  in  the  Province 
of  Ferrara,  February  19,  1754.  He  studied  juris- 
prudence very  much  against  his  will,  being  in- 
clined to  classical  studies.  In  1778  he  went  to 
Rome  and  stayed  there  some  time  as  secretary  to 
Prince  Braschi.  In  1791  Monti's  evident  lean- 
ing toward  the  ideas  represented  by  the  French 


Revolution  brought  him  into  bad  odor,  and 
the  feeling  against  him  was  hardly  allayed 
by  the  composition  of  the  Bassevilliana  (1793), 
which  seemed  to  show  his  horror  of  the  excesses 
due  to  revolutions.  Finally  in  1797  Monti  fled 
from  Rome  and  accompanied  the  French  agent, 
Marmont,  to  Florence  and  Bologna.  Afterwards 
at  Milan  he  obtained  a  position  in  the  govern- 
ment of  that  region,  and  when  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  fell  he  betook  himself  to  Paris.  After 
Napoleon's  victory  at  Marengo  he  took  the 
chair  of  oratory  and  poetry  at  the  University 
of  Pa  via  in  1802.  By  Napoleon's  favor  he  held 
a  position  at  the  Collie  de  France,  where  he 
enaed  his  tragedy,  Caio  Oracco,  and  began  in 
Dantesque  style  a  poem  on  the  mathematician 
Mascheroni.  When  Napoleon  became  King  of 
Italy,  Monti  was  made  historiographer  of  the 
realm,  an  office  which  he  lost  in  1814,  although 
he  was  permitted  to  retain  his  professorship. 
The  rest  of  his  life  was  passed  in  study,  but  was 
saddened  by  adversity.  He  died  at  Milan,  Octo- 
ber 13,  1828. 

The  various  political  changes  through  which 
Monti  passed  reveal  themselves  in  his  literary 
works.  The  first  edition  of  the  lyrics  of  Monti 
was  the  Sagffio  di  poesie  (Leghorn,  1779)  ;  the 
next  the  Versi  (1788).  In  1783,  or  thereabouts, 
he  began  the  Feroniade,  a  mythological  poem  in 
blank  verse  on  the  draining  of  the  Pontine 
marshes.  The  work  was  never  finished,  although 
the  poet  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in 
elaborating  it.  One  of  his  most  notable  poems, 
because  of  its  perfection  of  form,  was  the 
Mascheroniana  (1801),  in  which  the  spirit  of 
Mascheroni  discourses  with  others  of  the  mis- 
fortunes of  Italy.  To  about  1825  belongs  the 
Sermone  sopra  la  mitologia,  a  manifesto  in  verse 
in  favor  of  classicism  and  attacking  romanticism. 
Although  his  temperament  was  not  eminently 
dramatic,  Monti  essayed  the  drama  with  some 
success.  The  Aristodemo  was  printed  at  Parma 
in  1786  and  performed  at  Valle  di  Roma  in  1787. 
His  Oaleotto  Manfredi  is  really  a  romantic 
drama;  it  was  published  at  Rome  in  1788. 
Monti's  most  successful  dramatic  composition  is 
the  Caio  Oracco  (Milan,  1802).  His  transla- 
tions include  versions  of  the  Satires  of  Persius, 
of  a  fragment  of  the  Philoctetes  of  Sophocles, 
and,  most  notable  of  all,  of  the  Iliad.  This  last, 
published  at  Milan,  1810  and  1812,  is  pretty  true 
to  the  tone  of  the  Homeric  epic.  Monti's  prose 
works  are  less  numerous  than  nis  works  in  verse. 
Among  them  are  the  Lezioni  di  eloquenza,  deliv- 
ered from  his  chair  at  Pavia;  the  Lettere  fHo- 
logiche;  the  Lettera,  addressed  to  Bettinelli;  and 
the  Dialoghi,  on  true  Italian  speech.  With  the 
aid  of  his  scm-in-law,  Perticari,  he  prepared  a 
lexicographical  work,  the  Proposta  di  ahmne  cor- 
rezioni  ed  aggiunte  da  Farsi  al  vocdbolario  della 
Crusca  (Milan,  1817-26).  Consult:  A.  Monti, 
Vincenzo  Monti,  ricerche  storiche  e  letterarie 
(Rome,  1873)  ;  Cantil,  Monti  e  Vetd  che  fu  sua 
(Milan,  1879)  ;  Vicchi,  Vincenzo  Monti,  le  Utters 
e  la  politica  in  Italia  dal  1750  al  18S0,  especially 
vols,  vi.-viii.  (Faenza,  1870,  and  Rome,  1885-87). 

MONTIANO  Y  LTJYANDO,  mAn'tft-ft'nA  « 
l55-yfin'd6,  AousTm  de  (1697-1764).  A  Spanish 
poet,  bom  at  Valladolid.  His  first  poem,  Roho 
di  Dina,  was  written  while  he  was  a  young  man 
at  Majorca.  Afterwards  he  went  to  Madrid, 
where  he  was  connected  with  the  Department  of 
State  for  many  years.     He  was  a  man  of  ac- 


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MONTIANO  Y  LXnTANDO. 


767 


knowledged  authority  in  literary  matters,  and 
was  director  of  the  Academy  of  History,  founded 
in  1738.  With  the  accession  of  the  Bourbon 
King  Philip  V.  everything  French  was  the  fash- 
ion, and  all  Montiano's  writings  were  designed 
to  reorganize  Spanish  drama  on  the  classic  lines 
of  Racine.  Virginia  (1750)  tmd  Athaulpho 
(1763),  both  tragedies,  accompanied  with  intro- 
ductions setting  forth  his  theories,  were  too  dull 
ever  to  be  actedL 

MONTICEIiLI,  mAn'tft-chen*,  Aoolphb 
(1834-86).  A  French  historical,  genre,  and  por- 
trait painter,  born  at  Marseilles.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  his  native  city, 
and  when  a  young  man  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
lived  almost  continuously  imtil  1870.  He  then 
returned  to  Marseilles  and  passed  there  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  During  his  last  years  he  was 
demented,  his  imagination  ran  riot,  and  his 
paintings  tended  to  become  chaotic  masses  of 
color.  His  first  manner  was  influenced  by  his 
study  of  the  great  Venetians,  the  great  Dutch 
masters,  of  Delacroix  and  Diaz.  Some  splendor 
from  each  one  of  these  sources  enriched  his  own 
palette  and  brought  to  his  second  period  remark- 
able color  conceptions  and  combinations  of  tints. 
Like  Watteau,  he  painted  'fetes  galantes/ 
which  are  his  favorite  subjects.  In  them,  figures 
of  gorgeously  clothed  men  and  women  are 
grouped  beneath  splendid  trees,  or  on  marble 
steps,  while  dogs,  horses,  and  otiier  animals  are 
introduced  as  accessories.  Such  a  picture  is  his 
"Court  of  Henry  III."  (1874),  a  characteristic 
work.  He  is  quite  as  effective  with  an  eaBtem 
subject,  a  scene  from  Boccaccio,  in  the  landscapes 
of  his  own  province,  and  in  marines;  'The 
Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes,"  a  remarkable 
treatment  of  light  effects  on  water;  in  still  life 
subjects  and  in  portraits,  which  have  been 
likened  to  those  of  Velazquez,  Consult:  Groui- 
rand,  Monticelli  (Paris,  1900) ;  F6zensac,  "Mon- 
ticelli,"  in  the  Gazette  dee  BeauwArts,  ser.  iii., 
vol.  XXV.  (Paris,  1901);  and  Guigou,  Vingt 
planches  d'apr^  lea  tahleatuo  originaum  de  Mon- 
ticclli  (Paris,  1890). 

MONTICEI/LO  (It,  Little  Mountain).  The 
name  given  by  Thomas  Jefferson  to  his  residence 
and  estate  in  Albemarle  County,  Va.,  about  three 
miles  east  of  Charlottesville.  The  mansion,  de- 
signed by  Jefferson  himself  and  first  occupied, 
though  then  in  an  unfinished  condition,  in  1770, 
standjB  on  the  summit  of  a  hill  overlooking  a 
large  extent  of  the  neighboring  country,  and  was 
long  one  of  the  finest  and  most  picturesque  resi- 
dences in  the  South.  It  was  Jefferson*s  home 
for  fifty-six  years,  but  passed  out  of  the  hands 
of  his  heirs  a  short  time  after  his  death.  On 
the  estate  Jefferson,  his  wife,  and  two  daughters 
were  buried. 

MONTICEIXO.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Drew  County,  Ark.,  40  miles  west  of  Arkansas 
City;  on  the  Saint  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and 
Southern  Railroad  (Map:  Arkansas,  D  4).  There 
are  cotton  and  other  manufactures  and  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  fruit,  cotton,  and  lumber.  The 
Arkansas  Baptist  Orphans'  Home  is  here,  also 
Hinemon  University  School.  Population,  in  1900, 
1579;  in  1906  (local  est),  3000. 

MONTICELLO.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Jefferson  County,  Fla.,  31  miles  east  by  north 
of  Tallahassee ;  on  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  and  the 
Atlantic   Coast  Line   railroads    (Map:    Florida, 


MONTLUPON. 


El).  It  is  interested  principally  in  fruit-grow- 
ing and  agriculture.  Population,  in  1890^  1218; 
in  1900,  1076;  in  1905,  1000. 

MONTICELLO.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Piatt  County,  111.,  146  miles  south  by  west  of 
Chicago ;  on  the  Wabash  and  the  Illinois  Central 
railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  D  3).  It  has  a  fine  new 
court-house  and  an  excellent  high  school  building. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  productive  farming  and 
stock-raising  country,  and  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance as  an  industrial  centre.  It  is,  however, 
essentially  a  farming  town.  Population,  in  1900, 
1982;  in  1906  (local  est),  2300. 

MONTICELLO.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  White  County,  Ind.,  21  miles  west  of  Logans- 
port;  on  the  Tippecanoe  River,  and  on  the  Pitts- 
burg, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  and 
the  Chicago,  Indianapolis  and  Louisville  rail- 
roads (Map:  Indiana,  C  2).  Good  water  power 
is  derived  from  the  river;  and  there  are  various 
manufacturing  establishments,  the  principal  of 
which  are  flouring  mills.  The  water- works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Popu- 
lation, in  1820,  1518;  in  1900,  2107;  in  1906 
(local  est),  2500. 

MONTICELLO.  A  village  and  the  county-seat 
of  Sullivan  County,  N.  Y.,  113  miles  by  rail 
northwest  of  New  York;  on  the  New  York,  On- 
tario and  Western  Railroad  (Map:  New  York, 
F  4).  There  are  some  manufactures,  but  the 
village  is  known  principally  as  a  sunmier  resort. 
Population,  in  1890,  1016;  in  1900,  1160;  in 
1905,  1388. 

MONTIGNIES-SUB-SAMBBE,  mdN't^'ny^- 
sar-sftN^br.  A  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  Province 
of  Hainault,  situated  30  miles  south  of  Brussels. 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  coal-mining  region,  and  has 
machine  shops,  blast  furnaces,  rolling  mills,  and 
nail  factories.  Population,  in  1890,  15,479;  in 
1900,  19,126. 

MONTIJO,  mdn-te^Hd,  Euo£nie-Mabie  de. 
Empress  of  the  French.    See  £?C7G£iaE-MARiE  de 

MONTIJO. 

MONTHXA,  mAn-tfiHyA.  A  town  of  South- 
em  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Cordova,  23  miles 
south  of  Cordova,  on  the  railroad  between  that 
city  and  Malaga  (Map:  Spain,  C  4).  It  stands 
on  a  hillside  rising  from  the  south  bank  of  a 
tributary  of  the  Jenil.  Manufactures  of  coarse 
linen  and  earthenware  are  carried  on,  and  oil- 
mills  are  in  operation.  A  famous  white  wine  is 
Produced  in  the  vicinity.  The  palace  of  the 
ukes  of  Medinaceli,  located  here,  is  the  birth- 
place of  Gonsalvo  de  C<irdova,  the  'Great  Cap- 
tain.'    Population,  in  1900,  12,943. 

MONTJOIE,  m(>N'zhwtt^  or  MONTJOYE. 
The  name  given  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  any  hillock 
situated  on  the  boundary  between  two  territorial 
divisions  and  serving  as  a  meeting  place  for  hos- 
tile armies.  From  this  the  word  became  a  common 
war-cry.  Special  designations  were  added  for 
each  political  division:  e.g.  Montjoie  Saint-Denis 
for  the  kings  of  France,  Montjoie  Saint-George 
for  the  kings  of  England,  etc.  Montjoie  is  also 
the  surname  of  the  king-at-arms  of  France. 

M0NTLX70,  m(>Nl\ik',  Blaise  de.    See  Mow- 

LUC. 

M0NTLXT50N,  mftN'lv'8(>N'.  The  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Allier, 
France,  on  the  Cher,  45  miles  northwest  of  CHer- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


M0NTLX7C0N. 


768 


MONTMOSEKCY. 


ttont  Ferrand  (Map:  France,  J  5).  It  is  the 
industrial  capital  of  Central  France.  The  town 
consists  of  two  parts:  the  mediseval  portion  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  with  its  interesting 
Hotel  de  Ville,  formerly  an  ecclesiastical  estab- 
lishment, and  its  timbered  houses  dating  from  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  dominated  by 
a  castle-crowned  hill  (the  ancient  fortification 
now  converted  into  barracks)  ;  and  the  newer 
portion  extending  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Cher, 
where  are  located  the  extensive  glass,  steel,  iron, 
and  woolen  factories.  The  town  owes  its  rapid  de- 
velopment to  the  opening  up  of  the  Commentry 
coal  field.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  grain 
and  fruit.  Population,  in  1901,  36,062;  1906, 
34,251. 

HONTlCAairS',  mON'mA'ny^,  Chablbs 
Jacques  HuAULT  de  (?-c.1651).  A  governor  of 
New  France.  His  education  was  under  Jesuit 
auspices,  and  he  became  a  Knight  of  Malta. 
Though  probably  appointed  Governor  soon  after 
the  death  of  Champlain  in  1635,  he  did  not  ar- 
rive at  Quebec  until  June,  1636.  During  his 
stay,  the  strength  of  the  colony  increased,  a  semi- 
nary for  Huron  boys  was  founded,  and  the  Iro- 
quois  were  defeated  in  several  skirmishes.  As  a 
result  of  the  fight  at  the  mouth  of  the  Richelieu 
River,  a  peace  was  made  at  Three  Rivers  in  1645, 
but  this  was  broken  the  next  year.  Montmagny 
was  intensely  religious,  but  viewed  with  disfavor 
the  colony  at  Montreal,  thinking  it  a  mistake  to 
divide  the  strength  of  the  missionary  forces.  He 
was  recalled  in  September,  1647. 

MONTICABTBE,  mdN'mftr^tr'.  A  northern 
district  of  Paris. 

MONTKEDT,  mON'mft-d^.  The  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  and  a  fortified  town  in  the  De- 
partment of  Meuse,  France,  near  the  German 
frontier,  on  the  Chiers,  31  miles  by  rail  southeast 
of  Sedan.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  upper 
containing  the  citadel  on  a  commanding  rock,  and 
the  lower  portion,  or  Bas-M^y,  surrounded  by  a 
strongly  fortified  wall.  The  town  has  some  do- 
mestic manufactures  and  an  agricultural  trade, 
but  its  importance  is  purely  military.  It  was  in 
the  line  of  the  German  invasion  of  France  in 
1870,  and  contained  a  vast  supply  of  war  mate- 
rials. It  resisted  the  bombardment  of  the  Ger- 
mans in  September,  but  succumbed  to  another 
attack  December  14.    Population,  in  1900,  2600. 

MONTHOBENCY,  mON'mft'rfiN's^.  An  old 
and  illustrious  French  family  named  from  a  vil- 
lage near  Paris,  whose  members  in  1327  received 
the  title  of  first  baron  of  France.  The  mythical 
founder  of  the  house  is  Lesbius  (or  Lishius)^ 
who  is  said  to  have  died  with  the  martyr  Diony- 
sius;  the  first  authentic  lord  of  Montmorency  is 
BorcHABD  I.,  about  950;  Matthieu  II.  (1189- 
1230)  is  the  most  famous  member  of  the  family 
before  the  sixteenth  century.  He  was  called  the 
'Great  Constable;*  in  the  reign  of  Philip  Augus- 
tus he  captured  Chateau  Gaillard,  in  Normandy, 
and  in  1214  won  the  battle  of  Bouvines;  in  1226 
he  defeated  the  Albigenses;  and  during  the  re- 
gency of  Queen  Blanche,  the  mother  of  Louis  IX., 
was  a  powerful  upholder  of  royal  power.  After 
Matthieu*8  death  the  family  divided  into  two 
houses — the  baronial  branch  of  Montmorency 
and  the  yoimger  line  of  Montmorencv-Laval. 
The  former  attained  the  title  of  duke  with  Anne 
DE   Montmorency    (1493-1567).    He   was   bom 


March  15,  1493,  at  Chantilly,  and  was  edu- 
cated with  the  princes  of  the  royal  blood.  He 
became  a  soldier  at  an  early  age,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  gallantry  and  military 
skill  in  the  wars  of  Francis  1.,  particularly  at 
Melegnano  (1515),  at  the  defense  of  M^zi^res 
(1521),  and  in  the  battle  of  La  Bicocca  (1522). 
In  1522  he  was  made  marshal  of  France,  and  in 
1525  was  taken  prisoner  with  his  sovereign  in 
the  battle  of  Pavia.  He  then  helped  to  negotiate 
the  Treaty  of  Madrid,  and  in  1526  became  grand 
master  of  the  royal  household  and  Governor  of 
Languedoc.  In  1536  he  repelled  Charles  V.'s  in- 
vasion of  Provence,  and  in  1538  was  made  Con- 
stable of  France.  In  this  capacity  he  directed 
the  foreign  and  domestic  affairs  of  France  for 
some  years  with  energy  and  ability.  His  brusque- 
ness  of  manner,  however,  made  him  an  ob- 
ject of  dislike  to  many ;  and  the  suspicions  of  the 
King  having  been  aroused  against  him,  he  was 
suddenly  banished  from  Court  in  1541.  The  next 
six  years  were  passed  in  retirement  on  his  es- 
tates, but  with  the  accession  of  Henry  II.  in 
1547  he  came  again  to  the  head  of  affairs,  though 
he  shared  this  power  with  Henry's  mistress, 
Diana  of  Poitiers,  and  the  family  of  Guise.  In 
1557  he  commanded  the  French  army  which 
was  defeated  at  Saint-Quentin  (q.v.).  Here 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  he  was  liberated 
by  the  treaty  made  at  Cftteau-Cambr^is  be- 
tween France  and  Spain  in  1559.  During  the 
minority  of  Charles  IX.  Montmorency  with  the 
Duke  of  Guise  and  the  Marshal  Saint- Andr§ 
composed  the  famous  triumvirate  which  resisted 
the  influence  of  Catharine  de'  Medici  in  State  af- 
fairs. He  commanded  the  royal  army  against 
the  Huguenots,  though  Coligny  was  his  nephew, 
and  was  defeated  and  captured  at  Dreux  (1562), 
but  later  gained  victories  over  them.  In  1563 
he  forced  the  English  to  evacuate  Havre.  At 
the  battle  of  Saint-Denis  against  the  Huguenots 
under  Condd  he  received  a  fatal  wound  and  died 
in  Paris  on  the  following  day,  November  11,  1567. 
— Henry,  Fourth  Duke  of  Montmorency  (1595- 
1632),  was  the  grandson  of  the  Constable  Anne 
de  Montmorency,  and  was  bom  at  Chantilly, 
April  30,  1595.  When  he  was  seventeen  years  of 
age,  Louis  XIII.  made  him  Admiral  of  France 
and  Viceroy  of  Canada,  and  in  1613  he  became 
Governor  of  I-anguedoc.  When  the  Huguenot 
wars  broke  out  afresh  he  fought  successfully  for 
the  King,  and  in  1625  took  the  Isle  of  R^ 
during  tlie  siege  of  La  Rochelle.  He  after- 
wards gained  other  victories,  and  in  1630  re- 
ceived the  chief  command  of  the  French  troops 
in  Piedmont  during  the  War  of  the  Mantuan  Suc- 
cession. He  defeated  the  Spaniards  and  received 
the  marshaPs  baton.  Having  espoused,  in  1632, 
the  cause  of  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of 
King  Louis  XI 11.,  and  opponent  of  Richelieu, 
he  was  declared  guilty  of  high  treason,  and 
Marshal  Schomberg  defeated  him  at  Castel- 
naudry  and  took  him  prisoner.  He  was  car- 
ried to  Toulouse,  and  there  sentenced  to  death 
through  the  influence  of  Richelieu.  This  sen- 
tence was  summarily  executed;  he  was  beheaded 
in  spite  of  powerful  intercession  on  his  behalf  by 
various  rulers,  October  30,  1632.  Consult  Ducros, 
Histoire  de  la  vie  de  Henri,  dernier  due  de  Mont- 
morency (Paris,  1643). — Laval  Matthieu  Jean 
FmiciTE,  Duke  of  Montmorency-Laval  (1767- 
1820),   was  born  in   Paris.     He  served  in  the 


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MONTMOBEITCY.  769 

American  Revolution;  and  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  French  Revolution  as  a  representative  of 
the  nobility  in  the  Constituent  Assembly  he 
urged  the  abolition  of  the  privileges  of  his  order. 
Aner  the  overthrow  of  the  constitutional  mon- 
archy of  1791  he  joined  Mme.  de  Sta^l,  with 
whom  he  was  long  intimate,  at  Coppet  in  Switz- 
«rland,  and  returned  to  France  in  1795,  then  to 
become  quite  as  closely  attached  to  Mme.  R6ca- 
mier,  whose  memoirs  give  a  vivid  picture  of  him. 
In  1821  Montmorency  was  appointed  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  as  representative  of  France 
at  the  Congress  of  Verona  (1822)  urged  armed 
intervention  in  Spain  in  behalf  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
Consult  Vetillara,  Notice  aur  la  vie  de  M.  le  due 
de  Montmorency  (Le  Mans,  1826). 

MONT'MOBEN'CY,  Falls  of.  A  pictur- 
«sque  cascade,  160  feet  wide  and  265  feet  high, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Montmorency  River,  an 
affluent  of  the  Saint  Lawrence,  six  miles  north- 
east of  (^ebec,  Canada  (Map:  Quebec,  E  4). 
They  supply  the  power  for  Quebec's  electric 
plants  ana  are  much  visited  by  tourists. 

HONTOBOy  m6n-te/r6.  A  town  of  Southern 
Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Cordova.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  a  rocky  peninsula  formed  by  the  south 
bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  18  miles  east-north- 
«a8t  of  Cordova  (Map:  Spain,  C  3).  The  river 
is  here  spanned  by  one  of  its  best  bridges,  built 
in  the  sixteenth  century  by  popular  subscrip- 
tion. In  spite  of  the  uneven  ground,  the  streets 
are  well  paved,  and  they  are  lighted  by  electricity. 
Until  a  few  years  ago  the  town  was  quite  with- 
out a  water  supply,  but  water  is  now  brought 
through  iron  pipes  from  springs  five  miles  dis- 
tant, and  distributed  to  12  fountains.  One  ot 
the  largest  and  best  hospitals  of  Southern  Spain 
is  located  here.  There  are  many  interesting 
Roman,  Gothic,  and  Moorish  remains.  The  chief 
industry  is  the  manufacture  and  exportation  of 
olive  oil.    Population,  in  1900,  11,376. 

MONTOBSOLI,  m6n-t6r's6-U,  Fra  Giovanni 
Angelico  (or  Angiolo)  da  (1507-63).  A  Flor- 
entine sculptor  and  architect.  He  was  bom  at 
Montorsoli;  worked  in  Florence,  Genoa,  Bologna, 
and  Messina;  visited  Paris;  and  died  in  1563  in 
Florence,  where  he  was  interred  in  a  tomb 
erected  by  himseU  (1561)  in  the  chapter-house  of 
the  Annunziata  Church.  He  was  for  a  short 
time  connected  with  the  Order  of  the  Servi, 
whence  the  Fra  commonly  prefixed  to  his  name. 
His  earliest  important  work  was  at  Genoa 
(1522-25),  where  he  built  or  enlarged  the 
Serra  and  Doria  palaces,  and  remodeled  the 
interior  of  the  Church  of  San  Mateo,  to 
which  he  added  a  chapel  with  a  monument  to 
Andrea  Doria.  Between  1530  and  1534  he  as- 
sisted MioMangelo  on  the  Medicean  Chapel, 
Florence,  for  which  he  carved  the  statue  of  Saint 
Cosmas.  In  1547  he  went  to  Messina,  where  he 
executed  the  fountain  in  front  of  the  cathedral 
and  another  near  the  custom-house,  and  built 
several  chapels  in  the  cathedral,  the  CJhurch  of 
San  Lorenzo,  and  the  lighthouse. 

HONTOXTBy  m6n-toor',  Esther.  An  Indian 
chieftainess,  usually  known  by  the  name  of 
"'Queen  Esther.'  She  is  reputed  to  have  been  the 
granddaughter  of  Count  de  Frontenac.  and  be- 
came the  wife  of  Eghobund,  a  chief  of  the  Sene- 
cas.  Owing  to  her  strength  of  mind,  she  grained 
great  influence  among  her  people.  She  several 
-times  visited  Philadelphia  with  the  delegates  of 


MONTPELLIEBb 

the  Six  Nations,  and  is  said  to  have  comported 
herself  on  such  occasions  with  dignity  and  good 
manners.  Despite  some  good  qualities,  however, 
she  was  at  heart  a  savage,  and  in  the  Wyoming 
massacre  of  July,  1778,  tomahawked  more  than 
a  dozen  helpless  prisoners  in  revenge  for  the 
death  of  her  son,  who  was  killed  the  day  before. 
Consult  Cook,  General  8ullivan*8  Indian  Expedi- 
tion (Auburn,  1887). 

MONTFELIEB,  m5nt-p$nySr.  A  city,  the 
capital  of  Vermont,  and  county-seat  of  Washing- 
ton County,  40  miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Burling- 
ton; on  the  Winooski  River,  and  on  the  Central 
Vermont  and  the  Montpelier  and  Wells  River 
railroads  (Map:  Vermont,  D  4).  The  handsome 
capitol  is  built  of  granite,  its  dome  rising  to  a 
height  of  124  feet,  and  surmounted  by-  a  statue 
of  Agriculture.  Among  other  features  of  the  city 
are  the  State  Library,  the  Wood  Art  Gallery,  the 
Kellogg-Hubbard  Library,  Washington  County 
Grammar  and  Montpelier  Union  School  Library, 
and  the  Montpelier  Seminary.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  granite  working  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  saddlery,  hardware,  and  saw-mill  and 
other  machinery.  The  city  controls  an  important 
trade  with  the  surrounding  region,  which  is 
largely  agricultural,  and  is  the  centre  of  large 
insurance  interests.  The  city  owns  and  operates 
the  water-works.  Population,  in  1890,  4160;  in 
1900,  6266.  A  charter  to  the  land  about  Mont- 
pelier was  secured  in  1781,  but  no  settlement  was 
made  until  1787.  In  1791  Montpelier  was  or- 
ganized as  a  town,  and  in  1805  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  State ;  it  was  incorporated  as  a  village 
in  1855,  and  in  1804  it  was  chartered  as  a  city. 
Consult :  Thompson,  History  of  Montpelier,  1781- 
1860  (Montpelier,  1860) ;  Hemenway,  History  of 
the  Town  of  Montpelier  (ib.,  1882). 

MONTFELIEB.  A  city  in  Blackford  Coun- 
ty, Ind.,  on  the  Salamanic  River,  39  miles  south 
by  west  of  Fort  Wayne,  on  the  Fort  Wayne,  Cin- 
cinnati and  Louisville  Railroad  (Map:  Indiana, 
D  2).  It  is  surrounded  by  oil  wells,  and  has 
manufactories  of  steel  castings,  shovels,  and  win- 
dow glass,  and  machine  shops.  Population,  in 
1890,  808;  in  1900,  3405. 

HONTFELIilEB,  m(>N'p6l'lyA'.  The  capital 
of  the  Department  of  H^rault,  France,  on  the 
Lez,  and  an  important  railroad  junction,  480 
miles  south  of  Paris,  76  miles  northwest  of  Mar- 
seilles, and  7  miles  from  the  Mediterranean 
•  ( Map :  France,  S.,  H  5 ) .  Montpellier  has  an  im- 
posing appearance,  seen  from  a  distance;  its  sub- 
urbs are  clean  and  well  built,  but  the  older  portion 
of  the  town  has  dark  and  narrow  streets.  Boule- 
vards have  replaced  the  ancient  walls  and  medi- 
aeval fortifications,  of  which  the  only  remains  are 
the  citadel  and  the  twelfth-century  Tour  de  la 
Babotte.  The  principal  attraction  is  the  Pey- 
rou  or  public  square  on  high  ground  commanding 
splendid  views  of  the  Alps,  the  CJ^vennes,  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  ornamented 
with  a  triumphal  arch  and  equestrian  statue,  both 
commemorating  T^uis  XIV.  The  water-works, 
water  tower,  and  aqueduct,  having  a  double- 
arched  structure  2893  feet  long,  are  monumental 
features.  The  most  noteworthy  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  the  theatre,  the  exchange,  the  halls  of 
justice,  the  prefecture,  the  observatory,  and  the 
university  buildings.  Montpellier  has  a  botanical 
garden,  the  oldest  in  Europe,  a  public  library  of 


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MONTBEAL. 


130,000  volumes,  a  pharmaceutical  school,  an 
agricultural  school,  and  a  museum  containing 
a  fine  collection  of  paintings  and  curios.  The 
climate  is  mild,  and  the  city  is  a  favorite  winter 
resort  for  invalids.  Railways  to  Marseilles, 
Cette,  and  other  ports,  besides  various  canals, 
facilitate  commercial  and  social  intercourse,  and 
few  cities  of  the  Republic  hold  out  greater  at- 
tractions in  regard  to  intellectual  culture. 
Among  the  industries  the  making  of  wine  is  the 
most  important.  Machinery,  chemicals,  corks, 
sugar,  leather,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods  are 
manufactured,  and  the  city  is  noted  for  its  fine 
conf ectioneiy ;  this  industry,  as  also  the  manu- 
facture  of  various  novelties,  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  Jews.  There  is  an  important  trade  in  manu- 
factured articles,  wine,  olive  oil,  and  fruits. 
Founded  in  the  eighth  century,  Montpellier  began 
to  prosper  in  the  twelfth  century,  when  its  school 
of  medicine  acquired  fame.  It  had  a  stirring  his- 
tory in  the  Middle  Ages,  during  which  it  was 
for  a  time  under  the  rule  of  Aragon,  Majorca,  and 
Navarre,  before  its  final  union  with  France  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Comte, 
the  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Montpellier.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  76,960;  in  1906,  77,114.  Consult: 
Aigrefeuille,  Hiatoire  de  Montpellier  (Montpel- 
lier, 1877-88) ;  Guiraud,  Recherchea  topograph- 
iguea  sur  Montpellier  {ib.,  1896) ;  Febre,  Hiatoire 
de  Montpellier  (ib.,  1897). 

HONTPELUEB.  University  or.  A  French 
university.  As  early  as  the  first  half  of  the 
twelfth  century,  the  university  of  medicine  at 
Montpellier  was  famous  beyond  any  other  In 
Europe  save  Salerno.  To  this,  about  1160,  was 
added  a  university  of  law  by  Placentinus,  a  dis- 
tinguished doctor  of  law  exiled  from  Bologna 
and  Mantua.  A  university  of  theology  grew  up 
around  a  Carthusian  college  founded  in  1263, 
and  a  university  of  arts  came  into  existence  some- 
what earlier.  Besides  the  colleges  of  the  four 
mendicant  Orders  seven  others  were  founded  from 
time  to  time,  and  from  the  twelfth  to  the  four- 
teenth century  Montpellier  was  one  of  the 
great  universities  of  Europe.  Save  in  medicine,  the 
fame  of  the  university  declined  greatly  after  the 
latter  period.  It  remained  the  chief  medical 
school  of  France  till  modem  times.  Here  Rabe- 
lais taught  in  1637,  and  in  the  next  century,  dur- 
ing a  period  of  Protestant  supremacy,  Casaubon. 
Under  Napoleon  the  university  was  reorganized 
and  thrown  into  the  general  scheme  of  national 
education.  It  comprises  four  faculties,  law, 
medicine,  mathematics-science,  and  philosophy, 
besides  a  school  of  pharmacy.  Its  budget  is  1,- 
087,292  francs,  and  in  1903  it  had  1686  students. 
Its  library  contains  nearly  100,000  volumes. 

HONTPENSIEB,  mON'paN'syft',  Anne  Marie 
Louise  d'Orl^ans,  Duchess  of  (1627-93).  The 
daughter  of  Gaston  d 'Orleans,  brother  of  Louis 
XTIT.  of  France,  known  as  La  Grande  Mademoi- 
selle. She  grew  up  beautiful,  eccentric,  and  am- 
bitious. While  still  a  child  there  was  idle  talk 
of  a  marriage  with  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  and 
subsequently  her  matrimonial  aspirations  centred 
about  the  persons  of  the  future  Philip  IV.  of 
Spain,  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III.,  and  his 
brother,  the  Archduke  Leopold.  All  these 
plans  miscarried,  probably  through  the  se- 
cret hostility  of  Cardinal  Mazarin.  Upon  the 
outbreak  of  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde,  Mademoi- 
selle, with  her  worthless  father,  whom  she  ap- 


pears to  have  loved,  remained  faithful  to  the 
Court,  but  in  1661  she  embraced  the  cause  of 
the  great  Cond^,  whom  she  originally  hated  most 
bitterly,  but  later  seemingly  sought  in  marriage. 
Her  vanity  and  courage  found  delight  in  the  rOle 
of  party  leader,  which  she  now  was  enabled  to 
play.  In  March,  1662,  she  held  the  city  of 
Orl^ns  against  the  Royal  army  and  then  went 
to  Paris,  where  her  masculine  decision  made  her 
for  a  time  the  leader  practically  of  the  resistance 
to  the  King.  On  July  2,  1662,  when  Cond6» 
after  stubborn  fighting  in  the  Faubourg  Saint- 
Antoine,  had  been  decisively  beaten  by  Turenne^ 
Mademoiselle  saved  the  Prince's  army  from  an- 
nihilation by  training  the  guns  of  the  Bastille  on 
the  Royal  forces  and  opening  the  gates  of  the 
city  to  receive  the  defeated  troops.  In  October 
she  was  banished  from  the  Court  and  lived  for 
some  time  in  retirement.  She  was  recalled  to 
Court  in  1667,  and  after  some  years  fell  violently 
in  love  with  the  Duke  of  Lauzun  (q.v.),  a  hand- 
some and  accomplished  Gascon  cavalier,  and  a 
favorite  of  Louis  XIV.  In  December,  1670,  the 
King  consented  to  the  marriage,  but  within  three 
days  withdrew  his  sanction,  owing  probably  to 
the  enmity  of  Madame  de  Montespan  for 
Mademoiselle.  In  the  following  year  Lauzun  was 
thrown  into  the  Bastille,  where  he  remained  for 
ten  years  in  spite  of  the  exertions  of  Mademoi- 
selle, who  finally  obtained  his  freedom  by  ceding 
the  County  of  Eu  and  the  Principality  of  Dombes 
to  the  Duke  of  Maine,  son  of  Madame  de 
Montespan.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that 
a  secret  marriage  took  place  between  Lauzun  and 
Mademoiselle.  It  is  certain  that  Lauzun  re- 
paid her  devotion  by  brutal  neglect  and 
that  they  became  totally  estranged.  She 
left  MSmoirea,  first  published  at  Amsterdam  in 
1729,  and  subsequently  edited  by  Ch^ruel  (Paris, 
1868).  Consult  Margerie,  La  Orande  Mademoi- 
aelle  (Nancy,  1869);  Vinceng,  Louia  XIV.  and 
La  Grande  Mademoiaelle  (New  York,  1905). 

MONTFENSIEB,  Antoine  Marie  Phillifb 
Louis  o'OBLfiANS,  Duke  of  (1824-90),  fifth  son 
of  Louis  Philippe.  He  was  educated  at  the  Coll^ 
Henri  IV.,  and  went  to  Africa  in  1844  as 
lieutenant  in  the  artillery.  After  a  tour  in  the 
East  he  married,  in  1846,  the  Infanta  Luisa 
de  Bourbon,  sister  of  Queen  Isabella  II.  The 
marriage  created  great  excitement,  Louis  Phi- 
lippe being  generally  credited  with  the  inten- 
tion to  seat  his  son  upon  the  throne  of  Spain. 
During  the  Revolution  of  1848  the  Duke  resided 
in  England,  but  soon  returned  to  Spain,  taking 
up  his  residence  at  Seville.  In  1869  he  was  ap- 
pointed Captain-General  of  the  Spanish  Army. 
During  the  political  agitation  preceding  the  fii^ht 
of  Isabella  the  Duke  quitted  Spain.  Returning 
in  1868,  under  the  Provisional  Government,  he 
oflfered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  throne,  but 
destroyed  whatever  chances  for  election  he  may 
have  had  by  killing  his  cousin,  the  Infante  Don 
Enrique  de  Bourbon,  in  a  duel,  March  12,  1870. 
His  eldest  daughter,  Marie,  was  married  to  the 
Count  of  Paris  in  1848;  and  his  third  daughter, 
Maria  de  las  Mercedes,  married  her  cousin,  Al- 
fonso XII.,  in  1878. 

HONTBE All,  m6n'trA-ftK  ( Pr.,  Mount  Royal ) . 
The  largest  city  in  the  Dominion  of  Canadp, 
situated  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  180  miles 
southwest  of  Quebec,  and  420  miles  north  of  New 
York,  on  the  southeast  side  of  Montreal  Island,  at 


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MONTBEAL. 


the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Saint  Lawrence  and 
Ottawa,  620  miles  from  the  sea  by  the  course  of 
the  Saint  Lawrence.  (Map:  Quebec,  C  5).  It 
occupies  a  low  tract  of  land  between  the  Saint 
Lawrence  River  and  Mount  Royal,  a  mountain 
rising  to  an  elevation  of  800  feet  above  the  sea, 
which  gives  a  picturesque  background  to  every 
view  of  the  city,  the  summit  beins  laid  out  as  a 

fiublic  park  of  400  acres.  Fine  residential  streets 
ie  in  terraces  upon  the  slope.  The  chief  business 
streets  are  Saint  James,  Saint  Paul,  Saint  Law- 
rence, McGill,  Bleury,  Craig,  Notre  Dame,  Saint 
Catherine,  Ontario,  and  Wellington.  The  French 
section  is  on  the  east,  the  dividing  line  being 
Saint  Lawrence  Street.  Montreal  is  about  seven 
miles  long,  and  contains  many  public  squares 
and  parks,  such  as  Dominion  (with  a  statue  of 
Sir  John  MacDonald,  and  a  monument  to  Can- 
adian soldiers  who  fell  in  the  Boer  War),  Vic- 
toria (with  a  fountain  and  a  statue  of  Queen 
Victoria),  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Viger  Gardens, 
Lafontaine,  and  Mount  Royal  parks.  The  build- 
ings are  largely  of  gray  limestone,  quarried  in 
the  vicinity,  and  include  the  Church  of  Notre 
Dame,  built  in  1824,  opposite  the  site  of  an 
earlier  church  ( 1672 ) ;  it  is  one  of  the  largest 
cathedrals  in  America,  being  256  feet  long  by  145 
feet  wide,  and  can  accomm^late  over  10,000  peo- 
ple. Its  towers  are  220  feet  high  and  have  a 
noted  chime  of  bells.  Near  it  is  the  seminary  of 
Saint  Sulpice,  the  oldest  building  in  Montreal 
(1684).  Other  important  edifices  and  places  of 
interest  are  the  court-house,  city  hall,  Bank  of 
Montreal,  custom  house,  the  old  Chftteau  de 
Ramezay  (1705),  for  a  time  the  official  residence 
of  the  British  Governors,  and  headquarters  of 
the  American  General  and  Commissioners  in 
1775-76;  the  Champ-de-Mars,  the  old  parade 
ground  of  the  French  and  British  troops ;  Jacques 
Cartier  Square,  with  a  statue  of  Nelson  (1808) ; 
Bonsecours  Market,  600  feet  long;  the  Church  of 
Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Secours;  Saint  Patrick's 
Church ;  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  James,  on  'Do- 
minion Square,  a  reproduction  on  a  small  scale 
of  Saint  Peter's  in  Rome;  Christ  Church  Cathe- 
dral, Episcopal,  a  fine  example  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture; Saint  James's  Methodist  Church;  Church 
of  Notre  Dame  de  Lourdes  (1874);  the  Jesuit 
Church,  noted  for  its  frescoes;  Saint  Andrew's, 
Saint  Paul's,  Saint  George,  Erskine  Presbyterian, 
and  Mountain  Street  Methodist.  Among  other 
points  of  interest  are  the  Fraser  Institute,  a  pub- 
lic library;  the  art  gallery;  the  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  deaf  and  dumb  asylums;  an 
asylum  for  the  blind;  and  the  convents  of  the 
Holy  Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and  Villa  Maria. 
The  most  important  educational  institutions  are 
McGill  University  (q.v.),  founded  in  1824  by  a 
bequest  of  James  McGill,  also  containing  the  Red- 
path  Library,  an  observatory,  and  a  natural  his- 
tory museum;  the  Roman  Catholic  Laval  Uni- 
versity; and  the  College  de  Montreal  or  Petit 
S^minaire.  There  are  Presbyterian,  Wesleyan,  and 
other  colleges,  academies,  schools,  and  libraries; 
Grey  Nunnery,  a  hospital  and  orphan  asylum; 
Nazareth  Asylum  for  blind  children;  the  Hotel 
Dieu,  foimded  in  1644  by  Mile.  Mance,  an  original 
settler  of  Montreal ;  the  Royal  Victoria,  the  Mon- 
treal General,  and  the  Western  hospitals ;  and  the 
Victoria  Rifles  and  Royal  Scots  armories  and  the 
Drill  Sheds.  There  are  publications  printed  in 
French  and  English,  the  leading  one  being  The  Ga- 
zette, founded  in  1778  and  continuous  since  1795. 


Montreal's  wealth  and  importance  flrst  accrued 
from  the  fur,  lumber,  and  grain  trade  of  the 
Northwest.  It  is  now  the  metropolis  of  Canada, 
and  the  chief  port  of  entry.  Its  fine  harbor,  with 
quays,  wharves,  and  docks  of  solid  masonry  ex- 
tending for  miles,  lies  at  the  head  of  ship  navi- 
gation, and  accommodates  vessels  up  to  30  feet 
draft  at  high  water.  The  construction  of  canals 
has  enabled  Montreal  to  command  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  Lachine  Canal  was 
opened  in  1825,  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  in 
1852;  the  Victoria  tubular  bridge,  built  over  the 
Saint  Lawrence  in  1854-60,  was  reconstructed 
and  enlarged  as  a  truss  bridge  in  1898-09;  the 
Champlain  and  Saint  Lawrence  Railway,  from 
Laprairie  to  Saint  John's,  was  opened  in  1836, 
and  the  Canadian  Pacific  in  1886.  Various  steam- 
ship lines  run  to  transatlantic  ports,  and  rail- 
way lines  connect  the  city  with  all  parts  of 
Canada  and  the  United  States.  The  United 
States  is  represented  by  a  consul-general.  The 
exports  in  1905  amounted  to  $65,643,393,  and 
the  imports  to  $79,725,553;  in  1890  they  were 
respectively  $31,660,216  and  $45,934,406.  In 
1906  the  total  number  of  ocean-going  ships  cleared 
was  833,  of  a  measurement  of  1,940,000  tons. 
Inland  clearances  numbered  11,088,  of  a  meas- 
urement of  2,781,000  tons.  The  exports  and 
manufactures  include  lumber,  grain,  fiour,  ap- 
ples, butter,  phosphates,  cheese,  boots,  shoes, 
cottons,  woolens,  clothing,  rubber  goods,  hard- 
ware, glass,  carriages,  sleighs,  drugs,  paints, 
steam-engines,  locomotives,  railway  cars,  machin- 
ery, boilers,  sewing-machines,  musical  instru- 
ments, paper,  etc.  There  are  also  saw,  fiour,  and 
rolling  mills,  brass  and  iron  foundries,  lead 
works,  etc.;  gas  and  electric  light  plants,  elec- 
tric street  railroads,  and  a  costlv  system  of 
water-works.  There  are  many  banks,  the  Bank 
of  Montreal  having  a  capital  of  $14,400,000,  a 
reserve  of  $10,000,000,  and  assets  of  $150,000,000, 
being  one  of  the  world's  greatest  banks.  The 
climate  presents  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold, 
the  temperature  reaching  90°  in  summer,  and 
sometimes  sinking  to  20  o  below  zero  in  winter. 
The  winter  carnivals  which  formerly  attracted 
thousands  of  visitors  to  engage  in  gay  skating 
tournaments,  in  snow-shoe  parades,  masquerades,^ 
tobogganing,  and  the  storming  of  the  ice  castle 
(generally  erected  in  Dominion  Square)  by 
torchlight,  are  no  longer  a  feature  of  the  winter 
diversions. 

Montreal's  first  record  dates  from  1535,  when 
Jacques  Cartier  ascended  the  Saint  Lawrence  and 
found  an  Indian  village  named  Hochelaga  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain,  a  name  still  preserved 
in  a  ptn^tion  of  the  modern  city.  It  was  inhabited 
by  the  Hochelaga  or  Beaver  Indians,  active 
traders,  who  traversed  the  Saint  Lawrence  from 
their  district  to  Ottawa.  When  Champlain  vis- 
ited the  spot  in  1603  the  Indian  town  had  van- 
ished, as  the  result  of  a  war  between  the  Hurons 
and  the  Iroquois;  and  here  he  established,  eight 
years  later,  a  trading  post.  In  1642  Paul  de 
Chomedy,  Sieur  de  Maisonneuve,  for  "La  Com- 
pagnie  de  Montreal"  founded  the  "Ville  Marie- 
de-Montr^al"  on  romantic  ideas  of  religion  and 
patriotism.  The  towa  was  engaged  in  struggles 
with  the  Iroquois  for  many  years,  and  its  inhabi- 
tants sufl'ered  many  hardships,  and  in  1665 
the  Marquis  de  Tracy  arrived  from  France  with 
the  famous  Carignan-Saliferes  Regiment,  which 
broke  the  power  of  the  red  men.     In  1672  the 


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MONTBEAL. 


772 


MONTBOSE. 


town  became  the  centre  of  the  fur  trade  and 
the  starting  point  for  militaiy  and  exploring  ex< 
peditions,  from  which  it  beoime  known  as  the 
'Mother  of  Cities.'  With  Indian  massacres  and 
warfare,  and  strife  between  the  religious  and 
civil  authorities,  Montreal  soon  acquired  a  ro- 
mantic history.  In  1760  the  British  took  the 
town,  and  their  entry  marked  a  new  era.  In 
1775-76  it  was  occupied  by  the  Continental  forces, 
but  the  citizens  resented  Franklin's  incitement  to 
revolt  against  British  rule.  In  1844  it  was  made 
the  seat  of  the  Canadian  Government,  but  it  lost 
the  honor  after  the  riot  of  1849,  when  the  Parlia- 
ment buildings  were  destroyed  by  the  mob.  The 
British  garrison  was  removed  in  1870.  In  1901 
a  great  Ire  devastated  four  acres  of  the  commer- 
cial portion  of  the  city,  the  Board  of  Trade  build- 
ing constituting  the  chief  loss.  The  damage  was 
estimated  at  ^,000,000. 

With  its  suburbs,  Montreal's  population  num- 
bered, in  1901,  266,826,  half  being  French,  the 
rest  of  Irish,  English,  and  Scotti^  descent;  in 
1906  (local  est.),  400,000.  Three-fourths  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics,  and  the  city  is 
the  seat  of  both  Roman  and  Anglican  bishops. 

Consult:  Sandham,  Ville  Marie:  or,  Sketches  of 
Montreal  Past  and  Present  (Montreal,  1870) ; 
Macl^nan,  Montreal  and  Some  of  the  Makers 
Thereof  (ib.,  1893) ;  and  the  authorities  referred 
to  under  Canada. 

MONTBEAL.  An  island  in  Canada  formed 
at  the  junction  of  the  Ottawa  with  the  Saint 
Lawrence  River  (Map:  Quebec,  C  6).  It  is  30 
miles  long,  10  miles  wide  at  its  greatest  breadth, 
and  contains  197  square  miles.  It  is  of  great  fer- 
tility and  productiveness,  and  celebrated  for  its 
apple  orchards.  Undulations,  called  coteauw, 
culminate  in  Mount  Royal.  The  city  of  Montreal 
is  located  on  it. 

MONTBEAL  D'ALBANO,  mOn'trA-ftF  d&l- 
btt'nft,  or  Fra  Mobeale,  frft  m6'rA-ft1A  (?-1354). 
A  famous  Italian  condottiere.  He  was  a  native 
of  Narbonne  in  Provence  (France),  and  as  a 
young  man  entered  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of 
Saint  John,  but  was  ultimately  expelled.  He 
subsequently  distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier 
under  Louis  I.  of  Hungary  in  the  wars  with 
Naples,  and  refused  to  surrender  Aversa  to  Queen 
Joanna  of  Naples,  but  was  driven  out  in  1352 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  Church.  In  1353 
he  started  his  'Great  Company,'  a  band  of  mer- 
cenaries, which  soon  became  the  terror  of  Italy. 
In  1354  he  aided  Rienzi  in  getting  possession  of 
Rome,  but  was  suspected  of  intriguing  with 
Rienzi's  enemies,  the  Colonna.  He  was  therefore 
seized,  and,  after  a  short  trial,  beheaded  on 
August  30,  1354.  Consult  Papencordt,  Cola  di 
Rienzi    und  seine  Zeit   (Hamburg,  1841). 

MONTBEUIL,  mON'trg'y*.  A  town  of  France 
in  the  Department  of  Seine,  situated  one  and  one- 
half  miles  east  of  Paris,  near  Vincennes.  It  is 
surrounded  by  large  peach  orchards,  has  gypsum 
quarries,  and  manufactures  porcelain,  paints, 
glue,  soaps,  and  chemicals.  Population,  in  1891, 
23,891;  in  1901,  31,673;  in  1906,  35,904. 

MONTBEUIL,  Gebbert  de  (fl.  c.1260).  A 
French  poet  of  the  thirteenth  century  about 
whom  hardlv  anything  is  known.  His  jrreat 
work  is  the  itoman  de  la  violette  (q.v.).  Gerbert 
also  wrote  a  long  sequel  to  the  Perceval  of  Chres- 
ticn  de  Troves.    This  sequel  is  still  unprinted. 


M0NTBET7IL  (MONTEBEAXT),  Pdcbbb  db 
(thirteenth  century).  A  French  architect  of  the 
Gothic  period.  He  was  principal  architect  to 
Louis  IX.,  for  whom,  in  1245-48,  he  built  the 
SainteChapelle(q.v.),  one  of  the  finest  creations 
of  the  matured  Gothic  style.  Among  other  impor- 
tant works  built  by  him  were  the  refectory  and 
the  lady  chapel  of  the  Monastery  of  Saint  (xer- 
main  des  Pr^s,  destroyed  during  the  Revolution. 
His  relative,  Eudes  de  Montbeuil  (died  1289), 
architect,  engineer,  and  sculptor,  accompanied 
Saint  Louis  to  the  Holy  Land,  where  he  fortified 
Jaffa.  Returning  to  Paris  in  1254,  he  built  there 
the  Hospice  des  Quinze  Vingts,  the  chief  asylum 
of  the  blind,  and  a  number  of  churches.  All  of 
these  buildings  were  demolished  during  the  Revo- 
lution. In  1285  he  became  architect  to  the  King. 
For  his  own  tomb  in  the  Church  of  the  Cor- 
deliers he  carved  a  relief  of  himself  between  his 
two  wives. 

MONTBEUXy  mON'trS'.  A  parish  in  the  Can- 
ton of  Vaud,  Switzerland,  at  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  Lake  Geneva,  including  the  villages 
of  Clarens,  Territet,  Vemex,  Glion,  Veytaux, 
(]k>longes,  Chamex,  and  others  (Map:  Switzer- 
land, A  2).  The  district  is  noted  for  its  ro- 
mantic alpine  scenery  and  mild  and  healthful  cli- 
mate, and  is  a  favorite  and  well-appointed  resort 
of  tourists  and  invalids.  From  Glion  a  rack  and 
pinion  railway  leads  up  to  the  Rochers  de  Naye, 
at  5800  feet  elevation,  commanding  a  magnificent 
view.  Near  Veytaux  is  the  celebrated  (^tle  of 
Chillon.        Vt'.'CM- 

MONTBOND,  mON'trON',  Casimib,  Count  of 
(1768-1843).  A  French  political  agent.  He 
served  in  the  army  up  to  the  Revolution,  and 
then  rashly  stayed  in  Paris  instead  of  accom- 
panying his  family  in  exile.  In  1794  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned,  but  escaped  with  Mile, 
de  Coigny,  Duchess  of  Fleury,  the  heroine  of 
Ch^nier's  Jeune  captive ^  whom  he  married,  but 
sooif  divorced.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  came 
imder  the  influence  of  Tallejnrand  and  became  his 
most  trusted  agent.  Montrond  was  prominent  in 
bringing  about  the  second  Restoration.  After  the 
Revolution  of  1830  he  lived  in  England,  where 
he  boasted  that  Louis  Philippe  paid  him  20,000 
francs  a  year  to  speak  well  of  him  in  the  English 
clubs. 

MONT^BOSE.  A  royal  burgh  and  seaport  in 
Forfarshire,  Scotland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  South 
Esk,  80  miles  northeast  of  Edinburgh,  and  34 
miles  southwest  of  Aberdeen  (Map:  Scotland, 
F  3).  The  town  stands  on  a  level  peninsula  be- 
tween the  mouth  of  the  river  and  the  basin  of 
the  Esk  (an  expanse  seven  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence and  dry  at  low  water).  A  fine  suspension 
bridge  connects  the  town  with  Rossie  Island, 
which  is  again  connected  with  the  mainland 
by  a  small  drawbridge.  Two  lighthouses  are  in 
a  line  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  and  the 
magnificent  tower,  named  the  Scurdyness  Light- 
house, is  at  the  mouth  of  the  stream.  Flax  spin- 
ning is  the  chief  industry;  linen,  canvas,  rope 
and  soap  manufacture,  iron  founding,  tanning, 
brewing,  fish  curing,  wood  carving,  and  ship- 
building are  also  carried  on.  The  corporation 
owns  the  water  supply.  The  harbor,  one  of  the 
best  on  the  eastern  coast,  is  provided  with  quays 
and  dry  and  wet  docks.  It  affords  accommoda- 
tion to  vessels  drawing  19  feet  of  water.  The 
principal  exports  are  manufactured  goods,  agri- 


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MONT-SAINT-HICHEL. 


cultural  produce,  and  fish;  imports,  timber  and 
coal.  The  city  was  chartered  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury by  David  I.  and  was  made  a  royal  burgh 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  Population,  in  1891, 
14,400;  in  1901,  12,400.  Consult  Mitchell,  Hia^ 
iory  of  Montrose  (Montrose,  1866). 

HONTBOSEy  mOn-trOz^  A  town  and  the 
county-seat  of  Montrose  CJounty,  Colo.,  353  miles 
southwest  of  Denver;  on  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  Railroad  (Map:  Colorado,  B3).  It  is 
in  the  Uncompahgre  Valley,  a  district  made 
highly  productive  by  irrigation,  and  is  engaged 
in  farming,  fruit  growing,  and  stock-raising.  The 
Covemment  is  building  the  Gunnison  irrigation 
tunnel  here.  Population,  1900,  1217;  1905  (local 
cen.),  2517. 

MONTROSE.  A  borough  and  the  county-seat 
of  Susquehanna  County,  Pa.  46  miles  north  by 
west  of  Scranton;  on  the  Lackawanna  and  the 
I^high  Valley  railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  K 
2).  It  is  known  as  a  summer  resort,  having  an 
attractive  and  elevated  location,  some  2000  feet 
above  the  sea.  There  are  creameries,  and  manu- 
factories of  cut-glass,  agricultural  implements, 
saws,  lumber,  etc.    Pop.,  1890,  1735;  1900,  1827. 

MONTBOSE,  m6n-tr6z',  James  Graham, 
first  Marquis  of  (1612-50).  He  was  the  son  of 
John,  the  fourth  Earl  of  Montrose,  and  his  fam- 
ily can  be  traced  back  to  1128.  He  studied  at 
Glasgow,  and  in  1626  succeeded  to  his  father's 
earldom.  After  studying  and  traveling  for  some 
years  he  became  involved  in  1637  in  the  national 
movement,  for  Charles  I.  had  treated  him  coldly, 
and  the  King's  representative  in  Scotland,  Ham- 
ilton, was  vain  and  incapable.  In  1638  was  signed 
the  National  Covenant,  which  was  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  the  prayer-book  and  the 
ascendency  of  the  bishops  in  Scotland.  In  sup- 
port of  the  Covenant,  Montrose  took  up  arms 
several  times,  until  the  Treaty  of  Berwick  (June 
18,  1639)  put  an  end  to  the  fighting.  About  this 
time  Montrose  met  Charles  I.,  and  partly  through 
his  personal  influence,  and  also  because  the  Scot- 
tish Parliament  had  fallen  under  the  control  of 
the  radical  Presbyterians,  Montrose  became  a 
supporter  of  the  King,  but  changed  sides  again, 
as  a  result  of  Charles's  blundering  policy.  In 
May,  1641,  however,  he  threw  himself  completely 
on  the  Royalist  side.  Argyll,  the  Governor  of 
Scotland,  waa  preparing  to  aid  the  English  Par- 
liament, yet  Charles  would  not  permit  Mon- 
trose to  begin  an  insurrection  in  Scotland 
until  the  Scots  had  actually  begun  the  inva- 
sion of  England  in  support  of  Parliament. 
Then,  when  it  was  too  late,  Montrose  was 
appointed  (1644)  Lieutenant-General  of  Scot- 
land, and  after  he  had  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful inroad  into  Scotland  from  across  the 
border,  he  was  created,  on  May  6, 1644,  Marquis 
of  Montrose.  On  August  18th  he  again  entered 
Scotland,  this  time  in  disguise,  and  won  six 
pitched  battles  over  the  Covenanters.  Montrose's 
tactics  and  ability  to  meet  changing  conditions 
were  a  revelation  to  his  enemies,  but  he  was 
nevertheless  unable  to  range  the  Lowlands  on  the 
Royal  side,  and  on  September  13,  1645,  he  was 
defeated  at  Philiphaugh  by  David  Leslie;  his 
army,  composed  of  heterogeneous  elements, 
melted  away,  and  in  1646  Montrose  escaped  from 
the  country  to  Bergen.  He  went  to  Paris,  but 
could  gain  no  support  there.  In  1649  Montrose 
again  invaded   Scotland,   but   was   defeated   at 


Invercarron  on  April  27,  1650,  and  ultimately  fell 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  He  was  executed 
on  May  21,  1650.  Montrose  was  an  able  man,  of 
noble  character.  But  as  his  armies  were  with- 
out discipline,  he  was  unable  to  restrain  their 
ravages,  and  his  name  and  reputation  have  had 
to  suffer  in  consequence.  Consult  Gardiner,  The 
Great  Civil  War  (London,  1891). 

HONTS,  mON,  Pierre  du  Guast,  Sieur  de 
(1500-1611).  A  French  explorer  and  colonizer 
of  Canada.  He  was  bom  in  Saintonge,  France, 
of  an  Italian  Roman  Catholic  family,  but  was 
converted  to  Protestantism,  and  attached  him 
self  to  Henr^  IV.,  who  appointed  him  to  an 
important  office  in  the  royal  household.  In  1603 
the  King  made  him  Governor  of  the  French  Com- 
pany of  Canada,  which  was  given  exclusive  right 
to  trade  in  furs  between  latitudes  40°  and  60" 
N.,  and  the  right  to  make  land  grants  and  govern 
the  countiy,  under  the  name  of  Acadia,  with  the 
title  for  himself  of  Vice-Admiral  and  Lieutenant- 
General.  Taking  with  him  Samuel  Champlain, 
Poutrincourt,  Biencourt,  and  Pontgrave  as  chief 
officers,  he  sailed  from  Havre,  March  7,  1604. 
After  exploring  the  Bay  of  Fundy  they  passed  the 
winter  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint 
Croix  River,  and  in  the  summer  of  1605  foimded 
Port  Royal  on  the  present  site  of  Annapolis.  De 
Monts  made  Poutrincourt  Governor  of  Port  Royal, 
explored  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  made  Tadoussac  in  the 
Saint  Lawrence  his  fur  trade  depot,  and  returned 
to  France.  There  he  found  that  his  monopoly  had 
excited  such  lively  opposition  that  his  privileges 
had  been  withdrawn.  He  succeeded,  however,  in 
recovering  a  part  on  more  specific  conditions  and 
continued  to  send  out  expeditions  to  Canada,  and 
in  the  course  of  one  of  these  Champlain  founded 
the  city  of  Quebec  in  1608.  After  Henry  IV.'s 
death,  in  1610,  De  Monts's  privileges  were  taken 
away,  to  his  financial  ruin.  He  died  soon  after 
in  Paris.  Consult  Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France 
in  the  New  World  (Boston,  1866). 

MONT-SAINT-MICHEL,  mON  sfiN  m^'sh^K. 
A  remarkable  granite  cone  in  the  Bay  of  Cancale 
or  Saint  Michel,  off  the  coast  of,  and  belonging  to, 
the  Department  of  Manche,  France,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Couesnon,  here  separating 
Brittany  and  Normandy,  six  miles  southwest  of 
Avranches.  It  was  formerly  isolated,  but  since 
1879  a  causeway  three-quarters  of  a  mile  long  con- 
nects the  Mont  with  the  mainland.  Capped  by  an 
imposing  mass  of  monastic  buildings  with  a  statue- 
tipped  apex  towering  233  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  extensive  bay,  it  forms  the  most  striking 
feature  in  the  landscape.  The  bay,  left  bare  at 
low  water,  extends  8  miles  from  north  to  south 
with  a  maximum  width  at  its  mouth  of  15  miles, 
and  is  noted  for  its  quicksands  and  the  treacher- 
ous rapidity  of  its  rising  tides.  The  base  of  the 
Mont,  two  miles  in  circumference,  is  surrounded 
by  sixteenth-century  ramparts,  towers,  and  bas- 
tions. A  single  gate  gives  admittance  to  a  small 
village  on  the  southern  slope,  with  mediaeval 
houses,  hostelries  for  pilgrims  and  travelers,  an 
interesting  museum,  the  famous  Porte  du  Roi, 
Duguesclin's  observatory,  and  an  ancient  parish 
church.  The  village  is  built  along  a  narrow, 
winding  street  which,  with  numerous  flights  of 
steps,  leads  to  the  summit  crowned  by  the  ab- 
batial  castle  surmounted  by  a  basilica  or  church 
with  a  lofty  Gothic  spire.  The  principal  features 
of  the  abbey  are  the  Crypte  de  TAquilon,  al- 


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monry,  cellar,  and  dungeons,  dating  from  the 
twelfth  century ;  the  Crypte  des  Gros  Piliers,  the 
Salle  des  Chevaliers,  the  refectory,  the  graceful 
cloister,  dormitory,  and  La  Merveille,  or  north 
wall  of  the  abbey,  246  feet  long  and  108  feet  high, 
dating  from  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  chft- 
telet  or  donjon,  and  the  flamboyant  Gothic 
church,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
Mont  was  the  ancient  Mons  Tumba,  an  elevation, 
crowned  by  a  temple  of  the  Druids,  in  the  Forest 
of  Scissy,  which  was  submerged  by  an  inundation 
in  the  seventh  century.  The  abbey  was  founded 
in  709  by  Saint  Aubert,  Bishop  of  Avranches.  It 
became  a  noted  pilgrimage  resort,'  and  in  the 
twelfth  century  was  famous  for  its  library  and 
the  learning  of  its  monks,  whose  chronicles  de- 
scribe it  as  the  'mons  in  periculo  maris.'  The 
buildings  date  chiefly  from  after  1203,  when  the 
abbey  was  burned  down  by  the  soldiers  of  Philip 
Augustus.  It  successfully  resisted  the  assaults 
of  the  English  and  Huguenots;  was  dismantled 
at  the  Revolutign  and  converted  into  a  political 
prison ;  and  is  now  included  among  the  historical 
monuments  of  France.  During  the  last  three 
decades  it  has  been  undergoing  a  process  of 
restoration,  not  yet  completed.  Population  of 
village,  in  1901,  235. 

MONTS  DE  PI]^T]^,  mON  de  py&'t4^  (Fr., 
funds  of  pity).  A  name  applied  throughout 
Europe  to  public  or  semi-public  institutions  or- 
ganized to  loan  money  to  the  poor  at  low  rates 
of  interest  on  goods  deposited.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  monts  de  pi6t6  dates  from  the  middle 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  certain  Bamarbd 
Temi  proposed  a  charitable  bank  which  should 
lend  money  without  interest.  To  this  was  given 
the  name  Monte  di  Pietft.  The  principle  was 
adopted  by  Orvieto  (1464),  Bologna  (1476), 
and  Milan  (1496).  At  first  no  interest  was 
charged,  but  as  it  was  impossible  to  secure  suffi- 
cient funds  gratuitously,  a  moderate  rate  of  in- 
terest was  demanded.  This  policy  was  attacked 
on  the  ground  that  it  violated  the  canon  law 
forbidding  'usury.'  In  1516  the  Fifth  Lateran 
Council  declared  that  it  was  permissible  to  take 
a  low  interest  to  meet  the  necessary  expenses. 
Cities  in  other  countries  soon  adopted  the  plan. 
In  1534  a  pawn  bank  was  started  at  Ypres  and 
one  at  Bruges  in  1572,  and  by  1633  they  existed 
in  some  sixteen  cities.  Their  success  has  not 
been  uniform,  but  they  now  do  a  large  business. 
In  1896  the  various  Belgian  institutions  had 
891,756  articles  pledged  (or  pledges  renewed). 
The  rate  of  interest  varies  from  4  to  16  per  cent, 
per  annum.  The  net  profit  in  1895  was  $12,477.84. 
In  Holland  the  first  mont  de  pi^t^,  the  Groote 
Banck  van  Leening,  was  established  at  Amster- 
dam in  1614.  In  1895  it  had  a  capital  of  over 
$505,000,  nearly  $200,000  of  which  was  borrowed. 
Financially  the  Dutch  banks  have  not  been  profit- 
able, as  the  constant  endeavor  has  been  to  keep 
the  rate  of  interest  low.  In  Germany,  Augsburg, 
in  1591,  appropriated  funds  to  form  a  loan  bank 
(Leihhaus),  and  in  1618  Nuremberg  followed 
.this  example.  To-day  public  pawnshops  are 
found  in  many  cities.  The  laws  fix  the  interest 
at  2  per  cent,  per  month  on  all  sums  of  less  than 
30  marks  and  1  per  cent,  per  month  on  larger 
sums. 

Monts  de  pi^t4  were  introduced  into  France,  at 
Avignon  (1577),  Carpentras  (1612),  and  Aix 
( 1635) .    The  famous  Mont  de  Pi4t^  at  Paris  was 


established  in  1777  by  the  General  Hospital, 
which  was  to  have  the  profits.  It  has  had  a 
varied  history,  but  is  in  successful  operation  to- 
day. It  has  now  a  central  station  and  over  20 
auxiliary  stations.  Since  the  Revolution  the 
pawn-broking  business  of  France  has  been  under 
the  direct  charge  of  the  communal  and  city  au- 
thorities. At  the  head  of  the  Paris  bank  is  the 
Prefect  of  the  Seine  with  a  special  coimcil  of 
lawyers  who  form  a  'comity  consultatif,' and  have 
charge  of  the  legal  work  of  the  institution.  The 
interest  rate  is  now  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  In 
1895  over  1,928,300  articles  were  under  pledge,  and 
on  these  some  $10,07 1 ,000  were  loaned.  The  ledger 
of  the  institution  for  1896  showed  a  credit  of 
$789,783  and  a  debit  of  $756,428.  In  England  a 
'Charitable  Corporation'  began  business  in  1708, 
but  this  was  so  mismanaged  that  it  became  a  sub- 
ject of  Parliamentary  investigation  and  was 
closed.  The  principles  of  the  monts  de  pi4t6  were 
introduced  into  the  United  States  by  the  Col- 
lateral Loan  Company  of  Boston  in  1859;  they 
have  also  been  adopted  by  the  Workingmen's 
Loan  Association  of  Boston  (1888),  the  Saint 
Bartholomew's  Loan  Association  of  New.  York 
(1894),  and  many  others.  Among  the  Jews  there 
exists  the  Hebrew  Free  Loan  Association  of 
New  York,  which  loans  money  without  interest. 

The  monts  de  pi6t^  have  been  of  great  service 
and  have  always  tended  to  keep  the  rates  of 
interest  low.  In  all  countries  it  is  the  custom 
to  restrict  the  articles  on  which  loans  may  be 
made  and  to  take  the  necessary  precautions 
against  fraud  and  loss.  If  the  pledges  are  not 
redeemed  within  a  given  time  the  goods  are  sold. 
Sometimes  the  owner  has  the  right  to  ask  for 
the  sale  of  the  goods.  It  is  usual  to  return  to 
the  owner  any  sum  realized  above  the  indebted- 
ness. 

Consult:  Blaize,  Des  monU-de-pUi^  et  des 
banques  de  prSts  (Paris,  2d  ed.,  1856)  ;  Vanlaer, 
Lea  montS'de-pi4t6  en  France  (Paris,  1895)  ;  Pat- 
terson, Pawnbroking  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  Bulletin  No.  21,  Department  of  Labor 
( Washington,  1899 ) .    See  Pawnbbokino. 

MONT'SEBRAT'.  One  of  the  Leeward  Isl- 
ands, British  West  Indies,  situated  34  miles 
northwest  of  Guadeloupe,  and  26  miles  south- 
west of  Antigua  ( Map :  West  Indies,  G  3 ) .  It 
is  triangular  in  shape,  11  miles  long  by  7  miles 
broad,  and  has  an  area  of  32  square  miles.  It 
is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  its  surface  is  moun- 
tainous, reaching  a  height  of  3000  feet  in  the 
volcano  of  Souffri^re.  The  chief  products  are 
sugar,  coffee,  cacao,  arrowroot,  and  lime  juice. 
Its  industries  received  a  heavy  blow  from  a  de- 
structive hurricane  which  swept  over  the  island 
in  1899.  Montserrat  is  subject  to  the  general 
government  of  the  Leeward  Islands,  and  is  locally 
governed  by  a  nominated  legislative  council.  It^ 
population,  in  1891,  was  11,762,  and  in  1901, 
12,215.  The  capital  is  Plymouth,  on  the  south- 
west coast,  with  a  population  (1901)  of  1461. 
The  island  was  discovered  in  1493  by  Columbus, 
and  colonized  by  the  British  in  1632. 

MONTT,.  mdnt,  Jorge  (1846—).  A  President 
of  Chile,  son  of  Manuel  Montt  (q.v.).  He  was  a 
captain  in  the  navy  when,  in  January,  1891,  the 
relations  between  President  Balmaoeda  and 
the  Chilean  Congress  reached  the  point  of  ac- 
tive hostilities,  and  the  fleet  under  his  leader- 
stiip  declared  for  Congress.     On  January  7th  a 


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number  of  the  Senators  and  Congressmen  em- 
barked on  the  warships  and  organized  a  pro* 
visional  government  or  junta,  with  Montt  at  its 
head.  The  army  remamed  faithful  to  Balma- 
ceda,  but  the  majority  of  the  people  were  hostile. 
An  army  of  about  10,000  men  was  raised  without 
much  difficulty  by  the  Congressional  ists.  Toward 
the  end  of  August  the  Congressionalist  forces  ad- 
ministered a  severe  defeat  to  their  opponents 
only  a  few  miles  from  Valparaiso,  and  fol- 
lowed it  up  a  few  days  later  with  a  second 
victory  at  Placilla,  which  finally  destroyed  Bal- 
maceda's  power.  Montt  then  established  a  pro- 
visional government  in  Santiago,  and  called  for 
the  election  of  a  new  President  and  Congress. 
This  election,  probably  the  first  In  the  history 
of  Chile  that  was  not  largely  influenced  by  the 
party  in  power,  resulted  in  the  almost  unanimous 
choice  of  Montt  for  President.  The  confidence 
thus  shown  in  him  was  amply  justified  by  his  ad- 
ministration. He  exerted  himself  to  mend  the 
breach  made  by  the  civil  war,  and  granted  am- 
nesty to  all  who  had  supported  Balmaceda.  He 
thoroughly  reorganized  the  army  and  navy, 
placed  the  currency  of  the  country  again  on  a 
gold  basis,  and  granted  a  larpe  measure  of  local 
autonomy  to  the  municipalities.  In  forei^  af- 
fairs he  endeavored  to  settle  the  boundary  dispute 
between  Chile  and  Argentina  by  providing  for 
the  submission  of  the  question  to  Great  Britain; 
but  in  this  he  was  not  entirely  successful.  On 
September  18,  1896,  having  completed  the  five 
years  of  his  term  of  office,  he  quietly  resigned  the 
Government  to  Federico  Errazuriz,  who  had  been 
elected  his  successor. 

MONTT,  Manuel  (1809-80).  A  President  of 
Chile.  He  was  educated  at  the  National  In- 
stitute at  Santiago,  and  was  for  a  time 
rector  of  that  institution.  Entering  politics, 
he  held  a  number  of  State  offices,  and  m  1841 
became  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruc- 
tion. One  of  his  services  while  holding  this  posi- 
tion was  the  establishment  of  the  University  of 
Chile.  In  1861  he  was  elected  President.  The 
Liberal  party  under  Cruz  at  once  broke  out  in 
rebellion,  but  on  December  8,  1851,  were  defeated 
in  the  sanguinary  battle  of  Longamilla.  Montt 
was  reelected  in  1856,  and  served  until  1861. 
Under  his  administrations  the  railway  from 
Valparaiso  to  Santiago  was  begun.  In  1859 
another  civil  war  broke  out,  and  was  suppressed 
only  after  much  fighting  and  the  death  of  about 
5000  men.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  Montt  was 
president  of  the  Supreme  Court.  His  son,  Pedro 
Montt,  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1876,  was  sub- 
sequently minister  of  public  works,  of  justice,  of 
the  treasury,  and  of  the  interior,  president  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary at  Washington.  On  September  18,  1906, 
he  was  inaugurated  president. 

HOlfT'frFAB,  m6n-.t55'far,LoRENZO(1823— ). 
A  Centra]  American  jurist,  politician,  and  au- 
thor. He  was  bom  in  Guatemala,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845.  At  dif- 
ferent times  he  took  an  active  part,  often  in  the 
highest  position,  in  the  government  of  Guatemala, 
San  Salvador,  and  Costa  Rica,  practiced  law  for 
a  while  in  Lima,  and  served  as  Minister  to  the 
United  States,  Peru,  Spain,  and  elsewhere.  He 
also  did  journalistic  work,  wrote  books,  was  a 
judge,  taught  political  economy,  and  participated 
in  many  revolutions.    Among  his  published  works 


are  Oritica  del  gohierno  aervil  de  Owiiemala 
(1854),  and  Memorias  histdricas  de  Centra 
America  (1881). 

HOKTYON,  m6N'tA-(>N'  ( sometimes  incorrect- 
ly MONTHTON ) ,  AnTOINE  JeAN  BAPTISTTt  ROBEBT 

AuGET,  Baron  de  (1733-1820).  A  celebrated 
French  philanthropist.  He  was  bom  in  Paris, 
December  23,  1733.  His  father  having  left  him 
in  possession  of  a  considerable  fortime,  he  made 
a  wise  and  generous  use  of  it.  He  became  an 
advocate  and  was  successively  a  counselor  to  the 
Grand  Council,  Master  of  Requests  to  the  Council 
of  State,  and  intendant  of  Auvergne,  Provence, 
and  La  Rochelle.  In  1775  he  became  a  Ouncilor 
of  State,  and  in  1780  he  was  appointed  Chancellor 
to  Monsieur,  the  brother  of  the  King.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  Montyon  emigrated, 
and  resided  first  in  Oneva  and  later  in  England, 
and  did  not  return  to  France  until  the  Bourbon 
Restoration.  Throughout  his  whole  life  he  was 
generous  with  his  wealth,  relieving  the  poor  and 
founding  prizes  for  the  encouragement  of  inven- 
tion and  improvement  in  French  arts  and  manu- 
factures. Many  of  the  prizes  given  by  the 
Institute  of  France  were  founded  or  endowed  by 
him,  and  he  made  large  and  munificent  gifts  to 
the  hospitals  and  other  charitable  institutions 
of  Paris.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  on  historical, 
political,  and  economic  subjects,  but  his  works 
nave  become  antiquated,  and  he  is  chiefly  remem- 
bered for  his  philanthropy.  He  died  in  Paris, 
December  29,  1820.  Consult:  Franklin,  Eloge 
hi8torique  de  Montyon  (Paris,  1834) ;  Dumoulin, 
Montyon  (ib.,  1884)  ;  Labour,  M.  de  Montyon 
d*apr^8  des  documenta  inMita  (ib.,  1880).  For 
the  different  prizes  endowed  by  Montyon,  see 
Institute  or  France. 

MONITMEKT  (OF.,  Fr.  monument,  from  Lat. 
monumentum,  monimentum,  memorial,  from 
monere,  to  warn,  admonish).  Anything  durable 
made  or  erected  to  prpetuate  the  memory  of  per- 
sons or  events.  The  chief  kinds  of  monuments 
are  described  under  their  special  names.  It  is 
also  used,  by  extension,  of  any  large  work  of 
architecture  or  sculpture,  such  as  a  church,  cas- 
tle, palace,  monastery,  etc.  See  Arch,  Trium- 
phal; Brasses,  Sepulchral;  Mausoleum;  Ob- 
elisk; Pyramid;  Sepulchral  Mound;  Tomb;  etc. 

HON'UMEN^A  GEBMAOrUB  HISTOB^- 
ICA  (Lat.,  historical  monuments  of  Germany). 
A  great  work  on  the  antiquities  of  Germany,  the 
chief  source  for  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
It  was  begun  by  the  "Gesellschaft  ftir  ttltere 
deutsche  Geschichtskimde,'*  foimded  in  1819, 
and  after  that  body  was  dissolved  the  Prussian 
Academy  of  Sciences  assumed  charge  of  the  en- 
terprise, to  which  the  German  and  Austrian  gov- 
ernments gave  financial  support.  The  work  pro- 
ceeds under  various  divisions — historians,  laws, 
archives,  documents,  letters,  chronicles,  and  an- 
tiquities,—of  which  forty-seven  volumes  were  is- 
sued up  to  1874.  Since  1876  twenty  volumes  of 
a  New  Archives  have  been  in  publication.  The 
first  volume  was  published  in  1820  by  the 
Hahnsche  Hofbuchhandlung  in  Hanover  under  the 
direction  of  Pertz,  who  was  succeeded  in  1874  by 
Waitz,  and  after  his  death  in  1886  by  Dttmmler. 

MONVEL,  mAN'vi^K.  The  assumed  name  of 
Jacques  Marie  Boutet  (1745-1812).  A  French 
actor  and  dramatist,  father  of  the  famous  Mile. 
Mars  (q.v.).  He  made  his  appearance  on  the 
stage  of  the  ComMie  Frangaise  in  1770.    He  was 


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also  the  author  of  some  successful  plays,  among 
them  Le«  victimea  cloitr^s,  in  which  he  gave  ex- 
pression to  his  sympathy  with  the  principles  of 
the  Revolution. 

MONVELy  Louis  Maubice  Boutbt  de 
(1850—).  A  French  genre  and  portrait  painter 
and  illustrator,  bom  in  Orleans.  He  studied 
under  De  Rudder,  and  then  with  Cabanel  at  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts,  and  after  the  war  of 
1870-71,  in  which  he  took  part,  he  studied  in  the 
Atelier  Julien,  and  still  later  with  Carolus 
Duran.  He  began  to  exhibit  in  1874,  and  after- 
wards won  several  medals,  but  meanwhile  he 
took  up  illustrating.  Soon  his  individual,  unmis- 
takable style  showed  itself  in  the  drawings  he 
made  for  Chansons  et  rondes  (1883)  ;  Chansons 
de  France  (1884);  'Sos  enfants  (1886);  La 
civiliU  pu&rile;  the  fables  of  La  Fontaine  ( 1888)  ; 
and  the  exquisite  black  and  white  work  in 
Fabre's  Xavi^e  (1890).  His  work  is  usually 
done  in  flat  tones,  and  is  exceedingly  decorative  in 
quality.  His  technical  training  made  him  a 
faultless  draughtsman.  The  decision  and  beauty 
of  his  line,  his  strong,  clear  color,  the  charm  and 
naTvet^  of  his  delineation  of  child-life,  have  made 
him  a  conspicuous  figure  in  this  field  of  illustra- 
tion. His  "Jeanne  d'Arc"  (1897)  is  a  masterpiece 
of  composition.  He  also  did  six  canvases,  represent- 
ing the  history  of  the  Maid,  for  the  memorial 
church  at  Domr4my.  His  portraits,  particularly 
those  of  children,  and  notably  the  daughter  of 
Madame  R^jane,  are  well  known  in  America. 
His  large  pictures,  which  include  *The  Apothe- 
osis" ( 1885),  an  episode  of  the  Commune,  are  less 
interesting.  Consult  Modem  French  Masters, 
edUed  by  Van  Dyke  (New  York,  1896). 

MONZAy  mdn'tsA.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Milan,  Italy,  on  the  Lambro,  10  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Milan  (Map:  Italy,  D  2).  The 
Cathedral  of  San  Giovanni,  founded  in  the  sixth 
century  by  Theodolinda,  and  rebuilt  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  contains  interesting  memorials 
of  this  Queen  and  the  famous  iron  crown  of 
Lombardy,  Other  notable  buildings  are  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Istrada,  the  Gothic 
town-hall,  and  the  palace,  the  summer  and  autiunn 
residence  of  the  royal  family,  situated  in  beauti- 
ful grounds  traversed  by  the  Lambro.  The  town 
has  manufactures  of  silk  and  woolen  goods,  hats, 
leather,  and  machines,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
fertile  district,  which  yields  abundance  of  grain, 
fruits,  and  wine.  Monza,  the  ancient  Modicia, 
was  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Lombardy,  and 
was  conspicuous  for  its  wealth  and  the  extent  of 
its  cloth  trade.  Here  on  July  29,  1900,  King 
Humbert  of  Italy  was  assassinated.  Population 
(commune),  in  1881,  28,012;  in  1901,  42,699. 

HOOD  (AS,  m6d,  OHG.  muot,  spirit,  courage, 
Ger.  Mut'y  courage,  Goth,  rndds,  wrath ;  possibly 
connected  with  Gk.  /no/efl^oi,  maieaihaiy  to  desire, 
OChurch  Slav.  sUmf^ti,  to  dare).  A  weak  emo- 
tion, usually  of  long  duration.  The  mood,  like 
the  emotion,  is  made  up  of  ideas  and  aflTection; 
but  it  does  not  centre  about  a  'situation*  as 
the  emotion  does.  The  emotion  of  fear,  e.g. 
always  has  its  object.  One  fears  an  enemy,  an 
approaching  storm,  a  ruined  reputation.  And 
the  object  occupies  the  'focus*  of  consciousness. 
But  the  fusion  of  ideas  and  feelings  that  compose 
the  mood  is  marginal.  All  sorts  of  mental 
processes  may  demand  the  attention  in  turn  and 
in  turn  pass  out  of  consciousness ;  but  the  mood 


remains  as  a  vague  background  to  them  all. 
Moods  fulfill  various  offices  in  mental  economy. 
(1)  They  determine  associations;  according  as 
one  is  cheerful  or  melancholy,  one  thinks  of 
cheerful  or  melancholy  things.  (2)  The  'at 
home*  mood  is  an  important  factor  in  recognition 
and  imagination.  (3)  The  moods  of  acquiescence, 
of  discomfort,  of  mild  surprise,  of  expectancy, 
etc.,  are  prominent  in  belief,  comparison,  judg- 
ment, and  reasoning.  Consult:  Titchener,  Out- 
line of  Psychology  (New  York,  1899)  ;  Kuelpe, 
Outlines  of  Psf^chology  (ib.,  1895)  ;  Sully,  The 
Human  Mind  (ib.,  1892)  ;  Wundt,  Physiologische 
Psychologie  (Leipzig,  1893).  See  Reooonition; 
iKAonvATioN ;  Belief. 

MOODS  (in  Logic).    See  Syllogism. 

M00a>Y,  DwiGHT  Lyman  (1837-99).  An 
American  evangelist.  He  was  bom  at  Northfield, 
Mass.,  February  5,  1837.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen he  became  clerk  in  a  shoe  store  in  Boston. 
In  1856  he  removed  to  Chicago,  became  active  in 
mission  work,  and  established  a  Sunday-school 
which  numbered  over  a  thousand  children.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  he  was  employed  by  the  Chris- 
tian Commission  and  subsequently  as  city  mis- 
sionary in  Chicago  by  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association.  A  church  was  built  for  him,  and 
though  unordained,  he  became  its  pastor.  The 
building  was  destroyed  by  the  fire  of  1871,  but  a 
new  one  was  erected  to  hold  2500  persons.  In 
1873  he  visited  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  with 
Ira  D.  Sankey,  the  singer,  and  in  1875  held  a  long 
series  of  meetings  in  Brooklyn  and  Philadelphia, 
and  in  1876  in  New  York.  Similar  services  fol- 
lowed in  many  large  cities  throughout  the  coun- 
try. In  1882  a  second  visit  to  England  was 
made.  Most  of  his  work  was  done  in  the  prov- 
inces, but  he  held  large  meetings  also  at  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  He  also 
held  meetings  at  Paris.  His  later  years  vrere 
applied  to  the  building  up  of  a  seminary  for 
young  women  and  a  traininff-school  of  Christian 
workers,  both  at  Northfield,  Mass.,  and  the 
Mount  Hermon  School  for  Boys  at  Gill,  near 
Northfield.  He  died  at  Northfield,  December  22, 
1899.  He  published  numerous  discourses  and 
worka  of  a  popular  character.  Consult  his  biog- 
raphy by  his  son  (New  York,  1900). 

MOODY,  James  (1744-1809).  An  American 
Loyalist,  bom  in  New  Jersey.  In  1777  he  joined 
the  British,  and  for  several  years  he  was  very 
active  as  a  partisan  leader  and  spy,  performing 
many  daring  exploits  in  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  went  to 
England,  and  later  settled  in  Nova  Scotia.  In 
reward  for  his  services  the  English  Government 
gave  him  the  half  pay  of  a  lieutenant  and  an 
estate.  An  account  of  his  adventures,  entitled 
Lieutenant  James  Moody*s  Narrative  of  His 
Exertions  and  Sufferings  in  the  Cause  of  Qovem- 
ment  Since  1776,  was  published  in  London  in 
1783  and  in  New  York  in  1865. 

HOODT^  William  Henry  (1863—).  An 
American  lawyer  and  administrator.  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  in  Roosevelt's  Cabinet.  He  was  bom 
in  Newbury,  Essex  County,  Mass.,  graduated  at 
Phillips  Andover  in  1872,  and  at  Harvard  in 
1876,  and  studied  law.  From  1890  to  1895  be 
was  district  attorney  for  the  Massachusetts 
Eastern  District,  carried  through  successfully 
the  prosecution  of  boodling  aldermen  in  the  city 
of  Lawrence.    In  1895  he  was  chosen  to  succeed 


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KOON. 


General  Co^^swell  as  Congressional  Representa- 
tive. Politically  independent,  he  made  his  repu- 
tation on  the  floor  of  the  House  by  his  knowl- 
edge of  parliamentary  procedure  and  by  his  per- 
severance. In  the  Committee  on  Appropriation  he 
had  especial  charge  of  the  Sundry  Civil  Ap- 
propriation Bill,  and  in  general  was  reckoned  an 
able  second  to  Chairman  Cannon.  Upon  the 
resignation  of  J.  D.  Long,  in  March  of  1902, 
MocSy  was  named  successor,  and  received  the 
portfolio  of  the  navy  on  May  1.  He  served  in 
this  capacity  until  July  1,  1904,  when  he  was 
appointed  Attorney-General.  He  was  appointed 
a  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  in  1906. 

MOODY^  William  Vaughn  (1869—).  An 
American  poet,  born  in  Spencer,  Ind.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1893,  became  instructor 
in  English  there  and  later  at  the  University 
of  Chicago,  devoting  much  time  to  the  composi- 
tion of  verses.  The  Masque  of  Judgment  (1900) 
is  marked  by  lyric  power;  the  Poems  (1901) 
show  high  thought  and  feeling.  Much  of  the  lat- 
ter volume  had  been  published  in  periodicals  and 
widely  noticed.  His  play  The  Great  Divide  was 
one  of  the  successes  of  the  season  1906-7.  He  also 
edited  Milton's  "Poems"  in  the  Cambridge  Poets 
(1899),  and  in  1902  he  wrote  a  short  History  of 
English  Literature  in  collaboration  with  R.  R. 
Lovett. 

MOOLTAN,  m?$91-tAn^  A  city  of  British 
India.    See  Multan. 

MOON  (AS.  m6na,  Goth,  mema,  OHG.  mdno, 
Ger.  (with  excrescent  d)  Mond,  moon;  connected 
with  Lith.  menUf  moon,  Gk.  /I'^p,  m^,  month,  Skt. 
mds,  moon,  month,  probably  from  Skt.  md,  to 
measure,  and  ultimately  connected  with  Eng. 
month).  The  satellite  of  our  earth,  revolving 
round  the  earth  from  west  to  east  in  a  period 
of  one  month  (q.v.) ,  and  accompanying  the  earth 
in  its  motion  round  the  sun. 

Phases  of  the  Moon.  The  first  peculiarity 
about  the  moon  is  the  constant  and  regular 
change  of  its  illuminated  surface  from  a  thin 
crescent  to  a  circle,  and  vice  versa,  and  a  cor- 
responding change  in  the  time  of  her  appearance 
above  the  horizon.  These  changes  depend  upop 
the  position  of  the  moon  relative  to  the  earth  and 
the  sun,  for  it  is  only  the  half  of  the  moon  facing 
the  sun  that  is  illuminated  by  his  rays,  and  the 
whole  of  this  illuminated  portion  can  be  seen 
from  the  earth  only  when  the  sun,  earth,  and 
moon  are  nearly  in  a  straight  line  (the  line  of 
syzygies),  and  the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and 
moon.  When  the  moon  is  in  the  line  of  syzygies, 
but  between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  no  part  of 
her  illuminated  disk  can  be  seen  from  the  earth. 
In  the  former  case,  the  moon  is  said  to  be  full, 
and  in  the  latter,  new,  A  few  days  after  'naw 
moon'  the  moon  appears  to  be  a  little  to  the  east 
of  the  sun  as  a  thin  crescent,  with  the  horns  point- 
ing to  the  east,  and  as  she  iacreases  her  angular 
distance  from  the  sun  at  the  rate  of  about  12** 
daily,  the  crescent  of  light  becomes  broader  till, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  little  more  than  seven  days, 
at  which  time  she  is  90*  in  advance  of  the  sun, 
she  presents  the  appearance  of  a  semicircle  of 
light.  The  moon  is  then  said  to  have  completed 
her  first  quarter.  Continuing  her  course,  she 
becomes  *gibbous*;  and  at  the  15th  or  16th 
day  from  the  new  moon  attains  a  position  180* 
in  advance  of  the  sun,  and  now  presents  the 


appearance  known  as  full  mo<Mi.  From  this 
point  she  begins  to  approach  the  sun,  again  ap- 
pearing 'gibbous,'  and  after  a  third  period  of 
more  than  seven  days,  reaches  a  point  90*  west 
of  the  sun  and  enters  her  last  quarter.  Here, 
again,  she  appears  as  a  semicircle  of  light,  the 
illuminated  portion  being  that  which  was  not 
illuminated  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter.  The 
moon,  now  rapidly  approaching  the  sun,  resumes 
the  crescent  form,  but  this  time  with  the  horns 
pointing  westward,  the  cresgent  becoming  thinner 
and  thinner,  till  the  moon  reaches  the  position 
of  'new  moon'  and  disappears.  The  earth  as 
seen  from  the  moon  presents  similar  phases,  and 
has  consequently,  at  the  time  of  new  moon,  the 
appearance  of  a  round  illuminated  disk,  and  at 
full  moon  is  invisible.  This  explains  the  peculiar 
phenomenon  occasionally  observed  when  the  moon 
is  near  the  sun  (either  before  or  after  the  new 
moon),  of  the  part  of  the  moon's  face  which  is 
unilluminated  by  the  sun  appearing  faintly  visi- 
ble, owing  to  the  reflection  upon  it  of  strong 
earth-light.  This  phenomenon  is  often  called  the 
new  moon  in  the  old  moon's  arms.  At  new  moon^ 
the  moon  comes  above  the  horizon  about  the  same 
time  as  the  sun,  and  sets  with  him,  but  rises 
each  day  about  fifty  minutes  later  than  on  the 
day  previous,  and  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter 
rises  at  midday  and  sets  at  midnight,  continuing 
to  lag  behind  the  sun.  When  full,  she  rises 
about  sunset  and  sets  about  sunrise,  and  at  the 
commencement  of  her  last  quarter  she  rises 
at  midnight  and  sets  at  midday.  The  daily 
retardation  of  the  moon's  rising,  just  stated  to 
be  about  fifty  minutes,  is  subject  to  considerable 
variations.  In  the  latitude  of  New  York  it  may 
range  from  23  minutes  to  1  hour  17  minutes. 
See  Harvest  Moon. 

Distance  and  Magnitude.  From  repeated 
observati(Mis  of  the  moon's  horizontal  parallax 
(q.v.),  and  of  the  occultations  by  her  of  the  fixed 
stars,  her  mean  distance  from  the  earth  has  been 
estimated  at  238,840  miles,  and  her  mean  angular 
diameter  at  31'  T*,  and  her  actual  diameter  aa 
2162  miles,  or  about  3-llths  of  the  earth's  diam- 
eter. Her  actual  distance  from  the  earth  may 
var^  from  252,972  miles  at  apogee  to  221,614  at 
perigee.  Her  volume  is  about  l-49th  that  of  the 
earth,  her  density  0.61  (that  of  the  earth  being- 
taken  as  unity),  and  her  mass  -^  of  the  earth 'a 
mass. 

Orbit.  The  moon  revolves  round  the  earth  in 
an  elliptic  orbit  with  the  earth  in  one  focus ;  the 
eccentricity  of  the  ellipse  being  0.05491,  or  more 
than  3^  times  that  of  the  earth's  orbit  The 
plane  of  her  orbit  does  not  coincide  with  the 
ecliptic,  but  is  inclined  to  it  at  an  angle  of  5* 
8'  40",  and  intersects  it  in  two  opposite  points, 
which  are  called  the  nodes  (q.v.).  Were  the 
moon's  orbit  a  true  ellipse,  which,  owing  to 
various  irregularities  known  as  perturbations 
(q.v.),  it  is  not,  the  lunar  theory  (q.v.)  would  be 
exceedingly  simple ;  but  these  perturbations  cause 
in  the  case  of  the  moon  a  distinct  and  well- 
marked  deviation  from  her  previous  course  in  a 
single  month.  The  retrogradation  of  her  nodea 
along  the  ecliptic  causes  a  continual  change  in 
the  plane  of  her  orbit,  so  that  if,  during  one 
revolution  round  the  earth,  she  occults  certain 
stars,  at  the  next  revolution  she  may  pass  to  one 
side  of  them,  and  will  remove  farther  and  farther 
from  them  in  each  successive  revolution.  Owing 
to  this  (continual  change  of  her  orbit,  the  mooa 


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In  course  of  time  passes  over  or  occults  every 
star  situated  within  5"*  24'  of  the  ecliptic.  The 
motion  of  the  nodes  is  so  rapid  that  they  perform 
a  complete  circuit  of  the  orbit  in  18.6  years. 
Another  important  change  in  the  mocm's  orbit  is 
the  revolution  of  the  line  of  apsides  (q.v.),  by 
which  the  perigee  and  apogee  are  continually 
changing  their  position  relative  to  the  earth  and 
sun.  This  revolution  is  more  than  twice  as  rapid 
as  that  of  the  nodes,  being  performed  in  8.85 
solar  years.  This  motion  is  analogous  to  the 
perturbations  of  planetary  orbits,  and  its  nature 
and  origin  are  treated  in  the  article  Pebtubba- 
TI0N8.  Its  effect  upon  the  moon  is  to  produce  a 
variation  in  her  distance  from  the  earth,  inde- 
pendent of  that  produced  by  her  elliptic  motion. 
Among  the  further  disturbances  or  perturbations 
of  the  lunar  orbit  we  may  mention  the  evection 
(q.v.) ,  which  may  displace  the  moon's  position  in 
the  sky  1*  16^  27",  the  variation,  which  may 
amount  to  39'  3V,  and  the  annual  equation,  whose 
maximum  is  IT  9".    See  Lunab  Theobt. 

Eclipses.  As  the  moon  in  her  course  passes 
the  sun  once  every  month,  and  also  places  the 
earth  between  herself  and  the  sun  once  a  month, 
it  is  evident  that  if  she  moved  in  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic  there  would  be  either  a  total  or  an 
annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  and  a  total  eclipse  of 
the  moon  every  month.  The  inclination  of  her 
orbit,  allowing  her  to  pass  the  sun  5**  9^  to  the 
north  or  south  of  his  track,  prevents  such  a  fre- 
quent occurrence  of  eclipses.    See  Eclipses. 

Rotation.  The  moon  rotates  on  her  axis  with 
a  velocity  such  that  one  complete  revolution 
occupies  precisely  the  same  time  needed  for  one 
revolution  of  the  moon  aiound  the  earth.  As  a 
consequence  of  this,  the  moon  always  turns  the 
same  side  toward  us,  and  we  see  only  one-half 
her  surface  plus  a  small  additional  amount 
brought  into  view  by  libration   (q.v.). 

Physical  Featubes.  The  surface  of  the  moon, 
as  seen  from  the  earth,  presents  a  most  irregular 
grouping  of  light  and  shade.  The  dark  portions 
were  named  by  the  earlier  astronomers  as  seas, 
lakes,  etc.,  and  still  retain  these  names,  although 
there  is  strong  evidence  against  the  supposition 
that  the  moon,  or  at  least  that  portion  of  it 
presented  to  us,  contains  any  water.  The  brighter 
parts  of  the  moon  are  mountainous,  as  is  proved 
by  the  fact  of  their  casting  shadows  when  the 
sun's  rays  fall  upon  them  obliquely,  and  also  by 
the  ragged  appearance  presented  by  the  interior 
illuminated  border  of  the  moon,  an  appearance 
which  can  only  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  on 
the  supposition  that  the  surface  of  the  moon  is 
not  level,  in  which  case  the  higher  portions  will 
be  illuminated  some  time  before  the  light  reaches 
the  level  parts;  and  it  is  observed  that  as  the 
illumination  proceeds,  bright  spots  start  up  in 
advance  of  it,  and  when  the  moon  is  on  the  wane, 
these  same  spots  continue  to  shine  for  some  time 
after  the  surrounding  surface  is  immersed  in 
gloom.  The  mountains  occur  either  singly,  when 
they  are  generally  of  a  circular  form,  and  are 
called  craters,  or  in  groups,  which  are  mostly 
annular,  and  form  a  sort  of  wall  inclosing  a  deep 
depression  or  plain,  in  which  are  situated  one  or 
more  conical  moimtains.  The  craters  are  not  in- 
frequently 8  or  10  miles  in  diameter,  and  some 
measure  more  than  100  miles  across.  The  prin- 
cipal mountains  attain  an  altitude  of  about  20,- 
000   feet,  according  to  a  micrometric  measure- 


ment of  the  length  of  their  shadows.  The  moon 
everywhere  presents  traces  of  volcanic  agency, 
but  no  active  volcanoes  have  yet  been  discovered, 
nor  is  there  any  sign  of  recent  volcanic  action. 
Through  the  telescope,  she  presents  a  desolate 
appearance,  without  indications  of  animal  or 
vegetable  existence.  She  appears  to  be  devoid  of 
an  atmosphere,  or,  if  one  exists,  it  must  be  of  ex- 
ceeding rarity,  or  else  concentrated  into  cavities 
within  the  moon's  rocky  surfaces.  Probabilities 
are  in  favor  of  a  low  surface  temperature,  not 
higher,  perhaps,  than  that  of  ordinary  ice.  (For 
the  influence  of  the  moon  upon  terrestrial  tides, 
see  Tn)ES. )  Recent  theorists  hold  that  very  large 
lunar  tides,  caused  by  the  earth,  existed  many 
thousands  of  years  ago,  when  the  moon  was  still 
in  a  semi-plastic  condition.  This  tidal  theory 
can  be  made  to  account  for  the  remarkable  coin- 
cidence of  the  lunar  axial  rotation  period  with 
that  of  her  revolution  round  the  earth.  The  best 
lunar  map  is  that  of  Beer  and  Maedler,  which  was 
published  in  1837.  This  map  is  based  upon  visual 
observations,  and  will  undoubtedly  be  replaced 
in  time  by  the  results  of  photographic  work.  In 
1904  Pickering  published  iiis  Photographic  AtUu 
of  the  Moon  and  an  elaborate  series  of  lunar 
photographs  is  being  published  by  the  Paris  Ob- 
servatory. Consult:  Pickering,  The  Moon  (New 
York,  1903). 

Supebstitions  Reoabdino'^  the  Moon.  The 
moon  was  anciently  an  object  of  worship,  and  has 
remained  to  the  present  day  the  centre  of  many 
superstitions.  The  times  for  killing  animals  for 
food,  gathering  herbs,  cutting  down  wood  for 
fuel,  sowing  seeds  of  various  kmds,  were  all  regu- 
lated by  the  *age*  of  the  moon.  There  were  simi- 
larly defined  periods  for  taking  particular  medi- 
cines, and  attempting  the  cure  of  particular  dis- 
crises.  In  northern  European  countries  the  wan- 
ing moon  has  been  considered  to  have  an  evil  in- 
fluence, and  full  or  new  moon  to  be  the  most 
auspicious  season  for  commencing  any  enterprise. 
Farmers  and  sailors  still  believe  in  the  influence 
of  changes  in  the  lunar  phases  on  the  weather. 
See  Supebstition. 

MOON,  William  (1818-94).  An  English  phi- 
lanthropist, bom  in  Horsemonden,  Kent.  He  was 
educated  in  London,  and  in  1840  gave  up  his 
studies  for  the  Church  because  of  total  blindness. 
Moon  started  a  school  for  blind  children,  and  find- 
ing that  previous  systems  were  too  complicated, 
devised  an  embossed  type  for  the  use  of  the  blind 
with  only  nine  letters,  which,  by  variation  of 
position,  made  up  a  complete  alphabet.  Follow- 
ing the  same  method,  he  published  pictures  and 
maps  for  the  blind.  Moon  traveled  in  Europe  and 
in  the  United  States  (1882)  and  established  loan 
libraries  of  his  books  and  schools  for  home  in- 
struction. All  his  philanthropic  efforts  were 
largely  tinged  with  evangelistic  methods.  Con- 
sult Rutherford,  William  Moon  and  His  Work 
for  the  Blind  (London,  1898).  See  Bund,  Edu- 
cation OF  the. 

MOONBILIi.  A  local  name  in  the  United 
States  for  the  ring-necked  scaup  duck.  See 
Scaup. 

MOONCALF.  A  shapeless  abortion,  supposed 
to  be  caused  by  the  influence  of  the  moon,  or, 
according  to  Pliny,  to  be  engendered  by  womaii 
only.  The  term  is  applied  also  to  a  doltish 
person. 


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THE  MOON,  FIRST  QUARTER 
From  a  Photograph  by  Loewy  and  Pulaeux 


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jjCOON'BY,  James  (1861—).  An  American 
«thnologist,  bom  at  Richmond,  Ind.  In  1885  he 
became  connected  with  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology  at  Washington.  His  first  labor  in 
Indian  ethnography,  which  had  occupied  him 
since  boyhood,  was  a  tribal  list,  containing  3000 
titles.  He  discovered  the  Cherokee  ritual,  studied 
the  ghost  dance  in  1890,  and  later  the  Kiowas. 
His  writings  include:  Myths  of  the  Cherokees; 
Sacred  Formulas  of  the  Cherokees;  Siowm 
Tribes  of  the  East  (1894) ;  The  Messiah  Religion 
and  the  Ghost  Dance;  and  Calendar  History  of 
the  Kiowa  Indians  (1898). 

MOONEYE,  Lakb  Hebring^  or  Whiting. 
Names  applied  to  the  Cisco  (q.v.)  or  Whitefish. 

MOOKFISH  ( so  called  from  its  shape) .  ( 1 ) 
A  fish  of  the  family  Carangidse,  allied  to  the 
pompanos,  and  having  compressed,  oval,  silvery 
bodies.  The  species  (Selene  vomer) ^  called 
'jorobado,*  *look  down,*  'horsehead,'  and  'horse- 
fish,'  is  numerous  on  both  coasts  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  America,  and  grows  to  a  foot  or  more. 
It  passes  through  a  remarkable  series  of  trans- 
formations in  growth,  beinff  so  thin  when  voung 
as  to  be  useless  for  food,  though  well  likea  as  a 
pan-fish  when  adult.  (See  Plate  with  article 
HoBSE  Mackebel.)  (2)  A  closely  related  fish 
(Vomer  setipennis),  known  about  New  York 
as  'blunt-nosed  shiner,'  and  highly  esteemed  as 
food.  Some  other  species  are  known,  but  their 
habits  and  manner  of  breeding  remain  obscure. 
(3)  Theopah  (q.v.). 

MOONFLOWEB.     See  Ipomcea. 

KOONGA^  or  MOOGHA.     See  Silkworm. 

MOONJAH,  mZ^'jft,  MTTNJAH,  MOON- 
YAH,  Saba,  or  SnuB  (Anglo-Ind.,  fron>  Skt. 
muHjay  reed),  Saccharum  Sara.  An  East  Indian 
l^rass  of  the  same  genus  as  the  sugar-cane,  grow- 
ing on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indus. 
The  leaves  yield  a  tough  fibre,  not  thoroughly 
tested,  but  used  for  making  rope. 

MOONLIGHT  SONATA,  The.  A  sonaU  by 
Beethoven  (1802).  It  is  the  second  of  two  so- 
natas forming  Opus  27,  C  sharp  minor.  Sonata 
quasi  una  Fantasia,  dedicated  to  Countess  Guic- 
ciardi.  The  imaginary  title  is  probably  due  to 
Rellstab's  likening  the  first  movement  to  boating 
on  Lake  Lucerne  by  moonlight. 

MOONSEEB,  Yellow  Pabilla  (so  called 
from  the  crescent-shaped  seeds),  Menispermum 
canadense.  A  North  American  climbine  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Menispermacee,  with  peltate, 
roundish-cordate,  and  angular  leaves,  small  clus- 
ters of  white  or  greenish-yellow  flowers,  and 
black,  kidney-shaped  fruits.  The  cylindrical  root, 
which  attains  a  length  of  several  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  was  formerly 
known  in  commerce  as  Texas  sarsaparilla. 

KOON-SNAKE.  A  Brazilian  colubrine  ven- 
omous snake  of  the  genus  Scytale.  They  are  of 
small  size  and  dull  colors.  Some  of  them  are 
arboreal,  others  fully  terrestrial.  They  hunt  al- 
most exclusively  at  night  and  feed  mainly  on 
lizards.  Although  their  fangs  (see  Opistho- 
olypha)  are  large,  these  reptiles  seem  never  to 
attack  human  beings. 

KOONWOBT.     A  fern.     See  Botbtchium. 

MOOB,  MOOBING  (probably  from  Dutch 
marren,  to  tie,  moor,  hinder,  retard,  AS.  mirran^ 
myrran,  merran,  OHG.  marrjan,  marren,  dialec- 

VOL.  XIII.— 50. 


tic  Ger.  marren,  to  entangle,  Eng.  mar) .  To  moor 
a  vessel  is  to  secure  it  with  ropes  or  chains  to 
anchors  or  to  a  wharf  or  to  the  buoys  of  perma- 
nent moorings.  The  common  method  of  mooring 
with  two  anchors  is  to  drop  one  anchor,  veer 
chain  to  sixty,  seventy- five,  or  ninety  fathoms 
and  let  go  the  other;  and  then  heave  in  on  the 
long  chain  and  veer  on  the  shorter  until  lying 
with  both  chains  equal,  or  with  one  about  fifteen 
fathoms  shorter  than  the  other.  This  method  is 
generally  resorted  to  when  the  anchorage  ground 
is  contracted  and  there  is  insufficient  room  for  a 
ship  to  swing  about  a  single  anchor  with  a  full 
scope  of  chain.  In  many  harbors,  where  the 
anchorage  space  is  limited,  permanent  moorings 
are  laid  down.  These  usually  have  buoys  to 
which  the  anchor  chains  are  attached,  the  ship 
being  secured  to  the  buoy  by  a  hawser  or  shoit 
length  of  chain.    See  Anchob;  Hawse. 

KOOB,  Edwabd  (1771-1848).  An  English 
writer  on  India.  He  entered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company  in  1782,  but  in  1790  joined 
the  army.  He  retired  in  1806  on  a  special  pension 
and  a  large  grant  as  a  reward  for  his  bravery 
and  for  a  Digest  of  the  Military  Orders  and  Regu- 
lations of  the  Bombay  Army  (1800).  Moor's 
most  valuable  book  was  the  Hindu  Pantheon 
(1810),  which  is  still  an  authority  because  of  its 
unique  illustrations. 

MOOB'CBOET,  William  (c.  1765- 1825).  An 
English  veterinary  surgeon  and  traveler,  born  in 
Lancashire.  He  studied  medicine  in  Liverpool, 
but  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  veterinary 
surgery.  In  1808  he  became  veterinary  surgeon 
to  the  Bengal  army  and  superintendent  of  the 
East  India  Company's  stud  at  Pllsli,  near  Cawn- 
pore.  While  occupying  these  positions  he  under- 
took a  series  of  remarkable  journeys  in  North- 
em  India,  was  the  first  Englishman  to  cross 
the  Himalayas,  vainly  endeavored  to  penetrate 
Chinese  Turkestan,  and  died  while  returning  from 
Bokhara.  His  papers  were  edited  by  Prof.  H.  H, 
Wilson  and  published  in  1841  imder  the  title 
Travels  in  the  Himalayan  Provinces  of  Hindu- 
stan from  1819  to  1825,  Among  his  other  writ- 
ings is  a  translation  of  Valli's  Espperiments  in 
Animal  Electricity  (1793). 

MOOBE,  mlRhr  or  mdr,  Albebt  Joseph  ( 1841- 
93).  An  English  figure  painter,  bom  in  York,  of 
a  family  of  painters.  He  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy  School,  and  began  his  career  by  a  niun- 
ber  of  purely  decorative  works  done  principally  for 
theatres  and  churches.  He  afterwards  exhibited 
constantly  at  the  various  London  galleries.  His 
subjects  are  usually  figures  of  women;  his  style 
is  classic,  his  colors  are  particularly  harmonious 
and  pleasing,  and  his  composition  is  simple  and 
decorative,  with  a  quality  that  is  Japanesque. 
His  works  include  **Midsummer"  (1887)  ;  "Blos- 
soms" (1881) ;  "A  Summer  Night"  (in  the  Liver- 
pool Corporation  Gallery)  ;  and  "The  Open  Book*' 
( in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  South  Ken- 
sington). For  his  biography,  consult  Baldry 
(London,  1894). 

MOOBE,  Alfbed  (1755-1810).  An  American 
jurist,  bom  in  Brunswick  County,  N.  C,  a  son 
of  Maurice  Moore  (q.v.).  He  was  educated  in 
Boston.  In  August,  1775,  he  was  made  captain 
in  the  First  Regiment,  North  Carolina  Line,  of 
which  his  uncle,  James  Moore,  was  colonel,  and 
took  part  in  the  defense  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in 


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June,  1776.  He  resigned  in  March,  1777,  but 
served  in  the  militia  against  Comwallis  after  the 
battle  of  Guilford  Court  House.  In  1782  he  was 
elected  Attorney-General  by  the  Assembly,  though 
he  knew  little  or  no  law.  He  was  elected  judge 
of  the  Superior  Court  in  1798,  but  in  December 
of  the  next  year  was  appointed  by  President 
Adams  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.    He  resigned  in  1805. 

MOOBE,  Benjamin  (17481816).  A  Protestant 
Episcopal  Bishop  of  New  York.  He  was  bom  in 
Newtown,  L.  I. ;  was  graduated  at  King's  College 
in  1768,  prepared  for  the  ministry,  and  went  to 
England,  where  he  was  ordained  by  the  Bishop  of 
London  in  1774.  Returning  to  America,  he  was 
appointed  assistant  minister  in  Trinity  Church, 
New  York,  in  the  same  year.  In  1800  he  became 
rector  of  Trinity  Parish.  In  1801  he  was  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  New  York,  and  at  the  same  time 
was  appointed  president  and  professor  of  logic 
and  rhetoric  in  Columbia  College.  He  performed 
the  duties  of  both  these  positions  till  1811,  when 
he  was  disabled  from  active  service  by  paral- 
ysis. Bishop  Moore's  publications  include  ser- 
mons and  a  pamphlet  in  vindication  of  episcopal 
services. 

MOOBEy  Chablbs  Lbonabd  (1854—).  An 
American  poet,  bom  in  Philadelphia.  To  the  pen 
of  this  lawyer  are  due  several  volumes  of  artistic 
poetry:  Alias  (1881)  ;  Poems  Antique  and  Mod- 
em (1883) ;  Book  of  Day  Dreams  (1883) ;  Ban- 
quet of  Palacios  ( 1889) ,  a  comedy;  Odes  ( 1896) ; 
The  Ohost  of  Rosalys  (1900),  a  poetical  drama 
of  much  beauty  and  ingenuity.  Mr.  Moore,  who 
was  Consul  at  San  Antonio,  Brazil,.  1878-79,  is 
known  for  his  critical  contributions  to  the  Chica- 
go Dial, 

MOOBE,  Claba  Jessup  (1824-99).  An 
American  philanthropist  and  writer,  bom  in 
Philadelphia.  She  organized  in  Philadelphia  a 
hospital  relief  committee  during  the  Civil  War, 
and  assisted  in  the  foundation  of  the  Temperance 
Home  for  Children.  After  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band in  1878,  she  spent  much  of  her  time  in 
London,  where  she  died.  She  published  Miscel- 
laneous Poems  (1875);  a  romance  called  On 
Dangerous  Ground  (1876);  Sensible  Etiquette 
(1878)  ;  Social  Ethics  and  Social  Duties  (1892)  ; 
and  other  books. 

MOOBE,  Clement  Clarke  (1779-1863).  An 
American  poet  and  educator,  and  a  son  of 
Bishop  Moore  of  New  York.  He  was  bom  in 
New  York,  July  15,  1779;  he  graduated  at 
Columbia  (1798),  and  was  made  professor  of 
biblical  learning  in  the  General  Theological  Semi- 
nary in  New  York  (1821),  a  post  that  he  held 
until  1850.  The  ground  on  which  the  seminary 
now  stands  was  his  gift.  He  compiled  a  Hebrew 
a^d  English  Lexicon  (1809),  and  published  a 
collection  of  Poems  (1844),  among  which  is 
"Twas  the  Night  Before  Christmas,"  or  more 
properly,  "A  Visit  from  Saint  Nicholas,"  which 
has  long  been  famous.  It  was  written  for  his 
children  in  1822  and  appeared  anonymously  and 
without  his  knowledge  in  the  Troy  Sentinel^ 
December  23,  1823.  Consult  Stedman,  An  Ameri- 
can Anthology  (Boston,  1900). 

MOOBE,  David  Hastings  (1838—).  An 
American  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  bom  at  Athens,  Ohio.  He  graduated  at 
the  university  of  his  native  State  in  1860,  was 


ordained  to  the  ministry  the  same  year,  entered 
the  Civil  War  as  a  private  and  rose  to  be  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  volunteers.  He  was  successively 
president  of  the  Wesleyan  College,  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  and  of  the  Colorado  Seminary,  and  was 
chancellor  of  the  Denver  University  until  1900, 
when  he  was  elected  bishop  and  sent  to  take 
charge  for  four  years  of  the  Methodist  missions  in 
China,  Japan,  and  Korea. 

KOOBE,  EowABD  (1712-57).  An  English 
dramatist.  He  was  bom  at  Abingdon,  Berkshire. 
He  was  a  linen  draper  in  early  life,  but  failed 
in  business  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
Fables  for  the  Female  Sew  (1744)  being  his  first 
publication.  He  afterwards  wrote  two  unsuccess- 
ful comedies.  The  Foundling  (1748),  and  Gil 
Bias  (1767).  These  were  followed  by  The 
Gamester  (1753),  the  good  fortune  of  which  may 
have  been  due  to  Garrick's  acting  and  his  col- 
laboration. In  1753  he  became  editor  of  the 
World,  a  satirical  weekly,  with  a  very  talented 
staff,  including  Lord  Lyttelton,  Horace  Walpole, 
and  Lord  Chesterfield.  His  Poems,  Fables,  and 
Plays  were  collected  and  published  in  1756.  The 
Fables  were  often  reprinted  with  those  of  John 
Gay,  and  were  translated  into  Gierman. 

MOOBE^  Edwabd  (1838—).  An  English 
scholar,  bom  at  Cardiff.  He  was  educated  at 
Bromsgrove  Grammar  School,  and  at  Pembroke 
College,  Oxford  (1847).  For  a  while  he  was 
rector  of  Gatcombe,  Isle  of  Wight.  From  1862  to 
1864  he  was  fellow  and  tutor  of  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  In  1864  he  became  principal  of  Saint 
Edmund  Hall,  and  in  1903  he  was  made  canon 
of  Canterbury  Cathedral.    His  publications  com- 

?rise:  Aristotle's  Ethics  (books  i.-iv.;  5th  ed. 
896);  Aristotle's  Poetics,  with  Notes  (1875); 
Time  References  in  the  Divina  Commedia  ( 1887 ) , 
translated  and  published  at  Florence  in  1900  with 
the  title  Gli  accenni  al  tempo  nella  Divina  Com- 
media; Textual  Criticism  of  the  Divina  Comme- 
dia (1889);  Dante  and  His  Early  Biographers 
(1890);  Tutte  le  opere  di  Dante  Alighieri,  the 
"Oxford  Dante"  (1894) ;  Studies  in  Dante  (first 
series,  1896;  second  series,  1899).  The  '^Oxford 
Dante"  is  by  all  means  the  best  edition  of  Dante's 
works.  Moore's  studies  placed  him  among  the 
fir^t  of  Dante  scholars. 

MOOBE,  EuAKiM  Hastings  (1862~).  An 
American  mathematician,  bora  at  Marietta,  Ohio. 
He  studied  at  Yale  and  at  Berlin ;  taught  mathe- 
matics at  Yale  (1887-89),  at  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity (1889-91),  and  then  at  Chicago,  where  in 
1896  he  was  made  head  of  the  department  of 
mathematics.  He  was  editor  of  the  Transactions 
of  the  American  Mathematical  Society  (1900) 
and  president  of  the  society  in  1901. 

MOOBE,  Fbank  (1828-1904).  An  American 
journalist  and  compiler,  a  brother  of  George  Henry 
Moore.  He  was  bom  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  but  re- 
moved to  New  York  City  and  became  a  journalist 
and  general  writer.  In  1869-72  he  was  assistant 
secretary  of  legation  in  Paris.  He  edited  Songs 
and  Ballads  of  the  American  Revolution  (1856) ; 
Diary  of  the  American  Revolution  (2  vols.,  I860) ; 
The  Rebellion  Record  (12  vols.,  1861-68),  a  col- 
lection of  original  material  bearing  on  the  Civil 
War ;  Lyrics  of  Loyalty  ( 1864)  ;  Life  and 
Speeches  of  John  Bright  (1865)  ;  Women  of  the 
War  1861-66  (1866)  ;  Songs  and  Ballads  of  the 
Southern  People,  1861-65  (1887). 


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KOOBE,  Fbank  Fbankfobt  (1855—).  A 
British  novelist  and  dramatist)  born  at  Limerick, 
Ireland,  and  educated  at  the  Royal  Academical 
Institution,  Belfast.  His  plays  include :  A  March 
Hare  (1877);  The  Queen's  Room  (1891);  and 
Kittu  Clive,  Actress  (1895).  Some  of  his  novels 
are:  Coral  and  Cocoanut  (1890) ;  The  Ttoo  Clip- 
pers (1894);  The  Secret  of  the  Court  (1895); 
The  Millionaires  (1898);  A  Damsel  or  Two 
(1902) ;  Love  Alone  is  Lord  (1905) ;  all  more  or 
less  sensational  in  character. 

KOOBE,  Geobgb  (1853—).  A  British  novel- 
ist and  dramatist,  bom  in  Ireland.  He  studied 
art  under  Lujrten  in  London,  and  completed  his 
education  in  France.  His  first  efforts  in  litera- 
ture were  confined  to  the  magazines,  and  under 
the  title  Notes  and  Sensations ^  he  contributed 
from  time  to  time  to  the  London  Hawk,  His 
first  publication  was  a  volume  of  verse,  Flowers 
of  Parnassus  (1877),  the  treatment  of  which  at 
the  hands  of  the  critics  is  supposed  to  have  been 
largely  responsible  for  the  fact  that,  with  the 
exception  of  Pagan  Poems  (1881),  he  has  pub- 
lished but  little  verse.  For  a  long  time  in  England 
his  critical  work  was  regarded  as  of  more  per- 
manent value  than  his  novels. 

His  later  activities  largely  consisted  of  critical 
studies  in  aid  of  the  Irish  renaissance.  He  allied 
himself  with  Martin  and  Yeats  in  founding  the 
Irish  Literary  Theatre  at  Dublin.  In  the  preface 
of  his  comedy.  The  Bending  of  the  Bough  ( 1900), 
he  defines  his  interest  in  the  movement  for  the 
revival  of  the  Celtic  tongue  and  literature,  as 
not  merely  a  desire  to  reform  dramatic  literature, 
but  as  arising  solely  from  "alarm  over  the  present 
course  of  English  fiction."  He  inveighed  against 
the  trend  of  modern  English  literature,  which  he 
regarded  as  wholly  given  up  to  the  mere  por- 
trayal of  "manners,  facts,  and  social  customs," 
and  advocated  the  return  to  the  novel  of  "human 
passion  and  moral  ideas."  He  declared  that 
France  alone  had  followed  the  truth  in  literature, 
and  he  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  French  school. 
These  views  he  consistently  carries  out  in  his 
novels,  and  some  of  them,  especially  A  Modem 
Lover  (1883),  A  Mummer's  Wife  (1884),  and 
Esther  Waters  (1894),  aroused  vigorous  protest 
as  being  unduly  realistic.  But  his  indisputable 
power  of  keen  observation  and  delicacy  of  appre- 
ciation have  won  increased  admiration,  ana  are 

shown  also  in  Sister  Teresa  (1901),  which  is  at 
once  a  sequel  and  a  recasting  of  Evelyn  Innes 

( 1898 ) .  Among  his  other  works  are :  Confessions 
of  a  Young  Man   (1888)  ;  Spring  Days   (1888)  ; 

Miss  Fletcher  (1889)  ;  Impressions  and  Opinions 

(1890)  ;  Modern  Painting  (1893)  ;  The  Strike  at 
Arlingford:  A  Play{lSM)  ;  The  Celibates {IS95)  ; 
Sister  Teresa  (1904);  The  Lake  (1906);  Me- 
moirs of  My  Dead  Life  (1906). 

KOOBE,  George  Foot  (1851 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can Orientalist,  born  at  West  Chester,  Pa.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1872,  and  at  the  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  1877;  entered  the  Pres- 
byterian ministry,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Putnam 
Presbyterian  Church  at  Zanesville,  Ohio.  In 
1883-1902  he  was  Hitchcock  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  the  history  of  religions  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  where  he  was  president  of  the 
faculty  from  1899  to  1901,  and  in  1902  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  history  of  religion  at 
Harvard  University.  He  was  for  several  years 
editor  of  the  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 


Society.  His  publications  include:  A  Commen- 
tary on  Judges  ( 1895 )  ;  Judges,  a  translation  with 
notes  for  the  Polychrome  Bible  (1898);  and 
The  Book  of  Judges  in  Hebrew  ( 1900 ) . 

KOOBE,  George  Henbt  (1823-92).  An 
American  historical  writer  and  librarian,  bom 
in  Concord,  N.  H.  He  removed  in  1839  to  New 
York  City,  and  in  1843  graduated  at  New  York 
University.  Before  leaving  college  he  had  become 
connected  with  the  New  York  Historical  Society, 
as  an  assistant  to  his  father,  Jacob  Bailey  Moore, 
the  librarian,  and  in  1849  succeeded  him  as  its 
librarian.  In  this  position  he  remained  imtil 
1872,  when,  on  the  opening  of  Lenox  Library,  he 
became  its  first  superintendent.  Here  he  re- 
mained until  his  death.  He  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  historical  magazines,  and  to  the  pro- 
ceedings of  historical  societies.  Among  his  best 
known  works  are:  The  Treason  of  Charles  Lee 
( 1858)  ;  The  Employment  of  Negroes  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary Army  ( 1862)  ;  Notes  on  the  History  of 
Slavery  in  Massctchusetts  (1866)  ;  and  A  History 
of  the  Jurisprudence  of  New  York  (1872). 

KOOBE,  Harrt  Humphrey  (1844—).  An 
American  painter,  bom  in  New  York  City.  He 
studied  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  and  under 
G4rdme  in  Paris.  Afterwards  he  became  the 
pupil  and  friend  of  Fortuny  in  Madrid,  and  still 
later  traveled  and  painted  in  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Japan.  His  works  include  "Gypsy  Encamp- 
ment, Granada,"  "Moorish  Water-Carrier,"  "Al- 
meh,"  "The  Blind  Guitar-Player,''  and  "A  Moor- 
ish Bazaar."  He  received  the  Order  of  Charles 
III.  of  Spain. 

KOOBE,  Sir  Henrt  (1713-69).  An  English 
colonial  governor,  born  in  Vere,  Jamaica.  He  be- 
came Lieutenant-Governor  of  his  native  island  in 
1756,  and,  except  for  a  few  weeks  in  1759,  was 
head  of  the  administration  until  1762.  In  reward 
for  his  services  in  suppressing  the  slave  insur- 
rection of  1760  he  was  made  a  baronet.  In  July, 
1765,  "he  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  York, 
where  he  arrived  at  the  beginning  of  the  trouble 
over  the  Stamp  Act.  Influenced  by  public  opin- 
ion, he  suspended  the  execution  of  the  act.  His 
administration  was  generally  popular  with  the 
people.  He  continued  to  hold  the  office  of  Gover- 
nor imtil  his  death. 

KOOBE,  Henry  (1751-1844).  A  Wesleyan 
minister  and  biographer  of  John  Wesley.  He  was 
bom  in  a  suburb  of  Dublin,  and  was  apprenticed 
to  a  wood-carver.  Impressed  by  the  preaching  of 
John  Wesley,  he  frequented  the  Methodist  meet- 
ings and  joined  a  class  in  Dublin  in  1777.  He 
began  to  preach,  gave  up  the  wood-carver *s  art, 
and  started  a  classical  school.  He  received  an 
appointment  from  Wesley  to  the  Londonderry 
circuit  in  1779.  He  was  subsequently  called 
to  London,  served  from  1784  to  1786  as  assistant 
traveling  companion  and  amanuensis  to  John 
Wesley,  and  again  from  1788  to  1790.  Wesley 
made  him  one  of  his  three  literary  executors,  and 
appointed  him  to  be,  after  his  death,  one  of  the 
twelve  ministers  to  regulate  the  services  of  City 
Road  Chapel.  He  was  president  of  the  Wes- 
leyan Conference  in  1804  and  1823.  Moore  clung 
to  the  methods  of  Wesley.  He  refused  ordination 
in  the  Church  of  England,  although  he  accepted 
it  from  Wesley  assisted  by  two  Episcopal  clergy- 
men; opposed  Coke's  Lichfield  scheme  of  1794  for 
the  creation  of  a  Methodist  hierarchy,  and  also 


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KOOBE. 


the  proposal  brought  forward  in  1834  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  theological  school;  and  on  the 
formation  of  a  centenary'  fund  in  1839  objected 
to  the  acquisition  of  land  by  the  Methodist  body. 
In  conjunction  with  the  Rev.  Thomas  Coke,  and 
under  the  authority  of  the  Conference,  he  pub- 
lished a  Life  of  the  Rev.  John  Wesley  in  1792; 
which,  however,  owing  to  a  difference  with  the 
third  literary  executor,  they  had  been  obliged  to 
prepare  without  access  to  Wesley's  papers.  Most 
of  the  papers  were  afterwards  obtained,  and  a 
new  Life  was  published  in  1824-25.  Moore*s  other 
works  are:  A  Reply  to  Considerations  on  the 
Separation  of  the  Methodists  from  the  Estab- 
lished Church  (1794)  ;  Thoughts  on  the  Eternal 
Sonship  (1816)  ;  The  Life  of  Mrs,  Mary  Fletcher 
of  Madeley  (2  vols.,  1817) ;  A  Short  Account  of 
Miss  Mary  Titherington  of  Liverpool  (1819); 
Sermons  (1830),  with  autobiography  to  1791. 
His  life  was  published  by  Mrs.  Richard  Smith, 
with  the  autobiography,  in  1844. 

MOOBE,  Henbt  (1831-96).  An  English  land- 
scape and  marine  painter,  a  brother  of  Albert 
Joseph  Moore,  bom  in  York.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
his  lather,  William  Moore,  and  studied  also  at 
the  York  School  of  Design  and  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy Schools.  At  first  a  landscape  painter,  he 
gave  himself  after  1857  almost  entirely  to 
marine  subjects.  He  depicts  the  sea  in  all  its 
changes  with  understanding  and  sincerity.  His 
works  include:  "The  Newhaven  Packet"  (bought 
by  the  Birmingham  Corporation),  "Catspaw  off 
the  Land"  (bought  by  the  Chantrey  Fund  Trus- 
tees, 1886),  "Mount's  Bay"  (bought  by  the  Man- 
chester Corporation,  1886),  and  "Hove-to  for  a 
Pilot"  (1893).  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade- 
mician in  1893,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor. 

KOOBI^  Jacob  Bailet  (1797-1853).  An 
American  journalist  and  historical  writer,  born 
at  Andover,  N.  H.  He  learned  the  printer's  trade 
at  Concord,  engaged  in  editorial  work,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Legislature  in  1828.  In  1839 
he  removed  to  New  York  and  edited  the  Daily 
Whig.  He  was  in  the  Government  employ  in 
Washington  1841-45,  but  returned  to  New  York 
and  served  as  librarian  of  the  Historical  Society 
from  1845  to  1849.  From  1849  to  1853  he  was 
postmaster  of  San  Francisco.  He  published,  with 
John  Farmer,  Collections  Historical  and  Miscel- 
laneous (3  vols.,  1822-24),  relating  principally 
to  the  early  history  of  New  Hampshire;  and 
Gazetteer  of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  { 1823). 
He  also  published  a  volume  on  the  colonial  Gov- 
ernors of  Connecticut  and  New  Plymouth  ( 1846) . 

MOOBE,  James  (c.1640-1706).  An  American 
colonial  soldier  and  official.  He  was  said  to  be 
a  son  of  Roger  Moore,  the  Irish  rebel,  and  came  to 
South  Carolina  about  1665.  He  settled  on  Goose 
Creek  near  the  Cooper  River,  and  soon  became 
prominent  in  resisting  the  demands  of  the  Lords 
Proprietors.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Governor's 
Council  in  1682,  and  of  the  Assembly  in  1692, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  excluded  from  pardon 
by  name  by  the  Proprietors.  In  1694  he  was  a 
member  of  Governor  Archdale's  Council  and 
traded  extensively  with  the  Indians.  He  was 
elected  Governor  by  the  Council  in  1700  and 
served  until  the  arrival  of  Sir  Nathaniel  John- 
son in  1703.  The  Assembly  made  him  leader 
of  an  expedition  to  capture  Saint  Augustine. 
The  town  was  easily  taken,  but  the  fort  resisted 


successfully.  On  the  arrival  of  Governor  John- 
son he  was  made  attorney-general  and  led  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  against  the  Apalachi  Indians. 

MOOBE.  James  (1667-1723).  An  American 
soldier  and  colonial  official,  bom  in  Charleston, 
8.  C.  He  saw  service  in  various  Indian  expedi- 
tions, under  his  father,  James  Moore,  and  in 
1713  commanded  the  forces  sent  by  Governor 
Craven  to  aid  the  colony  of  North  Carolina  in 
its  desperate  struggle  with  the  Tuscarora  In- 
dians. In  1715  he  was  made  lieutenant-general 
of  the  expedition  against  the  Yamassee  Indians. 
When  the  Convention  threw  off  the  Proprietory 
Government  and  deposed  Governor  Robert  John- 
ston in  1719,  James  Moore  was  made  Governor 
and  served  until  the  arrival  of  Francis  Nichol- 
son with  the  King's  commission,  in  1721. 

MOOBE,  John  (17291802).  A  ScotUsh  phy- 
sician and  author,  bom  at  Stirling.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  was  apprenticed 
to  a  surgeon,  became  in  1747  surgeon's  mate 
in  the  army,  and  served  in  military  hospitals  in 
the  Netherlands  during  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession.  After  further  study,  and  two  years 
of  practice  at  Glasgow,  he  traveled  extensively 
on  the  Continent.  In  1792  he  was  in  France 
during  the  disturbances  of  August  and  Septem- 
ber, and  in  1793-94  published  his  two- volume 
Journal  of  his  residence,  frequently  quoted  in 
Carlyle's  French  Revolution,  His  works  of  travel, 
A  View  of  Society  and  Manners  in  France,  Switz- 
erland, and  Germany  (1779)  and  A  View  of  So- 
ciety and  Manners  in  Italy  (1781),  are  merely 
interesting  in  style.  He  wrote  also  a  volume  of 
Medical  Sketches  ( 1786),  containing  some  results 
of  first-hand  investigation,  a  biography  of  Smol- 
lett (1797),  not  without  merit,  and  three  dull 
works  of  fiction,  Zeluco  (1786),  Edward  (1796), 
and  Mordaunt  ( 1800) ,  to  the  first  of  which  Byron 
referred  in  the  addition  to  the  preface  of  Childe 
Harold,  Prevost  and  Blagdon  edited  Mooriana: 
or  Selections  from  the  Moral,  Philosophical,  and 
MiscelUmeous  Works  of  Dr.  John  Moore  ( London, 
1803).  Consult  the  Life,  by  Anderson  (Edin- 
burgh, 1820). 

MOOBE,  Sir  John  (1761-1809).  A  British 
general.  The  eldest  son  of  Dr.  John  Moorcr 
(q.v.),  he  was  bom  at  Glasgow.  He  entered 
the  army  when  only  fifteen,  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Nova  Scotia,  Corsica,  the  West  Indies, 
Ireland,  and  Holland.  He  was  in  Egypt  with 
the  army  under  Abercromby,  and  obtained  the 
Order  of  the  Bath  for  his  services  during  the 
operations  around  Abukir  Bay.  In  1802  Moore 
served  in  Sicily  and  Sweden.  In  1808  he  was 
sent  with  a  corps  of  10,000  men  to  strengthen 
the  English  army  in  the  Peninsula.  In  October 
he  moved  his  army  from  Lisbon,  with  the  in- 
tention of  advancing  by  Valladolid  to  unite  with 
the  Spanish  general  Romana,  and  threaten  the 
communications  between  Madrid  and  France. 
But  the  apathy  of  the  Spaniards  and  the 
successes  of  the  French  in  various  parts  of 
the  Peninsula  soon  placed  him  in  a  critical 
position.  He  had  determined  to  make  a  bold 
advance  from  Salamanca  to  attack  Soult,  when 
the  news  reached  him  that  Madrid  had  fallen, 
and  that  Napoleon  was  marching  to  crush  him 
at  the  head  of  70,000  men.  Moore's  forces 
amounted  to  only  25,000  men,  and  he  was  conse- 
quently forced  to  retreat.  In  December  he  began 
the  march  from  Astorga  to  Corufia,  a  route  of 


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nearly  250  miles,  through  a  desolate  and  moun- 
tainous country,  made  almost  impassable  by 
snow  and  rain,  and  harassed  by  the  enemy.  The 
soldiers  suffered  intolerable  hardships,  and  ar- 
rived at  Coru&a  in  a  verr  distressed  state;  but 
it  was  impossible  to  embark  without  fighting. 
On  January  16,  1809,  the  French  under  Soult 
attacked,  and  a  desperate  battle  ensued.  Moore 
was  struck  by  a  cannon  ball  on  the  left  shoulder, 
and  died  in  the  moment  of  victory.  The  French 
were  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  2000  men.  Con- 
sult: Carrick  Moore,  Life  of  Sir  John  Moore 
(London,  1835);  Napier,  History  of  the  Penin- 
sular War  (6  vols.,  New  York,  1856)  ;  Diary  ed. 
hy  Sir  J.  F.  Maurice  (2  vols.,  London,  1904). 

KOOBE,  John  Bassett  ( 1860— ) .  An  Amer- 
ican jurist,  bom  at  Smyrna,  Del.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  Universitjr  of  Virginia,  studied 
law,  became  a  law  clerk  in  the  State  Department 
in  1885,  and  was  promoted  to  the  position  of 
Third  Assistant  Secretary  of  State  ( 1886) ,  a  post 
which,  although  a  Democrat,  he  held  under  the 
Republican  Administration  until  1891,  when  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  international  law  at 
Columbia  University.  For  a  few  months  in  1898, 
he  served  as  Assistant  Secretary  of  State,  and 
then  became  secretary  and  counsel  to  the  Peace 
Commission  at  Paris.  His  publications  include: 
Reports  on  Extraterritorial  Crime  (1887);  Ea- 
tradition  and  Interstate  Rendition  ( 1891 ) ;  Amer- 
ican  Notes  on  the  Conflict  of  Laios  (1896)  ;  HiS' 
tory  and  Digest  of  International  Arbitrations 
(1898);  American  Diplomacy,  Its  Spirit  and 
Achievements  (1905);  Digest  of  International 
Law  (1906). 

KOOBE,  Maubice  (1735-77).  An  American 
colonial  legislator  and  jurist,  bom  in  Brunswick 
County,  N.  C.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  in  1757.  From  1767  to  1773  he  was 
one  of  the  three  judaes  of  the  Superior  Court. 
He  served  as  colonel  of  briaade  in  Governor 
Tryon's  expedition  against  the  Regulators  in 
1771.  In  this  year  he  published  the  venomous 
attack  on  Governor  Tryon  signed  "Atticus."  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Congresses  of 
1775  and  1776,  and  of  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1776.       .«», 

1  KOOBE,  Nicholas  (  T-1689) .  A  Chief  Justice 
of  Pennsylvania,  born  in  England.  He  was  chair- 
man of  the  first  Provincial  Assembly  in  1682, 
Speaker  of  the  Assembly  in  1684,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  appointed  Chief  Justice.  In  1685  he 
was  inpeached  by  the  Assembly  for  exceeding  his 
powers,  but  he  was  never  tried  by  the  Council. 
His  case  is  peculiarly  interesting  as  being  prob- 
ably the  first  instance  of  impeachment  that  oc- 
curred in  America.  Consult:  Shepherd,  History 
of  Proprietary  Government  in  Pennsylvania 
(New  York,  1896)  ;  vol.  vi.  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity Studies  in  History,  Economics,  and  Public 
Law. 

KOOBE,  Thomas  (1779-1852).  An  Irish 
poet,  born  in  Dublin,  May  28.  1779.  In  1794  he 
went  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  which  had  been 
opened  to  Roman  Catholics  in  1793.  He  had 
already  shown  a  remarkably  quick  mind,  a  gift 
for  music,  and  had  written  in  1793  "Lines  to 
Zelia"  and  "A  Pastoral  Ballad.*'  These  verses 
appeared  in  the  Anthologia  Hibernica^  a  periodi- 
cal which  lived  only  two  years.  Moore  began  his 
university  life  in  1795.  He  won  some  fame  as  a 
wit,  but  few  honors.    He  went  to  London  in  1799 


and  soon  arranged  for  the  publication  by  sub-' 
scription  of  his  An<icreon,  He  had  the  good  luck 
to  find  a  patron  in  the  Prince  of  Wales,  who 
accepted  the  dedication  of  the  poem.  The  Ana- 
creon  was  followed  by  Poetical  Works  of  the  Late 
Thomas  Little  (1801),  a  volume  of  sweet  but 
over-sensuous  verse,  much  blamed  but  widely 
read.  Moore's  musical  talents  soon  made  him 
a  welcome  guest  among  the  aristocracy.  In 
1803  he  was  appointed  admiralty  registrar  at 
Bermuda ;  but  disliking  the  post,  he  intrusted  it 
to  a  deputy  (1804),  and  traveled  through  the 
United  States,  where  he  visited  New  York,  Wash- 
ington, Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston.  He 
returned  to  England  in  November,  1804.  In  1806 
appeared  Odes  and  Epistles,  which  Jeffrev  made 
the  occasion  for  a  savage  attack  on  Moore's 
earlier  erotics  {Edinburgh  Review,  July,  1806). 
The  incident  led  to  a  duel  interrupted  by  the 
police  (August  11,  1806).  After  this  fiasco  the 
combatants  became,  cordial  friends.  In  1807 
Moore  published  his  Irish  Melodies,  124  in  num- 
ber,  in  ten  parts.  His  three  satires,  "Corrup- 
tion" and  "Intolerance"  ( 1808)  and  the  "Sceptic" 
(1809),  fell  flat,  as  they  deserved  to  do.  On  the 
other  hand,  lampoons  on  the  Regent  and  his 
favorites  went  from  mouth  to  mouth  and  were 
still  liked  when  they  were  gathered  in  **The  Two- 
penny Post  Bag"  in  1813.  About  1817  he  became 
embarrassed  by  the  defalcation  of  the  deputy 
left  at  Bermuda,  and  was  compelled  to  retire  for 
a  time  to  the  Continent.  At  Venice  he  visited 
Lord  Byron,  from  whom  he  received  the  famous 
Memoirs,  afterwards  reluctantly  burned.  Moore 
retumed  to  England  in  1822.  In  1835  he  was 
granted  a  literary  pension  of  £300,  which  was 
supplemented  in  1850  by  a  civil  pension  of 
£100. 

Moore  was  as  popular  in  his  day  as  either 
Byron  or  Scott.  As  a  poet  his  fame  now  rests 
mostly  upon  the  Irish  Melodies  (10  pts.,  1807-34) 
and  National  Airs  (1815),  oontaininff  "Oft  in  the 
Stilly  Night."  Since  the  Elizabethan  age  the 
lyric  had  been  dissociating  itself  from  music. 
Moore  again  united  them,  and  so  completelv  that 
it  is  unfair  to  estimate  his  lyrics  independently. 
They  are  light,  airy,  and  graceful,  though  with- 
out the  passion  of  Byron  or  Shelley.  For  a  great 
poem  by.  which  he  expected  to  be  remembered,  he 
turned  to  Oriental  romance.  Lalla  Rookh  (1817), 
ever3rwhere  applauded,  was  translated  into  several 
languages.  Among  Moore's  other  works  are: 
The  Fudge  Family  in  Paris  (1818),  humorous 
verses;  The  Loves  of  the  Angels  (1823),  partly  in 
imitation  of  Byron's  Heaven  and  Earth;  The 
Memoirs  of  Captain  Rock  (1824),  an  attack  on 
the  Irish  Church;  a  prose  romance  entitled 
The  Epicurean  {1^2,1)  ;  lives  of  Sheridan  (1825), 
Byron  (1830),  Edward  Fitzgerald  (1831); 
and  a  History  of  Ireland  (completed  in  1846). 
The  Life  of  Byron,  the  main  source  for  all  later 
biographies,  is  still  a  classic.  Consult:  Lord 
John  Russell  (ed.),  Memoirs,  Journals  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Moore  (8  vols.,  London,  1853  56) ; 
Kent,  Poetical  Works,  with  memoir,  (London, 
1883);  Gunning,  Thomas  Moore,  Poet  and  Pa- 
triot (London,  1900) ;  Gwynn,  Thomas  Moore 
(New  York,  1905). 

MOOBE^  Willis  Lutheb  (1856—).  An 
American  meteorologist,  bom  at  Scranton,  Pa. 
He  was  at  first  a  reporter  for  the  Binghamton 
(N.  Y.)  Republican,  and  then  was  on  the  staff 
of  the  Burlington  (Iowa)  Hawkeye,  from  which. 


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he  entered  the  United  States  Signal  Corps.  There 
he  rose  rapidly,  becoming  professor  of  meteorol- 
ogy in  1894.  He  was  stationed  in  Chicago  until 
1895,  when  he  became  chief  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau.  He  wrote  a  Meteorological 
Almanac  and  Weather  Guide  ( 1901 ) . 

MOOBE'HEAD,  Wabben  Kino  ( 1866—) .  An 
American  archeologist  and  anthropologist,  born 
in  Siena,  Italy.  He  studied  at  Denison  Univer- 
sity and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  at 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  explored  the 
mounds  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  He  became  an  as- 
sistant in  the  archaeological  department  of  the 
Columbian  Exposition,  soon  after  was  appointed 
curator  of  the  museum  of  the  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity, and  then  became  curator  of  the  Department 
of  ArchfiBology  at  Phillips  Academy.  He  wrote: 
Fort  Ancient  (1890),  Primitive  Man  in  Ohio 
(1892),  and  Prehistoric  Implements  (1900). 

MOOBE'S  CBEEK.  A  small  stream  in  North 
Carolina,  on  the  banks  of  which,  about  20  miles 
from  Wilmington,  a  battle  of  the  American 
Revolution  was  fought  on  February  27,  1776, 
between  1600  Loyalists,  mostly  Highland  Scotch, 
tmder  Bri^.-(jen.  Donald  MacDouald,  and  about 
1000  militia  and  minute  men,  under  Cols.  Rich- 
ard Caswell  and  Alexander  Lillington.  The 
Loyalists  charged  across  the  girders  of  a  bridge 
from  which  the  planks  had  been  removed,  but 
were  utterly  defeated.  Thirty  of  them  were 
killed,  many  wounded,  and  about  800  taken 
prisoners.  The  effect  of  this  battle,  says  Fiske, 
"was  as  contagious  as  that  of  Lexington  had  been 
in  New  England." 

MOOB^FIELDS.  A  tract  of  marshy  ground 
outside  the  old  wall  of  London,  north  of  the 
Tower.  It  was  later  called  Fensbury  or  Fins- 
bury,  the  present  name  of  the  district. 

MOOBFOWL.     See  Grouse. 

MOOBGATE.  The  later  name  of  a  gate  in 
the  wall  of  Roman  London  leading  to  Moorfields. 
It  was  removed  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Its  name  is  preserved  in  the  present 
Moorgate   Street. 

MOOB/HEAD.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Clay  County,  Minn.,  on  the  Red  River  of  the 
North,  opposite  Fargo,  N.  D.,  and  at  the  junction 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern 
railroads  (Map:  Minnesota,  A  4).  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  State  normal  school  and  of  Concordia 
College.  Moorhead  is  an  important  distributing 
centre  for  the  tributary  agricultural  country, 
and  has  a  large  trade  in  wheat  and  potatoes.  It 
has  grain  elevators  and  flour  mills,  brick  yards, 
railroad  yards,  a  foundry,  and  machine  shops. 
The  water-works  and  electric-li^ht  plant  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  3730;  in  1905,  4794. 

MOOBHEN.  The  British  gallinule.  See 
Gallinule. 

MOOBING-SWIVEL.  A  device  employed  to 
join  the  two  chain  cables  by  which  a  ship  is 
moored  so  that  the  swinging  of  the  vessel  with 
the  tide  will  not  cross  the  cables  or  produce 
turns  in  the  hawse.  It  consists  of  an  iron  swivel 
with  two  shackles,  to  which  the  chain  cables 
leading  to  the  anchors  are  attached,  and  two 
shackles  above  which  are  capable  of  revolution, 
to  which  the  chains  leading  through  the  hawse 
holes  to  the  vessel  are  connected.  A  vessel  so 
moored  has  many  advantages,  as  the  fouling  of 


the  hawse  is  prevented  together  with  the  con- 
stant necessity  of  unshackling  the  chain  to  ''clear 
the  hawse."  See  Hawbe. 

MOOBISH  ABT.  A  term  applied  to  the 
monuments  produced  by  the  civilization  of  the 
Mohammedans  in  Spain  and  in  North  Africa. 
See  Mohammedan  Abt. 

MOOBS  (ML.  Moms,  Lat  Maurus,  Gk.  MoCpot, 
perhaps  from  /taupoSf  mauros,  dMavpit,  amauros, 
dark,  or  perhaps  from  their  original  native 
name).  The  name  given  to  a  mixed  people 
constituting  a  very  important  element  in  the 
population  of  Northern  Africa.  Their  appear- 
ance indicates  their  origin,  which  is  a  mixture  of 
the  Mauri,  Numidians,  Phcenicians,  Romans,  and 
Arabs,  who  have  successively  held  possession  of 
the  country.  They  are  a  well-formed  race,  with 
fine  Oriental  features,  and  a  mild  and  melan- 
choly expression  of  countenance.  The  Moors 
employ  the  Arabic  language,  but  with  many 
corruptions  and  deviations  from  the  original, 
and  these  appear  to  increase  toward  the  west. 
The  Moors  first  appear  in  history  as  the  allies  of 
the  Vandals  in  their  attack  upon  Roman  Africa. 
They  were  conquered  and  converted  by  the  Arabs 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  after  a 
severe  struggle.  Having  once  embraced  Moham- 
medanism, they  joined  the  Arabs  in  the  invasion 
of  Spain,  passing  over  in  such  numbers  that 
in  the  early  period  of  Spanish  history  the  terms 
Moors,  Saracens,  and  Arabs  are  used  sjmony- 
mously  to  designate  the  Mussulmans  of  the  Pen- 
insula.  In  the  tenth  century  Moorish  domina- 
tion supplanted  that  of  the  Arabs  in  Northwest- 
em  Africa.  At  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century 
the  Moorish  sect  of  the  Almoravides  (q.v.),  who 
had  established  their  sway  in  Morocco,  invaded 
Spain  and  swept  away  the  Arab  kingdoms  which 
had  arisen  on  the  ruins  of  the  Caliphate  of  Cor- 
dova. After  half  a  century  their  realm  fell  to 
pieces,  and  the  Moorish  sect  of  the  Almohades 
(q.v.)  became  dominant  in  Morocco  and  Spain. 
In  the  meanwhile  the  Christian  power  in  Spain 
had  been  steadily  growing,  and  in  1212  the 
power  of  the  Almohades  was  shattered  in  the 
battle  of  Navas  de  Tolosa.  What  was  left  of 
Moorish  dominion  in  the  Peninsula  was  soon 
consolidated  in  the  Kingdom  of  Granada,  which 
rose  to  a  height  of  splendor  almost  rivaling  that 
of  the  former  Caliphate  of  Cordova.  The  kings 
of  Granada  carried  on  a  vigorous  warfare  with 
the  kings  of  Castile;  but  at  length,  weakened 
by  internal  discord,  they  succumbed  in  1492  to 
the  arms  of  Isabella  of  Castile  and  Ferdinand 
of  Aragon.  The  Moors,  or  at  least  that  portion 
of  them  who  refused  to  accept  Christianity, 
were  then  expelled  from  Spain,  and  began  their 
piratical  career  in  the  Barbary  States.  Those 
who  accepted  tjie  religion  of  their  conquerors 
came  to  be  known  as  Moriscoes.  They  were  sub- 
jected to  the  most  rigtrrous  supervision,  and  aiiy 
lapses  from  their  adopted  religion  were  ruth- 
lessly punished  by  the  Inquisition.  For  more 
than  three-quarters  of  a  century  they  lived  as 
peaceful  subjects  of  Spain  and  constituted  by 
far  the  most  industrious  and  intelligent  element 
in  the  population.  The  persecutions  of  Philip 
II.  drove  them  to  revolt  (1568-70),  but  the  in- 
surrection was  suppressed  with  great  cruelty 
by  Don  John  of  Austria,  and  a  large  number  were 
driven  from  the  country.  The  policy  of  oppres- 
sion was  continued  with  increased  severity  under 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KOOB& 


785 


KOOSE-FLY. 


Philip  II.'s  successor,  and  in  1609  the  Moriscoes 
were  finally  expelled  from  the  country,  the  loss  of 
more  than  half  a  million  of  her  most  active 
citizens  proving  in  the  end  a  disastrous  blow  to 
Spain.  The  Moriscoes  crossed  over  to  Africa, 
but  were  received  with  hostility  by  their  kin, 
from  whom  long  absence  had  estranged  them. 

Consult:  Abu  ibn  Mohammed  al  Makarri,  The 
History  of  the  Mohammedan  Dynasties  in  Spain, 
trans,  and  annotated  by  P.  de  Gayangos  (2  vols., 
London,  1840-43)  ;  Copp^,  History  of  the  Con- 
gi^est  of  Spain  by  the  Arab  Moors  (2  vols.,  Bos- 
ton, 1881)  ;  Dozy  (ed.),  Histoire  de  VAfrique  et 
de  VEspagne  (Leyden,  1848-51),  trans,  from  the 
Arabic  of  Ibn  Adhari;  id.,  Recherches  sur  Vhis- 
toire  politique  et  litt&raire  de  VEspagne  pendant 
le  moyen  dge  (2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Leyden,  1860)  ; 
Lane-Poole,  The  Moors  in  Spain  (London,  1886) ; 
Lea,  The  Moriscoes  of  Spain  ( Philadelphia,  1901 ) ; 
Scott,  History  of  the  Moorish  Empire  in  Europe 
(3  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1904) ;  Fitzgerald,  In  the 
Track  of  the  Moors  (New  York,  1905). 

MOOBSHEDABAD,  m?R>r'8h6-d&-b&d^  A 
town  of  British  India.     See  Mubshidabad. 

MOCKBUP  (native  name).  A  cassowary 
(q.v.)  ;  often  wrongly  written  mooruk, 

MOOS,  mos,  Salomon  (1831-95).  A  German 
aurist,  bom  at  Randegg,  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden. 
He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Prague,  and  Vienna, 
in  1859  became  lecturer  in  aural  surgery  at  the 
first-named  imiversity,  and  in  1866  was  ap- 
pointed professor  there.  His  researches  in  the 
pathology  of  the  labyrinth  of  the  es^r  were  im- 
portant. He  first  showed  that  the  derangement 
of  hearing  and  equilibrium  observed  in  certain 
infectious  diseases  is  due  to  the  presence  of  mi- 
nute or^nisms  in  the  labyrinth.  Among  his 
publications  are  Ueber  Pilainvasion  des  Laby- 
rinths nach  Diphtheria  (1887)  and  Untersuch- 
ungen  Uber  Mittelohrerkrankungen  bei  den  ver- 
schiedenen  Formen  der  Diphtheria  (1890).  From 
1868  he  edited  at  Wiesbaden  in  collaboration 
with  Knapp  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Ohrenheilkunde, 
of  which  an  edition  in  English  was  also  pub- 
lished. 

MOOSE  (Algonquian  musu,  Knisteneaux 
mouswahy  wood-eater).  The  popular  name  for 
the  deer  of  the  genus  Alces,  the  largest  quadru- 
ped of  North  America.  The  male,  called  'bull 
moose,'  is  much  larger  than  the  female  (*cow*), 
and  stands  six  feet  high  or  more  at  the  shoulders, 
while  the  weight  may  exceed  half  a  ton.  The 
head  is  very  large,  and  bears  antlers  of  remark- 
able size  and  shape.  They  consist  of  an  imper- 
fectly separated  anterior  and  posterior  part,  both 
in  the  female,  and  in  the  yearling  male  are  only 
knobs  an  inch  high.  The  ungainly  aspect  of  the 
head  is  greatly  mcreased  by  the  large  nostrils, 
and  the  large,  hairy  muzzle,  which  is  almost  long 
and  muscular  enough  to  be  a  proboscis,  and  it 
practically  serves  that  purpose  in  gathering 
leaves,  lichens,  and  twigs.  The  neck  is  short  and 
stout,  but  the  legs  are  very  long,  so  that  the 
animal  cannot  accommodate  itself  to  feeding  from 
the  ground,  and  consequently  seeks  its  food  on 
shrubs  and  trees.  The  front  legs  are  consider- 
ably longer  than  the  rear  ones,  and  this  makes 
its  gait,  whether  slow  or  fast,  extremely  awk- 
ward. The  color  of  the  moose  is  generally  some 
shade  of  brown,  the  legs  yellowish,  but  the  pelade 
varies  with  age  and  season,  and  may  be  strongly 
grayish.    During  the  summer  moose  are  solitary 


in  their  habits,  except  that  the  young  are  usually 
found  with  the  mother.  The  breeding  season 
begins  in  September  and  mating  goes  on  through 
the  fall.  At  this  season  the  bulls  lose  their 
natural  timidity,  become  savage,  and  will  readily 
attack  any  animal  or  even  man,  if  their  rage 
is  aroused. 

During  the  winter  the  moose  often  gather  in 
small  herds  and  form  'moose-yards'  by  trampling 
down  the  snow  over  a  limited  area,  so  that  the 
shrubs  and  young  trees  become  available  for 
food.  The  young  are  born  in  the  spring  or  early 
siunmer,  one  or  two  at  a  birth,  and  remain  with 
the  mother  until  the  third  year.  Moose  are 
among  the  very  finest  of  game  animals  and  have 
been  so  eagerly  sought,  not  only  for  sport,  but 
for  meat,  which  is  highly  prized,  that  their 
nimibers  have  been  greatly  reduced  in  all  the 
settled  parts  of  America.  They  are  hunted  in 
the  late  summer  and  early  fall,  oftentimes  by 
means  of  jack-lights,  as  are  other  deer,  but  later 
in  the  season  they  are  generally  captured  after 
being  called  within  gunshot,  the  'calP  being  a 
rude  trumpet  made  of  a  roll  of  birch-bark, 
through  which  the  voice  of  the  animal  is  imitated. 
In  winter  moose  are  often  followed  on  snow- 
shoes.  When  taken  young,  moose  are  easily 
tamed,  and  there  are  many  instances  recorded  of 
their  use  as  draught  animals. 

Many  writers  regard  the  elk  {Alces  malchis) 
of  the  Old  World  as  identical  with  the  moose; 
while  others  hold  the  moose  specifically  distinct 
{Alces  Americana).  Recently  the  moose  of  the 
Yukon  valley,  called  the  Alaskan  moose  {Alces 
gigas)  f  has  been  separated  as  a  third  species. 
The  differences  between  these  species  are,  how- 
ever, very  slight,  consisting  of  slight  variations  in 
the  palmation  of  the  horns,  the  color  of  the  pelage, 
and  the  size.  The  Alaskan  moose  is  undoubtedly  the 
largest  form  known.  In  the  Old  World  the  elk 
is  found  throughout  Northern  Asia  and  Europe, 
as  far  south  as  Eastern  Prussia,  the  Caucasus, 
and  Northern  China.  The  common  moose  of  Amer- 
ica is  found  throughout  Canada  and  southward 
into  Maine,  Minnesota,  and  the  northern  Rocky 
Mountains.  ThC'killing  of  moose  is  now  (1903) 
prohibited  in  all  the  northern  tier  of  States,  and 
in  Ontario  and  Newfoimdland,  except  as  follows:. 
Bull  moose  may  be  killed  for  47  days  in  October 
and  November  in  Maine,  and  for  5  days  in  No- 
vember in  Minnesota.  There  is  an  open  season 
for  moose  in  the  fall  in  Oregon,  Wyoming,  Wash- 
ington, and  all  parts  of  Canada,  not  mentioned 
above.  In  Maine,  i^ebec,  Ontario,  Minnesota, 
and  Washington,  only  one  moose  may  be  shot  by 
one  hunter  in  a  season.  The  Alaskan  moose  is 
found  in  Northwestern  British  Columbia,  Yukon, 
and  Alaska  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
and  westward  to  the  Yukon  Delta  and  along  the 
south  coast  as  far  as  Katmai.  Consult  authori- 
ties mentioned  under  Deeb;  and  see  Plate  of 
NoBTH  Amebican  Deeb. 

MOOSEBIBD  (so  called  from  its  frequent 
companionship  with  the  moose).  A  local  name 
in  Eastern  Canada  for  the  Canada  jay.    See  Jat. 

MOOSE-FLT.  A  biting  fiy  {Bcematobia  aids) 
closely  allied  to  the  horn-fly  (q.v.).  It  is  a  very 
annoying  parasite  of  the  moose  in  the  great  cran- 
berry swamps  of  northern  Minnesota  and  else- 
where. Unlike  other  external  parasites  of  ani- 
mals, it  does  not  leave  the  body  of  the  host  as 
long  as  it  remains  unskinned. 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


KOOSEHEAD    LAZE. 


786 


KOBAIHE. 


KOOBE'HEAD  LAKE.  An  irregular  body 
of  water  on  the  border  of  Somerset  and  Piscata- 
quis counties,  Maine  (Map:  Maine,  D  4).  It  is 
the  largest  lake  in  the  State,  being  about  35  miles 
long  and  from  one  to  ten  miles  wide.  It  receives 
the  Moose  River  and  several  other  streams,  and 
is  the  source  of  the  Kennebec,  while  toward  the 
north  it  also  drains  into  the  Penobscot.  It  lies 
in  the  midst  of  a  wild  and  sparsely  inhabited 
forest  region  where  game  is  still  found.  A  rail- 
road now  runs  along  the  southern  shore  through 
Greenville,  and  steamboats  have  for  many  years 
plied  on  the  lake. 

MOOSEWOOD.    See  Leathebwood. 

MOOT  (AS.  m^^  meeting,  assembly;  connected 
with  miian,  to  meet) .  The  name  given  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  England  to  the  meetings  of  the  tribe  or 
district  and  the  like.  In  these  moots  was  trans- 
acted a  great  part  of  the  public  business,  whether 
executive,  legislative,  or  judicial.  The  best  known 
of  these  assemblies  is  the  one  which  was  attended 
by  the  great  men  of  the  whole  nation  or  tribe,  and 
was  known  as  the  moot  of  the  wise  men  or  Witen- 
agemot  ( q.v. ) .  But  smaller  districts,  like  the  shire, 
the  hundred,  and  the  township,  also  held  moots, 
which  were  usually  attended  by  all  the  freemen 
of  the  district.  The  place  of  meeting  of  such  an 
assembly  was  also  frequently  termed  moot.  Con- 
sult Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  of  England, 
vol.  i.(6th  ed.,  Oxford,  1897). 

MOP^nS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  M6^of).  (1)  In 
Greek  mythology,  a  seer,  one  of  the  Thessalian 
Lapithffi,  the  son  of  Apollo  by  Himantis,  or  of 
Ampyx  by  Chloris.  He  took  part  in  the  combat 
between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapiths,  in  the  Caly- 
donian  Hunt,  and  in  the  Argonautic  Expedition, 
during  which  he  was  killed  by  a  snake  in  Libya. 
After  his  death  he  was  honored  as  an  oracular 
hero.  (2)  A  renowned  seer,  the  son  of  Apollo 
and  Manto,  daughter  of  Tiresias.  At  Colophon 
he  surpassed  Calchas  in  prophecy.  With  Am- 
philochus  he  was  credited  with  having  built  the 
Cilician  city  Mallos,  where  both  the  founders 
perished  in  a  dispute  over  its  possession. 

MOQXTEOXTA,  md-k&'gwii.  A  coast  department 
of  Peru,  bounded  by  the  Department  of  Arequipa 
on  the  north,  Puno  on  the  east,  Chile  on  the 
south,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west  (Map: 
Peru,  C  7).  Its  area  is  5549  square  miles.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  main  range  of  the  Andes, 
whose  slopes  are  the  most  fertile  and  populous 
portions  of  the  department.  The  coast  region  is 
a  rainless  desert.  Vineyards  cover  large  parts 
of  the  cultivated  areas,  and  wine  and  brandy  are 
the  chief  products.  The  population  was  officially 
estimated  at  42,694  in  1896.  The  capital.  Mo- 
quegua,  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  province, 
about  68  miles  by  rail  from  the  port  of  Ilo. 
Founded  in  1626,  it  suffered  frequently  from  de- 
structive earthquakes,  and  was  entirely  destroyed 
by  the  last  upheaval,  which  occurred  in  August, 
1868.    Its  population  is  estimated  at  5000. 

MOQTTI,  mj/kd.  A  tribe  of  North  American 
Indians.    See  Hopi. 

MOB,  m6r  (or  UOtiO)  VAN  DASHOBST, 
mO'rd  vAn  dfts'h^Vrst,  Antonis  (1512Tc1578). 
A  Dutch  portrait  painter,  bom  at  Utrecht.  He 
secured  the  patronage  of  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and 
was  much  employed  by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  at 
Brussels.  About  1568  he  settled  in  Antwerp, 
where  he  died  between  1576  and  1578.    His  por- 


traits, which  in  style  much  resemble  those  of 
Holbein,  entitle  him  to  be  ranked  with  the 
masters  of  his  time.  The  Madrid  Museum  con- 
tains thirteen  specimens  from  his  brush,  but  the 
six  in  the  Vienna  Museum  are  the  most  instruc- 
tive. Among  these  are:  "Cardinal  Granvella" 
(1549)  ;  ''Young  Man  with  a  Scar"  (1564) ;  and 
a  "Young  Married  Couple"  (1575).  In  the 
Museum  of  The  Hague  there  is  also  a  male  por- 
trait (1564),  and  in  the  Louvre  the  "Dwarf  of 
Charles  V."  Portraits  of  himself  are  in  the 
Museum  at  Basel  and  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence. 

KOBAy  m(/r&  (Guiana  name).  Certain 
species  of  trees  of  the  genus  Dimorphandra  of 
the  natural  order  Leguminosae.  The  timber, 
which  is  exported  as  mora  wood,  is  darker  than 
mahogany.  It  is  valued  for  shipbuilding,  and  i» 
said  to  be  equal  to  oak  of  the  finest  quality. 

KOBA^CEJB  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
morus,  mulberry) ,  or  Mulbebbt  Familt.  A  nat- 
ural order  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  comprising 
about  800  species  of  trees,  shrubs,  or  herbs  of 
temperate  and  tropical  climates,  and  designated 
by  ^ntham  and  Hooker  as  a  suborder  of  Urti- 
caces.  The  Moraceie  have  rough  leaves,  a  milky' 
juice,  very  small  flowers  followed  by  fruits  in- 
closed in  a  succulent  receptacle,  or  fleshy  calyx, 
or  if  in  a  head  or  spike  combined  into  one.  Some 
are  valuable  for  their  fruit,  some  for  the  caout- 
chouc obtained  from  their  milky  juice,  others 
for  their  fibre  and  timber.  Among  the  species^ 
are  figs,  mulberries,  Osage  orange,  fustic,  and 
contrayerva,  hops,  hemp,  etc.  According  to- 
Engler  the  chief  genera  in  the  restricted  order 
are:  Morus  (the  mulberry),  Madura  (Osage 
orange),  Broussonetia  (paper  mulberry),  Arto- 
carpus  (breadfruit),  Castiiloa  (rubber  or  caout- 
chouc), Antiaris  (upas  tree),  Ficus  {^),  Hu- 
mulus  (hop),  and  Cannabis  (hemp). 

KOBADABAD,  md-rfid'ft-b&d^  A  city  of 
British  India.     See  Mubadabao. 

MOBAES  BABB08,  md-rlsh^  bftr'rds,  Pbu- 
DENTE  (1841-1902).  A  Brazilian  politician,  bom 
at  ltd,  in  S&o  Paulo.  He  studied  law,  and  in 
1885  entered  the  National  Legislature,  and  there 
became  a  leader  of  the  Republican  Party.  After 
the  deposition  of  Dom  Pedro,  Moraes  Barros  was- 
appointed  Governor  of  Sfto  Paulo  (1889).  He 
became  president  of  the  Constitutional  Assem- 
bly; was  defeated  for  President  of  the  new  Re- 
public by  Fonseca  (1891),  but  was  elected  to- 
that  post  in  1894  by  a  maiority  which  proved  a 
crushing  defeat  for  the  military  party.  He  was 
forced  to  retire  in  November,  1896;  was  reelect- 
ed four  months  afterwards,  but  was  defeated  in 
1898  by  Campos  Salles. 

MOBAUTE  (Ft.,  from  It.  mora,  heap  of 
stones,  from  Bavarian  Ger.  mur^  debris).  An 
accumulation  of  earth  and  stone  carried  forward 
by  a  glacier.  When  such  materials  are  heaped 
up  along  the  margins  of  a  glacier,  the  lines  of 
debris  are  called  lateral  moraines.  The  conflu- 
ence of  glaciers  causes  a  coalescing  of  the  inner 
lateral  moraines,  which  are  then  carried  forward 
as  medial  moraines,  D6bris  frozen  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  glacier  and  pushed  along  its  bed  is 
called  the  ground  moraine.  Finally  the  materials 
transported  in  the  various  ways  accumulate  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  glacier  in  irregular  mound» 
constituting  terminal  moraines.    See  Glacieb. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KOBALES. 


787 


KOBAN-OIiDEir. 


MORATiEB,  mft-rft^is,  Luis  de,  called  el 
Divino  (c.  15 10-86).  A  Spanish  painter,  born  at 
Badajoz.  He  studied  in  Valladolid  or  Toledo, 
and  modeled  his  style  upon  that  of  Michelangelo. 
His  subjects  are  always  religious — hence  his 
sobriquet.  His  care  for  detail  and  clear  brilliant 
colors  suggest  the  early  German  painters,  or  the 
primitive  Florentines.  The  "Mater  Dolorosa," 
"Madonna,"  "Ecce  Homo,"  "Presentation,"  "Head 
of  Christ,"  and  "Christian  Allegory"  are  in  the 
Madrid  Museum;  "Christ  Bearing  the  Cross"  is 
in  the  Louvre,  and  an  "Ecce  Homo"  is  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Historical  Society,  New  York  City. 

MOBALITY  (OF.  moralite,  Fr.  moralitd, 
from  Lat.  moraliiaa,  morality,  character,  from 
moralis,  relating  to  manners,  from  moa,  custom ) . 
The  third  stage  in  the  development  of  the  modem 
drama,  following  upon  the  mystery  and  the 
miracle  play  (qq.v.).  Essentially  the  morality 
was  an  ethical  treatise  cast  in  dramatic  form. 
According  to  the  usual  plot,  various  personages, 
each  representing  a  virtue  or  a  vice,  contend  for 
dominion  over  an  abstraction  called  Mankind. 
The  virtues  usually  win.  The  serious  character 
of  the  play  was  relieved  by  comic  scenes  and  buf- 
foonery. The  leading  Vice,  a  sort  of  clown,  in 
time  became  the  centre  of  attraction,  and  is 
thought  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  Fool  of 
Shakespeare's  plays.  Besides  the  virtues  and 
vices,  however,  all^rical  personages  were  in- 
troduced, such  as  Riches,  Good  Deeds,  Death;  in 
fact,  any  human  condition  or  quality.  The  French 
moralities  adhered  less  strictly  to  these  purely 
abstract  qualities,  and  even  the  later  English 
authors  are  more  apt  to  use  historical  characters 
celebrated  for  the  vice  or  virtue  in  question,  as 
Aristides  instead  of  abstract  Justice.  Later  still, 
as  the  passions  of  the  Reformation  were  stirred 
up,  actual  men  and  women  were  shown  under 
very  thin  disguises.  In  other  ways  the  morality 
was  a  distinct  advance  toward  the  regular  drama. 
There  being  no  prescribed  plot  as  in  the  mysteries 
and  miracle  plays,  it  was  necessary  to  create  one, 
with  a  clear  end  toward  which  the  action  of  the 
characters  was  to  lead  up.  So  close,  in  fact,  did 
the  morality  come  to  the  regular  drama  that  it 
did  not  cease  to  be  acted  in  England  until  almost 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  1902  and 
1903  Everymany  perhaps  the  best  morality  in 
English,  was  performed  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States  by  a  company  of  English  players 
under  Ben  Greet.  Though  this  play  lacks  swift- 
ness of  action,  its  sincerity  is  unbroken;  its 
moralizing  does  not  fall  into  platitudes,  and 
various  scenes,  for  instance  the  appeal  to  Riches, 
are  poignantly  dramatic. 

MOBAL  PHILOSOPHY.    See  Ethics. 

MOBAN^  Edwabd  (1829-1901).  An  Ameri- 
can marine  painter,  bom  in  Bolton,  Lancashire, 
England.  He  removed  with  his  parents  while 
young  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  became  a  pupil 
of  James  Hamilton,  and  of  Paul  Weber.  After 
1862  he  studied  in  England  and  on  the  Continent, 
returning  to  reside  in  New  York  in  1869.  Among 
his  best  works  are:  "Outward  Bound,"  "T^aunch 
of  the  Life-Boat"  (1865);  the  "Coming  Storm 
in  New  York  Bay;"  a  "Fogsry  Morning;"  "Melo- 
dies of  the  Sea"  (1890)  ;  "the  South  Coast  of 
England"  (1900).  He  also  executed  a  series  of 
historical  paintings  completed  in  1899,  repre- 
senting epochs  in  United  States  marine  history 
from   the    landing   of   Leif   Ericson    (1001)    to 


Dewey's  Return  ( 1899) .  He  was  an  associate  of 
the  National  Academy,  and  a  member  of  the  So- 
ciety of  American  Artists  and  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  June  9,  1901. 

KOBAN,  Peteb  (1842—).  An  American 
etcher  and  illustrator,  brother  of  Edward  and 
Thomas  Moran,  bom  at  Bolton,  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, and  brought  by  his  parents  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  studied  painting  under  his  brothers, 
Thomas  and  Edward.  His  taste  led  him  to  pas- 
toral and  quiet  scenes  in  country  life,  and  espe- 
cially to  animal  painting.  Among  his  paintings 
are  the  **Return  of  the  Herd,"  which  received 
a  medal  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition;  "Santa 
Barbara  Mission;"  "Pueblo  of  Zia,  New  Mexico." 
He  received  a  medal  at  the  Centennial  of  1876 
for  etchings  of  animals. — His  son  Perot  (1862 
— )  is  known  as  a  painter  of  colonial  subjects 
and  modem  women.  He  took  the  Hallgarten 
Prize  in  1886,  and  the  gold  medal  of  the  Ameri- 
can Art  Association. — Another  son,  L£on  (1864 
— ),  likewise  a  painter,  treats  genre  subjects. 

KOBAN,  Thomas  (1837—).  An  American 
etcher,  illustrator,  and  landscape  painter.  He 
was  bom  at  Bolton,  Lancashire,  January  12, 
1837,  and  came  to  Philadelphia  with  his  parents. 
During  an  apprenticeship  to  a  wood  engraver  he 
devot^  himself  to  water-color  painting  with  suc- 
cess. He  then  studied  oil  painting  under  James 
Hamilton,  and  later  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  in  1871  and  made 
sketches  of  scenes  in  the  Yellowstone,  from  which 
he  produced  the  picture  of  the  "Grand  Cafion  of 
the  Yellowstone,*'  now  filling  a  panel  in  the 
Capitol  at  Washington.  In  1873  he  joined  the 
United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  conducted 
by  Major  J.  W.  Powell,  which  surveyed  the 
cafions  of  the  Colorado  River,  and  on  his  return 
completed  a  picture  of  'The  Chasm  of  the  Colo- 
rado,*' which  was  purchased  by  Congress  as  a 
companion  of  the  Yellowstone  picture.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  visited  the  Mountain  of  the  Holy 
Cross  in  Colorado,  and  on  his  return  to  New 
York,  where  he  made  his  residence,  he  finished  a 
large  picture  of  that  mountain.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  in  1884. 
Among  his  smaller  pieces  are:  'The  Lost  Ar- 
row," "The  Conemaugh  in  Autumn,"  'The  First 
Ship,"  "The  Track  of  the  Storm,"  'Tonce  de 
Leon  in  Florida,"  "New  York  from  Communi- 
paw,"  and  "After  a  Thaw."  Moran  designed  the 
illustrations  on  wood  that  adorn  the  reports 
of  both  Hayden's  and  Powell's  explorations. 
Moran's  style  is  a  strong  souvenir  of  the  works 
of  the  English  painter  "[nimer,  in  the  iridescent 
play  of  color  of  which  he  is  very  fond.  He  paints 
the  momentary  and  evanescent  phases  of  nature 
which  offer  brilliant  and  striking  opportunities 
for  rich,  glowing  color.  Both  he  and  nis  wife  and 
pupil,  Maby  Moban  (1842 — ),  are  etchers,  and 
members  of  the  British  Society  of  Painter- 
Etchers.  (Consult  Sutro,  Thirteen  Chapters  of 
American  History  Represented  by  Marine  Paint- 
ings (New  York,  1905). 

MORAN-OLDEN,  m(/rAn  OKden,  Fanitt 
( 1855-1905).  A  German  soprano  singer,  born  at 
Cloppenburg.  She  appeared  first  in  Dresden  in 
1877;  two  years  afterwards,  while  the  leading 
soprano  at  Frankfort,  she  married  the  tenor, 
Karl  Moran,  and  made  her  d^but  in  opera  at 
Leipzig   (1884).     The  remarkable  range  of  her 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


KOBAH-OLDBV. 


788 


KORAVIA. 


voice  enabled  her  to  sing  rdles  so  diverse  as 
Elisabeth  in  Tatrnhdu^er  and  Ortnid  in  Lohen- 
grin, while  she  appeared  also  as  BrUnnhilde. 
Isolde,  Fidel io,  Norma,  Donna  Anna,  and  Fides. 
She  visited  New  York  City  in  1889,  and  after- 
wards taught  singing  in  Berlin. 

KORA  8TOHXS.  A  group  of  stones  near 
Upsala,  Sweden,  interesting  on  account  of  their 
historical  associations.  The  kings  of  Sweden 
on  their  election  ancioitly  swore  fidelity  to  the 
laws  of  the  land  near  these  stones,  after  which 
the  judges,  on  behalf  of  the  people,  took  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  monarch,  whose  name  was 
then  inscribed  on  one  of  the  stones.  In  1770  the 
remaining  ten  stones  were  protected  by  an  in- 
closing building. 

MORAT,  md'rA'.  A  town  of  about  2400  in- 
habitants, in  the  Canton  of  Fribourg,  Switzer- 
land, on  the  lake  of  Morat,  8^  miles  north  by 
west  of  Fribourg.  It  is  famous  for  the  victory 
of  the  Swiss  and  their  allies,  25,000  in  number, 
over  Charles  the  Bold  (q.v.),  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
with  an  army  of  35,000  men,  June  22,  1476. 

KOBAT^Ky  m6'r&-t&i^  Leandbo  FEBifAifnz 
DE  (1760-1828).  A  Spanish  dramatist,  bom  in 
Madrid,  the  son  of  Nicolfis  Femftndez  de  Moratfn. 
A  year  spent  at  Paris  had  much  influence  upon 
the  artistic  development  of  the  young  poet,  who 
was  later  to  make  the  Moliftresque  drama  success- 
ful in  Spain.  Returning  to  Madrid  in  1778,  he 
gained  the  favor  of  the  powerful  Godoy,  and  was 
allowed  to  have  his  play  in  verse,  El  viejo  y  la 
fiftia,  produced  upon  the  stage  at  Madrid  in 
1790.  This  drama  was  followed  by  a  more  im- 
portant piece  (in  prose),  the  Caf6y  also  called 
the  Comedia  nueva  (1792),  a  sharp  satire  upon 
the  wretcl^ed  playwrights  oif  the  day.  At  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Government,  Moratfn  went  abroad  to 
study  the  foreign  stage.  From  Paris  he 
passed  on  to  London,  and  after  a  year  in  that 
metropolis,  where  he  began  his  translation  of 
J7am{€t  ( published  in  1798),  he  journeyed 
through  Holland,  Flanders,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, and  Italy.  After  his  return  he  was  for 
a  while  a  member  of  the  bureau  established  to 
reform  the  theatre.  His  third  comedy.  El  baron, 
originally  written  as  a  zarzuela  or  vaudeville, 
was  performed  in  1803,  and  the  next  year  wit- 
nessed the  appearance  of  a  third  comedy  in  verse, 
the  Mojigata  (The  Female  Hypocrite).  With 
the  8i  de  laa  niiiae,  the  second  of  his  prose  com- 
edies, he  reached  the  height  of  his  power  and 
fame.  Moli^re  was  the  guiding  star  of  Moratfn 
the  Younger  in  all  his  dramatic  compositions. 
Yet  Moratfn  displays  originality,  for  he  excel- 
lently describes  the  manners  of  his  time  and 
handles  dialogue  with  skill.  Though  he  adhered 
to  the  French  system  of  unities,  he  also  adopted 
certain  peculiarities  of  the  native  Spanish  stage, 
dividing  his  plays  into  three  acts,  using  the 
favorite  short  romance  verse,  and  introducing 
some  truly  Spanish  intri^e  into  his  plots. 
Taking  him  for  all  in  all,  he  was  the  best  dra- 
matist that  Spain  had  had  since  the  Siglo  de  Oro. 
In  1812  Moratfn  brought  out  a  successful  trans- 
lation of  Moliftre*s  Ecole  des  maris.  At  Barce- 
lona, in  1814,  there  wns  a  repre<»eTitation  of  his 
version  of  Moliftre*s  ^fMerin  mnlnr^  Int.  He 
was  at  Bayonne  and  BorHewiix  aftpr  1821,  and 
at  Bordeaux  he  finished  his  h>torio*il  account  of 
the  Spanish   sta^e.  Orinr*yrit    7''   '    ■>  -n  r^r^^'nl. 


He  died  in  Paris  in  1828.  His  works  may  be 
read  in  volume  ii.  of  the  Bihlioteoa  de  autcrtM 
eepa^olee.  Consult  Ford's  edition  of  the  8i  de 
las  niHae  (Boston,  1899). 

KOBATfir,  NiooUU  FEBifAifDBZ  db  (1737- 
80).  A  Spanish  playwright,  called  the  Elder, 
bom  in  Madrid.  He  was  a  teacher  as  well  as  a 
man  of  letters,  and  had  a  chair  of  poetry  in  the 
Imperial  College.  The  chief  significance  of  the 
work  of  the  elder  Moratfn  lies  in  the  fact  that  he 
contributed  to  the  success  of  the  principles  of 
literary  art  imported  from  France.  Spanish 
literature  had  greatly  degenerated  when  this 
reform  movement  to  whidi  Moratfn  belonged 
undertook  to  improve  matters  by  following  the 
rigid  rules  of  French  classicism.  Moratfn  illus- 
trated these  rules  in  a  comedy,  Petimetra 
(printed  in  1762),  and  a  tragedy,  Lucreoia, 
neither  of  which  appeared  upon  the  stage.  His 
drama  Hermesinda  and  his  tragedy  Oiizmdn  el 
hueno  were  performed  with  some  success.  Of 
his  other  productions  there  may  be  mentioned  the 
Diana,  a  snort  poem  on  the  chase ;  the  narrative, 
or  epic  poem  as  he  called  it.  Las  naves  de  Cort^, 
celebrating  the  burning  of  his  ships  by  the  Con- 
quistador; and  his  well-known  quintUlas  on  a 
bull-fig^t.  Consult  his  works  in  volume  ii.  of 
the  Biblioteca  de  autores  espaHoles;  and  the  poem 
on  the  bull-fight  in  J.  D.  M.  Ford,  A  Spanish 
Anthology  (New  York,  1901). 

MCBATO^BrcnC  (Neo-Lat.,  neu.  sg.  of  Lat 
moratorius,  relating  to  delay,  from  mora,  delay). 
An  extraordinary  act  of  a  government,  by  which 
the  collection  of  all  debts  is  suspended  for  a  spe- 
cified time.  A  recent  instance  is  the  moratorium 
decreed  by  Argentina  in  1890  at  the  time  of  the 
great  financial  crisis  which  led  to  the  suspension 
of  the  Barings  of  London.  Such  an  act  may 
cause  international  complications. 

KOBAVAy  myrk-yk.  The  largest  river  of 
Servia.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  at  Stola5, 
Servia,  of  the  southern  and  the  western  Morava, 
the  former  rising  in  the  Turkish  Vilayet  of 
Kossovo,  and  the  latter  on  the  southwest  boun- 
dary of  Servia  (Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  C  3). 
The  united  stream  enters  the  Danube  30  miles 
east  of  Belgrade.  The  Morava  is  about  240 
miles  long,  and  is  navigable  for  small  boats  50 
miles  from  its  mouth. 

KOBA^VTA  (Ger.  MShren),  A  margraviate 
and  crownland  of  Austria-Hungary,  bounded  by 
Prussian  Silesia,  Austrian  Silesia,  Hungary, 
Lower  Austria,  and  Bohemia  (Map:  Austria, 
E  2).  Area,  8583  square  miles.  It  is  traversed 
along  the  northern  boundary  by  the  Sudetic 
Mountains,  along  the  eastern  boundary  by  the 
Carpathians  and  the  White  Mountains,  and 
along  the  western  boundary  by  the  Bohemian- 
Moravian  highlands,  which  descend  in  terraces 
toward  the  valley  of  the  March.  Moravia  be- 
longs to  the  basin  of  the  Danube,  and  is  watered 
by  its  tributary,  the  March,  which  flows  through 
the  centre  of  the  country  from  north  to  south. 
Tne  climate  is  generally  mild.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  48  o  at  Brtinn.  The  mineral  de- 
posits include  iron,  lignite,  coal,  graphite,  sul- 
piiur,  lead,  and  copper.  The  output  of  coal  in 
1905  was  1,697,279  tons.  The  mineral  output  in 
1905  was  valued  at  $6,216,000,  over  10  per  cent. 
of  the  value  of  mineral  production  of  Austria. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  industry,  Moravia 


Digitized  by 


L^oogle 


KOBAVIA. 


789 


KOBAVIANa 


being  one  of  the  foremost  cereal-producing  parts 
of  Austria.  The  principal  products  are  rye,  oats, 
barley,  wheat,  corn,  and  flax,  sugar  beets,  clover, 
hay,  and  grapes.  Stock-raising  is  carried  on 
extensively.  Among  manufactures  the  woolen 
industry  is  especially  developed.  Other  manufac- 
tures are  those  of  linen,  yarn,  cotton  goods, 
leather,  sugar,  spirits,  machinery,  railway  sup- 
plies, tobacco  products,  etc.  In  1902  Moravia 
had  over  380,367  persons  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing. The  railways  had  a  total  mileage  of 
1166  miles  in  1902. 

The  Landtag  is  composed  of  the  Prince-Arch- 
bishop of  Olmtttz,  the  Bishop  of  Brtinn,  30  rep- 
resentatives of  the  landed  aristocracy,  31  repre- 
sentatives  of  the  towns,  6  representatives  of  the 
chambers  of  commerce  and  industries  of  Brttnn 
and  Olmfitz,  and  31  representatives  of  the  rural 
districts.  The  representatives  of  the  rural  dis- 
tricts are  indirectly  elected.  In  the  Lower  House 
of  the  Austrian  Reichsrat  Moravia  is  represented 
by  36  members. 

At  the  head  of  the  administration  is  the 
Governor,  representing  the  Crown.  The  crown- 
land  has  a  system  of  district  courts,  and  at 
Brttnn  a  court  of  second  instance,  from  which 
appeals  can  be  made  to  the  Supreme  Court 
at  Vienna.  Moravia  is  well  provided  with  edu- 
cational institutions,  and  over  98  per  cent,  of 
its  school  population  attend  school.  Capital, 
Brttnn  (q.v.).  The  population  was  2,276,870 
in  1890,  and  2,437,706  in  1900.  Over  71  per 
cent,  of  the  population  consists  of  Czechs,  Mora- 
vians, and  Slovaks,  and  about  28  per  cent,  of 
Germans.  Over  95  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Roman  Catholics. 

HiSTOBT.  Moravia  was  anciently  occupied  by 
the  Quadi,  who  left  the  country  at  the  time  of 
the  great  migration  of  nations.  They  were  suc- 
ceed^ by  other  Germanic  peoples,  whose  sojourn 
was  temporary,  and  in  tne  sixth  century  the 
region  was  occupied  by  Slavs.  These  peoples 
took  the  name  of  Moravians,  from  the  river  Mo- 
rava.  Charles  the  Great,  the  ruler  of  the  Franks, 
brought  the  people  under  nominal  subjection, 
and  constrained  their  King^  Samoslav,  to  re- 
ceive baptism ;  but  Christianity  was  first  formal- 
ly established  in  the  second  half  of  the  ninth 
century  by  Cyril  and  Methodius.  The  ninth 
century  witnessed  repeated  wars  between  the 
Germans  and  the  Moravians.  Svatopluk,  who 
ruled  over  the  Moravians  from  about  870  to  894, 
built  up  an  extensive  but  short-lived  realm, 
which  soon  after  his  death  was  shattered  to 
pieces  by  the  onslaught  of  the  Magyars.  From 
1029  Moravia  was  generally  united  with  Bo- 
hemia, either  as  an  integral  part  of  that  realm 
or  as  a  fief  ruled  by  margraves.  On  the  death 
of  Louis  II.,  at  the  battle  of  Mohfics,  in  1526, 
Moraria,  with  all  the  other  Bohemian  lands, 
passed  under  the  rule  of  the  House  of  Austria. 
In  1849  it  was  formally  separated  from  Bohe- 
mia and  declared  a  distinct  province  and  crown- 
land. 

Consult:  Wolny,  Die  Markgrafachaft  M'dhren 
topographisch,  atatistisch  und  hiatoriach  geachiU 
deri  (6  vols.,  Brttnn,  1835-40)  ;  Dudik,  Mahrena 
allgemeine  Oeachichte  (12  vols.,  Brtinn,  1860-88), 
for  the  early  history;  Smolle,  Die  Markgraf- 
achaft Mahren  (Vienna,  1881);  Die  oaterreich- 
iaoh'Ungariache  Monarchie  in  Wort  und  Bild. 
Mahren  und  Schleaien,  vol.  xxii.  (Vienna,  1897). 


KORAVIAKa  Called  also  The  United 
Bbethben  (Unitas  Fbatbum)  and  The  Mo- 
BAViAN  Church.  An  evangelical  Church  which 
arose  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  among  follow- 
ers of  John  Huss  (q.v.) ;  originally  known  as 
Bohemian  Brethren  (q.v.).  They  secured  the 
episcopacy  from  the  Austrian  Waldenses  in  1467. 
Fraternizing  with  the  Reformers  of  both  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland,  they  increased  rapidly, 
and  after  the  Schmalkaldic  War  established  a 
third  province  in  Poland.  By  1617  they  num- 
bered at  least  200,000.  With  the  granting  of 
the  Bohemian  charter,  in  1609,  they  obtained  a 
legal  status,  but  were  systematicallv  suppressed 
and  exiled  during  and  after  the  Thirty  Years* 
War.  Their  Polish  province,  with  its  centre 
at  Lissa,  now  acquired  importance,  and  a 
number  of  parishes  were  founded  in  Hun- 
gary. But  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  excluded 
Austrian  lands  from  the  benefits  of  reli- 
gious liberty,  and  in  1656  Lissa  was  destroved 
in  the  war  between  Poland  and  Sweaen. 
The  Polish  parishes  were  gradually  absorbed 
by  other  Protestant  bodies.  Meanwhile  a  'hid- 
den seed*  of  the  Unitaa  Fratrum  remained  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  and  their  bishop,  Johann 
Amos  Comenius  (q.v.),  republished  their  history, 
confession,  and  discipline,  and  took  steps  to  per- 
petuate the  episcopate.  Hence  for  about  fifty 
years  clergymen  who  at  the  same  time  served 
parishes  of  the  Reformed  Church  were  consecrat- 
ed bishops  of  the  Unitaa  Fratrum. 

A  revival  of  religious  life  among  the  'hidden 
seed*  in  Moravia  led  the  awakened  to  abandon 
their  homes  and  secretly  flee  to  Saxony  to  secure 
religious  liberty.  Here,  in  1722,  they  began  to 
build  ther  town  of  Hermhut  on  the  estate  of 
Count  Zinzendorf  (q.v.),  who  had  granted  them 
an  asylum.  Hermhut  became  the  rallying  place 
for  descendants  of  the  Brethren,  several  hundred 
of  whom  migrated  from  Austrian  lands.  They 
introduced  ther  discipline  handed  down  by  Co- 
menius, and  in  1735  the  episcopate  was  trans- 
mitted from  its  surviving  representatives,  Jab- 
lonski  and  Sitkovius.  The  development  of  the 
Unitaa  Fratrum  now  took  a  new  form.  Zinzen- 
dorf became  the  leading  bishop,  and  strove  to 
subordinate  denominationalism  to  the  promo- 
tion of  Christian  life.  He  did  not  permit  the 
Church  to  expand,  as  other  churches  expand,  nor 
distinctly  to  sever  connection  in  every  respect 
with  the  State  Church;  but  established  on  the 
Continent,  in  Britain,  and  in  America  an  'ex- 
clusive system'  by  which  it  was  attempted  to 
securer  a  membership  solely  of  converted  men 
and  women.  Their  culture  in  spiritual  life  was 
promoted  by  exceedingly  close  supervision,  by 
an  abundant  supply  of  the  means  of  grace-^ 
daily  services,  ana  services  for  the  several  divi- 
sions of  the  congregation  distributively — and  by 
an  effort  to  separate  them  from  the  rest  of  the 
wfyrld.  The  membttrs  of  the  establishments  were 
indefatigable  in  missions  among  the  heathen, 
maintained  schools  for  young  people  not  of  their 
communion,  and  conducted  tiie  so-called  Dia- 
apora,  or  inner  mission,  among  members  of  the 
State  churches  of  Germany,  the  Baltic  Prov- 
inces, Scandinavian  lands,  Holland,  and  Switzer- 
land, seeking  the  conversion  of  individuals  with- 
out drawing  them  from  their  former  communion. 

Though  the  'exclusive  system*  was  wholly 
abandoned  in  America  in  1856,  and  practically 
so  in  Britain,  while  in  Germany  it  has  been 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XOBAVIANS. 


790 


XOBAT. 


much  modified,  the  three  chief  forms  of  activity 
continue.  Missions  among  the  heathen  are  main- 
tained in  Labrador  and  Alaska,  among  the  In- 
dians of  North  America,  among  the  negroes 
of  the  West  Indies,  in  Nicaragua,  British  and 
Dutch  Guiana,  Cape  Ck)lony,  German  East  Afri- 
ca, Australia,  and  among  Tibetan  people  of  the 
Western  Himalayas.  A  home  for  lepers  is  main- 
tained near  Jerusalem.  Thirty-three  schools 
are  carried  on,  in  additicm  to  colleges  and  theo- 
logical seminaries.  The  mission  in  Greenland, 
maintained  since  1733,  was  transferred  to  the 
Danish  Lutheran  Church  in  1900. 

The  Moravian  Church  now  consists  of  four 
provinces — the  German,  the  British,  and  the 
American,  North  and  South — ^which  are  imited 
as  one  body  in  regard  to  doctrine,  ritual,  dis- 
cipline, and  mission  work.  Internally  each  prov- 
ince is  independent,  its  affairs  being  adminis- 
tered by  a  synod,  which  elects  a  provincial  execu- 
tive board,  consisting  of  bishops  and  other  min- 
isters. This  board  appoints  the  ministers  to 
the  various  congregations.  The  executive  boards 
of  the  four  provinces  constitute  the  Directing 
Board  of  the  Unity.  Every  ten  years  a  general 
synod  convenes,  each  province  and  the  missions 
having  representatives.  This  ^^od  takes  cog- 
nizance of  the  life,  doctrine,  and  activity  of  the 
entire  Church,  elects  the  mission  board,  and 
to  it  the  mission  board  is  responsible. 

The  Moravian  Church  has  a  complete  ritual, 
including  services  for  the  Lord's  Day  and  other 
forms,  but  allows  of  free  prayer  in  public  wor- 
ship ;  its  music,  vocal  and  mstrumental,  is  high- 
ly developed.  It  perpetuates  the  three  orders 
of  the  mmistry,  but  its  bishops,  who  alone  or- 
dain, do  not  exercise  administrative  functions 
ipso  facto.  It  observes  the  Christian  year;  ad- 
mits new  converts  by  confirmation;  receives 
members  of  other  churches  by  certificate;  en- 
courages lay  work;  and  exercises  strict  disci- 
pline. The  cardinal  points  of  Moravian  teaching 
are  those  held  in  common  by  all  evangelical 
churches.  Eight  cardinal  points,  in  re^rd  to 
which  the  teaching  of  Holy  Scripture  is  plam,  have 
been  repeatedly  reaffirmed  by  the  General  Synod 
in  the  languaffcr  of  Scripture.  As  formulated 
by  the  GenersS  Synod  of  1899,  these  doctrines 
teach:  (a)  Total  depravity  of  hmnan  nature; 
(b)  the  love  of  God  tne  Father,  who  has  'chosen 
us  in  Christ';  (c)  the  real  Godhead  and  real 
humanity  of  Jesus  Christ;  (d)  reconciliation 
and  justification  through  the  sacrifice  of  Jesus 
Christ;  (e)  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  operation 
of  His  ^aoe;  (f)  good  works  as  the  fruit  of 
the  Spirit;  (g)  the  fellowship  of  believers;  (h) 
the  second  coming  of  Christ  and  the  resurrection. 
These  truths  are  held  not  as  a  rigidly  formulat- 
ed confession,  but  as  the  Moravian  conception 
of  the  main  contents  of  Christian  doctrine.  The 
resuscitated  Moravian  Ckurch  has  nev^r  issued 
a  confession  of  faith,  as  such. 

The  Moravian  Church  in  America.  Mo- 
ravian emigrants  went  to  Georgia  in  1735;  but 
five  years  afterwards  they  removed  to  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  they  built  the  towns  of  Bethlehem 
and  Nazareth.  A  form  of  communism  was  tem- 
porarily adopted,  as  a  quick  mode  of  subduing 
the  wilderness  and  at  the  same  time  promoting 
missions.  The  lands  were  the  property  of  the 
Church,  and  the  farms  and  industries  were  car- 
ried on  for  its  benefit;  but  he  who  had  means 
of  his  own  retained  them;   there  was  no  com- 


mon treasury.  This  system,  The  Economy,' 
continued  for  twenty  years.  Each  member  was 
pledged  to  devote  his  time  and  powers  as  they 
might  be  best  appjied  for  the  spread  of  the 
Gospel,  and  missionaries  went  to  the  Indians  of 
New  York,  Connecticut,  and  Pennsylvania,  and 
later  Ohio.  Though  the  'Economy*  was  of  short 
duration,  the  American  division  of  the  Church 
was  administered  from  Germany,  and  the  exclu- 
sive policy  prevailed  until  1866.  According  to 
statistics  compiled  in  1906,  the  American  prov- 
inces reported  17,266  communicants  and  a  total 
membership  of  25,877.  There  were  119  con- 
gregations and  110  ministers  actively  engaced. 
In  the  home  provinces,  including  the  Bohemian- 
Moravian  mission,  there  were  41,824  members; 
in  the  foreign  missions  16  provinces,  245  stations, 
and  462  out-stations  with  394  missionaries,  ex- 
clusive of  secretaries,  etc.,  76  native  missionaries 
and  1838  other  native  agents.  The  communicant 
membership  of  the  missions  was  32,629,  with  a 
total  membership  of  101,260. 

The  American  Moravians  have  a  theological 
seminary,  founded  in  1807,  at  first  as  a  depart- 
ment added  to  the  academy  at  Nazareth,  begun 
in  1759,  and  known  as  Nazareth  Hall.  It  has 
been  situated  at  Bethlehem  since  1868.  A  collegi- 
ate department  preparatory  to  the  theological 
proper  was  inaugurated  at  an  early  period. 
Buildings  have  b^n  erected  valued  at  $76,000, 
exclusive  of  the  ground.  The  endowment  fimd  is 
now  $1 18,000.  A  six  years'  course  of  study  is  pur- 
sued, three  and  one-half  years  classical  and  two 
and  one-half  theological.  Four  professors  con- 
stitute the  permanent  faculty.  The  number  of 
students  varies  from  36  to  40. 

BiBUOORAPHT.  For  the  period  prior  to  1722, 
consult:  Gindely,  Oeschichte  der  bdhmischen 
BrUder  (Prague,  1866-67) ;  id.,  Ueher  des  Johann 
Amoa  Comenius  Lehen  und  Wirksamkeit  (2d  ed., 
Znaim,  1893)  ;  Schweinitz,  The  History  of  the 
UmtoB  Fratrum  (Bethlehem,  1886).  For  the 
period  since  1722:  Crdger,  Oeschichte  der 
erneuerten  Brilderkirche  (Gnadau,  1862-64) ; 
Hamilton,  A  History  of  the  Moravian  Church 
During  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries 
(Bethlehem,  1900).  For  the  Moravian  C?hurch 
in  the  United  States,  consult :  Reichel,  The  Early 
History  of  the  Church  of  the  United  Brethren 
in  North  America  (Nazareth,  1888) ;  Hamilton, 
Histoiy  of  the  Moravian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  in  the  '^American  Church  History  Series" 
(New  York,  1895).  For  Moravian  missions, 
consult:  Thompson,  Moravian  Missions  (New 
York,  1882) ;  Hamilton,  History  of  the  Missions 
of  the  Moravian  Church  During  the  Eighteenth 
and  Nineteenth  Centuries  (Bethlehem,  1901). 

MOBAT,  m(/r&.  Any  of  a  large  group  (sub- 
order Calocephali,  of  order  Apodes)  of  eel -like 
fishes,  especially  one  of  the  family  Mvr«nide 
and  genus  Mursena.  They  are  degenerate,  aber- 
rant eels,  distinguished  by  their  small  round 
gill  openings  and  the  absence  of  pectoral  fins. 
They  inhabit  warm  and  especially  tropical  seas, 
particularly  about  coral  reefs.  They  are  bright- 
ly colored,  often  of  large  size,  and  always  vo- 
racious and  pugnacious.  Ten  or  twelve  genera 
are  known,  embracing  about  120  species,  among 
which  the  true  morays  (genus  Mursena)  are 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  two  pairs  of 
nasal  barbules.  The  mursna  of  the  Komans.  or 
'murry*  {Murcena  Belena),  abounds  in  the  Medi- 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


MORAY. 


791 


MOBDvnra. 


terranean,  and  is  sometimes  of  large  size,  four 
feet  or  more  in  length,  golden  yellow  in  front 
and  purple  toward  the  tail,  beautifully  banded 
and  mottled.  Its  flesh  is  white  and  highly 
esteemed.  It  prefers  salt  water,  but  can  ac- 
commodate itself  to  a  fresh-water  pond.  The 
ancient  Romans  kept  and  fed  it  in  vivaria.  The 
story  of  Vedius  Poilio  feeding  his  murienas  with 
offending  slaves  is  well  known.  Two  species 
of  this  genus  are  found  in  American  waters. 
The  common  spotted  moray  or  *hamlct,'  the 
most  numerous  eel  in  the  West  Indies,  is  Lyco- 
dontia  tnoringa,  and  is  yellowish  in  color,  thick- 
ly spotted  and  marbled  with  dark  markings.  A 
larger  one  (five  to  six  feet)  is  the  greenish- 
black  moray  or  *morena  verde*  {Lyoodontia  fune- 
hri8),  the  biggest  and  most  ferocious  of  the 
eels  of  the  American  tropics  (both  coasts),  and 
one  well  known  about  the  Florida  reefs.  The 
so-called  'conger  eel'  of  California  {Lycodontia 
mordaw)  is  a  food  fish  of  some  local  impor- 
tance.    See     Plate     of     Eels,    Congers,    and 

MOBATS. 

MORATy  mtlr'rl.  Earl  of.    See  Murray. 

MORAY  FTBTH.  An  arm  of  the  North  Sea, 
extending  southwestward  into  the  northeastern 
part  of  Scotland  (Map:  Scotland,  E  2).  It  is 
16  miles  wide  at  the  entrance,  and  about  40 
miles  long.  It  forms  a  good  harbor,  and  is 
navigable  for  large  steamers  as  far  as  Inverness. 
The  name  is  sometimes  extended  to  the  whole  of 
the  large,  triangular  indentation  between  Kin- 
naird  and  Duncansby  Heads,  having  a  width  of 
75  miles. 

MORAYSHIRE,  mtlr^A-sh^r.  A  maritime 
coimty  of  Scotland.    See  Elginshire. 

MORAZiiar,  m5'r&-thftn^  Francisco  (1792- 
1842).  A  soldier  and  statesman  of  Honduras. 
He  was  a  member  of  a  French  West  Indian 
family,  and  entered  politics  when  his  country 
became  independent  of  Spain,  in  1821.  He  be- 
came Secretary-General,  and  took  part  in  the 
organization  of  the  new  Government.  He  also 
played  an  important  part  at  the  head  of  the 
troops  in  putting  down  the  demonstrations  of 
the  various  revolutionary  factions,  and  was  in 
1830  elected  President  of  the  Ontral  American 
Confederation.  In  this  office  he  became  the  fore- 
most representative  of  liberal  principles,  as  op- 
posed to  the  reactionary  policy  of  the  old  Spanish 
party,  whose  stronghold  was  Guatemala.  He 
expelled  the  archbishop  and  the  friars  who  were 
inciting  the  pro-Spanish  faction  to  revolt,  and 
abolished  the  most  important  Church  privileges. 
In  1832  he  suppressed  an  insurrection  against 
the  Federal  Government  in  Salvador.  In  1838 
a  formidable  revolution  again  broke  out,  headed 
by  Carrera,  leader  of  the  conservatives  in  Guate- 
mala. Morazfin,  after  defending  the  Federal 
Government  with  courage  and  ability,  felt  that 
the  tide  was  too  strong  to  struggle  against;  he 
therefore  resigned  his  office,  April  5,  1840,  and 
went  to  Peru.  There  he  organized  a  force,  and 
in  1842  invaded  Costa  Rica,  hoping  to  reor- 
ganize the  Confederation.  He  overthrew  the 
Government  without  difficulty,  and  was  en- 
thusiastically elected  Governor.  His  popularity, 
however,  was  short-lived.  His  advocacy  of  the 
Central  American  (Confederation  led  to  another 
insurrection.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  court- 
martialed,  and  shot,  September  15,  1842.     Con- 


sult Bancroft,  History  of  Central  AmerioOf  voL 
iii.   (San  Francisco,  1887). 

MORBIHAN,  mOra)^'aN'.  A  western  depart- 
ment of  France,  situated  alone  the  south  coast 
of  the  Peninsula  of  Brittany  (Map:  France,  N., 
Co).  It  is  hilly  in  the  north,  very  sparsely  wood- 
ed, and  largely  occupied  by  heaths  and  marshes. 
Only  one-third  of  its  area,  which  covers  2739 
square  miles,  is  cultivated,  producing  cereals,  flax, 
hemp,  and  apples.  Iron  ore  is  found,  but  there 
are  no  industries  or  commerce  of  any  importance. 
Population,  in  1891,  544,470;  in  1901,  563,468; 
in  1906,  573,152.    Capital,  Vannes. 

MORDANTS  (OP.,  Fr.  mordant,  from  Lat. 
mordens,  pres.  part,  of  mordere  (to  bite).  Sub- 
stances used  in  dyeing  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
colors  on  textile  fabrics.  The  manner  in  which 
mordants  act  has  been  described  under  Dyeing. 
It  remains  to  enumerate  here  the  most  im- 
portant mordants  employed  by  the  dyer.  Among 
hasio  mordants  may  be  mentioned  alum,  aluminum 
sulphate,  ferrous  acetate,  ferrous  sulphate,  ferric 
sulphate,  ferric  acetate,  ferric  nitrate,  stannous 
chloride  (*tin  crystals*),  stannic  chloride  (the  so- 
lution is  known  commercially  as  'cotton  spirits'), 
stannic  oxide  (produced  by  soaking  cotton  in  a 
solution  of  sodium  stannaiie  and  then  passing  it 
through  dilute  sulphuric  acid),  potassium  (or  so- 
dium joichromate,  chromium  acetate,  and  chrome 
alum.  Among  the  acid  mordants  may  be  men- 
tioned tannic  acid  and  the  so-called  'fatty  acids.* 
The  latter  are  applied  first  in  the  form  of  their 
sodium  or  potassium  salts  (soaps)  dissolved  in 
water;  then  the  fabric  is  passed  through  a  solu- 
tion of  aluminum  sulphate,  which  combines  with 
the  fatty  acids  to  form  in  soluble  aluminum 
salts  on  the  fibre;  finally  when  a  basic  dyestuff 
is  applied,  the  aluminum  salts  react  with  it, 
their  acids  combining  with  it  to  yield  permanent 
colors.     See  Dyeing. 

MORDATTKT,  mOr^dtint,  Charles,  Earl  of 
Peterborough.    See  Petebbobough. 

M0RDAX7NT,  Frank  (1841—).  An  Ameri- 
can actor,  bom  at  Burlington,  VtL  After  play- 
ing as  an  amateur  in  New  York,  he  joined  the 
theatrical  profession  in  1859.  He  supported 
Mary  Anderson  in  1878;  then  Edwin  Booth,  tak- 
ing parts  like  that  of  the  King  in  Hamlet  and 
Kent  in  King  Lear.  Among  his  more  recent 
rOles  were  those  of  Tommaso  in  Mr.  Barnes  of 
New  York  (1888),  Nicholas  Vanalstyne  in  The 
Henrietta  (1889),  and  (Jeneral  Kendrick  in  The 
Heart  of  Maryland   (1895). 

MORDECAI,  mOr^de-kl,  Alfred  (1804-87). 
An  American  soldier  and  military  writer,  bom 
at  Warrenton,  N.  C.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1823,  and  remained  there  the  two  fol- 
lowing years  as  assistant  professor  of  philosophy 
and  of  engineering.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  resigned  from  the  army.  From 
1863  to  1866  he  was  assistant  engineer  of  the 
Mexico  and  Pacific  Railroad.  In  1867  he  be- 
came secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  canal  and 
coal  companies  controlled  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad.  Among  his  publications  are:  A  Digest 
of  Military  Laws  (1833) ;  Artillery  for  the 
United  States  Land  Service  (1849);  and  Ord- 
nance Manual  for  the  Use  of  the  O/jicers  of  the 
United  States  Army  (2d  ed.  1850). 

MORD^VTNS.  A  mixed  Finno-Turkish  people 
numbering  about  1,000,000.  living  in  the  heart 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XOBDVINS.  792 

of  Russia  between  the  Volga  and  Oka.  In 
height  they  average  1.639  meters,  and  are 
brachycephalic  (cephalic  index,  83.8).  They 
are  finely  built,  and  have  dark  hair — darker  in 
the  south  than  in  the  north — and  blue  eyes. 
Agriculture  is  their  principal  occupation,  and 
they  are  excellent  carpenters  and  woodworkers, 
selling  great  quantities  of  wooden  vessels  and 
other  objects,  and  they  are  noted  for  bee-keep- 
ing. Nominally  the  Mordvins  have  accepted 
Christianity,  but  many  interesting  pagan  cus- 
toms are  preserved  among  them.  The  women 
especially  preserve  their  old  national  costume, 
wearing  embroidered  jackets  and  skirts,  an  elabo- 
rate coiffure,  large  earrings,  and  necklaces. 

MOBE,  ni6r,  Hannah  (1745-1833).  An  Eng- 
lish author,  bom  at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol, 
February  2,  1746.  She  was  well  educated,  scrib- 
bled essays  and  verse  as  a  girl,  and  wrote  a  pas- 
toral drama.  She  became  acquainted  with  Gar- 
rick,  Burke,  Reynolds,  and  Dr.  Johnson,  and  was 
encouraged  by  Garrick  to  write  two  tragedies, 
Percy  (1777)  and  The  Fatal  Falsehood  (1779), 
both  of  which  met  with  some  success.  About  1780 
she  withdrew  from  society,  built  a  cottage  at 
Cowslip  Green,  ten  miles  from  Bristol,  and  began 
writing  moral  and  religious  works.  Sacred 
Dramas  ( 1782)  were  succeed  by  the  extensively 
read  Thoughts  on  the  Importance  of  the  Man- 
ners of  the  Great  to  General  Society  (1788). 
With  the  aid  of  her  sisters  she  established  Sun- 
day-schools in  the  neighboring  districts.  A  suc- 
cessful tract  called  ViUage  Politics  (1793)  led 
to  the  famous  Cheap  Repository  Tracts  (1795- 
98),  of  which  two  millions  were  circulated  the 
first  year.  Her  religious  novel  Ccelehs  in  Search 
of  a  Wife  (1809)  ran  through  eight  editions  the 
first  year,  and  was  still  more  popular  in  the 
United  States.  She  died  at  Clifton,  September 
7,  1833.  Consult:  Life  of  Hannah  More,  by  W. 
Roberts  (3d  ed.  1838),  and  by  H.  Thompson 
( 1838 ) ;  also  Marion  Harland,  Literary  Hearth- 
stones: Hannah  More  (New  York,  1900). 

KOBE,  Henbt  (1614-87).  An  English  theo- 
logian. He  was  bom  at  Grantham,  Lincoln- 
shire, of  Calvinist  parents,  but  became  a  warm 
adherent  of  the  Church  of  England.  After  some 
years  at  Eton  he  went  to  Christ's  CJoUege,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  pursued  the  study  of  philosophy, 
especially  the  Platonic  writers.  About  1639 
he  took  holy  orders  and  lived  henceforth  a  quiet 
life  within  the  courts  of  his  college,  refusing  all 
preferments.  His  numerous  works  represent  the 
mysticism  of  the  Cambridge  Platonists  (q.v.). 
His  poems,  including  the  "Song  of  the  Soul," 
were  collected  and  published  as  Philosophical 
Poems  (1647).  The  characteristic  principles  of 
his  philosophy  are  to  be  found  in  the  Divine 
Dialogues  (1668).  (ZTomplete  editions  of  his 
Opera  Theologica  appeared  in  1675,  and  of  his 
Opera  Philosophica  in  1678.  Consult  his  Life  by 
Ward  (London,  1710),  and  an  analysis  of  his 
life  and  works  in  Principal  Tulloch's  Rational 
Theology,  vol.  ii.  ( Edinburgh,  1872 ) . 

KOBE,  Paul  Elmeb  (1864 — ).  An  American^ 
author  and  critic,  born  in  Saint  Louis,  Mo.  He 
graduated  at  Washington  University  ( 1887),  was 
instructor  in  Sanskrit  at  Harvard  for  a  year,  and 
in  1890  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Bryn  Mawr.  He  became  literary  editor  of  the 
Independent  in  1901,  and  of  the  New  York  Even- 
ing Post  in  1904,  assuming  the  literary  editor- 


XOBE. 


ship  of  the  Nation  also,  in  1906.  His  Shelhume 
Essays  ( 1904,  1905,  and  1906,  4  series)  show  crit- 
ical and  appreciative  insight.  Among  other 
works  may  be  mentioned:  A  Century  of  Indian 
Epigrams  ( 1898) ,  and  a  Life  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin (1900). 

MOBE,  Sir  Thomas  (1478-1535).  An  Eng- 
lish author  and  statesman.  He  was  bom  in 
London  and  educated  first  at  Saint  Anthony's 
School  near  his  home,  but  at  thirteen  was  placed 
in  the  household  of  Cardinal  Morton.  Morton 
quickly  recognized  his  gifts,  and  predicted  that  he 
would  'prove  a  marvelous  man.'  His  interest  a 
year  or  two  later  sent  the  boy  to  Oxford,  where 
he  entered  at  Canterbury  Hall,  afterwards  merged 
in  Christ  Church.  Here  he  laid  the  foundations 
of  the  scholarship  which  made  him  such  an  ad- 
mirable type  of  the  Renaissance  learning,  under 
Linacre  and  Grocyn.  Though  he  left  Oxford  after 
two  years  and  studied  law  at  New  Inn  and  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  he  kept  up  his  literary  studies  and 
his  friendship  with  these  men  and  with  Erasmus, 
Colet,  and  Lilly;  with  Erasmus,  in  particular, 
whom  he  met  in  1497  on  his  first  visit  to  England, 
he  had  a  close  friendship  which  was  only  termi- 
nated by  death.  More  at  one  time  thought  of 
becoming  a  priest,  and  in  these  days  lived  a  very 
austere  and  ascetic  life.  He  lectured  on  Saint 
Augustine's  De  Civitate  Dei;  and  it  is  possible 
that  his  meditations  on  the  City  of  God  may  have 
suggested  his  own  famous  conception  of  an  ideal 
community  in  the  Utopia,  Though  he  abandoned 
his  idea  of  taking  6rders  about  1503,  he  remained 
a  fine  specimen  of  the  devout  layman  all  his  life, 
though  a  sharp  critic  of  any  shortcomings  in  the 
clergy. 

In  1504  he  entered  Parliament  and  soon  gained 
fame  by  opposing  a  large  grant  of  money  to  the 
King,  Henry  VII.,  whose  hostility  compelled 
him  to  retire  to  private  life.  His  law  practice, 
however,  brought  him  a  large  income.  When 
Henry  VIII.  came  to  the  throne,  he  was  made 
under-sheriff  of  London,  and  engaged  in  a  num- 
ber of  important  commercial  missions,  during  his 
absence  in  Flanders  on  one  of  which  he  l^gan 
his  Utopia,  published  1516.  He  was  made  justice 
of  the  peace  in  1515,  and  two  years  later  master 
of  requests,  an  office  which  brought  him  into 
frequent  contact  with  the  King,  to  whose  council 
he  was  admitted  in  the  same  year.  He  was 
knighted  in  1521,  and  continued  a  prominent  fig- 
ure at  Court.  Attracting  the  notice  of  Wolsey, 
he  was  recommended  by  the  Cardinal  as  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  elected  in  1523. 

Though,  like  Erasmus  and  Colet,  he  had  much 
at  heart  a  reform  of  the  Church  in  practical 
matters,  he  had  no  sympathy  with  the  violent 
measures  of  Luther  and  his  followers,  and  in 
1523  appeared  as  a  champion  of  his  sovereign 
against  the  (jrerman  reformer.  Thenceforward 
until  his  death  he  was  constantly  in  the  lists 
against  the  supporters  of  the  new  doctrines.  On 
Wolsey 's  fall  in  1529,  More  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him  as  Chancellor,  the  holding  of  the 
office  by  any  but  a  great  ecclesiastic  being  an 
unheard-of  innovation.  He  held  the  office  only 
two  years  and  a  half,  and  then  resigned  it,  fore- 
seeing that  his  conscience  would  bring  him  to  an 
open  struggle  with  the  King,  whom  he  had  al- 
ready opposed  at  several  stages  of  the  gradual 
breach  with  Rome. 

The  inevitable  conflict  came  in  the  spring  of 


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T98 


XOBEAU. 


1534,  when  subscription  was  required  to  the 
act  of  succession,  including  a  renunciation  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  'any  foreign  potentate.'  More 
flatly  refused  to  take  the  oath«  and  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower«  where  he  remained  a  pris- 
oner until  his  death.  He  was  brought  to  trial  on 
a  charge  of  treason,  and  convicted  by  the  most 
flagrant  perjury  and  injustice,  and  sentenced  to 
be  hanged  at  Tyburn.  The  King  commuted  the 
sentence  to  beheading.  On  July  6th  he  was  exe- 
cuted in  the  Tower,  retaining  the  calmness  and 
wit  which  had  marked  his  life  to  the  last.  His 
execution  shocked  the  whole  of  Europe,  and 
Charles  V.  declared  that  he  would  rather  have 
lost  his  best  friend  than  such  a  counselor.  More 
was  beatified  by  Leo  XIII.  in  1886,  together 
with  other  English  martyrs. 

More  is  to-day  best  known  as  the  author  of  the 
Utopia  (q.v.).  It  was  written  in  Latin,  so  as 
to  reach  the  learned  world,  and  is  full  of  dra- 
matic skill  and  fertile  invention.  The  earliest 
English  version,  of  which  five  scholarly  reprints 
were  published  between  1869  and  1893,  appeared 
in  1561,  but  earlier  than  this  it  had  been  trans- 
lated into  German,  Dutch,  and  Italian.  More's 
English  works,  principally  of  a  controversial  or 
devotional  character,  are  marked  by  forcible,  ner- 
vous, simple  style,  and  by  an  abundance  of  witty 
illustration.  His  History  of  Richard  III.  (first 
correctly  printed  in  1557),  though  incomplete,  is 
notable  among  the  beginnings  of  modem  history 
in  English,  and  his  early  biography  of  Pico  della 
Mirandola  (1510)  is  characteristic  of  his  devo- 
tion to  the  Renaissance  ideal.  Ck>n8ult:  Bridgett, 
Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (London, 
1891);  Hutton,  Sir  Thomas  More  (ib.,  1895); 
Seebohm,  The  Owford  Reformers  (3d  ed.,  ib., 
1887);  Nisard,  Renaissance  et  riforme  (Paris, 
1877;  Louis,  More  und  seine  Utopia  (Berlin, 
1895);  Roper,  Life  of  Sir  T.  More  (New  York, 
1905).    See  CoMMUNisii. 

MOBE^A.  The  peninsular  portion  of  Greece, 
connected  with  the  northern  half  of  the  country 
by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  It  was  known 
in  ancient  times  as  the  Peloponnesus  (q.v.),  but 
has  been  known  by  its  present  name  since  the 
Middle  Ages,  if  not  from  as  early  a  period  as  the 
fourth  century  (Map:  Greece,  D  4).  This  name 
is  usually  said  to  be  derived  from  morus^  a  mul- 
berry— the  outline  of  the  Peninsula  bearing  a  re- 
semblance to  the  leaf  of  that  tree.  Others,  how- 
ever, such  as  Fallmerayer,  trace  it  back  to  the 
Slavic  word  more,  the  sea,  which  nearly  encircles 
the  Morea.    See  Greece. 

MOB&AlS,  mfi'iAV,  Jean  (1856—).  A  French 
poet,  bom  in  Athens,  his  real  name  being 
Papadiamantopoulos.  In  1877  he  settled  in  Paris, 
and  about  1882  began  to  publish  his  verse  in  some 
of  the  newer  reviews.  His  first  volume,  Lea  syrtes 
(1884),  cleverly  parodied  by  Beauclair  under  the 
title  Les  dSliquescences^  **par  Ador6  Floupette, 
po^te  d^adent,"  brought  on  his  school  the  title 
of  *decadent.'  In  1886  Mor#as  published  Les 
cantiUnes.  Mor^as  repudiated  his  earlier  man- 
ner in  1892  for  that  of  the  School  of  Romance, 
which  urged  a  return  to  the  verbal  richness  of 
old  French  poetry.  For  such  a  task  the  'gram- 
marian poet'  with  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
early  French  diction  and  metre  was  peculiarly 
fitted.  Mortes  wrote  also:  Le  pterin  passioniis 
(1891) ;  Eriphile  (1894) ;  and  Stances  (1899  and 
1901). 


XOBEAir^  md'ry,  Adbien  (1843—).  A 
French  painter,  bom  at  Troyes,  and  a  pupil  of 
Pils.  His  spirited  genre  pictures  have  won  him 
several  mentions,  notably  a  second-class  medal 
in  1876,  one  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889,  and 
the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1892.  His 
"Duchess  de  Longueville  Instigating  the  People 
to  Rebellion"  (1886)  was  purchased  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. He  is  also  a  painter  in  water-color  and 
an  illustrator. 

M0BEAX7,  GusTAVE  (1826-98).  A  French 
painter,  bom  in  Paris.  He  studied  under  Picot, 
but  was  more  influenced  by  Delacroix,  and  his 
own  friend,  CJhass6riau.  When  he  went  to  Rome 
he  imitated  such  painters  as  Montegna  and  Si- 
gnorelli.  He  exhibited  little,  and  did  not  become 
known  until  toward  the  end  of  his  life.  The  only 
modern  painters  with  whom  he  can  be  compared 
are  Bume-Jones  and  Puvis  de  Chavannes.  He 
left  his  eight  hundred  or  more  works  in  water- 
color  and  oil  to  his  native  city  to  form  the 
Mus6e  Moreau  in  the  Rue  de  la  Rochefoucauld. 
The  most  notable  of  his  paintings  are  the  follow- 
ing: "Jason,"  **Death  and  the  Young  Man" 
(1865)  ;  "Orpheus"  (1867,  in  the  Luxembourg) ; 
"Prometheus"  (1869);  "Salome"  (1876);  "The 
Sphinx"  (1878);  "Hesiod  and  the  Muses,"  and 
"The  Apparition,"  in  the  Luxembourg.  From 
1892  to  1898  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts.  He  received  the  cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  in  1875.  Consult  Muther,  A  History  of 
Modem  Painting  (New  York,  1896). 

MOBEATTy  H£g£sippe  (1810-38).  A  French 
poet.  He  was  bom  in  Paris,  worked  as  a  type- 
setter and  teacher,  and  then  turned  his  attention 
to  literature.  He  suffered  the  greatest  priva- 
tions, and  died  in  a  hospital  just  as  his  talent 
began  to  be  appreciated.  His  works  comprise: 
La  Voulzie,  elegies,  and  Contes  d  ma  sceur, 
prose  romances  reminiscent  of  Nodier,  of  which 
the  most  notable  is  "Le  gui  de  chtoe."  His 
works  appeared  imder  the  title  of  Myosotis 
(1838),  and  his  correspondence  in  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  (Euvres  oompldtes  ( 1890-91 ) . 

MOBEAU,  Jean  Victor  ( 1763-1813 ) .  A  cele- 
brated French  general  of  the  Revolutionary  and 
Napoleonic  period.  He  was  bom  August  11,  1763, 
at  Morlaix,  in  Brittany,  and  studied  law  at 
Rennes.  In  1789  he  embraced  the  cause  of  the 
Revolution,  and  was  later  chosen  to  command  the 
battalion  of  volunteers  from  his  native  town.  He 
served  under  Dumouriez  in  1793,  and  displayed 
such  military  talent  that  in  1794  he  was  made  a 
general  of  division.  His  father  was  put  to  death 
by  the  guillotine,  but  Moreau  decided  that  he 
could  not  withdraw  from  the  service  of  his  coun- 
try. When  Pichegru  (q.v.)  fell  under  suspicion 
in  1796,  the  Directory  appointed  Moreau  to  the 
chief  command  on  the  Rhine  and  Moselle.  He 
crossed  the  Rhine  at  Kehl,  defeated  La  tour  at 
Rastatt,  and  the  Archduke  Charles  at  Neresheim, 
and  drove  the  Austrians  back  to  the  Danube ;  but, 
owing  to  the  defeat  of  Jourdan  at  Wflrzburg,  he 
found  himself  in  danger  of  being  cut  off  from  the 
Rhine,  and  was  obliged  to  make  a  desperate 
effort  to  regain  that  river,  which  he- accomplished 
in  the  face  of  great  difficulties,  fighting  two  un- 
successful battles  at  Emmendingen  and  Htiningen 
in  October.  A  suspicion  of  participation  in  the 
plots  of  Pichegru  led  to  his  being  deprived  of  his 
command  in  1797,  but  in  1799  he  succeeded 
Scherer  in  the  command  of  the  army  in  Italy.    By 


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XOBEAU. 


194 


XOBELL. 


a  retreat  conducted  with  consummate  skill  he 
saved  the  French  army  from  destruction,  though 
defeated  April  27,  1799,  by  Suvaroff  at  Cassano. 
The  Directory  deprived  him  of  the  chief  command, 
and  gave  it  to  Joubert,  but  Moreau  remained 
with  the  army,  and  after  the  death  of  Joubert  at 
Novi,  August  15,  1799,  again  assumed  the  com- 
mand, and  conducted  the  troops  back  to  France. 
The  disinterestedness  of  Moreau's  character,  his 
military  talent,  and  his  political  moderation, 
brought  him  great  popularity.  He  assisted 
Bonaparte  on  the  18th  Brumaire,  and  receiving 
the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine,  gained 
victory  after  victory  over  the  Austrians  in  the 
campaign  of  1800,  and  on  December  3d  won  the 
great  and  decisive  battle  of  Hohenlinden  (q.v.)- 
A  strong  feeling  of  mutual  distrust  now  arose 
between  Moreau  and  Bonaparte,  and  the  former 
retired  to  his  country  seat,  which  became  the 
gathering  place  of  the  discontented.  He  was 
accused  of  participation  in  the  plot  of  Pichegru 
and  Cadoudal  (q.v.)  against  the  life  of  the 
First  Ck)nsul,  and  was  arrested,  brought  to  trial, 
and  found  guilty  on  June  10,  1804,  although  the 
evidence  against  him  was  worthless.  But  Bona- 
parte could  not  venture  to  condemn  him  to  death, 
and  a  sentence  of  two  years'  imprisonment  was 
therefore  pronounced,  which  was  commuted  into 
banishment.  Moreau  went  to  America,  where  he 
settled  first  in  New  Jersey,  and  later  at  Morris- 
ville.  Pa.  Regarding  with  great  dissatisfaction  the 
whole  of  Bonaparte's  career,  he  joined  in  1813 
the  Emperor  of  Russia  and  the  King  of  Prussia 
in  the  march  against  Dresden,  where,  as  he  stood 
with  the  Emperor  Alexander  on  a  height  at 
Rftcknitz,  on  August  27th,  a  French  cannon  ball 
broke  both  his  legs.  Amputation  was  performed, 
but  he  died  at  Laun  in  Bohemia,  September  2, 
1813,  and  was  buried  in  Saint  Petersburg.  Con- 
sult: Beauchamp,  Vie  politique,  militaire  et 
priv4e  du  g4n6ral  Moreau  (Paris,  1814;  English 
translation,  London,  1814) ;  Chateauneuf,  Hie- 
toire  du  g^n^ral  Moreau  (Paris,  1814). 

MOBEATT,  Mathttbin  (1822—).  A  French 
sculptor,  bom  at  Dijon.  He  was  first  instructed 
there  by  his  father,  and  then  in  Paris,  where  he 
was  the  pupil  of  Ramey,  the  younger,  and  of 
Dumont.  Prominent  among  his  graceful  allegori- 
cal and  ideal  figures  and  groups  are  'The  Fairy 
of  the  Flowers"  (1863);  'The  Spinner"  (1861, 
Luxembourg  Museum)  ;  "Studiosa"  (1866) ; 
"Saltarella"  (1868);  "Phryne"  (1878);  "Pro- 
tection of  Childhood"  (1892).  The  statues  of 
Gregory  the  Great  and  of  Saint  Jerome,  in  the 
Church  of  the  Trinity,  Paris,  are  notable.  At  the 
salon  of  1906  he  exhibited  two  bronze  statuettes. 

MOREAU  DE  SAINT  M^BT,  de  sftN  mft'r^, 
M6d6bic  Louis  Eue  (1750-1819).  A  French 
statesman,  a  native  of  Martinique.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  in  1790,  a 
Councilor  of  State  in  1800,  and  administrator  of 
Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla  1802-06.  He 
fell  into  disgrace  with  Napoleon  in  1806,  and 
lived  in  poverty  till  1817,  when  Louis  XVIII. 
pensioned  him.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror  and 
the  Directory  he  lived  as  a  bookseller  in  Philadel- 
phia. He  published  Loie  et  constitutions  dee  co- 
lonies frangaises  de  VAm&rique  de  1550  d  1785, 
and  Description  de  Saint  Dominique  (Philadel- 
phia, 1796-98). 

MOEECAMBE,  mor^ftm.  A  popular  water- 
ing place  in  Lancashire,  England,  on  Morecambe 


Bay,  three  and  a  half  miles  northwest  of  Lan- 
caster (Map:  England,  D  2).  It  has  a  pier, 
promenade,  aquarium,  people's  palace,  electric 
lighting  plant,  etc.  Population,  in  1891,  6500; 
in  1901,  11,800. 

MOBECAMBE  BAT.  An  inlet  of  the  .'rish 
Sea,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  England  (Map: 
England,  C  2).  It  is  about  17  miles  long,  10 
miles  in  average  breadth,  and  very  shallow. 

MOEEL,,  mdr^dl  (Fr.  moHlle,  from  OHG. 
morhela,  Ger.  Morchel,  mushroom,  diminutive  ol 
OHG.  morahd,  morha,  Ger.  Mohre,  carrot),  MoT' 
ohella,  A  genus  of  fungi.  The  species,  which 
have  a  more  or  less  agreeable  smell  and  taste,, 
appear  in  the  spring  or  early  summer  among  the 
grass  under  or  near  trees  and  are  most  abundant 
in  places  that  have  been  burned  over.  The  stalk 
or  stipe  when  fresh  is  swollen,  white,  and  covered 
with  fine  granulations.  The  conical  top  is  honey- 
combed, at  first  cream-colored,  later  becoming 
yellow,  and  then  brownish  when  old  or  dried. 
Morels  are  reckoned  among  the  best  of  esculent 
fungi.  The  common  morel  ( Morchella  esoulenta) , 
perhaps  the  best  known,  is  common  in  America 
and  in  many  parts  of  Middle  and  Southern 
Europe.  Its  stalk  is  only  about  an  inch  long,  the 
pileus  is  roundish,  oval,  oblong,  or  conical, 
yellowish  or  brown.  Fresh  or  dried  it  is  nutri- 
tious, and  not  difficult  to  digest,  but  is  chiefiy 
used  in  sauces  and  gravies,  on  account  of  its 
pleasant  fiavor.  See  Colored  Plate  of  Edible 
Fungi. 

MOBELIA,  mA-rft16-&,  or  Vallaooud,  vft'- 
lyft-D6-l6i/.  The  capital  of  the  State  of  Michoa- 
can,  Mexico,  situated  in  a  mountainous  region, 
6300  feet  above  sea-level,  and  130  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Mexico  City  (Map:  Mexico,  H  8). 
The  town  lies  in  a  fertile  valley,  and  is  regularly 
built  with  many  squares  and  two  paseos  or 
promenades.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  completed  in 
1745,  and  a  State  Capitol  built  of  hewn  stone 
in  Byzantine  style;  otner  notable  buildings  are 
the  city  hall,  the  court-house,  and  the  public 
library.  It  has  also  a  number  of  educational  in- 
stitutions, the  most  important  being  the  theo- 
logical seminary  and  the  Colegio  San  Nicolas  de 
Hidalgo.  A  good  water  supply  is  obtained  by  a 
handsome  aqueduct  four  miles  long,  which  was 
constructed  in  1788.  The  chief  industries  of  the 
town  are  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  and 
tobacco.  Population,  in  1900,  37,278.  Morelia 
was  founded  under  the  name  Valladolid  in  1541, 
and  the  present  name  was  given  it  in  honor  of 
Morelos,  the  priest  and  insurgent  leader  in  the 
revolt  against  Spain,  who  was  a  native  of  the 
city. 

MOBELI/,  Gbobge  Webb  (1815-83).  Ad 
American  soldier.  He  was  bom  in  Cooperstown, 
N.  Y.,  graduated  first  in  his  class  at  West  Point 
in  1835,  served  as  assistant  engineer  from  1835 
to  1837,  and  in  June,  1837,  resigned  from  the 
service.  Subsequently  he  was  assistant  engineer 
first  of  the  projected  Charleston  and  Cincinnati 
Railroad,  and  then  of  the  Michigan  Oentral 
Railroad  from  1837  to  1839,  and  from  1842  to 
1861  practiced  law  in  New  York  City.  After 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  served  for  a 
few  months  as  a  colonel  of  New  York  militia 
and  chief  of  staff  of  Major-General  Sanford.  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  August, 
1861,   served   under   McClellan   throughout   the 


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XOBELOS  Y  PAVdlT. 


Peninsular  campaign,  and  in  July,  1862,  was  ap- 
pointed major-general  of  volunteers,  though  the 
commission,  not  being  sent  to  the  Senate  for 
confirmation,  lapsed  in  March  of  the  following 
year.  Morell  participated  in  the  second  battle  of 
BuU  Run  and  in  the  Maryland  campaiffn  of 
September,  1862,  and  commanded  the  forces 
guarding  the  Upper  Potomac  from  October  30  to 
December  16,  1862,  and  the  draft  rendezvous  at 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  from  December,  1863,  to  Au- 
gust, 1864.  In  December,  1864,  he  was  mustered 
out  of  service,  and  afterwards  until  his  death 
iived  as  a  farmer  at  Scarborough,  N.  Y. 

HOBELL^  John  Daniel  ( 1816-91 ) .  An  Enpr. 
lish  philosopher,  bom  at  Little  Baddow,  m 
Essex.  He  graduated  at  Glasgow  University  in 
1840,  took  his  M.A.  degree  a  year  later,  and  then 
went  to  Bonn,  where  he  studied  theology  and 
philosophy.  After  his  return  he  became  inde- 
pendent minister  at  Gosport,  but  three  years 
later  (1845)  resigned  the  position.  In  1846  he 
published  his  Historical  and  Critical  View  of  the 
Speculative  Philosophy  of  Europe  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  which  was  highly  praised  and 
which  led  Lord  Lansdowne  to  appoint  him  in- 
spector of  schools,  an  office  which  he  held  until 
1876.  In  1849  appeared  his  Philosophy  of  Reli- 
gion, a  work  that  was  widely  discussed.  Among 
his  other  publications  are:  a  Orammar  of  the 
English  Language  (1857),  and  On  the  Progress 
of  Society  in  England  as  Affected  hy  the  Advance- 
ment of  National  Education  (1859).  In  philos- 
ophy he  was  an  eclectic,  but  inclined  toward  ideal- 
ism, while  in  religion  he  gradually  outgrew  the 
narrow  limits  of  his  earlier  belief  until  he  came 
into  sympathy  with  all  branches  of  the  Christian 
Church.  Consult  Theobald,  Memorials  of  J.  D, 
Morell  (London,  1891). 

HOBELLA,  md-rftlyA.  A  strongly  fortified 
town  of  Kastem  Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Oas- 
tell6n,  situated  among  the  moimtains,  50  miles 
west  of  the  riouth  of  the  Ebro  (Map:  Spain,  E 
2).  It  is  built  on  a  steep  hill  in  the  midst  of  a 
rough  and  inaccessible  country,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  towers,  the  wall  being 
tripled  on  one  side.  The  population,  in  1900,  was 
7078. 

HOBELLET;  m6'r'-lft',  Andr£,  Abb6  (1727- 
1819).  A  French  author,  bom  in  Lyons.  After 
a  youth  of  poverty  and  hard  study,  he  came  into 
possession  of  a  small  annuity,  and  thenceforth 
lived  in  Paris.  He  was  in  svmpathy  with  the 
Encyclop^distes,  and  was  a  personal  friend 
of  Voltaire.  He  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Academy  in  1785,  entered  the  newly  established 
Institute  in  1803,  and  in  1808  was  named 
Deputy  from  the  Seine.  He  belonged  t»  the  school 
of  Turgot  in  political  economy,  and  •  as  one  of 
the  first  in  France  to  argue  for  free  trade.  His 
numerous  works  are  more  remarkable  tor  elo- 
quence, force,  and  vivacity  of  style  tha-  for 
original  thought.  Among  his  most  power j'ul 
pamphlets  are :  Thdorie  du  paradoxe  ( 1785  . 
against  Linquet;  Preface  de  la  comHie  des  phi 
losopheSf  ou  La  vision  de  Charles  Palissot 
(1760);  Le  cri  des  families  (1795),  a  protest 
against  the  confiscation  of  property  owned  by 
those  condemned  by  the  Revolutionary  tribunals ; 
and  Melanges  de  litt&rature  et  de  philosophic  au 
XVIIIime  sUcle  (1818).  His  other  works  in- 
clude Mimoires  sur  le  XVIIIime  sidcle,  et  la 


Revolution  ( 1821 ) .    Many  of  the  pamphlets  were 
translated  into  English. 

HOBEIiLI,  md-r6Kld,  Domenioo  (1826- 
1901).  An  Italian  painter,  bom  in  Naples.  He 
studied  at  the  Naples  Academy,  and  in  Rome  un- 
der Camillo  Guerra,  and  with  Overbeck.  He  was 
afterwards  professor  at  the  Naples  Academy 
with  Filippo  Palizzi.  He  belongs,  with  Michetti, 
to  the  realist  school  of  Naples,  a  development  of 
later  nineteenth-century  art  in  Italy,  and  was 
in  fact  the  leader  in  this  movement.  His  most 
important  paintings  are:  "Tasso  Reading  His 
Poem  to  the  Three  Eleanoras;"  "Bath  at 
Pompeii;**  "Temptation  of  Saint  Anthony" 
(1878)  ;  "Christ  in  the  Wilderness;"  "The  Marys 
Going  to  Calvary;"  and  "An  Arab  Musician." 
(>)nsult  Ashton,  Sketch  of  the  Life  and  Work  of 
Domenico  Morelli  (Boston,  1895). 

HOBEIXI,  Giovanni  (1816-91).  An  Italian 
art-critic,  known  imder  the  pseudonym  Ivan 
Lermolieff.  He  was  bom  in  Verona,  studied 
medicine  at  Munich,  Erlangen,  and  Berlin,  and 
in  1838  went  to  Neuchfttel,  where  he  assisted 
Agassiz  in  his  investigations  of  glaciers.  He 
subsequently  devoted  himself  to  art  criticism, 
his  method,  based  upon  empiric  principles,  being 
embodied  in  his  Die  Werke  italienischer  Meister 
in  den  Oalerien  von  Miinchen,  Dresden  und  Ber- 
lin (1880).  This  was  subsequently  amplified  to 
Kuhstkritische  Studien  ilher  italienisohe  Malerei 
(1890-93),  and  translated  by  Ffoulkes  under  the 
title  Italian  Painters:  Critical  Studies  (1892). 
Morelli  was  a  member  of  Parliament  1860-70  and 
was  made  a  Senator  in  1873. 

MOBELLY,  m(ifr*W.  A  French  socialist  of 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was 
bom  at  Vitry-le-Francais,  taught  there,  and  be- 
came an  abb6;  but  of  his  life  nothing  more 
definite  is  known.  His  works  include:  Le  prince 
(1761),  in  which  he  argues  for  communism;  a 
poem,  Le  naufrage  des  ties  flottantes  ou  la  Basil- 
iade  (1753),  which  describes  an  ideal  Govern- 
ment ruled  by  the  laws  of  nature;  and  Le  code 
de  la  nature  ( 1756-60) ,  a  work  long  attributed  to 
Diderot,  and  the  forerunner  of  modem  com- 
munism. Consult  Lichtenberger,  Le  socialisme 
au  XVIIIdme  siicle  (Paris,  1895). 

HOBELOS,  md-r^ads.  One  of  the  smallest 
States  of  Mexico,  situated  in  the  interior,  and 
bounded  by  the  State  of  Mexico  with  the  Federal 
District  on  the  north  and  west,  Guerrero  on  the 
west  and  south,  and  Puebla  on  the  east  (Map: 
Mexico,  J  8).  Area,  2734  square  miles.  The 
northern  part  is  extremely  mountainous  and  cut 
up  by  deep  ravines.  The  land  slopes  toward  the 
south,  where  the  agricultural  land  is  found. 
The  valleys  of  the  south  are  extremely  fertile 
and  produce  corn,  rice,  wheat,  sugar  cane,  cofl'ee, 
and  fruit.  The  State  is  traversed  by  two  railway 
lines,  and  has  a  considerable  trade.  Population, 
in  1900,  160,115.     Capital,  Cueroavaca   (q.v.). 

HOBELOS.     A  city  of  Mexico.  See  Cuautla 

DE   MORELOS. 

HOBELOS  Y  PAVdN,  mfi-ralfis  ^  p&-v6n', 
^osfe  MARfiL  (1765-1815).  A  Mexican  patriot. 
1j  ;  was  born  of  very  poor  parents  at  Valladolid, 
the  town  now  known  as  Morelia,  and  was  thirty 
year."^  old  before  he  was  able  to  secure  a  chance 
to  gel  an  education  by  entering  the  College  of 
San  1\  '^oias,  where  Hidalgo  was  rector.  He 
made  rtfrpid  progress,  entered  holy  orders,  and 


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XOBETO  Y  CABASTA. 


was  cur6  of  two  parishes  when  in  1810  his  old 
rector  began  the  revolt  against  Spain.  By  July, 
1811,  when  Hidalgo  was  shot,  Morelos  had  won 
considerable  reputation  as  a  brave  fighter  and 
safe  leader.  During  the  following  winter  he  won 
a  series  of  victories  in  the  south  and  west,  com- 
pletely  paralyzing  the  Spanish  power  for  a  time. 
From  February  19  to  May  2,  1812,  Morelos  with 
about  5500  men  held  the  town  of  Cuatla  against 
a  greatly  superior  Spanish  force  under  General 
Calleja,  and  nnally  succeeded  in  fighting  his  way 
out  of  the  town.  In  October,  1812,  he  captured 
Orizaba,  and  on  November  25th  took  Oaxaca  by 
storm.  In  August,  1813,  he  besieged  and  took 
Acapulco.  Morelos  now  set  about  the  organiza- 
tion of  an  independent  Mexican  Government.  He 
called  a  congress  at  Chilpatzingo  which  abolished 
slavery,  forbade  the  collection  of  tithes  for  re- 
ligious purposes,  and,  on  November  6,  1813,  is- 
sued a  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  Decem- 
ber Morelos  marched  to  Valladolid,  where  he 
was  attacked  and  defeated  by  Iturbide,  who 
completed  the  dispersion  of  the  independents 
by  attacking  them  again  at  Puruaran  on  January 
15,  1814.  Morelos  retired  to  Acapulco  and  again 
summoned  a  congress.  The  Royalists  followed  up 
their  advantage,  driving  the  revolutionists  from 
one  place  to  another,  until  November  5,  1815, 
when,  just  as  the  two  parties  were  preparing  for 
battle  near  Texmalaca,  a  traitor  named  Carranco 
in  the  army  of  Morelos  betrayed  the  latter  into 
the  enemy's  hands.  Morelos  was  conveyed  to  the 
City  of  Mexico,  where  he  was  delivered  over  to 
the  Inquisition,  which  condemned  him  to  do 
penance  as  '^an  unconfessed  heretic  and  a  traitor 
to  God,  the  King,  and  the  Pope."  He  was  then 
handed  back  to  the  secular  arm,  and  was  shot  on 
the  21st  or  22d  of  December,  1815.  His  remains 
at  present  repose  in  the  Cathedral  at  Mexico,  and 
his  name  is  revered  throughout  the  country  as 
one  of  the  earliest  martyrs,  with  Hidalgo,  of  the 
cause  of  Mexican  independence. 

MOBEPOBK.  ( 1 )  In  Australia,  a  caprimul- 
gine  bird  {Podargus  Cuvieri)  of  Australia  and 
Tasmania.  Like  many  other  nightjars,  this  bird 
has  a  peculiar  cry,  of  two  syllables,  resembling 
the  words  more  porky  whence  the  name.  It  is  re- 
markable for  a  habit,  when  alarmed,  of  stiffening 
itself  in  a  fixed  attitude,  sometimes  flat  on  the 
log,  or  rock,  or  fence-rail,  where  it  happens  to  be, 
and  sometimes  erect.  Then,  as  it  is  dull  gray,  it 
looks  like  an  excrescence  or  projection  from  the 
surface,  and  so  escapes  casual  observation.  An 
extended  discourse,  illustrated  by  photographic 
pictures,  will  be  found  upon  this  example  of  pro- 
tective mimicry  in  Saville-Kent's  Naturalist  in 
Australia  (London,  1897).  Several  species  be- 
long to  the  genus — all  large  birds,  and  remarka- 
ble in  structure  for  the  possession  of  a  pair  of 
powder-down  patches  on  the  back  at  the  base  of 
the  tail.     See  Plate  with  Niqhtjab. 

(2)  In  New  Zealand,  an  owl  {Spiloglaux 
yovcB-Zealandi<B) . 

MOBtBI,  mA'rft'r*',  Lours  (1643-80).  A 
French  scholar,  bom  at  Bargemont  (Provence). 
He  entered  the  Church,  and  was  made  chaplain  to 
the  Bishop  of  Apt  in  1673.  He  published  the 
first  edition  of  his  Orand  dictionnaire  historique 
ou  le  melange  curieuw  de  Vhistoire  sacrSe  et  pro- 
fane at  Lyons  in  1674.  This  work  is  still  of 
importance  from  a  biographical  point  of  view, 
and  has  often  been  translated.     The  twentieth 


edition,  printed  in  Paris  in  1759,  and  oompnaing 
ten  volumes,  is  considered  the  best. 

X0BE8NET,  mOr'nA^  A  town  and  neutral 
territoiy  of  about  1%  square  miles  on  the  borders 
of  Belgium  and  Prussia,  and  under  the  double  pro- 
tectorate of  those  countries,  about  five  milea 
southwest  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  received  an 
independent  constitution  after  the  Vienna  Con- 
gress of  1815.  With  a  burgomaster  alter- 
nately appointed  by  Belgium  and  Prussia,  with 
self-government,  and  a  polyglot  population  of 
German,  Flemish,  Dutch,  and  French,  Moresnet 
presents  many  unusually  interesting  phases  of 
social  and  political  life.'  Population,  estimated 
at  3000. 

HOBESQXJE  (Fr.  moresque,  from  It.  moresco, 
from  ML.  Moriscus,  Moorish,  from  morus,  Lat. 
Maurus,  Moor).  A  term  applied  to  the  Ara- 
besques of  Mohammedan  art,  which  formed  the 
main  element  of  its  architectural  decoration* 
See  Ababesque;  Mohammedan  Art. 

MOBET,  SiGiSMUSDO  (1838 — ).  Spanish 
statesman,  born  at  Cadiz.  He  studied  at  Madrid 
University,  where  he  subsequently  held  the  chair 
of  political  economy  and  finance.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1863,  was  minister 
of  the  colonies  under  General  Prim,  of  finance 
under  King  Amadeus,  and  of  the  interior  under 
Alfonso  XII.  He  became  head  of  a  Liberal  cabi- 
net in  December,  1905.  His  term  of  office  was 
signalized  by  the  meeting  of  the  Algeciras  confer- 
ence (see  Morocco)  and  the  marriage  of  Alfonso 
Xlll.    He  resigned  in  August,  1906. 

HOBETON  (mOr'ton)  BAT.  A  harbor  on 
the  east  coast  of  Queensland,  Australia,  formed 
inside  the  islands  of  Stradbroke  and  Moreton 
(Map:  Queensland,  H  9).  It  is  about  40  miles 
long  by  17  miles  wide,  and  receives  the  waters  of 
six  navigable  rivers.  Among  them  is  the  Brisbane, 
with  the  city  of  Brisbane  25  miles  from  its  mouth. 

HOBETON  BAT  CHESTNUT  {Castanosper- 
mum  Auatrale).  An  Australian  tree  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Leguminosae,  which  attains  a  height 
of  about  100  feet,  has  widespreading  branches, 
pinnate  leaves,  large  racemes  of  beautiful  red 
and  yellow  flowers,  and  pods  six  or  seven  inches 
in  length.  The  seeds  are  soaked  for  several  days 
in  water,  dried,  roasted,  and  pounded  into  a  coarse 
meal  which  is  used  like  flour. 

HOBETON  BAT  PINE.     See  Abaucama. 

HOBETO  T  CABASA,  mfi-rft'tA  6  kA-Bft'nyA, 
AousTiN  ( c.1618-69 ) .  A  Spanish  dramatist,  bom 
at  Madrid.  He  studied  at  Alcalft  de  Henares  and 
then  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  found  a  friend  and 
patron  in  Calderon.  A  volume  of  his  plays  ap- 
peared at  Madrid  in  1654.  Although  inferior  to 
Lope  de  Vega  and  to  Calderon,  he  yet  takes  rank 
as  one  of  the  best  dramatists  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  siglo  de  oro,  or  golden  age.  He  achieved  his 
real  success  in  the  category  of  dramas  styled 
comedias  de  capa  y  espada — that  is,  dramas  of  in- 
trigue. Moreto's  masterpiece  is  the  play  El  des- 
d^n  con  el  desd^n  (Scorn  for  Scorn).  Borrowing 
the  idea  from  Lope's  Milagros  del  desprecio,  he 
produced  a  work  better  artistically  than  that  of 
the  master,  and  most  brilliant.  In  his  Princesse 
d'Elide,  Moli^re  imitated  the  Desd6n  con  el  des- 
d&n.  Another  excellent  play  is  El  Undo  Don 
Diego,  Of  his  historical  dramas  one  of  the  most 
interesting  is  the  Rico  hombre  de  Alcald,  dealing 


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HOBGAV. 


-with  Pedro  the  Cruel  as  the  justice-loving  King. 
Consult  Comedies  eacogidas  of  Moreto  in  volume 
xxxix.  of  the  Biblioteca  de  autores  espaHoleSt 
which  also  has  L.  Femfindez  Guerra  y  Orbe'a 
essay  on  him. 

MOBETTO  DA  BBESCIA,  md  rSt'td  d& 
brSsh^A  (1498-1555).  An  Italian  painter,  whose 
real  name  was  Alessandro  Bonvicino.  He  was 
t>om  at  Brescia  in  1498^  and  obtained  his  early 
art  education  in  this  city  under  Fioravante  Fer- 
ramola.  Later  he  is  thought  to  have  received 
stimulus  from  the  works  of  Titian.  In  1521, 
when  twenty-three  years  of  age,  in  frescoes  exe* 
cuted  in  the  Chapel  of  San  Giovanni  Evangelista 
at  Brescia,  he  showed  himself  strong  in  concep* 
tion  and  handling  of  form,  and  endowed  with  a 
genius  for  color  harmony  exceptional  even  in 
the  Venetian  school.  His  works  are  pervaded  by 
-a  characteristic  silvery  tone,  which  foreshadowed 
Paul  Veronese,  but  differ  from  that  painter  in 
the  gravity  of  his  conception  and  the  reverent 
religious  feeling  in  his  sacred  compositions. 

Between  1521  and  1544  Moretto  executed  many 
paintings  in  and  about  Brescia,  where  his  works 
may  best  be  studied.  Among  the  principal  are: 
the  altar-piece  of  San  Clemen te,  Brescia,  represent* 
ing  "Saints  with  a  Choir  of  Angels;"  "The  As- 
wnsion  of  Mary,"  in  Santi  Nazaro  e  Celso;  and 
"Mary  Appearing  to  a  Shepherd  Boy,"  in  the 
Church  of  Paitone  (Province  of  Brescia).  In 
1544  he  painted  his  celebrated  "Christ  in  the 
House  of  the  Pharisee"  for  Santa  Maria  della 
Pieta,  Venice,  a  work  virile  in  presentation  and 
pleasing  in  composition.  Gther  important  works 
are  contained  in  the  galleries  of  Italy  and  North- 
em  Europe.  The  Staedel  Institute,  Frankfort, 
possesses  a  fine  altar-piece  representing  the  "En- 
throned Madonna  with  the  Four  Doctors;"  and 
the  Berlin  Museum  has  "The  Glory  of  Mary  and 
Elizabeth."  There  are  also  typical  examples  in 
the  Imperial  Gallery,  Vienna,  the  National  Gal- 
lery, London,  the  Brera,  Milan,  and  in  the 
Louvre.  Moretto  died  at  Brescia  in  1556.  Among 
his  pupils,  the  most  important  was  Giambattista 
Moroni  of  Bergamo.  Consult  Crowe  and  Caval- 
t»selle,  History  of  Painting  in  the  North  of  Italy 
(London,  1891). 

MO^BEY,  Samuel  (1762-1843).  An  Ameri- 
can inventor,  chiefly  remembered  for  his  at- 
tempts to  solve  the  problems  of  steam  navigation. 
He  was  bom  in  Hebron,  Conn.,  and  lived  in  Or- 
ford,  N.  H.,  and  Fairlee,  Vt.  In  1793,  after  sev- 
■eral  years  of  experimenting,  he  succeeded  in  con- 
structing a  small  steamboat,  which  was  moved 
by  a  wheel  at  its  prow.  It  was  exhibited  on  both 
the  Connecticut  River  and  the  Hudson,  and  it  is 
said  that  Chancellor  Livingston  made  Morey  an 
offer  of  $7000  for  the  use  of  the  invention  about 
New  York,  but  that  Morey  refused.  In  1795 
Morey  patented  a  crank-motion  steam-engine  for 
nse  in  boats.  Two  years  afterwards  he  built  at 
Bordentown,  N.  J.,  a  boat  with  paddle  wheels  on 
«ach  side,  and  operated  it  successfully  on  the  Del- 
aware. He  seemed,  in  fact,  to  have  had  the  prob- 
lems of  steam  navigation  practically  solved ;  but 
misfortunes  prevented  him  from  following  up 
his  success,  and  to  Robert  Fulton  went  the  honor 
that  might  otherwise  have  been  Morey's. 

HOBET  FOBGEBT.  In  American  political 
history,  the  forgery,  during  the  Presidential  cam- 
paign of  1880,  of  the  name  of  James  A.  Garfield, 
the  Republican  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  to 


a  letter  which  was  widely  used  for  campaign  pur- 
poses. The  letter,  which  favored  Chinese  immi* 
gration  and  purported  to  be  addressed  to  "H.  L. 
Morey,  Lynn,  Mass.,"  was  made  public  in  Truths 
a  New  York  paper,  on  October  20,  1880;  and  on 
the  22d  what  purported  to  be  a  fac-simile  of  the 
letter  was  published  in  the  same  paper.  Garfield 
immediately  denoimced  the  letter  as  a  forgery, 
but  extensive  use  was  made  of  it  by  the  L^mo- 
cratic  campaign  managers,  and  many  votes  were 
supposed  to  have  been  turned  by  it  from  the 
Republican  ticket.  Consult  Davenport,  History 
of  The  Morey  Letter  (New  York,  1884). 

MOB^FILL,  William  Richabd  (c.1830— ). 
An  English  Slavic  scholar.  He  was  educated  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  with 
a  first-class  in  classics  in  1855,  and  in  1889  be- 
came reader  of  Russian.  He  became  professor 
of  Slavonic  languages,  and  was  appointea  curator 
of  the  Taylor  Institute.  His  excellent  works  on 
Slavic  literature,  language,  and  history  include: 
grammars  of  Polish  ( 1884) ,  Servian  ( 1887) ,  Rus- 
sian (1889),  and  Czech  (1898) ;  Russia  (1881)  ; 
Slavonic  Literature  (1883);  Story  of  Russia 
(1891)  ;  Story  of  Poland  (1893) ;  and  a  History 
of  Russia  from  the  Birth  of  Peter  the  Great  to 
Nicholas  11,   (1902). 

MOBQAGNI,  mOr-ga'nyft,  Giovanni  Bat- 
TISTA  (1682-1771).  A  celebrated  Italian  patho- 
logical anatomist,  bom  at  Forli  in  Romagna. 
He  studied  at  Bologna,  graduating  in  both  medi- 
cine and  philosophy  in  1701.  In  his  twenty-third 
year  he  assumed  the  presidency  of  an  independent 
medical  school.  In  1715  he  was  appointed  to  fill 
the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Padua,  where  he  re- 
mained and  performed  his  life  work  as  a  pathol- 
ogist. He  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  pathological  anatomy,  and  his  book  on  the 
Seats  and  Causes  of  Disease  has  remained  a  clas- 
sic. Morgagni  became  known  wherever  the  art  of 
medicine  was  known  and  practiced.  He  was 
made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
in  1724;  of  the  French  Academy  of  Science  in 
1731 ;  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1735;  and  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in 
1754.  His  more  important  works  are:  Adversaria 
Anatomica,  published  in  six  parts,  the  first  at 
Bologna  and  Padua  (1706-19;  Leyden,  1741); 
In  Aurelium  Celsum  et  Quintum  Serenum  (Pa- 
dua, 1704  and  1721)  ;  Opuscula  Miscellanea 
(Leyden,  1763)  ;  De  Sedihus  et  Causis  Morhorum 
per  Anatomen  Indagatis  (Bassano,  1761).  His 
Opera  Omnia  appeared  at  Bassano  in  1765. 

MOB^GAN,  THE  Fat.  An  important  figure  fn 
mediaeval  romance,  whose  origin  is  probably  to 
be  traced  to  CJeltic  mythology.  In  the  Vita  Mer- 
lini,  ascribed  to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  she  is 
mentioned  as  the  eldest  of  nine  sisters  who  in- 
habit the  fortunate  'Insula  Pomorum.'  She  is 
said  to  be  very  learned  in  the  art  of  healing, 
and  to  be  endowed  besides  with  the  mysterious 
powers  of  changing  shape  and  of  flying  like  a  bird. 
To  her,  according,  to  the  same  account,  the 
wounded  Arthur  was  borne  after  the  battle  of 
Camlan.  Morgan  played  a  similar  part  in  ro- 
mances of  other  cycles.  Thus,  in  the  story  of 
"Ogier  le  Danois,"  she  receives  the  aged  Ogier 
in  the  island  of  Avalon  and  restores  him  to 
youth;  and  in  the  "Orlando  Innamorato*'  of 
Boiardo  there  is  a  long  account  of  her  splendid 
abode  at  the  bottom  of  a  lake.  In  Italy,  her 
name  has  been  popularly  applied  to  a  form  of 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XOBQAK. 


798 


MOBQAK. 


mirage.  (See  Fata  Morgana.)  In  the  Celtic 
romances  she  is  said  to  be  a  sister  of  King 
Arthur.  The  origin  of  her  name  and  character 
is  imcertain.  It  has  been  proposed  to  identify 
the  nine  sisters  of  the  'Insula  Pomorum'  with 
the  nine  priestesses  of  Sena  described  in  the  an- 
cient accoimt  of  Pomponius  Mela.  From  a  dif- 
ferent point  of  view  Morgan  has  been  connected 
with  the  Irish  Muirgen,  better  known  by  the 
name  Lihan.  Morgan,  like  Muirgen,  may  mean 
'sea-bom/  and  both  persons  have  something  to 
do  with  the  world  beneath  the  waves.  But  this 
theory  (proposed  by  Professor  Rhys)  will  not 
accoimt  for  all  the  features  of  the  story.  The 
whole  subject  has  recently  been  investigated  in 
an  elaborate  study  by  Dr.  L.  A.  Paton,  who  holds 
that  Morgan's  name  and  part,  at  least,  of  her 
characteristics  are  derived  from  the  Irish  ifor- 
rigu,  a  kind  of  battle-goddess.  Consult  Miss  Pa- 
ton's  dissertation,  ;Sf^udie«  in  the  Fairy  Mythology 
of  Arthurian  Romance,  a  Radcliffe  College  mono- 
graph (Boston,  1903).  For  Rhys's  view  consult 
his  Arthurian  Legend  (London,  1887). 

MOBGAH,  Conwat  Llotd  (1852—).  A 
British  zoologist,  born  in  London.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Royal  Grammar  School  and  the 
Royal  College  of  Science.  From  1878  to  1884  he 
was  lecturer  in  English  and  physical  science  in 
the  Diocesan  College,  Rondesbosch,  Cape  Colony, 
and  in  the  latter  year  became  professor  of  zo- 
ology and  geology  in  University  College,  Bristol. 
In  1887  he  was  made  principal  of  University  Col- 
lege, and  became  widely  known  as  a  lecturer  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  His  pub- 
lications include:  Animal  Biology  (1887)  ;  Ani- 
mal Life  and  Intelligence  (1890);  Animal 
Sketches  ( 1891 ) ;  Psychology  for  Teachers 
(1895)  ;  Habit  and  Instinct  (1896) ;  Animal  Be- 
havior (1900);  Introduction  to  Comparative 
Psychology  (1901). 

MOBGAN;  Daniel  (1736-1802).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  prominent  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 
He  was  bom  in  Hunterdon  County,  N.  J.,  re- 
moved to  Virginia  in  1753,  served  as  a  teamster 
under  Braddock  in  1755,  and  during  an  Indian 
campaign  three  years  later  was  seriously 
wounded.  He  moved  to  Winchester  in  1762  and 
occupied  himself  with  farming  and  stock-rais- 
ing, but  served  as  a  lieutenant  in  Pontiac's  War 
and  as  a  captain  in  Lord  Dunmore's  War.  In 
1775  he  was  put  in  command  of  a  company  of 
Virginia  riflemen,  with  whom  he  joined  Washing- 
ton at  Cambridge  in  July.  Accompanying  Ar- 
nold's expedition  against  Quebec,  he  served  with 
great  eflSciency  and  gallantry,  both  on  the  march 
and  in  the  attack  of  December  31,  1775,  when  he 
was  captured  by  the  enemy.  He  was  regularly 
exchanged  before  the  close  of  1776;  was  appointed 
colonel  of  a  Virginia  regiment,  and  m  1777 
played  a  most  important  part  in  the  campaign 
against  Burgoyne.  In  1778  he  served  in  New 
Jersey  imder  Washington,  and  in  June,  1779, 
dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  Congress  as  re- 
gards promotions,  he  resigned;  though  in  Sep* 
tember,  1780,  he  joined  Gates  at  Hillsboro',  N.  C, 
as  a  brigadier-general.  He  was  conspicuous  for 
his  ability  and  energy  throughout  the  Southern 
campaign,  and  was  in  chief  command  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Cowpens  (q.v.),  where  he  defeated  Tarle- 
ton;  but,  owing  to  bodily  infirmities,  he  was 
forced  to  withdraw  from  the  army  in  August, 
1781.    After  the  war  he  devoted  himself  chiefiy 


to  farming,  though  in  1794  for  a  time,  during  the 
Whisky  Insurrection,  he  served  as  a  major- 
general,  and  in  1796  he  was  elected  to  Congress. 
He  died  at  Winchester,  Va.,  July  6,  1802.  Con- 
sult: Graham,  Life  of  General  Daniel  Morgan  of 
the  Virginia  Line  (New  York,  1856)  ;  and  Mc- 
Conkey,  The  Hero  of  Cowpens  (New  York,  2d  ed., 
1885). 

XOBGAV,  Edwin  Dennison  (1811-83).  An 
American  politician.  Governor  of  New  York  from 
1869  to  1863.  He  was  bom  at  Washington, 
Berkshire  County,  Mass.;  at  seventeen  he  re- 
moved to  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  in  1836  he  settled 
in  New  York  City,  where  he  met  with  great  suc- 
cess as  a  merchant.  From  1849  to  1853  he  was 
a  member  of  the  State  Senate.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  first  national  convention  of  the  Republican 
Party  at  Philadelphia,  and  was  one  of  the  vice- 
presidents  of  that  assembly.  His  high  standing 
as  a  business  man  led  to  his  being  chosen  chair- 
man of  the  Republican  National  0>mmittee.  He 
retained  the  position  until  1864,  and  ably  man- 
aged the  first  three  national  campaigns  in  which 
the  party  participated.  In  1858  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  York,  and  was  reelected  in 
1860.  In  the  latter  term  it  fell  to  him  to  super- 
vise and  control  the  sending  of  New  York's  quota 
of  troops  to  the  front  in  defense  of  the  Union, 
and  when  he  left  office  in  1863  more  than  223,000 
volunteers  had  been  enlisted  in  the  Federal  ser- 
vice. In  1861,  in  order  that  he  might  better  carry 
out  the  Administration's  desires.  New  York  State 
was  made  a  military  district,  and  he  was  placed 
in  command  with  rank  of  major-general.  From 
1863  to  1869  he  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  in  1872  he  was  again  made 
chairman  of  the  Republican  National  Committee. 

MOBOAH,  FoBT.    See  Fobt  Morgan. 

MOBQAH,  Sir  Gbobgb  Osbobne  (1826-97). 
An  English  lawyer  and  Liberal  politician.  He 
was  bom  at  Grothenburg,  Sweden;  studied  at 
Oxford,  where  he  won  the  Newdigate  Prize  in 
1846;  graduated  at  Worcester  in  1848,  and  was 
civil-law  fellow  at  University  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  was  intimate  with  Arthur  Penrh3m 
Stanley,  Sellar,  and  Clough.  Morgan  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1853.  He  was  elected  to  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1868,  and  zealously  befriended 
ecclesiastical  and  educational  reform  and  the 
amendment  of  English  land  laws.  In  1880  he 
was  appointed  to  Gladstone's  Cabinet  as  judge 
advocate,  and  in  this  post  carried  an  army  dis- 
cipline bill  which  did  away  with  fiogging  (1881). 
He  became  Under  Secretary  for  the  Colonies  in 
1886,  remained  in  the  House  of  Commons  until 
his  death,  and  held  the  leadership  of  the  Welsh 
party.    He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1892. 

MOBGAN,  Geobge  Washboubne  (1822-92). 
An  English- American  oi^nist,  bom  in  Glouces- 
ter, England.  He  was  a  pupil  of  John  Amott, 
organist  of  Gloucester  Cathedral,  where  from 
1834  to  1844  he  was  the  assistant  organist. 
After  other  services  he  removed  to  New  York 
City  in  1853,  and  was  there  organist  successively 
of  *  Saint  Thomas's  (1854-56),  Grace  Church 
(1855-68),  Saint  Ann's  Roman  Catholic  (1868- 
69),  and  Saint  Stephen's  Roman  Catholic  (1869- 
70) .  In  1870-82  he  was  organist  of  the  Brooklyn 
Tabernacle  (Dr.  Talmage's  church),  in  1886-88 
of  the  Marble  Collegiate  Church  of  New  York. 
His  works  include  music  for  pianoforte  and  for 
the  organ,  ninety-seven  vocal  compositions,  and 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


XOBOAN. 


799 


HOBQAN. 


an  anthem  for  quartet,  chorus,  and  orchestra 
(1851). 

HOBQAN^  Geobge  WASHmoTON  (1820-93). 
An  American  soldier,  bom  in  Washington  Coim- 
ty,  Pa.  In  1841  he  entered  West  Point,  but  left 
it  before  graduating,  and  began  the  practice  of 
law  in  Mount  Vernon,  Ohio.  Upon  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Mexican  War  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  Second  Ohio  Volunteers,  and  later 
became  colonel  of  the  Fifteenth  United  States 
Infantry.  For  gallantry  at  Ck)ntreras  and 
Churubusco  the  Ohio  Legislature  on  his  return 
brevetted  him  brigadier-general  and  gave  him 
a  vote  of  thanks.  He  was  appoint^  United 
States  consul  to  Marseilles  in  1866,  and  from 
1858  to  1861  was  United  States  Minister  to 
Portugal.  Returning  home  upon  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volimteers,  and  served  for  a  time 
under  General  Buell.  He  was  then  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  Seventh  Division  of  the  Army  of 
the  Ohio;  was  with  Sherman  at  Vicksburg,  and 
later  led  the  expedition  that  captured  Fort 
Hindman  in  Arkansas.  Owing  to  ill  health,  he 
resigned  from  the  army  in  1863.  He  was  elect- 
ed to  Congress  in  1868  and  1870  by  the  Demo- 
crats. 

MOBQAN,  Sir  Hbnbt  (c.  1635-88).  The  most 
famous  of  English  buccaneers,  born  at  Llan- 
rhynny,  Glamorganshire,  Wales.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  kidnaped  at  Bristol  when  a  boy,  and 
sold  as  a  servant  in  Barbados,  whence  after  a 
time  he  worked  his  way  to  Jamaica.  There  he 
joined  the  buccaneers,  participated  in  several 
of  their  expeditions,  and  by  1663  was  in  com- 
mand of  a  privateer  of  his  own.  In  1668  Morgan 
was  sent  by  Modyford,  Lieutenant-Crovemor  of 
Jamaica,  to  Cuba.  He  took  and  sacked  Puerto 
Prfncipe,  and  then  sailed  to  Puerto  Bello,  Pana- 
ma, which  he  captured  after  a  brilliant  attack. 
After  levying  a  heavy  ransom  Morgan  sailed 
for  Jamaica.  Later  in  the  year  he  led  an  expedi- 
tion which  ravaged  the  entire  Cuban  coast,  and 
in  January,  1669,  with  a  fleet  of  eight  ships,  he 
started  on  his  famous  expedition  against  Mara- 
caibo.  The  capture  and  sack  of  the  town  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  greatest  excesses  on  the  part  of  the 
buccaneers,  who  were  surprised  in  their  orgies  by 
the  arrival  of  three  Spanish  ships  of  war.  Mor- 
gan assembled  his  half-drunken  comrades, 
manned  his  ships,  and  after  parleying  with  the 
Spanish  commander  suddenly  attacked  him,  to- 
tally defeated  him,  and  escaped.  Returning  to 
Jamaica,  he  was  lightly  reproved  by  Modyford, 
and  was  at  once  commissioned  'commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  ships  of  war  in  Jamaica.'  In 
August,  1670,  he  ravaged  the  Cuban  and  main- 
land coasts,  and  in  January,  1671,  he  captured 
and  plundered  the  city  of  Panama,  one  of  the 
richest  in  Spanish  America.  On  February  14th 
Morgan  withdrew  and  embarked  for  Jamaica. 
The  attack  had  been  made  after  a  peace  had 
been  arranged  between  England  and  Spain,  and 
in  April,  1672,  Morgan  was  sent  to  England  on 
a  British  frigate ;  but  he  took  enough  gold  along 
with  him  to  secure  his  vindication,  eventually 
receiving  knighthood  and  high  favors  from  the 
King,  and  in  December,  1674,  was  sent  back  to 
Jamaica  with  Lord  Vaughan,  the  new  (governor, 
as  Lieutenant-Governor  and  commander-in-chief 
of  his  Majesty's  forces  in  the  colony.  There  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  comparative 


quiet,  and  at  two  different  periods  served  mm 
Acting  Governor. 

Consult:  Esquemeling,  Buccaneers  of  Amerioa 
(1684),  an  interesting  contemporary  account  by 
one  of  Morgan's  lieutenants,  reprinted  in  the 
"Adventure  Series"  (London,  1891);  Bumey, 
History  of  Buccaneers  in  America  (London, 
1816;  reprinted  1902);  Hutcheson,  Sir  Henry 
Morgan  (1890);  Howard  Pyle,  Buccaneers  of 
America  (1891) ;  Frank  R.  Stockton,  Buccaneers 
and  Pirates  of  Our  Coast  (1898). 

MOBGAN,  Henbt  James  ( 1842- ) .  A  Cana- 
dian writer,  bom  in  Quebec.  He  was  educated 
at  Morrin  (3olle^,  in  his  native  city,  and  during 
the  administration  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin  entered 
the  public  service  as  keeper  of  the  State  records^ 
Afterwards  he  became  chief  clerk  in  the  Depart* 
ment  of  State,  and  in  1895  retired  on  a  pension. 
Among  his  publications  are  the  Canadian  Parlia- 
mentary Companion  (1862) ;  the  Dominion  An- 
nual Register  and  Review  (1878);  Tour  of 
H,  R,  H.  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  Canada  and  the 
United  States  (1860);  Sketches  of  Celebrated 
Canadians  (1862);  The  Industrial  Politics  of 
America  (1864) ;  The  Bench  and  Bpr  of  Canada 
(1878) ;  and  Canadian  Men  and  Women  of  the- 
Times   (1898). 

XOBGAN,  mdr'gftiT^,  Jaoques  de  (1857—). 
A  French  archseologist,  bom  at  Huisseau-sur- 
Cosson,  Loir-et-Cher.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Paris  Ecole  des  Mines,  and  after  a  trip  in  the- 
Indies  (1882)  and  an  expedition  through  the- 
peninsula  of  Malacca  (1884),  he  spent  three 
years  in  Southern  Russia,  the  Caucasus,  and 
Turkey.  In  1891  he  was  sent  to  Egypt  as  di- 
rector-general of  the  French  antiquarian  ser- 
vice. There  he  made  valuable  discoveries  at 
Ombos  and  Kamak.  Transferred  to  Persia  in 
1897,  he  explored  the  Pushti  Kuh  range  and 
Mesopotamia.  His  works  include:  Recherchee 
sur  les  origines  des  peuples  du  Caucase  (1889) ; 
Description  du  temple  d'Ombos  (1894) ;  Fouilles 
d  Dahcho^r  (1895) ;  Recherches  sur  Vorigine  de 
VEgypte  (1896-97);  and  Une  mission  en  Perse 
(1892-1900). 

XOB^GAN,  James  Applbton  (1845 — ).  Ad 
American  lawyer  and  author,  bom  in  Portland,. 
Maine.  He  graduated  in  arts  at  Racine  College,. 
Wisconsin  (1867),  and  in  law  at  Columbia 
(1869),  and  practiced  from  1871  in  New  York 
City,  where  he  founded  the  Shakespeare  Society 
(1885),  of  which  he  was  continuously  elected 
president.  He  edited  its  publication  in  twenty 
volumes,  Bankside  Shakespeare  (1888-92),  where- 
in the  oldest  versions  of  the  text  are  compared 
with  a  view  to  showing  how  the  plays  as  they 
now  stand  have  grown  from  Shakespeare's  time, 
and  that  he  was  merely  the  most  potent  factor 
in  their  evolution.  In  defense  of  this  theory 
Morgan  had  already  published  The  Shakespearean 
Myth  (1880),  Some  Shakespearean  Commenta- 
tors (1885),  and  Shakespeare  in  Fact  and  Criti- 
cism (1884).  He  also  published:  Selections  of 
Macaronic  Poetry  { 1870)  ;  The  Law  of  Literature 
(1874)  ;  Legal  Maofims  (1877)  ;  The  People  and 
the  Railways  (1888)  ;  and  other  legal  treatises. 
As  a  lawyer  he  became  associated  with  various 
railroads. 

HOBGAN,  John  Hunt  ( 1825-64) .  An  Amer- 
ican soldier,  prominent  on  the  Confederate  side 
in  the  Civil  War.  He  was  born  at  Huntsville, 
Ala.  About  five  years  later  his  father  removed 
to   a   farm   near   Lexington,   Ky.     During  the 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


HOBGAN. 


800 


HOBOAH. 


Mexican  War  Morgan  became  first  lieutenant  of 
Colonel  Marshairs  Kentucky  regiment  of  cavalry, 
but  saw  little  active  service.  Though  he  had  a 
proeperouB  manufacturing  business,  in  1861  be 
abandoned  it  and  escaped  to  the  CoDfederate 
lines  with  about  two  hundred  men  and  the  guns 
of  the  militia  company  of  which  he  was  captain. 
At  first  he  did  irregular  duty,  chiefiy  scouting, 
but  was  later  made  captain  and  placed  in  com- 
mand of  three  companies  of  cavalry  called  Mor- 
^in*s  Squadron.  With  these  he  did  duty  in 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  to  some  extent  in 
Alabama.  He  organised  the  Second  Cavalry  at 
Chattanooga,  in  April,  1862,  becoming  colonel. 
During  the  summer  he  served  with  General 
Bragg  in  Tennessee,  and  captured  Lexington, 
Ky.  His  success  in  daring  and  unexpected  raids 
was  so  great  that  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  a 
t:avalry  brigade,  and  after  promotion  to  briga- 
dier-general made  the  'Christmas  Raid*  into 
Kentucky,  for  which  he  was  thanked  by  the 
Confederate  Congress.  In  June,  1863,  he  was 
ordered  to  attempt  to  draw  off  Roeecrans  from 
Tennessee  by  an  expedition  into  Kentucky.  He 
exceeded  his  orders,  and  with  about  2500  men 
crossed  the  Ohio  River  into  Indiana  and  swept 
around  Cincinnati,  closely  pursued  by  Generals 
Hobson  and  Shackelford,  and  opposed  every- 
where by  the  militia.  A  sudden  rise  in  the  Ohio 
River  allowed  gimboats  to  reach  Buffington  Isl- 
and and  prevented  him  from  recroesing  the  river. 
Here  about  700  of  his  men  were  taken  prisoners, 
two  companies  succeeded  in  crossing  the  river, 
and  he  with  the  remainder  set  out  toward  the 
Pennsylvania  border  to  join  General  Lee.  After 
an  exciting  chase  he  was  captured,  and  was  after- 
wards confined  in  the  Ohio  State  Prison  at 
Columbus.  On  November  27th,  with  a  few  com- 
panions, he  escaped,  and  reached  the  Confed- 
erate lines  in  safety.  In  January,  1864,  he  was 
authorized  to  reorganize  his  cavalry,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  Department  of  Southwest  Vir- 
ginia. When  relieved  he  resumed  his  inde- 
pendent command,  and  captured  Mount  Sterling 
and  Cynthiana  in  Kentucky  in  June,  but  was 
badly  defeated  by  General  Burbridge.  On  Sep- 
tember 4th,  in  Greenville,  Tenn.,  he  was  be- 
trayed by  an  inmate  of  the  house  in  which  he 
was  sleeping,  and  was  shot  while  attempting  to 
escape.  General  Morgan  cared  little  for  formal 
military  tactics;  but  in  ability  to  strike  silently 
and  unexpectedly  and  escape  before  an  alarm 
could  be  raised,  he  has  been  excelled  by  few  lead- 
ers of  cavalry.  While  he  destroyed  public  prop- 
erty, burned  bridges,  and  usually  took  the  best 
horses  in  the  country,  the  outrages  committed 
by  him  have  been  much  exaggerated.  Consult: 
Duke,  History  of  Morgan's  Cavalry  (Cincinnati, 
1867),  and  Johnson  and  Buel  (eds.).  The  Bat- 
tles and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (New  York, 
1887). 

HOBOAN,  John  Pierpont  (1837—).  An 
American  banker  and  financier,  the  son  of  J.  S. 
Morgan  (q.v.),  a  well-known  banker.  He  was 
born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  was  educated  at  the 
English  High  School,  Boston,  and  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  GSttingen,  Germany.  In  1857  he  returned 
to  America,  and  entered  the  banking  house  of 
Duncan,  Sherman  &  Co.,  in  New  York  City.  In 
1860  he  became  an  American  agent  for  George 
Peabody  &  Co.,  of  London,  and  in  1864  became 
ti  partner  in  the  firm  of  Dabney,  Morgan  &  Co., 
dealers  in   investment  securities.     In    1871    he 


entered  as  a  partner  the  banking  firm  of  Drexel, 
Morgan  &  Co.,  which  later  was  changed  to  the 
firm  of  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.  Shortly  after  the 
organization  of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund 
he  was  chosen  treasurer  and  financial  adviser 
of  the  trustees.  As  a  financier  he  signalized 
himself  particularly  in  the  line  of  reorganization 
and  comoination.  The  United  States  Steel  Cor- 
poration, the  Northern  Securities  Company,  and 
the  Atlantic  shipping  combination  are  examples 
of  his  genius  in  that  direction.  In  1895  he  or- 
ganized the  syndicate  that  took  up  the  United 
States  bonds  issued  to  increase  the  ffold  reserve. 
He  made  munificent  gifts  to  hospitals  and  other 
institutions  in  New  York  City,  and  to  the  Har- 
vard Medical  School. 

MOBQAN,  John  Ttleb  ( 1824— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can politician,  bom  at  Athens,  Tenn.  He  was 
educated  in  Alabama,  whither  he  removed  with 
his  parents  in  1833.  There  he  studied  law,  and 
in  1845  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  early  won 
wide  repute  as  a  lawyer  and  campaign  speaker, 
and  in  1861  was  a  delate  from  Dallas  County 
to  the  Alabama  State  Convention  which  passed 
the  ordinance  of  secession,  and  in  May  of  the 
same  year  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Fifth 
Alabama  Infantry,  of  which  he  ultimately  be- 
came lieutenant-colonel.  In  1862  he  recruited 
the  Fifty-first  Alabama  Regiment  and  became 
its  colonel.  In  the  next  year  he  was  promoted 
to  be  briffadier-general,  and  in  this  capacity 
served  with  considerable  distinction.  After  the 
war  he  resumed  his  law  practice  at  Selma,  Ala., 
and  again  entered  politics  in  1876  as  an  elector- 
at-large  on  the  Tilden  ticket.  In  1877  he  waa 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  of  which 
body  he  remained  a  member,  receiving  his  fifth 
reflection  in  November,  1900.  For  many  years 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Democratic  Party  in  the 
debates  in  the  Upper  House  of  Congress,  he 
showed  himself  particularly  interested  in  foreign 
relations,  and  served  for  some  time  as  chairman 
of  the  Senate  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs. 
He  was  a  vigorous  and  persistent  advocate  of 
the  Nicaraguan  canal  route  in  preference  to  the 
route  across  Panama. 

MOBGAN,  Junius  Spenseb  (1813-90).  An 
American  financier,  bom  at  Holyoke,  Mass.; 
father  of  John  Pierpont  Morgan.  After  some 
years  in  the  dry-goods  business  he  became,  in 
1854,  a  partner  in  the  English  firm  of  George 
Peabody  &  Co.  Ten  years  later  he  succeeded 
Peabody  as  head  of  the  firm,  and  changed  its 
name  to  J.  S.  Morgan  &  Co.  Under  his  direction 
it  became  one  of  the  leading  banking  houses  of 
the  world.  Morgan  left  a  fortune  of  nearly  $10,- 
000,000.  He  was  a  munificent  church  member, 
and  donated  largely  to  Trinity  College. 

MOBOAN,  Lady  (Sydney  OwENSON)  (?1783- 
1859).  A  novelist,  daughter  of  Robert  Owen- 
son,  a  theatrical  manager,  and  of  his  wife, 
Jane  Mill.  She  was  bom  in  Dublin,  on  Christ- 
mas Day,  1785,  if  'we  are  to  believe  her. 
Croker  mischievously  alleged  that  she  was  bom 
on  the  Dublin  packet  in  1775.  For  a  while  she 
mingled  with  theatrical  people,  or  with  the 
variegated  society  frequented  by  her  father  in 
Dublin.  Her  father's  aff'airs  becoming  involved, 
the  clever  girl  resolved  to  support  the  family, 
first  as  governess  and  then  as  author.  In  1812 
she  married  Thomas  Charles  Morgan,  a  distin- 
guished surgeon,  who  was  knighted  on  the  occa- 


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XOBGAN. 


801 


XOBGAK. 


flion.  Though  the  Morgans  lived  for  the  most 
part  in  Dublin,  they  made  two  Continental  tours, 
and  often  visited  London,  where  they  settled  in 
1839.  For  her  services  to  literature  a  Govern- 
ment pension  was  granted  to  Lady  Morgan  in 
1837.  She  died  April  14,  1859.  Throughout  her 
life  Lady  Morgan  was  widely  known  in  society 
for  her  wit  and  her  affectations.  Her  works,  com- 
prising novels,  comic  operas,  travels,  and  biog- 
raphies, were  savagely  attacked  by  the  reviewers, 
but  they  brought  her  about  £26,000.  They  were 
indeed  ephemeral.  Among  her  novels  are:  Saint 
Clair,  or  the  Heiress  of  Desmond  (1804),  a 
sorry  imitation  of  Goethe's  Sorrows  of  Werther; 
The  Wild  Irish  Girl,  a  silly  rhapsodical  book 
not  without  descriptive  power  (1806)  ;  Florence 
McCarthy  (1816);  and  The  O'Briens  and  the 
O' Flaherties  (1827).  Of  her  travels,  France 
( 1817 )  was  much  read  and  criticised.  Her  main 
right  to  consideration  is  that  she  wrote  English 
words  for  Irish  melodies,  an  example  soon 
followed  to  their  great  advantage  by  Thomas 
Moore  and  Stevenson.  Consult:  Fitzpatrick, 
Lady  Morgan  (London,  1860),  and  Memoirs  of 
Lady  Morgan  (an  autobiography),  edited  by 
Dixon   (London,  1862). 

MOBGAN,  Lewis  Henby  (1818-81).  An 
American  ethnologist,  born  near  Aurora,  N.  Y., 
November  21,  1818.  He  was  graduated  from 
Union  College,  New  York,  in  1840,  and  after  a 
course  in  law,  completed  in  1844,  he  formed  a 
successful  partnership  with  his  classmate,  after- 
wards Judge  George  F.  Danforth,  in  the  city  of 
Rochester.  No  sooner  had  he  left  college  than 
he  organized  a  society  of  young  men  in  Aurora 
to  be  styled  'The  Grand  Order  of  the  Iroquois.' 
The  limits  of  the  Grand  Order  were  to  be  the  ter- 
ritory anciently  occupied  by  the  Iroquois,  and 
branch  societies  were  to  be  established  wherever 
an  Iroquois  tribe  was  known  to  have  lived,  with 
chapters  standing  for  the  Indian  gentes.  To  show 
his  profound  interest  in  the  organization,  young 
Morgan  went  and  lived  among  the  existing  tribes, 
in  order  to  master  their  social  organizations  and 
forms  of  government.  Mgrgan's  scientific  inter- 
ests assumed  a  more  substantial  form  in  the  now 
celebrated  work,  The  League  of  the  Iroquois  (new 
ed.,  1905) ,  in  which  the  author,  unconscious  of  the 
immense  diffusion  of  the  system,  traced  the  social 
organization,  government,  daily  occupations,  and 
customs  of  this  wonderful  league.  During  this 
early  period  Morgan  also  studied  and  described 
the  Iroquois  art  products  and  implements  of 
daily  life  in  the  cabinet  of  natural  history  in 
Albany. 

In  1856  Morgan  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Henry  and  Agassiz,  who  warmly  urged  him  to 
continue  his  studies.  In  1858,  during  a  visit 
to  Marquette  on  business,  Morgan  discovered, 
in  visiting  a  camp  of  Ojibwa,  that  their  system  of 
kinship,  list  of  gentes,  and  gentile  organization 
were  essentially  the  same  as  among  the  Iroquois. 
This  was  the  revelation  that  determined  Morgan's 
enduring  fame.  In  1869  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution published  the  result  of  eight  years*  un- 
interrupted research,  travel,  and  correspondence, 
his  System  of  Consanguinity  and  Affinity  of  the 
Human  Family,  a  work  essential  to  all  studies 
on  primitive  sociology.  His  Ancient  Society 
(1877)  was  a  comprehensive  and  philosophical 
work,  the  result  of  twenty  years'  pursuit  of  a 
unique  and  engrossing  inquiry.  The  author  in 
this  work  divides  on  certain  classific  concepts 


the  progress  of  culture  into  seven  stages — Lower 
Savagely,  Middle  Savagery,  Upper  Savagery, 
Lower  Barbarism,  Middle  Barbarism,  Upper 
Barbarism,  and  Civilization. 

MOBGAir,  Matthew  Somebville  (1839-90). 
An  American  artist,  born  in  London,  England. 
He  was  originally  a  scene  painter,  but  afterwards 
became  artist  and  correspondent  for  the  IlluS' 
trated  London  News,  and  subsequently  editor  and 
proprietor  of  the  Tomahawk,  Many  of  his  best 
comic  drawings  were  done  for  this  journal.  Mor- 
gan, Bumand,  Gilbert,  and  others  founded  Fun, 
to  which  Morgan  contributed  a  number  of  car- 
toons on  the  American  Civil  War.  Meanwhile  he 
had  not  given  up  his  theatrical  interests,  and 
after  he  came  to  this  country  in  1870,  as  special 
artist  for  Frank  Leslie,  the  publisher,  he  waa 
theatrical  manager  in  New  York  City  for  several 
years.  He  also  managed  a  lithograph  concern  in 
Cincinnati  (1880-85),  and  while  in  that  city 
established  the  Matt  Morgan  Pottery  Company, 
and  formed  the  Art  Students'  League.  He  re- 
moved to  New  York  City  in  1888. 

HOBGAN,  Thomas  Hunt  (1866—).  An 
American  embryologist,  born  in  Lexington,  Ky. 
He  graduated  at  the  State  College  of  Kentucky 
in  1886,  received  his  Ph.D.  degree  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins in  1891,  and  was  Bruce  fellow  there  in 
1891-92.  In  1892  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  biology  at  Bryn  Mawr.  His  work  includes 
highly  important  researches  in  the  field  of 
embryology  and  regeneration,  published  in  vari- 
ous monographs,  and  in  such  books  as  The  De^ 
velopment  of  the  Frog's  Egg  (1897)  and  Re- 
generation  ( 1 90 1 ) . 

HOBQAN,  William  (C.1775-C.1826).  An. 
American  Mason,  whose  disappearance  under  pe- 
culiar circumstances  in  1826  caused  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Anti-Masonic  Party.  He  was  bom 
Erobably  in  Culpeper  County,  Va.,  and  is  said  to 
ave  served  unaer  (jfeneral  Jackson  in  the  defense, 
of  New  Orleans,  and  afterwards  settled  in  York, 
Upper  Canada,  removing  thence  to  Batavia,  N.  Y. 
In  1826,  shortly  after  news  had  spread  abroad 
that  he  intended,  in  conjunction  with  one  David 
C.  Miller,  to  publish  a  book  exposing  the  secrets 
of  Freemasonry,  he  suddenly  disappeared,  and, 
despite  much  search,  was  never  seen  again.  It 
was  charged  that  he  had  been  kidnapped  and 
murdered  oy  Masons,  but  whether  this  was  true 
is  not  known  certainly  to  this  day.  He  was- 
traced  with  some  degree  of  certainty  to  Fort 
Niagara,  whither  he  was  said  to  have  been  con- 
veyed by  Masons  in  a  closed  carriage  and  where 
he  was  said  to  have  been  imprisoned  for  a  time. 
It  was  alleged  that,  refusing  to  withdraw  his 
book  or  to  give  an  oath  of  secrecy,  Morgan  was 
finally  drowned  by  his  abductors  in  Lake  On- 
tario. A  body  foimd  near  Fort  Niagara  was 
for  some  time  supposed  to  be  his,  but  was  later 
shown  to  be  that  of  another  man.  It  was  in 
reference  to  this  body  that  Thurlow  Weed,  recog- 
nizing the  political  value  of  the  anti-Masonic 
excitement,  remarked  that  it  was  "a  good  enough 
Morgan  until  after  election" — ^a  phrase  which 
has  since  been  frequently  used  in  American 
politics.  Morgan's  disappearance  caused  pro- 
found excitement  throughout  the  North,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  an  Anti-Masonic 
Party.  Morgan's  book,  Illustrations  of  Free- 
masonry, by  One  of  the  Fraternity  Who  Ha^ 
Devoted  Thirty  Years  to  the  Subject,  was  pub- 


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XOBOAN. 


802 


HOBQAHATIC  ITAflRTAOB. 


lished  in  1826,  and  was  republished  at  various 
times  thereafter,  sometimes  under  the  title  Free" 
maaonry  Exposed  and  Explained,  Much  has 
4>een  written  concerning  his  disappearance.  Con- 
sult: Morris,  History  of  the  Morgan  Affair 
(1862) ;  Greene^  The  Broken  Seal,  or  Morgan'9 
Abduction  and  Murder  (1870) ;  CReillj,  Ameri- 
can  PoUtuxU  Anti-Maeonry  (1879) ;  Mackey  and 
Singleton,  History  of  Freemasonry,  vol.  vL  (New 
Yo^  1898).    See  Anti-Masons. 

MOBGAN,  Sir  William  (1829-83).  An  Aus. 
tralian  statesman,  bom  in  Wilshampstead.  He 
went  to  Australia  in  1848,  made  some  mcmey  in 
the  Bendigo  gold  diggings  in  1851,  and  then, 
settled  at  Adelaide  as  a  merchant.  An  inde- 
pendent politician,  he  was  elected  to  the  Legis- 
lative Oouncil  in  1869,  and  in  1876  represented 
the  Cabinet  in  that  body.  After  the  defeat  of 
the  CJolton  Ministry  in  1877,  which  was  largely 
due  to  Morgan's  efforts,  he  was  Chief  Secretary 
under  Boucant,  and  from  1878  to  1881  was 
Premier,  showi^  much  ability  and  honestv.  He 
was  styled  the  'Cobden  of  South  Australia.^ 

ICOBOAHATIC  MABBIAQE  (ML.  morgan- 
^tious,  relating  to  the  morning,  from  OHG.  mor- 
gan,  Qer.  Morgen,  AS.  morgen,  morning;  perhaps 
<M>imected  with  OChurch  Slav,  mirhnati,  to  be- 
come dark,  mrakH,  darkness,  or  with  Lith. 
merkti,  to  blink,  Gk.  /Mp/uUpeip,  marmairein,  to 
shine).  When  a  member  of  a  reigning  house, 
who  by  law  can  contract  a  perfect  marriage 
only  with  a  woman  of  equal  rank  (ehenbiirtig) , 
wishes  to  marry  a  woman  of  inferior  rank,  he 
may  contract  what  is  called  a  morganatic  mar- 
riage. In  Germany  those  families  that  were 
reigning  families  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
'Oentury  and  that  have  retained  their  rank  in 
spite  of  the  loss  of  political  power — the  so-called 
^'mediatized  houses'  or  'high  nobility'  {hoher 
Jidel) — are  similarly   restricted   in  the   matter 


of  marriage;  and  members  of  these  families  may 
also  contract  morganatic  marriages. 

A  morganatic  marriage  is  not  a  mere  concubin- 
age, nor  may  it  exist  simultaneously  with  a 
perfect  marriage.  From  the  ecclesiastical  point 
of  view,  and  from  certain  legal  points  of  view, 
it  is  a  perfect  marriage.  It  is  defective  chiefly 
in  public  law.  The  morsanatic  wife  does  not 
acquire  and  the  children  do  not  inherit  the  rank 
of  the  husband  and  father,  although,  when  the 
husband  is  a  reigning  prince,  it  is  usual  to  give 
to  the  morganatic  wife  and  her  children  titles 
of  nobility.  The  children  do  not  succeed  to  the 
father's  public  position,  or  to  property  which 
goes  with  that  position,  or  to  family  property 
(entailed  estates).  In  some  States  neither  the 
morganatic  wife  nor  her  children  have  rights 
of  succession  even  in  the  private  property  of  the 
husband  and  father,  except  by  testamentary  pro- 
vision or  by  ante-nuptial  settlements. 

The  roots  of  the  morganatic  marriage  go  back 
to  early  German  law.  A  perfect  marriage  was 
concluded  only  when  the  husband  bought  the 
mundium  or  marital  authority  over  his  wife, 
at  first  by  a  pa3rment  to  the  father  or  guardian, 
later  by  a  settlement  upon  the  wife,  which  was 
frequently  described  as  *widowhood.'  A  further 
gift  or  settlement  upon  the  wife  might  be  made 
in  the  form  of  a  ^morning  gift'  {Morgengabe, 
dos  morganatioa) ,  In  the  case  of  an  imperfect 
marriage  without  mundium  only  the  moming- 

S*ft  was  made.  The  Church,  however,  treat^ 
le  imperfect  marriage  as  a  marriage,  although 
it  was  unable  to  determine  the  civil  results. 
When  an  ecclesiastical  ceremcmy  took  place  it 
was  not  unusual  for  the  man  to  give  the  bride 
his  left  hand,  whence  the  name  left-hand  mar- 
riage.' For  the  history  of  the  morganatic  mar- 
riage, consult  Schroder,  Deutsc)^  RechtsgO' 
schiohte  (1889),  pp.  293,  294,  and  works  there 
cited.  For  modem  law,  Niebelschtltz,  De  Matri- 
moniis  ad  Morganaticam  ( 1851 ) . 


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